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PROCEEDINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

VOL. II,

MDCCCXLIV-MDCCCXLVIII.

PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY,

BY RICHARD GRIFFIN & CO., GLASGOW;

AND JOHN JOSEPH GRIFFIN AND COMPANY,

53 BAKER-STREET, PORTMAN SQUARE, LONDON.
MDCCCXLVIII.

GLASGOW:
PUNTED BY DELI. AND BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

ria

Conversational Meeting, 1

L— Notice of a Visit to the Island of Lewis. By James Smith, Esq., . 1
II.— Experiments with Manures on Potatoes and Turnips. By Lord

Blantyre, 8

HI.— Analysis of Two Species of Epiphytes, or Air Plants. By Mr. John

Thomson, 9

IV.— Account of a Dredging Excursion in the Frith of Clyde. By the

Rev. David Landsborough, 12

Report from the Botanical Section, 13

V.— On the Acid of the Stomach, and on the Digestion of Vegetable

Albumen, Fat and Starch. By R. D. Thomson, M.D., . . 14

VI.— Analysis of Coradia Resin. By R. D. Thomson, M.D., ... 14

Report from the Botanical Section, 15

VII. — On the Coagulation of the Blood and other Fibriniferous Liquids,

By A. Buchanan, M.D., 16

VIII.— Botanical Excursion to the Mull of Cantyre or Kintyre and the

Island of Islay, in August, 1844. By J. H. Balfour, M.D., . 22

IX.— On the State of the Blood after taking Food. By A. Buchanan, M.D., 49

Conversational Meeting, 65

X. — On the Action of Bleaching Powder on the Salts of Copper and

Lead. By W. Crum, Esq., 68

XI. — On the Unemployed Lands of Great Britain. By G. Suther-
land, Esq., 73

XII.— Nepaul Barley, 75

Report from the Botanical Section, 76

XIII.— Biographical Account of the late Dr. John Dalton. By T. Thom-
son, M.D., 79

Abstract of Treasurer's Account, 88

XIV.— On the Artificial Production of the Potato Disease. By W.

Crum, Esq., 90

XV.— Additional Observations on the Potato Disease. By W. Crum Esq., 92
XVI.— On the Mode of Testing Minute Quantities of Alcohol. By R. D.

Thomson, M.D., 94

XVII.— On the Analyses of some Minerals. By R. D. Thomson, M.D., . 97

Reports from Botanical Section, 100

XVIII.— On the Wound of the Ferret. By A. Buchanan, M.D., . . 104

XIX.— Theory of the Reaction Water-Wheel. By W. M. Buchanan, Esq. 1 1 1

XX.— On Caries, or Decay of the Teeth. By F. Hay Thomson, M.D., . 131
Table, Showing the State of Education in the City of Glasgow in

1846, 134

Abstract of Treasurer's Account, 136

On the Chemistry of Food, 137

XXI.— Tables of the Fall of Rain in Glasgow and Neighbourhood, . . 138

CONTENTS.

TAOK

XXII.— On the Temperature of the Earth. By L. D. B. Gordon, Esq., . 140
XXIII.— Account of the Society's Exhibition during tho Christmas Holidays.

By A. Liddell, Esq., 145

XXIV.— On tho Physiological Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. By A.

Buchanan, M.D., . . . 153

XXV. — On the Arithmetical Calculation of the Contents of Solids. By

Thomas Clark, M.D., 161

XXVI.— On the Analysis of a Slag, from a Lime-kiln. By Mr. J. Brown, . 163
XXVII.— On a Method for the Analysis of Bodies containing Nitric Acid,

and on Explosive Cotton. By \V. Crum, Esq., . . . 1 63

XXVIII.— Notice of Stirling's Air Engine. By William Thomson, Esq., . 169

Mr. Liddell's Concluding Report of the Society's Exhibition, . 170
XXX.— On the Chemical Composition of the Substances employed in

Pottery. By Mr. R. A. Couper, 171

XXX.— On tho Analysis of Molybdate of Lead. By Mr. John Brown, . 180
On the Physiological Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. By Dr.

Buchanan,— continued from page 161, 184

Report on the Library, 191

XXX.— Notice of the Geology and Climate of Nice. By Dr. T. Thomson, 192

Abstract of Treasurer's Account, 196

Report from Botanical Section, 197

XXXI.— On the Geology of the Island of Bute. By J. Bryce, Esq., . . 198

Report from the Botanical Section, 209

XXXII.— On the Native Agriculture of the Lews. By James Smith, Esq., . 210
XXXIII. — Notes on the Proportions of the Pyramids of Egypt. By G. A.

Walker Arnott, LL.D., 214

XXXIV.— On the Preparation of Chloroform. By J. King, Esq., ... 219
XXXV. — On the Fall of Rain in the Neighbourhood of Glasgow, and Descrip-
tion of the Gorbals Gravitation Water Company's Works. By

A. Harvey, Esq., 222

Mr. Montgomery on a New Self-Acting Railway Break, . . 225

XXXVI.— On the Mode of Preparing Manila Hemp. By T. M'Micking, Esq., 226
XXXVIL— List of Zoophytes found in the West of Scotland. By Rev. D.

Landsborough, 230

XXXVIII.— History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. By C. F. O.

Glassford, Esq., 241

Contributions to a Sanatory Report on Glasgow, .... 260
XXXIX.— Analysis of Titwood Mineral Water. By Messrs. E. T. Wood and

Thomas Coutts, 26l

XL. — On the Composition of the Products of the Soda Manufacture. By

John Brown, Esq., 262

Table exhibiting the Composition of Salt and Products of the Soda

Manufacture, 282

XLI. — Note on the Composition of Shea Butter, and Chinese Vegetable

Tallow. By Dr. R. D. Thomson and Mr. Wood, ... 283

XLIL— On the Yellow Prussiate of Potash Cake. By Mr. H. B. Tennent, 286

Report from the Botanical Section, 291

XLI. — On the Introduction of Anomalous Genera into Natural Orders.

By G. A. Walker Arnott, LL.D., 292

List of Members of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, . . 299

Index to Volume II., 303

PLATES IN VOL. II.
Plates I. and II., to face page 1.

— IILandlV., — 111.

— V. _ 225.

ERRATUM.
Page 1 36, line 23, for at neitfier, read out in their.

PROCEEDINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-THIRD SESSION.

&h November, 1844. — Dr. Thomas Thomson, the President, in the

Chair.

Messrs. Dawson and Griffin were appointed to audit the Treasurer's
accounts for last year. Dr. Watt stated that the Statistical Section
had held a correspondence relative to an improvement in the Scottish
system of registration, but as yet without any satisfactory result.
The President laid on the table Mr. Graham Hutcheson's recent
work " On the Nature and Cause of the Diurnal Oscillations of the
Barometer," for which, on the motion of the President, the thanks of
the Society were given. It was agreed that a Conversational Meet-
ing should be held on the 13th instant.

The Vice-President having taken the chair, the President read a
Biographical Notice of the late Professor Wallace of Edinburgh.

13$ November, 1844. — Conversational Meeting.

This Meeting was held in the Assembly Rooms, and was attended
by upwards of three hundred individuals. Various models and
articles of manufacture were exhibited in various parts of the room.
Models of the Atmospheric Railway and Air Gun made by Mr. James
Laing, attracted particular attention. The following account of Lewis
was then given : —

t — Notice of a Visit to the Island of Lewis, by James Smith, Esq.

Mr. Smith stated, that Lewis was the most northerly of the western
No. 11.

2 Mr. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lewis.

group, and, though it was generally spoken of as a distinct island, it
was, nevertheless, connected with Harris by a narrow neck of land,
from which circumstance they were sometimes called the Long Island.
The rocks were of the primitivo, or granitic formation, and the surface
of the country had, altogether, a very peculiar aspect. It appeared
that tho peat moss had begun to be formod immediately upon the
granite rock, for below the moss there is a rough gravel, mixed with
small quantities of clay, and hardly such a thing as a distinct alluvial
deposit. Generally speaking, the subsoil was a rich gravel, and there
were no remains of trees, or coarse grass ; nothing but mossy plants.

One might be led to suppose that the country was a dead flat, but
it was not so ; for in Lewis there were interspersed beautiful slopes
and valleys, through the centre of which various rivulets made their
way. Tho whole surface was covered with bog from two to ten feet,
and in some places twenty feet in depth, although the general depth
might bo stated at about four feet. Upon the surface of this bog
nothing was grown but bent grass and stunted heath, and on the whole
it had a very dreary aspect. Not a tree was to be seen ; all around
tli ere was the brown bent, and in the after part of the year, when it
became decayed, the appearance was peculiarly bleak and desolate
indeed. The island was not without its beauties, notwithstanding, for
the sea lakes which indented the coast, and the fresh-water lochs in
the interior, imparted to it rather an interesting effect.

The most remarkable thing connected with the island, however, was
this, — that the slightest improvement did not appear to have gone on
for a very long period, and the people were very much in the same
position that the inhabitants of this country occupied a hundred years
ago. They still use the ancient distaff {figs. 2 and 3), although it was
a hundred years since it had been supplanted in this country by the
Dutch wheel, and nothing amused him more than to have seen the
women coming from Stornoway, carrying with them the spinning-
wheels, to commence what they conceived to be a novel and vast
improvement. He might mention that the advantages which the best
machinery of the day possessed over the distaff, were as a thousand to
one ; yet, by means of the distaff, these people managed to manufac-
ture their clothing, which, under the circumstances, was very comfort-
able.

Their cultivation of the soil was as primitivo as their manufacture
of cloth. Their holdings were very small ; the island had been for fifty
or sixty years in the possession of proprietors who had no money to
improve, or with which to encourage the people ; and to this he in a
great degree attributed the primitive state in which he found them.
He also attributed it partly to the fact, that the Gaelic language was
almost universally spoken, and the inhabitants, therefore, could have
very little intercourse with the low country. There was no such thing
known as the young men going away from the island to push their

Me. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lewis. 3

fortune, and returning to it afterwards with wealth. From Storno-
way, it was true, a number had gone out and distinguished themselves,
but this was the exception. Still the inhabitants were not deficient by
nature. They were a social people in their own way; they were kind
to their children, kind to each other, and kind to their animals.
He would say, that they were a people of intelligence ; and when you
entered upon any subject which they understood, it would be found
that their intellects were as acute as those of other people. With
regard to their habits of industry, they were a hard-working people,
and ready to exert themselves when they had an opportunity of doing
so ; but, from the circumstances under which they were placed, they
were not able to do so with advantage. Their possessions, as he had
said, extended only to a few acres each, and the people were congre-
gated in villages or little towns, instead of being dispersed in farms
over the face of the country, as was the case elsewhere. They had,
therefore, their little portions of land around for cultivation, and a
right to grazings in the neighbourhood.

In regard to their houses, they did not live in dwellings such as were
seen in the mainland, for they were more like huts than any thing
else. The walls were from six to eight feet thick, composed of bog in
the centre, and faced with stone inside and out. There was some-
times only one apartment, but generally two, and under the same roof
the people lived and kept their cattle. There was this distinction,
however, viz., a fall of eighteen inches from the apartment in which the
family lived to the adjoining one in which the cattle were kept. This
might seem to some to be rather an odd arrangement, but the people
themselves considered that there were points in it which contributed
to their comfort. The room in which the cattle were kept was the
entrance one, and as the air passed through it, it came into the adjoin-
ing portion of the house appropriated to the family in a warm state.
Where ponies were kept, an outer hall or shed, beyond the cattle apart-
ment, was reared for their accommodation. Some of the better houses
had a division wall, which separated the cow-house from the family
apartment, but generally this was not the case. Most people would
think it strange to live along with their cattle, but the people of Lewis
had different notions on this subject, and when shut up in the long
winter nights, they considered it comfortable to have the beasts in the
next apartment, to hear them, and see their motions, and occasionally
to supply them with food. One peculiarity in the building of their
houses was, that the roof was within the wall, instead of projecting
beyond it ; and in this way he had seen something like a series of
terraces, extending over half a town. One use of them was, that when
the children became troublesome, or the mother was more than usually
busy, the children were disposed of on these terraces, or high places,
and it was quite amusing to see the little creatures looking down over
the wall at what was going on below. The parents, however, did all

4 Mr. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lev

this in tho most kindly manner. They havo done all they can to cul-
tivate their little possessions in tho best manner. Their cultivated
portions are those from which the peat has been cut away ; they then
come to tho gravel, and gather soil from one part to add to another.
Two thirds are taken from one part and added to another third, and
thus a soil is formed ; but in winter a complete pool is formed between
these ridges of soil. Thoy havo done nothing in the way of draining,
they have never attempted to penetrate the hard subsoil, which is often
steeped in water. They have no system of winter ploughing, but just
move the land immediately before planting the pOtatoo crop, or sow-
ing the seed, and the only preparation they made was that of some-
times pulling the weeds in the summer season.

He would now describe to them some of the implements in use
amongst this primitive people. The Cascrome (fig. 1), is an instru-
ment with a sole about fifteen or eighteen inches in length, thick
behind, and sharp in front; the latter, being the part which first
penetrates the soil, is shod with iron. It is pushed forward by means
of a long handle fixed into it, and also by a pin attached to the heel
of the sole or sock, for the foot of the labourer. A more unlikely
implement to have the name of a plough, it is scarcely possible to
conceive. The people lay the land over in furrows, by successive
movements of hand and foot, but of course the line is not drawn in a
continuous form. When two of the neighbours have a pony each, they
occasionally use another kind of plough, with only one stilt, and the
beam of which rests on the ground,^. 4. The great difficulty in provid-
ing their implements was the scarcity of timber, of which none grew in
the island, and they had consequently to send to the mainland for it.
As a proof of its value, he might mention that the shaft or handle of
the Cascrome (which is a piece of wood about the size of a broom-
stick) would cost 3s. 6d.

From the scantiness of the soil, they did not, of course, produce
heavy crops ; but here he would instance the ingenuity of the people
in making the best of their position. He had seen as good produce
of potatoes, barley — or rather bear or bigg — for tho new kinds of
barley were unknown to them — and oats, as in any part of the country,
and they managed to produce these results by the skill with which
they prepared the manure. It was efficacious, in the first instance, in
the raising of potatoes, and afterwards it produced a fine barley crop.
When the barley was ripe, they did not cut it as was the case else-
where, but pulled it up by the roots, and tied the whole up in sheafs.
When it was " won" and ready for the stack, the straw was then cut
from the sheafs below the band, which had this advantage, that it
enabled them to stow away the grain in small bulk — a matter of no
small moment in a country exposed to so much wind and rain. After
the grain itself had been thus preserved, they took the straw which
had been cut from it, and placed it on the roofs of their houses. They

Proo»«<iraJlt of Phil. Soc of CHaufcow

Vol. 11. p.p. 6, 4-

THE CASCROME.

THE REEL

THE DISTAFF

Cj Buchanan, D«L»

Maciure t- Mao.1r.-nn.ld.LTth

Mr. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lewis. 5

laid it loosely on, just as the farmers here spread it over the top of a
stack, and then tied it down with ropes spun from the heath. In this
position it was exposed to the smoke of their peat fires. He might
here mention, that the fire was placed in the middle of the room, and
there were no chimnies ; but instead of them, a number of holes were
rangod all around the top of the side wall. When the smoke ascended,
therefore, as it did by means of its lightness, and a portion of it was
forced back, it escaped by means of these holes. A great deal of it, how-
ever, made its way up through the straw on the roof, and when approach-
ing one of these little towns, he could compare its appearance to nothing
more likely than that presented by the smoke rising from a cluster of
heated grain stacks. This straw became very valuable, from the great
condensation of ammonia and other products which took place in it.
The people of Lewis planted their potatoes without any manure what-
ever ; but when the plant had got up to the length of two or three inches,
a general unroofing of the houses took place, and the straw which had
been preparing there all the season was thrown upon the drills; it
was rarely covered up, excepting in windy weather, when a slight
sprinkling was put upon it to prevent its being blown away. This
manure penetrates the soil immediately, and the potatoes forthwith
come up with the greatest luxuriance. Indeed, if they were to scatter
guano upon the soil, the effects would not be more rapid or complete
than those produced by this prepared straw. This certainly evinced
great ingenuity on the part of these people, who, from the difficulties
of their position, were driven to it as the only means of preparing
manure. He had no doubt, indeed, that it might lead to valuable
results in the agricultural practice of more favoured districts. The
people of Lewis, however, had another kind of manure than that
described ; they had the manure which was produced from their cows,
and he might here mention that in their care of it they evinced a
degree of intelligence superior to that of farmers of much higher pre-
tensions, for they kept it constantly covered up, and each and all
joined in the opinion that if it was exposed it lost, to a great extent,
its efficacy. When the manure, therefore, was taken out of the house
for one crop, they immediately commenced to accumulate for the next,
and thus they kept adding to its bulk, till it was needed for the pota-
toes or barley. It might seem strange that the people should live in
the next apartment to so much decaying matter; but the people feel
no inconvenienco from it. He might mention, however, that at the
time the manure was taken out fever often prevailed amongst the
people, which he could only attribute to this cause. Some of the best
agriculturists were about to follow this plan of keeping the manure
constantly covered up; he did not say that they should live in the
same house with it, but it was of great moment that the manure should
be constantly under cover.

In Lewis they followed a strict rotation of cropping. They had

6 Mr. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lewis.

first potatoes, then barley or bigg, and then oats — constituting a three
years' shift. According to this rotation they had grown their crops
for 100 years, and one might naturally suppose that their lands would
be worn out by it; but this was not the case, for they had generally
good crops, and last year it was an extraordinary one. There had
been inhospitable seasons, certainly, in which the crops entirely failed,
and great distress followed ; but generally speaking, their crops were
excellent. The potatoes were good ; and as to the barley, though dark
in the straw, he never saw it in any country present in a more marked
manner that golden appearance which indicated a healthy yield. He
could not say so much for the oats ; they had a fancy for tho black
oats, but in this country the white variety was considered preferable.
On the whole, there was no doubt that if these people were properly
directed in the best modes of cultivation, they would, with their habits
of industry, make rapid progress. He trusted that happy days were
yet awaiting them, for they had now got a gentleman connected with
them who would devote his money to work out the improvement of
their country, and otherwise promote their welfare; and though they
were a hundred years behind their brethren on the mainland, they
would advance with railway speed. On their shores there were
millions of tons of shell-sand, which was so nicely pulverised that it
could be at once applied to the soil. It would, no doubt, be much im-
proved were it calcined or burned and mixed ; but even taking it in its
native state, great advantage would be derived from its application
to the ground. There was no lime or coal, but the want of the former
would be made up by this shell-sand if they could only get easily at
it. It lay among the perpendicular rocks around the island ; and as
there were no roads, the difficulty of procuring and transporting it
would be very great. When the Roads were made, however, means
would be taken by which the inhabitants would avail themselves of
these deposits, and they would form a material element in fertilising
the soil. So much for the agriculture of Lewis.

As to their manufactures, he might state that they made their own
dishes or vessels from the clay found amongst the granite gravel.
They fashioned the vessel merely with the finger and thumb ; and the
strength and thinness with which they were made, proved the quality
of their clay. They turned over the neck or mouth, and by putting
a cord, or rather a leather thong, round it, they were enabled to carry
them from place to place, containing water or milk ; and they also
stood the heat requisite to boil their contents when placed on the fire,
Jig. 7. They also made their creels for carrying out their manure, and
for other uses ; and when he showed one of them, the audience would be
surprised to hear they were made of the stem of the dock, or " docken,"
jigs. 5 and 6. So much was this plant prized amongst them, that when it
grew between the possessions of two farmers, the docks were carefully
divided between them. There was not a willow in the island ; and the

Me. Smith's Visit to the Island of Lewis. 7

dock, therefore, was very much prized for its usefulness. They answered
for the women when they went to market, as well as for carrying
potatoes and manure. Another mode of the people of Lewis was that
of feeding their cows on sea-ware. It was just the dulse or tangle,
which they had often seen sold on the stroets of Glasgow, and it was
no unusual thing, when a woman went out to milk the cows, to take
somo of this dulse or tangle, which the animal consumed with great
satisfaction when tho process of milking was in progress. The cows
often sought for it themselves on the sea-side, especially in seasons
when grass was scarce. There were somo seasons, indeed, when they
almost entirely lived upon it.

At one time, as they would be awaro, a large revenue was drawn
from sea-weed, for converting into kelp ; but from the various changes
which ho need not dwell upon, it had fallen in value from about £20
to £2 10s. per ton. It did not, therefore, now pay for the manufac-
ture of kelp, and it was therefore better to apply it to the soil. Forty
tons of sea-ware were equal to one ton of kelp, and twenty tons of
this sea- ware was quite enough to manure an acre ; this was 25s. for
manuring an acre, and he had no doubt this sea-ware would come
more and more into general use for the purposes of cultivation.

Mr. Smith then exhibited a large bag in use in Lewis, which was
made of the stem of the bent grass, and spun in the long winter
nights ; they were used for keeping the corn in, and carrying such
portions of it to market as they were able to spare for sale. He might
state that there was only one distillery on the island, which took up all
the surplus of tho barley crop.

Mr. S. stated that the population extended to 17,000 souls, and
there were 270,000 acres of laud, which, if improved as it might be,
would maintain twice the number of people in more comfort than they
were at present. He hoped that the period of this improvement was
not far distant, and that when they went to visit Lewis they would
find it a green pastoral land, instead of a dreary waste.

20th November, 1844 — The President in the Chair.

On the motion of Mr. Liddell, seconded by Mr. Crum, the thanks
of the Society was given to the following parties, not being members
of the Society, who had contributed to the exhibition at the Conver-
sational Meeting on the 13th: — Mr. Robert Thom, Her Majesty's
Consul at Ningpo, tho Committee of the Mechanics' Institution, Mr.
John Findlay, Mr. James Brown, Mr. James Allan, sen., Dr. Smith
of Crutherland, Mr. A. Burton, Mr. S. P. Cohen, and Mr. John
Buchanan: and likewise to the Committee, for their very effective
and satisfactory arrangements at the Meeting. The Treasurer then

8 Lord Blantyre's Experiments on Potatoes and Turnips.

presented his accounts for the past year, which showed a balance in
favour of the Society of £138 15s. l£d.

The meeting then proceeded to tho forty-third annual election of
Office- Bearers, when the following were chosen : —

President.— Professor Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., M.R.I.A., &c.

Vice-President, Walter Ckum,F.R.S. I Secretary, Alexander Hastie.

Treasurer, Andrew Liddell. | Librarian, Thomas Dawson.

A. Anderson, M.D.
J. H. Balfour, M.D.
A. Buchanan, M.D.
J. Findlay, M.D.

COUNCIL.
Professor Gordon.
William Gourlie, Jun.
J. J. Griffin.
Alex. Harvey.

William Murray,
JonN Stenhouse.
R. D. Thomson, M.D.
Alex. Watt, LL.D.

Professor Gordon read a paper on the most economical use of
steam, which has been printed in the form of a pamphlet ; and Mr.
Stenhouse exhibited a yellow substance from India, called Purree,
from which Indian Yellow is prepared ; likewise a specimen of glass
silvered by the new process.

4dh December, 1844. — The President in the Chair.

The following Members were admitted : — Messrs. Alex. Warren
Buttery, James Allan, sen., George Thomson, Matthew Fairlie, S. P.
Cohen, Dr. Henry Bottinger, William Gilmour, jun.

A minute of Council was read, recommending that £50 should be
granted for the purchase of books, and the payment of periodicals for
the current year. The following papers were communicated by Dr.
R. D. Thomson :—

II. — Experiments with Manures on Potatoes and Turnips.
By Lord Blantyre.

Experiment I. — On Potatoes— Cow Park of Porton Farm — Soil
poor and light — had been subsoiled previous autumn, after being
drained and ploughed for oats from old grass in 1842. One drill,
each plot for experiment, with each different rate of manure, being
about one-thirtieth of an acre.

No. 1. — Dung at the rate of 30 tons per acre,
2.— Nothing, .
3. — 3 cwt. Guano per acre,
4. — 4 cwt. »

5.—M cwt. ■

6 — 7i cwt.
7.-8 cwt. n

8. — Dung at the rate of 30 tons per acre.

3olls.

Pecks.

10 per acre

Mr. Thomson's Analysis of Two Species of Epiphytes.

N.B. Tho bolls are Renfrewshire bolls, of 5 cwt per boll — there are
16 pecks in a boll.

N.B. Tho wheat of this year (1844) appears inferior on tho portion
of the field where the above experiments with Guano were tried.

Experiment II.— On Yellow Turnips — South-west field of Porton
—Soil light. This field was not in very poor order, from having been
in potatoes, dunged in 1841, wheat and barley in 1842. The other
parts of tho field not experimented on were dressed with bones, 30
bushels per aero, with 5 tons of ash dung. The crop was good.

Tons.Cwt. Qrs.

No. 1. — Bones and Dung as above, (30 bushels

bones, 5 tons dung,) .

gave 23 17

per acre,

2. — 3 cwt. Guano,

. •

26 2

2 ■

3. — 4 cwt. n

. • • <

27 6

2 «

4. — 5 cwt. »

•

28 16

5. — 6 cwt. »

. . . ■

29 8

» i

6 — 7 cwt i

. . •

31 9

7.-8 cwt. o

. . • .

27 6

8.-9 cwt. *

. • .

28 16

2 -

9.— 10 cwt. r-

• • •

10. — Calcined Bones,

30 bush, per acre,

25 8

•

11.—

45 bush, per acre,

24 12

12. — Animal Charcoal, 30 bush, per acre,

13.—

45 bush, per acre,

25 8

The calcined bones were the riddlings of bones used in a China
Manufactory. The animal charcoal was got from some of the Sugar
Refiners, called exhausted animal charcoal.

III. — Analysis of Two Species of Epiphytes, or Air Plants.
By John Thomson, M.A.

I. Commelina Skinneri. — Until about four months prior to the time
this plant was examined, it had roots in some earth ; but about that
time Mr. Murray, of the Glasgow Botanic Garden, cut them all off,
and left it hanging on the wall to which it had been trained. I had
only 353*05 grains of the young shoots to operate on, so that very
great precision cannot be expected in the results. After exposing
this quantity on a sand bath to a heat of about 280°, there remained
71*91 grains of the dried plant, so that the difference, which must
have been almost wholly water, amounted to 281- 14 grains. The dried
portion was then burned, and it left a residue of 7*14 grains of ashes,
which were now subjected to analysis.

After treating the ashes with water to separate the soluble from the
insoluble part, and evaporating the two portions to dryness, there were
obtained of matters insoluble in water 4*22 grains, and of soluble sub-

Mr."Thomson's Analysis of Two Species of Upiphytes.

stances 3*05 grains, the whole amounting to 7*27 grains, there being
thus an excess of *13 grains.

Muriatic acid was next poured on the insoluble portion, when a
violent effervescence took place, and only *77 grains remained undis-
solved. By fusing this with carbonate of soda, and adding muriatic
acid in the ordinary way, there wero found to be *60 grains of silica.
The whole quantity dissolved in muriatic acid was now mixed, and
ammonia was added. A precipitate fell, which was boiled with caustic
soda to remove alumina What remained was peroxide and phosph. of
iron ; it was dried, and found to weigh -22 grains. The portion dis-
solved by the caustic soda was precipitated by the addition of muriatic
acid, the excess of which was removed by adding carbonate of soda.
There were thus found to be '44 grains of alumina, or phosphate of
alumina.

To the washings oxalate of ammonia was added, and after filtering
and burning, the precipitate weighed 2*90, which was carbonate of lime.

The next point was to determine the composition of the salts
soluble in water. By accident this part of the process was not com-
pletely executed. The only constituents which were determined were
the sulphuric acid, the potash and the soda, the first of which was
found, by precipitating with nitrate of barytes, to weigh *92 grains.
The potash and soda were separated by means of bichloride of plati-
num and found to weigh respectively "24 grains and -94 grains.

The following is a statement of the entire results : —

grs.

Water, 281*14

Organic Matter,64*77

grs.

Ashes, 7*14<

{Sulph. Acid, -92
Potash, -24
Soda -94

Chlorine, &c *95

Silica, -60

Peroxide and

. Phos. of Iron,
Insoluble m Water, 4-22 <! Alumina>

:.}

•22

Phosph. of Al. }
L Carb. of Lime, 2-90

Entire plant, 353-05 7-27

100 parts of the plant would contain ��

Water, 7964

Organic Matter, 18*34

Ashes, 202

100-00

Mr. Thomson's Analysis of Two species of Epiphytes. 11

100 parts of the ashes again would contain approximately —

Soluble Salts, 4272 4272

"Silica, 843

Insoluble, 59-10

Peroxide and ) o tftft
Phos. of Iron, J
Alumina, or
Phosph. of Al.,
Xarb. of Lime,.... 40-62

.} 616

101-82 10101

II. Vanilla planifolia. — The following is the composition of a
specimen of tho Vanilla planifolia which I examined. Although
called an epiphyte, it had roots in some of the pots. It is a very
succulent plant, with a small round stem, and alternate petiolated,
elliptico-lancoolate, polished leaves : —

Water, 89*06

Organic Matter, 9*84

Ashes, 1-10

100-00

The ashes were similar in composition to those of tho Commelina
Skinneri. They contained no alumina, and had a perceptible quantity
of phosphoric acid.

Mr. Johnston, of Greenock, described his oxyhydrogen engine.

18th December, 1844. — The President in the Chair.

The following members were admitted : — Messrs. Laurence Hill,
jun., Thomas Watson, Alexander Wilson, and Oliver G. Adamson.

Professor Balfour exhibited and described various drawings and
specimens of plants belonging to the Pandanaceae or screw-pine tribe.

8th January, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

The followiug members were admitted: — Dr. John A. Easton,
Messrs. James Miller, William Brown, Thomas G. Buchanan, George
S. Buchanan, and James Reid Stewart. Professor Gordon read a
paper on the Economy of using Steam expansively. The Secretary
was directed to acknowledge the following donations: — Dr. Watt's
Report on the Vital Statistics of Glasgow; Professor Forbes, of
Edinburgh, " On the Transparency of the Atmosphere, and the law
of Extinction of the solar rays in passing through it."

12 Mr. Landsborougii's Account of a Ih'edging Excursion.

22d January, 1845. — The President in the Cliair.

Mr. Robert Barclay was elocted a momber of the Society. Mr.
Johnston read a note on Steam Boilers. The following communica-
tion was read : —

IV. — Abstract of"An Account of a Dredging Excursion in the Frith of
Clyde. By tho Rev. David Landsborougii." Read 22d January,
1845, by William Gourlie, Jun.

In August, 1844, I had the pleasure of accompanying Mr. Smith
of Jordanhill for a few days in a Dredging Excursion, in his yacht,
the Raven. On the 13th August, we sailed up the Kyles of Bute,
Opposite to Rue-Bodach, the dredge brought up hundreds of Ophiuroz;
— 0. tcxturata ; 0. albida; 0. rosularis ; 0. granulata, and 0. Bellis.
There were also a few good specimens of Emarginula fissura, and two
specimens of the rare Trochus millegranus.

That evening, and also next morning, we visited a newer Pliocene
deposit discovered at Rue-Bodach and Balnacoolie some years ago, by
Mr. Smith and Mr. Sowerby. The shells are deposited in thick clay.
The shells found by us were, Mya truncata, Venerupis virginea, Cyprina
Islandica ; Nucula rostrata ; Pecten Islandicus ; Tellina proxima ; and
what we valued most, because very rare, Panopcea Bironce.

On the morning of the 14th we visited a vitrified fort discovered
some years ago by Mr. Smith, on one of the little islands in the Kyles.

The weather was delightful, but too calm for dredging. A little
breeze having sprung up, we had a few hauls. We got a good speci-
men of Laomedea dichotoma, and of Antennularia antennina var. ramosa.
"We got, moreover, a fine large specimen of Brissus lyrifer, the fiddle-
heart urchin, first discovered by Professor Forbes when dredging in
the Kyles with Mr. Smith. It was 2\ inches in length, by 2 inches
in breadth.

On the 15th we sailed for Lamlash. We had more than enough of
wind next morning, but we were able to dredge a little. On Laminaria
saccharina we got some good specimens of Lepralia annulata, first found
by me in Britain ; we got also Goniaster Templetoni, Sohster papposa,
Comatula rosacea, Uraster glacialis, Echinus sphcera, Echinus miliaris,
and Echinocyamus pusillus.

As the steamer in which I was to return home was beginning to
send up volumes of smoke, we had time only for another haul. The
dredge came up laden with shelly sand. We had not time to examine
it, but fortunately I remembered that Mr. Bean of Scarborough had
asked me to send him some shelly sand, and I wrapped up a little,
which I sent him, reserving a handful of it for myself. As I was not
well acquainted with microscopic shells, he has kindly, at my request,
named those found in the sand by himself, and also those found by me

Report from the Botanical Section. 13

The number is very great to be got out of six or seven handfuls of
sand. Mr. Bean said that it was the richest he had ever obtained,
except from Germany.

Mr. Keddie road the following report from the Botanical Section: —

29th April, 1844. — Dr. Balfour presented specimons of ferns from
tho Caraccas, aud of Fagus Antarctica and Fagus Forsteri (or Ever-
green Beech) from Cape Horn ; also several botanical publications.
Dr. Balfour road an account of several trips in the neighbourhood of
Glasgow, last summer, exhibiting specimens of the plants collected.

28th May, 1844. — Mr. Balloch road an account of a botanical
excursion to Campsie Glen, on the 30th of April last In that glen
tho party gathered Lathrea squamaria. Large quantities of the roots
were dug up along with those of the elm, upon which the Lathrea
seemed to grow, with the view of investigating into the alleged para-
sitical nature of this plant, but without enabling the party to arrive
at a definite conclusion on the subject. The party thence proceeded
to Fin Glen, in the neighbourhood, where they were successful in
picking fertile specimens of Equisetum Drummondii. They also found
Paris quadrifolia, although not in flower, besides a number of other
plants of less note.

25th June, 1844. — Mr. Gourlie read papers communicated by the
Rev. Mr. Landsborough, a corresponding member, on Gloiosiphonia
capillaris, and Polysiphonia parasitica, for which thanks were voted
to the author. Dr. Balfour presented specimens of plants gathered at
Lochwinnoch, Muirshiel, Rothsay, Dunoon, and Toward, for the
Herbarium.

30th July, 1844. — Dr. Balfour exhibited a number of plants from
Ailsa Craig; also a specimen of the Bush rope of the West Indies,
from Dr. W. H. Campbell, Demerara. Mr. Gourlie exhibited a ball
of agglomerated leaves, from the hermitage near Killin. Mr. Keddie
read an account of a Botanical Excursion to the Bass Rock, &c, in
company with Professor Balfour, and a party of his summer class.
The Section adjourned till the next session of the Society.

The Secretary was requested to acknowledge receipt of Vol. ii. Part
4, of Transactions of the Royal Society of Arts of Edinburgh.

5th February, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society: —
Messrs. Robert Fleming, Michael Scott, John S. Miller, James Cald-
well, William Gardner. A paper was read —

14 Dr. Thomson's Analysis of Ceradia Resin.

V. — On the Acid of the Stomach and on the Digestion of Vegetable
Albumen, Fat and Starch. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D.

This paper has been printed at length in the Philosophical Maga-
zine for April and May, 1845. The object of the communication was
to prove by experiment, 1. That when albumen and fat are used as
articles of food, they can be detected, the former only in minute
quantities, during a certain space of time in the circulation. 2. That
when starch is swallowed, after having been boiled, it is first con-
verted into dextrin or soluble starch, and then into sugar. 3. That
sugar exists in the blood in considerable quantities when starch has
been employed as an article of food. 4. That no free hydrochloric
acid exists in the stomachs of animals during the digestion of starch.
5. That an acid exists in the stomachs of animals fed on starch, which
corresponds more nearly with the lactic than with any other known
acid.

Dr. Balfour exhibited a specimen of Ceradia furcata, a singular
plant from the coast of Africa, opposite Ichaboe, presented to him by
Mr. Alexander Bryson of Edinburgh. It is a shrub, having the
appearance of coral, belonging to the natural order Composita3,
section Erecthitese of Decandolle, and allied in many respects to the
genus Kleinia. The plant yields a resin possessing an odour resembling
that of Olibanum.

VI.— Analysis of Ceradia Resin. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D.

The resin possesses an amber colour, and an odour similar to that
of Olibanum. It partially dissolves in alcohol, and is precipitated by
water. Caustic ammonia produces no precipitate in the alcoholic
solution. The alcoholic solution possesses a slightly acid reaction, and
is not precipitated by nitrate of silver. Specific gravity 1-197,
determined by my pupil, Mr. Hugh B. Tennent.

Analysis gave the following results: —

199 grains lost by exposure to the temperature of 212° for some
days 2*11 grains. During the whole of the period its peculiar odour
was emitted. Previous to being subjected to this heat it was pulver-
ized, but it speedily became soft, and collected into a mass. In this
state — when burned with oxide of copper and chlorate of potash —

6*24 grains gave 18*33 grains C0 2 .
and 5-50 . HO.
This amounts to per cent.

Carbon, . . . 80*113

Hydrogen, . . . 9793

Oxygen, . . . 10094

100-000

Dr. Thomson's Analysis of Ceradia Resin. 15

Calculated according to the formula C, H 7 O, or C* H» 4 , the result
would be as follows: —

Carbon, . ' . . 80*00

Hydrogen, . . . 933

Oxygen, . . . 10*67

10000

After being heated in the water bath for some weeks, the resin still
continued to emit an odour. It was then pulverized, and again
heated somewhat higher, when it speedily gave out fumes, and lost its
smell entirely. Its composition was then found to be as follows: —

6*52 grains gave, with Oxido of Copper and Chlorate of Potash,
15*89 Carbonic Acid.
5*02 Water.

which are equivalent to

Carbon, .... 66*46
Hydrogen, . . . 8*55

Oxygen, .... 24-99

Calculated according to the formula

C <0 » Hao, O,,

its composition will be

Carbon, .... 67*03
Hydrogen, . . . 8*37

Oxygen, .... 24*60

Dr. Balfour exhibited the spatha of a palm called Manicaria sacci-
fera, which he had received from Demarara. The laws of the Society,
as amended by the Council, were read, and a copy laid on the table
for the scrutiny of the members.

19*A February, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

Messrs. James Stevenson and James P. Hamilton were elected
members. The mortality bills of London for the last quarter of 1844
were presented, also the quarterly tables of mortality in 150 districts
of England. Tho following report from the Botauical Section was
read: —

January 13$, 1845. — The Section held its first meeting for the
Session, Professor Balfour in the Chair. Dr. R. D. Thomson pro-

10 Dr. BuonANAN on the Coagulation of the Blood.

posed that the Section should adopt measures for forming a Flora of
Glasgow, and suggested as a model tho lists prepared by the Berwick-
shire Naturalists' Club. The subject was remitted to a Committee,
consisting of Mr. Gourlio, Mr. Lyon, Mr. Adamson, and Dr. Thomson,
— Mr. Gourlie, Convener. Dr. Balfour read an account of a Botani-
cal Excursion, last autumn, to the Mull of Kintyre, illustrated by plants
collected in the district.

January 28th, 1845. — Professor Balfour in the Chair. The
President was added to the Committee on the Flora of Glasgow. Dr.
Balfour made some observations on the development of monocotyle-
donous and dicotyledonous plants, showing that the former have the
tendency to produce univascular individuals, obeying an organogenic
law, of which three is the type, while the latter have the tendency to
produce bivascular individuals, according to an organogenic law, of
which Jive is the type.

Dr. Balfour also noticed the recent remarks of Duchartre, on the
order in which the different parts of the flower in the genus Primula are
developed, and showed that in this way the opposition of the stamens
to the petaloid segments might be explained. The development of the
free central placenta in Primulaceae was also mentioned as an argu-
ment in favour of the axile formation of that organ. Dr. Balfour con-
cluded his remarks by noticing the opinion of Thuret and Decaisne,
as to the reproductive organs in Fuci, and pointed out the analogy
between these and similar organs in other cryptogamic plants. Dr.
Balfour's observations were illustrated by drawings and specimens.

It was agreed that a Conversational Meeting should be held in the
Merchants* Hall on the 12th March, at which will be exhibited a
collection of works of art, purchased by the Government, at the Expo-
sition in the Champs Elysees at Paris, and sent down for a short time
to the School of Design of this city.

Dr. Balfour made some observations relative to the reproductive
organs of Fuci.

The following paper was read : —

VII — On tlve Coagulation of tlie Blood and other Fibriniferous Liquids.
By Andrew Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow.

Dr. Buchanan showed some specimens of hydrocelic serum, the
fibrin of which was coagulated by means of a few fragments of the
waslwd clot of blood added to it sometime before. The coagulated
masses were transparent and tremulous, like calf-foot jelly, and so firm
as to admit of being inverted on a plane surface without altering their
shape. Dr. Buchanan made the following observations in explanation
of the phenomenon.

Dn. Bt'CHANAN on tlie Coagulation of the Blood. 17

The experiment exhibited to tho Society, and the analogous ex-
periments mentioned below seem to me important, as serving to rectify
some prevailing opinions as to the essential properties of Fibrin, and
the part which it plays in the coagulation of the blood, and certain
other physiological processes. They are still farther interesting to
me, as enabling me to correct some erroneous views of tho constitution
of the blood which I entertained, and which having been made public
in the first volumo of the " Proceedings of the Society," I feel it a duty
to rectify.

The opinions commonly entertained by physiologists and chemists,
to which allusion has just been made, are, that fibrin has a spontan-
eous tendency to coagulate: that this spontaneous coagulability is a
characteristic property of fibrin, by which it is distinguished from
albumen and casein: and that the coagulation of the blood, and of
various other animal fluids depends on the spontaneous coagulation of
the fibrin which they contain. My experiments, on the other hand,
show, that fibrin has not the least tendency to deposit itself spontan-
eously in the form of a coagulum: that, like albumen and casein,
fibrin only coagulates under the influence of suitable reagents: and
that the blood, and most other liquids of tho body which appear to
coagulate spontaneously, only do so, in consequence of their contain-
ing at once fibrin and substances capable of re-acting upon it, and so
occasioning coagulation.

The liquid of hydrocele, and other dropsical liquids, are generally
regarded by physiologists as identical with, or at least closely analo-
gous to the " liquor sanguinis," or liquid part of the blood ; which they
suppose to be effused, both in health and in disease, from the capillary
blood vessels into the serous cavities and cellular interstices of the
body. I have elsewhere shown, * that of all these effused liquids that
of hydrocele approaches most nearly in its qualities to the serum of
healthy blood. In two cases in which the experiment was made, the
specific gravity of hydrocelic serum and of the serum of blood drawn
from the same individual on tho same day, differed very little ; and I
have recently met with an instance of hydrocelic serum drawn from a
very strong man having a specific gravity as high as 1-038, much
higher therefore than the ordinary specific gravity of the serum of
blood. I entertain no doubt, therefore, that the serum drawn off in
cases of hydrocele, is, for the most part, identical with the liquid part
of the blood. Such an opinion, however, can scarcely be held by those
who believe the liquid part of the blood to be spontaneously coagula-
blo ; for, without controversy, the liquid of hydrocele possesses no such
property, as I havo ascertained by attentive observation in many
hundred instances. If carefully drawn off, it may be kept till it putrifies
without showing tho slightest tendency to coagulate. If, again, as

* Med. Gazette, 1186.

Vol. II.— No. 1. 2

18 Dr. Buchanan on the Coagulation of the Blood.

frequently happens, a little blood has been accidentally mingled with
it, coagulation may ensue, not spontaneously, but from the re-action
of certain cloments of tho blood upon the dissolved fibrin. This, if
we leave out of sight tho propensity to make facts bend to theory, is
the only explanation that can be given of tho assertion frequently
made, but so inconsistent with observation, that the fluid of hydrocele
is spontaneously coagulablo.

What are the elements of the blood that have tho power of causing
fibrin to coagulate ? Tho washed clot of the blood is the most efficient.
It is perhaps indeed the only element of tho blood that has the pro-
perty of coagulating fibrin. Tho washed clot is the substance which
is usually, but very erroneously, named the fibrin of the blood. It is
best obtained* by mixing one part of liquid blood with from six to ten
of water, and stirring them carefully for five minutes, so as to prevent
the blood from falling to the bottom and coagulating unmixed. After
the mixture has stood from twelve to twenty-four hours, it is to be
filtered through a coarse linen cloth, and the product washed with
water. The mass thus obtained consists, chiefly, of the insoluble
portion of the red corpuscles; next of the colourless granules and
globules; and least in quantity of the precipitated fibrin, by which
these main constituents of the coagulum are agglutinated together.

Let a small quantity of this substance be mixed with the liquid of
hydrocele, reducing it to minute shreds, and diffusing it equably through
the liquid. Coagulation will ensue in many cases as rapidly as in the
liquid blood itself. The coagulum is often quite distinct in from five
to ten minutes. It becomes gradually firmer, and in the course of a
few hours admits of being passed without breaking from one vessel to
another, and very much resembles the transparent tremulous substanco
of calf- foot jelly. The power which the washed clot has of coagulating
fibrin is not less remarkable than that of rennet in coagulating milk,
to which, indeed, it may be aptly compared. This experiment is well
adapted to the lecture-room— the reagent being added to the liquid
serum at the commencement of the lecture, and the coagulated mass
shown at the end of it. A. very complete illustration of the process
by which the blood coagulates may be exhibited by adding to the
liquid along with the reagent some pounded charcoal, the particles of
which being diffused through the liquid, and getting entangled in the
meshes of the nascent fibrin, there is formed a black clot, which, on
tho addition of a little water, swims in it, just as the blood-coagulum
does in the liquid serum.

The washed coagulum retains its coagulating power for a long period
— even after its odour indicates the commencement of the process of
putrefaction. In preserving it as a reagent, however, I think it ad-
visable to add to it a small quantity of spirits, and to keep it in a

* Med. Gazette, lB.W.

bit. Hichanan on the Coagulation of the Blood. V.)

stoppered phial. Thus kept, I have found it to retain for several
months its power of coagulating fibrin. The serum of hydrocele is
the more coagulablo the fresher it is. It sometimes soon loses its
coagulability on being kept, but more frequently retains it till putre-
faction is far advanced. There is, therefore, no difficulty for any one
repeating those experiments, and satisfying himself of their truth.

Tho experiment which I have described is very analogous to some
experiments which I performed in the year 1831, and of which I
afterwards published an account in the M London Medical Gazette,"
(April 9, 1836.) I then showed, that if the clot of blood reduced to the
liquid state by kneading and expression through a linen cloth, be
mixed with hydrocelic serum, the mixture recoagulates into a perfectly
homogeneous solid mass, which, like the ordinary coagulum of blood,
becomes florid on exposure to the air : and that if a portion of coagu-
lum not so disintegrated be put into a vessel containing hydrocelic
serum, a web of fibrin is gradually spun around the coagulum. I
showed that these effects were not due to the colouring matter of the
clot; but I did not try the effect of the washed clot, my attention
having been called in a different direction, by finding that pure serum
of blood and hydrocelic serum when mixed together underwent coagu-
lation. On since discovering the efficacy of tho washed clot in causing
coagulation, I thought it probable that the minute solid particles, which
the microscope never fails to detect in the serum of blood, were the
agents to which the coagulation of the two kinds of serum when mixed
together ought to be ascribed. This corresponded well with the ob-
servation which I had long before made, that the deeper the red tint
of the blood-serum employed in the experiment, the better does it suc-
ceed. On the other hand, Dr. Anderson, in his paper " On the state
in which fibrin exists in the blood,"* has shown that if the mixed
liquids be carefully filtered, so that no solid particles can any longer
be detected by the microscope, coagulation nevertheless ensues ; thus
rendering it probable that the coagulating principle exists in the
serum of blood not as a solid but in a state of solution. It may, how-
ever, be objected to this experiment, that the blood-corpuscles pass
through any filtering paper, however dense ; and that it is impossible
by filtration, to deprive turbid serum of the solid particles mechanically
diffused through it.

In the summer of last year, after I had satisfied myself as to the
power of the washed clot in causing coagulation, I tried the effect of
tho buffy coat of the blood, reduced to minute shreds, and diffused
through the hydrocelic liquid, and found it, in numerous instances, to
have a similar power. I even found, that the dried buffy coat from
the blood of a horse, which I had kept for several months, on being
pulverized and mixed with the liquid, induced coagulation. I found

* Proceedings of Phil. Soc. of Glasgow, vol. i. p. 201.

20 Dr. Buchanan on the Coagulation of the Blood.

the effect of the colourless buffy coat to be much greater than that of
the red clot. I also found the upper part of the red clot to have a
stronger coagulating power than the lower part of it. These facts
seemed to show that it was the colourless corpuscles of the blood in
which the coagulant power was mainly seated. The colourless
corpuscles rise to the surfaco on the blood being drawn, and, there
exerting their coagulating power, render the upper part of the clot
invariably much firmer than the lower part of it; and this is exactly
what is seen in a more marked way, in inflamed blood, in which the
colourless corpuscles are much more abundant, and rising by their
levity to tlie surface, form a layer on the top of the red corpuscles;
and thereafter, by their superior coagulating power, give rise to the firm
crassamentum without redness which we name the buffy coat. As I
knew the transparent coagulum, which we find on the surface of newly
formed blisters, to consist chiefly of such colourless particles, I tried it
as a coagulant, and found it to induce coagulation, although less power-
fully than the washed clot of blood. The coagulum, formed artificially
in hydrocelic serum by different reagents, seemed to have little coagu-
lating power ; as if the transparent granules of fibrin must not only be
precipitated, but have acquired more or less of the organized vesicular
shape which they have in the blood and in the blister-liquid, before
they possess the power of coagulating. This power seemed, therefore,
to be the result of organization, and analogous to the metabolic power
which Schwann has ascribed to the elementary cellules. This view led
me to think it probable, that all the tissues of the body might have a
similar power of reacting upon the liquor sanguinis effused into their
meshes, and thus contributing to their own development, by engender-
ing there such vesicles as we meet with in the blister-liquid. My first
trials made with the muscle and skin of beef well washed to free them of
blood, did not succeed ; but on trying the muscle of veal, I found it to
produce coagulation. I afterwards recognized a similar coagulating
power in the muscular substance of beef and veal, in white-fish, skin,
and cellular membrane: but the effect produced was less remarkable
than that of the washed clot, and required a longer time, generally
from one to three days. The tissue which answered best was the
spinal marrow, probably in part from its greater softness and diffusi-
bility. On one occasion, I found the spinal marrow of a bullock to
cause coagulation in half-an-hour, the coagulum formed being very firm
and beautiful. The substance of the brain seemed to have less power,
although no rigorous comparison of them was made. Last of all, I
found that the corpuscles of mucus from the Schneiderian membrane
and throat possessed a coagulating power, though tardy: and that
even the globules of purulent matter, which are just altered primary
cellules, retained their coagulant power ; for when put into hydrocelic
serum, instead of continuing diffusible through the liquid, they
agglutinated themselves together by the intermedium of fibrin, forming

Dr. Buchanan on the Coagulation of the Blood. 21

a white solid mass, such as we often see of smaller size on inflamed
membranes, and in the interior of the eye.

These various experiments fully satisfied me that the tissues possess
the property of coagulating fibrin : and I was farther disposed to think,
that this power was most energetic in the primary cells or vesicles ;
and less energetic as these cells passed into secondary forms, as in the
red corpuscles of the blood, the pus globules, and the various tissues
of the body. This corresponds well with the greater vigour of
development in foetal life and infancy, when the tissues have deviated
little from their primary structure ; and the gradual diminution of the
activity of the function as life advances, and the tissues are more and
more altered. The coagulation of the fibrin of the effused liquor
sanguinis, under the influence of the primary cells and tissues, may
probably, therefore, be regarded as the primary organizative act by
which the assimilable matter dissolved in the nutritious liquid passes
into the form of an organized solid. There are, however, two distinct
forms under which this act presents itself to our observation. In the
one, which is that which occurs in normal circumstances in the living
body, the process takes place slowly, and the product consists of isola-
ted granules, which are gradually developed into perfect cells: in the
other, which occurs in the effused fibriniferous liquids, the process is
sudden, and the product a gelatinous mass. It is to the latter that
the name of coagulation peculiarly belongs, and it is to be regarded
rather as a pathological action than as belonging to the domain of
physiology. The two processes may be aptly compared to the deposi-
tions which take place from saline solutions ; if the deposition take
place slowly the product consists of regular crystals, but if rapidly, it
is an amorphous mass.

It is scarcely necessary for me to add, that I am now satisfied, that
the fibrin of the animal fluids exists in them in solution, previous to
its appearing in a corpuscular form: and that the liquor sanguinis
differs from the serum which separates from the blood-coagulum in
this respect, that the former contains fibrin in solution, while the latter
has been defibrinized by the action of the colourless blood-corpuscles
upon it I also think the theory of the production of cell-germs and
cells by the reaction of the two kinds of serum upon each other, less
probable than the theory of their formation stated above. The same
theory may also be applied to explain the origin of the blood-corpuscles
in the capillary lymphatics, and the production of the numerous less
regular corpuscles which are formed in the capillary blood-vessels
during inflammation, and which, after mingling with the circulating
blood, rise to its surface when drawn, and reacting on the fibrin
occasion the buffy coat of tho blood. The opinion expressed by Dr.
Anderson in his paper alroady quoted, that the blister-liquid contains
fibrin which is precipitated during coagulation, I believe to be correct
in many cases, as I have sometimes found that liquid, when acted upon

-- Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

by the washed clot, to deposit fibrin: in other cases again, I have
found, on applying the same test to the blister-liquid, that it contained
little or no fibrin ; and in such cases, I believe the coagulum which
forms in it, to result from the simple aggregation of the organized
corpuscles which it contains, as observation with the microscope first
suggested to me.

VIII. — Account of a Botanical Excursion to the Mull of Canty re or Kin-
tyre and the Island of May, in August, 1844. By J. H. Balfour,
M.D., F.L.S., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow.

In the present paper, I mean to introduce to the notice of the
members the botany of that part of Argyleshire which extends in the
form of a peninsula from Tarbet to the Mull of Cantyre, as well as
that of the island of Islay.

A party, consisting of Mr. Babington, author of the Manual of
British Botany, Dr. Parnell, author of the work on British Grasses,
Mr. John Miller, jun., Mr. John Alexander, Mr. R. Holden, Mr. Risk,
Mr. Craig, and myself, left Glasgow by the St. Kiaran steamboat, at
11 a.m. on Saturday, 10th August, 1844. There was a large party on
board, returning from the Highland Society's Cattle Show. The day
was remarkably fine, and we had an excellent view of the beautiful
scenery on the shores of the Firth of Clyde. This in some measure
compensated for the slow progress of our boat, which did not reach
Campbelton till near 9 p.m.

Campbelton is prettily situated on an inlet of the sea, the opening
of the bay being protected by an island, which, however, becomes a
peninsula at low water. The island is composed of a porphyritic rock,
wliich is sometimes used for making ornaments of various kinds. The
climate is mild, and many of the more delicate plants stand the
winter well. On visiting one of the gardens in the vicinity, under the
guidance of Mr. Stewart, chamberlain to his Grace the Duke of
Argyll, we found myrtles, hydrangeas, and other tender plants, thriving
in the open air, and we observed a fine Fuchsia hedge, which was in
full flower, and contributed in no small degree to ornament the garden.

On the 12th of August we left Campbelton early, and proceeded by
the shore towards Kildalloig, and thence by the rocky and sandy
shores of the Mull as far as Ballishear. The cliffs are not so precipi-
tous as those on the Galloway coast, and did not produce many rare
plants. The most interesting plants were found on the shore. Some
of the party who went inland were by no means successful in their
botanizing, but this may probably be attributed in some measure to
their having spent a portion of their time with Mr. Stewart, enjoying
the pleasure of grouse-shooting. The result of their sport was found
to be by no means unacceptable at the end of the day's work.

I n;. Kaj.four's Botanical Exeur^ 23

Among the plants mot with, I may notice Epilobium angustifolium,
which grow in groat profusion and beauty, Hypericum Androsaemuui,
a common plant in all our western counties, Hieracium umbellatum,
Convolvulus Soldanella and scpium, Atriplex laciniata, rosea, and
angustifolia, Sinapis monensis, Helosciadium nodiflorum both in a
largo ©rect and in a small creeping form, Cotyledon Umbilicus, Vicia
sylvatica, Lolium temulontum, and Epilobium virgatum, distinguished
from E. totragonum by its leaves being truly decurrent, the scions
from the lower part of the stem being very slender and filiform. It
is a species of Fries, but it does not appear to me to be well marked.
In salt marshes we picked Scirpus maritimus, Blysmus rufus,
(Enantho Lachenalii, a common plant in the West of Scotland,
and usually mistaken for (E. pimpinelloides, from which it is distin-
guished by its elongated, slender, fusiform, or subcylindrical tubers,
gradually enlarging from the base of the stem, and having no distinct
pedicle, as well as by its fruit being broader than the calyx, and
contracted at the base.* Dr. Mac Donald mentioned his having found
Limuea borealis near Kildalloig.

At Southend the shore and the inland party met, and the latter
were so satisfiod with their day's sport, and with the comfort of Mrs.
Mac Kay's inn, as well as with the prospect of a good dinner, that
they declined proceeding further for the night The movement party
was thus reduced to three, who visitod the sandy shores in the neigh-
bourhood, and walked on to tho lighthouse at the Mull. On the sands
at Southend, Convolvulus Soldanella, Raphanus maritimus, Sinapis
monensis, Sagina maritima, and Reseda Luteola were found in pro-
fusion. The old church at Keill, and the ruins of the Castle of
Dunlavader, attracted attention. Near an old churchyard on the
roadside, Hyosciamus nigcr was met with, and near Carskay, Geranium
pratenso was picked. The rocks in the vicinity have been hollowed
out into caves, some of them of great size and depth. Similar caves
had been noticed in the rocks along the shore from Campbelton to
Southend, and one of them is designated the cave of St. Kiaran, from
some legend connected with that saint

On reaching the lighthouse we were most hospitably entertained by
Mr. Noble and Mr. King, the superintendents, and every thing was
done to promote our comfort. The country around the lighthouse is
bare and rocky, and produces no plants of any interest The Mull is
well described by Macculloch as a rude hilly tract, without beauty
even on its sea shores. The only interest is connected with the caves
in the rocks to which I have alluded. In tho interior of the district
little is to bo seen, and it is chiefly on the shores that a botanist or
geologist finds materials for research. At the point of the Mull the

■ For an account of tho British species of (Enantho, sec nancr by Mr. II. C. Watson,
in Tho HiytoloKist, vol. ii. p. 11.

-4 Uit, Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

tides flow with rapidity and turbulence, and it is by no means pleasant
for one who is unpractised in a sea voyage to beat round the headland
in a boat

On the morning of the 13th we examined the peculiarly rugged and
precipitous rocks near the lighthouse, some of them rising to several
hundred feet above the level of the sea. Sedum Rhodiola was seen in
abundance, but no other plants deserving notice. After breakfast we
walked along the upper part of the cliffs towards Largybean, where
fine caves and stalactites occur. The rocks, composed principally of
micaceous slate, were comparatively unproductive, and it was chiefly
in those parts where limestone occurred that our researches were
rewarded by plants in any way rare. One of the most interesting
plants was Dryas octopetala,* associated with Saxifraga aizoides,
oppositifolia, and hypnoides, Spergula subulata, and a hairy variety
of Hieracium sylvaticum. The day was very wet and misty, and not
favourable for botanical pursuits. Neverthless, we examined the rocks
carefully, and reached Lossit, after being joined by the Southend party,
about 3 p.m., and were kindly received at Mr. M'Neill's. We visited
his garden, and saw a species of Passion-flower in full bloom, which
stands the winter well, also Hydrangeas, attaining an enormous size,
and covered with profusion of flowers, besides Fuchsias, Pelargoniums,
Salvia patens, &c. Passing through the fishing village near Lossit
House, we made the best of our way to our old quarters at Campbel-
ton, traversing a flat country in some parts furnishing coal, which is
conveyed by means of a canal to the eastern shore of Cantyre. On
either side of the flat strath, which extends from Machrihanish bav to
Campbelton, there is a hilly moorish district which has not yet been
brought into cultivation.

August \Aih. — Having procured a cart for our baggage, the most
bulky portion of which consisted of paper and boards, we crossed the
peninsula of Kintyre or Cantyre, towards Machrihanish bay, passing
the old church of Kilchinzie. The shores at the bay are composed
of immense hills of sand raised by the waves of the ocean which roll
on the beach at times with enormous fury, causing their roar to be
heard for many miles. The sands are kept together and prevented
from being blown inland by Ammophila arenaria, Carex arenaria,
Triticum junceum, and other plants commonly known as bent or
marram, the stems and roots of which extending in all directions, and
interlacing together form a sort of basket work, and thus give a certain
degree of firmness to the loose soil.f Plants thus contribute in some
measure to the solidity of the land, and prevent the inroads of the

* This plant is often found on limestone rocks, not far from the sea level, as at Assynt
in Sutherlandshire.

+ Besides the plants mentioned, Elymus arenarius, Triticum repens, Festuca rubra
and arenaria, Galium verum and Trifolium repens are commonly found assisting in fixing
the sand.

Dit. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

ocean. In Norfolk there are low hills of blown sand fifty or sixty feet
high, bound together by means of grasses or sedges in the way I have
mentioned. The maritime part of Lincolnshire which lies below tho sea
level, is protected in a similar manner from the invasion of the sea ;
and the great embankment in Holland owes its stability iu no small
degree to the plants which grow on it. The drifting of sands often
causes great devastation, — covering thousands of acres of land, and
destroying vegetation. This is seen in many parts of this country,
as well as of France, Holland, and Russia. About the commence-
ment of last century the French government took up the subject, and
directed attention to the shifting sands in that part of France which
lies near the bay of Biscay. A species of fir, Pinus maritima, was
planted, which now covers the sandy desert, and has effectually checked
the progress of the sand drift. Some interesting facts on this subject
were lately given in the Gardener's Chronicle, where it is also stated,
that on the estate of Lord Palmerston on the west coast of Ireland,
between the towns of Bally shannon and Sligo, nearly 1000 acres of
land were covered with sand, in some cases to tho depth of 100 feet or
more. About eighteen years ago, the Ammophila arcnaria or Bent,
was planted in these lands in large quantities, and the Pinus maritima
major, from Bordeaux and other places, was also introduced, and by
this means a most striking improvement has taken place. About 800
imperial acres have been reclaimed and converted into productive
pasture land.

Lint (Linum usitatissimum) is commonly cultivated in this district
of Scotland, and in all the fields we observed abundance of Cuscuta
Epilinum twining round the stems and destroying the crop. The
cuscutas or dodders, of which three species are natives of Britain,
are most troublesome weeds, which are not easily extirpated. Their
seeds germinate in the soil, and the plants immediately twine them-
selves round others in their neighbourhood, becoming attached to them
parasitically by means of suckers, and ultimately losing their connec-
tion with the soil. They are very destructive to crops, and different
species are connected with different plants. A species lately imported
into Britain has done much harm to the crops of clover. In the lint
fields Camelina sativa was also present, probably imported along with
tho seed.

The party walked along the shores of Machrihanish bay, passing
Ballochantuy Kirk, Barr House (Mr. M'Alister), Glenacardoch point,
Linanmore Kirk, and Killian, and reached Taynlono in the evening.
The rocks were chiefly micaceous and calcareous. At some places,
as near Barr House, the limestone is quarried, and there are caves
which extend to a great depth ; we entered one, which extended about
150 feet. The road from Machrihanish bay northward, runs along
the shore, and enables the travoller to have a fine view of the channel
of Gigha, as well as of tho islands of Jura and Islay. The Paps of

■2H Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Jura form very conspicuous objects in the distance. In some places
near Balloehantuy and Killian, whoro tho road winds among broken
detached rocks, the scenery is romantic and interesting. At Killian
there is a curious old church in ruins, apparently referable to the
Norman times, with round arches, coupled circular headed windows,
and peculiar doors mado with two side stones converging upwards,
and a flat stone on tho top, resembling, in some degree, what is seen
in Egyptian architecture. Part of the old church is used as a bury-
ing ground by the MacDonalds of Largy. In the churchyard are
many old inscriptions, and some curious carvings on stone. The
ruins are prettily situated on tho banks of a stream. There is a
vitrified fort in the neighbourhood. At a little distance from the shore
in this quarter, and parallel to it there runs a ridge of old red sand-
stone rocks, and the streams coming from the higher grounds, when
descending over these rocks, give rise to numerous picturesque water-
falls. The plants gathered this day were, — Thalictrum minus, Con-
volvulus Soldanella, Sinapis monensis, Ranunculus sceleratus and
Scirpus Savii in moist places, Crambe maritima, Ligusticum scoti-
cum, Hypericum Androssemum, Epilobium angustifolium, Vicia
sylvatica in great quantity on the dry stony beach, Pulicaria dys-
enterica, Vicia sativa on sandy shores near Taynlone, Eryngium
maritimum, Steenhammera maritima, or as it is often called in this
country, the oyster plant, from the taste of its leaves,* Apium grav-
eolens near Taynlone, Conium maculatum especially in churchyards,
as at Killian, Anagallis tenella in all moist places, Schcenus nigri-
cans, Atriplex erecta in fields near Barr, Fumaria capreolata, Cer-
astium atro-virens, Pyrethrum maritimum, and Catabrosa aquatica
assuming a remarkably stunted and creeping appearance on moist
sandy shores near Killian ; the fruit of this grass is very sweet, having
the taste of liquorice. Hieracium boreale was also picked near
Linanmore Kirk and Barr, Tanacetum vulgare near Killian, Carex
vulpina near Barr, Equisetum Telmateia in many places between
Campbelton and Taynlone.

We reached the latter place between 5 and 6, p.m., and took up
our quarters in a small inn, where we had considerable difficulty in
getting accommodation ; some of the party sleeping, or attempting to
sleep, on the floor, and others on the tops of tables. In the neigh-
bourhood of the village we saw Potamogeton pusillus, Alisma Plan-
tago, Samolus Valerandi, Catabrosa aquatica and the maritime
variety already alluded to, Hippuris vulgaris, Bidens cernua, (Enanthe
Lachenalii, and Lolium temulentum or the poisonous Darnel-grass.
This grass seems to be common in many parts of Cantyre. All along
the shore, especially near Taynlone, we met with profusion of Alga),

* In America, T ragopogou porrifolius, or salsafy, receives the same name. Its roots
arc used for soup, which is said to resemble oyster soup.

Da. Balfoub'b Botanical Excurs _7

and aftor storms I have no doubt that mauy rare species might be
gathered.

August 15th. — This day we intended to have crossed by a ferry-
boat to the island of Gigha, but the weather was so stormy, and a
north-west wind was blowing with such fury, that it was deemed
advisable to proceed along the shore to the foot of Loch Tarbet,
whore the steamboat touches on its way to Islay. Accordingly, we
proceeded to Clachan and Stewartfield, and thence to Porthullion.
The shore was bare and unproductive. Helosciadium nodiflorum,
Trollius europa)us, Lycopus europams, Bidons tripartita, and Papaver
dubium, were tho chief plants which we picked. Near Porthullion
wo were more successful, having gathered Radiola millegrana, Carum
verticillatnm, Pinguicula lusitanica, Salicornia herbacea, the pro-
cumbent variety, Schoberia maritima, Epilobium virgatum, Eleo-
( haris pauciflora, Myrrhis odorata, Veronica scutellata, Habenaria
viridis, and Sedum Telephium.

About 4 p.m., we joined the Maid of Islay steamboat, and, after
encountering a heavy swell off the northern point of Gigha, to the no
small discomfort of some of the party, we entered the sound of Islay,
and reached Port Askaig about 9 p.m. Here, through the kindness
of Mr. G. T. Chiene, factor for Mr. Campbell of Islay, we found a cart
ready for our baggage, and a carriage and four to convey the party to
Bridgend and Ealabus, our drive commencing in true Highland style
with a bagpipe accompaniment. A comfortablo inn at Bridgend
received some of the party, and the remainder were kindly accommo-
dated in Mr. Chiene's house at Ealabus.

Before considering tho botany of Islay, I shall make a few remarks
on the general features of Cantyre botany. The part of Cantyre
examined by the party did not yield many rare plants. This may
depend, in some measure, on the nature of the rocks, which are often
of a hard non-disintegrating and dry micaceous nature. The most
prevalent rock is mica slate. This, along with some chlorite slate,
forms the greater part of Cantyre. The old red sandstone formation
occurs on the shore between Campbelton and Ballyshear, and is also
found on the island of Sanda. It likewise appears on the west coast,
and can be traced from Campbelton by Kilchinzie to Machrihanish
bay. I have already stated that it forms a range of cliffs at a short
distance from tho shore, near Killian. Primary limestone occurs to
tho north of Campbelton, and in several places near Killian and Tayn-
lono, as well as in tho Largybean district, not far from tho point of
the Mull. In the valloy which extends from Campbelton to Lossit,
we meet with the carboniferous series of rocks. The island of Gigha
is composed of mica slate.

The crops, so far as wo observed, were good, and the harvest was
early. On tho 13th of August, we saw some barley cut Rye is culti-

28 Dr. Balfouk's Botanical Excursion.

vated in many places. We could not detect any ergot in it. Bero
or Big (Hordeum hexastichon,) is also cultivated for the use of the
distilleries, which aro numerous in this part of the country. Potatoes
were excellent in the sandy and peaty soil.

Much might be douo to improve the agriculture of the country by
proper drainage, the use of the new manures, and the introduction of
somo good grasses. Arrhenatherum avenaceum, or oat grass, is a
common weed in Cantyre, and might be advantageously sown on waste
lands, as a grass of which horses and cows are fond. Timothy grass
(Phleum pratense) thrives well, and might be sown with benefit as a
late grass, while Alopecurus pratensis might serve as an early one.
These two last-named grasses are not common in Cantyre. Holcus
lanatus or Yorkshire fog, is very common. It is a poor grass, and
might be replaced by others of a more nutritious quality. Festuca
elatior would do well in boggy places. Avena flavescens was not met
with, but it is well fitted for dry lands. Italian Rye grass might be
sown with advantage, as it thrives in a mild climate. We did not see
this grass during our walk. Catabrosa aquatica is a very nutritious sac-
charine grass, which does well in wet lands where draining cannot be
carried on easily. In Belgium, Dr. Parnell informed us, it is much
used for fodder, and the cows there are said to give excellent milk and
butter. Near Taynlone this grass occupies a great extent of the sea
shore, and the seeds might easily be collected in large quantity. The
poisonous Darnel-grass was met with among the crops in several
places, although it did not occur in such quantity as to give rise to
injurious effects so far as we could ascertain. It ought, however, to
be extirpated, as cases of poisoning have occurred from using it in the
preparation of bread.

Besides the part of Cantyre to which I have alluded, on our return
from Islay, we also examined part of the shore of Loch Tarbet, near
its northern extremity, and the neck of land between West and East
Tarbet, which is not much more than a mile broad. Boats are some-
times carried across from one sea to the other, and there is a curious
fable mentioned by Pennant, that Donald Bane ceded the Western
Isles to Magnus on the condition of his receiving the aid of Norway
against the family of Malcolm. By the contract Magnus was to have
all the islands — the definition of an island being whatever could be
circumnavigated. The Norwegian, it is said, caused his boat to be
drawn across the isthmus between the two Lochs Tarbet, and thus
included Cantyre in the bargain. This story is considered a more
fable by Macculloch.

The shores of Loch Tarbet are beautiful and picturesque, and the
sail up the Loch in a fine day is very interesting. The country around
has an undulated surface, with here and there some fine woods com-
ing down to the water's edge, and surrounding cultivated spots of

Dr. Balfoub's Botanical Excursion. U<J

various extent. We mado a few additions to the Flora of Cantyre on
the shores of the loch, by picking Milium effusum, Circaca intermedia,
and large specimens of Salix pentandra.

I now proceed to give an account of our excursion in the island of
Islay, and in doing so I shall allude only to the more interesting Phan-
erogamous plants and ferns, inasmuch the mosses, lichens, and sea-
weeds observed by the party possessed no attraction as regards rarity.

Islay is one of the western islands of Scotland, and was at one time
famous as the residence of Mac Donald, one of the great Kings of the
Isles. The holds or castles of the MacDonalds exist on islands in
some of the fresh water lakes to which I shall afterwards allude, espe-
cially Loch Gurim and Loch Fiulaggan. The extreme length of the
island, from the Moile of Oe in the south, to Rumhail in the north,
is about thirty miles ; and its breadth, from the point of Ardmore on
the east, to Sanig on the west, is upwards of twenty miles. The
superficial extent is about 154,000 acres, and the extent of coast is
nearly 200 miles. The form of the island is irregular, and it is deeply
indented by an arm of the sea called Lochindal. It is chiefly com-
posed of those hypogean rocks, termed by Lyell metamorphic, or
altered rocks, in consequence of the supposed changes which have
taken place in them since their deposition. These metamorphic rocks
contain few or no organic remains, and are thus separated from the
paheozoic stratified rocks. Clay-slate is looked upon as intermediate
between the metamorphic and the fossil iferous strata. The transition,
primary fossiliferous,and grauwacke of authors, are considered as belong-
ing to the pala30zoic series, being the strata which contain the fossil
remains of the earliest formed animals. The principal part of the island
of Islay consists of quartz rock, with beds of clay slate, grauwacke slate,
and micaceous schist. Quartz forms the high grounds of the north, and
the great mass of the Oe district. Gneiss occurs in some parts of the
island, and limestone in others. Porphyritic and basaltic rocks and
veins are met with in many places ; the basalt being often of an amyg-
daloidal nature. Near Port Askaig a peculiar kind of conglomerate
occurs. Lead and iron are found in the island, the former being
mixed with copper and some silver. At Ballygrant the lead is worked,
and the veins are tolerably productive. In the Rhins a vein of mag-
netic iron ore occurs, which, according to Mr. Campbell, contains a
small per centage of titanium. A rich ore of iron is found on Lossit
hill, and a vein of iron glance at Ballyneal. At Stramishmore, in the
Oe, there is a vein of impure graphite, 200 or 300 feet wide. Mr.
Campbell states that he has analysed this, and finds that the quantity
of carbon varies from 9 to 64 per cent., and iron from 5 to 16 per
cent He also has detected manganese in small quantity. Dr. R. D.
Thomson has examined two specimens of this impure graphite, and
the following are the results he has obtained : —

30 ])k. Balfouk's Botanical Excursion.

Peroxide of Iron, with sorao Alumina,
Sesquioxido of Manganese,
Magnesia, and some Lime,

Plumbago,

Carbonato of Lime, ....

Insoluble matter, consisting of Silica and Alumina, &c, 3276

Wator

20-79

2000

7-33

2-44

trace.

1200

13-67

3-60

20-12

1-15

, 32-76

5500

5-33

681

100-00

101-00

Near Ealabus there is a chalybeate well.

Throughout the island monumental stones, forts, and other antiqui-
ties occur. The climate is similar to that of the other Western Islands,
being mild and moist. Plants which will not stand the rigour of a
continental climate succeed well. At Islay House many of the more
delicate plants thrive in the open air. The garden, however, is more
remarkable for its excellent culinary productions than for the rarity
of the flowers. At Mr. Campbell's cottage, in the south-east of the
island, many fine plants were observed. Rhododendrons there at-
tained a very large size.

In Islay there is still a great extent of improveable peaty land, which
might easily be brought into cultivation. Much has already been
done in the way of improvement by the spirited and enlightened pro-
prietor, Mr. Campbell, and he has been ably seconded in his efforts by
Mr. Chiene, his intelligent, indefatigable, and, I may justly add, hos-
pitable factor. By draining, burning, paring, and the application of
lime, much moorish land has been rendered productive. We saw
excellent crops of oats on land recently reclaimed. Mr. Campbell
seems to be anxious to introduce all the improvements which have
been suggested of late by agricultural chemists, and I believe that his
zealous and well directed efforts will soon make a great change in the
aspect of the island. The zeal and energy of his factor, too, are seen
in the mode in which various improvements have been carried out in
the neighbourhood of Islay House, and perhaps in none more than in
the formation of a road through a wet peat moss, which is now in the
course of being drained and brought under the action of the plough.

We commenced our excursion in Islay, on Friday the 16th of
August, by starting after breakfast for Kilchoman, which is situated
in the south-west of the island. We reached this place by the aid of
conveyances provided by Mr. Chiene, and at once proceeded to exam-
ine the sandy shores in the neighbourhood. The sands here, as in
Cantyre, are kept together by Ammophila arenaria, Carex arenaria,
Triticum junceum, and other creeping grasses and sedges. Near
Kilchoman we found Sinapis alba, Listera ovata, Habenaria viridis,
and Gentiana Amarella both blue and white. In the churchyard of
Kilchoman there are some curious grave-stones, and an old cross
similar to one in the Main- Street of Campbelton. It is said, indeed,

Dm, B alfour 's Botanical Excursion .' 31

that the latter was originally takon from Islay. At Kilchoman our
party separated into two divisions, ono proceeding along the shore, and
the other goiug inland to examine the marshy ground in the vicinity
of Locli (Jurim or Gurm. The shore party was upon tho wholo most
successful, having picked Mentha rubra of Smith, Gentiana Amarella,
Convolvulus Soldanella, Malva sylvestris, Conium maculatum, Epilo-
bium virgatum already noticed in the Cantyre trip, and Equisetum
Telmateia of Ehrhart. Tho latter plant is the E. fluviatile of Smith,
Hookor, and Babington. Tho namo is derived from to^utuo;, grow-
ing in mud, but we found tho plant growing in moist sand. Both fer-
tilo and barren stems wore gathered, tho former being unbranched
and having numerous largo deeply toothed sheaths, while the latter
had whorled branches, were nearly smooth, and presented about thirty
stria) on tho stalk. A remarkable trailing variety of Juncus lampro-
carpus, with regular rootings at the joints, covered tho shores in pro-
fusion along with Agrostis alba, var. maritima of Babington, with a
procumbent rooting stem, a creeping form of Eleocharis palustris, and
the sea shore variety of Catabrosa aquatica, already noticed in Can-
tyre. This latter variety is tho minor of Babington, and littoralis of
Parnell. It is abundant on the west coast of Scotland on sandy shores
within the iufluence of the tide. In some places it covers patches of
at least half an acre. It is found in Bute in considerable quan-
tity. It differs from Catabrosa aquatica in its smaller growth, and
in the glumes having mostly only one floret. I may hero remark that
the tendency to a trailing habit was seen in many of the plants on the
shore, especially at tho points where rivulets joined the sea ; and somo
of the species on this account presented an aspect very different from
that which thoy assume in their usual localities.

On sandy ground in the vicinity of the shore numerous other plants
were seen, such as Arabis hirsuta, Gymnadenia conopsea, with its
odoriferous purple blossoms, Eryngium maritimum forming spiny
tufts of great extent, the beautiful Anagallis arvensis and tenella,
Pyrethrum maritimum, Ligusticum scoticum, Viola lutea with all its
shades of purple and yellow, Thalictrum minus in a very dwarf state,
Spergula nodosa, Arenaria serpyllifolia and marina, Pimpinella Saxi-
fraga, and Erythram Centaurium and linariifolia. One of the plants
noticed attracted our attention particularly, inasmuch as in Scotland
it is usually seen only in alpine districts, while here it was flourishing
luxuriantly at tho sea level. I allude to the Draba incana or twisted-
podded Whitlow-grass. No doubt, in many instances, in the north of
Scotland, wo see alpine plants coming down to the level of the shore,
as at Cape Wrath in Sutherlandshire ; but the northern nature of the
locality accounts in a great measure for this apparent anomaly. But
in the case of Islay, tho occurrence of alpine species so low cannot be
accounted for in the same way. Mr. H. C. Watson says that Draba
incana belongs to the alpiue and upland regions of Scotland aud

ivi Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

England. It is often found on alpine limcstono rocks. It is met with
near the summits of the mountains in Wales, Westmoreland, and
Scotland. I have specimens from Raven-scar Walden, and from
Teesdale in Yorkshire. In marshy spots near the shore we observed
Hypericum elodes, Sparganium ramosum, (Enanthe Lachenalii, a
common plant in the west, and Samolus Valeraudi ; while in fields
Papaver dubium and Lamium iutermedium were abundant. The only
other plants of interest romarked in this locality were Radiola mille-
grana, Ononis arvensis, Atriplex laciniata and rosea, Cerastium atro-
virens, Cakile maritima, Trifolium arvense, and Eleocharis pauciflora.

After a thorough examination of the sandy shore, the party pro-
ceeded towards some slaty rocks, where Sedum Rhodiola and Asple-
nium marinum were found. Here the two divisions were to have
joined, but by some mistake no union was effected, and in our search
for each other a still farther separation took place. Moreover, the
day which had been gloomy now exhibited a pluvious tendency,
and ere long rain descended in torrents so as to damp in some mea-
sure the ardour of the party, and in the course of the afternoon there
was seen a solitary botanist wending his way through the marshes and
bogs with his habiliments thoroughly saturated with moisture, and his
fingers so benumbed as scarcely to be fit for the effort of pulling a
plant; while parties of two and three, ignorant of their exact, position,
and anxious to get to comfortable quarters as soon as possible, pro-
ceeded by various devious paths to the nearest huts for information.
All fortunately reached their destination in the course of the evening,
— their arrivals occurring at various intervals, and their adventures
being very much diversified.

The peat-bogs which were visited in the course of the day lie be-
tween Kilchoman and Loch Gruinart. They are very wet, and in
many places quite impassable in rainy weather, so that it required
considerable dexterity on the part of the traveller to avoid being
immersed up to the shoulders. This is particularly the case with the
boggy ground near the western extremity of Loch Gurim. In these
localities Scirpus lacustris, Sparganium simplex, Ranunculus aquati-
lis, Peplis Portula, Schoenus nigricans, Drosera rotundifolia, anglica
and longifolia, Utricularia minor, with its elegant vesicles, Rhyn-
chospora alba, Hippuris vulgaris, Scirpus Savii and setaceus, and the
delicate Pinguicula lusitanica were observed. Triglochin maritimum
was picked along with Scirpus lacustris about two miles from the shore.
A Salix resembling rosmarinifolius was also gathered. In all there were
320 Phanerogamous species noticed in the course of the day's walk.

The roads in this part of the island were upon the whole good, but
they pass in some places over hilly districts. Potatoes seemed to
thrive well, and the fields gave excellent crops of oats. Near Islay
House there was a good field of wheat. The flax in the district was
not infested with Cuscuta.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 33

August 17 th. — The morning was very showery and unpromising,
and, in place of visiting Portnahavon as had been proposed, we pro-
ceeded along the shore to Bowmore, and thence round Laggan point
as far as tho mouth of the river Laggan, along the banks of which we
botanized as far as the bridge. The piscatorial members of the party
considered the day peculiarly favourable for enjoying the luxury of a
nibble; but their success was not so greatas they anticipated, and,
as usual, this was attributed to some fault on the part of the river and
the fish. One of tho ,party expatiated in glowing terms on the modo
in which he hooked a salmon, described his excitement on the occa-
sion, and all the emotions which -arise in the bosom of one whose fly,
for tho first time in its existence, has been honoured by the grasp of
so noble a visitor. But unfortunately this splendid animal preferred
living in its native river, even with the appendage of a hook and a
broken lino, to tho pleasure of contributing to the repast of a hungry
botanical party. Some sea-trout, river-trout, and parr were taken,
but even Parn ell's prepared minnow, or minnow -persuader, as it was
called, though wielded most dexterously by the Doctor himself, failed
to procure a large supply, and we looked in vain for the salmon which
he had promised for dinner.

On the shore near Bowmore we met with tho usual maritime plants,
as Aster Tripolium, Plantago maritima and Coronopus, Salicornia
herbacea (the erect form), and Juncus compressus. Great quantities
of Zostera marina had been thrown on shore by the waves, and wero
used as manure by the farmers, along with sea weeds. This plant
has been employed for various purposes ; among others, it has been
recommended in a dry state as a stuffing for beds and cushions. At
Laggan point fine cliffs occur, but they are not productive, being
covered chiefly with Pyrethrum maritimum, Armeria maritima, Coch-
learia officinalis, and some grasses. Beyond this point the shore
becomes sandy, and is covered with bent. A little way inland, boggy
ground occurs, in which the three species of Drosera, Rhynchospora
alba, Utricularia minor, Menyanthes trifoliata, and other marshy
plants are found. This boggy ground, like that near Kilchoman, was
in many places very wet, and resembled, in that respect, the bogs
which occur in Ireland, such as those of Cunnemara in Galway. The
peat is of excellent quality, and is used extensively for fuel.

Much might be dono to improve this peaty soil, by paring, burning,
draining, and the admixture of sand, which is abundant in the neigh-
bourhood. In cases where draining could not be easily accomplished
at once from the nature of the level, the system of colmation, as pursued
in Italy, might be practised, so as to deposit soil on tho surface of the
peat, and by thus raising its level enable draining to bo afterwards
undertaken with success. * The introduction of Dactylis cajspitosa

* Carte Idoauliche dclla Vallo de Chiana, con un saggio sulla storia del suo bonifica-

Vol. II.— No. 1. 3

34 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

or Tussack grass, might bo successful in this situation, both from the
nature of tho climate and tho proximity to the sea. Should this
grass be introduced into tho country, tho peaty soil on the western
islands of Scotland would probably bo that best fittod for its growth.
In this way the waste lands of these localities might be made, without
preparation, to afford excellent pasture, as well as protection to cattle.
This grass was noticed in the Falkland Islands during the recent
antarctic expedition. A short account of it was published by Sir
William Hooker, * and his son, Dr. Joseph D, Hooker, will give a
full description of it in his admirable Antarctic Flora, part of which
is already published under tho patronage of Government. The plant
is called Tussack or Tussac grass, from the lower part of its culms
forming a tuft or tussack. The stems rise to the height of four to six
feet, and the leaves hang down all around. It is perennial, and pro-
duces large leaves, and an enormous quantity of herbage, which is
saccharine and nutritious. The cattle in the Falkland Islands are
remarkably fond of it. The plant thrives best in a wet, peaty soil, in
insular situations where the spray of the sea dashes over it. Judging
from the soil and climate in which it grows, there is every reason to
believe that it might be most advantageously sown in the western
islands of Scotland. Seeds have been sent home to this country, but
only a few of them have germinated. Those sent to the Glasgow
garden have not sprouted. Besides the Tussac, Festuca Alopecurus
of D'Urville or Arundo Alopecurus of Gaudichaud, also deserves to bo
noticed as an important Falkland Island grass found in peat-bogs.

The climate of Islay is well adapted for oats, and much of the peaty
soil might be rendered highly productive. Wheat also thrives in some
places, but this crop probably requires a warmer summer than occurs
in the island in general.

On the sandy shores at Laggan we found Convolvulus Soldanella,
and in the fields Lamium intermedium and Fumaria capreolata; while
the banks of the river furnished luxuriant specimens of Hieracium
umbellatum, sylvaticum and boreale. The last-mentioned species
has been usually regarded as a form of H. sabaudum, and is figured as
such in English botany. It is distinguished by its upper leaves being
sessile, with a round base, not with a cordate-clasping base, as in sa-
baudum, involucral scales appressed in three regular rows, and uniform
in colour.

In tho woods near Ealabus and Islay House, which we examined

mento, et sul mctodo con cui vi ci Esequiscono le Colmate, di G. A. Manetti. Firenze,
1823.

The system of Colmation was fully explained by Professor Gordon at one of our lato
Conversational Meetings, and its application to such localities as Lochar moss, near
Dumfries, was pointed out in an interesting manner by Mr. Smith, late of Deanston.

* Hooker's Notes of the Botany of the Antarctic Expedition. See also Gardeners'
Chronicle for March 4th, 1044; and London Journal of Botany, Vol. II., p. 247.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 36

at different times, we found a number of plants which deserve atten-
tion, such as Aquilegia vulgaris, Hesperis matronalis, Valeriana
pyrenaica, Campanula latifolia, Epilobium angustifolium, Polygonum
Bistorta, Prunus Padus, Lysimachia nemorum, Ruscus aculeatus,
Carex remota, and Scolopendrium vulgare. Somo of these species,
however, have undoubtedly escaped from the garden. Betula alba
and glutinosa were also seen. The latter is looked upon by most
botanists as a mere variety of the former, but Mr. Babington thinks that
ho has found a marked character in the stipules, which in B. glutinosa
are rolled back, while in B. alba they are circinnate. The form of
the fruit, ho also thinks, is different in the two cases. In a pond
near Ealabus grow Lycopus europsous, Potamogeton natans, and Nym-
phaea alba. On making a transverse section of the petiole of the
Nymph sea, it was observed that the large tubes had hairs in their
interior, which generally came off in threes. Again, in making a
similar section of the peduncle, or flower-stalk, we noticed generally
four or fivo large tubes in the centre, and smaller ones around, but in
none of them could any hairs be detected. These tubes in the stalks
of the flower and leaf appear to contain air for the purpose of floating
the various parts of the plant * Carex vesicaria and Equisetum limo-
sum both in an unbranched and branched state, were picked at Loch
Skiros.

On examining some of the Carices and grasses, it was found that
the rule in regard to the solid stem in the former, and the hollow
stem in the latter, was not universal. Thus Carex remota and ovalis
had distinctly hollow stems, while Ammophila arenaria had a solid
stem. This grass is said by Dr. Parnell to be the only British one
with a stem always completely solid. t It also differs from other grasses
in not having a striated stem. It may also be remarked here, that in
the Umbelliferae, the character founded on tho fistular stem does not
invariably hold good, for on the same root solid and fistulose stems
will occasionally be found.

Many of tho grasses in Islay displayed much of the ergot, or that
disease which is common in rye, and which is an altered state of the
ovary caused by the attack of a fungus, Ergotajtia abortifaciens of
Quekett This plant produces sporules, which communicate the
disease to healthy grain, either by being directly applied, or by being
taken up from the soil. Mr. Quekett has produced the disease artifi-

* On examining the pedunolo of Nymphaa alba lately in Bute, I detected hairs in its
tubes as well as in those of the petiole. The same thing was seen in the peduncles and
petioles of Nuphar lutea. In the latter plant tho air-tubes in the petiole were larger
than those in the peduncle, and displayed the hairs most distinctly.

t See Parnell's work on British Grasses. Bromus patulus, and some other foreign
grasses, have also solid stems, and Mr. Gorrie has noticed the same occurrence in some
varieties of wheat.

36 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

cially by watering healthy plants of ryo with water containing the
sporules. Proper draining will probably prevent the attack of ergot.
Ergot injures the quality of the flour, and cases are detailed in which
the use of diseased rye has caused dry gangrene. The disease is not,
however, peculiar to rye. It occurs in many grasses. Professor
Henslow has observed it in wheat in Suffolk ; and in the district in
which he saw it, it is stated that about a century ago several cases of
poisoning occurred from diseased wheat. Our party observed ergot
in considerable quantity on Anthoxanthum odoratum, and on Phalaris
arundinacea. The former grass is very abundant in many parts of
the island, and is well deserving of cultivation. Besides the ergot,
we noticed the disease in oats, caused by a species of uredo, and com-
monly called smut. In many fields the disease was very prevalent.
It is said to bo prevented by steeping the grain in stale urine, and
afterwards sifting lime on it. A solution of salt, and a weak solution
of sulphate of copper, have also been employed.

August 19th. — The day was very unpromising, and thick mist and
rain set in about seven o'clock a.m. Nevertheless, four of the party
started in a conveyance for Portnahaven, while the rest went to Bal-
lagrant Loch to fish. The south-western shores of the island, as far
as Portnahaven or the Rhins, are low, gravelly, and occasionally
rocky, and consist chiefly of clay-slate, with greywacke slate in alter-
nate beds. Gneiss is met with in some parts of the shore, especially
between Octafad and the point of the Rhins or Rinns. These shores
produced few plants of interest. Geranium pratense was noticed near
Port-Charlotte, and in a neglected garden at the same place we
observed profusion of Papaver somniferum of a pink colour, with dark
spots at the base of the petals, similar to what occurs in Papaver Arge-
mone. The same variety was picked by Dr. Parnell at Ballagrant
At Portnahaven there is a lighthouse on an island close to the shore,
and there are other islands in the neighbourhood. The tides in this
quarter, more particularly at the point of the Rinns, are very violent
and rapid, and it is interesting to notice the agitation which is caused
even by a moderate degree of wind. On arriving at Portnahaven, the
weather was so bad and the rain so heavy, that two of the party did
not choose to quit the conveyance, and accordingly they proceeded
directly to Kilchearan, and there enjoyed the hospitality of Mr. Ralston
until the other two botanists met them.

Proceeding along the western shore of the Rinns from Portnahaven
■we encounter a very rugged and rocky coast, intersected by numerous
indentations, and broken up by narrow ravines into which the sea enters
with great violence. Fine caves and gigantic natural arches occur in
many places. The prevailing rocks are clay-slate and greywacke, with
occasional trap dykes of considerable extent. In some places, as at
Losset Hill, we met with a peculiar kind of conglomerate. Near

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion, 37

Losset, which is a fishing village, the cliffs are remarkably fine, attain-
ing a height of many hundred feet, and covered with innumerable
sea- fowl. In this quartor there are the remains of a fort.

The most interesting plants seen on the cliffs were Sedum Rhodiola,
Pvrethrum maritimum, in some cases with a singular flattened or
fasciated stem, caused apparently by the union of several stalks,
Ligusticum scoticum, Carex extensa, Spergula subulata, and Pulicaria
dysenterica. The cliffs are now and then interrupted by sandy shores
covered with bent, and there Convolvulus Soldanella, and Equisetum
Telmateia were found, along with Galium verum curiously altered by
the attacks of insects.

At Kilchearan, where a slate quarry is worked, we joined the rain-
dreading botanists, whom we found comfortably accommodated in the
house of Mr. Ralston, the tenant of the farm in this quarter, who
kindly entertained the whole party. Mr. Ralston seems to be an in-
telligent farmer, and has contributed to the improvement of the
agriculture of the district He pointed out to us a field of from
twenty to thirty acres bearing an excellent crop of wheat He has
introduced Cheviot sheep with profit, and in his dairy he has the Ayr-
shire breed of cows, to the excellence of the produce of which some of
the party can bear testimony.

Returning by the shore to Ealabus we did not observe any plants of
peculiar interest On our return we had the pleasure of meeting
Mr. Christison, who had been sent to this country by the Norwegian
government for the purpose of getting information as to agriculture.
Foreign governments, in the encouragement which they thus give to
science, set an excellent example to Britain.

August 20th. — This day the botanical section proceeded first by the
shore, and then across the island to Loch Gruinart, examining the
southern shore of the loch, and going as far as Ardnave and the point
of the Nave. The rest of the party indulged their fishing propensities
by visiting the river Laggan. The day was showery, but upon the
whole favourable.

In the salt marshes near Islay House, many common sea plants
were found, as Salicornia herbacea, Glaux maritima, Aster Tripolium,
and Poa maritima. In a ditch near Gruinart, Rumex Hydrolapathum
or great water-dock, was picked, a species well distinguished by its lan-
ceolate acute leaves tapering below into a petiole which is flat above,
and by the enlarged ovato-triangular divisions of its perianth nearly all
with tubercles. It was formerly described by botanists as Rumex
aquaticus, a distinct species with broader leaves, not tapering, and
non-tuborcled fruit, hence called grainless-dock. R. Hydrolapathum
is rare in Scotland, although it is found in many places in England.
Mr. Stewart Murray observed the plant in ditches near Meikleom in
Perthshire, and I have a specimen from the station, picked by Mr.
Gorrie. Hopkirk mentions the plant as growing near Old Kilpatrick

38 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

on the Clyde, but I have not been able to see it in that locality. I
have gathored the plant abundantly near Oxford and in other parts of
England, but I never before picked it in Scotland.

The shore on the south side of Loch Gruinart is partly gravelly
and partly sandy. The sand occurs near the Nave, and on the west
shore exposed to the Atlantic. The dunes of sand in this quarter
attain a great elevation, and are as usual kept together by grasses
and sedges. In* lint fields near Gruinart, Camelina sativa was ob-
served, and on the sandy shores Draba incana, Gentiana campestris
and Amarella, and Arabis hirsuta. Scutellaria galericulata grew
profusely among the pebbles on the shore, Papaver Argemone and
dubium, in sandy fields, and Juncus maritimus in salt marshes ; in
moist places near the loch, Callitriche verna and pedunculata, Po-
tamogeton pusillus and crispus, Helosciadium inundatum, Myriophyl-
lum spicatum, and Scirpus glaucus.

Loch Gruinart has a sandy bottom, and it is nearly emptied when
the tide is low. Sand-banks exist in many places, and on these we
saw numerous seals sporting in the sun. The tide flows here with
great rapidity. At the mouth of the loch a bar of sand extends across,
and at its head there is an alluvial plain. The shores to the south-
west of the point of the Nave are rocky and inhospitable, and exhibit
reefs of various extent The cliffs become more elevated as we pro-
ceed south, and caves occur in many places. The interior of the
island in the neighbourhood of Loch Gruinart is composed of boggy
and peaty soil, furnishing such plants as Droseras, Rhynchospora
alba, and Utricularia minor. On Nave island Crambe maritima is
said to grow.

In this part of the island there are the ruins of the old church of
Kilnave. It is a building of considerable antiquity, and seems to
have had only two windows, the arches of which are very peculiar.
In the churchyard there is an old stone cross, which differs in the
curvature of the cross portion from those which are seen at Campbel-
ton and in Iona.

August 2 Is*.— Early this morning I started for Bally tarson, and
gathered Anthemis nobilis in abundance. This plant is by no means
common in Scotland. In Islay it occurs in several places, and
always associated with limestone rock. After breakfast we prepared
for a visit to the south-eastern district of the island, but the stormy
nature of the weather caused no small alarm to some of the party,
and the number of zealous botanists willing to encounter a long and
and wet walk was found to be very small. One of the party preferred
botanizing near Ealabus, within sound of the dinner-bell. Undis-
mayed by the desertion of friends, our little band proceeded in one of
Mr. Chiene's conveyances as far as Kintra, at the southern extremity
of Laggan sands, and thence walked towards the Oo. On the sands
the chief plants were Convolvulus Soldanella, Poa pratensis var.

Dit. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 39

arenaria, and Koeleria cristata. On none of the sands in the island
did we observe Sinapis monensis, — a plant which is common in many
of the sandy shores'on the west coast.

From Laggan sands we proceeded along the rocks to Slochd Mhaol
Torrai * where splendid precipices and caves are seen. The rocks in
this district, and indeed all the way from Islay House to the Mull of
the Oe, consist of alternations of a bluish quartz rock, clay-slate, and
occasional trap dykes and veins. Some of the rocks are bent and
contorted in a remarkable manner, and others are hollowed out into
enormous caves, some of which extend a great way inland, and open
at the distance of several hundred feet from the shore. Some of the
rocks stand out prominently in the sea with rugged and peaked
summits. One of these is called Saighdair Ruadh, or Red Soldier
rock, from its colour. It is 150 or 200 feet high, and presents a very
remarkable aspect. There are often very narrow chasms and rents
in the rocks, into which the waves of the ocean are rolled with great
force. Landslips have also occurred in some places. The rocks,
although interesting in their appearance, are by no means productive.
Beta maritima grows in considerable quantity on some of the cliffs,
and Sedum Rhodiola and Pyrethrum maritimum abound. The other
plants worthy of notice were Listera ovata, Luzula pilosa, Lastrea
Oreopteris, Ligusticum scoticum, Lycopodium selaginoides, Hypericum
humifusum and Androsaemum, Rubus saxatilis and Saxifraga aizoi-
des. The last mentioned plant extends from nearly the sea level to
a considerable elevation on the hills.

After examining the rocks in the Oe or Oa, a Parliamentary
parish, wo proceeded to the Moile or Mull of Islay, passing Lower
Killian, where oddly twisted rocks are seen. The Moile is a fine
cliff, or promontory, projecting into the sea, forming the south-eastern
extremity of Islay, and surrounded by cliffs of a reddish colour, in
which the alternations of quartz rock and clay-slate are well seen.
On one of these rocks there are the remains of an old fort, called
Dunad, or Dim Athad, which seems to have been a place of great
strength in former times. The rock on which it is situated projects
towards the sea, is bounded on three sides by perpendicular cliffs,
and is connected with tho land only by a narrow isthmus with
precipices on each side. In some of the rocks near the fort,
remarkable caves and arches are seen. After examining the fort, we
proceeded through Upper Killian parish, towards Port Ellen. Wo
passed Kinnabus and Assabus Loch, and at Cragabus we saw tho
remains of an old churchyard, marked by large stones placed so as to
enclose graves, similar to some which occur near Lag, in the island of
Arran. Tho party reached Port Ellen about half-past eight, p. m.,

* This means tho Gulf of Mhaol Torrai, a person concerning whom there is some
tradition. Ho is said to have been killed at the place in endeavouring to leap across
ono of the chasms on horseback.

40 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

after a long and fatiguing walk. At this port a lighthouse has been
erected by Mr. Campbell

August 22d. — Leaving Port Ellen at 7 a.m., we went along the
shore to Ardinisteil, where we breakfasted with Mr. Stein. On our
way wo picked Galeopsis versicolor and Convolvulus sepium. After
breakfast we directed our course towards Loch Knock and Knock
Hill, where Mr. Campbell has a summer residence called Ardimersay
Cottage. Hero there is a considerable extent of thriving plantations,
and we spent some hours in the examination of them. The chief
plants which rewarded our exertions, were Circsea intermedia, Carex
laevigata, Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, Polypodium Phegopteris, Carda-
mine sylvatica and Prunus Cerasus. On rocks in the neighbourhood
were seen Milium effusum, Tanacetum vulgare, and Inula Helenium
evidently an escape from an old garden. Near the cottage there is
an old fort now in ruins, called Dun-naomh-aig, and pronounced
Dunavaig, remarkable as being the last held by the Mac Donalds. It
was taken by the Campbells, who it is said resorted to the method of
cutting the water pipes which were conveyed under the sea in the
bay, and thus causing a surrender. The rock of the fort seems to be
impregnable on all sides but that next the land. In the vicinity of
the cottage a place is shown which is said to be the grave of the Prin-
cess Isla.

After partaking of refreshment, kindly supplied by the housekeeper
at the cottage, we walked partly by the shore and partly inland, as
far as Kildalton, where porphyritic rocks present themselves. Here
a fine old church is seen in ruins. It had two windows on the east
end, and two at each side, with two doors. Two stone crosses differ-
ing slightly in character are seen, one in the churchyard surrounding
the chapel, and the other at a little distance from it. Some curious
old gravestones occur. Nettles and Anthriscus sylvestris now grow
in profusion within the precincts of the chapel, and the procumbent
variety of the common juniper on its walls. The various species of
nettle seem to follow the footsteps of man, and delight to grow
places where nitrate of lime is produced:

M At the wall's base the fiery nettle springs,
With fruit globose, and fierce with poisoned stings."

In boggy places, in the vicinity of the old chapel, we found Heloscia-
dium nodiflorum, Hypericum elodes, Carex remota and filiformis.
This part of the island is separated from the district near Islay House
by a lofty range of hills, some of them attaining an elevation of 1500
or 2000 feet, and composed chiefly of quartz rock. We ascended one
of them called Ben Vigors or Ben Bhiggars, and found it by no means
productive. The principal plants collected were Guaphalium dioicum,
Lycopodium Sclago, Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Carex rigida, Armeria
maritima var. alpina, and Juniperus communis var. nana. The

Dit. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 41

occurrence of Arctostapbylos would probably indicate an elevation of
at least 2000 feet, corresponding with the subalpine region of Mr.
Watson. On reaching the summit of the hill wo were involved in
mist and rain, and the guide who had accompanied us lost his way,
and after wandering for an hour or two landed us in the valley whence
we had ascended. Fortunately he knew the direction which our
place of destination boro to the valley, and accordingly we followed
our compass and crossed the hills in a very thick mist, amidst the
fears and doubts of our guide as to the correctness of our procedure.
Our anxiety as to the result of our exploration made us forget all the
discomfort of a thorough drenching, and one of the party who had
been complaining sadly of fatigue now walked on most manfully.
After reaching the summit of the range of hills, (probably the summit
of Gloan Leor,) we descended, not without doubts as to the result
At this time a slight clearance took placo in the mist, and we descried
some green patches of verdure which seemed to indicate a limestone
district We knew that this was the geological nature of the district
which we wished to roach, and our hopes of extrication from our diffi-
culties brightened considerably. We now proceeded on our descent
with increased vigour and alacrity, and reached Allaladh, when some
oat cakes and milk from one of the cottagers were most thankfully
received, and ere long we had the pleasure of finding ourselves at
Cattadale, where a conveyance was waiting to convey us to Ealabus.
This adventure shows, in a certain degree, the importance of knowing
the geology of a district, and the kind of vegetation which is connected
with particular rocks. The limestone district to which I have alluded
is extensive. It crosses from Laggan to Ardmore point, and extends
to the north-east of Islay House. In some places the water has hol-
lowed out a passage for itself through the rocks, and in one instance
we observed the rivulet disappear under ground for several hundred
feet. Near Cattadale the ruins of a fort are seen, called Nose-bridge
fort.

The party left at home had made some additions to the Flora of the
island during our absence by gathering Ruppia maritima, Potamo-
geton rufescons, Polemonium cturuleum, Malva moschata, Carex
acuta, Solan um Dulcamara, and Rubus affinis of Weihe and Nees, a
species described in Mr. Babington's Manual, and the specimen named
on his authority.

August 23d. — This day, like its predecessors, was gloomy and unpro-
pitious, and acted in a most cooling manner on the enthusiasm of the
party. One gave up botany for shooting, others remained at home,
and a party of two only kept up the credit of the expedition. This
party bent their steps towards Losset, passing Kilraeny and Bally-
grant At the latter place there is a beautifully wooded lake well
stocked with trout, some of them presenting peculiar characters. On
the way Ranunculus aquatilis var. fluitans, Potamogeton pusillus and

42 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

rufescens woro picked, tf ear Losset, in a glen not far from tho Sound
of Islay, Ribos rubrum grows in profusion apparently wild, along with
llubus idoBus and saxatilis. We got frosh specimens from Mr. Stuart.
Near Losset there is a lead mine which is worked, and there is abun-
dance of iron in the vicinity. From Losset we proceeded to the lake
of Finlaggan, or the Loch of Portaneilan, as it is sometimes called,
and collocted a few common aquatic plants. On an island in the loch
stand the ruins of tho Castle of Finlaggan, famous as the place where
the Mac Donalds, Lords of the Isles, were crowned. There is no means
of reaching the island except by wading, inasmuch as there is no boat
on the loch. The water is about four feet deep at the place where the
island can bo reached ; we accordingly had to wade up to the middle
in order to get a view of the ruins. The buildings seem to have been
extensive. There are the remains of an old chapel, with some anti-
quated gravestones, having swords carved on them. The grandeur of
this castle of the Lords of the Isles is now gone, and nettles and
Stachys sylvatica, along with other ignoble weeds, occupy the halls of
the Mac Donalds. On the walls of the chapel Asplenium Ruta-muraria
and Adiantum-nigrum grow in profusion, filling up every chink and
crevice with their fronds. The contemplation of these crumbling
walls, and the vegetation covering them, recalled to my mind tho
words of the American poet, who, when speaking of flowers as stars in
earth's firmament, and describing the various lessons which they fur-
nish, goes on to say, —

Not alone in her vast dome of glory,

Not on graves of birds and beasts alone,
But in old cathedrals high and hoary,

On the tombs of heroes carved in stone.
In the cottage of the modest peasant,

In ancestral homes whose crumbling towers,
Speaking of the past unto the present,

Tell us of the ancient games of flowers.
In all places then, and in all seasons,

Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings,
Teaching us by most persuasive reasons,

How akin they are to human things.

On an island near that already mentioned, and separated from it only
by a narrow strait, are the ruins of some buildings where the Lords of
the Isles held their councils. The islands were formerly united by a
drawbridge. On one side of tho island on which Finlaggan Castlo
stands there are the remains of a pier, and a similar pier exists in the
mainland. In the loch grew Phragmites communis, Nymphsca alba
and Potamogeton natans.

From Finlaggan wo walked to Duisker, where Agrimonia Eupa-
toria, Eupatorium cannabinum and Festuca gigantea were found.
This being a limestono district the vegetation was luxuriant, and the
rocks were undermined in many places by tho streams. On our way

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

from this district to Ealabus wo visited Loch Skiros, and gathered
Potamogeton perfoliatus and pusillus, and Callitriche autumnalis.

In the evening the party were conveyed to Port Askaig, and went 01
board the steamboat which was to start early next morning for
Tarbot

Thus ended our Islay trip — one from which all of us derived the
greatest gratification, and for which we were deeply indebted to the
kindness and hospitality of Mr. Chiene. Without his kind offices wo
could not have examined the island in the manner we did. He spared
no trouble in conveying us to different parts of the island, and in afford-
ing us every facility for the prosecution of our researches.

CATALOGUE

OF TUB PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS AND FERNS COLLECTED DURING THE TRIP IN THE
MULL OF CANTYRE AND THE ISLAND OF ISLAY.

The letter C added to a species or variety indicates that it was found in Cantyre
only, and the letter I that it was found in Islay only. The plants unmarked
were found in both places. An asterisk (*) prefixed shows that the plant is
doubtfully native.

DICOTYLEDONES.

I. — Ranunculace^e.
Thalictrum minus.
Anemone nemorosa. C.
Ranunculus aquatilis. I.

hederaceus.

5 Flammula,

aens.

repens.

sceleratus.

Caltha palustris.
10 Trollius europceus. C.
*Aquilegia vulgaris. L

II. — BERBERACEiB.

Berberis vulgaris. C.

HI. — NyMPIL£ACR£.

Nymphaca alba. I.
Nuphar lutea. I.

IV. — Papaveraceje.
15 Fapaver Argemonc. L

dubium.

* somniferum. I.

V. — FUMARIACEJE.

Corydalis claviculata. C.
Fumaria capreolata.

VI. — Cruciferje.
20 Cakilc maritima.
Crambe maritima.

Capsella Bursa-pastoris.
Cochlearia officinalis.
Draba incana. I.
25*Camelina sativa.
Cardamine pratensis.

hirsuta.

/9. sylvatica.

Arabis hirsuta. L
Nasturtium officinale.

30 Sisymbrium officinale.
♦Hesperis matronalis. I.
♦Brassica campestris. L

* fi. Rapa. C.

Sinapis arvensis.

alba.

35 monensis. C.

Baphanus Baphanistrum.

0. maritimus. C.

VII. — Besedaceje.

Eeseda Luteola, C.

Vill. — VlOLACEJE.

Viola palustris.

canina.

40 tricolor.

/9. arvensis.

lutea.

IX.— Dkoserace^j.
Drosera rotundifolia.
longifolia. I.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Drosera anglica. I.

X. — POLYGALACE^E.

45 Polygala vulgaris.

XI. — Caryophyllaceje.

Silcnc inilal a. I.

maritima.

Lychnis Flos-cuculi.

diurna.

Githago. I.

Sagina procumbens.

maritima. C.

Spergula subulata.

nodosa.

arvensis.

Arcnaria peploides.

serpyllifoh'a.

. marina.

Stellaria media.

Holostea. C.

graminea. C.

uliginosa. I.

Cerastium glomeratum.

triviale.

atro-virens.

XII. — MALVACEJ3.

Malva moschata. I.
sylvestris. I.

XIII.— TlLIACE.E.

♦Tilia europaea.

XIV. — Hypericace^j.
Hypericum Androsaemum.

70 quadrangulum.

humifusum.

pulchrum.

elodes. I.

XV. — ACERACEiE.

♦Acer Pseudo-platanus.
XVI. — GeraniacejE.
75 Erodium cicutarium.
Geranium pratense.

molle.

dissectum.

robertianum.

XVII. — LlNACEiE.

80*Linum usitatissimum.

catharticum.

Radiola millegrana.

XVHI. — Oxalidacej:.

Oxalis Acetosella.

XIX. — Leguminos^:.

Ulex europaeus.
85 Sarothamnus scoparius.

Ononis arvensis. I.

Anthyllis Vulneraria.

Medicago lupulina. I.

Trifolium repens.

90 pratense.

medium.

arvense. I.

procumbens.

minus.

95 Lotus corniculatus.

major.

Vicia sylvatica. C.

Cracca.

sativa. C.

100 sepium.

hirsuta.

Lathyrus pratensis.

Orobus tuberosus.

XX. — Rosacea.

Prunus spinosa.
105 Padus. I.

Cerasus. I.

Spiraea Ulmaria.
* saticifolia. I.

Dryas octopetala. C.
110 Geum urbanum. C.

rivale. I.

Agrimonia Eupatoria. I.

Potentilla anserina.

reptans. C.

115 Tormentilla.

Comarum.

Fragaria vesca.

Rubus saxatilis.

fruticosus.

120 macrophyllus.

rhamnifolius.

affinis. I.

plicatus. C.

Idaeus.

125 Rosa spinosissima.

villosa.

tomentosa. C.

rubiginosa. C.

canina. C.

130 Alchemilla vulgaris.

arvensis.

Crataegus Oxyacantha.
Pyrus malus. C.
Aucuparia.

XXI. — ONAGRACEiE

135 Epilobium angustifolium.
parviflorum.

140

montanum.
palustre.
tetragonum.
virgatum.

Circaea lutetiana. C.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Circaca alpina, $, intermedia.
XXII.— Halorag iac em.
Hippuris vulgaris.
Myriophyllum spicatum. I.
Callitriche verna. I.

145 platycarpa.

pcdunculata. I.

autumnalis. I.

XXIII Lythraoeje.

Lythmm Salicaria.
Peplis Port n la.

XXIV PORTULACACEJE.

150 Montia fontana.

XXV. — PAROXYCHIACE.ffi.

Scleranthus annuus.

XXVI Crassulace^.

Sedum Rhodiola.

* Tclephium.

anglicum.

155 acre.

Cotyledon Umbilicus. C.
XXVTL— Grossulariace^:.
Ribcs rubrum. I.

XXVTH.— Saxifragace.*:.
Saxifraga aizoides.

oppositifolia. C.

160 . hypnoides. C.

Chrysosplenium oppositifolium.
Parnassia palustris.

XXIX.— Umbelliperje.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris.
Eryngium maritimum.
165 Conium maculatum.
Apium graveolens. C.
Helosciadium nodiflorum.

inundatum.

.^gopodium Podagraria.
1 70 Carum verticillatum. C.
Bunium flexuosum. I.
Pimpinella Saxifraga.
GSnanthc crocata.

Lachenalii.

175 Ligusticum scoticum.
Angelica sylvestris.
Heracleum Sphondylium.
Daucus Carota.
Torilis Anthriscus.
180 Anthriscus sylvestris.
Myrrhis odorata. C.

XXX. — ARALIACEiE.
Hedera Helix.

XXXI. — Cornacea*.
*Cornus sanguinea. I.

XXXII. — Caprifoliace.*.
Sambucus nigra.

185*Viburnum Opulus. L
LoBicera Periclymenum.

XXXLU.— Rdblacejb.
Galium verum.

palustre.

saxatile.

190 Aparine.

Sherardia arvcnsis.
Asperula odorata.

XXXIV. — Valeriahace.e.
Valeriana officinalis.

* pyrenaica. L

XXXV.— Dipsaceje.
195 Scabiosa succisa.

XXXVI.— CoMPOsrrjt.
Oporinia autumnalis.
Hypochsris radicata.
Sonchus arvensis.

200

asper.
oleraceus.

Crepis virens.

paludosa. C.

Hieracium Pilosella.

murorum. C.

205 sylvaticum.

boreale.

umbellatum.

Taraxacum officinale.

Lapsana communis.
210 Arctium minus.

Carduus lanceolatns.

palustris.

arvensis.

Centaurea nigra.
215 Bidens cernua. C.

tripartita.

Eupatorium cannabinum. I.

Tanacetum vulgare.

Artemisia vulgaris.
220 Gnapbalium dioicum.

sylvaticum.

uliginosum.

minimum. C.

germanicum. C.

225 Petasites vulgaris.

Tussilago Farfara.

Aster Tripoliura.

Solidago Virgaurea.

Senecio vulgaris.
230 sylvaticus.

Jacoboea.

aquaticus.

Pulicaria dysenterica.
Bellis perennis.

235 Chrysanthemum scgetum.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Chrysanthemum Leucanthcmum.
Pyrethrum inodorum.

maritimum.

Anthcmis nobilis. I.

240 Achillea Ptarmica.

Millefolium.

XXXVII. — Campanulacex.

Campanula rotundifolia.

* latifolia. L

Jasiono montana.

XXXVIII.— Ericacble.
245 Erica Tetralix.

cmerca.

Calluna vulgaris.
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. I.
Vaccinium Myrtillus.

XXXIX.— iLICACKSi.

250*Hex Aquifolium.

XL. — Jasminaceje.
•Ligustrum vulgare.
♦Fraxinus excelsior.

XLI. — GENTIANACEiB.

Gentiana Amarella. I.

campestris.

255 Erythraea Centaurium.

linarifolia. I.

Menyanthes trifoliata.

XLII. — PoLEMONIACE^J.

♦Polemonium caeruleum. I.

XLIII. — CONVOLVULACEJE.

Convolvulus sepium.

260 Soldanella.

♦Cuscuta Epilinum.

XLIV. — BORAOINACEJE.

Myosotis repens. C.

cajspitosa.

arvensis.

265 versicolor.

Steenhammera maritima. C.

Symphytum tuberosum. I.

Lycopsis arvensis.

XLV. — Solanacejs.

Hyosciamus niger. C.
270 Solanum Dulcamara. I.

XL VI. — SCROPHULARIACEJE.

Veronica arvensis.

serpyllifolia.

scutellata. C.

Anagallis.

275 Beccabunga.

officinalis.

Chamaedrys.

hederifolia. C.

280

agrestis.
polita. C.

Euphrasia officinalis.

Odontites.

Rhinanthus Crista-galli.

Melampyrum pratense.
285 Pedicularis palustris.

syl vatica.

Scrophularia nodosa.

Digitalis purpurea.

XLVtl.— Labiatje .

Lycopus europaius.
290 Mentha aquatica.

sativa.

0. rubra, I.

arvensis.

Thymus Serpyllum.
Origanum vulgare. I.

295 Teucrium Scorodonia.
Ajuga reptans. I.
Lamium amplexicaule. C.

intermedium.

purpureum.

300 Galeopsis Tetrahit.

versicolor.

Stachys palustris.

/3. ambigua. C.

sylvatica.

arvensis.

305 Glechoma hederacea.

Prunella vulgaris.

Scutellaria galericulata.

XLVLTI. — LentibulabiacejE.

Pinguicula vulgaris.

lusitanica.

310 Utricularia minor. I.

XLIX. — PKIMULACEiE .

Primula vulgaris.
Lysimachia nemorum.
Anagallis arvensis.

tenella.

315 Samolus Valerandi.

Glaux maritima.

L. — PLUMBAGlNACEiE.

Armeria maritima.

var. alpina. I.

LI. — Plantaginacet..

Plantago major.

lanceolata.

/3. altissima. C.

320 maritima,

Coronopus.

Littorella lacustris. I.

LIL — Chenopodiaceje.

Chenopodium album.

Atriplex laciniata.
325 rosea.

Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Atriplex patula.

angustifolia.

erecta.

Beta raaritima. I.
330 Salsola Kali.

Schoberia maritima. C.
Salicoraia herbacea. I.
/3 procumbens.

LIII POLYGONACKS.

Polygonum Bistorta. I.

amphibium.

0. terrestre.

Persicaria.

lapathifoliura.

Hydropiper.

aviculare.

Raii. C.

Convolvulus.

335

340

Rumcx Hydrolapathum. I.

crispus.

obtusifoliuB.

sanguineus, p. viridis. C.

acetosa.

345 Acetosella.

LIV. — EUEAGNACEJE.

*Hippophae rhamnoides.

LV. — Empetkace^.
Empetrum nigrum.

LVL — EuPUORBIACEJE.

Euphorbia hclioscopia.
Mercurialis perennis.

LVII. — Urticacele.
350 Urtica urens.

dioica.

*Ulmus in< nit ana.

L VIII. — AMENTIFFJLS.

Quercus Robur.
*Castanea vulgaris.
355*Fagus sylvatica.
Corylus Avellana.
Alnus glutinosa.
Betula alba.

var. glutinosa. I.

•Populus alba. C.

360 tremula. C.

* nigra. I.

Salix pentandra.

365

370

alba.

purpurea.

Helix.

viminalis.

stipularis. I.

Smithiana.

acuminata. I.

Salix cinerea.

aquatica. I.

aurita.

caprea. L

375 nigricans. I.

fusca, /3. repens.

rosmarinifolia? I.

Myrica Gale.

LLX— CoNTFERiK.

Pinus sylvestris.

Juniperus communis, p. nana.

MONOCOTYLEDONES.

LX.— Orchtdacejb.
Listera ovata. I.
380 Orchis latifolia.

maculata.

Gymnadenia Conopsea.
Habenaria viridis.

LXI Ibidacejs.

Iris Pseudacorus.

LXII. — Liliacrje.
385 Allium ursinum. I.
Scilla verna. C.
Agraphis nutans.

LXTTT. — A SPARAOACEJE.

♦Ruscus aculeatus. I.

LXTV. — J UNC ACEJE .

Juncus conglomeratus.
390 effusus.

maritimus. L

acutifl orus.

lamprocarpus.

supinus.

395 compressus.

p. coenosus. C.

■bufonius.
•squarrosus.

Luzula sylvatica.

pilosa.

400 campestris. C.

multiflora.

Narthecium ossifragum.
LXV. — Alismacejb.

Alisma Plantago.

ranunculoides. I.

405 Triglochin maritimum.

palustre.

LXVI.— Fluviales.

Potamogeton pusillus.

crispus.

perfoliatus. I.

410 heterophyllns. I.

rufescens. I.

natans.

DRw Balfour's Botanical Excursion.

Potamogeton oblongus.

Zostera marina.

Ruppia maritima, p. rostcllata. I.
415 Lemna minor.

LXVII. — Aracejb.

Sparganium simplex. I.

ramosum.

LXVILT.— Ctpkracbje.

Schocnus nigricans.

Rbyucospora alba. I.
420 Blysmus rufus.

Scirpus lacustris, p. glaucns. I.

setaceus.

Savii.

maritimus. C.

palustris.

425 multicaulis. C.

pauciflorus.

ceespitosus.

Eriopborum vaginatum.
polystachion.

430 Carex dioica. C.

pulicaris.

stellulata.

oralis.

remota. I.

435 intermedia. I.

arenaria.

vulpina.

Goodenovii.

rigida.

440 acuta. I.

flava.

extensa.
fulva.

445

450

distans. I.

- binervis.

- lajvigata. I.

- panicea.

- glanca.

- filiformis. I.

- hirta. C.

- ampullacea.

- vesicaria. I.

LXIX. — Gramineje.

Phalaris arundinacea.

Anthoxanthum odoratum.
455 Phleum pratense.

var. nodosum. C.

Alopecurus pratensis. C.

geniculatus.

Milium effusum.

Agrostis canina.
460 vulgaris.

pumila. I.

Agrostis alba.

0. stolonifera.

y- maritima. I.

Ammophila arenaria.
Phragmites communis.
Aira ciespitosa.

465 flexuosa.

caryopbyllea.

proccox.

*Avena strigosa.

pubescens.

470 Arrbenatberum avenaccum.
Holcus lanatus.

mollis.

Triodia decumbens. I.
Koeleria cristata.
475 Molinia cairulea.
Catabrosa aquatica.

- — ' /3. littoralis.

Glyceria fluitans.
Sclerochloa maritima.
Poa annua.

480 pratensis.

var. arenaria. I.

trivialis.

Cynosurus cristatus.

Dactylis glomerata.

Pestuca bromoides.
485 ovina.

p. vivipara. C.

duriuscula.

elatior.

pratensis. C.

gigantea.

490 Bromus asper. C.

Serrafalcus secalinus.

commutatus. C

mollis.

racemosus.

495 Brachypodium sylvaticum.

Triticum repens.

junceum.

Lolium perenne.

var. ramosum. I.

500

• multiflorum. I.
■ temulentum.

Nardus stricta.

ACOTYLEDONES.

LXX. — Equisetaceje.
Equisetum Telmateia.

arvense.

sylvaticum. I.

505 palustre.

Dr. Buchanan on the Stale of the Blood after taking Food.

Equisetum limosum. I.

var. simplex. I.

LXXI. — Lycopodiacbae.
Lycopodium Sclago.

selaginoides.

LXXLT.— Filices.
Polypodium vulgare.

510 Phcgoptcris.

Polystichum aculcatum, y . lobatura.
Lastrea Oreopteris.
Filix-mas.

Lastrea dilatata.
Atbyrium Filix-fcemina.
515 Asplenium Trichomancs.

marinam.

Adiantura-nigrum.

Ruta-muraria.

Scolopendrium valgare.

520 Bleehnum borcalc.

Pteris aquilina.

Hymenopbyllura Wilsoni. I.
523 Osmunda regalis. I.

On reviewing the catalogue, it will be found that the total number
of species collected in Cantyre and Islay, is as follows : —

Phanerogamous species, . . 501 Cryptogamous species (Ferns),
varieties, . 26 ■ varieties,

501
26

527

■
2

Making a total of 523 species and 28 varieties, in all 551.

Of tho Phanerogamous species 81 are peculiar to Islay, and of the
varieties 9; while 50 Phanerogamous species and 10 varieties are
peculiar to Cantyre.

There are 4 Cryptogamous species and 1 variety found in Islay, and
not in Cantyre.

It will thus be found that in Islay there were gathered of

Phanerogamous species,
■ varieties,

451
16

467

Cryptogamous species (Ferns),
ir varieties,

While in Cantyre there were observed of

Phanerogamous species,
« varieties,

420
17

437

Cryptogamous species (Ferns),
» variety,

22
2

5th March, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. James Murray, Garnkirk, was admitted a member of the So-
ciety. The following paper was read: —

IX. — Farther Observations on the State of the Blood after taking Food.
By Andrew Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow.

Last year I read to tho Society a memoir "On the White or
Opaque Serum of tho Blood ;" the object of which was to show, that
Vol. II.— No. 1. 3

50 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

after a meal consisting of various articles of food in common use tho
serum of tho blood becomes white or otherwise discoloured, and con-
tinues in that state for a period, longer or shorter according to cir-
cumstances. It could not be determined, from tho observations then
narrated, whether this discolouration be produced by every sort of
food, or follow only certain kinds of it. The present communication
is principally intended to supply that deficiency, by giving an account
of the effects of various simple alimentary principles, or definite com-
binations of such simple aliments upon the colour of tho blood.

Another object which I have kept in view is to give an account of
a white substance different from that which gives the opaque colour
to the serum of the blood, but which closely resembles it in appear-
ance, and exists in the serum still more generally and in greater
abundance. It first became known to me in the course of these
investigations. It exists both in the opaque serum and in that which
is transparent, and is precipitated by supersaturating the liquid with
common salt, or with sulphate of soda and certain other salts to bo
hereafter mentioned. It is characterised by being immediately re-
dissolved on adding a little more water than sufficient to re-dissolve
the excess of salt, while it is again precipitated by adding the salt to
supersaturation.

I intended, farther, to have discussed the question of the existence
in the blood of a fermentable principle, yielding carbonic acid gas on
being treated with yeast; and had made a great variety of experi-
ments with that object in view: but not having had sufiicient time to
repeat those experiments, so as to satisfy myself as to the true inter-
pretation of them, I have omitted the subject altogether, except where
it is incidentally introduced.

The investigations were conducted, as formerly, by examining the
blood drawn from persons, who, after fasting from sixteen to twenty-
four hours, had taken a full meal consisting of some simple aliment,
or combination of such aliments. I shall narrate the observations
nearly in the order in which they were made ; and, as nearly as pos-
sible, in the words in which they were originally recorded ; as there
will be less chance of error in this way than if I attempted to arrange
and abridge them. I conceive, also, that a detailed account of these
observations may not be without use to those who shall hereafter, I
hope with better success, engage in similar inquiries : an object which
should be kept more especially in view by physiologists, as their
observations cannot, like experiments in the physical sciences, be
repeated at will, but require opportunities not always to be obtained,
and of which, therefore, the most ought to be made. This must also
be my excuse for introducing sundry observations on the state of the
blood not immediately bearing on the subject of this memoir.

I begin by giving an account of the effects of Gelatin on the blood,
with respect to which two series of observations were made.

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. M

Gelatin. — On the 2d of April, 1844, two stout men (to distinguish whom I shall
employ the letters A. and B., as I shall employ other letters in the same way here-
after,) after fasting sixteen hours, had each for dinner two English pints of strong
beef tea, (veal soup was intended, but could not be had,) and half-a-crown's worth
of calf-foot jelly, being about the same measure of jelly. Each of them lost a few
ounces of blood three hours after the meal, and the same quantity six hours after it.

The serum of the blood first drawn from A. was opaline, but translucent ; and
exhibited nothing remarkable under the microscope. That of the blood last drawn
was very milky, being so opaque that the brightest light could not pass through it ;
and under the microscope it showed innumerable very minute amorphous particles,
almost none of them being spherical. The coagulum of this blood was natural,
while that of the former was mottled, but without any translucent crust, the mottling
being as if from the intermixture of florid and black blood.

The scrum of the other man's blood was much more abundant. That from the
first bleeding was opaline, but less so than the corresponding serum of A. That
from the second bleeding was more opaline, but still translucent in a good light.
The coagulum of the latter was natural, while that of the former had a well-
marked crust of transparent fibrin.

Common salt was found to separate a white cream not only from the milky
serum, (A. at six hours ;) but likewise from the three opaline specimens — of which
the explanation will be found below.

These observations aro alluded to in the last memoir, having been
made immediately after it was submitted to the Society, but before
it was printed. The conclusions to which they appeared to lead, when
taken in connexion with the other observations there narrated, were,
first, that the azotized articles of food, after being digested in the first
passages, and absorbed into the blood-vessels, were found there, in the
first instance, as the white substance which gives to the serum of the
blood its milky colour; second, that oily substances appeared to con-
tribute to the formation of the white matter; and, third, that most of
the other non-azotized articles of food probably existed in the blood
in the form of sugar. These conclusions were not, indeed, formally
stated, because they were by no means established, and will indeed be
shown below to be to a certain extent incorrect; but I mention them
hero, as they give the clue to the experiments now to be described,
which were undertaken with the view either of confirming or over-
turning the hypotheses just stated.

The object of the first trial was to determine whether Starch — a
non-azotized substance — made the serum white, and whether the
serum was fermentable. Arrow-root was selected as one of the purest
forms of starch ; and as the conditions to be fulfilled forbade its being
sweetened with sugar in the usual way, it was seasoned with aromatics
to correct its insipidity.

Arrow -Root.— On the 12th of April, C, after fasting sixteen hours, had for
dinner arrow-root, made with water, and seasoned with mace and nutmeg. He took
from half-a-pound to a pound of it. He was bled at three and at six hours after the
meal. The serum in both instances was quite transparent, without any white matter.
The coagulum at three hours had a thick translucent fibrinous crust, marked with
numerous red dots : that at six hours was natural. This man did not feel again

62 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

hungry so soon as the men fed with gelatin, as if the latter substance were dissolved
in the stomach more rapidly than arrow-root.

The serum treated with yeast evolved carbonic acid gas in abundance, as did
also the crassamentum liquified by expression through a linen cloth.

It thus appears that puro Starch, taken as food, gives no white
colour to the serum of the blood. This conclusion may be considered
as established, as it will bo seen below that the experiment was re-
peated three times, and always with tho same result.

I now proceeded to test the hypothesis farther in reference to
azotized food.

Eggs and Milk. — On the 30th April, 1844, D., after fasting eighteen hours, had
at noon a pudding, consisting of six eggs and a pint and a half of milk. He was
bled twice, to the extent of eight ounces. The blood first drawn, three hours after
the meal, gave but a small quantity of serum, which was opaline, resembling whey.
The serum of the blood last drawn, at seven hours after the meal, was much more
abundant. It had less whiteness, but still was not clear, being brownish bike syrup,
an appearance I have since found to depend frequently on the presence of a very
minute quantity of the red part of the blood. The crassamentum of the blood
first drawn had the translucent fibrinous crust well marked : that of the blood last
drawn was natural.

Both specimens of serum showed, under the microscope, a few spherical granules.
On adding salt to that marked D. 3 hours, a white matter immediately rose to the
surface, and continued there some days without showing any tendency to fall to
the bottom. The other specimen marked D. 7 hours, gave, on the addition of salt,
much more of the white matter than its colour led me to expect, and, as in the
former case, the white matter showed no tendency to precipitate. In this respect,
as well as in general appearance, the white matter resembled closely a very abun-
dant specimen which I accidentally procured more than four years ago, and which
has continued at the top ever since, although the phial has been frequently uncorked.
I do not know from what diet it proceeded, but the present and two other trials
mentioned below seem to me to render probable that it may have been from eggs.

I was particularly struck with the difference in the quantity of serum
procured by these two bleedings, practised upon the same person, with
an interval of only three hours ; that from the latter being about quad-
ruple that from the former. I at first supposed that a large quantity
of liquid must have been taken in the interval, but on inquiry I found
the man had taken no drink of any kind. The small quantity of tho
serum in the first case, therefore, was probably entirely owing to the
cup in which the blood was received being very full, and the surface
covered with air-bells. These air-bells cause the coagulum to adhere
to the rim and sides of the cup, and thus prevent the separation of
the serum. I have since more than once observed a similar deficiency
from tho same purely mechanical cause.

Fibrin. — On the same day, E., after fasting the same length of time as D., had
a pound and a half of beaf steak, carefully freed from fat. He was bled at the
same periods after the meal. The relative quantities of serum from the two bleed-
ings were here reversed ; that from the latter bleeding being considerably less in
quantity, and apparently from the same cause. The serum at three hours was of
the colour of whey ; that at seven hours had the same hue, but less intense : in the

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after talcing Food. 63

former a few globules were seen with the microscope ; in the latter numerous irre-
gular particles. On adding as much salt as it could dissolve to the former, it
immediately became quite opaque, and showed large flocculent white masses floating
through it, which, however, had no tendency to ascend, and at length fell to the
bottom. But for this last circumstance, the appearances would have been very
much the same as are observed on adding water to an alcoholic solution of Cam-
phor. The other specimen of serum was treated in the same way, with a similar
result, only the flocculent precipitate was much less abundant.

The coagulum of the blood first drawn had a fibrinous crust : that of the last
-Iniun none.

Two conclusions may bo drawn from these last experiments: first,
that the effect of the salt is not merely mechanical, but a true chemical
precipitation ; and, second, that the white matter proceeding from dif-
ferent kinds of food is probably not always the same, since in some
cases it seeks the bottom, and in some the top. Subsequent trials
tended to confirm both these conclusions.

As this is the first time I have had occasion to mention the
action of salt in causing precipitation from serum, I shall here explain
the mode in which the salt requires to bo employed: as the process
will thus be more readily comprehended, than if I left the knowledge
of it to be gleaned in the way I myself learned it, from the experiments
to bo hereafter mentioned.

In the former memoir I described the action of salt in separating
the white matter of milky serum to be purely mechanical, increasing
the specific gravity of the liquid, and thus causing the solid particles
diffused through it to rise to the surface. This I still believe to be
the true mode of action of the salt, whenever it is added in less
quantity than the serum is capable of dissolving; but no sooner is the
salt added to saturation than it acts in a totally different way, and
becomes a true chemical precipitant. This I was led to find out from
my having adopted it as a consequence of the mechanical theory
above stated, that the heavier the serum was made the more readily
would the separation of the white matter take place ; and expecting on
this principle to obtain at once a maximum effect, I added the salt
till a portion of it remained at the bottom undissolved. Operating
thus, I was surprised to observe the great increase in the quantity of
the white product, which, as stated above, was much greater than
could have been anticipated from the whiteness of the serum, and I
even found afterwards that it could be obtained in as great abundance
from serum which was perfectly limpid. I was thus assured that the
salt added to saturation did not act in a mechanical way, but acted as
a true chemical precipitant

To the white substance thus obtained I gave, provisionally, the name
of Pabulin; on the supposition that it proceeds from the alimentary
matter or pabulum, which has just undergone digestion in the first
passages. This namo will accordingly be employed below to designate
the white substanco obtained from the blood by the process just

64 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after talcing Food.

described, or by analogous processes to be hereafter mentionod. This
however is only done for convenience, and without prejudging the
questions as to the origin of tho mattor so designated, and its relations
to the white matter which gives the milkiness to the blood.

Eggs. — On tho 20th of May, F. had for dinner six eggs, which were eaten without
any other accompaniment than a little salt. He was bled at two and at four hours
after the meal. The serum was small in quantity in both cups, which were very
full, and with the coagulum adhering, by means of froth, to the edges, so that the
whole serum lay on the surface of the coagulum. It was deeply tinged red.

The serum from the blood first drawn was kept two days, that the red matter of
the blood might subside from it. During that time it threw up a cream spontane-
ously. On filtering it, the white matter and a little oil were left on the filtering
paper: the latter being shown, as formerly, by drying the paper. The filtered liquid
was quite transparent, but on adding salt to supersaturation, a greyish sublimate
separated, showing that the salt acted as a precipitant, if indeed that name may be
applied to an agent separating a matter which swims on the surface.

The serum from the blood last drawn threw up no cream, although kept the same
time as the other specimen. On adding salt in the usual way, a sublimate separated
so abundant as to be equal to about one-fourth of the whole liquid in volume. It
was loose and flocculent; greyish, like chewed meat; or more strikingly still —
(although the physician only can appreciate the comparison) — like the character-
istic discharge from the bowels in dysentery. It continued several days at the top,
with no tendency to subside. It was then skimmed off, and a part of it left behind
subsided probably from the agitation. The sediment thus produced was completely
redissolved on adding water, the solution being then quite transparent, but on
again saturating with salt becoming turbid.

The coagulum was, in both cups, natural.

Casein. — On the 29th of May, G. having taken no breakfast, had at 1 1 a.m. a Scotch
pint of curds, (two English quarts nearly.) He was bled at two, and at four hours
after the meal. The serum in both cups was very abundant, being after thirty hours
about equal in volume to three-fourths of the whole blood drawn. That in the first
cup was the most abundant, and the corresponding coagulum had a thick buffy
coat. The other coagulum had only a trace of a paler fibrinous crust.

The serum in both instances was turbid ; but that was owing to a minute quantity
of red colouring matter, which, subsiding in six hours, left both liquids beautifully
transparent, that from the blood first drawn having a greenish, while the other
inclined to a yellow tint. Salt added to supersaturation gave an abundant precipi-
tate, which partly rose to the surface, buoyed up by minute air-bells, but was
chiefly diffused through the liquid in voluminous flocks, and at length the whole
subsided to the bottom.

The transparent liquid placed under the microscope was observed to contain
some minute entozoa (vibriones), although it was quite fresh. This was forty-six
hours after the blood had been drawn, the weather being coldish at the time. I
once before saw the same animalcules in blood taken from a man after a fast of
sixteen hours. They were elongated, and of very rapid movement, and not accom-
panied by any of the globular and elliptical infusoria which commonly show them-
selves first in organic liquids undergoing decomposition.

Thinking that other salts naturally contained in the serum, and
therefore not likely to interfere with its chemical equilibrium, might
causo a precipitate like common salt, I tried phosphate of soda, but
on adding it to supersaturation it did not at all affect the limpidity of
the serum ; and on afterwards adding common salt, tho usual effect

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. 65

was produced. I tried also bicarbonate of soda, but with no better
success ; and my stock of serum being exhausted, I abandoned the
inquiry, but, as will be seen below, without losing sight of it

Wjiite-Fibh.— On the 2d of June, IT., after fasting the usual time, had four pounds
of white-fish, of which he took a large proportion, with no other accompaniment
than a little salt. He was bled at two, and at four hours after the meal. Tin? scrum
on both occasions was scanty, obviously owing to air-bells on the coagulum, which
had caused it to adhere to the edge of the cup almost all round. The coagulum
was red on the surface, and very loose in texture from retained scrum. The scrum
in both cups was quite transparent, and on being supersaturated with salt, gave a
voluminous precipitate like that from milk already described.

These two last experiments fully satisfied me, that partaking freely
of a highly azotized diet does not necessarily occasion any milkiness
in the serum of the blood. It appeared to me, however, probable, that
tho white matter which in these instances was precipitated by the salt,
was the very same that in other circumstances causes the serum to bo
milky, the only difference being, that in the former instances the white
matter is completely dissolved, and in the latter only imperfectly.
Now, in the experiment made on the 12th of April, a man fed on
arrow -root was found to have the serum of his blood transparent, or
without whiteness, and no farther examination of its qualities was
made except ascertaining that it was fermentable on the addition of
yeast. But it was desirable to know whether a diet of Starch, although
it did not render the serum of the blood milky, might not, as in the
cases just detailed, introduce with it a white matter precipi table by
salt

Arrow-Root. — Accordingly on the 15th of June, M., after fasting the usual time,
had a meal of arrow-root, prepared with water, and seasoned with spice. He took
it readily, but not so much of it as was taken on the last occasion. He was bled
at two, and four hours after the meal.

Tho serum on both occasions was transparent, and with a greenish tinge. That
from the blood last drawn gave a precipitate with salt, but not so abundnnt as in
several former cases. The other specimen gave a much more abundant precipitate,
in part rising to the surface. This last also, on being filtered, left oily stains upon
the filtering paper, as I have since found the serum of the blood very frequently do.
I found the white precipitate from salt to be completely resoluble on adding as
much water as brings the solution somewhat under the point of saturation. On
again saturating with salt, the precipitate falls, and on again adding water, it is
redissolved, and so for several times in succession.

Does, then, Starch give a white precipitate with salt like the azotized
principles? Before drawing this conclusion there are some causes of
fallacy to be guarded against. The white matter may have proceeded
from food taken before the fast, and the more abundant precipitate in
the blood first drawn seemed to countenance this conjecture. The
fast may not have boen strictly observed. Both these sources of error
will be procluded by drawing a little blood before the meal, and test-
ing tho serum with salt. Lastly, arrow-root contains a certain pro-
portion of azotized matter, which, in some specimens examined by

56 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

him, Dr. R. D. Thomson found to be about three por cent. This
experiment appearing to me to bo an important one, I repeated it twice,
as will bo seen below ; and on ono of these occasions a fast of upwards
of twenty-four hours was rigidly observed before the meal, so as to
remove entirely the second objection mentioned above, and diminish
the first as much as I believe practicable.

Arrow-Root— Starch and Suet.— On the 5th of July, O. and P., after a fast of
sixteen hours which I had no reason to suspect was not faithfully observed, had, the
former a mess of spiced arrow-root prepared with water, and the latter a pudding
composed of two parts common starch and one of suet. They were both bled im-
mediately before the meal, and again at two, and at four hours after it.

The serum from the blood of O. was, the whole three times, quite transparent.
On testing it with salt, the serum of the blood drawn before the meal gave a preci-
pitate nearly as abundant as that from the blood drawn after the meal. The blood
taken from P. before the meal gave a scrum which was quite limpid, while the blood
taken after the meal gave on both occasions a very white serum : that from the first
bleeding after the meal threw up spontaneously a white cream, which on the third
day was as abundant as I had ever seen it ; that again from the second bleeding,
although equally white, yielded no cream. On filtering the creamy serum, the filter-
ing paper after being dried was found stained with oil, which it was natural to
think was occasioned by the suet ; but on filtering the corresponding limpid serum
of O., who had taken only arrow-root, the oily stain was found not less deep. The
serum of P. gave a precipitate with salt as well before as after the meal, and that
from the serum after the meal was far more abundant than could possibly have
proceeded merely from the matter in suspension. The serum of P. before the meal
was kept many days in a phial only in part filled, and yet continued quite free of
any unpleasant smell, both then and when afterwards poured into an open glass,
and allowed to remain till the water had all evaporated. I have met with several
other instances of serum resisting putrefaction, but can offer no probable conjecture
as to the cause of so remarkable a property.

This experiment shows clearly the effect of an oily diet in giving
milkiness to the serum, since the milkiness was as great from the diet
of starch and suet just mentioned, as from the more highly azotized diet
of flour and suet mentioned in the last memoir. To illustrate the mode
in which the milkiness is occasioned, I added a few drops of oil to the
limpid serum of the man who had dined on the arrow-root alone, and
on shaking them together I found the liquid become turbid and throw
up a kind of cream. This effect, which I had often before observed,
I have been in the habit of ascribing to the action of the free alkali
of the serum upon the oil forming with it a kind of emulsion. There
are indeed good reasons for thinking that the white matter of milky
serum is not a mere emulsion of this kind, but an azotized substance,
yet it seems probable that the introduction of an oil into the blood is
one, and probably the most frequent cause of the white colour of the
serum. It is also worthy of remark, that the effect seems to be only
occasioned by oil recently introduced with the food, since, as in the case
just mentioned, we often find serum abounding witli oil, and yet quite
limpid, which must be owing to the oil, whether absorbed from within
or from without, having been so adjusted by the processes of the vital

Du. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. 57

economy to the other ingredients of the blood, as no longer to disturb
their chemical equilibrium.

Reflections not less important are suggested by the fact brought out
by both the two last experiments, that the serum of the blood after
a fast of sixteen hours gave a precipitate with salt added to supersa-
turation. Was the fast not strictly observed by men who might
naturally be supposed to care little for the result of the experiment,
and more for their breakfast of which they were deprived? Was the
white matter from the supper of the previous night? or, lastly, does
all serum give a white precipitate with salt? To this last query, which
I had both put to myself, and which had been put to mo by others, I
had hitherto answered in the negative, relying upon a specimen of
beautifully limpid serum which has been in my possession since 1840,
and was shown to the Society last spring, and which I believed to
havo been saturated with salt, when most probably no more had been
dissolved in it than was necessary to keep it from decomposing. Now,
however, that the inquiry was again forced upon me, I examined a
great many specimens of the serum of blood ; and I found all of them,
without exception, to give a precipitate with salt, although in very
different degrees of abundance. I next examined the liquid of the
serous cavities, thinking that possibly it might not be effused till the
secondary digestion was completed. In this, however, I was mistaken,
as all the specimens of hydrocelic fluid which I examined gave a white
precipitate with salt

I was thus fully satisfied that in all ordinary circumstances serum
contains a white matter precipitable by salt This, however, is by no
means inconsistent with the opinion, that the white matter in ques-
tion is the nutritious part of the food absorbed from the digestive
passages, but, on the contrary, renders that opinion the more probable.
Iodine taken so as to saturate the system, is found in the blood, in
the liquid of the serous cavities, and in the synovia of the joints ; and it
may be detected in the excretions not only as long as the medicine
continues to be taken, but for four days thereafter.* If then a sub-
stance taken once or twice daily, to the extent of a few grains, con-
tinues so long within the body, it is surely not surprising that we
should find there as uniformly traces of our food, which we take
three or four times a-day or oftener, to the extent of several pounds.

It was, however, desirablo to determine with greater accurary,
whether the white matter precipitated by salt from the serum of the
blood was really derived from the recently taken food. To accomplish
this object, three methods of proceeding suggested themselves, viz.: —
to compare the quantity of precipitable matter found after taking
food — 1st, with that found in the serum of a person who had fasted,
honafidc, for twenty-four hours — 2d, with that obtained from a person

* London Med. Gaz., 1836.

58 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

labouring under some diseaso for which he had been put upon an
antiphlogistic rogimon — and lastly, with that obtained from an animal
kept long without food.

The first method being that most readily put in practice, was tried
first. As a twenty-hour hour's fast is attended at least with eight hours
of uneasy sensation, it could not be expected, unless enforced, to be
rigidly performed but by a person interested in the success of the
experiment. It was also desirable that the person experimented upon
should not be under confinement, but take as much exercise as possible
to promote the assimilative actions of the system. I therefore tried
this experiment upon myself.

Arrow-Root. — I dined lightly between four and five o'clock in the afternoon ot
the 25th of July ; in the evening I took exercise on horseback, and next day went
about my usual avocations with a good deal of walking, till between five and six in
the afternoon, having taken nothing in the interval but a draught of water before
going to bed. I now had blood drawn from the arm by a medical friend, and
thinking the opportunity a favourable one for trying the effect of starch, I dined
upon arrow-root, prepared with water and sweetened with sugar, of which I took
a large bowlful — in appearance a mess for a ploughman, but which in reality con-
tained no more than three ounces of dry arrow-root powder. I also drank freely of
water sweetened with sugar, and was bled again three hours after the meal.

The serum from both bleedings was quite limpid, and of a deep amber yellow.
That from the first bleeding had the deepest tinge ; on supersaturating it with salt it
became slightly troubled, but without losing its transparency, and at length showed
pale flocks, which became whiter in colour as they subsided to the bottom. The
serum from the second bleeding gave a precipitate, which was likewise flocculcnt,
of a more decidedly white colour, and more abundant, although very insignificant
in point of quantity when compared with the precipitates obtained after a full
azotized meal.

This experiment shows, that abstinence from food for twenty-four
hours, by a person in good health, taking active exercise in the open
air, reduces to a minimum, but does not altogether remove the precipi-
table matter of the blood. The two other experiments suggested above,
lead to the same conclusion ; and the last further shows, that a very
prolonged fast introduces a new complication into the question by
occasioning an incipient decomposition of the blood.

In the beginning of August I got from a medical friend some serum from the blood
of a man bled for a pleurisy, of which he died soon afterwards. It gave a scanty
precipitate on being saturated with salt.

On the 1 6th of August, a dog, which had been kept fifty-one hours without food, and
had drunk little although allowed a free supply of water, was bled from the saphena,
to the extent of about two ounces. The blood trickled slowly down the leg, and
was coagulated in part before the whole had been received in the cup. Whether
owing to this circumstance, or to the long fast, the serum was tinged deeply red,
apparently from the colouring matter being dissolved, for it was quite transparent,
and did not lose the colour by standing at rest. Salt gave a precipitate, although
little abundant.

We may infer then from these experiments, that it is not possible,
without carrying fasting to a greater length than prudence or humanity

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. 59

permit, to deprive the blood altogether of its white precipitate. This
conclusion is quite conformable to what our experience of the persist-
ance of Iodine in the body would lead us to expect It has, however,
been ascertained that the white precipitate obtained from the serum
of the blood by suporsaturation with salt, is most abundant after a
meal ; that it is less abundant as the period of taking food has been
more remote ; and that, after a fast of twenty-four hours, it is very
insignificant in quantity. Still farther, after certain kinds of food,
such as eggs, casein, and white-fish, a much larger quantity of white
matter is found in the serum than after certain other kinds of food,
such as starch. Last of all, the characters of the precipitate vary, so
that it may either be made to swim on the surface, or sink to the
bottom, according to the kind of food. It appears, therefore, not
unreasonable to conclude, that this white precipitate proceeds from the
food, being tho newly digested nutritious matter introduced by certain
aliments into tho blood.

The only other view that can be taken of tho nature of this preci-
pitate, is, that it is occasioned by the salt re-acting upon the albumen
dissolved in the serous liquid. This view does not seem to me recon-
cileable with the great variations in the quantity of tho precipitate,
without any corresponding difference in the quantity of the albumen.
Thus in a specimen of hydrocelic serum, of which the specific gravity
was 1*038,* the precipitato was so scanty as merely to render the liquid
a little turbid ; and in another specimen of the same kind of serum, of
which the specific gravity was only 1*025, the precipitate was in great
abundance. The following considerations and experiments may serve
to elucidate this question.

After finding that hydrocelic serum gave a precipitate with salt, I took the
opportunity afforded by my getting a plentiful supply of that liquid, to resume the
inquiry mentioned above, as to whether any other saline substances acted in the
same way upon serum as common salt. I first tried the sulphate of soda, which I
found to produce the same effect as the common salt, only I thought the precipitate
for the most part more abundant. I found also that this precipitate was immedi-
ately rcdissolved on the addition of water, and was again thrown down on super-
saturating with the sulphate. On afterwards trying this salt with the serum of the
blood, I found that the precipitate obtained sometimes floated, and sometimes fell
to the bottom, and that in this respect there was not always a correspondence in
the action of the two salts on the same liquid.

I found sulphate of magnesia to act in the very same way, so that I have since
been in the habit of employing commonly these three salts as prccipitants.

I found that neither the sulphate of soda nor the common salt threw down the
whole precipitable matter contained in the serum. To show this, I saturated some
scrum with each of these salts separately. I then removed the precipitates by the

* This specific gravity is, I believe, the highest upon record of any serous liquid. The
serum was taken from one of the strongest men in this city, who has laboured under
hydrocele for about ten years, and from whom I have regularly removed it at intervals
of from six to ten months. The specific gravity mentioned above was determined by the
hydrometer, but to remove all doubt, I had it again determined with great accuracy by
the balance, when it was found to be 1*0377.

GO Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

filter, so as to get the liquids again quite clear. I now saturated each solution with
the salt not before dissolved in it, when I obtained a fresh precipitate in each about
as abundant as at first. Still farther, on filtering the liquids again, and saturating
with sulphate of magnesia, I obtained an additional precipitate, but much less
abundant than I obtained with that salt used in the first instance.

I now tried various other salts, the mode of action of which will be best seen
from the following Table, from which are excluded all saline substances, such as the
acetate of lead, chloride of mercury, and sulphate of alumina and potass, which, in
whatever quantity added, produce a precipitate in serous liquids. It comprehends
only those substances, which may be added in any quantity under the point of satu-
ration, without troubling the serum. These may be divided into three classes.
Some of them like common salt, produce a precipitate resoluble on the addition of
water ; some, like the carbonate of potass, and muriate of lime, cause a precipitate
not resoluble by water, and some, like the phosphate of soda, cause no precipitate.

Chloride of Sodium, Abundant Precipitate, Resoluble.

Sulphate of Soda, Do. Do.

Carbonate of Soda, Considerable, Do.

Sulphate of Magnesia, Abundant, Do.

Tartrate ofPotass, Do Do.

Tartrate of Soda and Potass, ...Considerable, Do.

Carbonate ofPotass, Abundant, Not Resoluble.

Bicarbonate ofPotass, Slight, Do.

Muriate of Lime, Abundant, Do.

rn.

Phosphate of Soda, No Precipitate.

Borate of Soda, Do.

Bicarbonate of Soda, Liquid slightly turbid.

Sulphate ofPotass, Do.

Nitrate ofPotass, No Precipitate.

Chlorate ofPotass, Do.

Hydriodate ofPotass, Do.

Triple Prussiate, Do.

Sulphate of Iron, Do.

Carbonate of Ammonia, Do.

Muriate of Ammonia, Do.

A solution of the albumen ovi gives a precipitate on being saturated with salt,
but it is not resoluble on the addition of water.

I may now relate a few additional experiments and observations,
some of which were made before those last mentioned, but the account
of them was deferred, not to interfere with the preceding argument

CnYLB and Serum. — Having obtained a little chyle from the thoracic duct of a
dog fed a few hours previously with oatmeal porridge and milk, I mixed it with some
serum which I had brought with me for the purpose. It rendered the serum turbid,
and very like in appearance to that which separates from blood after taking food.
A very delicate voluminous coagulum soon formed in the liquid.

Serum of Diabetic Blood. — Towards the end of July, I obtained from a medical
friend some very opaque serum from the blood of a woman labouring under dia-
betes, for which she had been bled three times, the blood each time exhibiting the

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. 01

same characters. The discolouration was occasioned by a flocculent brownish white
matter, which, in the course of two days, collected in the upper half of the vessel,
leaving the liquid below quite clear. This matter exactly resembled in appearance
that separated by salt, and this strengthened the opinion which I had begun to
entertain, that the substance separating spontaneously and that separable by salt,
were mere modifications of the same substance. On drawing off the clear liquid,
and saturating it with salt, it gave a precipitate not less abundant than that which
had previously separated spontaneously. As I had never before seen serum so
loaded with alimentary matter, I inquired as to the diet of this woman, and found
it to consist daily of beef 24 oz., bread 12 oz., milk 12 oz., cabbage 6 oz.,
and 11 lbs. of drink including the milk. She took besides 3 gr. of opium daily
The urine amounted to 26j lbs. on an average in the twenty-four hours, and
was highly saccharine.

It is also worthy of remark with respect to this serum, that after it had been a
day in my possession I found it to have a most distinct acid reaction. This fact
can scarcely be explained, but on the supposition that the serum contained sugar,
which had been converted into lactic acid.

Herring 8. — On the 2d of August, after a fast of eighteen hours, R. took a full
meal of fresh herrings, with no other accompaniment than salt. He was bled im-
mediately before the meal, and at two, and four hours after it.

The serum from the first bleeding was quite limpid, that from the second was
highly opaline, and that from the third was quite opaque. All of them gave a
precipitate with common salt, but in none of them was it very abundant, and in
the first it was little less in quantity than in the two last. On the other hand the
two last gave a very abundant precipitate with sulphate of soda, while the first
gave only a scanty one.

In all probability a much larger precipitate would have been
obtained from the blood of this man, had the bleeding been deferred
to six or eight hours after the meal, for it may well be supposed that
the digestion of such a heavy meal would be laborious, and, therefore,
probably the alimentary matter would be late of entering the blood-
vessels.

Potatoes — Whisky. — On the 9 th of August T., a stout healthy man, after
fasting eighteen hours, dined abundantly upon potatoes and salt. He was bled at
four hours after the meal. He had then three glasses of Glenlivet whisky with hot
water and sugar, and half-an-hour thereafter he was again bled.

The scrum from the first bleeding was rather scanty: that from the last very
abundant. Both were quite limpid, and of a yellowish-green tinge, less deep in
the latter. Both gave a scanty precipitate with common salt and sulphate of soda :
but it was remarkable that while the latter gave the most abundant precipitate with
common salt, the former gave the most abundant with sulphate of soda; and that
while the precipates with the salt were truly such falling to the bottom, the matter
separated by the sulphate of soda was in both cases more properly a sublimate
rising to the surface.

There was a most striking difference between the clots obtained from these bleed-
ings. That from the first was quite natural, being red on the surface, and without
contraction ; while that from the second was cupped and buffy. The buff,, when
seen under the serum, was like that of inflammation ; but when viewed attentively,
after pouring off the serum, it was found to consist of transparent fibrin, with very
opaque filamentous and granular particles imbedded in it.

The only conclusion that can be drawn from the last part of this
experiment is, that alcohol has no effect in rendering the serum of

62 Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food.

the blood white ; but it would require to bo repeated several times to
enablo us to judge, whether the appearancos of the clot were really
due to the action of the alcohol, or wero owing to some accidental cir-
cumstance.

Eggs. — On the 16th of October, U., after fasting sixteen hours, had six eggs for
dinner, which were eaten, as before, with a little salt and nothing else but water
for drink. He was bled immediately before the meal, and again four hours after
it. The scrum from the first bleeding was limpid, and, on supersaturating it
with salt, gave a true precipitate falling altogether to the bottom. The serum
from the second bleeding was whitish, and, on being treated in the same way, it
crave only a scanty precipitate, but a very abundant sublimate, which remained
swimming at the surface for many days thereafter. The coagulum of the blood
first drawn had a plentiful fibrinous crust, very transparent ; the other coagulum
was natural.

This result corresponds with those obtained on two former occasions
mentioned above, when eggs had been eaten. The experiment was
repeated, for the purpose of confirming an argument which has been
employed above as to the source of the white matter of the serum. It
is obvious, that the meal of eggs either introduced into the blood a
sublimable substance not before present, or that it altered the quality
of some substance previously existent; which last is a less probable
supposition. The small quantity of the serum first obtained, prevented
any comparison of the relative quantities of the precipitates.

The following conclusions may be deduced from the observations
and reasonings contained in this and the former memoir.

1. The serum of the blood of a healthy man fasting, is perfectly
transparent, and of a yellowish or slightly greenish tint.

2. A heterogeneous meal, such as that usually set on the tables of
the rich, renders the serum white.

3. The whiteness may commence as early as half-an-hour after
eating, and may continue ten or twelve, and sometimes as long as
eighteen hours, according to the kind and quality of the food, and the
state of the functions of primary and secondary digestion.

4. Starch, and Sugar, and probably all vegetable substances desti-
tute of oil, give no whiteness to the serum of the blood.

5. Fibrin, Albumen, and Casein, and probably Protein-compounds in all
their forms if destitute of oil, give no whiteness.

6. Oils combined, whether naturally or artificially, with protein-
compounds or with starch, render the serum of the blood white ; pro-
bably, therefore, oils produce that effect in whatever way taken.

7. Gelatin seems to render the serum of the blood white ; this,
however, cannot be considered as certainly established, as there may
have been some fat in the beef-tea which was taken along with the
calf-foot jelly in both experiments on which the above conclusion rests.

8. The coagulum of tho blood very frequently exhibits, after taking
food, a crust of pellucid fibrin, or of pellucid fibrin dotted with more

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after taking Food. C3

opaque particles, and with little of the contraction technically named
" cupping."

9. Tho appearances of the coagulum just mentioned are much
more common after azotized than after non-azotized food.

Thoso conclusions relating to tho visible characters of the blood
may bo considered, with the single exception above mentioned, as well
established. The conclusions which follow relate chiefly to the chemi-
cal properties of the blood, and are not worthy of the same reliance ;
but the evidence on which they rest has been laid before the reader,
ami he must judge of them for himself.

1. The substance defined above under the name of Pabulin, is most
abundant in the blood a few hours after taking food, sooner or later
according to the rapidity of digestion.

2. It is less abundant as the time when food has been taken is more
remote, and is small in quantity after a fast of twenty-four hours.

3. It is much more abundant after azotized, than after non-azotized
food.

4. It varies in quality, floating or subsiding, according to the kind
of food taken.

5. It is probably analogous in nature to the white substance which
gives colour to the serum of the blood.

6. The difference between these two forms of this substance proba-
bly is, that it is sometimes combined with an alkaline, or earthy salt
(choride of sodium, sulphate of soda, &c), and sometimes with an oily
body (stearate of glycerine, &c). In the former case, it seems to
dissolve completely in the blood, while in the latter it is only partially
dissolved, and renders the serum opaque.

7. The azotized principles of t the food are probably made to com-
bine, in the digestive tube, with the alkaline, earthy, and oily salts
mentioned above; and thus become capable of being absorbed into
the blood.

8. The alkaline and earthy compounds are probably absorbed
directly by the blood-vessels, while it seems to be well ascertained
that the oily compounds are absorbed through the lacteals.

The subjoined table exhibits, at one view, the results of the observa-
tions contained both in this and the preceding memoir, so far as they
relate to the visible characters of the blood.

("BeefSteak, r \ hour, Whitish, Natural.

j I Bread, J 1 hour 40 minutes,.. White, Do.

' te;;::::.:.:! 18 ^ ^ H£ Fibrin008

B (BeefSteak, fBefore, Do Natural.

■<Bread J 3 nours 15 minutes,.White, Pellucid Crust.

j 3 hours 15 minutes,. Do Do.

^18 hours, .Limpid, Do.

Dr. Buchanan on the State of the Blood after talcing Fo&l.

Diet
r Beef Steak,.

Bread,

Potatoes,....

Soup,

-•Porter,

Time of Bleeding after
Meal, or before it

Scrum.

Coagulum.

Before, Do Natural.

2 hours 10 minutes,. Whitish, Do.

8 hours, Gruel-like, Pellucid Crust.

18 hours, Whitish Do.

(WheatenFlour( Bc ^ ggf* Na ' ura1 '

i« < 3 hours, Whitish, Do.

l ° ue ^ ( 6 hours, Milk-white, Do.

("Calf Foot Jelly, ( 3 hours, Opaline, Mottled.

(Beef Tea, t 6 hours, Quite Opaque,... Natural.

(Calf FootJelly, ( 3 hours, Opaline, Pellucid

(Beef Tea, ( 6 hours, Very Opaline,... Natural.

(Arrow-Root,... ( 3 hours, Limpid, Pellucid

(Spiced, (6 hours, Do Natural.

hours, White, Pellucid

hours, Whitish, Natural.

(Eggs,
(Milk,

(BeefSteak, ( 3 hours, White, Pellucid Crust.

(Without Fat, .. ( 7 hours, Whitish, Natural.

10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.

16.
17.

{

2 hours, Do.

4 hours, Do.

Do.
Do.

~ , p xxru (2 hours, Limpid, Buffy Crust.

Curds & Whey,... j 4 J~£ ^ Slight Pellucid Crust.

White-Fish, j^° UrS "

( 4 hours,.

/Arrow-Root,... ( 2 hours,.
... ( 4

Do Natural.

Do Do.

Do.
Do.

(Spiced, (4 hours,

(Arrow-Root,... ( 2 hours, Do Do.

(Spiced, (4 hours, Do Do.

(Starch, ( 2 hours, White, Do.

(4 hours, Do Do.

(Suet,.

(Arrow-Root,... /Before,.
(Sugar,

rBeef Steak,.

I Bread,

] Cabbage,....
Ulilk,

.Limpid, Do.

( 3 hours, Do.

Do.

18. Herrings,

(Thick from dif-
(fuse grey flocks.

/Before, Limpid, Do.

1 2 hours, Opaline, Glistening.

( 4 hours, Quite Opaque,... Do.

19. Potatoes, 4 hours, Limpid, Natural.

20. Alcohol ihour, Do Buffy.

■2\

Alcohol, £hour

Eggs,

(Before, Do Fibrinous Crust.

( 4 hours, White, Natural.

Conversational Meeting. G5

\2th March 1845.

A Conversational Meeting of the Society was held this evening, in
the Merchants' Hall, at which upwards of 400 persons were present

The chief curiosities shown on this occasion were the specimens of
Fronch art and manufacture, purchased by Government at the late
Exposition at tho Champs Elysees in Paris for tho School of Design
in London, and which have been sent down for inspection to tho
institution in Glasgow, the directors very handsomely placing them
at tho disposal of the Council of the Philosophical Society for this
evening. Those articles are of a choice and valuable description, and,
presenting a high standard of excellence in various branches of art and
manufacture, the study of them in the recently established institutions
for the uso of which they aro intended cannot fail to stimulate the in-
genuity of our } own artisans and manufacturers. One of the most
curious was a drawing or pattern for a rug, being a specimen of the
manner in which French designs are executed for the manufacture of
these articles. It might be about twelve inches long, by about six or
eight in breadth, and consisted of a series of figures of flowers, drawn
and coloured with exquisite skill, finished with the minuteness and
nicety of miniature painting, and showing an amount of labour which,
it was stated, would be poorly compensated to the artist by four-
teen guineas, the price at which the pattern was purchased. There
wore a number of specimens of pottery, and glass manufacture, and
jars and vases cast in metal, remarkable for their classic elegance of
form and beauty of design. Amongst these were — a valuable bronze
vase, with an allegorical design, representing two groups of figures, the
most prominent of which were Justice and Peace on one side, and
Patience and Hope on the other, all the figures being produced with
admirable sculpturesque effect A jar in common Beauvais ware — the
coarsest potter's clay, in fact — showed in a remarkable manner the
value of art in moulding forms of perfect grace and symmetry out of
the most ordinary and inexpensive materials. One of theso elegant
jars might cost sixpence, and in France they are much sought after
for household purposes. A vase cast in argent-platina, of singularly
fine proportions ; the chasing elaborated with the minuteness of insect-
work ; produced in the atelier of M. Rudorf ; the price of this article
was forty guineas, being considered a perfect specimen of the art,
and without its equal as yet in British manufacture. Glass-china
vase, from the work called Choisi le Roi, situated on the Seine,
about seven miles from Paris; value £16. In this specimen the
classical proportions of the other vases were produced in a material of
exquisite delicacy, combining the purity of crystal with the pearly
whiteness and transparency of the finest porcelain, and affording a
ground susceptible to the minutest shades of the pencil. Vases of this
description aro painted by the hands of ladies ; and the presont speci-

Vol.II .—No. I. 4

66 Conversational Meeting.

men bore testimony to the industry and taste with which the paintings
are executed. Two Terra Cottas moulded in common tile-clay, and
intended for holding flowers ; — both very pretty examples of the
same union of taste and economy already noticed. Four specimens
of enamelled ware, another cheap and beautiful invention, applicable
to a variety of purposes, such as plates, dishes, and other articles
made of earthenware. The figures are moulded in intaglio instead
of in has relief \ and the mould may be wrought by any man who can
make bricks and tiles, and with equal ease and expedition. When
the cast is hardened, it is covered with a coat of enamel or varnish
in the usual way ; and the lowest lines or hollows of the intaglio
being designed to throw up the shaded parts of the picture, they
receive the thickest coating of varnish, while the more elevated
lines take on the least, and the mixture of light and shade thus pro-
duced is so well managed as to give the picture all the prominence to
the eye of has relief. Amongst the more finished and valuable speci-
mens of porcelain manufacture was the Adelaide Vase, painted in
enamel, in imitation of middle-age art, the painting, as in a former
instance, being done with the pencil. There was also a slab of lava,
enamelled and painted in a beautiful manner. It is stated that slabs
of this seemingly" impracticable material are now used in Paris for
the purpose of painting on their enamelled surface the names of the
streets. They are thus rendered impervious to atmospheric influence,
and are considered indestructible. Among the other casts in metal
were part of a bronze architrave of the door of the church of the
Madeleine at Paris, and which cost .£14 ; and casts of ornamented
outer plates of locks, in iron and brass, cleverly designed and moulded ;
besides a variety of bronze figures, &c. Some ingenious specimens
were also shown of carving in leather, in imitation of casting ; and
specimens of the ornamental flooring used in the houses in France,
where they have no carpets. But the French are rapidly acquiring
a taste for this domestic luxury, and have fairly commenced the
manufacture of carpeting, which promises soon to become an item of
great importance in the trade of the country. Considerable attention
was paid to a specimen of their carpeting exhibited in the room, and
which exceeded ours as much in the beauty of the pattern, as it fell
short of the British manufacture in the fineness of the fabric. In like
manner, the white damask table-cloth was unknown in France eight
years ago, but is now both manufactured and used in the country, and
a specimen exhibited on the present occasion evinced still greater
progress than in the case of the carpet manufacture. But, however
deficient the French may be in the production of these articles, as
compared with our own manufactures, the profuse display of gorgeous
damask silk, from the factories of Tours and Lyons, must have chal-
lenged universal admiration by the superiority of their fabric and
designs. Some of the richest effects were brought out in these

Conversational Meetimp. 07

manufactures by using glass thread, which is prepared so fine as to
be capable of being tied in knots without breaking, and woven in
overy respect like ordinary thread. But the fabric which excited
the strongest interest, both on account of its beauty and its novelty
and ingenuity, was a large square of Wool Mosaic, or India-rubber
cloth, a manufacture peculiar to France and somo parts of Germany.
The pattern was perhaps the most perfect, in respoct of design, of any
work of art in the exhibition. Tho flowers and leaves were copies
from nature, and were much admired for their botanical accuracy.
Even the least prominent of the plants represented in tho composi-
tion, such as tho fronds or leaves of ferns, were delineated with so
much fidelity, as to enable botanists to distinguish the different
species, and give them their specific names. The triumph of art in
this instance is the more remarkable, that, after the design passed
from the hands of the pattern-drawer, it was wrought into the fabric
by one of the most complicated processes that can well be imagined.
The pattern is, in fact, produced in the fabric by the ends of threads
standing out transversely from a foundation of India-rubber cloth,
and not, as is usually the case, by the threads being interwoven longi-
tudinally. In order to understand how this is accomplished, let us
suppose a piece of cloth equal in size to the square of a good-sized hand-
kerchief, to represent, not the upper surface of the threads of which
it is woven, but the ends of the threads ; and suppose farther that tho
threads, thus piled in successive layers, extend inwards for perhaps a
yard, like the straws in a hay-stack. Then these threads are coloured
throughout their whole length, according to the place which each
holds in the pattern ; and the way in which the surface is prepared
is by making a transverse section of the whole mass of threads, which
is then embedded in a foundation of India-rubber cloth. It will be
seen, therefore, that the operation bears some resemblance to the lapi-
dary's process of cutting a transverse section of recent or fossil wood.
The manufacturer of wool-mosaic, having his pattern arranged to a
given depth, cuts section after section off one end of it, till the whole
has been sliced down. The advantage of conducting this part of the
process apart from the other, is, that when the fabric is indented iu
tho India-rubber, it preserves its velvety softness and clearness, which
would be lost were it woven along with the India-rubber cloth. The
cloth is sold at £5 a yard.

An exceedingly interesting and instructive part of the exhibition
consisted of the electric telegraph, and electric clock, constructed by
Mr. Bain of Edinburgh, which are now well known and appreciated.

68 Mr. Crum on the Action of Bleaching Powder, Sfc,

Idth March, 1845. Tlie President in the Chair.

A report from the committee appointed to arrange the Conversa-
tional Meeting was road and approved of. The following paper was
read : —

X. — On the Action of Bleaching Powder on the Salts of Copper and
Lead. By Walter Crum, F.R.S., Vice-President of the Society.

In February, 1843, I read to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow
an account of a rose-coloured oxide of copper which I had obtained
by the action of bleaching powder and lime upon nitrate of copper.
Although I had then made numerous analyses of this substance, pre-
pared under a variety of circumstances, I had been unable to obtain
from it the full amount of oxygen which a definite compound must
contain, and delayed therefore to make it farther known until I should
have the opportunity of producing it in a purer form. In the mean-
time the rose-coloured substance has been noticed, and correctly de-
scribed by Kriiger of Berlin, as a combination of the oxide, or, as he
calls it, of cupric acid, with lime. Having completed my experiments
on this subject, as far as my leisure will permit, I shall now state the
results I have obtained.

When the hydrated oxide of copper is added to a solution of bleach-
ing powder it soon changes colour, particularly when assisted by heat,
and becomes brown. Oxygen gas is then plentifully disengaged, and
the effervescence continues till the whole of the hypochlorite of lime
is decomposed. The brown precipitate suffers no change during this
decomposition ; when separated from the soluble matters, it is found
to contain no chlorine, and no excess of oxygen ; it is anhydrous oxide
of copper. Hypochlorite of soda produces the same effects.

If we add nitrate of copper to a solution of bleaching powder in
which is mixed a considerable quantity of lime, and previously cooled
to the freezing point of water, a bluish green precipitate is formed.
When the precipitate subsides, we find the solution of a fine blue colour,
and containing copper ; but in what state I have not examined. As the
heat advances to the ordinary temperature, the copper in solution, as
well as the precipitate, changes colour, and both at last become an
insoluble purplish black powder. Oxygen gas is disengaged during
the latter part of this process, and continues for some time to prevent
the precipitate from subsiding; but after twenty or twenty-four hours
the evolution of gas nearly ceases, the particles having united into
larger grains sink to the bottom of the vessel into moderate bulk, and
may then readily be separated from the soluble matters, by repeated
mixing with cold lime-water, and drawing off the clear liquid with a
syphon. The precipitate thus obtained is, as I have said, nearly

Mr. Crum on the Action of Bleaching Powder, frc. 69

black ; but by triturating upon a piece of glass, it is seen that its real
colour is rose.

Exposed to the action of boiling water, oxygen gas is disengaged
from this substance, and brown anhydrous oxide of copper is loft be-
hind. Acids dissolvo it, with the liberation of oxygen gas, mixed witli
the carbonic acid taken down by tho lime. The solution in nitric
acid gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver. Exposed to the air
the substance is speedily changed into green carbonate. In attempt-
ing to press, and then to dry it in vacuo over sulphuric acid, a largo
proportion was changed into tho brown oxide, mixed with carbonate.
It can only, therefore, be examined in the moist state, and newly pre-
pared. I shall describe tho process by which I have obtained the best
results.

20 grains of black oxide of copper, prepared by calcining the nitrate,
are dissolved with the assistance of heat in 70 grains of nitric acid,
spec. grav. 1*35. 50 grains of fresh hydrate of lime, sifted through a
fine calico, are mixed with 1 lb. solution of bleaching powdor of spec,
grav. 1-06, and added to the solution of copper. When the precipitate
becomes granular, as already described, it is quickly washed by alter-
nate mixing with lime-water, and decanting after subsidence, until the
lime-water comes off nearly pure. The precipitate is then put into a
wide tube over mercury ; an excess of sulphuric acid is added to it ;
and, after pouring out as much as possible of the solution which is
thus formed, caustic soda is added to absorb the carbonic acid. In
six experiments made in this way, 20 grains oxide of copper produced
a compound which yielded of oxygen gas, after the necessary correc-
tions —

1-875

1-886

1-748

1-915

1-795

1-747

Mean 1*828 grains.

By calculation, 20 grains CuO, changed into Cu 2 3 , ought to yield,
by Berzelius' numbers, 1*98 grains of oxygen, or 1*888 by Dr. Thom-
son's weights. A nearer approximation than in the foregoing results
is scarcely to be expected ; for although there was no perceptible dis-
engagement of gas during tho washing of the precipitate in these
experiments, it is certain that oxygen always escapes during the
time so employed.

The quantity of lime necessary to the production and stability of
this oxide, is not more than one equivalent after saturation of the
nitric acid. One atom of lime to three of copper gave only 0*558
grains of oxygen gas, instead of the mean quantity of 1*828. Two

70 Mil. Ckum on the Action of Bleaching Powder, #*c.

atoms to three of copper yielded 1*295. I conceive the rose-coloured
powder, then, to be a compound of an oxide of copper with limo, in
which the copper exists in the state of sesquioxide, Cu 2 3 .

I have not succeeded in producing this oxide by means of tho
hypochlorites of potash or soda, even with the alkali in great excess ;
but by adding caustic soda to a solution of hypochlorite of lime, and
afterwards nitrate of copper, we obtain tho calcareous compound (lime
being precipitated along with the copper) in a state of division so fine
as to show the rose colour as soon as it is formed. This method, how-
ever, does not serve for the purposes of analysis, for the powder never
becomes granular, and remains therefore too bulky to be washed.

It will now be observed that the dehydrating action of tho hypo-
chlorites upon oxide of copper depends upon the momentary forma-
tion of a sesquioxide, in which the oxygen has replaced the previously
combined water.

The solution of bleaching powder in which the sesquioxide has
been formed is of a fine, but very pale pink colour ; and contains so
small a proportion of its colouring ingredient, that the nature of that
body can scarcely be discovered by analytical means. The second
washing of the oxide is colourless ; but if a very minute portion of
sulphate of manganese be added, the pink colour is restored. When
manganate of potash is dropped into nitric acid, the well-known red
colour of hypermanganic acid is produced. Dropped into lime-water
its colour is bluish green ; but in bleaching liquor, even with excess of
lime, the manganate yields the peculiar amethystine colour of the
solution in which the sesquioxide of copper has been produced.
Bleaching powder has long been said to contain manganese, which is
believed to pass over, during its formation, along with the chlorine, in
the state of the gaseous hyperchloride of Dumas ; and to this I at first
attributed the pink colour of the original solution, but I afterwards
found that it could be reproduced from the Irish limestone which I
employed.

The vessel in which the sesquioxide has been produced, is lined
with a beautiful rose-coloured deposit, which remains attached to tho
glass when the other matters are washed out; but it fades away in a
few hours, particularly when exposed to light, and cannot even be long
preserved in the solution which forms it. Dissolved in dilute nitric
acid, copper is found in the solution, and no manganese. There can
be no doubt, that, like the precipitate, it is the sesquioxide of copper
in combination with lime.

The red oxide of iron has also the power of decomposing the hypo-
chlorites. This fact, as well as the formation of a superoxide of
copper, was observed many years ago by Mr. Mercer of Oakenshaw,
and stated by him to the British Association in 1842, in a paper con-
taining some interesting speculations on these and other weak affinities,
which give riso to many of the phenomena of catalysis.

Mil Crum on the Action of Bleaching Powder, frc. 71

When a clear solution of bleaching powder is mixed with nitrate of
copper, a light bluish green powder precipitates, the bulkiness of which
renders it somewhat difficult to wash. This powder is very slightly
soluble in water, and scarcely changes colour in boiling. Heated in
a glass tube over a spirit-lamp, chloride of copper sublimes into
a cooler part of the tube, and water escapes. Tho residue consists of
black oxide of copper, mixed with a quantity of chloride, which may be
separated from the oxide by washing. Professor Graham, who sug-
gested to me this experiment, remarked on the analogous effect of
boiling water in separating water from a hydrate. It proved to be a
hydrated oxichloride of copper — the substance known by the name of
Brunswick green, and found in a variety of other circumstances.
Analysis gave me a result approaching more nearly to 3 CuO, Cu CI
than to 4 CuO, Cu CI ; but the presence of carbonate in the specimen
left me in doubt upon this point, and I could not resume the inquiry.
In this reaction tho whole of tho hypochlorous acid is set free.

4 (CuO No 5 ) + 3(CaO CIO, Ca CI) =

4 (CaO N0 5 ) + 3 CuO, Cu CI, + 2 Ca CI + 3 CIO.

Peroxide of lead is often produced by passing a stream of chlorine
through a solution of sugar of lead. The chloride which accompanies
it in this way may be also converted into peroxide, by employing a
solution of bleaching powder instead of chlorine. By adding free
lime to the bleaching powder, and applying heat, we obtain a com-
pound, nearly colourless, of the peroxide of lead with lime: — Dis-
solve in water 1 lb. of nitrate of lead, and add it, along with three
equivalents of lime, to 16 lbs. of a solution of bleaching powder,
sp. gr. 1-08. Heat the mixture gradually to 160° Fahr., and stir
it frequently during five hours. Pour off the clear liquid, add 16 lbs.
more of the same solution, and continue the heat three hours longer.
The combination is obtained with only a slight brown tinge.
It is quite insoluble in water, and, when dried, does not alter in the
air. Nitric acid, by dissolving the lime, leaves the peroxide of a jet
black colour ; and, therefore, much deeper than that obtained by any
of the processes usually employed. I have had no means of determin-
ing the proportion of lime contained in this plumbate. With less than
two equivalents to one of oxide the compound is not white. An
excess of lime cannot afterwards be dissolved away by an acid without
discolouring the salt

I found it convenient in these experiments to prepare a quantity of
cream of lime, by dropping newly burnt lime into boiling water, stirring
up, allowing the sand and the grosser parts to subside, and pouring
off tho superstratum. When this again had subsided for some time,

72 Mn. Crum on the Action of Bleaching Powder, fyc.

the water was poured away, and the cream of lime which remained
corked up in small bottles for uso. By this means I had always at
hand a quicklime, whoso equivalent I know, free from sand and free
from carbonate. Marble, of course, answers best for this purpose.

Manganese again appears in tho nitric acid which has been employed
to decompose the plumbate, in the state of the pink-coloured hyper-
manganic acid. When this solution is poured off, and more water and
nitric acid added to the peroxide that is left, a small quantity of sul-
phate of manganese restores the colour. Peroxide of lead, prepared
by the same, or by other means, when dried, does not yield the pink
colour without the application of heat. Ten grains of Irish lime
dissolved in nitric acid, and heated with water containing nitric acid
and peroxide of lead, yielded a pink solution as deep as that produced
in similar circumstances from one-hundredth of a grain of sulphate of
manganese. That species of lime may therefore be presumed to con-
tain tqVjIT °f * ts weight of manganese. White marble, even, is found
by this test to be not altogether free from manganese.

2d April, 1845. The President in the Chair.

Messrs. Robert Salmond, John Smith, LL.D., James Mitchell, and
William G. Miller, were admitted members of the Society.

Dr. Nichol gave a short description of the methods of observation
in use at the Glasgow Observatory. Mr. Lawrence Hill, jun. exhibited
and described a model of a Self-acting Railway Break. The President
having vacated the chair, it was taken by the Vice-President, who
stated that the council had resolved to recommend to the Society that
the President be respectfully requested to sit for his portrait, to be
preserved in the Society's hall, from which an engraving might after-
wards be taken. The proposal was cordially and unanimously enter-
tained by the meeting, and a subscription immediately commenced.

lQth April, 1845. The President in the Chair.

Mr. John Thomson, Annfield, and Mr. David Chambers, were
elected members.

Mr. Michael Scott read a paper on a new hydraulic machine, stated
to be applicable as a substitute for the air pump in marine steam
engines, also to the pumping of ships, and to the raising of water on
shore.

Mr. Sutherland on the Unemployed Lands of Great Britain. 73

30th April, 1845. The President in the Chair.

The following paper was read : —

XL — On the Unemployed Lands of Great Britain.
By G. Sutherland, Jun., Esq.

The writer stated that this subject was brought before the Society
for the purpose of drawing attention to the fact, that there exist no
official periodical sources of information on the relative quantities of
cultivated and of waste lands. Authorised periodical statements afford
the most certain data for speculations on the population, wealth, and
power of this country when compared with other nations, the extent
of cultivation and quantity of food produced affecting the social and
political status of the country, both absolutely and relatively, especi-
ally when viewed with reference to the contingencies of war, and the
rapid progress of manufactures and commerce among rival powers.

The following Table is compiled from M'Culloch, M'Queen, and
Browning, these authors founding on Parliamentary Reports from
1829 to 1835; but as there are discrepancies in the Tables, the fol-
lowing may be assumed as the present areas, expressed in millions of
acres and fractional parts of a million : —

Millions

op Acres

Cultivated.

Improvable.

Barren.

Total Area.

England, . .

25|

. 3J .

• m

Wales, . .

• 3d

. . 1 .

. 1

Scotland, . .

«i

. 6

. 81 .

. 19|

Ireland, . .

1*1

. . -H .

• U •

British Isles, .

* •

• * •

• i • •

The area of the United Kingdom is about 78,000,000 acres, of
which are cultivated 47,000,000,— viz. 19,000,000 in arable and
gardens, and 28,000,000 in pasture, meadows, &c.

The uncultivated improvable, in England and Wales, 4,000,000
Do. do. do. Scotland, .... 6,000,000

Do. do. do. Ireland, .... 4,000,000

Total, 14,000,000

From these data it appears that an improvable area, equal to two-
sevenths of the surface now in cultivation, still remains to be taken
in for agricultural and pastoral purposes, an important fact when we
reflect that the population is increasing at the rate of 300,000 per
annum, and that this increase is pressing upon the means of subsist-

74 Mr. Sutherland on the Unemployed Lands of Great Britain.

ence, as is evinced by the annual importations of grain, and by crises
and depressions occurring almost periodically, consequent on bad
harvests.

To show how much this branch of statistics has been neglected,
the evidence of certain Tithe Commissioners, printed last session,
represents about 8,000,000 acres of land in England and Wales as
lying in wastes and commons, — upwards of one-fifth of the country.
This is scarcely credible, and can only be reconciled with the gene-
rally received Tables by supposing that the partially improved, or
pasture land of the commons, has been included in details of culti-
vated area ; for example, the small town of Ledbury has about 7,000
acres enclosed, and about 14,000 in commons.

M The better land is cultivated, the more people it maintains, and
the more people it maintains, the greater number will it employ,
therefore when people are idle, and lacking food, the severance and
enclosure of land is a public benefit." — Adam Smith, B. 1, ch. 2.

The process of enclosing and improving has been going on actively
since 1760.

During the seventy -two years prior to 1832, not less than 5,500,000
acres were enclosed in Great Britain, an extent equal to the whole
cultivated area of Scotland, while the produce of the land in the
same period has increased four or five-fold.

The occupants of commons in England are not, as is generally
supposed, the community at large, but ascertained classes of persons,
as freemen, &c, who have sub-divided, and in general retained the
commons as heaths, without cultivation, to the detriment of the com-
munity.

" The natural limit of population" has given rise to much useless
discussion.

During the wars of William III. and Queen Anne, it was believed
that tillage had reached its terminus ; yet since that period our num-
bers have trebled, and in 1833-4 the home growth was adequate to
the maintenance of the population.

The average density of population in Europe is about 79 persons
to each cultivated square mile. In populous countries the density is
much greater. Thus —

France has 159 persons to the square mile.

Saxony has 183 do. do.

Holland has 217 do. do.

Belgium has 322 do. do.

Great Britain . . . has 189 do. do.

Ireland has 269 do. do.

Acres to each Person.
France, . . . 2\ \ Great Britain, . 2 | Ireland, ... If

Nepaul Barley. 75

Even supposing this country to be restricted to the produce of her
own soil, at tho present ratio of increase and of consumption, " the
natural limit of population" may be attained in forty-seven years.

Ireland is capable of sustaining double the number of its present
inhabitants.

The quantity of grain of all kinds requisito to the sustenance of the
population is estimated at about two quarters to each individual. A
table, carefully compiled from the London Gazette, by Mr. J. Young,
in November, 1841, gives tho following results, as the consumption for
the year 1835:—

Quarters Consumed by

Man. Animals. Seed. Distilling, &c. Manufactures. Total

Wheat 18,696,694 — 3,277,143 — 966,163 22,940,000

Oats, 12,845,000 16,000,000 4,807,500 — — 33,652,500

Barley, 2,828.571 348,858 1,810,000 7,688,571 — 12,670,000

Rye,. 790,000 20,000 190,000 — 300,000 1,300,000

Beans and Pease,.. 1,000,000 2,187,480 531,270 — — 3,718,750

36,160,265 18,550,338 10,615,913 7,688,571 1,266,163 74,281,250

These are the ascertained quantities used by 26£ millions of inhabitants.
Do.' do. lj — animals.

The wheat imported for the ten years prior to 1841 for home con-
sumpt averaged 790,918 qrs. each year.

The nett imports of 1838, 39, 40, averaged 1,911,494 qrs. per annum,
that of 1839 being the highest, viz.: 2,626,786 qrs., which, at sixty
shillings a quarter, would cost £7,880,358 ; the duty paid amounted
to £631,608.

The paper concluded by urging the necessity of government obtain-
ing annual returns of the produce and classification of lands, similar
to the celebrated Doomsday-book, to be included in the schedules
issued to the agriculturists.

XII. — Nepaul Barley.

A note from Mr. Fleming of Barochan, to Dr. R. D. Thomson,
was read, stating the result of an experiment with Nepaul Barley,
which Dr. T. had procured from Dr. Balfour.

" The land upon which the Barley was sown had been in potatoes the
year before, and manured with 24 tons of good dung, and 14 bushels
of bone dust, per imperial acre. It was sown thin, but it did not
tiller out much, and remained, of course, thin on the ground, although
it came into ear ten days before tho common barley in the same field.
It did not ripen earlier, and was greatly deficient in straw. It how-
ever yielded a fair return of grain, considering it was so thin on tho
ground. The following arc the comparative results from common
and Nepaul barley on the same field: —

76 Report of the Botanical Section.

Commmon Nepaul

Barley. Barley.

Measuro of Grain per imperial acre, 7 quarters,.... 51 quarters.

Weight of Straw, do. 48 cwt, 24 cwt.

Weight of Grain, per bushel, 54 lbs., 58 lbs.

" The common barley was very fine. The weight of the bushel of
Nepaul barley was above the standard very considerably. The field
in which both kinds of barley wero sown had been trenched for tho
potato crop 16 inches deep, that is, in the winter of 1842-43, and
was in good condition ; indeed, the common barley wa3 too strong and
rank. It is probablo that the Nepaul barley may do better in another
year; and the extraordinary weight of the grain, per bushel, fully
warrants another trial on a more extensive scale. The quantity of land
sown this year did not exceed three square poles, from which the
quantity per acre was calculated."

Some of the seed raised by Mr. Fleming, and exhibited to the
Society, was this year sown in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, and
came into ear about ten days before the common barley.

The following report was received from the Botanical Section: — -

25th March, 1845. — The Chairman, Dr. Balfour, exhibited several
ferns and lycopodiums from New Zealand, and a section of the wood
of Cedar of Lebanon, and some other botanical specimens from Pales-
tine. He also read an account of an excursion to Ben Lawers in
1844.

April 29th, 1845. — A paper on the uses of the fibre of plantain,
was read by the chairman, also an account of an excursion to Ailsa
Craig last autumn. The section elected its office-bearers for the next
twelve months.

Dr. Balfour, Chairman.

Mr. Wm. Gourlie, Jun., Vice-Chairman.

Dr. Henry Bottinger, Curator of Herbarium.

Mr. Wm. Keddie, Secretary.

The following notices have been communicated to the Section
during the present summer: —

May 27th t 1845.— Dr. Balfour exhibited a spatha of the Areca
oleracea upwards of four feet in length ; also specimens of the stem of the
Guaiac tree, Rose-wood tree, and Moreton Bay Pine. Dr. Balfour also
exhibited some specimens of American ferns, belonging to the section
Osmundacece, and traced the changes which take place in cases where
the leaves are transformed into fructification, thus illustrating mor-
phological doctrines.

Report of the Botanical Section. 77

Dr. Balfour exhibited a largo specimen of the fruit of Cocos lapidea,
with the concrete oil obtained from it; and a specimen of Cycas
revoluta, with the seeds developed on the peculiarly altered leaves.
He also exhibited hazel-nuts, presented to him by Mr. Kidley, which
had been found in a peat moss, under sand, and in which the pericarp
was soft and natural, while the kernel was hardened by a siliceous
deposit

Dr. Balfour then gave an account of a botanical trip to Bowling and
Kilpatrick, on the 17th May, current; and of a trip to Castlecarey,
Denny, the banks of the Carron, and Falkirk, on the 26th May. Fresh
specimens were shown of most of the plants gathered in the latter
excursion, amongst which were: — Adoxa raoschatellina, Viola lutea, both
yellow and blue, Paris quadri folia, Stellaria nemorum, Melica nutans,
Carduus heterophyllus, with entire and pinnatifid leaves on the same
stem, Prunus Padus, Polypodium Dryopteris, Trollius Europa?us,
Potentilla Fragariastrum, Ranunculus auricomus, Myrrhis odorata,
which occurred in great profusion in Castlecarey Glen, as well as on
the banks of the Carron, Geranium sylvaticum, Orchis mascula, and
various other species.

Dr. Balfour afterwards gave an account of a trip to Arran on the 4th
and 5th of July, 1845. An account was given of the geological
appearances of the places visited, and dried specimens were exhibited
of the plants gathered. He also noticed a trip to Toward Point, and
the shore between that and Dunoon, and alluded to the discovery of
Carex vesicaria and Thalictrum flavum in that quarter.

Dr. Balfour laid on the table Mr. Keddie's prize Herbarium, which,
he stated, Mr. Keddie had kindly proposed to incorporate with the
Society's collection, on condition that it is to be accessible, under proper
regulations, to the students of the Botanical class in the University.

GLASGOW:
PR13TKD BV MIX AND RAIN, ST. KKOCH 8QUARR.

I'KOCEKMNCS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-FOURTH SESSION.

bth November, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. Griffin gave in a Report with reference to a settlement of the
affairs of the Library between the Andersonian Institution and the Philo-
sophical Society.

The Minute of Council of date 2d April, 1845, recommending that the
Society should take steps for obtaining a Portrait of Dr. Thomas Thomson,
the President, was read ; and also the Minute agreeing to the proposal,
and appointing a Committee to carry it into effect. Mr. William Murray,
Convener of the Committee, in presenting the Portrait to the Society, in
name of the Subscribers, stated, that the Committee had employed Mr.
John Graham Gilbert to execute the Portrait now in the room, which
would be recognised as an excellent and characteristic likeness of their
President. The chair having been taken by the Vice-President, the Pre-
sident read the following paper: —

Xm. — Biographical Account of the late John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c
By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

John Dalton was born on the 5th day of September, in the year 1767, in
the village of Englesfield, about two miles west of Cockermouth, Cum-
berland. He attended the village school there, and in the neighbourhood,
till he was eleven years of age, at which period he had gone through a
course of mensuration, surveying, navigation, &c. When twelve years of
age he began to teach the villago school, and continued to do so for two
years. After this, for a year or more, he was occasionally employed in
husbandry.

At fifteen years of age he removed to Kendal, as assistant in a Board-
ing School. In that capacity he remained for three or four years. He

Vol. H.— No. 2. 1

80 Biographical Account of the late John Dalton.

then undertook the same school as a principal, and continued it for eight
years. During some part of this long period, I have been told that he
was somehow connected with the celebrated John Gough of Kendal, who,
in spite of his blindness, was no mean mathematician, and was even
acquainted with some branches of science that it would seem at first
impossible to cultivate without the advantage of sight. Thus he was a
chemist and a botanist ; and he assured me (for I had the pleasure of
being acquainted with him) that he could discover the colour of flowers
by the sense of touch.

While at Kendal, Mr. Dalton employed his leisure hours in studying
Latin, Greek, French, and the Mathematics, together with the most inter-
esting branches of Natural Philosophy.

He removed to Manchester in 1793, where he was employed as a tutor
in mathematics and natural philosophy in the New College — a scientific
establishment lately constituted in that great manufacturing capital. After
continuing six years in that employment, he gave it up, and commenced
a private teacher in mathematics ; an employment in which he took great
delight, and which he continued till his health began to break, about
seven years before his death.

It was in Manchester that he first turned his attention to chemistry,
and about the year 1802 or 1803 he delivered a short course of lectures
on that science in Edinburgh, in which he explained his peculiar views.
These lectures were also delivered in Glasgow. A year or two after, he
delivered a short course of lectures in the Royal Institution, London. These
lectures were afterwards repeated in Birmingham and in Leeds.

Mr. Dalton was a member of the Society of Friends, and was in habits
of intimacy with the most respectable members of that body in Manchester.
He never kept house, but lived in lodgings, chiefly in the house of a
respectable Unitarian clergyman. His income as a teacher must have
been small ; but his mode of living was economical. He enjoyed a pension
of £300 a year from government during the last twelve or fifteen years of his
life. He is said also to have had a small estate in Cumberland, doubtless
an inheritance. He is said to have left behind him about £10,000.

About eight years ago he had a paralytic shock, from which he partially
recovered ; but his speech was so much impeded, that he could with diffi-
culty be understood. His faculties continued unimpaired, and he still
prosecuted his meteorological observations, of which he was very fond, and
occasionally made chemical experiments. But about the beginning of
1843 he had another shock, which completely put a stop to all study of
every kind. He died on the 27th of July, 1844, in the 78th year of his
age.

He was much beloved and respected by the society of Manchester,
who honoured his remains with a public funeral. Such is a short sketch
of the few events which distinguished the career of this eminent philo-
sopher. I must now endeavour to make the Society acquainted with the
additions to our knowledge for which we are indebted to Dr. Dalton.

Biographical Account of the late John Dalton. 81

His first important paper was published in 1802, in the fifth volume of
the first series of the Manchester Memoirs, and was entitled, On the Expan-
sion of the Elastic Fluids by Heat. At that time by far the greater number
of the gaseous bodies at present known had been discovered; many
experiments had been made on the expansion of these bodies by heat by
Deluc, General Roy, Saussure, and some other philosophers ; and in the
first volume of the Annales de Chimie, published in 1788, there appeared
an elaborate paper by M. M. de Morveau and du Vernois, showing that
every gas had a peculiar expansibility of its own, and that the same addition
of heat caused some gases to expand twelve times as much as others.
Mr. Dalton made a set of experiments to ascertain the accuracy of these
determinations. The result was, that all gases expand the same, or experi-
ence the same increase of volume, when the same quantity of heat is
added to them ; according to Dalton, 1000 volumes of air, or of any gas
when dry, becomes 1325 volumes when heated from 32° to 212°.

The experiments of Dalton were read to the Philosophical Society of
Manchester in October, 1801. About six months after, a similar set of
experiments by Gay-Lussac was published in the Annales de Chimie
volume 43d. He obtained the same results as Mr. Dalton had done, — but
he found the expansion from 32° to 212° to be from 1000 to 1375 volumes.
Mr. Dalton afterwards in his system of chemistry adopted this number as
more accurate than his own.

Many years after, Dr. Prout found the weight of 100 cubic inches of
air at 32° to be 32*79 grains, while at 60° they weighed only 31*0117
grains. Hence, 1000 volumes at 32° become, at 60°, 1057*34 volumes.
Hence, as the expansion is equable, 1000 volumes, if heated from 32° to 212°,
would become 1368*61 volumes. Still more lately, Rudberg, a Swedish
chemist, made a great number of experiments, being at great pains to dry
his gases. He found that 1000 volumes of air at 22° when heated to
212° became 1364*57 volumes. In 1842, a most elaborate set of experi-
ments was made by Regnault, on the expansibility of air and ten other
gases. He, like his predecessors, found the expansibility of all of them the
same, and that 1000 volumes, when heated to 212°, became 1366*5
volumes. Thus we have four determinations.

By Dalton and Gay-Lussac 1000 at 32° become 1375 at 212°.

Prout, 1000 1368*61

Rudberg, 1000 1364*57

Regnault, 1000 1366*5

Mean, 1000 1368*67

^ftSS*"} 100( > 136656

According to Dalton and Gay-Lussac the expansion of air, or of any of
the gases, for 1° of Fahrenheit is ^ . But the mean of the expansion, for 1°,
according to the experiments of Prout, Rudberg, and Regnault, is ^j.
Thus 1 ) alt on's determinations, notwithstanding the simplicity of his method,

82 Biographical Account of the late JonN D ALTON.

and tbc rudeness of tho apparatus which he employed, approached very
near the truth.

In the year 1801, Mr. Dalton read a paper on the constitution of
mixed gases, which was published in the fifth volume of the first series
of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.
According to his view of the subject, the particles of simple gases repel
each other with a force inversely as the distance of their centres. But
the particles of heterogeneous gases neither attract nor repel. The con-
sequences of this will be, that when heterogeneous gases are mixed,
they mix equally, and occupy just as much space as they did before
mixture.

He explained, at the same time, that when water mixed with the atmo-
sphere, it assumed the form of vapour, which possessed all the properties
of a gas, except that by compressions and cold it was easily reduced again
to the state of vapour. He pointed out a very simple method of deter-
mining the bulk of vapour in air at all temperatures, and constructed a
table by means of which the volume of vapour in the atmosphere may be
determined at all temperatures. If we suppose that the specific gravity
of steam increases as the temperature, it is easy from this table to deduce
the weight of vapour in the atmosphere at all temperatures.

This theory of mixed gases, which is explained by him in the third
volume of Nicolson's Journal, is of immense importance in meteorological
investigations, and constitutes, undoubtedly, one of the most important of
the additions which Mr. Dalton made to natural science.

In the Annales de Chimie, for October, 1845, there is an elaborate
paper by Regnault on this subject. He gives, from his own experiments,
a table showing the elasticity of vapour, from 32° to 107*5°. But he
takes no notice whatever of similar tables that had been long before con-
structed by Dalton, Ure, and Southern. One would suppose that he was
ignorant of what had been done forty years before, were it not that in a
previous paper on the expansion of vapour, he quotes the very paper of
Dalton in which the table occurs.

Dalton.

Ure.

Southern.

Kegnault.

32'

. 0'2 inch

. 0-2

. 0-16

. 0-18

39-2 ,

. 0255

. 0-245

. 0-221

. 0-24

932

. 1-483

. 1-538

. 1-460

. 1-557

In the same volume of the Manchester Memoirs, there is inserted a
paper by Mr. Dalton, entitled, Experiments and Observations to deter-
mine whether the quantity of rain and dew is equal to the quantity of water
carried off by the rivers, and raised by evaporation ; with an inquiry into
the origin of springs.

He gives a table of the mean quantity of rain in thirty-one different places
in England. The common mean of the whole is 35*2 inches. But as
twenty-four of the places given are situated near the sea, he thinks this
mean above the true average quantity for England. He reckons the true

Biographical Account of the late John Dalton. 03

mean to be 31 inches, and to this adding the dew (reckoned at 5 inches),
we have for the mean quantity of rain in England, 36 inches annually.
The most rainy place is Keswick, in Cumberland, where the quantity of
rain that falls annually is 67J inches.

Thus the annual fall in England amounts to 28 cubic miles, or 115,000
millions of tons. This immense mass, since it does not accumulate, must
be annually carried off by evaporation, and by rivers.

From a somewhat loose estimate, he reckons the water carried to tho
sea by all the rivers in England, to amount annually to 13 inches, or 10
cubic miles, or 41,000 millions of tons.

From the experiments of Dr. Dobson of Liverpool, and from a set
made by himself and Mr. Thomas Hoyle, he concludes that the evapora-
tion amounts annually to 30 inches. Thus the rivers and evaporation
together, amount . to 43 inches. This exceeds the rain by 7 inches.
This difference he considers as only apparent, and owing to inaccuracy in
tho experiments.

I believe the true cause of the discordance is, that he estimates the
quantity of water thrown into the sea, by rivers, too high. Instead of 13
cubic inches, it does not amount, I conceive, to more than 6 inches.

Mr. Dalton began very early to pay particular attention to meteorology.
He began a meteorological register when at Kendal, and continued it to
the very last year of his life. In 1793, soon after going to Manchester,
he published a small book, to which he gave the name of Meteorological
Observations and Essays. A second edition of this book was published
by him in the year 1834. This second edition was a re-print of the first,
but there was an appendix added, containing 60 octavo pages.

The only part of this book which seems to require attention in this
brief abstract, is his theory of the Aurora Borealis.

He demonstrated, by the application of mathematical principles to the
phenomena of the Aurora Borealis, that the luminous beams of the Aurora
are cylindrical, and parallel to each other, and to the magnetic meridian
of the earth ; that tho height of the rainbow-like arches of the Aurora, is
about 150 miles; that the beams are similar, and equal in their real
dimensions, and that the distance of the beams from the earth's surface
is nearly equal to their length. The light he considered as electrical,
and the beams themselves of a ferruginous nature. He conceives that
there exists in the higher regions of the atmosphere, an elastic fluid
partaking of the properties of iron, to which the phenomena of the
Aurora Borealis are owing. It is unnecessary to discuss this opinion, as
the discoveries in electricity and magnetism made since 1793, render tho
opinion unnecessary.

The discovery for which Dalton is indebted for the high reputation
which he obtained in this country, is what is called The Atomic Theory.
As the history of this great discovery is very imperfectly known in this
country, it will be necessary to enter somewhat into detail.

In the year 1792, Richter published a treatise, to which he gave the

84 Biographical Account of the late John Dalton.

name of Stechiometrie. This work was founded on the following pro-
position, which llichter had established by numerous experiments.

If two neutral solutions of salts are mixed together, supposing them
such that mutual decomposition ensues, the new salts formed will be
equally noutral with the original salts. Thus, suppose we mix together
solutions of nitrate of barytes and sulphate of potash, two new salts will
be formed, namely, sulphate of barytes and nitrate of potash. These
two salts will be as neutral as the original salts from which they are
derived. And if we employ the original salts in the requisite proportions,
the decomposition will be complete. We have only to employ 16 J nitrate
of barytes and 1 1 sulphate of potash to accomplish this object. This
fact had been observed by chemists before the time of llichter, but he
was the first who drew from it the conclusion to which I wish to call
your particular attention. llichter reasoned on it, in the following
manner : —

The quantity of two alkaline bases which are necessary to neutralize
equal quantities of an acid, are, in the proportion of the quantities of the
same bases, necessary to neutralize any other acid. Thus if 4 soda and
6 potash neutralize nitric acid, we must employ the same proportions of
these bases to neutralize any other acid. The soda in phosphate of soda
will be to the potash in phosphate of potash as 4 to 6. And the same
will apply to every compound of potash and soda, with any acid whatever.

Suppose we have sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and potash, and soda. If
we know the composition of sulphate of potash, and sulphate of soda, and
also of nitrate of potash, then we can determine the composition of nitrate
of soda by calculations.

Hence it follows that figures may be attached to every acid, and every
alkali, indicating the quantity of each necessary to saturate the quantities
of every other acid or base indicated by the numbers attached to it.
The whole of Kichter's time from 1792, till his death, about the begin-
ning of the present century, was occupied in endeavouring to determine
these numbers by experiment. He published a variety of tables showing
their numbers. But his views were so obscured, by opinions which he took
up concerning certain arithmetical ratios in which they stood to each
other, that it is very difficult to peruse his papers ; and as his experiments
were not very accurate, his views were very generally neglected, except
by Berzelius, who devoted about eight years to the repetition and cor-
rection of these analyses of llichter.

Fischer showed that all the tables of llichter might be reduced to one,
indicating the saturating power of the acids and bases examined by him.
Sulphuric acid was reckoned 1000, and all the acids and bases were re-
ferred to that number. It will, perhaps, be better if we reduce them to
our present scale, in which oxygen is represented by 1. Beside Kichter's
table I shall place the atomic weights of these bodies as they have been
determined by the latest and most accurate experiments.

Biographical Account of the late John Dalto>

Barytes, .
Potash. .

Richter.

. 95
. 6-8

1. Bi

Atomic

9-5
6

1
Lime, . .
Ammonia, .

Etlchter.

3-3

2-8

Atomic
Weight.

35
2125

Strontian,

. 6-6

6-5

Magnesia, .

2-5

Soda, . .

. 3-6

Alumina, .

2-25

2. ACIDS.

Sulphuric,

Phosphoric,

Oxalic,

Richter.

. 5
. 4-9
. 3-75

Atomic
Weight.

9
4-5

Succinic,

Nitric,

Acetic,

Richter.
6

7
74

Atomic
Weight.

6-25
675
6-375

Muriatic, .

. 3-56

4-625

Citric,

8-4

20-625

Carbonic, .

. 2-88

2.75

Tartaric, .

8-5

16-5

Fluoric, .

. 213

2-25

Thus Richter had the merit of showing that the saturating power of
acids and bases might be represented by numbers attached to them ; and
he showed how useful such numbers would be in determining the compo-
sitions and decompositions of compounds. It is true that the numbers
which he supplied were far from accurate ; but that was owing to the
imperfect state of experimenting. The only chemist who approached
accuracy in his analyses of the salts was Wenzel, and his results were almost
quite neglected and unknown.

It was easy to extend the law of Richter to all combinations, such as
oxygen with metals, sulphur with metals, and oxygen with hydrogen, sul-
phur, carbon, <fcc. ; this was accordingly done by various chemists, par-
ticularly by Berzelius, who by assiduous experimenting, and repeating
his analyses with data rendered more and more accurate, succeeded in
showing that numbers might be affixed to every chemical substance indi-
cating the proportion of it which was capable of neutralizing the quantity of
other bodies indicated by the numbers attached to them. These were
published by him under the name of Synoptical Tables ; and after he
became aware of the view taken by Dalton, he called them Tables of
Atomic Weights.

Mr. Dalton, about the year 1802 or 1803 was occupied with the analyses
of defiant gas and carburetted hydrogen. He found that, for complete
combustion, a volume of olefiant gas required three volumes of oxygen,
and that after the combustion there remained two volumes of carbonic
acid. Now, one of the volumes of oxygen combined with two volumes of
hydrogen, and formed water; while the other two volumes of oxygen
combined with two volumes of carbon, and formed two volumes of carbonic
acid. Hence a volume of olefiant gas is composed of H 2 -f- C* condensed
into one volume.

Carburetted hydrogen gas, on the other hand, required only two volumes
of oxygen to consume it, and left only one volume of carbonic acid. One
of the volumes of oxygen combined with two volumes of hydrogen, and

86 Biogmphical Account of the late John Dalton.

the other volume with one volume of carbon, and formed a volume of carbonic
acid. Hence carburettod hydrogen is composed of H 2 -f- C condensed
into one volume.

It was this that suggested to him the notions which he entertained
respecting the atomic theory. I do not know when he adopted these notions,
but when I visited him in 1804 at Manchester, he had adopted them ; and
at that time both Mr. Dalton and myself were ignorant of what had been
done by Richter on the same subject.

The ultimate particles of all bodies, in his opinion, consist of atoms
incapable of farther division. It is these atoms which combine. These
atoms are spherical, and he seems to have thought that they all have
the same bulk ; though they differ in weight. We can determine the atomic
weight of a body by determining how much of it will combine with another
body. He represented the atomic weight of hydrogen by unity, and that
of oxygen by 7.

Water, according to him, is OH

Olefiant gas is H C H C

Carburetted hydrogen H C H

So that if we take an atom of carbon from olefiant gas we convert it
into carburetted hydrogen, and if we add an atom of carbon to carburetted
hydrogen, we convert it into olefiant gas.

These two gases constituted the only example of the combination of 1
and 2 atoms of one substance, with an atom of another. I furnished him
with another example in the oxalate and binoxalate of strontian. The
first salt is a compound of 1 atom oxalic acid with 1 atom of strontian,
and the second, of 2 atoms of oxalic acid with 1 atom of strontian. Dr.
Wollaston furnished him with another in oxalate, binoxalate, and quad-
roxalate of potash.

1. 1 atom Oxalic acid with 1 atom Potash.

2. 2 atoms 1 atom Potash.

3. 4 atoms 1 atom Potash.

These were the data from which he deduced what is now called the
Theory of Atomic Weights.

At the end of the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy,
published in 1808, there is an engraving, on which are represented the
symbols by which the different simple bodies are distinguished. He gives
20 symbols, each consisting of a circle, with some internal mark of dis-
tinction. Oxygen is represented by a circle, hydrogen by a circle with a
dot in the centre, azote by a circle with a perpendicular line, carbon
by a circle blackened within, 9. the metals by circles within which the
first letter of the name of the metal is given ; thus, (i), (z), represent an
atom of iron and zinc respectively. He gives 20 symbols, and shows how
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, of these atoms may be united together so as to form
new compound bodies. To each of these 20 simple bodies, he has

Biographical Account of the late John Dalton. 87

attached a number denoting the atomic weight, or\he weight of an atom of
each body respectively. Hydrogen, as the lightest, has its atomic weight
represented by unity, and oxygen by 7. Every one of his atomic weights
is erroneous ; this was the consequence of the want of accurate analyses
of compound bodies.

Dr. Prout first demonstrated that water is a compound of 1 hydrogen and
8 oxygen by weight. Therefore, if wo represent water as composed of
1 atom hydrogen and 1 atom oxygen, their respective weights will be to each
other as 1 to 8. In the same volume Dalton gives the atomic weight and
constitution of 37 bodies, but all of them so inaccurate that it would bo
needless to state them. In the appendix to the second volume of his System,
published in 1810, he has given a few additional compounds, but not
more accurate than those given in the preceding volume. Indeed, at that
time it was impossible to give the atomic weights accurately, because few
or no accurate analyses of compound bodies existed.

Mr. Dalton represented the atomic weight of hydrogen by unity ; but
Dr. Wollaston pointed out the numerous advantages which would result
from considering the atomic weight of oxygen to be unity. And this
suggestion was adopted by Berzelius in his tables, and has now become
almost universal.

I made a very careful and extensive set of experiments above twenty
years ago, from which I deduced that the atomic weights of all bodies are
multiples of that of hydrogen. If we denote oxygen by 10, then hydrogen
will be 1 # 25, carbon 75, azote 17*5, sulphur 20, phosphorus 20, soda 40,
potash 60, &c. These numbers have till lately been almost completely
overlooked ; but within these two or three years the subject has been again
taken up, and so far as the investigation has gone, my numbers have been
verified. Thus Dumas found the atomic weights of hydrogen, carbon,
azote, and oxygen, as follows : —

Hydrogen, . . 0*125 Azote, .... 1*75
Carbon, . . . 0*75 Oxygen, .... 100

Zinc, lead, mercury, silver, have been found.

Zinc, . . . 4125 Mercury, . . . 125
Lead, .... 13 | Silver, .... 13*5

Potash and soda have been represented on the continent by-

Potash, . . 5-89916 | Soda, 390897

But whoever will take the trouble to examine the experiments of
Thenard and Gay-Lussac on the oxydizement of potassium and sodium,
and my analyses of the salts of potash and soda, must, I conceive, admit
that the true atomic weights of these bodies are

Potash, .... 61 Soda, 4

88 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

Though Mr. Dalton lived more than thirty years after the publication
of the first volumo of his Chemistry, lie never again adverted to the sub-
ject, nor did he adopt any of the numerous alterations in the weight of the
atoms subsequently made. His merit consisted in suggesting the idea of
atomic weights* and this idea he must share with Kichter, — and nobody
knows better than myself that Dalton was ignorant of what Eichter had
done about ten years before him. But it is our business to do even
justice to all parties.

Mr. Dalton in his chemistry suggested various new views, and stated
experiments on the expansion of liquids, and the heat evolved by the
combustion of various bodies, that deserve attention. But it would not
do to state these isolated facts in so general a view as we aro taking.

In the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
of which Mr. Dalton was for many years president, there occur a good
many papers by him on various subjects : chemical, meteorological, geolo-
gical, and physiological ; all of them ingenious, and many of them giving
the results of important experiments; but not sufficiently so to claim
a place in this sketch. The same remark applies to his papers in the
Transactions of the Royal Society, and in the Annals of Philosophy. His
great discoveries, to which he is indebted for his high reputation, are
the Constitution of Mixed Gases, and the Atomic Theory. I do not at
present inquire how far his notions on this theory were accurate.

Dr. R. D. Thomson presented to the Society, for the use of the
Botanical Section, upwards of six hundred specimens of Plants from Upper
India, collected by Dr. Thomas Thomson, jun., to whom the thanks of the
Society were voted.

Mr. G-ourlie called the attention of the Society to various specimens of
diseased potatoes.

19th November, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

Dr. Alfred Hall was admitted a member of the Society.

Mr. Griflinread a minute in reference to the arrangement of the Library.
The Society decided that a suitable book-case should be provided.

The Treasurer, Mr. Liddell, laid the following abstract of his account on
the table.

1844.

Nov. 15.— To amount in Bank, £140

— Less due to Treasurer, 1 4 10^

138 15 1£

Abstract of Treasurer'' 8 Account. 89

Brought up, £138 15 H

1845.
Nov. 18. — To Annual Payment from 15 original

Members, @ 5s 8 15

— Annual Payment from 159 ordi-

nary Members, @ 15s 119 5

— Entry-money from 33 do. @ 21s... 34 13

157 13

£296 8 li

1845.

Nov. 18— By Printing, £16 9 6

— Periodicals, &c 28 2 11J

— Rent and Gas, 13 4

— Conversational Meetings, 5 19 10

— Collecting payments, 6

— Postages and delivering Circulars, 4 4 4

— Miscellaneous payments, 4 7 6

— Union Bank, in Account, 220

£296 8 1\
The society is under liabilities to nearly the amount of the preceding
of £220 as follows:—

Fitting up and Painting the New Hall, £60

New Bookcase, 20

600 Vols, of Scientific Books, newly purchased, 45

Binding, 35

Printing New Catalogue and Society's Proceedings, esti-
mated at 40

Current Account for Periodicals, 25

£220

The Society then proceeded to the forty-sixth annual election of office-
bearers, when the following were chosen : —

|) resilient,

Dr. Thomas Thomson.

Vice-President,... Walter Crum. I Secretarf, ... Alexander Hastie.
Treasurer, Andrew Liddell. | Librarian John J. Griffin.

A. Anderson, M.D.
A. Buchanan, M.D.
J. Findlay, M.D.
Professor Gordon.

Council

John Stenhouse.

William Gourlie, Jun.
Alex. Harvey.
William Keddie.
William Murray.

R. D. Thomson, M.D.
George Watson.
Alex. Watt, LL.D.

Mr. Crum then drew the attention of the Society to the disease of the
potato crop.

90 Mr. Chum on the Potato Disease.

XIV. Artificial Production of the Potato Disease.
By Walter Crum, Esq., F.R.S.

On grating down a healthy potato, the surface of the pulp, or the part
of it immediately in contact with the air, soon acquires a flesh-red colour,
which goes on increasing in depth to a mahogany brown. In a few hours
this is changed into a sooty black colour, such as occurs in certain stages of
the potato disease ; and at last, after five or six days we have again a brown
colour, similar to what appears in that stage of the disease when the part
has lost its firmness. This is a well-known process of putrefaction. It
occurs in the apple, where a part that has been bruised very soon becomes
brown. And the cause is also well understood to be the rupture of the
vessels or bags in which, while the fruit remains entire, the saccharine
matter is contained and kept apart from the nitrogenous or fermenting
principle. The grape also, in which the solution of sugar is contained in
cells distinct from the gluten, may be preserved for a long time unchanged;
but as soon as it is bruised, and the contents of the various cells are
thereby allowed to mix together, the gluten, by attracting oxygen from
the atmosphere, becomes converted into yeast, and fermentation goes on.
By the continued exposure of such mixtures to the air, putrefaction ensues,
and the conditions are fulfilled for the development of fungi. Such is the
case when the potato is broken up and exposed. Its sap, which contains
albumen (similar in composition and properties to the white of egg), and
occasionally also casein, is thus brought in contact with the other ingredi-
ents of the root and with the air. The consequence is a commencement
of putrefaction, and the production of a disease, to all appearance similar
to that which has occurred in nature during the present year. Examina-
tion by the microscope confirms their identity. In two or three days a
mouldiness appears upon the surface of the blackened pulp, consisting of
fungi with long stalks and globular heads, which emit when compressed
a profusion of small round bodies, called sporules, the seeds of new fungi.
These seeds are in no danger of being confounded with the granules of
starch, most of which in comparison with them, are several hundred times
as large. Lastly, after an exposure of eight days (and my observations
extend over no longer time), when the pulp has in a great measure lost
its blackness, and taken the (I believe more permanent) brown colour,
small, extremely white, and fine tufts appear on its surface, of a totally
different variety of fungus, having apparently no head like the earlier
crop, and consisting of long slender stems, which, when pressed down
between pieces of glass, appear lined on both sides with multitudes of
very small sporules. This fungus corresponds with the tufts which grow
on the outside of the diseased part of the potato. Their appearance is
the same, but any specimens of the tuft from the diseased potato I have
at present at command, are much older than the crop of which I speak,
and perhaps for that reason show fewer sporules. That a rupture of the
cellular tissue of the diseased potato has actually taken place during the

Mr. Crum on the Potato Diseaxe. 91

present year, has been already made known by Professor Kiitzing, a
German physiologist, who describes the so-called dry rot of former seasons,
as a disease in which the starch granules are so altered as to exhibit
minute brown fungi, previous to the destruction of the cellular tissue ;
whereas at present the cells become destroyed, while the starch granules
remain entire. On account of this peculiarity he has given to the existing
disease the name of cell rot. In the short time during which I have
been occupied with this subject, I have not been able to verify under the
microscope, these observations on the structure of the cellular tissue, from
the difficulty, perhaps, of obtaining thin enough perfect sections of the
substance. Professor Kiitzing attributes the effects he describes to the
weakness of the parts, occasioned by the too rapid growth of the tubers,
and tho absorption of too much water, which render the formation of a
strong and durable cellular membrane impossible. But on making the
experiment, I have not been able to find that the quantity of water con-
tained in a perfectly healthy potato is less than in one liable to the disease.
I rasped down very fine white potatoes, from a moderate crop, grown on
poor land with but little manure ; and having put a pound of the pulp
into a bag, and squeezed it firmly with the hand, I obtained from it 59
per cent, of juice. A red potato from the same field, and equally
unaffected with the disease, yielded 58 per cent. Another red potato,
itself sound, but from a field which had been well manured, and which
was much affected with the disease, gave 58J. In another experiment,
where the juice was pressed out and the solid part dried, the fine white
potato left 21*1 per cent, of solid matter, and a portion of a diseased
potato left 20*79 per cent. There is, therefore, no difference in the
quantity of water.

I shall not trouble the Society with any speculations of my own as to
the manner in which this rupture of the potato may have been effected.
The subject is surrounded with difficulties, and much close investigation
is wanted to learn the circumstances which attend it. If the statements
now made are correct, we shall find that fungi are not the cause, but a
consequence of the disease in question, and our attention will be directed
to prevent the formation in the potato, of a soil in which the fungus always
fructifies, rather than to the parasite itself, of whose existence we should
be ignorant without it.

Mr. Alexander Anderson exhibited turnips affected with the same dis-
ease, from a farm on the Ardincaple estate.

3d December, 1845. — The President in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were admitted members of the Society :

Messrs. George Harvey, Andrew Risk, Moses Hunter, J. A. Hutchisn,
James Shanks, C. E., David Cunningham.

92 Mr. Crum on the Potato Disease.

17 th December, 1845. — The President in tlie Chair.

Mr William Ambrose was admitted a member of the Society. The
tables of mortality in the metropolis for 1845, were presented by Dr.
R. D. Thomson. On the motion of Mr. LiddelL, a sum not exceeding £35,
was unanimously voted for the purpose of procuring a President's chair,
and a table, for the Hall.

Mr. Gordon gave an account of Auld's Patent Self-Regulating Damper
for Steam-engine Boilers.

Dr. Findlay stated that in some specimens of diseased potatoes ex-
amined by him, the skin of the tuber (both the cutis or external skin, and
the cutis vera, or under skin), was quite sound, and the cells quite un-
injured for some distance below the skin.

The disease appeared to be entirely isolated ; the diseased cells being
contracted and filled with a brownish fluid. He conjectured that the
cells had been previously ruptured, since if they had been entire, the
mere change of the fluid, or colour of the fluid contained in them, could
Dot possibly have caused them to contract.

In another specimen, apparently more diseased, in one part there were
brownish empty bags, arranged longitudinally, which might be the dis-
eased cells deprived of their contents ; on each side there was a canal
quite destitute of all solid matter. And, in another portion, considerably
more decayed, there were brownish, fibrinous looking, long streaks of
solid matter, with perfectly defined edges, which might have been the
cells, or the tissue of the cells in a further stage of the disease. The
neighbourhood of these last mentioned elongated bodies was quite free
from all solid matter, showing, that from whatever source they derived
their solidity, it was at the expense of the whole organised structures in
their vicinity ; or, at least, that they became solid, and the contiguous
structures were destroyed simultaneously.

7 th January, 1846. — The President in the Chair.
Mr. James Thomson was admitted a member.

XV. — Additional Observations on the Potato Disease — Quantity of Water
in Sound and Diseased Potatoes. By Walter Crum, Esq., F.R.S.

In the month of November, I read to the Philosophical Society an
account of some experiments on the potato, from which it appeared that
simply by bruising a sound potato, and exposing it to the air, all the
appearances are assumed which accompanied the diseased potato of the
past year. I mentioned the production in a few days of fungi of various
kinds on the surface of the artificially diseased mass, and showed that

Mr. Crum on the Potato Disease. 93

there, as in most other cases of decay, these plants have no share in pro-
ducing disease in vegetables, but are a necessary consequence of the pro-
duction of putrid matter — a soil in which alone they can vegetate. I
made known these experiments as extensively as possible, for at that time
some countenance had been given td the opposite opinion, that the seeds
of fungi do fix themselves upon, and produce disease in otherwise healthy
plants ; and some apprehensions were consequently entertained, particu-
larly in Ireland, that danger might result even to grain crops sown upon
land which had grown diseased potatoes, from the prevalence in it of the
seeds of these fungi.

I related at the same time an experiment which led me to doubt the
statement of Professor Kutzing, (although the wetness of the season
appeared to confirm it), that the rupture of the cells was occasioned by
their containing a more than ordinary quantity of water. All facts on
such a subject are important, and as these views are still held by some
who have adopted the general statements contained in my first paper, I
shall relate some recent experiments which satisfy me that diseased pota-
toes contain no more water than healthy ones.

I had no means of comparing satisfactorily the potatoes of this with
those of other years; but I experimented upon various kinds, some of
them as sound as the potatoes of any previous year. The potatoes, after
being wiped dry were carefully sliced into pieces of about two lines in
thickness, and two middle slices from different specimens were employed
in each experiment. The drying was performed at a steam heat, and
was continued nearly three days, when they had ceased for some hours to
lose weight.

Specimens 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the table which follows, were potatoes
from the same field. 1 and 2 had been pitted a month. 3 and 4 had
been left in the ground, and were kept moist till operated upon. 1 and
3 were perfectly sound and excellent potatoes. 2 and 4 were diseased.

5 and 6 were sound potatoes grown on wet bog land, and pitted a
month in a damp situation. 7 was the same, diseased.

8 and 9 were potatoes of different sorts ; both perfectly sound, as was
the whole of the crop in the two fields from which they were taken.
8 was a mealy good potato ; 9 was a waxy potato, not well tasted.

10 was a rough red potato and quite sound — dug end of August before
the disease had appeared in this country. 11 the same, left accidentally
in the ground till December, and also quite sound. 12, forty-fold potato,
left in the same manner in the ground, and quite sound.

If a potato bo cut into slices, and one of the middle pieces be held up to
the light, it will be seen that the outside, all round, is denser than the
centre. A distinct boundary (a narrow space containing the spiral ves-
sels) divides the two portions, which, in a middle slice, are nearly of equal
weight. It is in the external denser portion that the disease appears —
nuimiencing at the surface and proceeding inwards. The boundary I
have mentioned often arrests its progress. The following table shows the

94 Dr. R. D. Thomson on the Mode of Testing Alcoluol.

proportion of water in each of the foregoing specimens — inside, outside,
and in the whole slice : —

Inside. Outside. Whole Slice.

1 74-5 699 72-2 sound.

2 76-2 73-3 74-8 diseased.

3 79-3 750 777 sound.

4 76-2 74-8 75*6 diseased.

5 782 75-1 76-9 sound.

6 779 73-2 759 do.

7 81-8 761 78-6 diseased.

8 76-5 71-6 74-6 sound.

9 82-6 77-6 80-5 do.

10 772 720 74-9 do.

11 791 74-7 773 do.

12 810 76-2 78-8 do.

Average, 78-6 74*2 76-6

If a potato be grated down, and the juice squeezed and washed out of
the pulp, the latter has no tendency to change colour by exposure to the
air. The juice also, if bottled up, as soon as it is expressed, retains its
yellow colour unchanged, letting fall after some time, a deposit of the
same colour. But if the juice be freely exposed to the air it soon be-
comes brown, and deposits a blackish powder, which by washing and fil-
tering, may easily be obtained in a separate state. It consists partly of
the woody matter of the cells, and partly of a black extractive matter,
which is known as a frequent result of the decay of plants. It is this
substance, entangled among the cells and farinaceous matter which occa-
sions the brown colour peculiar to the naturally diseased potato.

XVI. Mode of Testing Minute Quantities of Alcohol.
By Robert D. Thomson, M.D.

The determination of the presence of minute quanties of alcohol, is a
chemical point of some importance, especially in judicial cases. The
usual method hitherto adopted for detecting alcohol in mixed fluids, is to
subject the fluid suspected to contain it to distillation, at a temperature
not greater than that which is required to cause the alcohol to pass over
into a receiver, and then to judge of the presence of spirit by the vinous
odour of the distilled fluid. When alcohol in the form of gin, whisky,
or brandy, &c, has been swallowed, if death takes place within a short
period of the introduction of the fluid, the odour of the spiritous liquors
will be distinctly perceptible to one inspecting the interior of the stomach ;
but if a considerable time should elapse, as, for example, a few hours

Dr. R. D. Thomson, on the Mode of Testing Alcohol 95

between the introduction of the spirit and death, it is rarely found that
the smell can be deteoted. Again, if the person should die under the
influence of spirituous liquors, and the stomach were not examined within
a limited period, the odour of alcohol might not be perceptible, since, as
absorption goes on for several hours after death, and as volatile fluids
appear to be peculiarly susceptible of rapid absorption, the whole of the
alcoholic fluid might be removed from the intestinal canal into the circu-
lation. It has been affirmed that alcohol has been detected in the brain
of gin drinkers; but as the mode of testing adopted was merely the
impression made upon the nerves of smell, we may perhaps be allowed to
doubt the accuracy of the experiment. It has even been affirmed, that
the gin obtained from the brain has been inflamed, and if this were correct,
we should then be entitled to quote nasal and ocular proofs of the presence
of alcohol in the brain, but as the gin of the shops is so weak, that in
its natural state it will scarcely burn — we may also be permitted to be
sceptical in reference to this second proof. These views do* not tend to
disprove the possibility of the presence of alcohol in the vessels of the
brain and other portions of the body ; because we know that hydrocyanic
acid passes to the very extremities of the body, and can be distinctly
detected by its odour, until it has either been removed from the system
by the combustion of respiration, or simply by exhalation from the lungs.
Now, alcohol and hydrocyanic acid are somewhat analogous, in a chemico-
physiological point of view, as they possess a powerfully sedative effect
upon the system, are exceedingly volatile, readily absorbable, and
require much oxygen to resolve them into simpler forms. For these
reasons, it appears highly probable that alcohol may be capable of detec-
tion in the vessels of the system, when it has been swallowed in large
quantities. The experiment, however, could only be made on the inferior
animals, and we should require some more definite test than the mere
smell of the alcohol. There are other circumstances, in a judicial point
of view, in which it may be of importance to detect minute quantities
of alcohol. For example, to distinguish small portions of the liquid
preparations of opium. In medicine there are used the solution of opium
in alcohol ; the solution of opium in wine ; the solution of opium in
alcohol, with benzoic acid and ammonia ; the solution of opium in vinegar ;
and lastly, the solution in water. When these preparations are entire,
there is not so much difficulty in their discrimination, but if they have been
exposed to the air, much of the alcohol escapes, and they may all become
analogous to a solution of opium in water. To distinguish those which
contain alcohol from those which do not, enables us to divide them into
two classes, and thus to simplify the inquiry. For these, and many other
cases where minute detection is necessary, I have been in the habit for
some years of employing a method which depends upon a well-known
fact, viz. the dehydrogenation of the alcohol by means of oxygen. For
this purpose, the fluid to be tested, if coloured, or a mixed one is to be
distilled in the water bath, until one-third of it passes over. Should the
Vol. II.— No. 2. 2 +

96 Dr. It. D. Thomson, on the Male of Testing Alcohol.

liquor contain any acotic acid, this may be saturated previous to distilla-
tion with carbonate of soda, if the amount should be considerable, in
order to remove the vinegar smell which might interfere with the odour
of the subsequent test. Into the distilled liquor, supposed to contain
alcohol, should be dropped a crystal or two of chromic acid, and the liquor
stirred. If the smallest quantity of alcohol is present, the green oxide
of chrome will begin to be disengaged, and at the same time the smell of
nldohyde is distinctly perceptible.

The production of the aldehyde from the alcohol depends on the
separation of ogygen from the chromic acid, its union with the hydrogen
of the alcohol, and their consequent removal in the form of water ; the
formula) for the two bodies being,

C 4 H 5 + HO Alcohol

C 4 H 3 + HO Aldehyde

H 2

By means of this simple test, it is possible to distinguish a drop of
alcohol in half-an-ounce and even in an ounce of water. When chromic acid
is not at hand, the experiment may be made with bichromate of potash,
and sulphuric acid. This perhaps affords the most distinct method of
performing the experiment, and may be conducted as follows : — Drop in
a few grains of powdered bichromate, into a small test glass (which tapers
towards the bottom,) containing the solution to be examined, and add a
few drops of oil of vitriol. If alcohol is present, the green oxide will be
observed to form on the surface of the undissolved salt, and the charac-
teristic odour of aldehyde will speedily be perceptible. As an instance
of the utility of this test, it is only necessary to give one illustration.
Some months ago I had sent to me by Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, a bottle
containing 7 cubic inches of a fluid which was obtained from a species of
Eucalyptus, or gum-tree, in Van Dieman's Land, a fluid which is drunk
by the natives as an intoxicating liquor. It possessed a powerful odour
of vinegar, to such an extent, that it overcame every other smell which
might be present. On neutralizing it with carbonate of soda, it was found
to require 28*6 grains of this salt to saturate the acid, equivalent to 10 12
grains of dry acetic acid in the whole fluid. On distilling one-third of
the liquor, a fluid came over having a faint odour of foreshot. When
chromic acid was added to it, or bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid,
the liquor became green, and the odour of aldehyde was powerfully
evolved. This proved the presence of alcohol. On evaporating the
liquor in the retort, a small quantity of sugar, and needle-shaped crystals
remained. The latter when treated with sulphuric acid, gave out a strong
smell of acetic acid. These were satisfactory proofs that the eucalyptus
sugar is capable of fermentation, and that the alcohol produced from it
is convertible into acetic acid — facts which show us that the Australian
sugar is not manna or peculiar but, common sugar.

Dr. R. D. Thomson, on the Analyses of Minerals. 87

XVII. — Analyses of sonxe Minerals, made in Glasgow College Laboratory,
by Robert D. Thomson, M. D.

ZEOLITES.

Wollastonite. — The name of Wollaston, to whom mineralogy was so
much indebted, was given to table spar by Hauy ; but as that beautiful
mineral is so universally known by the latter title, the term Wollastonite
has become a mere synonym. In the year 1829, a mineral was found at
Kilsyth, occurring in veins in a greenstone rock, on the banks of the Forth
and Clyde Canal. This species I analysed, when but a very youthful
chemist, in the beginning of 1830 ; and as it approximated in composition
to table spar, although quite a distinct species, Dr. Thomson gave it
the name of Wollastonite, and published an account of it in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A notice of it was also printed
in the Records of General Science, Vol. I. p. 220, in 1835.

The same mineral has recently been obtained in the formation of the
Bishopton Tunnel, on the Glasgow and Greenock Railway. About the
beginning of this century, an analysis was published by Dr. Kennedy, a
very able analytic chemist, of Edinburgh, " of an uncommon species of
zeolite," found in the Castle Hill of Edinburgh. (Edin. Trans., Vol. V.,
and Phil. Mag. XIV., 310.) The analysis agrees so closely with that of
Wollastonite, that I have ventured to republish it, and with less hesita-
tion, since Lord Cathcart (then Lord Greenock) procured the same mine-
ral, some years ago, from the locality in which it was obtained by Dr.
Kennedy. Professor Kobell has described, under the name of Pectolite,
a mineral from Tyrol, (Kastner*s Archiv. XIII. 385,) which corresponds
nearly with Wollastonite ; but the analysis which he has published is so
imperfect, that an accurate conclusion cannot be drawn as to its true com-
position.

The description given in Dr. Thomson's mineralogy, Vol. I., 131, I
believe to be descriptive also of the Bishopton specimens, with the excep-
tion that the hardness is too low. The number given in that volume
is obviously a typographical error. The true hardness I find to be, of all
the specimens in our private collection, 5*25.

In the following table, the first column represents the analysis of Dr.
Kennedy; the second, my analysis, made in 1830; the third, an analysis
of Wollastonite, from Bishopton, made by my pupil, Mr. James C. Steven-
son, during the present year ; and the last column represents the compo-
sition of the Pectolite of Von Kobell. The specific gravities, as obtained
by the different experimenters, are as follows: —

Kennedy, 2*643 to 2740

R. D. Thomson, 2*550 2876

Von Kobell, 2.69 —

i. n. m. iv.

Silica, 5150 52-744 52059 5130

Lime, 3200 31684 32817 3379

98 Dr. R. D. Thomson, on the Analyses of Minerals.

Soda, 8-50 9-600 — 8-26

Potash, — — — 1-57

Magnesia, — 1*520 1624 —

Protoxide of Iron,. 0*50 1*200^ 2-682 090

Alumina, 0*50 0*672/

Water, 5*00 2*000 — 889

98 99-420 104-69

The formula for this composition is 4 Cal. Si* + NaSi + A.q.

Since the preceding account was written, I find that Kobell has pub-
lished a new analysis of this mineral in his Grundziige der Mineralogie,
p. 226, in 1838, or eight years after my analysis was made. His last
results agree nearly with mine, and he finds only traces of potash. His
numbers are— Silica, 52'34; Lime, 35*20; Soda, 9*66; Water, 2-80.

These facts are sufficient to point out to mineralogists the name which
is entitled to precedence.

Harringtonite. — The following analyses of Harringtonite, a mineral
which gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid, were made by Messrs. Hugh B.
Tennent, P. Kater, and John Stevenson : —

i. n. m. iv. v.

Silica, 42-11 45-03 3840 40-70 38-00

Alumina, 2514 26'62 32*52 30'77 32-01

Lime, 11*52 9*25 1114 10*41 1300

Protoxide of Iron, 077 060

Soda, 4*44 3*09 2-44 1-86 2-28

Potash, trace. trace. trace. trace.

Water, 1602 1402 1550 1526 1471

In the first two analyses, the specimen was from a different locality
from that represented by the last three, and obviously contained an
excess of silica.

Antrimolite. — This mineral was carefully examined by William Parry,
Esq., late of H. M. 4th Regiment of Foot.

i. n.

Silica, 43*37 43*47

Alumina, 26*29 27*32

Lime, 9*58 1109

Soda, 4*83 —

Potash trace. —

Water 1512 —

9919

The excess of lime arises from the calcareous spar which forms the
nucleus of the mineral.

Dr. R. D. Thomson, on the Analyses of Minerals. 99

Phacolite, from Glenarm. — This mineral has usually been confounded
in this country with Levyine. Mr. Parry found it to yield, by two ana-
lysis, very carefully made —

i. n.

Silica, 4703 4785

Alumina, 1947 1884

Lime, 1074 950

Potash, 118 166

Soda, — trace.

Water, — 2186

This mineral loses from 3 to 4 per cent, of water in a vacuum. It may
bo readily distinguished from Levyine, by the character which the latter
possesses of intumescing before the blowpipe.

Gismondine, from Mount Vesuvius, in small mamillary crystals, resem-
bling a dew-drop on the surface of volcanic rocks — analysed by Mr. Parry.

Silica, 42-33

Alumina, 2344

Lime, 763

Potash, 8*21

Soda, 1-25

Water, 1726

The following minerals are not Zeolites.

Brown Tourmaline from Perth, Upper Canada, was examined by Mr.
Parry : —

I. II. HI.

Silica, 3936 3768 3814

Alumina, 2862 2868 29-54

Protoxide of Iron, 1621 1804 1750

Magnesia, 272 384 336

Lime, 129 299 161

Potash, ^.. — — 0-91

Boracic acid, — — 362

Volatile matter, — ~ 0*28

Ilaphilite, or Grey Tremolite, from Canada, Sp. Gr. 287.

I. n.

Silica, 57*38 5681

Lime, 1440 1481

Alumina, 213 208

Protoxide of Iron, 446 7'05

Magnesia, 1600 16'80

Water, — 242

The first analysis was made by Mr. Clutterbuck, the 2d by Mr. Hugh
B. Tennent.

100 Reports from Botanical Section.

Uumboldilite, from Italy. — The two first analyses were executed by
Mr. Clutterbuck, the third by Mr. George Alexander.

i. n. in.

Silica, 42-57 4536 43*16

Alumina, 277 4*76) 17 . 60

Peroxide of Iron, 1400 12-40 /

Magnesia, 3-40 588 2-40

Lime, 30-56 3060 —

Soda, — 120 —

Primitive Clay Slate, Mica Slate, and Graywacke. — The first was ana-
lysed by Br. Lewis, R.N., the second by Mr. John Adam, the third by
Mr. James Macbryde.

Clay Slate. *£ n L Q 7f rs Wigton

J Mica Slate. Graywacke.

Spec. Gray., 2*70 2.74 2-77

Protoxide of Iron, 5*86 11-96 9*47

Perphosphate of Iron, 1'36 1-38 0.94

Lime, 062 1-16 0'96

Magnesia, 1-20 095 230

Potash, 1-84 0-29

Soda, —

Alumina, 25*13 1712 1168

Silica, 58-47 66-63 72-18

Water, 312 100 240

Sulphur, 0-66 — —

} ^ 9 } 0-95

98-26 100-49 100-88

Reports from Botanical Section.

24th June, 1845. — The President in tlw Cliair.

Specimens of Cypripedium pubescens and spectabile were exhibited
from the Botanic Garden. The specimens had been transmitted by Dr.
Gavin Watson of Philadelphia. The President also exhibited dried spe-
cimens of Cheirostemon platanoides, the Hand-tree, or Manitas, of South
America, — explaining the peculiar structure of the stamens; — and a
specimen of Androsace alpina, which had been gathered by Dr. Barry on
Mont Blanc, at the height of 10,000 feet.— Dr. Balfour then gave a
short account of a botanical trip, with his pupils, to Roseneath, the Row,
Largs, and Wemyss Bay, Dumbarton, and Bowling, and noticed a few of
the more interesting plants collected, — such as Hymenophyllum Wilsoni,
in Ardenconnel Glen; Valeriana pyrenaica, Cardamine amara, Sedum
Telcphium, Carum verticillatum, (Enanthc crocata (exhibiting no orange
juice when cut), Rumex sanguineus /3 viridis, Milium effusum, Sagina

Reports from Botanical Section. 1 1 1 1

maritima, Raphanus raphanistrum /3 maritimus, Sinapis Monensis, SttMMi-
haramera maritima, Trollius europaeus, Mimulus luteus (naturalised near
Largs), Pinguicula Lusitanica, Osmunda regalis, Peucedanum ostruthium,
Lysimachia nummularia, Asplenium marinum, Smyrnium olusatrum,
Oarex muricata, Inula Helenium, Conium maculatum, Malva moschata
and sylvestris, Poa maritima, Geranium columbinum. — Dr. B. also gave
an account of an exoursion to Lochwinnoch and Castlesemple woods, and
exhibited, in a fresh state, most of the plants collected. Amongst these
were Nuphar lutea, Ranunculus lingua, Hippuris vulgaris, Carex acuta
and vesicaria, Scirpus sylvaticus and lacustris, Cornus sanguinea, Aconi-
tum napellus, Hesperis matronalis, Serrafalcus commutatus, TroUius
europaeus, Sedum villosum and Telephium, Littorella lacustris, Staphylea
pinnata, Berberis vulgaris, Lythrum salicaria, Spiraea salicifolia, Verbas-
cum thapsus, Acer campestre, Epipactis latifolia. He also described
the gardens at Castlesemple, which are very extensive. The quantity of
glass in the vineries, peach, and pine houses, greenhouses, and stoves,
is probably unrivalled in any private garden in Scotland. The party
were received most hospitably by the proprietor, Colonel Harvey, who
accompanied them through the woods in the neighbourhood of the castle.
In the plantations, some fine cedars, larches, and oaks, were observed.

A specimen of Cirsium setosum was received from Dr. Dewar of Dun-
fermline, for the Herbarium.

Dr. Bottinger exhibited specimens of the following vegetable Alkaloids,
viz. : — Morphin, Meconin, Codein, Narcotin, Solanin, Atropin, Delphinin,
Lactucin, Emetin, Berberin, Aconitin, Veratrin, Picrotoxin, Brucin, Peu-
ecdanin, Cinchonin, Jalapin, ^Esculin, Santonin.

July 29, 1845.— The President in the Chair.

Dr. Bottinger reported progress in the arrangement of the Herbarium,
and invited contributions of plants from the members.

The President exhibited a growing specimen of Phallus impudicus,
which had been gathered in the undeveloped state near Linlithgow, and
had been put into a pot among mould and leaves. It had burst the volva,
and pushed up its stipe and pileus to the height of several inches in the
course of a night.

A specimen of Babel Bark, imported from Calcutta, for the purpose of
tanning, was exhibited. Also, a specimen of coffee, covered with what
is technically called " parchment," or the thin brittle covering which is
spread over the seed, within the pulpy part of the fruit. Coffee was
occasionally imported in this state, with the view of its being cleaned and
winnowed in this country ; but it was not found profitable. There was
likewise exhibited, a specimen of a species of Mespilus, destroyed by the
attack of a moth of a gregarious nature.

102 Reports from Botanical Section.

The President read extracts from a letter from Dr. R. C. Alexander,
dated Naples, 21st June, 1845, describing the botany of the south of
Italy and Sicily.

The next communication was an account of a trip by Dr. Balfour and
his pupils to Ardentinny and Loch Eck, on the 28th June. The party
examined the woods and rocks in Glen Finnart, and proceeded towards
tho shores of Loch Eck, skirting them as far as Benmore, and thence
walking to Kilmun. The chief plants noticed were Hymenophyllum Wil-
soni, Osmunda regalis, Jungermannia minutissima, Sphaerophoron com-
pressum (in fine fruit), Rubus saxatilis, Saxifraga aizoides and stellaris,
Gymnadenia albida, Carex stricta, fulva, and remota, Polygonum Bistorta,
Sedum anglicum, Silene maritima (on the sandy shores of Loch Eck),
Bromus commutatus, Caruni verticillatum. In the woods of Glen Finnart
fourteen species of Ferns were gathered.

Bute was visited on the 4th of July. Between Rothesay and Mount
Stuart, the party picked Pinguicula Lusifcanica, Saxifraga aizoides, Ha-
benaria chlorantha and bifolia, Anagallis tenella, Osmunda regalis, &c.
The party visited the garden at Mount Stuart, where many delicate
plants thrive in the open air. Betwixt Kingarth and Scalpsie Bay, they
gathered Hypericum elodes, Utricularia minor, Carex vesicaria, Cotyledon
umbilicus, Sinapis monensis, and many other good plants.

On Thursday, July 10, Dr. Balfour and his party visited Arran, and
examined the hilly districts of the island, especially Goatfell and Cior
More, whence they proceeded to Loch Ranza. From this they returned
by the Cock of Arran and Corrie to Brodick. One of the most interesting
plants noticed was Pyrus pinnatifida, which was obtained in considerable
quantity on the banks of a mountain stream, which terminates at Loch
Ranza.

This closed the meetings of the Section till session 1845-46.

December 23, 1845.

Dr. Balfour, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh,
having come to town to attend the opening meeting of the session, was
unanimously called to the chair.

The Curator (Dr. Bottinger) directed attention to the necessity of pro-
curing an additional press for the Herbarium; also, a copy of Endlicher's
Genera Plantarum, and Steudel's Nomenclature, to assist in arranging
foreign plants.

Mr. Lyon presented to the section Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Plants.
— Thanks voted.

Dr. Balfour, as President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, pre-
sented to the section a copy of the Transactions of that Society. — Thanks
voted.

Reports from Botanicxl Section.

103

The Secretary (Mr. Keddie) read an account of a botanical excursion to
Linlithgow, South Queensferry, North Queensferry, and thence by the Fife
coast to Burntisland, in company with Dr. Balfour and party, on the 18th
and 19th of July last. Among the plants gathered were, Typha latifolia,
Rosa rubiginosa, Thalictrum flavum, Astragalus glycyphyllos, Reseda
lutea, Geranium pusillum, Allium Scorodoprasum, Medicago maculata,
Spiraea filipendula, Salvia verbenaca, &c.

Total Phanerogamous species and varieties seen during

the trip, 419

Ferns, 15

434

Grasses, 43 species.
List of plants gathered, which are common on the east coast of Scot-
land, near Edinburgh, and which occur rarely, or not at all, near
Glasgow : —

Thalictrum majus.

minus.

Papaver Argemone.
Sisymbrium Sophia.
Reseda lutea.
Heliantheinum vulgare.
Malva rotundifolia.
Acer campestre.
Geranium pusillum.

sanguineus.

Medicago maculata.
Trifolium arvense.

scabrum.

Astragalus glycyphyllos.
hypoglottis.

Vicia lutea.
Fedia dentata.
Dipsacus sylvestris.
Salvia verbenaca.
Lamium album.

incisuin.

Oxytropis uralensis.

Spiraea Filipendula.

Rosa rubiginosa.

Dr. Balfour read an account of a botanical trip to Ben Nevis last autumn
exhibiting specimens of some of the plants collected ; also, Typha angusti-
folia, from Lochmaben.

Hippophae rhamnoides
Allium scorodoprasum.
Hordeum murinum.
Briza media.
Knautia arvensis.
Carduus tenuiflorus.
Ballota nigra.
Primula veris.
Chenopodium rubrum.
Euphorbia peplus.
Avena flavescens.
pubescens.

January 27, 1846. — Dr. Balfour in the Chair. Mr. Adamson read
a paper on the Genus Rubus, illustrated by specimens. Dr. Balfour
exhibited specimens of plants in various stages of growth, showing the
effects of the extraordinary mildness of the season. The Professor pre-
sented a valuable collection of plants to the Herbarium, for which thanks
were voted.

February 24, 1846. — Dr. Blackie in the Chair. Several seeds from
the Sandwich Islands were exhibited. Dr. Blackie presented to the
Herbarium, a Fasciculus of Saliccs. — Thanks voted.

104 Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Fnret.

24tA January, 1846. — The President in the Chair.

It was announced that a few members of the Chemical Section intended
giving a Conversational Meeting next Wednesday evening, and for that
purpose Mr. Griffin had kindly granted the use of his suite of rooms.
Professor Gordon read a paper on the theoretical mechanical effect of
steam.

4th February, 1846. — The President in tJw Chair.

On the motion of Dr. Buchanan, the thanks of the Society were
unanimously voted to Messrs. Griffin, for the use of their rooms at the
late Conversational Meeting, arranged by some members of the Chemical
section. The following paper was read : —

XVIII. — On tlie Wound of the Ferret, with Observations on the Instincts
of Animals. By Andrew Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes
of Medicine, University of Glasgow.

Having often heard of the remarkable way in which the Ferret destroys
its victims, I willingly availed myself of an opportunity presented to me
on the 26th of August last (1845), of seeing two rats killed by this
animal. I found the common account quite correct, that the Ferret kills
by means of a small wound in the neck ; but the explanation usually
annexed I found quite erroneous, that the Ferret aims at the jugular vein,
and destroys life by sucking the blood of its victim. The rapidity of the
death was quite inconsistent with so tedious a process as blood-sucking,
and the dissection showed the true cause to be totally different, and so
very curious, that I have thought it not unworthy of the notice of the
physiological section of the Society.

The two rats being put into a large barrel, concealed themselves under
some hay in the bottom of it. On the Ferret being introduced, it seemed
dazzled with the sunshine, for it took no notice of one of the rats placed
right before it ; but soon finding the scent, it burrowed under the hay,
taking the very track which the rat had just taken, and thus came round
directly upon him. The rat, which was of large size, resisted stoutly, but
the Ferret instead of returning the bites it received, seemed entirely
occupied with putting itself into a proper position, applying itself to the
body of its antagonist, breast to breast, and using the fore paws and head,
as if going to embrace it. No sooner had it assumed this position, than
it inflicted a wound, which was so instantaneously fatal, that a physiologist
might have guessed from that circumstance alone, what the nature of the
wound must have been. The rat died without a struggle : and the Ferret
immediately dissengaged itself from the body, instead of remaining to
suck the blood, and soon falling on the track of the other rat, destroyed
it exactly in the same manner.

1 » r. Hitman an on the wound of the Ferret. 105

I now proceeded to examine the dead animals. Neither of them exhibited
any marks of injury inflicted by the Ferret, except a bloody patch on the
side of the neck, under the oar. In the first one which I looked at, there
was at the upper part of this bloody patch, or a little below and behind
the ear, a very small punctured wound, and on dissecting it carefully to
the bottom, I was surprised to find, that the sharp dens caninus, by one
of which the wound was obviously inflicted, had gone right down to the
spinal cord, piercing it between the occiput and the uppermost cervical
vertebra. The Ferret therefore destroys its victims by pithing, a pro-
cess well known to be tho most immediately fatal, to the upper orders of
vertebrated animals, of all modes of destroying life : and it employs for
the purpose one of its long slender dagger-like tusks, a weapon singularly
well adapted to inflict a wound which proves fatal, neither by laceration
nor contusion, but by penetrating into the very centre of the nervous
system, on which the most important functions of life immediately
depend.

Tho death of the other rat was obviously produced in the same way;
but there was no external wound visible, on any part of the bloody patch
on the neck, the tusk having been inserted into the external ear, and
then penetrating the cartilaginous side of the auditory passage had been
carried towards the vertebral canal, which it entered under the occiput,
more laterally than in the former case.

It is certainly very remarkable, that instinct, or the promptings of
bodily organization, should lead an irrational creature to use its weapons
in the very way in which a profound knowledge of the functions of the
nervous system teaches that they may be used with the most deadly and
instantaneous effect. The cerebro-spinal axis, or great central nervous
column, lodged in the elongated cavity of the head and spine, cannot be
wounded at any point, without interfering more or less with sensation and
motion ; but the part of this nervous column, on the integrity of which
the continuance of life immediately depends, is the medulla oblongata, or
part of the column lying intermediate between the head and spine.
Wound an animal below this point, and you paralize his limbs more or
less, but life may be protracted for years after such injuries. Wound the
animal above this point, and you not only produce palsy, but impair or
destroy consciousness and the faculties of the mind. Still, however, just
as we see in a man struck down by a fit of apoplexy, the action of the
heart and tho respiration may go on little or not at all affected. It is
on tho upper part of the cord that these important functions immediately
depend, and hence it is that to the higher vertebrata, a wound inflicted there
is the most instantaneously mortal of all wounds, at once destroying
consciousness, sense, and motion, and arresting the action of the heart
and respiratory muscles. It is not a little remarkable, that the Ferret
should select this very part of the cord into which to thrust his tusk ;
and serves to show how the promptings of instinct may anticipate the
deductions of science.

106 Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Ferret.

To those who love to speculate on the mental endowments of brutes,
it many not be uninteresting to know, how two young Ferrets that had
nover before seen a rat killed, deported themselves on the occasion.
Before putting the old Ferret into the barrel where the rats were, a trial
was made with two young ones, her offspring. The untutored creatures,
instead of having for their single object, to put themselves into the proper
position to inflict the death-wound, engaged in conflict with the rats,
returning bite for bite ; and, although one of the rats had its leg bitten
through, they at length beat off their assailants. Still farther, after the
old Ferret had despatched the first rat, one of the young ones immediately
threw itself upon the dead body, assuming the very position and motions
which the old one had assumed, and so far as could be judged from there
being but one wound, thrusting its tusk into the very same aperture.
Did then the young Ferret receive a lesson from the old one ? The facts
do not at all accord with this hypothesis, for the young one, instead of
attending to the lesson given it, was all the while engaged in skirmishing
with the other rat. Besides ; the headlong fury with which the young
animal threw itself upon the dead body had nothing in it of the caution
of an experimental and intellectual act, but partook altogether of the
character of a blind impulse — an intense feeling of bodily gratification,
impelling the creature to the act which it performed.

The acts which we name instinctive, appear to me to be best explained
upon the hypothesis, that they proceed from the promptings of bodily
organization. The bodily organs of animals are formed in a certain way
to adapt them to the performance of certain acts, which acts the animals
perform readily, and with pleasure to themselves : other acts to which
their organs are not adapted, they cannot perform at all, or not without
a painful constraint, and therefore they do not perform such acts. One
animal goes to sleep stretched upon the ground, finding that to be the
position in which there is the most complete repose of the muscular
system ; another supports itself on one leg, upon a spar, a position which
the former animal could not maintain, without the most painful efforts,
for more than a few seconds. That position, however, is admirably
adapted to the organization of birds, their bodies maintaining their
equilibrium in perfect security, and without muscular exertion, by a
mechanism which Borelli has explained. According to the same law of
the adaptation of organs birds fly, fish swim, quadrupeds walk and run,
and every animal uses its weapons, offensive and defensive, in the way in
which the Author of nature meant them to be used. This physiological
theory of Instinct seems to me more probable than that which refers it to
innate ideas, or any other peculiarity of mental constitution ; or than the
extraordinary hypothesis of Lord Brougham,* who refers all instinctive
acts to the immediate inspiration of the Deity — the divine mind sup-
plying the place of reason, and directing the bodily organs. This is

* Dissertations on Subjects connected with Natural Theology.

Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Ferret. 107

exactly the doctrine of Pope, and with deference to so great a man, seems
to me to savour more of poetry than of philosophy.

" Reason exalt o'er Instinct as you can,
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."

It is commonly said, that Instinct is independent of all reasoning, edu-
cation, and experience ; and it has been assumed as a character of the
instinctive acts, that they are performed as perfectly at the first as at
any subsequent time. This holds good only among the lowest animals,
whose whole actions are automatic, or without any intervention of the
reasoning power ; but it is so far from being universally true, that it may
be affirmed, that in all animals capable of reasoning, the instinctive acts
are under the control of the reasoning power, and are frequently not
performed aright at the first, as in the case of the young Ferrets above
mentioned. The ultimate result, however, of the reasoning process in
such cases cannot be doubtful, since the bodily organization operating
upon the mind will admit of only one conclusion ; and hence, even in the
highest species of animals, these instinctive acts are always ultimately
performed exactly in the same way.

The instinctive acts which excite our wonder most are such as those
we observe among the insect tribes, in which the intervention of reason
cannot be suspected, and which are, on that account, the better fitted to
elucidate the true nature of Instinct. But the wonder with which we regard
the workmanship of insects proceeds mainly from an erroneous view of the
directing power by which it is carried on. The honey-comb and the spider's
web are, without doubt, wonderful in their structure ; but they are in no
respect more wonderful than the elaborate structures which the microscope
displays to us in every tissue of animals and vegetables ; even in the
mathematical exactness of form, so much celebrated, they are not supe-
rior to the regular hexagons which form the epidermis of many plants, and
which we find equally regular in the same tissue of certain reptiles. Now,
the former structures are not held to be more wonderful than the latter,
because they are fabricated by the instrumentality of muscular fibres ; for
in that point of view we should marvel more at the latter, which are
fabricated by less perfect instruments — vessels and cells. The true cause
why the former structures have been regarded with most wonder is, that
it has been supposed that the action of the muscles which form them must
be voluntary — a supposition which implies necessarily the existence of a
directing mind. Now, the physiology of the present day gives no coun-
tenance to such a supposition. It shows us, on the contrary, innumerable
muscular acts in all animals, with which volition has no more to do than
with digestion or nutrition. Such acts may originate in external impulses
which excite the nervous system, and the acts follow immediately, as if
from a physical necessity. They may originate, also, as in the case before
us, in internal impulses, derived from the organic condition of the tissues
of the body, and the changes they are continually undergoing. The two series
of structures which we have brought into comparison are, therefore, to be re-

108 Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Ferret.

garded as the products of the same organizative or plastic force : which, act-
ing in one way, employs vessels and cells for its instruments, and produces,
within the body, the innumerable structures of which animals and vegetables
are made up ; and, acting in another way, employs for its instruments muscu-
lar fibres under the direction of the nervous system, and produces, without
the body, structures which bear the same impress of regularity and beauty
as those within it, and co-operate with them to the same ends — the pre-
servation of the individual and the species. Corals, and other polypidoms,
may be considered as standing in the very same relation to the swarms of
zoophytes which people them, in which the honey-comb does to a swarm
of bees. Both are structures external to the bodies of the animals which
produce them, and both are the products of the same organizative power :
the only difference being, that in the one case this formative power employs
its ordinary instruments — cells, and, possibly, vessels — while, in the other,
it employs the more unwonted apparatus of muscular fibres.

I have more recently had an opportunity of examining several animals
killed by the Ferret. I found that instead of there being only one wound,
there are always several, as might, indeed, have been inferred from the
mechanism of the jaws, and their being armed with four tusks. The
wounds are so minute as to be imperceptible externally, unless one of the
tusks has pierced the jugular or some other superficial vein, so as to stain
the surrounding skin with blood ; but as this, although generally, does not
always happen, there may be no external mark visible. But, on dissect-
ing off the skin, the wounds become at once apparent in the cellular and
muscular substance beneath. The injury done to the upper part of the
spine is, therefore, more extensive than I had at first supposed. It is also
less uniform in its seat : as I more than once found that the tusk had
pierced the cranium, and gone deep into the back part of the brain. The
mode of attack is also very various, according to the relative strength of
the combatants; but the struggle is always brief; and the Ferret never
remains after it to suck the blood.

From these observations, confirmed as they were in all essential respects
by many others made under the eye of an intelligent friend, I was dis-
posed to conclude that the vulgar belief of the Ferret destroying its victims
by blood-sucking was erroneous ; and that it had, most probably, arisen
from the appearance of the dead animals, which exhibit commonly no
mark of injury but a small wound, surrounded by a bloody patch on the
neck. Now, the very same appearance would be produced by a leech
fastening on the neck : and hence, most probably, it was inferred that the
leech and the Ferret practised the same mode of attack. This opinion has,
however, received the sanction of the highest authorities in natural his-
tory. Buffon says,* — "The Ferret is naturally the mortal enemy of
the rabbit. On presenting a rabbit, even dead, to a young Ferret,
that has never seen one before, it throws itself upon the body, and

* Histoire Naturelle, Vol. vii. p. 211.

Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Ftrret. 100

bites it with fury ; and, if the rabbit be alive, the Ferret takes it by
the neck, or by the nose, and sucks its blood." — In the Dictionnaire des
Sciences Naturolles,* Ferrets are described as being of a most sanguinary
nature — " It is even more the blood than the flesh which they seek for
their nourishment." — MM. Geoftroi St. Hilaire, and Fred. Cuvier, the
authors of the splendid work," Histoire Naturelle des Mammifieres,"
repeat the same opinion : — " The Ferret, in attacking a rabbit, seizes it
by a part of the head, masters it, and sucks its blood, and, as soon as
satisfied, falls asleep."

As the above quotations refer chiefly to the rabbit, and as it was
possible the Ferret might not practise the same mode of attack upon that
animal as upon the rat, I resolved to put the matter to the test of expe-
riment. My first trial was made with a full-grown male rabbit, and a
Ferret nine months old, which had never seen a rabbit before. The
Ferret immediately commenced the attack, but it was always repulsed,
and ultimately obliged to retire altogether ; the rabbit adopting a very
remarkable mode of defence, — for whenever the Ferret came near, he
sprung right upwards, and came down with the whole force of his hind
legs upon the head of his assailant. I now sent off the rabbit, to be tried
with the old Ferret which had killed the two rats, as mentioned above.
The distance was too great to admit of my being present ; but I received
a full report of what passed from the friend already mentioned, whose
zeal in natural science led him to take an interest in the experiment. The
rabbit pursued the same tactics in defending himself as before ; and so long
as he had free space for his evolutions, he came off victorious, as the Ferret
could never get an opportunity of laying hold of him. They were there-
fore put together into a box. There the Ferret soon succeeded in seizing
the rabbit across the root of the nose, shaking him, as a dog does, from
time to time, and never letting go the hold till the rabbit ceased to live.
Instead, however, of despatching him in the course of a few seconds, there
was a full half hour from the commencement tijll the end of the struggle.
It was agreed by all present, that while the Ferret held on by means of
her teeth, she sucked the blood flowing from the wound. The dead rabbit
being sent to me for examination, I found the vessels as full of blood as
usual ; the brain had not been injured ; the bones of the nose and orbit
had been pierced ; but the main injury done had been to the eyes, which
were completely disorganised and full of blood.

It thus appeared that the idea of the Ferret sucking blood was not
without some practical foundation. I was, however, at the same time
convinced that the observations from which it had been inferred, that the
animal always causes death by the abstraction of blood, must have been
very superficially made. I have been assured by persons well versed in
such matters, that even the rabbit is frequently destroyed by a wound in

* Article Martes, division Putoia.

110 Dr. Buchanan on the wound of the Ferret.

the neck ; and I recollect well, when a schoolboy, of having had a young
rabbit destroyed by a weasel, and of the astonishment I felt at seeing
upon it, when dead, no mark of injury of any kind, but the mysterious
bloody patch and small wound on the side of the neck, described above.
The truth seems to be, that whenever the Ferret attacks an animal which
it is capable of mastering by main force, it despatches him, not by blood-
sucking, but by the most speedy and merciful of all modes of inflicting
death — piercing the upper part of the spinal marrow ; but that when it is
opposed to animals of large size and strength superior to its own, it alters
its mode of warfare, seizing them where opportunity offers, and clinging
to them till they expire from loss of blood, pain, and exhaustion of strength.

An interesting discussion ensued upon the instincts of various animals,
and more especially upon the mode in which they destroy their prey. The
Ferret, the Weasel, and the Pole-cat seem all to practise the same mode
of attack ; which is therefore, probably, common to the whole of the
Weasel Family.* The well-known " otter-bite," by which so many salmon
are destroyed, exhibiting no mark of injury but a single deep wound in
the nape of the neck, and the ravages of the same animal when driven by
the freezing of the rivers into the poultry-yard, were particularly insisted
on, as showing that the Otter, although differing from the rest of the
family in its aquatic habits, resembles them, nevertheless, in instinctive
propensities, as it does in general organization.

18*A Feb., 1846.-7^ President in the Cliair.

George Brown, Esq., and John Crawford, M.D., were admitted mem-
bers of the Society. Professor Gordon read a paper on the Consumption
of Smoke.

4th March, 1846. — Tlie President in the Cliair.

George Arnott Walker Arnott, LL.D., Keg. Prof, of Botany in the
University of Glasgow, was admitted a member. On the motion of Mr.
Gourlie, it was agreed that £3 should be voted to the Botanical Section,
to assist in defraying the expenses of the Herbarium. Mr. Crum read a
note on Professor Licbig's Researches on Protein and Casein, which have
been since published by the Professor himself.

* " Mustelidse" of Bell's British Quadrupeds, corresponding to the division
" Martes" of Cuvier.

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Watcr-Whtd. Ill
23d March, 1846.— The President in the Cliair.

Messrs. Goorgo Mitchell aud William Somerville were admitted mem-
bers. Mr. Liddell moved, in accordance with a recommendation from the
Council, that a Committee bo appointed from this Society, to co-operate
with any Committee that may be named by the Town Council, for the
purpose of making arrangements for a public exhibition of models of ma-
chinery, geological specimens, &c, and that a sum not exceeding £50 be
placed at their disposal as a guarantee against loss. The following Com-
mittee was appointed: — Messrs. Crum, Murray, Hastie, Gourlie, Keddie,
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Messrs. Liddell and Bankier, with power to add to
their number. Mr. Liddell, Convener.

A copy of Dr. Watt's work on the Vital Statistics of Glasgow, for 1843-
44, was presented to the Society by the Town Council.

Dr. R. D. Thomson made some observations on the nutritive power of
maize or Indian corn, as compared with other kinds of grain.

Specimens of different kinds of bread, &c, were exhibited, — 1. Bread,
consisting of maize and wheat flour, it being impossible to raise bread
baked of maize alone ; second, of maize, flour, and rice — forming a white
loaf; third, of coarse maize and flour; and, fourth, unfermented bread,
raised by means of hydrochloric acid and sesquicarbonate of soda. 2.
Biscuit?, consisting first of maize and flour ; second, of maize, flour, and
rice ; and, third, of the same with butter. 3. Puddings, made of maize
alone, and of maize with Irish moss, &c. The peculiarity of these speci-
mens was, that they were as wholesome and palatable as common wheat
bread, and much cheaper.

1st April, 1846. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. Liddell read a minute from the Joint Committee of the Society and
Town Council, relative to the arrangements for the proposed exhibition of
models at the new year. The following paper was read: —

XIX.— On the Reaction of Water, and the Theory of the Reaction Water-
Wlieel By W. M. Buchanan, Esq.

Reaction Water- Wheels constitute a distinct and extensive order of
prime movers, to which, till of late, comparatively little attention has been
directed by the engineering profession in this country. It is now up-
wards of a century (1732) since the fundamental principle of their action
was announced in the Hydraulica of J. Bernouilli; and at a still
earlier period (1704), the fact that a motive power could be obtained from
a jet of eflluent water, was practically demonstrated by Dr. Barker in
England, and by M. Parent in France. The general problem of the
reaction of fluids had indeed obtained a partial solution in the steam-

Vol. H.— No. 2 3

112 Mit. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel

engine of Hero, full eighteen centuries prior (120 B.C.) ; and when the
history of this branch of mechanics shall be fully investigated, it will
be necessary to award to the sage of Alexandria the merit of the first
discovery, and to point to his engine as the archtypeof all those mechanisms
by which the motive force developed in the reflex action of fluids is
rendered available. Between the rotatory steam-engine of Hero, and the
Water-Mill of Dr. Barker, there is, in the present comparatively
advanced state of hydrodynamical science, no other essential difference
than belongs to the two conditions of fluidity of the agencies employed :
their dynamical efficiency may be measured and expressed by formulse, of
which the terms are strictly homologous; and .the conditions of their
action are reducible to laws common to elastic and non-elastic fluids.
But, at the time when Dr. Barker added his machine to the scanty list
of hydraulic motors then in use, the laws of hydrodynamics were too
partially developed to justify us in assuming that he was guided by
analogy, much less, by a rigorous induction of elementary principles.
Hydraulics had no foundation in experiment, and those abstract methods
of investigation which had led to results of surprising accuracy in the
mechanics of solid bodies, in their applications to the motions of fluids,
conducted to conclusions which were much too general to constitute a
practical theory.

But, although we are thus conducted to the inference that the dis-
covery of the Reaction Water-Mill was empirical, and independent of
all scientific deduction, and although in its original form, it is admitted
to be nearly worthless — far inferior to the common bucket wheel, as a
means of economising hydraulic power — still the merit of the discovery
remains unimpaired. A new principle in hydraulics was thereby esta-
blished, and bequeathed to science ; and although its value in the arts
has been slowly recognised, the explanation is readily found in the
absence of that experimental knowledge which is necessary to appreciate
correctly those collateral influences which enter as elements of the tech-
nical problem. This is fully manifested by the fact, that the machine,
when constructed with due attention to those conditions for which an
extended knowledge of the principles concerned in the motions of fluids,
and an advanced state of the mechanical arts, have enabled us to pro-
vide, is found capable of transmitting fully 80 per cent, of the power
of the water expended : whereas, in the older examples, and in some
also of modern date (e. g. the American tub- wheels), constructed less in
accordance with those hydraulic precepts with which experiment has
made us acquainted, the result has seldom been found to exceed half
the mechanical value of the water expended; and even half that moiety
would, in general, be a full measure of the efficiency of the machine
if applied in its primitive form. This form it has, nevertheless, steadily
retained in scientific treatises which touch on the practical applications of
hydrodynamics, and even in the model rooms of our scientific institutions,
and periodically on the lecture-table, where it is adduced in illustration

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel 113

of the principle of fluid reaction, it may bo recognised under the same
uncouth form.

The value of the machine as a hydraulic mover, depending thus
entirely upon its construction, it would perhaps have been more in con-
formity with the order in which the conditions of the problem present
themselves, to have devoted the present opportunity to an investigation
of those principles which determine the condition of maximum effici-
ency. That part of the inquiry possesses, besides, a popular interest
which does not belong to an examination, necessarily compressed and
incomplete, of the dynamical relations involved in the working of the
machine. But the order adopted has, in some degree, been forced
upon me by the continually iterated and erroneous interpretations of the
terms of tho problem to be found even in late works of much preten-
sion; and as tho problem of construction has not hitherto undergone
any professedly scientific investigation, and is consequently not encum-
bered with any false hypotheses,* its discussion is less urgent, and may
bo deferred until another opportunity shall offer to bring the subject
under the notice of the Society.

But although it does not come within my present purpose to exa-
mine the technical conditions prescribed by the modus operandi of the
machine, it will still be necessary to indicate the general features of
tho mechanism. Without this it would be difficult to induce a clear
conception of its mode of action, and especially of those conditions of
dynamical equilibrium to which a mathematical investigation of its prin-
ciples must have essential reference. I might indeed refer to the primi-
tive form of the machine which is familiarly known to all in any degree
conversant with the elements of hydrodynamics: but an apparatus so
manifestly ill adapted to fulfil the condition most eagerly desired in the
construction of all prime movers — the greatest possible effect from a
given expenditure of power — can convey only a very imperfect idea of
the adaptations of the machine in its recent and more complete forms.
The same is true, although in a less degree, of all those various modifi-
cations of the parent machine which have from time to time been
attempted on the Continent, where horizontal water-wheels — on account
of their economy as regards first cost and readiness of application —
have been far more extensively studied and employed than in this
country. Several of these have, indeed, yielded results, at least, suffi-
ciently high to throw doubt upon the crude hypothesis, that " the mechani-
cal effect, derivable from a given head of water, is essentially greater in
amount when it acts by pressure, than by impulse or reaction." But the
success has in no instance been complete ; and it is not difficult to por-

* If we except the rules given by Waring, (Trans. American Phil. Soc., Vol. III., p.
193,) which are repeated by Dr. Gregory in his Treatise on Mechanics, (Vol. II., p. Ill,)
and by Sir David Brewster in his Edition of Ferguson's Lectures on Select Subjects,
(Vol. II., p. 208,) but which are too evidently erroneous to have any injurious influence.

114 Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wh.

ceive by tbo light of a more exact knowledge of the conditions and data
of the problem, that the degree of approximation corresponds in all
recorded examples with tho degree of obedience to the laws of fluid move-
ment, manifested in tho construction of the machine, and in those subor-
dinate arrangements, by which its practical efficiency is hardly less
influenced.

The form in which the machine has principally occupied my attention,
is that made by Messrs. Randolph, Elliot, & Co., of this city, under the
patent of Messrs. Whitelaw & Stirrat. In this the precepts of legitimate
theory are united with the highest quality of workmanship, and with a
fertility of technical appliance and adaptation unknown in the Reaction
Water- Wheels of the Continent. It is not, however, to be supposed that
it started into the high state of efliciency which it has ultimately attained,
with the first effort. The first trials were sufficiently successful to en-
courage a reasonable expectation of the final result ; but much active
experience was required to arrive at the root of the quantative of all those
influences which necessarily enter as elements of the practical question.
A correct theory required to be constructed, and, in order to arrive at
the requisite data, it was found necessary to institute an experimental
examination of those laws of hydraulic action concerned in the problem,
perhaps more searching and comprehensive, more intense and persevering,
than had previously been directed to any question involving the economy
of water-power. Mathematical deductions required a more precise inter-
pretation than they commonly received in practice, loose analogies were
to be rectified, defective formulas to be rendered complete by new induc-
tions, modified in their coefficients by the facts of experiment, and
reduced from the condition of abstract generalizations to maxims of prac-
tice of ready and certain application.

This protracted and laborious inquiry was necessary to the develop-
ment of the actual theory of the machine, and collaterally to establish
its position in relation to prime movers of the same class. Comparative
efficiency among hydraulic motors is the criterion of absolute value, and
although the standard is unstable — altogether deficient in numerical
exactness, and especially at the higher points of oscillation, ill defined —
still there is an acknowledged measure which must be reached, and
reached through the strict ordeal of experiment, before a claim to the
first rank of excellence can, with propriety, be instituted. This is the
more requisite, that in general the impelling agency is sparingly dealt out,
and neither admits of augmentation nor of unlimited accumulation. If
this constant dependence on the immediate supply which Nature affords
in her fertilising operations, has the effect of rendering water-power com-
mercially less valuable, especially in those localities where the bowels of
the earth are replete with the means of cheaply feeding the energies of
the all-mighty steam-engine ; it has also the effect of inducing economy
in the means of application. Where the power is abundant and admits
of ready increase, we can afford to look less narrowly into the expenditure;

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel. 115

but vrhcre a deficiency is felt, and especially in districts destitute of
mineral resources, there is an inducement amounting often to necessity,
to apply that agency which Nature affords with strict reference to the con-
dition of maximum economy. It is this economy of means which consti-
tutes the true problem in the transfer of water-power, and which has
found a now and complete solution in the Reaction Water- Wheel.

Description of tlie Machine: — The Reaction Wheel in its improved
and best form, consists of two metal discs, between which the diaphragms,
forming the lateral limits of the two water-channels, or arms, are fixed. The
transverse sections of these channels are rectangular at all points of
their length, but continually diminish in area according to a certain law,
from the base to the orifice. The water is admitted to the interior of
the machine by a circular opening in the undermost disc, and thence
flows radially outwards in the channels, and finally escapes by the orifices
at the circumference in lines tangential to the circle of revolution. This
direction of the jets is obtained by a curvature of the arms conforming to
a definite law which, for our present purpose, it will be sufficient to des-
cribe as a simple deflexion of the axes of the channels through an arc of
ninety degrees. The circular margin of the central opening, through
which the water is admitted into the machine, is formed with a projecting
ledging, truly adjusted by turning in a lathe, to the equal and concentric
edge of 'a compound and adjustible ring called the mouth-piece, and which
is fitted upon the recurved end of the supply-pipe. These annular
labra (of the central opening and mouth-piece) being brought lightly (not
pressed) into contact, a water-joint is produced possessing all the advan-
tages of a packed-joint without its inconvenience and friction.

The arrangement will be rendered more fully intelligible, by reference
to the accompanying figures, (Plate in.) in which a denotes the machine,
b its vertical shaft, by which the power is carried to any required height, c
the water-joint, formed by the coincidence of the projecting margin of the
central opening and the edge of the rising-ring d, of the mouth-piece ;
e is the collar-ring, into which the rising-ring d is fitted water-tight
by turning, and which is secured by bolts to the horizontal flange of the
recurved end of the supply-pipe/. This flange is commonly of large size,
and rectangular form, to allow of its being batted to a foundation of
stone.

The part d of the mouth-piece, it will bo observed, admits of vertical
adjustment, in case of wear, at the joint. When the diameter does not
exceed a certain limit (2 ft.), it is fitted into the collar-ring by chasing,
and can therefore be adjusted at any time by a simple horizontal move-
ment. When the parts become too largo to be conveniently chased, they
are fitted together by plane turning, and rendered water-tight by a small
packing let into a groove cut in the periphery of the rising-ring d In
this case the vertical adjustment is accomplished by a number of set screws
made to act on the two contiguous flanges.

By theso means, a connexion of the most simple and complete kind is

11G Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel

obtained between the machine and the snpply-pipe — thereby effectually
removing ono of the chief practical difficulties experienced by the con-
tinental engineers ; and which, perhaps more than any other, led to the
abandonment of the machine of Prof. Segner in Germany, and of M.
D'Ectot in France.

An obvious and essential advantage resulting from the admission of the
water into the machine on the under side, and which gave occasion for
the contrivance described, is the facility thereby afforded of counterpois-
ing the superincumbent weight of the machine by means of the hydrostatic
pressure due to the particular head of water employed. The pressure
being directed upwards with a known intensity upon a given horizontal
area ; and the area of the central opening being fixed in every case by
the volume of water and the height of fall to be employed — conditions
which determine the size of the machine — the weight can generally be
adjusted to equipoise it. It rarely happens that any difficulty is experi-
enced in making the machine sufficiently light for the fall under which it
is intended to act ; but it not unfrequently occurs that the fall, and
therefore the pressure, is so great, that the machine would become un-
wieldy were it made of equivalent weight. In cases of this kind an arti-
fice is resorted to, by which a part of the upward pressure is received
upon a fixed saucer-shaped disc g, projecting from the mouth-piece by a
hollow stem, and forming at its circular edge — which meets the internal
surface of the upper plate of the machine — a water-joint, in every respect
similar to that formed by the coincidence of the mouth-piece with the mar-
ginal edge of the central opening. This disc is made of sufficient area to
countervail the excess of the upward pressure of the fluid over the proper
weight of the machine, and consequently increases relatively with the
height of the fall. The small quantity of water which passes the joint is
allowed to escape by the hollow stem descending from the disc into a
transverse pipe h, cast in the rising-ring of the mouth-piece, and opening into
the atmosphere.

This contrivance enables the highest falls to be equipoised without in-
conveniently increasing the weight of the machine, and with the same
facility as those of moderate height.

To this brief indication of the technical appliances by which the ma-
chine has been brought to the condition of a hydraulic mover of the first
class, in respect of efficiency, it may be well to add that, in most cases,
the operations of the factory to be impelled require that the mover be
provided with governing apparatus, by which its motion may be rendered
uniform under variations of burthen. This condition is fulfilled by render-
ing the centrifugal force generated by the angular velocity of the machine,
subservient in adjusting the size of the orifices to the increase or diminu-
tion of power which, for the time, may be required. The extreme por-
tions of the inner curves of the water-channels are made detached, and
constitute valves which move parallel to the plane of diameter in which
the channels terminate. In the smaller class of machines, these valves

Mil. W. M. Buchanan's Theory\of the Reaction Water- Wheel. 117

are usually acted upon by springs carefully adjusted in tension to the
centrifugal force due to their weight and angular velocity. By this
arrangement it is easy to perceive, that if the velocity of the machine
be reduced by an addition of burthen, the contrifugal force will at the
same time decrease in a duplicate ratio ; and the springs acting as cen-
tripetal forces, will cause the valves to move towards the centre of
the machine, and thereby enlarge the orifices. And conversely, should
the velocity bo unduly increased by a diminution of burthen, the centri-
fugal force will in like manner increase in the duplicate ratio of the in-
crement of speed, and will consequently cause the valves to move out-
wards against the action of the springs, and thereby contract the orifices,
and allow a less quantity of water to flow through them.

In the larger class of machines, the springs give place to a more com-
plex apparatus, by which the valves are worked directly by eccentrics
acted upon by a system of external geering. A rod *, having one end
heavier than the other, traverses the whole diameter of the machine,
passing through the projection of the eye and the boss of the shaft, and
carrying a vane-wheel k, at each of its extremities. The rod is free to slide
endlong in bearings which project above the upper surface of the machine,
but is retained in a given position by a spiral spring r, so long as the
proper velocity of the machine is maintained. But the instant that velo-
city is 'disturbed, the rod moves endlong, and bringing one of the vane-
wheels within the action of the jet from the contiguous orifice, it is made
to revolve round its axis in the direction of the impulse communicated
to the vane-wheel. This motion is transferred to the geering of the two
valves simultaneously, by two endless screws I, which slide by sunk-keys
upon the rod, and thence to the eccentrics n, within the valves, which are
thus made to turn in directions to contract or enlarge the orifices
according as the vane-wheel upon the weighted or unweighted end of the
rod is in action. When the velocity of the machine is unduly accelerated,
the spring yields to the increased centrifugal force of the weighted end
of the rod, and the corresponding vane-wheel is thrown into action; and
its operation is to contract the orifices, and allow a smaller quantity of
water to pass. On the contrary, when the velocity falls below the proper
rate, tho tension of the spring predominates, and the vane-wheel on the
unweighted end of the rod is brought into action ; and the effect is an
enlargement of the orifices and an increase of the power diroctly propor-
tional to the increase which takes place in the quantity of water
discharged.

These and a few other constructive details which would occupy too much
time to enumerate, arc essential to the practical application of the machine
as a prime mover; but the grand technical problem — that upon which
the. poflitfa value of the machine mainly depends, and to which all.
appliances are subordinate — is the propor form of the water-channels.
If these be incorrectly determined, no elegance or accuracy of workman-
ship will render the machine effective. They cannot, it is true, by any

118 Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel

chance be so ill constructed as completely to nullify the reacting force of
the water ; but it is quite possible, without any attempt to produce a mal-
formation, to find the machine yielding only forty, instead of eighty per
cent., which it ought generally to realize. But although inviting, tho
discussion of this part of the general problem must be deferred. At
present it will be sufficient that we establish tho theory of the machine —
the measure of its efficiency — assuming the technical conditions to be
strictly fulfilled. The details submitted are preliminary to this end, and
were entered upon only because they appeared necessary to insure a clear
conception of the modus operandi of the machine in its practical and most
effective form.

Fundamental Principles. — The characteristic property of fluids — that
which essentially distinguishes them from solids — is the remarkable pro-
perty they possess of transmitting equally in all directions the pressure
applied to their surfaces. From this property it follows, that when a
vessel is filled with water to a given depth, the pressure produced by the
gravity of the fluid alone upon any unit of the interior surface of the ves-
sel, horizontal or lateral, is always equal to the weight of a vertical column
of the fluid, having that unit of surface for its base, and the depth from
the water level as its length. But the pressure being propagated equally
in every direction, motion does not ensue ; the horizontal filaments of the
fluid pressing from within outwards, in virtue of the universal principle
of action and reaction equally and contrary, mutually counteract each
other's effect, pair and pair, over the entire interior of the vessel, and the
system of pressures remain in equilibrio. If the vessel be suspended by
a cord, it will remain at rest, and the line of suspension will be vertical ;
the horizontal components of pressure cannot put it in motion, and the
sum of the vertical pressures are neutralized by the tension of the cord.
But if a lateral orifice be made in the vessel below the level of the water,
the equilibrium will be destroyed ; for, by taking away a portion of the
retaining surface, the pressure on that side of the vessel must necessarily
be diminished, and will no longer balance the pressure on the surface
opposite. In consequence of this difference of pressure on the two sur-
faces, the vessel will no longer hang vertically, but will be deflected in a
direction opposite to that in which the jet of fluid is projected, in obe-
dience to the unbalanced force exerted within it.

This is immediately evident on the mere statement of the condition of
equilibrium ; but it does not follow, because there is no pressure on the
part of the surface which is removed, that we have found a measure of
the unbalanced pressure or reaction exerted on tho equal portion of the
retaining surface immediately opposite. When the orifice is opened, it is
no longer a question of hydrostatic, but of hydraulic pressure, which we are

lli'il upon to consider. In the former case we are required to regard
only the weight of the fluid; but in the latter wo have weight and motion
combined.

To determine the amount of this reaction, it will be necessary and suffi-

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Whetl 119

cicnt to determine the quantity of action expended by the jot. Those forces
we know to be equal and contrary; and therefore, by ascertaining the power
expended in giving motion to the water ejected, we arrive at the true
measure of the reflex action produced upon the vessel. Now, the force
expended must obviously depend upon the velocity and volume of the
jet, and will therefore be known when those elements are found. If ^ be
the mass of a particle of the fluid, (moaning by the mass the weight
divided by gravity,) and V the velocity with which it is ejected at the
orifice, its vis viva is expressed by ^V 2 , and therefore 2^V 2 will bo the
sum of the vires viva? of all the particles ejected with that velocity referred
to a unit of time. But the number of particles which flow through the
orifice will obviously be as their velocity, and that velocity as the square
root of the height of the fluid-level above the orifice, representing the
pressure by which the particles are urged. Assuming, for simplicity, that
the orifice is formed in the bottom of the vessel, and that some means are
contrived for maintaining the water-level constant ; if we suppose that
under these circumstances, a lamina of water immediately over the orifice
is put in motion, at every indefinitely small instant of time, by the pressure
of the whole column of fluid standing above it, the entire gravitation of
the column, being employed in generating the velocity of the lamina, will
urge it forward by a force as much greater than its own weight as the
column' exceeds it in height, and through a space as much less, in the
same proportion. But when the forces are inversely as the spaces described,
the final velocities are equal, and, therefore, the velocity with which the
laminae of the water issue by the orifice must be equal to that which they
would acquire by falling in vacuo from the height of the surface of the
water to the orifice. Denoting this height by H, we shall then have the
relation V 2 = 2 </H, and consequently

2^Y 3 = 2^ x 2H,
which is the sum of the weights of all the particles of a column of the
fluid of a height = 2H, and expresses the measure of the pressure which
is constantly being expended during the efflux of the water. But agreeably
to the principle of reaction equal and contrary to action, the orifice being
vertical, an equal amount of weight will be deducted from the entire pres-
sure of the fluid upon the bottom of the vessel. Now, what is true with
respect to the effect of a vertical jet must be equally true when the efflux
is lateral, since the vertical and horizontal components of prossure at equal
depths, and referred to the same unit of surface, are equal; and, there-
fore, the jet being projected horizontally, 2^ x 2H will represent the
weight which must be applied to the suspended vessel in the line and direc-
tion of the efflux, to prevent it from being deflected from its vertical posi-
tion.

This conclusion may be arrived at simply by reflecting, that when part
of the weight of a body is expended in producing motion in any direction,
:ui rqual weight must necessarily be deducted from its pressure in the oppo-
site direction, since the gravitation employed in generating velocity can-

120 Mr. W. M. Bucuanan's Theory of the Reaction Water-Wheel.

not at the same time be causing pressure. The orifice of issue being
formed in the bottom of a vessel containing water, a column of the fluid
will descend through it, and expend, during its descent, a quantity of
pressure equal to that of its own volume. Now admitting the velocity of
the effluent particles at the orifice to bo the same that they would acquire
by falling freely from the height of the water-level, which, for simplicity,
we shall suppose to bo 16 feet above the orifice, the velocity of issue will
be at the rate of 32 feet in a second ; and, therefore, a column of 32 feet
in length will pass through the orifice every second with the whole velo-
city derivable from its weight. It is therefore clear that an amount of
gravitation sufficient to generate that velocity in the volume of fluid dis-
charged must have been expended, and consequently falls to be deducted
from the pressure exerted by the fluid upon the bottom of the vessel. In
like manner, if the jet issue from a lateral orifice at the same depth below
the water-level, the pressure upon that side will be diminished by a quan-
tity equal to the gravitation employed in producing the motion of the fluid.
But the amount of gravitation thus expended is equivalent to a column
of the fluid of twice the head, and therefore the effect upon the vessel
will be the same as if it were subjected to an equal pressure of any other
kind in an opposite direction. And moreover, the pressure being lateral,
and therefore perpendicular to the only direction in which a vertical force
like that of gravity can itself act, it must be derived by reaction of the
moving particles on the opposite surface of the vessel, and may be assi-
milated to the constant pressure of a spring, interposed between the par-
ticles of fluid and the unit of surface immediately opposite to the orifice. In
this position the spring must needs act in a direction exactly contrary to
that of the movement impressed upon the issuing fluid, and with an inten-
sity exactly equal to the hydraulic pressure of the jet.

This principle of reaction equal and contrary to action, as applied in
hydraulics, has been acknowledged upwards of a century. Daniel Ber-
nouilli, in his Hydrodynamica, (Strasbourg, 1738,) among other proposi-
tions, then new to science, announced that " the reaction of a jet of water
is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid of double the height due
to the velocity of efflux, and having for its base the area of the orifice."
This proposition was afterwards submitted to the test of experiment, and
partially confirmed ; but I cannot find that it at any time received that
rigorous investigation which was necessary to secure confidence in the
result, and justify an unqualified acceptance of the literal terms of the
proposition as the basis of a practical theory of the Reaction Water-Mill.
Under this feeling of doubt, and impressed with the necessity that existed
of obtaining accurate data for the calculation and construction of those
machines, a very extensive series of experiments was undertaken and con-
ducted by Mr. C. Randolph and myself, with every opportunity and inten-
tion of obtaining a quantative result upon whicli we could rely. The
apparatus employed was that depicted in the accompanying drawing.
(Plate IV.) It consisted of a small reaction machine, capable of passing

Mil. W. M. Buchanan's Tluory of the Reaction Water- Wheel. 121

about 12 cubic feet of water per minute, under a head of 10 feet. The
area of the orifices was determined with the utmost precision ; and provi-
sion being made for measuring the water discharged within the five
thousandth part of a cubic foot in 2 minutes, the velocity of emission
could be calculated with great exactness from the relation,
Volume of water, = vcloci rf efflui
Area of orifices,

To determine the corresponding reaction, one arm of a friction-brake
applied upon the vertical spindle of the machine, was loaded with a weight
known to bo considerably less than the pressure to be measured, and the
other was attached to a delicate dynamometer, which indicated the addi-
tional weight necessary to balance the reaction, and keep the machine at
rest. It would be tedious to describe the precautions adopted to secure
accuracy ; but it may be remarked, that the effect of the friction of the
journals, which is the most obvious source of error, was eliminated, by
causing the arms of the brake, and consequently the machine, to oscillate
slowly through a small arc, and taking the mean of the tension on the
dynamometer when the motion was with, and opposed to the direction
of the jets. The experiments were, besides, only accepted when satis-
factory : in every instance when a doubt arose, the experiment was can-
celled. The mean of the recorded results was subsequently calculated
by Legendre's method of Least Squares, and stood thus : The velocity
of efflux determined from the volume of water discharged was found to
be that due to 0*85682 of the mean actual head of 10 feet, taken as
unity ; and the hydraulic reaction referred to a column of water having
the sum of the areas of the orifices as a base, was 1*80832 of the samo
actual mean head. We have therefore the general ratio of comparison,
•85682 II 1

1-80832 H " 21105
that is, the head duo to the velocity of efflux at the orifices being iss 1,
tho measure of the reaction referred to the same unit = 2*1 105, which is
greater by ^^ H than the measure assigned by theory.

This result, which at first view appears anomalous, is corroborated by
the experiments which have been made to determine tho hydraulic pres-
sure of isolated jets projected perpendicularly against a plane surface.
Newton (Principiay Bk. II.) demonstrated from elementary principles
that tho measure of tho impulse of tho jet is identical with that stated
by Bernouilli as the measure of the reaction ; and M. Poisson (Mechanics,
Bk. V.) arrives at the same conclusion by a different process of reasoning.
But on submitting the proposition to the test of experiment, it has been
found that the actual -result is uniformly in excess of that assigned by
calculation ; and moreover, that the ratio varies with the head-pressure,
and also with the size of orifice. Thus in the experiments of M. Morosi,

the ratio from difference of head alone varied from _- to ■ ; and

- 1 '_■'_'_

122 Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water-Wheel.

in those of M. Bidone, the ratio from difference of size of orifice (cir-
cular of 0'02 to 0-036 metre's diameter,) varied from—— to 5-555!

These seeming anomalies are explicable by reference to a principle
which will be immediately adverted to ; but in the meantime it is neces-
sary to inquire into the circumstances by which the actual mean head
of ten feet was reduced, when measured by the velocity of efflux at
the orifices, to 8*5682 feet, showing a loss of 1*4318 feet of head-
pressure incurred between the reservoir and the orifices of the machine.
It was easy to perceive that this loss did not result from a single
cause, but expressed the conjoined effect of several influences which it
was necessary to determine individually. In the first it was obvious
that there would be a certain amount of head-pressure absorbed by
the friction of the water in passing through the supply-pipe. This was
regarded as a known quantity, which could be represented in character
and amount by

2/. 1 L. *'
A, ig

in which C denotes the internal perimeter, A / the cross-sectional area, and

L the length of the pipe : u the velocity with which the water descends

through it, and/ an empirical coefficient = *0035. If therefore S denote

the sum of the areas of the orifices, V the velocity of efflux, and D the

diameter of the pipe (all in feet), this equation may be put under the

form

J ' D ' A, 2 ' 2g - * 2g
Another small but permanent influence, tending to diminish the pres-
sure, is the acceleration experienced by the water in passing from the
supply-pipe into the interior of the machine through the neck formed by
the mouth-piece and central opening, and which are commonly less in
diameter than the supply-pipe. This was likewise known from established
data to be represented in form by

A, 2 V m / 2g 2g

in which A„ is the area of the central opening, and u the velocity of the
water passing through it : m a coefficient, determined by a very extensive
scries of experiments directed exclusively to that object to be = -9378.

A third, though very small loss of pressure would obviously result from
the resistance encountered by the water in traversing the arms of the
machine. The effect of this resistance, were the channels uniformly
contracted from their base outwards, would be represented by

8/s 2 . p. /* <Ld x

2 £*/0 A ///
in which C / and k. ln are respectively the transverse perimeter and area of

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel. 123

tho channel at a distance x from its origin. But the unequal section of
the channels renders it impossible to assign exactly tho value of the

integral / — L d%. This is of little moment, as the quantity itself being

J K,

very small, will not diner sensibly from the mean of the resistance which
tho water would encounter in passing through the machine if the areas
had throughout their length tho mean cross-sectional area of the orifice
and origin, and may therefore be expressed by

u, being the corresponding velocity of the water in channels of the mean
transverse area assumed.

These are direct and evident causes of loss of head-pressure in the
machine ; but we have yet to take into account another influence small
indeed in amount, but still appreciable in its effect. This is mani-
fested in what is denominated the contraction of the vein. Revert-
ing to our suppositious example of an orifice being formed in the side of
a vessel in which the water is maintained at a constant level, it was left
to be inferred that the velocity of efflux would be that of a heavy body
falling through a space equal to the head of water ; and if the orifice be
very small, compared with the horizontal area of the vessel, this will be
nearly true. And, in general, the velocity of discharge can be closely
assigned when the ratio of these quantities is known. But although the
velocity with which the particles of the fluid issue may be found from data,
which are always attainable, it does not follow that we thereby know the
volume of liquid discharged. Although invariably proportional to the
area of the orifice and to the square root of the head of water, its
value is not found to depend, except in a minor degree, upon the ratio

, but upon the form of orifice through which the jet issues.

area of vessel

If the side of the vessel in which the orifice is made, be of very thin

material, as tin-plate, the discharge q, in cubic ft. per second, will be very

nearly expressed by

q = -625aV r "2?H

in which a is the area of the orifice, and H the head of water under

which the discharge takes place.

If the jet from an orifice of this kind be closely observed, it will be
perceived to converge through a short distance from its origin, forming,
when the orifice is circular, a conoid, of which the area of the least
section is £ of the area of the orifice. If advantage be taken of this
circumstance to apply an ajutage to tho orifice of the form assumed by
the jet, tho discharge will be found to approximate very closely to that
assigned by the formula q = a V 2g H.

This difference of discharge of the two kinds of aperture, is usually

124 Mr. TV. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Ileaction Water- Wheel.

ascribed to the inclined directions which the molecules of the fluid assume
previous to their exit, and which they tend to retain after passing the
thin parietes of the simple orifice. For greater clearness let us assume
that the aperture is horizontal, circular, and of small area in comparison
with the area of the containing vessel ; under these conditions a large
portion of the fluid will be put in motion, and will slowly approach the
orifice during the efflux, in the form of an inverted cone, of which the
orifice is the apex. The particles, as they come opposite to the orifice,
are therefore impressed with motions converging to an axis ; but these
motions, in consequence of the mutual cohesion of the particles, must tend
to a common velocity in that axis : and the length of the external conoid
will express the time in which the oblique motions are converted into
motions parallel to the axis of the jet. It is therefore only at the point
of least section that the molecules of fluid have attained the effective
velocity due to the head under which they issue ; and it is therefore only
in reference to that point that the hydraulic pressure of the jet is equal
to a column of the fluid of double the actual liead. By adopting an
ajutage to the orifice of the shape indicated, the oblique motions of
the particles are corrected in passing through it, and reduced to parallelism
with the axis at the moment of efflux into the atmosphere. There still,
however, remains to depreciate the discharge assigned by the formula
<7 = aV2<7H, the imperfections of workmanship in the construction,
and the adhesion of the fluid to the perimeter of the ajutage, with possibly
a slight atmospheric influence not yet defined. But assuming the ajutage
to be made with all possible care — both as to form and finish — if we call
the area of the orifice 1000, that of the contracted vein will be 975 :
and these numbers taken inversely will express the velocity of the jet at
the two points measured by the discharge. The value of q for an orifice
of this form will therefore be

2=-975aV2#H
showing a loss of head-pressure, as measured by the discharge, of

(1 — -9T5 2 ) — = 049375 H

when U = V 2g H the theoretical velocity due to the head H. And
generally, if V be the actual velocity of efflux, and h the practical coeffi-
cient of discharge for any orifice, so that U = -j- ' the head-pressure not

realized in the measure of o, will be (-— — 1 ) — -— = °— — And the

VF / 2g 2g

pressure not realized in the measure of the reaction, will be expressed by

I V 2 V 2

in which <P denotes the mean angle formed by the filaments of water of
the jet with the axis.

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel. 125

But betwixt this the least contraction of the fluid vein, and that which
takes place when the orifice is formed in a thin plate, we may evi-
dently have a series of any number of terms expressing successive degrees
of approximation of the ajutage to the theoretical form of least con-
traction. This is obvious, as regards the discharge from a fixed aju-
tage, and it is equally obvious, that if an ajutage be constructed to
fulfil the conditions of least contraction when the vessel is at rest, it
will no longer answer that condition when it moves in the line of the
jet with any given velocity. If its motion be in the direction of the
jet, its length will manifestly bo virtually increased, and the contrac-
tion will approach to that of a jet issuing from a parallel pipe, the
coefficient for which is *8 ; and if the movement be in the contrary direction,
the length of the ajutage will be in effect diminished, and the con-
traction will approach that from an orifice in a thin plate. This last
is the actual case which falls to be considered in the reaction machine ;
the ajutages have a determinate velocity, in an opposite direction to
that in which the fluid issues, and accordingly have their length virtually
reduced. This must necessarily be provided against in the construction
of the machine, and a length and form of the ajutages determined,
which shall exactly correspond, at the given angular velocity of the
machine, to the proper dimensions at which, if stationary, they would
yield their maximum discharge. This is a problem which requires to be
resolved for every machine.

But with a machine thus constructed, it is easy to perceive that the
contraction of the jets will greatly exceed the minimum just assigned,
when motion is prevented; and, therefore, in those experiments made
for the purpose of determining the measure of the reaction, it might be
predicted that the coefficient of discharge would fall considerably below
•975. By calculation of the valves of *, /3, y, and, taking into account
the difference of the atmospheric pressure at the higher and lower levels
of the water-surfaces, it was found that k = *942, and that the loss of head
due to the contraction of the jets, measured by the discharge, was there-
fore 112636 IT, instead of the minimum, -049375 H.

If to those absorbing influences we add « — comprehending the loss of

atmospheric pressure duo to the head H, and the effect of the cohesion of
the water to the perimeter of the orifices, (not valued,) we shall have
as the total calculated loss

O + + y + 5 + «) ^!=01421 H,

and, therefore, upon the moan head of 10 feet employed in these experi-
ments, the loss ss 1421 feet. This result is sufficiently near the actual
quantity to warrant us in assuming the measure of the reaction assigned
to be practically correct for the particular case ; and, therefore, we may
assume that wherever the values of the coefficients can be determined

126 Mil. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water-Wheel.

with exactness, the motive force derivable from any given head will be
known. Generally the value of that head will be expressed by

2# 2$r

and, therefore if, for simplicity, we put * + /3 -f y + &, + e = K, we
shall have

- V l + K

This being the velocity of efflux, the expenditure of water in a second
will be indicated by

2gR

«»vs

cubic feet.

S being the sum of the areas of the two orifices ; and if w be the weight
of a cubic foot of water, and P the weight which would be sufficient to
balance the reaction due to that discharge, we shall have

P=JL S _X2cH
l + K

in which c is the coefficient of reaction depending upon H and S, and
which in the experiments before referred to, was found to give
2c = 21105.

Theory of the Action of the Machine. — From what is here stated, it is
clear that if a weight p, less than P, be applied to the machine, a certain
amount of the reaction will remain to generate velocity. But when
motion is induced, a new order of things will arise. Centrifugal force
will be immediately produced in the water occupying the arms of the
machine, and the pressure at the orifices being thereby increased, the expen-
diture of water will be correspondingly augmented.

A common expression for the centrifugal force referred to a unit of
mass revolving in a circle is tf% when 9 =z the angular velocity of the
body, and ^ its distance from the centre of rotation. Now, if the unit of
mass advance in the direction of the radius outwards through the element
of space dx, in the time dt, the force developed in that direction by the
centrifugal force, will be &*xdx; and if this be integrated for the space
R — r, the length of the arm of the machine, we shall have

%x<k = i4 2 (ft 2 --r 2 )
r
And putting v for the absolute velocity of the machine in feet per second,

at the distance R, from the axis of rotation, we have 6 = — -. Substituting

R
this value of 6 in the equation just found, and taking the weight of the
element of fluid = 1, we have as the increment of pressure due to the
velocity v,

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Jituction Water- Wheel. 127

which added to the pressure due to tlio actual head, gives as the total
effective head, „* . v v „*

H + i( 1 -<lT>')= H+ "J

when n is put for 1 — (w)' But u^er tn ^ s new condition, the coeffici-
ents *, /3, y, 8, «, will pass to the new values *', £', y', 3', «', and 1 + K will
be changed to 1 -f K\ We might proceed to determine the values of these
coefficients in terms of « ; but, for our present purpose it is sufficient to
observe that they can always be assigned, and may therefore be regarded
as known. It will not, however, be out of place to observe that, although
*, /3, y, continually increase as v, the coefficient of contraction 8, will
decrease till that value of t) is attained, at which the power of the
machine is a maximum, and will continually increase afterwards. The small
quantity «, may be considered constant ; but, in order to justify ite change
to «', we shall suppose it to include the resistance which the atmosphere
offers to the motion of the machine ; and which, at very high velocities,
becomes an appreciable quantity.

These conditions being established, we shall have under the increased
head-pressure, an increase in the expenditure of water by the machine, as

/ 2gH /2gH +

K'
and, therefore, in the unit of time we shall have

Q = S y/ -g^ + ^f cubic feet.

1 / * 15 s

And supposing the permanent head H, to become - — ( H 4- n t~)

by merely elevating the reservoir : it is clear, from what has been before
stated respecting the measure of the reaction, that

This is the measure of the whole pressure of reaction at the orifices; but
it is to be observed that the part n ■« — being obtained, in consequence

of the motion of the machine, with a velocity of v ft. per second, a por-
tion of the reaction must have been consumed in communicating that
velocity to the volume of water discharged in that second of time,

equivalent to raisiug it to a height n — - — feet. The pressure thus con-
Vol. IT.— No. 2. 4

128 Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel.

sumed will bo measured by the mass multiplied into the velocity, and is
therefore expressed by

- V2?H + ni>He

g (i + K')

and this subtracted from the whole pressure of reaction, there remains as
the whole effective pressure,

2J*gj- \c(2gH + nv>)-v^2glI + nA

TVV1 + K'

And putting for w S, its equivalent T o we have as the pres-

sure with which the machine moves,

f===f<|« V2gH + ne»— el

This will therefore be a measure of the burthen, p, which the machine
can carry at a velocity of v feet per second ; and the pressure multiplied
into the space moved through, that is p v, being the measure of the la-
bouring force, we have as the expression of the total efficiency of the
machine,

= {77T=p?'( cV2 * H + "'' 2 - , ')}

And taking, WH = 1, the whole mechanical value of the water ex-
pended, the ratio of the efficiency of the machine will be represented by
1

From this reasoning it appears that the whole pressure expended in giving
motion is,

i J V2#H + nv 2 \v

and the entire reaction due to the volume of water expended, being

1 + K' V T g>
which the machine can attain v
i, that

wS c (2H + nJ?L) = -^L= j V2^H + »^)
1 + K' ^ g> g^l + K' \ y j

id resolving this equation, we find as the limit,

„ = c A / _JzI = cV "^ 5

V l + K— c*» / _ . ^s

V l + K-^l-sr)

the limit of velocity which the machine can attain when moving without
burthen, will be such, that

Mr. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water-Wheel 129

when n is replaced by its equivalent 1 — /JL\

From this, it appears that the maximum head-pressure which can be

c 2 H

created in the machino by centrifugal force = — -

l + K-vd-sr

and tho ratio

VfyH

>\/l + KW(l-J)

A question of much more importance in practice is the value of v t
which will render

a maximum. But at this point calculation fails to be satisfactory, and
we must have recourse to experiment to determine the relation which v
bears to the velocity V 2g H of the water duo to the initial head H.
Euler in his elaborate investigation of the general problem, (Berlin, Trans.
1750 and 1754,) misled by the symbols resulting from his attempt to deter-
mine the maximum value of the function analytically, announced the
hypothesis that the power of the machine increases with the velocity ad
infinitum. In taking experiment as the guide, it did not, however, require
any lengthened investigation to discover that the symbols of calculation
do not in this case represent the truo conditions of the question, a nd that
v has in practice a limit which can be represented in terms of V 2g H,
and of the coefficients K/ and n. In order to ascertain that relation with
the necessary degree of exactness, a series of values of p v, taken near the
maximum, was interpolated by La Grange's theorem, and the value of v
thereby determined, was found to have the relation

•V T 2 ' h -

4K 2

+ K'

wluch in practice does not differ materially from V 2g H. If then we sub-
stitute that value in the expression for p v, we find after reduction,

pt) = Wx 2H

( / 5"? 1

8223 WH

r 3 1 1

when -pa = -jr and K' = yrr, and c = 1*05 as before determined. The

highest value obtained experimentally under circumstances which admit-
ted of positive accuracy in the measurement of the water, was
•80375 W H ; but in that instance the fall was variable, and the proper
velocity could not be maintained during the time of an experiment. It

130 Mh. W. M. Buchanan's Theory of the Reaction Water- Wheel

is therefore not probable that the maximum effect was obtained. A
smaller model, still in my possession, yields as a maximum, under like
circumstance, p v = 79873 W H.

Literal References to the Drawings, Plates III. and IV.

The same letters indicate the same or corresponding parts in all the

Drawings.

a, the machine ; and b its vertical spindle.

c, the water-joint, formed by the coincidence of the edge of the central
opening in the machine with that of the rising-ring d.

e, the collar-ring, bolted upon the foundation flange of the supply-pipe f.

g, saucer-shaped disc, to take off a part of the hydrostatic pressure, and
forming a water-tight joint with the upper plate of the machine.

A, waste-pipe, to convey the water escaping into the hollow disc g, into
the atmosphere.

?, traversing-rod of the governing apparatus.

h, vanes on the extremities of the same.

I, endless-screws on the rod i, connecting the wheels m with the eccen-
trics n, inside of the valves.

p, q, parallel-cheeks, between which the valves slide.

r, spiral-spring on traversing-rod i.

s, indices, for height of fall and quantity of water in the cistern u.

t, reservoir for applying the experimental apparatus with water.

u, cistern, into which the water discharged by the machine is delivered.

v, pulley for the friction-brake, used to test the power of the machine.

w, clack-valve in the bottom of the water-course, between the machine
and the cistern u.

x, culvert for waste water.

y, handle of the valve for emptying the cistern u.

z, float in the reservoir, attached to the head-valve and scale of fall s.

15th April, 1846. — The President in the Chair.

Br. R. D. Thomson presented an additional donation of plants, from
Northern India, collected by Dr. Thomas Thomson, junior, for which the
thanks of the Society were voted. The Council reported that Mr. Liddell
had intimated to the meeting of this evening, that the town Council had
agreed to the Report of the Joint Committee of the Town Council and
the Society, as to the exhibition of models — an important provision being,
" that the Philosophical Society guarantee against loss, in equal propor-
tion with the Town Council, to the extent of £100 ; and that if the loss
should exceed this sum, the excess to be borne exclusively by the Town
Council, provided that the gross expenditure shcill not exceed £500."

EXPERIWeKTAlL ^(PIFAlHAiraJS

. ,f f L

r r f t

Scale of Feet .

Nacta-e * IfectWU Lrti.GWjcnr.

REMTTKDKI WATIR WMEEIU
PLAN OF WHEEL.

VERTICAL SECTION ON THE LINE A.B.OF PLAN

£,:

Du. TiioMbOX on Caries, en' Decay of the Teeth. 131

The Joint Committee were intrusted with discretionary power as to
details. The following communication was read : —

On Caries, or Decay of the Teeth. — By F. Hay Thomson, M.D.

The teeth, which are composod of onamel, bone or dentine, and a sub-
stance which has received various names, suoh as corticle, crusta petrosa,
and cement, possess the following composition. The enamel contains
phosphate of lime, 88*5 ; carbonate of lime, 8* ; phosphate of magnesia,
V 5', membrane, alkali, and water, 2\ The dentine contains phosphate
of limo, 64*3; carbonato of lime, 53 ; phosphate of magnesia, 1* ; soda
with chloride of sodium, 1*1: while the cortical part, or crusta petrosa,
consists of organic matter, 42-18; phosphate of lime, 53*84; carbonate
of limo, 3*98. Those analyses show that the enamel is almost destitute
of organic matter. The dentine scarcely diners from true bone, and
as such, is highly organized. The crusta petrosa contains more organic
matter than the dentine. Hence, we see, that writers on the subject
of diseases of the bones have every reason to suppose that disease
of the teeth may be similar in its origin to caries in other bones, since
it happens that in some kinds of caries the result is much the same in
external appearance, although analysis shows that a deficiency of earthy
matter in diseased teeth is not always a symptom of caries of other bones.

According to Mr. Fox, the cause of the decay of teeth appears to be an
inflammation in the bone of the crown of the tooth, which, on account
of its peculiar structure, terminates in mortification. The membrane
which is contained within the cavity of the tooth is very vascular,
and possesses a high degree of nervous sensibility ; and inflammation of
this membrane is liable to be occasioned by any excitement which produces
irregular action ; and as the bone of the tooth is very dense, and possesses
little living power, death of some part of it may speedily follow.

Mr. Bell considers the proximate cause of caries to be an inflamma-
tion of the external surface of the bone immediately under the enamel.
He thinks that, when from cold or any other cause a tooth becomes
inflamed, the part which suffers most severely is unable, from its possessing
comparatively but a small degree of vital power, to recover from the
effects of inflammation, and mortification of that part is the consequence.

Mr. Hunter appears to have come nearer the true cause of caries than
any other writer, as, although ho states that oaries is a disease arising
originally in the tooth itself, ho evidently had a strong idea that the
different articles containing powerful menstrua, exercised an influence in
the production of caries. Ho remarks, "if it had always been in the
inside of the cavity, it might have been supposed to be owing to a
deficiency of nourishment ; but as decay begins most commonly externally,
in a part where in a sound state the teeth receive little or no nourish-
ment, wo cannot refer it to that cause." He was of opinion, however,
that caries is a diseaso arising originally in the tooth itself.

132 Dr. Thomson on Caries, or Decay of the Teeth.

The author, however, considers the cause of caries to be external, and
not to depend upon inflammation. To make his views apparent, it is
necessary to give a short sketch of the development of the teeth, from
the pulp upwards.

The teeth diner much in formation from the bones in general,
having for their basis a pulp similar in shape to the tooth to be produced,
instead of the usual base, cartilage. "Wo can trace the fonnation of these
pulps so early as the fourth month of animal existence ; and as the forma-
tive process goes on, they are each gradually enclosed in a cell produced
by small processes of bone, which may be observed shooting across from
each side of the groove in the jaw in which the pulps are first found, and
which gradually form these cells. Each pulp is covered by a membrane
firmly attached to the gum and to the pulp at its base. When the pulps
have been injected, we find that they are filled with vessels, as also the
membrane by which they are enveloped. The pulps derive their vessels
from the artery which passes through the jaws and the membranes, from
the gums. The bone of the tooth is formed from the pulp, and the
enamel from the investing membrane. The bony portion is formed in the
following manner ; when the ossification commences, the bone is deposited
in the extreme points of the pulp from the vessels. In the incisors it
begins upon their edges, and in the molars upon the points of their
grinding surfaces, usually four in the lower jaw, and in the upper five.
These soon extend over the surface, and eventually the whole pulp is
covered. The deposition of the bone continues from without inwards,
and this goes on till the tooth becomes complete. When the body is
formed, the pulp elongates and takes the form of the fang proper to each
particular tooth. Bone is then deposited, and it becomes smaller till it
terminates in a point ; when there are two or more fangs, the pulp divides^
and the ossification proceeds accordingly. The cavity gradually decreases,
till at last it contains merely nervous and muscular matter, which is after-
wards to give life and sensation to the tooth. The enamel is collected
from the investing membrane, and is deposited on the ossific points in the
shape of a fluid. This is at first of a consistence, not firmer than chalk ;
it, however, soon grows hard, and seems to undergo a process similar to
that of crystallisation, for it takes a regular and peculiar form. The
enamel, when broken, appears to be composed of a great number of small
fibres, all of which are arranged so as to pass in a direction from the centre
to the circumference of the tooth, or to form a sort of radii round the
body of the tooth. This is the crystallised form which it acquires some-
time after its deposit. Now, as the process of formation goes on, new
particles being deposited, the lamellae thus formed, meet at last, in the
centre, and should a child, for example, be of an unhealthy constitution,
we find invariably that these plates do not join in the centre, but leave
minute divisions of a crucial nature on the crowns of the teeth, thereby
giving access to any acid matter that may have an affinity for the bony
portions of the teeth. In the author's opinion, all simple decay arises

Dr. Thomson on Caries, or Decay of the Teeth. J 33

from the action of the saliva, which becomes impregnated with acid of
different kiuds, either from tho food we occasionally indulge in, or from a
morbid state of the stomach, arising from scrofula or other causes. The
saliva, acccording to M. Donne, is in its normal state purely alkaline, and
this conclusion is now followed by most physiologists. The pathological
condition of the stomach, indicated by an acid state of the saliva, is
irritation of its mucous membrane, and ho contends that this condition of
the stomach uniformly induces or is accompanied by acidity of the saliva.
Besides giving the result of his experiments in arriving at these conclu-
sions, he has narrated a large number of cases illustrative of the corres-
ponding change from acidity to alkalinity, as the patient recovered from
disease.

In compound decay where the disease appears between the teeth,
more particularly in the incisors and bicuspides, and exhibits itself as a
mere point, gradually increasing till absolute destruction of the organs
takes place, the author considers that the disease never takes place till
actual contact takes place, and when from the pulp being unhealthy, the
enamel has not been properly developed. Hence the apparent cause of
further decay is from without, a view which is confirmed by the fact
derived from experience, that in nine cases out of ten, compound decay
is developed before manhood, at a time when the teeth are very highly
organized, and consequently more likely to suffer from any obstruction
of the circulating medium.

The morbid states of the saliva which produce this decay, often arise
from a weak constitution, thus laying the foundation of decay in after
years; for although a child may become healthy, and apparently the decay
may not be distinctly developed, yet a minute investigator will detect it
at once. The disease, it is true, may not as yet be active, still the
slightest attack of fever or ill health of any kind, by increasing the acidity
of the saliva, will be sure to induce a further development of decay.

A life protecting frame for cleaning windows, made by John Bailie,
Edinburgh, was exhibited to the Society by Mr. Liddell, and described
by Mr. W. M. Buchanan.

29*A April. — Tlie President in the Chair.

Mr. Liddell read a paper on tho statistics of pauperism, crime, and
state of education of the juvenile portion of the poor of Glasgow. Tho
following table is drawn up from data furnished by the Sunday-School
Teachers, by Mr. Alexander Pliimister, jun.

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l-H

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PROCEEDINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-FIFTH SESSIOxN.

4th November, 1846. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

Messrs. Dawson and Griffin were appointed Auditors for the past year.

The Treasurer reported that the Committee appointed on the 23d March
last, to make arrangements for a public exhibition of models, &c. during
the holidays at the new year, was now in active operation. The Vice-
President stated, that the President, from domestic causes, was under the
necessity of spending the winter on the Continent.

Mr. Liddell having taken the chair, Mr. Crum read a paper on the
Constitution and Properties of Gun Cotton, the recent discovery of Pro-
fessor Schonbein, which he showed to be a new and distinct compound of
nitric acid and cotton. His observations were illustrated by some beautiful
experiments.

ISth November, 1846. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society: —
Messrs. John Finlay, Alexander Miller, Francis Liesching, John Carrick,
and Hugh Carswell.

Mr. Griffin presented from the Chemical Society, the 18th and 19th
parts of their Proceedings, and from Dr. R. D. Thomson a continuation of
the Registrar General's Weekly and Quarterly Reports of Mortality in
the Metropolis.

The Treasurer presented his account for the past year.

1845.
Nov. 18. — To Cash in Bank, at beginning of

Session, £220

— Interest on do 6 10 8

Vol. II.— No. 3,

226 10 8

136 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

Brought up £226 10 8

To 14 New Members, £14 14

— 15 Original Members, @ 5s., An-

nual Payments, 3 15

— 16G Annual Payments, 124 10

— Arrears, 3

145 19

£372 9 8
1845.
Nov. 4.— By Fixtures, Furniture for Hall, £118 G

— 600 vols, purchased, 45

— Printing Catalogue, 6 5

1G9 5 6

— Ordinary Outlay for Printing Books,

Rent, &c 116 12 5

— Balance in Bank, 80

— In Hands of Treasurer, 6 12 1

86 11 9

£372 9 8

Examined, ( Signed) Thomas Dawson.

John Joseph Griffin.

From a note by the Treasurer, it appears, that no names fall to be
dropped from the list for non-payment of dues. At the commencement of
last session, there were on the list 178 members, and during the sitting
of the session, 14 were admitted, making the number at the end 192.
The number at the present date (1st Nov.) is reduced by ten, viz., 3 by
death, and 7 by non-residence, making the number on the list 182.

The Society then proceeded to the forty-fifth annual election of office-
bearers, when the following were chosen: —

$mtoent.
Dr. Thomas Thomson.

Vice-President,.. Walter Crum.
Treasurer, Andrew Liddell.

Secretary, Alexander Hastie.

Librarian John J. Griffin.

A. Anderson, M.D.
A. Buchanan, M.D.
J. Ftndlay, M.D.
Professor Gordon.

Council.
Wm. Gourlie, Jun.
Alex. Harvey.
William Keddie.
William Murray.

John Stenhouse.
R. D. Thomson, M.D.
George Watson.
Alex. Watt, LL.D.

2d December, 1846. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

The following members were elected: — Messrs. William Thomson, B.A.
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, James

On the Chemistry of Food. 137

Bryce, Jun., M.A., F.G.S., Thomas Callender, Robert Wylie, George
Buchanan.

Mr. William Murray stated, that the shock of an earthquake which
was experienced in Perthshire on the night of the 24th ultimo, was
distinctly felt in Athol Place, in this city, by three members of his family.
The tremulous motion was accompanied with noise. Mr. Cockey stated
that ho also observed the motion, but heard no noise, about 12 o'clock,

P.M.

Mr. Liddell reported that the arrangements for the exhibition of models
and manufactures in the City Hall were making satisfactory progress.

Dr. R. D. Thomson made a communication on the Chemistry of Food.
The views announced were founded on the idea that the destination of
the food is two-fold: 1st to repair the waste of the system of animals;
and 2d, to produce heat. All food, therefore, consists of nutritive and
calorifiant elements in addition to the salts. The author showed that
animals when placed in different circumstances, required these elements
to exist in different proportions to each other in the food. For example,
in milk, the food of grown animals, viz., of the young of mammiferous
animals, the relation of the nutritive or azotized to the calorifiant food, is
from 1 to 2, to 1 to 6 ; while by experiment he found that a full grown
animal at rest, a cow, for example, consumed 1 part of nutritive to 8 or 9
parts of calorifiant food. Arrow root, and other substances of this class,
where the relation of nutritive to calorifiant matter is as 1 to 24 or 25, in
addition to the absence of the proper salts, which have been washed at
neither preparation, are therefore improper food for children. He con-
sidered that the use of food not constituted according to such natural
laws, as food which was in a state of decay, predisposed to disease more
readily than the mere inhalation of gases from impure atmospheres.

Mr. Smith, late of Deanston, in illustration of the views of Dr. Thomson,
mentioned that he had fed a number of calves with sago, in order to save
milk; that the animals throve well for a time on this diet, and became
fat; but that, as their food contained too little of the nutritive, and too
much of the calorifiant elements described by Dr. Thomson, they all died,
some from inflammation of the brain, and pleura, and all exhibiting
symptoms of plethora.

Professor Gordon stated some reasons for doubting that water can be
decomposed by heat.

Mr. Smith exhibited a series of thermometers arranged for the purpose
of determining how far the atmospheric heat penetrates soils which have
been thoroughly drained, soils which have not been thoroughly drained,
but where water is present, and more especially peat-moss soils. Mr.
Smith made some observations on the importance of this investigation in
an agricultural point of view; and stated, that the observations made by
means of this instrument would probably settle a dispute among practical
men as to the depth to which draining should be carried in the soil.

1 38 Tables of the Fall of Rain.

16th December, 1846. — The Vice-President in the CJiair.

The following gentlemen were elected members: — Messrs. Archibald
B. Harley, Robert Johnston, Hugh Bartholomew, John Erskine, John
M'Haffie, John Houston, J. B. Sebright, and James Clark.

Mr. Gourlie reported that the arrangements for the Exhibition were
making most satisfactory progress.

Professor Gordon read the first part of a paper describing a series of
experiments on the temperature of the earth at different depths and in
different soils, and on the connexion between changes of temperature in
the atmosphere and the growth of plants, by Messrs. Quetelet, Professor
Forbes, Herr Dove, and others. — Vid. 27th January, 1847.

.-•»

SQth December, 1846. — The Vice-President in tlie Chair.

The following members were elected: — Messrs. Alexander Laing,
Robert Laird, W. Brown, William Geddes, J. Young, Charles Robb,
James M'Connell.

Mr. Smith of Deanston gave an oral account of the progress of
mechanism in the Cotton manufacture.

VSth January, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

The following members were elected: — Messrs. Thomas Macmicking,
James Harvey.

The following form of application for the admission of members was
adopted by the Society: " To the Secretary of the Philosophical Society
of Glasgow. Sir, — I beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for admission
as a member of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow; and, if elected, I
bind myself to obey the laws made, and to be made, by that Society, as
long as I continue to be a member. I am, Sir, your most obedient
Servant." — then follow name, designation, and address. This form, when
signed, to be accompanied with the following recommendation by three
members of the Society, "A. B. being desirous of being admitted a
member of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, we hereby recommend
him as deserving of that honour, and as likely to prove a useful and
valuable member."

The following Tables were communicated by Dr. R. D. Thomson: —

XXI. — Tables of the Fall of Bain in Glasgow and Neighbourhood.

The first column is the result of the rain gauge observations of the late
Dr. Couper, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, made

Tables of the Fall of Rain. 139

at tho Macfarlane Observatory in the College Park. The second column
is the mean, for a series of years, of the fall of rain at the Royal^Society's
apartments, at Somerset House, and is added for the sake of comparison.

GLASGOW. LONDON.

Inches. Inches.

1818, 25-270 1831, 16-85

1819, 23-041 1832, 1259

1820, 20-267 1833, 1136

1821, 22-486 1834, 800

1822, 23-456 1835, 1698

1823, 24-876 1836, 2275

1824, 22-529 1837, 1794

1825, 21-958 1838, 19-54

1834, 21-861 1839, 24-50

1840, 18-18

Mean, 22860 1841, 27*37

Mean, 17'82

Whether the small amount of rain-fall in Glasgow, as indicated by this
table, depended on the position of the gauge, or upon other causes,
remains to be determined by subsequent experiments. The greatest fall
of rain in Glasgow in any one month, for 21 years previous to 1824, was —

Inches.

August, 1808, 5-597

August, 1809, 5-283

October, 1812, 5597

The following table is from the observation of Mr. John Wiseman,
Schoolmaster at Gilmourton, in the parish of Strathaven, about 700 feet
above the sea.

1845. 1846.

Inches. Inches.

January, 4-30 5'50

February, 2*10 3*40

March, 3'00 5-20

April, 1-80 1-50

May, 2-20 2'20

June, 4-20 4*80

July, 2-80 610

August, 4-10 6-30

September, 5-80 2*50

October, 11*70 5'20

November, 7*80 2-40

December, 9*80 2-20

Amount, 59*60 47*30

140 Professor Gordon on the Temperature of the Earth.

The following are the results of other observations near Glasgow :-

Inches

( i rccnock, Gl • 8 Water- works, Mean of 7 years.

Paisley, 47*1 Do. do.

Carbeth, 43*09 Mean of 2 years

27th January, 1847. — Tlie Vice-President in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were admitted as members : — Messrs. Robert
Blackie, Henry M'Manus, John M'Gregor Macintosh, David Laidlaw,
John M 'Do wall, Alexander Ferguson.

Mr. Dawson moved that the sum of £30 be voted to the Library Com-
mittee, to defray the expense of this year's periodicals, and £50 for the
purchase of new books. It was agreed that in future the Council should
constitute the Library Committee.

A letter was received from Captain Boswall of the Royal Navy, placing
at the disposal of the Society, for any museum or institution in which it
might please to deposit them, the models of a harbour of refuge, boat with
Archimedean screw, and bathing machine, shown in the Society's exhibi-
tion in the City Hall. The thanks of the Society were given to Captain
Boswall, and the models deposited in the Andersonian Museum.

XXII. — Notice of Experiments on the Temperature of the Earth at
different depths and in different soils. By Professor Gordon.

Mr. Smith of Deanston having mentioned his intention of instituting
experiments to determine the temperature of the soil at different depths,
as being a datum required in the practical question of drainage, the
Professor proposed to give an account of the existing scientific knowledge
upon this point, from the recently published papers of Professor Forbes
and Herr Dove.

Having given a brief review of the history of the inquiry into this
important subject, from Lambert's experiments in 1779, to those under-
taken at the request of the Bristol Association in 1834, and carried on to
the present time ; and having described the instruments and methods of
observation adopted by Professor Forbes in the Edinburgh experiments
made in three different soils, and at three different heights above the sea,
and at depths of 3, 9, 12, and 24 paris feet in depth ; the first result of
these observations was stated to be, that the mean temperature in the

Trap Rock is, 46°14

Sandy Soil, 46°'60

Sandstone, 45°'95

The mean temperature of the air being 45°"28

PiiOFESSOit Gokdon on the Temperature of the Earth. 141

There is this remarkable result too, namely, the mean temperature is
greater as the depths are greater. The variation of temperature at the
different depths throughout the five years of experiment, was shown by
means of diagrams, containing the mean temperature for each week of
the year, taken by the mean of five years, as the best mode of disposing of
irregular fluctuations.

The upper curves (of the thermometer at three feet depth,) follow each
other with singular regularity.

At increasing depths the curves systematically separate from each
other, showing difference of conducting power in soils.

In reference to the thermometric range, these experiments confirmed
the theory that the ranges of temperature may be represented by the
ordinates of a logarithmic curve, of which the corresponding depths are
the abscisses; and that the retardations, the epochs of maxima and minima,
increase uniformly with the depth.

The geometrical expression of the first law being log. A = A + B p,
when A = thermometric range at depth p in French feet, and A and 13
are constant quantities determined by these experiments as follows : —

Mean Value of A. Mean Value of B.

Trap Rock, 1-105 -0545

Sand Soil, 1-174 -0477

Sandstone Rock, 1-060 -0311

So that by means of this formula, we can calculate the range for any
depth.

Diagrams illustrating the agreement of the experiments with this law,
were shown.

The depths for which the annual range of temperature is reduced to
one-hundredth of a degree of Centigrade, calculated by this formula,
would be in

Trap Rock, 57-3 Paris feet.

Sandy Soil, 666

Sandstone Rock, 96*9

That is to say, at these depths respectively, there occurs a stratum that
does not vary in temperature.

Another diagram was exhibited, showing the progress of heat down-
wards in these different soils, from which it appears that the greatest
cold at the depth of 24 feet occurred in —

Trap Rock, 13th July.

Sandy Soil, 29th June.

Sandstone, 3d May.

Such is the nature of the results obtained by Professor Forbes's experi-
ments, confirming and confirmed by those of Quetelet at Brussels, of

142 Professor Gordon on the Temperature of the Earth.

Rudberg at Upsala, of Arago at Paris, of Muncke at Heidelberg, of
Bischoff at Bonn, and others.

Dove's researches on the non-periodic changes of the distribution of
heat on the earth's surface, published in 1838, 1839, 1842, show with
great clearness and certainty, that years of failure of crops, in general,
are distinguished by a sinking of the mean temperature at each place of
observation, for a considerable length of time. Yet, when a large portion
of the earth's surface is taken into view, the apparent irregularities of
particular seasons counteract one another, so as to give no countenance
to the idea, that more heat falls upon the earth generally one year than
another.

As, however, the mould or plant soil is exposed to direct isolation and
nightly radiation, and therefore under different circumstances from those
of a thermometer in shade, it becomes a question, whether the temperature
of the upper soil surface varies uniformly with that of the air, in its
periodic and non-periodic changes, as in it the roots sink to greater or less
depth — and so, whether the soil is affected by the anomalies which
frequently distinguish the temperature of the air of one given year so
considerably from that of another ?

It is clear, that without the solution of this problem, the temperature
which any plant requires for its complete development, cannot be even
approximately determined.

From Dove's discussion of the Brussels, Upsala, and Heidelberg
observations, it is manifest that the invariable stratum referred to periodic
changes alone, has a determinate distance from surface, discoverable as
above. Considering won-periodic change likewise, however, this invari-
able layer oscillates.

In years of " sea climate^ it gets nearer the surface ; in years of greater
difference of summer heat and winter cold, it falls deeper under the sur-
face. What has been said of the invariable stratum, is true, in like
manner, of those above it. They have a constant mean position, and
oscillate in particular years up and down. This oscillation determines in
each particular depth, the non-periodic change of the stratum.

Diagrams of the Brussels experiments were exhibited, projected on a
different plan from those of the Edinburgh experiments ; the curves of
temperatures in the deeper strata cutting the curves of the temperatures
of the upper strata. The points of intersection are likewise the times at
which the air has its yearly mean value. It is, perhaps, for the develop-
ment of life in plants, a matter by no means indifferent, that, in winter,
when vegetation is interrupted, the higher temperature is found at the
roo ts — in summer, at those parts of the plant in immediate contact with
the atmosphere, that the times of awakening from the winter sleep and of
falling into it again, agree with the transition of one division into the
other.

When the plant seeks heat, nature leads it to go upwards for it in
summer; in winter it finds it the more certainly the deeper it goes. In

Professor Gordon on the Temperature of the Earth.

reference to the influences of heat, branches and roots mutually exchange
the parts they play in the economy of the plant in each half of the year.
If the growth of the parts be really a function of the temperature, we
should arrive at the conclusion, that the roots develop themselves more
powerfully in winter than in summer. This may be compared to a
branch which is taken in winter from a tree in the open air into a hot-
house, and which lives there a nurseling of fortune, as if it had no con-
nexion with the dead trunk outside.

The Upsala experiments bring out, with peculiar distinctness, how the
rapid increase of temperature of the surface in spring is retarded at the
greater depths; and from them we learn, too, how tlie deeper layers always
indicate this rapid increase, if in any given year it has been observed
earlier in the layers above.

In winter, on the other hand, the under layers are much less affected
by anomalies. Dove explains it in this way: that the snow-covering,
then probably on the ground, being a bad conductor, prevents the soil
from participating in the many changes of tho atmosphere. The snow-
covering has a twofold influence, inasmuch as it hinders the radiation
from the ground, on the one hand, and as it prevents communication of
heat by contact with the air, on the other.

The relative circumstances of the parts of plants out of the soil being
tho same, the mean temperature of the whole plant will be so much
the lower in summer, and so much the higlier in winter, the deeper its
roots penetrate into the variable stratum. Plants with roots going
deep into the soil, live, therefore, in circumstances approximating more
to what is termed a sea-climate, than do those whose roots penetrate less
deeply.

The following tables, from Quetelet's observations (on the south side of
the Observatory at Brussels) for depths of 4, 16, 24, 32, and 40 inches
depth, from May, 1840, to December, 1844, as arranged by Herr Dove,
perfectly illustrate this.

Table I. a. — Temperatures at Depths.

Surface. 4 Inches. 16 Inches. '24 Inches. 32 Inches. 40 Inches.

Jan 122 127 202 316.

Feb 184 1-78 244 316.

March,... 6-61 535 567 5*49 529.

April,.... 10-07 8-07 8-54 8-25.

May, 1518 1348 1378 1298.

June,.... 17*25 1588 1643 1604.

July, 1709 15-99 16-79 16-28.

Aug 17-70 16-89 17*57 1727.

Sept 13-56 15-21 1631 1642.

Oct 976 9-89 1127 1207.

Nov. 5-74 631 7'41 834.

Dec 1-73 2-63 402 512.

i 354...

... 3-52

1 333...

... 316

1 529...

... 516

7-81...

... 792

1 12-08...

...12-23

: 15-22...

...1510

1 1605...

...15-99

16-84...

...16-79

! 16-30...

...16-43

12-50...

...12-91

: 8-78...

... 8-92

: 5-66...

... 5-78

144 Professor Gordon on the Temperature of the Earth.

Table I. b. — Temperatures of each successive Layer.

Surface. Sur. to 1 in Sur. to 16 in. Sur. to 24 in. Sur. to 32 in. Sur. to40ir

Jan 122 125 1-50 192 224 246

Feb 1-84 1-81 2*02 2-31 2-51 262

March,... 66J 5*98 5-88 5'78 5-68 5*59

April,.... 10-07 9-07 8-89 8-73 8*55 8-44

May, 1518 14*33 14*15 13-86 1360 1329

June,. ...17*25 1657 1652 16-40 1616 1599

July, 1709 1654 16-62 1654 16-44 16-36

Aug 17-70 17-30 17-39 17-36 17-25 1718

Sept 13-56 14-39 15-03 15*38 1556 15-71

Oct 9-76 9-83 10-31 10-75 11-10 11-40

Nov 5-74 6-03 6-49 6-95. ."... 7'32 7*58

Dec 1-73 218 279 413 443 4-66

Table I. c. — Difference of Temperature of Layers and Surface.

4 Inches. 16 Inches. 24 Inches. 3.' Inches. 40 Inches.

Jan 003 0-28 0'70 1-02 1-24

Feb 0-03 0-18 0-47 0*67 0*78

March,... 063 073 0'83 093 1-02

April, 1-00 1-18 1-34 1-52 1-63

May, 0-85 1-03 1-32 1-68 1-89

June, 0-68 0*73 0-85 1-09 1-26

July, 0-55 0-47 0-55 0-65..... ... 0-73

Aug 0-40 0-31 0-34 045 0'52

Sept 0-83 1-47 1-82 2-00 2-15

Oct 0-07 0-55 0-99 1-34 1-64

Nov 0-29 0-75 1-21 1-58 184

Dec 0-45 1-06 2-40 2-70 293

These differences naturally increase with the depths.

The Upsala experiments (made by Rudberg,) give the following results: —
Table II. a. — Mean Temperatures at Depths.

Air. 2 Feet. 4 Feet. 6 Feet. 10 Feet.

Jan -6-43 0'56 2-50 3-96 5-96

Feb -6-73 0-95 1-50 2-97 ...503

March, -3-75 0*87 0*97 2'21 6-24

April, 2-37 0-94 122 193 375

May, 9-64 701 433 377 386

June, 14-56 1393 10-15 776 534

July, 16-03 1607 1298 1065 751

August,... 14-88 15-85 13-88 12-00 9-12

Sept 11-60 13-12 12-54 1183 991

October,... 4'95 7'98 9'43 10-02 976

November, 0'46 3-97 6-04.... 7'49 8'71

December, 255 178 373 530 7-28

Mi;. I iODDHX. 1 'l Statistical Account of the Exhibition. 145

Table II. b. — Difference between Air and Depths.

2 Feet 4 Feet 6 Feet 10 Feet

Jan C-99 893 10*39 1239

Feb 578 8-23 970 1176

March, 288 472 596 801

April, 1-43 1*15 0-44 138

May, 2G3 5'31 5'87 578

June, 0-59 441 6*80 9-22

July, 0-04 305 5'38 8'52

August, 097 100 2-88 576

September, 1*52 094 0'23 -1-69

October, 3-03 448 5*07 481

November, 443 650 7'95 9*17

December, 433 6*28 7*89 9-83

The progress of heat from above downwards, commences in these high
latitudes later in spring than in more southern climates; and in like man-
ner the progress from below upwards, commences earlier in autumn. In
the northern latitudes, the development of vegetation takes place within
a much narrower " season," or space of time, than in the south.

10th February, 1847. — Tlte Vice-President in the Chair.

The following were admitted members: — Messrs. Donald Campbell,
Hugh M'Pherson, John Fyfe.

A second vote was taken on the motion for a grant of £50 to the
Library Committee, and a report from that Committee recommending the
purchase of certain books was approved of. The Secretary laid on the
table a copy of the Biographical Memoir of the late Charles Macintosh,
F.R.S., presented by his son, George Macintosh, Esq. The thanks of the
Society were voted.

The following Statistical Account of the Society's Exhibition in the City
Hall, during the Christmas and New- Year holidays, was then read : —

XX TIT. — Statistical Account of the Philosophical Society's Exhibition,
during the Christmas Holidays. By Andrew Liddell, Esq.

The Philosophical Society has frequently had private exhibitions of
models, manufactures, &c, for the gratification of its own members and
their scientific friends. The Town Council had, during the New- Year
holidays of 1845 and 1846, a gratuitous exhibition of a small collection
of works of art for the amusement of the public generally. It occurred
to certain members of our Society, that a union of these on a grand scale,
to embrace the very best objects in science and art that could be found,
would be instructive and amusing, not only to the learned and scientific,

140 Mr. Liddell's Statistical Account of the Exhibition.

but also to the public generally, and especially to the working portion of
the community. It was thought that if the terms of admission were
liberal, so as that all, even the very poorest, might have an opportunity
of being present, they might be induced to think and converse, perhaps,
for the first time, on such subjects, and desire to be better instructed in
them. Accordingly, in March last, the subject was proposed almost
simultaneously at meetings of the Philosophical Society and Town
Council. Both these bodies entertained the proposal, and each appointed
a Committee of its number to arrange the business. These committees
were empowered to act jointly, and had authority to add to their number.
A contract of agreement was gone into by the parties, in which each
guaranteed, in certain portions, the Joint Committee against loss to the
extent of £500, it being distinctly understood, that if the loss incurred should
exceed £500, the Committee was personally bound for such excess,— the
Philosophical Society taking the entire charge of collecting and arranging
the articles for exhibition, and waiving all claim for admission to its own
members or friends on other terms than the public generally. On the
other hand, the Town Council agreed to charge no rent for the City Hall.
No data existing, it was difficult at this stage of the business to estimate
what the probable outlay might be. An approximate estimate, however,
was made out, showing that at least £730 of outlay might be incurred,
or perhaps it might amount to £1000. It was fixed that the Exhibition
should be opened on the last week of December, on payment of a small
admission fee, and that the working classes should be admitted gratis on
the 1st, 2d, and 4th of January. It was feared, by a small number, that
in consequence of free admission being given on so many days, the above-
named outlay could not be obtained from admission dues on the days
when payment was exacted, and that the Committee might incur pecuniary
loss. But the great majority was of opinion, that if the exhibition was
made attractive, not only the outlay would be repaid, but a reversion
might be expected, even although the outlay should considerably exceed
the above-named sum. It was therefore resolved to apply at the best
sources for the most interesting and valuable articles for exhibition. The
result has shown that the opinion of the majority was correct ; for in
place of a deficiency, there is a considerable reversion, as shall be detailed
afterwards. In anticipation of this, and it being the desire of the con-
tracting parties to perpetuate such exhibitions, special provision was made
as to what purpose any surplus should be applied. The fifth clause in
the contract is as follows; — "If it should happen that in place of a loss
there should be an overplus of moneys received, said overplus to be laid
aside as a fund for future exhibitions of a similar nature."

The Joint Committee being thus constituted assumed into its number
representatives from the University of Glasgow, Anderson's University,
the Mechanics' Institution, and the Sheriffs of the county, to aid them in
collecting articles for exhibition. And for the same purpose appointed
Corresponding Committees in most of the large cities in the empire.

Mi. L 1 1 > i • : . 1 1 • ' s Statistical Account of the Exhibition. 1 4 7

In order to embrace the various arts and sciences, the Comm;
appointed of its own number five Sub-Committees, viz.: — 1st, Chemistry
:in<l Mineralogy; 2d, Mechanics and Engineering; 3d, Manufactures;
4th, Natural History; and 5th, Works of Art.

A printed circular, containing general instructions to all the Committees,
was extensively circulated early in June. In it special request was made
that the articles selected should be rare and valuable. In November, a
clerk was appointed to conduct the correspondence, and take charge of
the articles which then began to arrive. About the same time a commis-
sioner was sent to England to aid the Corresponding Committees in for-
warding the various articles which they had selected. Possession of the
City Hall was obtained on the 14th of December, and the Exhibition was
opened on the evening of tho 24th, with a promenade, and continued open
till the evening of the 31st, admission being granted on payment of 5s.
for season tickets, 2s.. 6d. for admission to promenade, Is. on other days;
and on the 1st, 2d, and 4th of January, there was free admission to the
public. Although at this date upwards of 71,000 had been admitted,
yet it was evident that the desire of the public wa3 not satisfied. The
Exhibition was accordingly kept open for the five remaining days of the
first week of January, on payment of Is. till five o'clock evening, and 3d.
after that hour. During these five days, upwards of 28,000 more were
admitted, making the total number 99,444.

The Acting Committee had great satisfaction from the ready manner
in which their friends, and even public institutions, placed at their disposal
for exhibition the valuable articles of their museums and private collec-
tions. In every case their application was responded to, with two excep-
tions. In one of these the Directors expressed regret that the laws of
their Society prevented their lending any article of the museum ; from
the other, a public trust in Edinburgh, no reason for the refusal was
given. Although the principlo laid down by the Committee, of selecting
only rare and valuable articles, was rigidly adhered to, yet the quantity
received or offered, was far beyond what the City Hall, with all its
various apartments, spacious as they are, could contain; the consequence
was, that many very valuable articles were refused, and others which
arrived from a distance at a late period were returned in their packing
cases unopened.

On receipt of so much valuable property, for which, of course, the
Committee was responsible, it became a matter of serious consideration
to guard it against injury from being exposed, or from loss by accidental
fire. Every article of value that would have been injured by exposure,
was placed under glass covers, and the whole was secured against risk
from fire, by insurance to the amount of £20,000, this being the ascer-
I value of articles received. Although the intrinsic value was thus
guaranteed, yet as many of the articles received were unique of their kind,
highly prized by their owners, and could not be replaced at any price, it
thought advisable still further to take precautionary measures to

] 48 Mr. Liddell's Statistical Account of the Exhibition.

guard against fire, which, if once begun, would have spread with fearful
rapidity, from the walls being almost wholly covered with cotton cloth ,
suspended from the ceiling downwards ; and, if this had happened when
the place was crowded, the personal injury and loss of life might have
been great. Accordingly, two leather pipes, attached to fire plugs, were
introduced through a private entrance to the east gallery beside the
statuary, where two firemen were stationed, who could see every point of
the hall, and in a moment's notice, project large streams of water into
any corner of the building. Fortunately these precautionary measures
were not required.

It would lengthen this paper far beyond the prescribed bounds, were
I to attempt giving a detailed account of the various articles exhibited,
the manufactures carried on, or the electrical and chemical demonstrations
made. The catalogue gives the names of the articles and contributors ;
and the "Daily Exhibitor," a paper printed in the hall, describes a small
portion. On this point, I have to state that the principle laid down of
selecting for exhibition only the very best article of its kind, was, as far
as possible, strictly adhered to. These articles, many of them of the
most splendid description, were exposed to view on tables, and on the
floor of the halls, and also on the walls, nearly the entire of which were
covered with pictures, many of them by the best masters, together with
woven fabrics of silk, cotton, and woollen. In addition to this, there were
upwards of fifty workers producing the articles of their manufacture, at
fifteen different trades. If to all this we bear in mind the continuous
busy throng, moving in regular order, guided by upwards of forty officers
in uniform, several gentlemen of the Committee, bearing staves of office,
being always present, — we have some idea of what was every day seen
by the visiter, on entering the large Hall by the west gallery. The
spacious area of the Hall, measuring 145 by 60 feet, with a lofty ceiling
of 31 feet, contributed much to the splendour of the scene. It will be
recollected that the premises were lighted with gas, by day as well as at
night, thus allowing the windows to be closed, leaving the entire surface
of the walls for pictures, woven fabrics, prints, plans, &c. Over the
pictures and fabrics, thus suspended on the walls, was carried all round
a massive cornice, with drapery of coloured cotton or woollen cloth, and
every empty space between the articles exhibited, was also covered with
cloth of the same colours. The effect of the whole, when seen from the
west gallery, heightened as it was by the massive sculpture tastefully
displayed in the east gallery, was, to use the language of an intelligent
visiter, more like the romance of Eastern tale, than what we are accustomed
to see, at least in this country. A print, giving a very correct view of
the interior of the Hall during the Exhibition, has been lithographed by
M -rs. Mack and Smith, Buchanan-Street, the firm which had its litho-
graphic press in operation in the Hall during the Exhibition.

Mr. Liddell's Statistical Account of tfie Exhibition.

149

NUMBKIt OF PERSONS ADMITTED AND MONEY RECEIVED.

Datb.

S.-nm.n

Ticket* at

6%.

J'roiii.n.i.lo

nek** »i

E M,

Daily

ViMi.r,ut
la.

Children
Od.

Kv.-!lill.'H

at 3d.

FREE.

Money
Received.

December.

Thursday 24,

Friday 25,

675

1187

953
1243
1600
3888
3151
MM

1031
1053
1536
3488

2697

"71
72
117
139
219
197

32
44
61
89
189

2780
3576
4154
4343
3760

16217

18600
19476

265

£ 8. d.

317 2 6

49 8 6
63 19
82 18 6
122 17 6
163 6
159 8 6

87 "2
98 9
130 5
178 9 3
186 11 6

Saturday 26,.

Monday 28,

Tuesday 29,

Wednesday 30,....

Thursday 31

January.
Friday I,

Saturday 2,

Monday 4 V

Tuesday 5,

Wednesday 6,

Thursday 7

Friday8,

Saturday 9,

675

1,187

21.181

1.230

18.613

56.558

1639 11 9

Total number admitted, 99,444.

The charges against the Exhibition cannot yet be reported, as the carriers'
accounts in England, and one or two others, have not yet been received ;
but, from what is known, I estimate the total outlay at £1180; thus
leaving a balance of, say £460, to be laid aside, according to agreement,
for future exhibitions of a similar kind. The outlay now reported is
considerably more than was expected; but the receipts have also exceeded
anticipation, even in a much greater ratio. It may be proper to mention
that the outlay was increased upwards of £200 by the Exhibition being
kept open for fifteen days, the period originally intended being only eight
or ten days; but during this extended period receipts were obtained
amounting to £680.

It is well known to many, that the primary object of the original pro-
jectors of this Exhibition, and of the Philosophical Society and the Town
Council in promoting it, was to amuse and instruct the working classes
during the New- Year hoHdays; and by giving gratuitous admission,
insuring a numerous attendance, to determine the disputed point as to
whether they would conduct themselves with propriety when admitted
indiscriminately, and in large numbers, to such a place, where valuable
articles must necessarily be laid out openly, and comparatively unprotected.
The result has shown that they can conduct themselves with propriety in
such circumstances; and that they are worthy of the trust we put in them,
for not one article, during the entire period of the Exhibition, was displaced
or injured by the visiters. And after it was closed, and an inventory was
taken, I am able to state, that not one article was found wanting.

The number of persons admitted was at the rate of 2000 per hour
during the days when free admission was given; and on the evenings,
wbeo the charge was threepence, nearly the same number. On these

150 Mr. Liddell's Statistical Account of the Exhibition.

occasions admission was given at one door and exit by another ; and during
those times all present were crushed and pressed on every side, while they
were carriod along by the stream before they could possibly have even
a slight inspection of many of the articles presented to view. It frequently
happened, also, that they were carried past the article which they had
come on purpose to examine, and there was no possibility of return. All
these things were calculated to ruffle the temper, yet scarcely an angry
word was heard. It was matter of much regret to the Committee that
the great number who were admitted on these days precluded a deliberate
examination of the objects in the Exhibition by the visiters. Of all parts
in the Hall, that which excited the most attention, and at which all were
most disposed to linger, was that where the process of manufactures was
carried on ; and of the various descriptions of manufactures or machinery
in motion, most assuredly, that of the potters and tobacco-pipe makers
were the most attractive. The clean, tidy appearance of the workmen,
and the rapidity with which they did their work, seemed to please every
one. Next to them were the models of steam-engines, of which about
half-a-dozen, of various sizes and descriptions, were always in motion.
The largest, being fully one horse power, gave motion to card-making
machinery ; and the smallest, having a cylinder of only one-fourth inch
diameter, was moving at the rapid rate of nearly 300 strokes per
minute. The splendid display of pictures and statuary was much studied
by all who had a taste for the fine arts. The series of illustrations of
the various processes of manufacture from the raw material to the finished
article, on the chemistry and manufactures table, were likewise examined
by many with interest.

I should state that, at the request of Major-General Fleming, all the
military in barracks r and the recruiting parties in Glasgow, had admission
gratis on the 7th January ; and on the 9th the officers of the 74th Regiment
gratified the visiters with music from the very superior band of that
regiment. On other days, Thomson's band of music was in attendance.
On the 8th, the children of the Deaf and Dumb Institution had free
admission. The cotton and woollen cloth which decorated the Hall, and
which cost £40, has, since the close of the Exhibition, been made into
garments, and distributed amongst the poor — a boon opportunely given
at this inclement season of the year.

Having now, as requested by the Acting Committee, shortly described
the Exhibition which has just passed away, I cannot conclude without
referring to two classes of individuals, without either of which no such
display could have been accomplished. To the great liberality of the one,
and to the zeal and untiring diligence of the other, we are mainly
indebted for the Exhibition which I have attempted to describe. The
first are, the contributors, who so generously lent articles for exhibition.
I have already stated that, with the exception of one or two cases, our
calls were cordially responded to, — in many instances to a much greater
extent than we could render available. The number of parties who thus

Mi;. Le l."»l

oontribated was about 290; to every one of whom a letter of thanks has
been sent, subscribed by the Lord Provost, the President of the
Philosophical Society, and the Chairman of the Exhibition Committee.
Intimation has been received that every one has got back the articles he
sent, with one trifling exception, which is being inquired after. And
letters have been received from many, intimating the great satisfaction
felt at their having beon able to aid in the success of our experiment.

The second class is the Committee of Management. It must be evident
to every one, that the scale and style in which the concern was produced
must have entailed immense labour. Such was the case. I could easily
give the names of various members of Committee who cheerfully gave
their time, almost exclusively, for weeks together; but to mention names
would be invidious.

I have already noticed the immense number who attended during the
days of free admission, and the evenings when the charge of 3d. was
made. It is evident that this overpowering number could not reap the
a<l\ antage which they could have got from a careful survey of the objects
in a less crowded assembly. So far the original object of the projectors
has not been obtained, which is certainly matter of regret. But from
the great desire for admission, evidenced by many waiting for hours at
the door, and from their correct deportment when admitted, it is proved
that this numerous class appreciate and will take advantage of such modes
of amusement and instruction when they are placed within their reach; —
the experiment now made has established this fact. It becomes us, there-
fore, to consider if such displays cannot be more frequently given, or if
they cannot have a permanent place amongst us, so that the working man
might have a resort where he could exhilarate his spirits and improve his
mind by viewing beautiful objects of nature and art, and occasionally,
perhaps, seeing and hearing demonstrations on the same subject. It
must be allowed, that all who are confined in factories, or work shops, or
warehouses, for ten or twelve hours every day, require relaxation and
amusement in the evening. If they cannot find this of an innocent, an
amusing, and at the same time, instructive kind, many of them will
betake themselves to amusements of a different and injurious description.
To have an exhibition annually, in style and extent corresponding to the
one now brought to a close, need not be expected. You would not easily
get a committee or contributors, who would undertake the work so
frequently as once every year. One, however, on a smaller scale, con-
joined, perhaps, with organ music, might be a source of rational amuse-
ment and instruction. And, I am of opinion, that were the public voice
to boar on the subject, we might have an organ of suitable power in the
City Hall by next New- Year holidays. A Committee for collecting
subscriptions towards this object exists, of which Mr. Andrew Orr, one
of the magistrates of the city, is Convener. Only three or four hundred
pounds is now required to complete the object. This king of musical
instruments, when placed in the Hall, raav be used for the amusement of

Vol. II.— No. 3. 2

162 Mk. Liddell's Statistical Account of the Exhibition.

the people, on many other occasions than the New-Year holidays. It is
well known that a good toned powerful organ, under the hands of a skil-
ful performer, can produce sweet sounds, little inferior to that of a full
band. But what would be most desirable is a gallery, a museum, or a
polytechnic institution, of a comprehensive and instructive description,
permanently fixed amongst us, and which would be thrown open to
the public on the evenings and holidays, gratuitously, or at a trifling
admission fee. I am of opinion, that such an institution, if started
free of debt, could support itself from admission fees of a reasonable
amount exacted at other times than those mentioned. The exhibi-
tion opened by the Local Committee of the British Association, for
six months previous to the meeting of that body in 1840, paid all
expenses from admission fees of 3d., 6d., and Is., although the con-
cern, with the exception of Perkin's steam gun, had little novelty.
To be attractive, such an institution must bring to the public view
every new discovery. By arrangement with inventors, designers, manu-
facturers, and others, this could be done at a comparatively small outlay.
In this way, novelty could be maintained by a change of many of the
objects, perhaps every month. Were such an institution resolved on,
suitable apartments would be required. These could be erected at a
small expense, adjoining the City Hall, where the Corporation have vacant
ground which might be applied to that purpose. Money also will be
required at starting. The overplus or receipts of the late Exhibition cannot,
in accordance with the clause just quoted, be applied to this purpose. It
amounts to nearly £500. And I have authority from a wealthy and
liberal citizen to say, that so soon as it can be made apparent that an
exhibition similar to the one lately got up by our Society, can be
established on a permanent footing — admission being given to the working
classes, either free or on the payment of a very small sum — he will cheer-
fully subscribe £500. We have thus, from these two sources alone, a
sum of about £1000. This amount, if placed under the fostering care
of a competent committee, may, in my opinion, at no distant period, be
quadrupled — which would be quite sufficient to get up an institution of
the kind proposed. The Exhibition we are now describing, may thus
have laid the foundation of a museum which may become gigantic in
extent, and more useful to the great bulk of the community, than even
the Philosophical Society itself, which being purely scientific in its aim,
must necessarily communicate instruction or amusement direct to a com-
paratively small number.

RECEIPTS.

To Cash received for Tickets of Admission, * £1,639 11

— for Catalogues, &c 60 4 4

£1,707 16 1

I »k. Buchanan on the Effects of the Initiation of Ether. 153

DISBURSEMENTS.

By Cash paid, Fitting up Hall, Hanging Pictures, Ac, £265 8 9

— Workmen in Hall during Exhibition, 108 13 2

— Printing and Advertising, including Catalogues, 164 17 2

— Lithographing, 33 1

— Insurance against Fire, 47 10

— Refreshments to Workmen and Police, 66 15 7

— Salaries to Exhibitor, Clerk, and Commissioner, 137 1 2

— Wages to Porters, Door-keepers, Ac, 75 8 5

— Freights, Packing, and Carriages, 142 18 10

— For Music, 45

— Glass Covers, 18

— Collecting Articles in Edinburgh, 5

— Cleaning Hall, 5 3 9

— Stationery, 7 9 4

— Firemen, 5 2

— Gas Company, 64 19

— Miscellaneous, 54 3 9

— Postages, 7 15 4

By Cash in Union Bank of Scotland, 453 8 10

£1,707 16 1

22d February, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

Mr. William Henry Long was admitted as a member.
Professor Gordon described a simple contrivance which ho had devised
for smoky chimneys. The following paper was read: —

XXIV. — Physiological Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. By Andrew
Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

The Council of the Society having thought that the discussion of this
subject might prove both interesting and useful, and having applied to
me to bring it forward, I complied solely from the desire to render to the
Society any service in my power ; but certainly not from thinking my
knowledge of the subject so exact, or my opinions upon it so matured, as
to entitle me to bring it forward spontaneously ; but I hope to meet with
indulgence for the imperfections you may find in the performance of a
duty not sought for, but imposed upon me.

It has long been a desideratum in the medical art, to lessen the pain
of surgical operations — for as to removing it altogether, no rational man,
9160 in his most sanguine moments, ever dreamt of it. It was at one
time attempted to deaden the pain by means of opium ; but the attempt
was abandoned, because it was found impossible to administer the drug
in sufficient doses to blunt sensibility without risk of more serious conse-
quences. I need scarcely mention the more recent attempts, by means of
animal magnetism ; for I hold the abandonment of an object so important
by the professors of the mesmoric art, to be a tacit acknowledgment that

154 Du. Buchanan on the Effects of the Inhalation of Ether.

they know themselves unable to attain it — that their boasted power is a
deception, or, at most, has no influence but over the minds'of a few
hysterical females. Were it otherwise, the charge I make against them
is a light one, compared with the moral charge implied in their deserting
so many sufferers, whom they have the power to relieve.

I confess that when I first heard of the marvellous efficacy of ether in
deadening the sensibility of the nerves, I received it with distrust, and
thought it was to turn out just such another imposition as animal magnetism.
I am not ashamed to say this, because I think that every rational man
ought to receive in a spirit of scepticism, statements made to him in
opposition to all antecedent experience. But I should have thought
myself a very unworthy member of this Philosophical Society, had I
refused to inquire further, and shut my mind against the authority of
facts. I have carefully examined the subject, by actual observation and
experiment, and I have now to state as the result, that I am fully satis-
fied that the statements originally made to me were in no way exaggerated:
that the inhalation of ether really has the power of suspending, for a
time, the sensibility of the nerves; and that, during the period of
suspended sensibility, the most formidable surgical operations may be
performed — amputation of the limbs, the dissecting out of tumours,
and cutting for the stone — without any perception of pain by the person
operated upon, and without reason to apprehend any bad consequences,
either immediate or subsequent. I can honestly declare that I have seen
all these, and many other operations performed ; and that the patients, when
put fully under the influence of the ether, gave no indications of feeling
pain during these operations, and declared afterwards that they had felt
none, which is the whole evidence that the case admits of. So great a
triumph of the medical art I never expected to witness ; but it should not
excite feelings of exultation merely, but should be received with gratitude
and with thankfulness, as a great boon which it has pleased the Giver of
all good to bestow, in his compassion for the sufferings of mankind.

When our wonder at results so unexpected has in some degree
subsided, it becomes our duty to inquire in what way they are produced ;
because it is only when we come to understand the nature of this impor-
tant agent, and the laws which regulate its action upon the human body,
that we can expect to derive from it all the benefits which it is capable
of imparting ; to direct and modify it according to circumstances, and to
avoid the dangers which, in the hands of the incautious and ignorant, it
may, most unquestionably, occasion. It was to attain these important
ends, and not to gratify a mere vulgar curiosity, that the Council of the
Society started this subject ; and I am not without hopes that good may
be done by the mutual communication of opinions, and that even the
collision of them may serve to strike out some useful light.

That we may be better able to appreciate the new facts recently ascer-
tained, let us first inquire what was previously known of the action exer-
cised by ether upon the human body. I could state this in few words,

Dr. Buchanan on the Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. 155

if I were addressing a body of medical men, fully conversant with the
subject ; but I am persuaded that, in addressing a general audience on
such a subject, it will not be thought out of place for me to premise some
general remarks as to the mode in which medicines operate on the human
body, so that the place which ether occupies as a physiological agent, may
be the more readily understood.

Medicines, then, may be divided into four classes, according to the
mode in which they affect the human body :

Those of the first class act altogether locally. We have familiar
examples of them in mechanical agents applied to the surface of the
body, in tho diluted and strong acids, liquid ammonia, mustard, and
cantharides, all of which produce inflammation and other local effects on
the parts to which they are applied, but do not necessarily implicate
parts at a distance. Ether, and many other substances, have a local
irritant power of this kind, combined with a power of a more general
nature.

The medicines of the second class operate by local sympathy. They
are, in so far, local agents, that they must always be applied to the same
spot; but the local impression influences distant organs sympathetically.
Tobacco and other irritants applied to the nostrils operate in this way;
the local impression they produce on the membrane of the nose is propa-
gated, through the nerves, to the diaphragm and abdominal muscles,
which are thus made to contract, and produce the act of sneezing : whence
we name them sternutatories. Many important medicines operate in this
way — many emetics, for instance, such as mustard, and the sulphates of
zinc and copper, which, exercising an irritant action on the stomach, call
into play, sympathetically, the muscles concerned in the act of vomiting.
Almost all purgatives also, such as castor and croton oils, jalap, senna,
and aloes, act in this way. They irritate the mucous membrane of the
bowels, and the impression is propagated, by sympathy, to the expulsive
muscles. It is a most erroneous idea, which some medical men entertain,
that such medicines will operate when applied to the skin, for they can
only operate when applied to the membrane of the bowels. Croton oil, for
instance, when used as a liniment to the skin, or even applied to an
abraded surface, never operates but as a local irritant.

The medicines of the third class require to be absorbed by the blood
vessels, in order to produce their effects, which are thereafter exerted on
the organs of nutrition and secretion. Iodine is a good example of the
former; nitre, squill, and turpentine, of the latter. Such medicines
produce the same effects, to whatever part of the body they are applied,
provided it be an absorbing surface. Iodine and mercury act in the same
way, whether applied to the skin or to tho stoniaeh

Tho modieiues in the fourth class act on the nervous system, either
after absorption, or directly. The former may be said to be their general
mode of action ; but there are some substances, such as the prussic acid,
<»{' which the effects arc manifested so instantanctni>l\ -, that we can scarcely

156 Dr. Buciianan on the Effects of the Inhalation of Ether.

but suppose, that the nerves transmit tho impression, with tho rapidity of
thought, to the heart and brain.

It is to this class of substances that ether belongs. They are readily
distinguished from all other medicines, by possessing the four following
diameters : — They do not act locally, like the substances of the first class,
but on parts at a distance. They act in the same way to whatever part
of the body they are applied. They are thus distinguished from the
substances of the second class. From the substances of the third class
they are distinguished, by acting on the nervous system, and the organs
most intimately connected with it — the brain, tho organs of sense, tho
heart, and the voluntary muscles. Lastly, they are all of them, with a
few exceptions, poisonous substances, if improperly administered.

The substances belonging to this class are known by the name of
narcotics, or stupefiants, from their producing confusion of intellect, and
deadening sensibility. They were, at one time, supposed all to operate
in one way; first, as excitants, and then as sedatives. But a more
accurate knowledge of them has shown, that is impossible to refer their
multifarious effects to so simple a principle. There are, indeed, some of
them to which the name of narcotics is altogether inapplicable, for instead
of diminishing, they exalt the sensibility of the nerves. Such, for instance,
are the nux vomica, and the other substances containing the alcaloids,
strychnia, and brucia; for an animal, under the poisonous influence of
these substances, instead of being rendered insensible, feels a touch of the
finger like a shock of electricity.

But the great majority of the substances in question really act on the
brain as stupefiants, but they affect other important organs too seriously
to permit us to derive any advantage from the stupor they induce.
Hellebore is the most powerful stupefiant we know, but it acts as a poison
to the system. Camphor, while it induces stupor, brings on frightful
convulsions of the muscular system, and prussic acid and fox-glove exert
a deleterious influence over the action of the heart.

The section of the narcotics to which ether belongs, instead of exerting
a deleterious influence over the heart, have for their character, to excite
and sustain the action of the heart, while they produce upon the brain at
first exhilaration, and at length stupefaction.

To this section belong, first, alcohol, the distilled spirits, the wines,
and other fermented liquors ; and second, ether, and some of the compound
substances, now named salts of ether, such as the nitrite and the chloride
of ether, more commonly called nitrous and muriatic ether. I say some
of these bodies, for the effects of all of them on the animal economy have
not been ascertained.

It simplifies our subject very much to observe that alcohol is the active
ingredient in the first series of these bodies, and ether in the second ;
so that we have merely to consider and contrast the effects of those two
agents, alcohol and ether, on the animal economy.

The effects of alcoholic liquids are too well known to require minute

Dk. Buchanan on tJie Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. 157

description, but their more prominent effects are, in the first place, an
exhilaration and excitement of mind, which gradually passes into a state
of narcotism or stupefaction : and in the second place, excitement and
in\ igoration of tho action of the heart, which seems to continue through-
out; for tho feebleness in the heart's motions, which comes on in deep
intoxication, is, probably, the consequence of tho narcotised state of tho
brain.

Tho effects of ether may be described in tho very same words. This
the identity of composition of the two substances might have led us to
anticipate; for alcohol is just tho hydrate of ether, or ether plus an atom
of water — tho two bodies not differing in composition moro than oil of
vitriol does from anhydrous sulphuric acid. The moment the dry acid
comes into contact with water, it is converted into oil of vitriol; and ether,
when kept long in contact with water, (Lievig,) is converted into alcohol.

There is, however, a difference in the physical qualities of the two
substances, which renders each of them only adapted to a certain mode of
administration.

Alcohol is miscible, in all proportions, with water, and forms a palatable
ami too insinuating beverage. It is thus well adapted for administration
by taking it into the stomach — while it is far less volatile than ether,
and, therefore, is less adapted for inhalation.

Ether, on the other hand, is not miscible with water, unless the latter
be in great excess (1 ether to 10 water.) Hence it is not adapted to be
administered by taking it into the stomach; for its hotness cannot be
overcome by dilution, and it acts as a violent local irritant. How much
less alcohol would be consumed, if it could only be drunk in the form of
a highly rectified spirit, and its fiery qualities could not be corrected by
dilution ! Physicians seldom prescribe more than from one to two drachms
of ether — a quantity quite insufficient to develope any narcotic effects. I
have known seven drachms of it taken ; but it produced, at the pit of the
stomach, a most uneasy sensation of heat and pain, which only the callous
stomach of a dram-drinker could stand. As a dram, ether might answer
very well ; and it is for a similar purpose that it is usually prescribed in
medicine — as a carminative, and not as a narcotic.

Ether, on the contrary, from its high volatility, is admirably adapted
to be administered by inhalation. It boils at 96° Fahr. The heat of tho
hand is sufficient to make it fly off in vapour. Alcohol, again, is far less
adapted to this mode of administration. Kven when rectified to the utter-
most, it only boils at a temperature of 173° Fahr.; and if less strong, the
temperature must bo higher. Still, however, the inhalation of the vapour
of alcohol will produce narcotism, although with less rapidity than ether.

It is, 1 believe, to this difference of physical qualities, in the two sub-
stances, and in the mode of administering them which is the consequence
of it, that the differences in the physiological effects of alcohol and ether
are mainly to be ascribed; and not to any actual difference in their modes
of action upon the human body.

J)r. Buchanan on the Effect* of the MafaHon of FAher.

The most remarkable peculiarities in the action of ether administered
by inhalation are, 1st, the suddenness with which it induces complete
narcotism; 2d, the transiency of the narcotic state; and, 3d, the very
small quant it y of ether necessary to produce the effect. I shall endeavour
to show, that these peculiarities depend altogether on the mode of admin-
istering the ether, by inhalation; and would not be observed if it were
administered in any other way: and in doing this, I shall assume as
principles, that ether only acts as a stimulant to the heart, and as a
narcotic on the brain, after being absorbed ; and that the energy of its
action, is proportionate to the degree in which the blood applied to the
tissues of the heart and brain is impregnated with it.

The suddenness of the effect produced depends, in the first place, on
the volatility of the ether, and on its being thus brought, at once, into
contact with a very extensive and highly absorbent surface — the mucous
membrane of the lungs.

Another circumstance which favours much the speedy development of
the narcotism is, that the blood, fully charged with the absorbed ether, is
at once poured, undiluted, and in a continuous stream, on the heart and
brain. The ether is no sooner absorbed, than the blood, charged with it,
passes on to the cavities of the left side of the heart; and immediately
thereafter it circulates through the coronary vessels, and the carotid and
vertebral arteries, and thus pervades the tissues of both sides of the heart,
and every part of the brain. It is far otherwise with respect to substances
applied to the surface of the stomach, and absorbed by the stomachic veins ;
for the blood in these veins is necessarily diluted, by intermingling with
many currents larger than their own, before reaching the heart and brain.
Suppose, to take an extreme illustration, that the blood were capable of
absorbing as much ether as water can combine with, or one-tenth of its
own weight ; if, then, we suppose that the blood in the lungs were impreg-
nated to this extent, it would be applied in that state to the heart and
brain, whereas, if the blood in the stomachic veins were impregnated with
the same quantity of ether, before reaching the liver, it would have
mingled with more than its own mass of pure blood from the splenic and
mesenteric veins; the tenth would thus become a twentieth; and, on the
blood leaving the liver, and joining the larger current of inferior cava, the
twentieth would become a fiftieth or sixtieth. A further dilution would
take place at the confluence with the superior cava, so that the blood, on
reaching the heart and brain, instead of containing one-tenth part of
absorbed ether, could not contain so much as one-hundredth. Whenever,
therefore, the same quantity of ether, or of any other absorbible substance,
is taken up from the lungs and from the stomach, it must, in the former
case, be applied to the tissues of the heart and brain, in a state of concen-
tration at least ten times greater than in the latter; and will, therefore,
act on these organs with more suddenness and energy.

I would explain, also, by referring to the laws which govern the circu-
lation of the blood, the evanescence of the effects produced, which is the

Du. Buchanan on the Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. 159

most extraordinary part <»f the whole phenomena, and the most difficult to
explain. Daring the inhalation, which is usually continued from five to
seven minutes, blood, highly charged with ether, is applied to the heart
ami brain; while the blood, circulating in the lower parts of the body,
contains a much smaller proportion of it. Now, on stopping the inhala-
tion, the blood, circulating in the heart and brain, speedily passes off by
tin* v<ius, ami is succeeded by the comparatively pure blood coming from
the lower regions of the body; and so the narcotic symptoms disappear.

It is far otherwise, when alcohol is absorbed from the stomach, for the
whole mass of blood must be impregnated with it, before a highly charged
blood can be applied to the heart and brain ; and then, the effect continues
for many hours till the alcohol has been thrown out of the system by the
skin and lungs.

It must not be supposed, with respect to the ether, that, on the
subsidence of the narcotism, it disappears from the body; for it is
merely weakened in its effects, by being diffused equably over the whole
mass of blood*, but, that it remains within the body is obvious from the
smell of the breath for many hours afterwards, and from its frequently
causing copious, perspiration.

The small quantity of ether, necessary to produce narcotism when
inhaled, depends on the principle above stated, that the ether is applied
directly and continuously to the tissues of the heart and brain. It is
difficult to determine the actual dose of the ether, or the quantity of
it absorbed into the blood. The first step is to determine what quantity
of it is inhaled into the lungs; and this inquiry is the more important as
there is a necessary connection between the quantities of air and of ethereal
vapour which are simultaneously inhaled, and by determining the one we
determine also the other. Now, if at any given temperature, the chamber
of the inhaler be saturated with vapour, since there is a free communica-
tion between the chamber and the external air, it is obvious that the
tension of the ethereal vapour, added to that of the air within the chamber,
must just balance the pressure of the external atmosphere. We know
the tension of the vapour of ether at all ordinary temperatures from
the experiments of Dalton. Supposing, therefore, the barometer to be at
30 inches, we have only to ascertain from Dalton's table the height of the
column of mercury indicating the maximum tension of the vapour at any
given temperature, and also the difference between that column and one of
30 inches high, and we then have two numbers which express the relative
volumes of ethereal vapour and air existing in the chamber of the inhaler.
Thus, at tin temperature of C4°, the maximum tension of ethereal vapour
-ponds to a column of mercury 15 inches high, and the difference
ii that column and one of 30 inches is also 15 inches, so that equal
volumes of ethereal vapour and of air are contained in the chamber of the
inhaler. At the temperature of 96°, again, the tension of the vapour is
equal to that of the atmosphere, or to a column of mercury 30 inches
high, so that the whole air it? expelled from the chamber, which is entirely

00 Dn. Buchanan on fA* Effects of the Inhalation of Ether.

filled with pure ethereal vapour. But such an atmosphere could not be
respired without immediately causing asphyxia from want of oxygen.
Even at the temperature of 64° the proportion of air in the atmosphere
of the chamber is reduced to one half, whence we may infer that during
the inhalation of ether, the application of artificial heat is both unnecessary
and dangerous, for by increasing the tension of the ethereal vapour the
proportion of common air in the atmosphere of the chamber is proportion-
ally diminished, and the risk of asphyxia made greater accordingly.

To determine the weight of the ethereal vapour we assume that the
relation of 1 to 2*583 between the specific gravity of atmospheric air and
that of ethereal vapour is constant whenever they are at the same tempera-
ture and subjected to the same pressure. Taking, therefore, the weight
of a cubic inch of atmospheric air, when the barometer is at 30 inches,
to be -310117 of a grain at 60° F. it becomes -307695 gr. at 64°, and
•289595 gr. at 96°, whence we deduce the weight of a cubic inch of
ethereal vapour at 64° to be -3^7388 gr., and at 96° to be -748023 gr.

To find the weight of the vapour inhaled in five minutes, we assume
that 18 respirations are made in the minute, and that 15 cubic inches of
gaseous fluid are taken into the lungs at each inspiration. We thus find
by calculation, that if it were possible for any person to breathe, for
five minutes, an atmosphere of ethereal vapour at 96° F., he would inhale
1010 grains of the vapour, or 2 medicinal ounces + 50 grains; and that
at the temperature of 64° there would be inhaled, in the same time, 536
grains, or an ounce + 56 grains.

It thus appears, that at the temperature at which ether is commonly
inhaled, if the air in the chamber of the inhaler were fully saturated with
ethereal vapour, an ounce of it would be introduced into the lungs in five
minutes ; but of that quantity at least three-fourths would be again thrown
out with the expired air, so that only two drachms would remain to be
absorbed. There is, however, a still further reduction to be made, for
during the inhalation, the atmosphere of the chamber is undergoing a
continual renovation, and as the external air rushes into it with far greater
rapidity than the ethereal vapour is generated, there is not time enough
for the latter to attain its maximum tension. The deficiency thus
occasioned may probably be estimated at about one-half. It must
obviously be the greater the smaller the chamber of the inhaler, and wo
may therefore infer that there is an advantage in employing an apparatus
of which the chamber is of large size.

Taking, then, into account the whole of the circumstances above
mentioned, it appears to me probable, that by the inhalation of ether
during the space of five minutes, not more than a drachm of it is introduced
into the blood; and yet that quantity has been found to induce such
a state of narcotism, that the most severe operations in surgery occasion
no feeling of pain. Now it has been stated above, that a quantity of
ether, seven times greater, has been administered by introducing it into
the stomach. This dose, though largely diluted with water, excited a

I >u. Clark on tlie Arithmetical Calculation of Solids. 101

violent sense of heat and pain in the region of the stomach, and at length
passed off by a profuse perspiration, without having occasioned any
narcotic symptom, except a slight giddiness. It is obvious, therefore, that
the recent important discovery of the influence of ether over the sensibility
of the nerves, depends entirely on the mode in which the ether is adminis-
tered, and not on any hitherto unknown power possessed by it as a physio-
logical agent.

Tin; [(receding observations, with respect to ether, arc confirmed by the
tat t familiarly known with respect to alcohol, that persons employed in
bottling spirits, if not habituated, are readily intoxicated ; and that this kind
tf intoxication is almost immediately relieved by going into the open air.

[The remainder of this paper will appear in an appendix, as the wood-cut by which it
is to be illustrated is not yet in readiness."]

lOf/t March, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

Messrs. Charles Watson, and J. H. H. Lewcllin were admitted mem-
bers.

Mr. Smith of Deanston finished his oral account of the progress of
mechanism.

31s* March, 1847. — The Vice-President in the CJiair.

Dr. Peter Stewart was elected a member.

The Vice-President read the following letter from Professor Clark of
Aberdeen: —

XXV. — On a method by the late John Wilson, Esq. of Thornly y of facilitat-
ing the Arithmetical Calculation of the Contents of Solids. By Thomas
Clark, M.D., Professor of Chemistry^ Marischal College, Aberdeen.
(Communicated in a letter to the Vice-President.)

I have been sorry to observe in the newspapers the death of Mr. Wilson
of Thornly. The event recalls to my mind an important discovery of his
in calculation, which is extensively applicable to most of the ordinary
operations of mensuration. It was mado by Mr. Wilson many years ago,
but it lies buried, and, I fear, unnoticed and unknown in his Survey of
Renfrewshire.

The following is the form of statement that makes most obvious the
practical bearing of Mr. Wilson's discovery: —

1 Cubical Foot = 1728 cubical inches.
« = 2200 cylindrical inches,

f = 3300 spherical inches.

I = G600 conical inches.

True, the result is not strictly accurate: for, indeed, no finite number

1G2 Pit. Clark on the Arithmetical Calculation of Solids.

can give with strict accuracy the relation between rectilinear and circular
dimensions. The cylindrical, spherical, or conical dimensions, will be too
much, by one in 13,931 of cubical dimension, corresponding to one in
41,792 of linear dimension. This would be an eighth of an inch on the
height of St. Rollox chimney. Such minuteness must, more than ten
times, exceed the accuracy that is attainable in the ordinary operations
of measuring, in subservience to manufacture and the arts; and, therefore,
for all ordinary purposes, it were idle to apply for any correction. My
recollection leads me to doubt whether minuter accuracy has been reached
in the most scientific measurements, where measurement itself is a primary
object, instead of being, as it commonly is, a subsidiary one; for example,
in the comparison of standard measures of length. But it is important
that the correction be such as can be made without calculating the results
over again. Now, this is what can be done most easily. Subtract one-
14,000th, and you get a remainder, that is one in about 2,800,000 of
cubical content, still above the truth. If we choose again to subtract
one-200th of the former correction, we shall get a remainder that is now
too low by 3 of cubical dimension, corresponding to one of linear dimen-
sion, in 1,000 millions, or, more correctly still, 999 millions. These are
very simple and easy corrections. Were they less easy, the objection to
them, as corrections, would be of little practical weight, for the applica-
tion of any correction can but very seldom be needed. Subject to the
foregoing corrections, 1728 is the fourth part of the circumference of a
circle whose diameter is 2200. This remarkable numerical coincidence,
you will perceive, is the foundation of the table.

Such a table as the foregoing should find a place, not only in every
book of mensuration, but in every book of common arithmetic. I need
not point out to you how much, by the aid of it, the most generally
required parts of mensuration might be taught in ordinary schools, as part
of the course of arithmetic.

By making so useful a discovery generally known, there is the reality
of the diffusion of useful knowledge without the cant; there is honour to
the worthy dead, and such advantage to the living as he felt delight in
conferring.

Under this impression, it has occurred to me that the subject will pro-
bably appear to you a proper one to submit to the Glasgow Philosophical
Society, not only as likely to be grateful to many of the members, so
recently after the departure of the venerable author of the discovery, but
in the view of making it more useful, as they will be able, and, I have no
doubt, they will be disposed to make it more widely known.

In all questions relating to the simplification of weights and measures,
a subject much studied by Mr. Wilson, his discovery has long appeared
to me to have an important bearing; for he seems by this discovery to
have conclusively determined that the inch, as the twelfth part of the
foot, must ever be retained, for the sake of its convenience, in computing
cubical dimension, whenever the circle is an element of that dimension.

Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton. 163

Tliis important practical consideration had escaped all the men of science
that had previously investigated the same subject.

Professor Gordon gave an account of the viscous theory of Glaciers,
illustrated by models and drawings from Professor Forbes.

XXVI. — Analysis of a Slag, from a Lime-kiln. By Mr. John Brown.

This Slag presented itself in the form of a congeries of black fused
masses, with a resinous fracture, in a lime-kiln at St. Kollox. It dissolved
in acids, and gelatinised on evaporation. Its composition was found to be

Experiment. Atoms. Calculated.

Silica, 3647 7 38-62

Lime,.... 28*89 3 28;96

Protoxide of Iron, ...12-68 1 1379

Alumina, 18'88 3 18*62

9692 100-00

It consists approximately of simple silicates, with an excess of silica, the
formula being —

FeO SiO + 3 (CaO SiO) + 3 (AlO SiO.)
The powder emitted a few bubbles of gas when heated with an acid.

7 th April, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

Dr. Nicol made an oral communication on the relation of the science of
Astronomy and Geology.

lAth April, 1847. — Mr. Liddell in the Chair.
The following paper was read : —

XX VII. — On a Method for the Analysis of Bodies containing Nitric Acid,
and its application to Explosive Cotton. By Walter Crum, Esq., F.R.S.

At the first meeting of the present Session of the Philosophical Society,
I gave an account of some experimental inquiries into the nature of gun-
cotton, a body whose composition was then little known. I had at that time
chiefly occupied myself with its nitrous contents, and described a method
by which some approximation could be made to a quantitative result for
nitric acid. On resuming the subject, I found that much was wanting to
render the method a rigorously accurate one; and I shall now relate
what I have since done to simplify and complete it. I shall first, however,
give an account of its application to nitrate of potash, — a body of known

1G4 Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton.

composition, and easily obtained in a state of purity, — to which I hart
recourse as a means of proving the accuracy of the method, and detecting
any fallacy to which it might be liable.

Nitric Acid in Nitrate of Potash. — The salt I employed was purified
by repeated crystallization, and fused at little more than its melting heat.
A glass jar, eight inches long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, is
filled with, and inverted over mercury. A single lump of the fused nitrate,
weighing about six grains, is let up into it, and afterwards fifty grains of
water. As soon as the nitrate is dissolved, 125 grains of sulphuric acid,
ascertained to be free from nitric acid, are added. By the action of the
mercury upon the liberated nitric acid, deutoxide of nitrogen soon begins
to be evolved, and usually in about two hours, without the application of
heat, the whole of the nitric acid is converted into that gas. Occasional
agitation is necessary, and it is easily performed by giving a jerking
horizontal motion to the upper part of the jar. The surface of the
sulphuric acid is then marked, and three-fourths of a cubic inch of solution
of sulphate of iron, recently boiled, let up into the jar. The gas is
rapidly absorbed, except a small portion at last, which must be left several
hours to the action of the solution, or be well agitated in a smaller tube
with a fresh portion of it. No correction of the nitric oxide has to be
made for moisture; for the mixture of acid and water which I employed,
as I ascertained by direct experiment, has no perceptible force of vapour.
In one experiment,

5*40 grains nitrate of potash yielded

4*975 cubic inches of gas, at 60° Fahr., and bar. 30 inches.

The residue not absorbable by sulphate of iron, was
0015 cubic inch; leaving
4*96 cubic inches of nitric oxide, =1*594 grains N0 2 , and which

correspond to
2*869 grains nitric acid, or 53*13 per cent, of the nitrate of potash.

Four consecutive experiments made in this manner yielded —

5313
5314
53*73
53*29

Mean, 53*32
Or leaving out the third experiment —

53*19
The calculated per centage of nitric acid in nitrate of potash, the acid
being represented by 6*75, and the potash by 5*8992, is —

53*36*
In order further to determine whether the presence of organic matter

* By Thomson's numbers, the per centage of nitric acid in nitre is 52*94. By Berzelius,
•>3-44.

Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton. 165

would interfere with the liberation of the nitric oxide, the experiment
was repeatod with the addition of three grains of cotton wool, which was
first dissolved in tho sulphuric acid ; the result was —

53-24

Other nitrates are analysed in the same manner. For salts in powder,
which it is difficult to pass through mercury without loss, I cut a quarter-
inch glass tube into little cylinders for them, of half an inch long, and
closed up the ends with thin paper fastened with gum. In the analysis of
numerous samples of crude nitrates, the residue, which is azote, may bo
taken as a constant quantity, and the jar graduated in such a manner that
tho volume of gas may be read off at once as tho per centage of nitric acid.

Prepaeation of Gun-Cotton. — The cotton I employed was fine Sea
I -land. It was first thoroughly carded, and then bleached, by boiling in
caustic soda, and steeping in solution of bleaching powder ; then caustic
soda again, and afterwards weak nitric acid. It was well washed and
Ik a ten in a bag with water after each operation. When burnt, 10,000
parts left 9 of ashes. It was considered to be lignin, nearly pure.

The cotton, dried and carded after bleaching, was exposed in parcels
of ten grains each, for several hours, to the heat of a steam-bath, and
each parcel was immersed, while hot, in one ounce measure of the follow-
ing mixture : —

One measure Sulphuric Acid, spec, grav., 1*840.

Three measures of pale lemon coloured Nitric Acid, of 1*517.

After one hour it was washed in successive portions of water, till no trace
of acid remained, and dried in the open air.

Thirty grains of bleached cotton wool, dried at 65° Fahr. became, after
being some hours in a steam-bath, 28*32 grs., and lost, therefore, 5*6 per
cent, of water. It increased to 51*08 grs. when made into gun-cotton,
and dried in the open air. Dried further in vacuo, over sulphuric acid,
it was reduced to 50*40 grs., and lost therefore 1*33 per cent, of water.

100 of dry cotton produced
177*9 of dry gun-cotton.

The gun-cotton thus prepared is whiter, but less transparent, than the
original bleached wool. It appears to be little liable to change, but a
slight elevation of temperature causes a commencement of decomposition,
and the colour becomes more or less brown. It is much less tenacious
than cotton wool. Dissolved in nitric acid, and tested with chloride of
barium, it gives no indication of sulphuric acid.

Tho increase of weight above stated is the greatest I have been able to
obtain ; and I had completed its analysis in the manner I shall describe,
when T 1 '< uinil reason to believe that it still contained a portion of unaltered
cotton. With a view to saturate that portion, it was immersed the

166 Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton.

second time, and for twenty-four hours, in the same mixture of acids, but
without yielding any greater quantity of nitric acid.

An immersion of one hour in nitric acid alone gave a better result. It
lost in weight by this second process 0*47 per cent. It was little altered
in fcppeara&oe, but after being dried in the open air, it lost in the air-
pump only 069 per cent., instead of 1*33, as in the former case. It is
this substance of which I will now relate the analysis.

Ashes in Gun-Cotton. — Sixteen grains of gun-cotton were dissolved
in nitric acid. The solution being evaporated by degrees, and burnt to
ashes, left 0*035 gr. of a reddish ash, or 022 per cent.

Nitric Acid in Gun-Cotton. — In this process the same apparatus is
employed as for nitrate of potash. About six grains of the gun-cotton,
containing a known quantity of water, is collected into a ball — squeezed
between the finger and thumb to free it as much as possible from air —
and let up into the jar, over the mercurial trough. 125 grains of sulphuric
acid are added to it. Nitric acid is liberated, and, being acted upon by
the mercury, produces nitric oxide. After one hour, when about three-
fourths of the whole gas has been evolved, and the gun-cotton is entirely
dissolved, fifty grains of water are added. In another hour the increase
of gas ceases ; in a few hours more its boundary is noted, then treated with
sulphate of iron, and the residue measured. It consists of azote from the
common air introduced with the gun-cotton, and a minute portion also,
which is always accidentally entangled between the mercury and the
glass. Its oxygen is absorbed by the mercury, when in the state of
nitrous acid.

In one experiment —

6*02 grains of gun-cotton=5*978, after being dried over sulphuric acid

in vacuo, and=
5'964 grains, after deducting ashes, produced
5*513 cubic inches of gas, bar. 30 in., therm. 60°, of which
0*08 was left by sulphate of iron.

5 '433 cubic inches, therefore, were deutoxide of nitrogen =
1*746 grains N0 2 , which represent
3*143 grains of nitric acid, or 52 70 per cent.
Another experiment gave 52*68 per cent.

The gun-cotton prepared by a single immersion gave only 51*42 per
cent, of nitric acid.

Carbon in Gun-Cotton. — Having failed to obtain good results by
burning this substance with oxide of copper, I used chromate of lead,
precipitated from the nitrate, and heated to redness. I employed for the
combustion an apparatus which I used many years ago for the analysis of
indigo, and I still find it very convenient for substances which do not
require a strong red heat. It consists of a tube of hard glass, eight ijiches

Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton. 167

long and thrco-cighths of an inch in diameter; the gases from which are
led by a small bent tube mid. ■ tin; receiver in a mercurial trough.

1 inch at the closed end of the tube is filled with eight grains chlorate of

potash, ground with chroraate of lead.
4 J inches are filled with chromate of lead, among which is ground to powder

three grains of the gun-cotton.
1 J inches contain chromate of lead that has been used to wash out the

mortar.
A glass plug separates these materials from the perforated cork which
joins the two tubes. The materials are gradually heated with broad-
wicked spirit lamps. Carbonic acid comes over, mixed, when in the
receiver, with nitric oxide and the azote of the apparatus ; and when all the
gun-cotton is consumed, the lamps are extended to the chlorate of potash.
The oxygen gas thus liberated, which in other cases is useful to consume
carbonaceous matter that may have escaped the chromate, expels in this
case all romains of carbonic acid, and passing itself into the receiver,
mixes there with the nitric oxide, and causes its entire absorption by the
mercury. Oxygen and azote are then the only gases left along with the
carbonic acid, and as those are not absorbable, an addition of half a cubic
inch of solution of caustic soda indicates exactly the quantity of carbonic
acid present.

In one experiment, 2*993 grains of gun-cotton (after deducting water
and ashes,) yielded 7*952 cubic inches of gas, of which 5733 was carbonic
acid, = 0*739 grains carbon, or

24-69 per cent.
A second experiment gave 25*16

Mean, 24*92

Elements op Water in Gun-Cotton. — To burn gun-cotton for the
purpose of collecting its oxygen and hydrogen in the state of water, I
ground up ten grains of it with pounded flint, and used the combustion
tube already described, having attached to it a chloride of calcium tube,
and afterwards a tube with asbestus moistened with sulphuric acid.
But, along with the water, ammonia and other matters were obtained,
which destroyed the result. I next used a thin glass tube of a foot
and a half long, bent so that a foot in the middle of it could dip into
cold water. Such water as would condense at 65° Falir. was collected.
The gas was led through it into a mercurial trough, and measured. A
trace of cyanogen appeared in the last portions of gas, while the oxygen
from the chlorate of potash was burning a quantity of charcoal that had
escaped the nitric acid.

After the experiment, the refrigerating tube was found studded with
l.u l'o crystals of bicarbonate of ammonia. It contained very little water in
the liquid state. The crystals and the liquid were washed out with more

Vol. EL— No. 3. 3

168 Mr. Crum on the Analysis of Nitrates, and on Explosive Cotton.

water, converted into muriate of ammonia, and found to contain 0*675

grain NH 3 2 C0 2 , the hydrogen of which represents

299 grain of water. There was besides

2*025 grains water in the tube. And in the 22 inches of gas which were

obtained, assuming it to be saturated with moisture, which is

doubtful, there was
0*088 grain of water — making in all

2*412, from which must be deducted

0*160 grain hygrometric water in the gun-cotton and in the flint, leaving

2*252 for the water in 9*92 grains of dry gun-cotton, or 22*70 per cent. \

In a second experiment, where the only difference was in having
moistened cotton for the gas to pass through before entering the mercurial
trough, the water obtained only amounted to 20*61 per cent. I did not
proceed farther. These were the two last of a number of experiments,
and the determinations of nitric acid and carbon are so much more
satisfactory, that I prefer resting the water contents upon their results.

Purified cotton wool (lignin) is composed of C 12 H 10 O 10 . During its
transformation into gun-cotton, there is no indication of change in the
proportions of its oxygen and hydrogen. The difference, therefore, between
the weight of the substance employed and that of the nitric acid and carbon
found by experiment is oxygen and hydrogen in the proportions which
form water.

The experiments I have related give the following for the composition
of gun-cotton : —

52*69 nitric acid,
24*92 carbon, and leave
22*39 for water.

100*00
These numbers are nearly in the proportions of 12 C, 7 HO, 3 N0 5 .

Found. Calculated.

52*69 52*69 = 3 N0 5 .

24*92 23*41 = 12 0.

22*39 20*49 = 7 HO.

100*00 96-59

Leaving a remainder of 3*41 per cent., consisting of 1*51 carbon, and 190
water. These, however, are nearly the proportions which form lignin.

Found. Calculated.

1*51 1-51 = 12

1-90 1-88 = 10 HO

Gun-cotton, from the form in which it is produced, is not one of those
substances we can expect to obtain in absolute purity. Every previous
improvement in its preparation had diminished this excess of unaltered

I = lignin.

Profrbsor Thomson's Notice of Stirling's Air Engine. 109

cotton, and I had no reason to suppose the last portion perfect, considering
the difficulty with which some of the previous stages of improvement had
been attained.

The specimen I have thus examined consists, therefore, of —

96-59 gun-cotton (12 C, 7 H, 7 0, 3 NO,.)
3-41 lignin (12 C, 10 H, 10 0.)

100-00

And pure gun-cotton consists of —

24-24 = 12 C. 24-24 = 12 0.

21-21= 7 HO. 2-36= 7 H.

54-55= 3 NO,. 1414= 3N.

59-26 = 22 0.

100-00

It is lignin in which three atoms of water are replaced by three atoms of
nitric acid.

21s* April, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

On the motion of Mr. Liddell, the Society agreed to request Dr. R. D.
Thomson to undertake the duties of interim Librarian, in room of Mr. J.
J. Griffin, who resigns in consequence of his being about to remove to
London.

XXVIII. — Notice of Stirling's A ir Engine. By William Thomson, B. A.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

Professor William Thomson gave an account of Stirling's Air Engine,
and exhibited a working model.

Attention was called to the circumstance that, in accordance with
Carnot's theory,* of which an explanation had been given by Professor
Gordon at a previous meeting of the Society, the mechanical effect to be
obtained by an Air Engine, from the transmission of a given quantity of
heat depends on the difference between the temperatures of the air in the
cold space above and the heated space below the plunger; as this difference
is considerably greater than that which exists between the boiler and the
condenser in the best condensing Steam Engines, it appears that, if the
practical difficulty in the construction of an efficient Air Engine can ever
be removed to nearly the same extent as already has been done in the
case of the Steam Engine, a much greater amount of mechanical effect
would be obtained by the consumption of a given quantity of fuel.

* An account of this theory is given in a paper by Clapeyron on the Motive Power of
Heat, of which a translation is published in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. i.

170 Mr. Liddell's Concluding Report of the Exhibition.

Some illustrations, afforded by the Air Engine, of general physical
principles, were also noticed. If the Air Engine be turned forwards, by
the application of power, and if no heat be applied, the space below the
plunger will become colder than the surrounding atmosphere, and the space
above hotter. Expenditure of work will be necessary to turn the engine,
after this difference of temperatures, contrary to that which is necessary
to cause the engine to turn forwards, has been established. If, however,
we prevent the temperature in one part from rising, and in the other from
sinking, the engine may be turned without the expenditure of any work,
(except what is necessary in an actual machine for overcoming friction, &c.)
One obvious way of retaining the two parts at the same temperature,
is to keep the machine immersed in a stream of water; but there is
another way in which this may be done, if we can find a solid body which
melts at the temperature at which it is required to retain the Engine.
For instance, let this temperature be 32° ; let a stream of water at 32° be
made to run across the upper part of the Engine, and let the lower part
of the vessel containing the plunger, which is protected from the stream,
be held in a bason of water at 32°. When the Engine is turned forwards,
heat will be taken from the space below the plunger and deposited in the
space above. Now, this heat must be supplied by the water in the bason,
which will, therefore, be gradually converted into ice at 32°. Hence we
see that water at 32° may be converted into ice at 32°, without the
expenditure of any work. This may also be very easily proved in the
following manner: —

Let a syringe be constructed of perfectly non-conducting materials,
except the lower end of the cylinder, which is to be stopped by a solid
plate, a perfect conductor. The syringe being at first full of air, at
atmospheric pressure, and at the temperature of 32° ; let the lower end be
dipped in a stream of water at 32°, and the piston be pushed down. Let
the syringe be then placed with its lower end in a bason of water at 32°,
and the piston be allowed to rise. The mechanical effect given out in
this part of the operation will be equal to the work spent in the former,
and a portion of the water in the bason will be turned into ice.

Note. — To avoid perplexity, in the account which was given, it was
supposed that the temperature of the air is always the same as that of the
vessel in which it is contained, which will only be strictly true, even were
the action of the plunger perfect in altering the temperature of the air,
when the motion is very slow.

April 28th, 1847. — The Society met for the last time this Session. —
The Vice-President in the Chair.

Mr. Liddell made his concluding report on the winding up of the affairs
of the Society's exhibition at the beginning of the year. All the accounts

Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery. 171

were paid,' leaving a balance of receipts over expenditure, now in the
Union Bank, of £453 8s. 10d., which, with £7 2s. lOd. of interest to the
20th of April, current, leaves an available balance of £460 lis. 8d., to
be laid aside for future exhibitions of a similar kind, in conformity with
article 5 of contract agreement betwixt the Town Council and the Philo-
sophical Society, of date 1st April, 1846, which runs thus — " If it should
happen that, in place of a loss, there should be an overplus of money
received, said overplus to be laid aside as a fund for future exhibitions of
a similar nature." Mr. Liddell moved, agreeably to a recommendation
contained in the Acting Committee's report to the General Committee on
the exhibition, and adopted by the latter on the 20th April, " that this
money, in the meantime, be lodged with the Corporation of the City, at
the current rate of interest, in name of the Lord Provost and Senior
Bailie of Glasgow, ex officio, and of the President and Vice-President of
the Philosophical Society, also ex officio, as trustees for the application of
this sum; and that the Treasurer of the Philosophical Society for the
time being, bo the custodiers of the bill or other voucher for the debt;
and that he bo requested to seo that the interest be added to the principal
sum twice every year, at the usual terms of Martinmas and Whitsunday,
commencing at the term of Martinmas 1847. And further, that the
Treasurer be required to report to the Philosophical Society at least once
every year the state of the fund, and that the Philosophical Society see
that this report to them is regularly given in." Which motion was
unanimously approved of by the Society.

The two following papers were communicated by Dr. R. D. Thomson.

XXX. — On the Chemical Composition of tlie Substances employed in
Pottery. By Mr. R. A. Couper.

Most kinds of pottery arc composed of two parts, viz., the body
and the glaze.

The body is the principal part of the vessel, being the base or founda-
tion, as indicated by the term itself.

The glaze is a thin transparent layer of glass which covers the body
and fills up its pores, giving it a smooth surface, with a polished and a
finished appearance.

I. The substances principally employed to form the body of earthen-
ware are, clays of different kinds, flint, and Cornish stone or granite.

Clay, which constitutes the base of the body of earthenware, is dis-
tinguished from silicious earth by becoming plastic when mixed with
water, and being very soft and not gritty to the feel; also, when burned
it keeps its form, and becomes firm and solid, whereas silicious earths
< nmil'l. int.. a powder when burned. Clay, when intensely heated, as

17- Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery.

in porcelain manufactories, docs not regain its plasticity, which it loses in
the burning, although pounded very fine, in which state it is technically
termed potsherd.

Clay is obtained naturally from Cornwall, Dorset, and Devonshire, and
is the finer particles of decomposed feldspar, deprived of its alcali.

(1.) The finest clay (termed China Clay) used in Britain is obtained
artificially from Cornwall, by running a stream of water over decomposed
granite, which carries with it the finer particles of feldspar, and is then
received into catch-pools or ponds, where it is allowed to subside. The
water is then run off, leaving a fine sediment, which is removed and
exposed to the atmosphere for four or five months, when it is ready for
export. By analysis of this clay, previously dried at 212°, I found it to
consist of —

I. IL

Silica, 46-32 46*29

Alumina, 39'74 4009

Protoride of iron, "27 ■ —

Lime, 36 50

Magnesia, "44 —

Water, 1267 —

99-80

For the second analysis I am indebted to Mr. John Brown.

The more common clays, which are found naturally deposited, are
supposed to have been produced in a similar manner to the China clay;
the rains having washed from the hills the decomposed rock into a lake
or estuary, where it has subsided and gradually displaced the water, and
become in the course of time perfectly firm and solid, forming fields of
clay. The clay is found in layers or strata lying over each other ; each
layer possessing some distinctive property from the other, which renders
each clay fitted for a peculiar purpose.

(2.) Sandy Clay, (stiff or ball clay,) is the upper layer of clay, and
is used by itself for making salt glazed ware ; it is well adapted for this
kind of ware, in consequence of the considerable quantity of silica or
sand which it contains. By analysis of this clay I found it to be com-
posed of —

Silica, 6668

Alumina, 2608

Protoxide of iron, 126

Lime, 84

Magnesia, a trace.

Water, 514

100-
Being previously dried at 212°, spec, gravity = 2*558.

Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery. 173

(3.) Pipe Clay is the second layer, which is used in making tobacco
pipes. This clay is not employed for manufacturing earthenware, owing
to its possessing the property of contracting more than sandy clay. It
was analysed by Mr. John Brown, who obtained —

Silica, 5366

Alumina, 3200

Protoxide of iron, 1*35

Lime, *40

Maguesia, a trace.

Water, '..1208

90-40

(4.) Blue Clay is of a greyish colour, and is considered the best layer
of clay in the whole series, owing to its burning perfectly white, and
approaching in character nearest to the China clay. As analysed by Mr.
John Higginbotham, it was found to consist of —

Silica, 46-38

Alumina, 3804

Protoxide of iron, 1-04

Lime, 120

Magnesia, a trace.

Water, 1357

100-23

Also previously dried at 212°. There is a variety of other clays obtained
from these fields which are of less value, and need not be enumerated
here, as they are similar in appearance to those already noticed.

(5.) Bed or Brown Clay, which is very abundant in the neighbourhood
of Glasgow, is a surface clay, and contains a large quantity of peroxide
pf iron, which gives it a deep brown colour. It is of this clay that common
black ware, flower-pots, and red bricks are made, which do not require a
very high temperature, else they would fuse. The analysis gave

Silica, 49-44

Alumina, 34*26

Protoxide of iron, 7*74

Lime, 1*48

Magnesia, 1*94

Water, 5-14

100-

(6.) Yellow Clay is obtained from various parts of the country, and is
so called from possessing a yellow colour both before and after being
burned, owing to the presence of iron.

174 Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery.

By mixing sandy clay and red clay together we gain an artificial
yellow clay, which is often employed.

Yellow clay, as analysed by Mr. John Brown, was found to contain —

Silica, 58*07

Alumina,.... 27'38

Protoxide of iron, 3*30

Lime, -50

Water, 1030

Magnesia, a trace.

99-55

(7.) Fire Clay is also very abundant in this country, and occurs both
on the surface and several fathoms under ground. It is termed marl, and
is used principally in potteries for making saggars, or vessels for placing
the ware previous to burning, to protect them from the flame; and,
owing to its coarse particles, which cause the body to be very porous, is
well adapted for strong heats. Crucibles or large pots for glass works, in
which the glass is fused, are also made from fire clay, as well as bricks
known under the name of fire bricks. This clay was analysed by Mr. John
Brown, who obtained —

Silica, 6616

Alumina, 22*54

Protoxide of iron, 531

Lime, 142

Magnesia, a trace.

Water and Coal, 3-14

98-57
(8.) Flint, as used in potteries, is first calcined, then water ground, in
which state it is used for mixing with clays, and is called slop flint ; but
for glazes, it is evaporated to dryness, and used in the dry state with
other articles which constitute the glaze.

(9.) Cornish Stone or granite, is water ground, then evaporated to
dryness for mixing in glazes, and is used in the slop state for mixing with
clays.

(10.) Plaster of Paris, or gypsum, which is employed in forming the
moulds in which certain kinds of pottery are cast, is a native sulphate of lime,
and is a very important article to the manufacturer of earthenware, owing
to its singular property of parting easily with the clay, by the application
of a slight heat. Plaster of Paris requires to be dried at a high tempera-
ture before using it ; but if it is over dried it will not set for making
moulds ; the drier the stucco the harder are the moulds that are made of
it, and they will stand more readily a greater degree of wear. Plaster of
Paris casts, as commonly prepared, cannot again be used for the same
purpose.

Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery. 175

II. The colours used for printing are similar to those employed in
painting on waro, excepting that the colours for painting may not bo so
expensive as for print ini: ; both, however, form an important and extensive
part of the materials of a pottery. The manufacturers of earthenware are
much occupied with the improvement of the variety and beauty of the
colours, as well as of the patterns or styles that are produced, and hence
a great emulation exists among those employed in the trade.

(1.) The blue colour in printing is produced from cobalt, which is used
with flint, ground glass, pearl ash, white lead, barytes, China clay, and
oxide of tin in reducing its strength.

(2.) The brown colour, by ochre, manganese, and cobalt.

(3.) The black colour, by chromate of iron, nickel, ironstone, and cobalt.

(4.) The green colour, by chrome, oxide of copper, lead, flint, and
ground glass.

(5.) The pink colour, by chrome, oxide of tin, whiting, and China
clay, which are mixed in various proportions, fused together at a high
ti ■! literature, then pounded and mixed with oil when it is ready for the
printer's use.

For the following analysis of a blue cobalt calx, I am indebted to Mr.
John Adam —

Silica, 1784

Peroxide of cobalt, 19*42

Peroxide of iron, 25*50

Water, 841

Carbonate of lime and magnesia, 28*45

99*62
The oil that is used for mixing with the colours is made by boiling the
following substances together, viz., — linseed oil, rape oil, sweet oil, rosin,
common tar, and balsam copaiba in various proportions.

III. It is but recently since a new method has been applied to cause
the colours to flow or spread over the surface of the ware. This object is
effected by washing the saggars in which the ware is placed previous to
its being fired in the glost kiln, with a mixture of —

(1.) Lime, common salt, and clay slip. Dry flows are also used, which
answer equally well, the mixture being sprinkled on the bottom of the
saggar. The following are some of those flows: —

(2.) Lime, sal ammoniac, and red lead.

(3.) Lime, common salt, and soda.

(4.) Whiting, lead, salt, and nitre.

(5.) But there is a wash made of lime, clay slip, lead, in general
use for washing all the saggars employed in the glost kiln, which fuses
on the inner surface of the saggar, making it perfectly close and not
porous, otlurwix- tho gloss required on the surface of the ware could not
bo obtained.

170 Mr. Couper on the Chemical Composition of Pottery.

IV. The colours used in producing the dipt ware are of a very cheap
kind, as it is only for common purposes that they are employed.
The colours when used for dipt ware are put on the ware before it is
burned. The following are some of those colours : —

(1.) A black dip is made from manganese, ironstone, and clay slip.

(2.) A drab dip, by nickel and clay slip.

(3.) A sage, or a greenish blue dip, by green, chrome, and slip.

(4.) A blue dip, by cobalt and clay slip.

(5.) A yellow dip, by yellow clay alone, or a compouud of white and
red clay, natural, which produces the same results.

(6.) A red dip is produced from the red or brown clay, but it is not
every quality of this clay that will answer, as it requires to bum red.

The first four of these dips are prepared by mixing a little of the colour-
ing agent with a quantity of clay slip, while the two last mentioned dips
are mixed with water to produce the slip state, in which condition they are
employed.

V. There are several kinds of bodies manufactured, but they may be
all classed under two heads, viz., porcelain and earthenware.

(1.) Porcelain or China, is a rich, very smooth, and transparent ware,
and is the finest quality that has yet been manufactured. It is a fused
body, and owes its transparency to this circumstance ; it also requires a
very high temperature to burn it, and is manufactured in this country from
flint, Cornish stone, (granite,) China clay, and bone earth; the phosphate
of lime employed acting as a flux partly fusing it. By analysis of two
pieces of china from different manufactories in Staffordshire, I found them
to be differently composed. The last of these species was also analysed
by Mr. William Crichton; the three analyses being as follows : —

Silica, 39-88 40-60 39*685

Alumina, 21*48 24-15 24-650

Lime 1006 14-22 14176

Protoxide of iron,") ik.qqa

™ , . -,. \ 26*44 15-32 15d8t>

Phosphate oi lime,)

Magnesia, — '43 "311

Alcali and loss, 2-14 5-28 5.792

100- 100- 100-

No. 1, by R. A. C. ; No. 2, by R. A. C, ; No. 3, by W. C.

(2.) Foreign manufacturers do not employ bone earth ; but instead of
it they use feldspar, the alcali of which supplies the place of the phosphate
of lime ; the Germans make the best porcelain for chemical purposes, as
that body is more vitrified and less liable to be acted upon by acids, as
well as being capable of standing a very strong heat ; hence it is exten-
sively used by chemists. By the analysis of some specimensjof foreign
porcelain, I obtained the following results : —

Mr. Coupeu on the Chemical Composition of Pottery. 177

tin. Chinese Porcelain.

•operior. inferior.

Silica, 72-96 7104 68-96

Alumina and protoxide of iron, 24*78 22*46 29*24

Lime, 104 3*82 1*60

Alcali and Loss, 122 2*68 —

100* 100* 99*80
Specific gravity, 2*419 2*314 2*314

VI. Earthenware is a very porous and less compact body than china
or porcelain, owing to its containing little or no alkali, which is the great
difference between these bodies. I had a piece of ware manufactured,
resembling in appearance porcelain, as regards its porosity and compact-
ness, slightly transparent, and capable of standing a very strong and
sudden heat ; it was produced by mixing soda to the extent of 3J per
cent, in a little clay prepared for the common white body, and was then
fired in the biscuit kiln. The clay employed having been previously well
dried, so as to weigh it without water, the proportional quantity of soda
requisite was then calculated and weighed out ; the clay was again mixed
with water along with the soda ; it was then formed into capsules, which,
after being fired, and then broken, presented the appearance of a vitrified
or fused body.

(1.) The common white ware, or earthenware, is made from flint,
Cornish stone, China clay, and blue clay, and does not require such a high
temperature in burning as the porcelain does. By analysis of a piece of
white ware, manufactured in this city, it was found to contain —

Silica, 68*55

Alumina and protoxide of iron, 29*13

Lime, 1*24

Magnesia, a trace.

98*92
x Specific gravity, 2*36

Coloured ware is also manufactured from tho same substances, but
mixed with a colouring agent which stains the body.

(2.) The toqua, or blue coloured ware, is coloured by cobalt, chrome,
and oxide of zinc.

(3.) The sage, or greenish blue coloured ware, by nickel and cobalt.

(4.) The drab, or buff coloured ware, by chromate of iron, or nickel.

(5.) The body for the cane, or yellow coloured ware, is produced by a
mixture of sandy clay and common red clay, the same as is used for red
bricks, but is generally produced from the natural yellow clay found in
particular localities.

(6.) The last mentioned body is also employed for making Rockingham
ware, which only varies from the cane ware by possessing a different glaze.

(7.) The common black ware body is made from the red clay alone.

178 Mn. CourER on the Chemical Composition of Potter)'.

(8.) The Egyptian ware body is made from ironstone, stiff clay, man-
ganese, and red clay.

These four lust-mentioned bodios do not require nearly such a high tem-
porature to ban them; therefore, they are, comparatively speaking, soft
bodies.

(9.) Salt glazed ware is made from sandy clay, and a little sand to
keep the body open, or make it less compact ; but for large salt glazed
ware, potsherd, which is ware that has been fired and then ground, is
employed to render the body still more open or porous, and also to give it
a greater capability of standing sudden heats or colds. This ware is much
used in public works for chemical purposes ; it is exposed to the action of
the flame during burning, whereas other kinds of ware are protected by
saggars from the flames.

VII. The glaze vitrifies the surface of the body, rendering it generally
capable of withstanding acids. It is a very important point with the
manufacturer to obtain a glaze which will adhere to the body without
crazing or peeling off, as he may discover a good body, but not find a
glaze to answer it, since every glaze will not adhere to the same body ;
and hence every manufacturer has a glaze of his own composition.

(1.) The substances used in the preparation of the glaze for the white
ware are — borax, China clay, flint, Cornish stone, Paris white, and
white lead. In preparing the glaze, a substance technically termed frett,
is first made, consisting of borax, China clay, flint, Cornish stone, and
Paris white, which are fused together in a kiln, and, when ready, allowed
to flow into water, which shortens it, owing to the water being mechani-
cally lodged in it and keeps it from adhering to the bottom of the vessel,
rendering it much easier to pound. Frett is a beautiful glass, coloured
by a little iron, and is pounded, and water ground along with Cornish
stone, flint, and white lead. This constitutes the glaze for white ware.

Analysis of of F tt

white glaze. uiureu.

Silica, 43-66 55*98

Lime, *52 2*52

Alumina and protoxide of iron,.... 9*56 10*38

Borax, 2008 3112

Carbonate of lime, 10*88 —

Carbonate of lead, 15*19 —

99*89 100*

Specific gravity, 2*345

A piece of earthenware was brought lately from Wisconsin territory,
N. America, having been discovered several feet under ground, the glaze of
which was tested and found to be composed of silica, iron, alumina, lime,
sulphate of lime, and antimony, which was a beautiful rich white glass,
concealing a common red clay body.

(2.) The glaze of Rockingham ware possesses a beautiful brownish

Mr. Colter on the Chemical Composition of Pottery.

170

metallic lustre, and is made from Cornish stone, flint, manganese, red lead,
and clay slip, the latter substance being a little clay mixed with water
until it becomes of the consistency of milk.

(3.) The glaze for common black ware is made from the same materials,
in differont proportions, and has a brilliant black appearance.

(4.) The glaze used for cane, or yellow coloured ware, is made from
flint, red load, and Cornish stone.

(5.) The Egyptian ware owes its value to the beautiful and rich tinted
black glaze, made from flint, Cornish stone, red lead, and manganese, with
which it is covered. These four last mentioned glazes are made by stirring
the substances together with a certain quantity of water, and passing it
through a very fine sieve or search. Glazes do not require such a high
temperature to fuso them on the surface of the ware as the body does to
be burned.

(6.) The glaze for salt glazed ware is common salt, which is thrown in
at the top of the kiln through a number of small apertures in the crown
of it, and diffuses itself through all parts of the kiln, giving the ware the
required glaze. The action that is supposed to take place when the salt
is thrown into the kiln, is owing to its decomposition ; the chlorine of the
salt combines with the hydrogen of the water, which is mechanically
lodged in the salt, forms muriatic acid gas, which passes off, while the
sodium, with the oxygen of the water, then unites with the silica in the
ware, forming a silicate of soda, which fuses on the surface. The salt is
not thrown in until the kiln has been raised to its greatest necessary
temperature.

TABLE OF THE COMPOSITION OF CLAYS AND PORCELAIN WHEN
FREE FROM WATER.

d
o

8 .

a" u

2 e<~
III

§1

Cornish China Clay,

53-16
53-12
70-29
81*M
53-52
52-04
69-33
gfrOQ
39-88
40-60
3968

7104
68-96
68-55

45-61
46-00
2747
3661
48-89
36-19
28-62

ana

21-48
24-15
24-65

•31
•31
1-33
1-54
1-20
8-17
5-56
3-70

•41

•57

•90

•46

1-39

156

1-49

•56

1006

1 1 -J-.'

14-18

104

3-82

1-60

1-Jl

•51

trace,
trace,
trace.
2-04
trace,
trace.

•43
•31

trace.

trace

26-44
1532
1539

2-14
5-28
5-79

1 -_>•_'

2-68

2-558

2-419
2-314
2-314
2-360

Sandy Clay,

Pipe Clay,

Blue Clay,

Red Clay,

Fire Clay,

Yellow Clay,

English China Ware, No. 1,...
English China Ware, No. 2,...
English China Ware, No. J,...

Berlin Ware, •

Superior Chinese Ware,

Inferior Chinese Ware,

Common White Ware,

22-46

29^

2913

180 Mr. Brown on the Analysis of Molybdate of Lead.

XXIX. — On the Analysis of Molybdate of Lead. By Mr. John Brown.

Molybdate of Lead was first analysed by Klaproth, who proceeded in
the following manner: — *

100 grains of the mineral, finely pounded, were treated with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and the whole of the silica was thus separated. Upon
cooling, the greater part of the chloride of lead was deposited in fine
crj-stals. The clear supernatant liquor was then drawn off, and when
sufficiently concentrated, the remaining chloride of lead was deposited.
The whole of the chloride was then carefully collected together, dried,
and weighed. Its weight was 74*5 grains. From this, the quantity of
oxide of lead was ascertained, which was 64*42 grains. Every 100 grains
of molybdate of load contain, therefore, 64*42 grains of oxide of lead.
When the solution had thus been freed from lead, it was concentrated by
evaporation. Nitric acid was then added to the solution, which imme-
diately became of a fine blue colour; when sufficiently concentrated, a
quantity of molybdic acid separated. The solution was then evaporated
to dryness, and the molybdic acid remained in the form of a fine citron-
yellow powder, which when completely dried weighed 34*25 grains.

The constituents, therefore, of 100 parts of the purest crystals of
Carinthian molybdate of lead, are, according to Klaproth : —

Oxide of lead, 64*42 59*59) corrected from

Molybdic acid, 34*25 34*25) the chloride.

As Klaproth did not know the true composition of chloride of lead, the
quantity of oxide of lead given above is wrong. Calculating the quantity
of oxide from the quantity of chloride which he obtained, we get 59*59
per cent, of oxide of lead, which is near the theoretical quantity, or
60*87. But the great error is in the molybdic acid. What Klaproth
considered as silica, was very probably molybdic acid, as that acid is not
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid, and as he apparently deducted this
as impurity, he gets too little molybdic acid. He also does not mention
how he washed out the molybdic acid from the chloride of lead. It could
not well have been done with water, for chloride of lead is soluble to a
great extent. This is a point of imperfection in the analysis.

II. This mineral was next subjected to a close examination by Charles
Hatchett, Esq. whose analysis is recorded in the Philosophical Transac-
tions (vol. xviii. abridgment), from which the following is an extract : —

250 grains of the ore, freed from as much impurity as possible, were
put into a glass flask and digested for some time under a strong heat with
dilute sulphuric acid. When the solution cooled, the clear liquor was
drawn off, and the residual sulphate of lead washed by subsidence. This
process was repeated several times. The acid solutions were then filtered,

* Beitrage zur chemischen Kentniss der Mineral Ktfrper. I. 265.

Mr. Brown on the Analysis of Molybdate of Lead. 181

and the filtered liquid neutralised by caustic ammonia. After standing for
twenty-four hours, a pale yellowish coloured precipitate fell down, which
was collected on a filter, washed, and dried. Its weight was then 4*20
grains. It had a yellowish colour, and when dissolved in hydrochloric
acid, gave a blue precipitate with yellow prussiate of potash.

Part of the clear blue solution, which was composed of sulphate and
molybdate of ammonia, was then put into a retort and evaporated down,
the rest of the solution being added as the liquid in the retort evaporated.
The whole was then dried and strongly heated. In this manner all the
sulphate of ammonia was driven off, while the molybdate of ammonia
was decomposed into molybdic acid and ammonia — the former of which
remained in the retort. The molybdic acid then weighed 95 grains.
The sulphate of lead formerly obtained was then treated in the following
manner: — It was boiled with 4 ounces of carbonate of soda in solution;
the powder was then washed, and nitric acid, much diluted, was poured
on it. The whole dissolved, except a small quantity of silica, which was
thrown on a filter; this, when washed and dried, weighed *7 grain. The
acid was then exactly neutralised with caustic potash, which precipitated
the lead as oxide. This, when washed and dried, weighed 14600 grains.

The oxide of lead was then dissolved in nitric acid, and sulphuric acid
was added. After standing for some time, the solution was filtered, and
the filtered liquor saturated with caustic ammonia; after standing, a
small quantity of peroxide of iron was precipitated, which, when filtered
and dried, weighed 1*0 grain. This, when added to the former quantity
of peroxide of iron, makes the quantity 52 grains, and the quantity of
oxide of lead 145* grains.

The composition of 250 grains of molybdate of lead is therefore —

Oxide of lead, 145*0 58-00, per cent.

Molybdic acid, 95*0 38*00 —

Peroxide of iron, 5'2., 2-08 —

Silica, -7 '28 —

2459 98-36

If the iron and silica be subtracted as impurities, this analysis is very
correct. But the method is very tedious and inconvenient, and requires
very great care.

III. The next person who turned his attention to this mineral was
Gobel.*

100 grains of the mineral were digested with dilute hydrochloric acid,
with the assistance of heat. Upon cooling, the lead was deposited in the
form of chloride. These crystals were then collected together and dried.
The weight was found to be 72'5 grains, which is equivalent to 59
grains of oxide of lead. The solution, freed from lead, was evaporated to

* Schweigger's Journal fur Chemie und Physik, xxxvii. 71.

182 Mr. Brown on the Analysis of Molybdate of Lea</.

dryness; when perfectly dry, a small quantity of nitric acid was added,
and the solution was again dried. The residue was then heated to redness
in a close vossel, and weighed ; its weight was found to be 40*5 grains.
100 grains contain therefore —

Oxide of lead, 59*0 58*0") corrected from

Molybdic acid, 40*5 40'5j the chloride.

99-5 98-5

This method is essentially the same as that used by Klaproth. The
result, however, is much nearer the truth; but Gobel gets too much
molybdic acid, and too little oxide of lead; this was probably owing
to some of the chloride of lead not being obtained, as it is soluble
to a great extent in water, (1 in 152 of water,) * and the analyst does not
state how he washed the chloride of lead free from molybdic acid.

TV. The methods hitherto employed being liable to very great objec-
tions, the molybdate of lead was analysed by another method, which had
proved successful in the hands of Mr. William Parry last year, in the
College Laboratory.

26*84 grains of the mineral, finely pounded, were boiled for a con-
siderable time with nitric acid, and filtered. The undecomposed mineral,
along with a quantity of molybdic acid, remained on the filter. This was
then completely washed; ammonia was then poured into the filter. The
molybdic acid was thus dissolved, and the insoluble matter remained on
the filter. This was then washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. The
weight of the insoluble matter in 26*84 grains was 1*15 grains.

The solution containing the molybdate of ammonia was then evaporated
to dryness, and heated to redness in a close vessel. The greater part of
the molybdic acid was thus obtained. Its weight was 6*76 grains.

The first washings from the molybdic acid and insoluble matter were
then concentrated. Caustic ammonia was added, in order to neutralise
the excess of acid, and afterwards sulphohydret of ammonia was added
in excess. In this manner the lead was precipitated in the form of
sulphuret, while the tersulphuret of molybdenum was re-dissolved by the
excess, giving the solution a deep red colour. The sulphuret of lead was
then thrown on a filter and washed with water containing sulphohydret of
ammonia. When completely washed, the sulphuret of lead was dissolved
in muriatic acid, and after boiling for some time was filtered to get rid of
the sulphur. The filtered liquor was then concentrated, and the lead
precipitated by means of oxalate of ammonia ; the precipitated oxalate of
lead was then thrown on a filter, washed, and dried. By ignition the
oxalate of lead was converted into the oxide; the quantity of which in
26*84 grains was thus found to be 16*20 grains, which is equivalent to
60*35 per cent, of oxide of lead.

* In two experiments 3963 grains of water at 60°, dissolved 26*2 grains PbCl,= 1 in 151
grains; and 4260 grains of water dissolved 27*6 grains PbCl,= 1 in 154 grains of water.

Mr. Bhown on the Analysis of Molybdate of Lead. 183

The next thing to be obtained was the rest of the molybdic acid. This
was contained in the washings from the sulphuret of lead in the form of
ilphuret of molybdenum. When the solution was sufficiently concen-
trated, it was made slightly acid by means of hydrochloric acid, a brownish
coloured precipitate fell down, which was tersulphuret of molybdenum.
This was then thrown on a filter and washed. It was then dried at 212°
and weighed. Its weight was 3*37 grains. From this and the previous
quantity of molybdic acid, the quantity per cent, was calculated, which
was 39*30 grains.

According to this analysis the composition of molybdate of lead is

Molybdic acid, 39*30

Protoxide of lead, 00*35

99*65

V. In the courso of the preceding analysis it was observed that the
suiphohydret of ammonia exercised a powerful solvent action on the
niiK'ral itself. The following new method of successfully analysing this
mineral was therefore adopted : —

23*00 grains, after being reduced to a very fine powder, were digested with
the aid of gentle heat in suiphohydret of ammonia. The solution became
immediately of a deep red colour, owing to the tersulphuret of molybdenum
which is held in solution by the suiphohydret of ammonia, while the lead
was precipitated as sulphuret and fell to the bottom in the form of a black
powder. The clear supernatant liquor was then drawn off, and a fresh
portion of suiphohydret of ammonia was added. This after standing for
some time, was thrown on a filter, and washed with water containing
suiphohydret of ammonia. The tersulphuret of molybdenum passed
through in solution while the sulphuret of lead remained on the filter.
When this was completely washed, it was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid,
which takes up the lead and leaves the undecomposed matter along with
the sulphur. These were then thrown on a filter and washed. The whole
was then burnt. The sulphur was thus driven off while the insoluble
matter remained. The insoluble matter in 23 grains amounted to *24
grains, while in the former analysis it amounted to 1*15 in 26*84 grains.

When the washings from the sulphur were sufficiently concentrated, the
lead was precipitated by means of ammonia and oxalate of ammonia. The
oxalate of lead was then thrown on a filter and washed. The quantity
of oxide of lead in 22*76 grains amounted to 13*71 grains, which is
niuivalcnt to 60*23 grains per cent.

The next point was to precipitate the tersulphuret of molybdenum.
This was done by making the solution in suiphohydret of ammonia slightly
at id Ivy means of muriatic acid. The tersulphuret went down in the form
of a brownish coloured precipitate. This was then thrown on a filter,
dried, ignited, and weighed. The quantity in 22*76 grains was thus found
to be 9*91 grains, which is equivalent to 39*19 per cent, of molybdic acid.

Vol. II.— No. 3. 4

184

Dr. Buchanan on the Effects of the hAaiUxtion of Ether

The constituents, therefore, of molybdate of lead, according to this
analysis, are, —

Molybdic acid, 39*19

Lead protoxide, G0'23

99-42

Phosphates and arscniates of lead were decomposed in the same manner;
and it is evident this process would also do with antimoniates, vanadiates,
and scleniets, &c.

Molybdic Acid,

Klaproth

Hatchett

Gobel

Parry.

J. Hrown.

Theory

34-25
59-59

38-00

58-00

2-08

•28

40-50
5800

*40-40
59-60

39-88
59-56

39-80

60-35

99-65

*40-64
59-36

39-19
60-23

3913
60-87

Protoxide of Lead,

Peroxide of Iron,

Silica,

93-84

98-36

98-50

100-00

99-44

100-00

99-42

100-00

The two last analyses were made by means of sulphohydret of ammonia ;
the three preceding analyses by nitric acid.

Physiological Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. By Andrew Buchanan,
M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in tlie University of Glasgow.

(Continued from page 161.)

The narcotic effects above described do not always follow upon the
inhalation of ether. The operation, as at present practised, must be
admitted to be uncertain and not devoid of danger. If too little ether
be inhaled wc fail in our object of stupifying the nerves; if too much be
inhaled, excessive narcotism may be induced; and if atmospheric air be not
supplied freely enough, or the same air be respired more than once, there
is danger of asphyxia. The source of this uncertainty and danger, is
the difficulty of determining the exact quantity of ethereal vapour
which is inhaled, and the proportion of air which is mingled with
it. To resolve these problems is, therefore, a matter of great
importance, and fortunately the solution of them is not difficult.
It only requires that the inhaling apparatus be of a proper size and
structure, and that it be always employed at the same, and that a fit
temperature. The proportion of ether and ethereal vapour is certainly
known from the temperature, and if the chamber of the inhaler be of
sufficient size that proportion will vary very little during the period of
inhalation. If again the apparatus be so constructed, that there is no
impediment to the free ingress and egress of the elastic fluid to and from
the lungs, the quantity of air, and of course also of ether inhaled in a given
time may be determined with considerable accuracy. Now, as the quantity

* In these analyses the
molybdic acid.

only was ascertained, and the deficiency was taken an

Dit. Buchanan on the Effects of the Inhalation of Ether. 1 85

of ether absorbed will, in tin: same circumstances, be always nearly in the
same proportion to the quantity inhaled, we are enabled to measure, or
at least adjust, the done of ether by the sure and simple standard of the
time during which the inhalation is continued. The only other criterion
of the quantity of ether administered is the physiological effects resulting
from it, such as the appearance of the eye and the state of the sensibility;
but these, although worthy of being noted, are too vague and difficult of
ition to be relied upon alone.

It follows from what has been just said, that the form of the inhaling
apparatus is of the utmost importance, and should not be regarded as a
matter of mere taste and convenience, as if there were no more stable
principles to regulate it. Much risk is incurred by the diversity of
instruments at present in use. It is, moreover, clear that no comparable
results eat) 1"' expected so long as an indiscriminate use is made of instru-
ments differing BO much, that one produces full narcotism in from five to
ten minutes, and another can be employed from two to four hours with
impunity. Admitting fully the influence of idiosyncracy, we cannot,
without abandoning all faith in the uniformity of the laws of living nature,
explain such discrepancies on that principle, and a little consideration
will show that an obvious explanation of them is to be found in the mere
difference of size and structure of the instruments made use of.

In constructing an inhaling apparatus, and in making use of it, every
other consideration should be made to give way to the vitally important
object of administering a definite quantity of ether in a given time, and
haying it mingled with such an unvarying proportion of atmospheric air
as may be sufficient to support respiration. Now, to attain that object,
the apparatus should always be employed at the same temperature; the
chamber m which the vapour is contained should be of large size; the
a pei -hires into it, and the tubes connected with it, should be at every point
somewhat larger than the human wind-pipe, and kept carefully free from
all obstructions ; and, lastly, there ought to be valves, or some similar con-
trivance, to direct the course of the gaseous fluid to and from the lungs.

The temperature of 00° Fahr. is the most convenient that could be
selected. At that temperature, if the size of the chamber be large
enough to admit of the vapour retaining its maximum tension while the
inhalation is going on, the gaseous fluid consists nearly of equal volumes
of air and ethereal vapour; and experience seems to have shown that air
of that degree of tenuity, or of one half its ordinary density, may be
respired for a short period without any bad effects — although this cannot
be considered as fully ascertained, since probably even the largest inhalers
now in use are too small to fulfil the Conditions above-stated. If the
temperature bo higher than 60° we must cither lower it artificially
to the proper standard, or we must admit air into the ehamber so freely
as to prevent the vapour from attaining its maximum tension, which it
could not do without expelling so much sir from the chamh adet

18G

Dr. Buchanan on the Effect* of the Inhalation of Ether.

the remainder too highly rarified to be respired without danger of
asphyxia. In cold weather again, the apparatus must be maintained by
artificial heat at G0°, for it is only by a scrupulous attention to the
influence of temperature, that the time of inhalation of the ether can be
rendered a measure of its physiological effect.

The reason why the chamber of the instrument should be large has
been already pointed out. The larger it is the more complete will be the
uniformity between the successive quantities of ether drawn into the lungs
at each inspiration. It should probably not be of less capacity than from
1300 to 1400 cubic inches, the volume of air consumed by respiration in
five minutes. A cubic foot is a simpler measure, and, if adopted as a
minimum standard for the size of the chamber, would render all observa-
tions made with instruments so constructed comparable with each other.
It is true that such an instrument will not go into the surgeon's pocket,
but this is probably no disadvantage, for an agent so energetic as the
vapour of ether should not be employed on light occasions, but only after
deliberate consideration.

The tubes and apertures of the chamber should not be less than an
inch in diameter, for when they are narrower, especially if the tubes be
long, the difficulty of respiration is much increased. Care should be taken
to keep the apertures perfectly free, instead of choking them up as is
often done with sponges soaked in ether.

The valves are a frequent source of difficulty. As they are fitted on
narrow apertures, they impede the respiration to a certain extent, even
when they are in good working order; but they are very liable to
derangement, and may then readily occasion asphyxia.

Having frequently witnessed how imperfectly the valves perform their
office, it occurred to me that an apparatus might be constructed without
any valves; or, to speak more correctly, substituting for the solid valves
now in use, liquid valves, which require no contraction of the tubes, and,
from their simplicity of structure, are not liable to go out of order. The
principle of this contrivance will be understood by reference to fig. 1.

Fig. l.

Dr. Buchanan on the Effects of tlu> TnJialation of Ether. 1!J7

E and W are two glass vessels, the one containing a small quantity of
ether, and the other of water. They aro shaped somewhat like the letter
U, having one limb or tube very narrow and the other wide. They aro
placed with these tubes in opposite directions — the one internal and the
other externa], in reference to the person who is to inhale the ether. In
the vessel E, the narrow tube is external and open at the top, while the
wide or intornal tube is shut, and has an elastic pipe attached to it. In
\\\ again, it is the wide tubo which is external and open, while the
i. arrow or internal one is shut, and has the pipe attached to it. The two
ic pipes terminate together at the mouth-piece. The effect of this
arrangement is, that when the person begins to breathe, the air inhaled
into the lungs can only gain admittance through the vessel E containing
the ether, and the air expelled from the lungs can only make its escape
through the vessel W containing the water. A current of air is thus
kept uj) in the direction indicated by the arrows from E to W, and the
as it enters at E and passes through the ether, is mingled with
ethereal vapour, and carries it along to the lungs. The mechanism by
wimh this is effected is of the simplest kind. The liquid in the vessels
E and W stands at the same level in the tubes of each vessel, so long as
the pressure of the air upon it is equal from within and from without.
But no sooner does the person begin to breathe, than, by expanding his
chest, he rarefies the air within, and thus diminishes the pressure upon the
surface of the liquid in the internal tubes. The consequence is, that the
liquid being forced inward by the pressure of the air from without, rises
in the internal and is depressed in the external tubes. But owing to the
Bmal] diameter of the external tube of E, only a very trifling elevation of
the liquid in the broad internal tube can take place before the whole
liquid in the external tube is exhausted, and the air rushes in to restore the
equilibrium. On the other hand, no air can enter through the vessel W,
owing to the reversed position of the two tubes, the broad one being
external, and the narrow one internal. These mechanical conditions are
just reversed during expiration ; for when the chest contracts, the air
within is condensed and acquires a greater tension, so that the liquid in
the two vessels E and W is now pressed more powerfully from within than
from without. It therefore rises in the external tubes, and is depressed
in the internal, till the whole liquid in the narrow internal tube of W
being exhausted, the air rushes out in that direction, and the equilibrium
is restored.

Mr. Young of this city* suggested to me an improvement on the
apparatus just described, — that of putting the small tubes in the inside
of the large ones, — and had the kindness to construct for me an apparatus
of the kind. On trying it at the Infirmary, it was found to answer per-
fectly so long as the patient breathed calmly; but when he coughed, the

* Mod reddtnl In Manchester, formerly assistant to Professor Graham, ami we$l
known for fail Ingenuity In tho construction of chemical apparatus.

188

Dr. Buchanan on //<<• Effects of ike Inhalation of Ether.

ether spurted out through the narrow tube of E. To remedy this defect,
the narrow tube was made shut at the top and with two apertures at the
sides, and a round eapital made to fit upon it at the level of these aper-
tures, bo that any liquid poured into the capital or projected upwards,
might flow down thence into the vessel below. Mr. Young constructed
for me an apparatus so improved, which is shown in fig. 2. It has been

found to answer the purposes in view exceedingly well, inducing narcotism
with great rapidity. It might probably, however, be still further improved,
by enlarging the chamber containing the ethereal vapour ; for, at the time
it was made, I was not fully aware of the importance of having the chamber
of large size. I would now prefer to it an instrument constructed in the
following way, as seen in fig. 3 : —

The vessel W is much the same as in fig. 2 ; but the vessel E has
been converted into a mere valve, regulating the admission of air to the
chamber C, which is a globular glass vessel of the capacity of a cubic
foot, having a wide mouth, to which a wooden cover is accurately fitted,
and on that the other pieces of the apparatus rest. E consists of a glass
vessel, having a wide funnel-shaped mouth, a narrow neck by which it is
attached to the wooden cover, and two openings below by which it com-
municates with the chamber C. To the neck of it there is fitted by
grinding a tube, an inch in diameter, shut at the top, but having two
lateral openings, through which the ether poured in at the wide mouth
descends to the bottom of E, where there should be as much of it as to
rise a little above the level of the lower orifice of the tube. Another tube
h conveys the ethereal vapour and air out from the chamber. It has
bed to it an expanded linen cloth, </, placed obliquely, and serving
to receive any drops of ether which may descend from above: and before
ing the inhalation a slight excess of ether should lie poured into

Dr. BucnANAN on the Effect* of the Inlialation of Ether.

109

E, so that it may run over and moisten the linen cloth inside. An
expanded oloth seems to me much better adapted to promote evaporation
than the sponges now in use, for a sponge is more fitted to retain liqmdfl
that to promote the exhalation of vapours.

Lime water may bo substituted for the common water in the vessel
\\\ when the carbonic acid in the expired air renders the liquor milky.
Whether the degree of decoloration produced will have any correspon-
dence with the degree of narcotism I have not tried, but it is worthy of
attention, as Dr. Prout's experiments on the effect of alcohol on the
quantity of carbonic acid exhaled, render such a result not impossible.
An apparatus of this kind might bo advantageously employed in many
logical experiments on respiration.

Fig. 3.

itti.t. ami HUN, ! ui.sti-ks, it. MOOS MtfUU, QXilBOW.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY SIXTH SESSION.

3d November, 1847. — The President in the Chair.

The Librarian read a report on the Library, from which it appeared
that, since last Session, various periodical works have been completed by
the addition of C6 Nos. and 63 vols., in pursuance of a decision of
the Committee. Many of these were obtained with great difficulty, in
consequence of their scarcity, but by applying in the proper quarters, a
remarkable degree of success has attended the attempts made to render
the series of periodicals perfect. The Library can now boast of a perfect
copy of Agassiz' Work on Fishes. The American Journal of Science is
now complete, from the year 1831 to the present time. The Annales de
Chimie, by the purchase of 46 vols, at £12, and 2 Nos., is complete
from the year 1816. The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, by
purchasing 9 or 10 Nos., is also rendered complete from the year 1819,
the date of its commencement. The Philosophical Magazine, by the pur-
chase of 4 vols, and 3 Nos., is now perfect from its commencement, in
the year 1798, to the present date. The Reports of the British Associa-
tion have also been completed by the addition of 6 vols. In consequence
of the Repertory of Patent Inventions being a work which is very much
consulted in this Library, it was considered proper to make every effort
to procure the absent Nos., and now the series, with the exception of 3
vols., is complete from the year 1794 — the absent vols, are 28, 29, 45 of
the second series. The first two published in the year 1816, and the
last in 1824. The report suggested that the Council of the Andersonian
University should be requested to enter on their minutes the titles of
the <I00 volumes purchased by the Philosophical Society, and that the
Philosophical Society should preserve a similar document, to prevent any
dispute in future, in consequence of these books being marked with the
Andersonian stamp. It was also suggested, that as the Repertory of
Patent Inventions is so valuable for rafaroMM^ and is consulted perhaps

Vol. II.— N». 4. 1

192 Dr. T. Thomson on the Geology and Climate of Nice.

more than any other work, and that as many Nos. and vols, have been
lost in consequence of their being lent out, in future the work should not
be taken from the Library, except by special permission, but should be
consulted in the Library room. The same recommendation was advised
should be extended to Brewster's Encyclopedia.

The report was unanimously adopted.

Mr. Robert Graham presented, from his Grace the Duke of Northum-
berland, a copy of Results of Astronomical Observations by Sir John
Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope, made during 1834 — 38. The Secre-
tary was requested to return a letter of thanks to his Grace.

XXX. — Notice of the Geology and Climate of Nice. By Dr. Thomas

Thomson.

The President, Dr. Thomas Thomson, read a paper on the Geology and
Climate of Nice, where he resided during last winter. Nice was described
as being surrounded on all sides except the south, where the sea serves
as a boundary, by mountains. Of these there are three ranges. The
range nearest Nice is the lowest, and the mountains composing it are
covered to the summit with olive trees. The mountains of the second
range are a good deal higher than those of the first, and are also covered
with wood to the top. The trees at lower levels are olives, but the sum-
mits are covered with a beautiful pine, which Dr. Thomson considered to
be the Pinus Maritima. The cones of this tree are much larger than
those of our pine, and are highly combustible. The third range of moun-
tains constitute the Alps, which are at a great distance, and are constantly
covered with snow. The mountains of the inner circle are separated from
each other by valleys, which run towards the sea, and becoming broader
as they descend. It is in one of these valleys that the city of Nice is
situated. The most abundant tree in the neighbourhood of the town is
the olive, which indeed may be said to cover the country. It is often
small, and its dull green is unpleasing to the eye ; but when allowed to
grow to its full size it becomes a magnificent tree. One which Dr. Thomson
measured was 40| feet in circumference at its base, just above the surface
of the ground ; at 4 J feet high its circumference was 20 J feet. An olive
must be twenty years old before it comes into full bearing. The range
of mountains nearest Nice is composed of limestone, which is regularly
stratified ; the limestone strata are separated by a yellow ochry looking
substance, varying from one inch to several feet in thickness. From the
fossils contained in this limestone, there can be no doubt that these moun-
tains belong to the oolite formation. The fossils are similar to those
which are so abundant in the neighbourhood of Bristol, intermixed with
the oolite fossils and others belonging to the green sand and the chalk ;
from whence it was concluded, that beds of green sand and chalk must
still exist or have existed there. The sea-coast from Nice to Genoa is
mountainous, and the mountains are composed of limestone. It was

Dr. T. Thomson on the Geology and Climate of Nice. 193

thought not improbable that the oolite continues throughout, although no
opportunity occurred of verifying this opinion. The limestone round
Genoa is often slatey and dark coloured, having much the aspect of moun-
tain limestone, but the great abundance of white marble every where
conspicuous in Genoa, indicated that this ornamental article of architec-
ture must bo near and plentiful.

From accurate meteorological tables kept at Nice for thirty consecutive
S by M. Roubodi, it appears that the mean temperature of Nice
(which is situated in N. lat. 43° 40', and E. Ion. 7° 15',) is 60°62, while
that of Naples, 3° to the south, is 61°. Hence it appears to possess a
higher temperature than it ought to have from its position. In winter,
tho lowest point to which the thermometer has been observed to fall is,
27°'5, but it has never remained at this point more than a few hours
In two out of three years it does not freeze at all, and even when frost
occurs at night, the thermometer at two p.m. always rises to at least
43°'25. The mean temperature of the winter three months is 48°'25,
of the spring three months 48°'62, of autumn 54 0, 375 and of summer
(38°. Tho highest point to which the thermometer has been observed to
rise in summer, is 88°25.

The atmosphere at Nice is generally dry, especially in winter and spring,
when the wind blows from the north. It is driest near the sea-shore, and
becomes moister as we go to the interior. The humidity is greatest by
the Paillon and the Var, two torrents which come from the mountains,
the last constituting the boundary between France and the country of
Nice.

In summer the south-east wind usually blows from nine in the morning
till five in the afternoon. This wind, coming from the sea, preserves a
temperature varying from 73° to 82°.

The most common winds are the south-east, the north, and the north-
east.

In winter the north-east and north-west, in summer the south-east wind
most commonly blows.

The clear, cloudless winter sky is owing to the north wind. The south-
Mfl brings good weather. In winter it raises the thermometer, in summer
it moderates the heat.

The quantity of rain which falls at Nice is very various. The greatest
annual quantity during the last thirty years is forty-five inches, the least
sixteen inches, and the mean quantity amounts to twenty-six. The most
rainy season is the autumn, the fall during that season varying from six
to ten inches. In summer it varies from two to seven inches, in spring
from three to eight, and in winter from four to seven.

The rain is often very heavy ; five inches have fallen in twenty-four
hours. But this is small compared to what falls in India. At Maha-
bolathwtjr, on the west coast of Indostan, latitude about 18°, there fell in
one year 302*21 inches of rain, or as much as would have covered the
earth to a height of twenty-five feet. During the month of August, 1843,
there fell at Cananore, on the same coast, 130 inches of rain.

li)l Dr. T. Thomson on the Geology and Climate of Nice.

The variation in the quantity of rain which falls at Glasgow and its
neighbourhood is not less remarkable. The annual fall in the College
Garden, according to a register kept by the late Dr. Couper, Professor of
Astronomy, averages 21*331 inches. A register was kept with great care
for several years of the fall of rain at Greenock, by the late Mr. James
Leitch, from which it appeared that the fall in Greenock was very nearly
double that in Glasgow. The mean fall at Stocky Muir, only about
twelve miles distant, is 42- 6 inches, or double the fall in Glasgow.

Snow falls at Nice once in four or five years. We had it last winter
to the depth of half an inch. In places screened from the sun it lay three
days, but where the sun acted on it, it melted in a few hours.

In the year 1837 the fall of snow at Nice was the greatest ever known.
It lay to the depth of six inches.

About a century ago, it was the universal opinion that when sea water
was evaporated the vapour carried with it a portion of the salt, and there-
fore that fresh water could not be obtained by distilling sea water.

Vogel and some other chemists examined the air over the Baltic, and
found it to contain common salt. And the late Dr. Dal ton observed the
panes of his windows in Manchester incrusted with common salt after a
violent storm of wind and rain. From these and similar observations, it
has been pretty generally supposed that the atmosphere over the sea, and
in its neighbourhood, contains common salt in solution. The question
was decided some years ago at Nice by M. Brunner, Professor of Chemis-
try at Berne, and M. Roubodi of Nice.

A large globular glass vessel, filled with a mixture of snow and sulphuric
acid, was suspended a few feet above the ground, and six paces distant from
the sea, when the sea was calm and no wind was blowing. Abundance
of aqueous vapours were collected and condensed on the outside of the
vessel, and a colourless liquid was collected exactly similar in appearance
to distilled water. After being kept for six months, its appearance was
not altered. When evaporated to dryness it left no residue. It was not
precipitated by nitrate of silver nor nitrate of mercury, and therefore con-
tained no muriatic acid nor common salt. Chloride of barium occasioned
no precipitate, showing that sulphuric acid was not present. The absence
of lime was indicated by oxalate of ammonia, occasioning no muddiness
when dropt into it.

With solutions of barytes and lime it became slightly nebulous, and
after some hours a very slight deposit fell, soluble in nitric acid. These
phenomena indicate the presence of a trace of carbonic acid.

This experiment was repeated when the sea was in a state of agitation,
great waves dashing impetuously against the beach. When the liquid
collected was tried by reagents, the results were very different.

Nitrate of silver made the liquid opal, and after some hours a precipi-
tate fell possessing all the characters of chloride of silver, thus showing
the presence of chlorine in the liquid.

In like manner nitrate of mercury formed white clouds in it, which pre-
cipitated to the bottom.

Dk. T. Thomson on tin Geology and ClimaU of Nict. 195

Barytcs and lime water made it muddy, and the precipitate was dis-
solved in nitric acid, showing the presence of carbonic acid.

Litmus paper was not altered. Chloride of barium, nitrate of ban
ammonia, potash, diacetate of lead, oxalic acid, and oxalate of ammonia
occasioned no change, showing the absence of sulphuric acid and lime,
and of any uncombinod acid.

When the waves were high but no wind blowing, which often happens
with the Mr.litcn.mean, the balloon was placed about fifty paces from the
sea, and the liquid condensed examined by reagents, it was found per-
fectly pure, without the smallest trace of common salt or chlorine ; but
when the wind blew from the sea to the balloon, placed at the same dis-
tance from the beach, the liquid collected exhibited distinct traces of
muriatic acid.

A tube bent in the form of a syphon was got, and a quantity of water,
holding nitrate of silver in solution, was put into the bent part of the
tube. One of the extremities of the tube was open, the other was luted
into the mouth of a very large glass vessel, having a stop cock, and filled
with water. The stop cock being opened, the water ran out, and its place
was supplied by air, which made its way by the syphon tube, and conse-
quently passed through the nitrate of silver solution. When the large
vessel was exhausted of water it was filled again, and the experiment
renewed. Air in this way was made to pass through the nitrate of silver
solution for six hours. In this way a prodigious quantity of air was made
to pass through a small quantity of nitrate of silver solution. This expe-
riment was tried when the sea was calm and no wind blowing, in a boat
at some little distance from the shore, and a few paces from the beach.
No precipitate appeared, nor was there the least symptom of the presence
of common salt. But when the sea was agitated and a wind blew from
it, the solution became muddy, and chloride of silver was precipitated,
iinlieating the presence of common salt.

These experiments leave no doubt that the common salt, occasionally
observed in the atmosphere of the sea, is not dissolved in that atmosphere,
but proceeds from a little sea water mechanically suspended, and which
of course is speedily deposited. In calm weather the sea atmosphere is
quite free from salts ; it is, therefore, not in the least injurious to invalids,
as some medical men have supposed it to be.

Vjth November, 1847. — Tlie Vice-Pki >im at in the Chair.

The Librarian intimated that the library had been valued and recom-
mended to be insured for £500, and also that the first thirty-one volumes
of the Medianies' Magazine had been purchased. A minute of Council
was read re< ommending the Society to abolish the office of Assistant-
Secretary, ami to el. .1 two Secretaries, and that Article I. of the Rules

196 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

should stand thus — " The business of the Society shall be conducted by
the following office-bearers, constituting together the Council of the Society,
viz. : — A President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Librarian, two Secretaries,
and twelve Councillors, elected annually, as hereinafter prescribed," the
remainder of the Article to be as at present. In conformity with this
regulation, the Council recommend further that Article VI. be expunged,
and that Article V. be changed as follows : — " Secretaries — The Secre-
taries shall record in the minute-book the transactions of the Society, and
give an abstract of the papers that are read at the Ordinary Meetings.
They shall also conduct the Society's correspondence, and act as Secre-
taries to the Council."

The Society then proceeded to their forty-sixth annual election of office-
bearers : —

$restt»ent

Dr. Thomas Thomson.

Vice-President,. .Walter Crum. Librarian, Dr. E. D. Thomson.

Treasurer, Andrew Liddell.

Secretaries.
Alexander Hastie, M.P. William Keddie.

Council.

A. Anderson, M.D.

G. A. Walker Arnott, LL .D .

A. Buchanan, M.D.

J. Findlay, M.D.

Professor Gordon.
Wm. Gourlie, Jun.
Alex. Harvey.
William Murray.

John Stenhouse.
Prop. Wm. Thomson.
George Watson.
A. K. Young, M.D.

The Vice-President took occasion to refer to the recent death of Dr. Alex.
Watt, and observed, that the Society had much cause to regret the loss
which they had sustained by that event, especially in the statistical
department.

The Treasurer presented an abstract of his account for Session 1846-47.

1846.
Nov. 21. — To Cash in Bank, and in Treasurer's

hands, at beginning of Session,... £86 11 9

— Interest from Bank, 6 11 8

93 3 5

1847.

41 Entries (New Members,) 21s 43 1

15 Annual Payments @ 5s 3 15

193 Do. Do. @15s 144 15

Arrears of Payment from 1 Member, 15

Balance due the Treasurer, 2

£287 9 5

Report from Botanical Section, 197

1847.

Nov. 3.— By Books, £88 16 3

— Binding Books, 16 10

— Printing Proceedings, 16 10

— Stationery, &e 15 19 6

— Rent of Hall, 15

— Sundries for Postages, &c 14 18 6

— Cash in Union Bank, 119 15 2

£287 9 5

At the beginning of last session the members on the roll were 182, and
during the session 41 were admitted members; 2 of these have died, and
several have removed from Glasgow, leaving the number on the roll 213.
The Treasurer also reported that the amount of overplus from the Philo-
sophical Society's Exhibition was now £471 Is. lid.

Mr. Gourlie gave in the following report from the botanical section : —

" 1st Nov. 1847. — The section recommenced its meetings this evening
— Mr. W. Gourlie in the chair. Dr. Walker Arnott was elected Presi-
dent, Mr. Gourlie Vice-President, Mr. Francis Leeshing Curator of the
Herbarium, Mr. W. Keddie Secretary. Dr. Arnott presented specimens
of Schizaea pusilla from Quaker's Bridge, New Jersey, being the only
station in the world where this fern has been found ; also specimens of
Phylloglossum Drummondii, from New Zealand, a plant allied to Lyco-
podium, not having a bulbous root. A small collection of Fungi were
received from Mr. James Davis, Edinburgh. Mr. Leeshing reported on
the state of the Herbarium, and presented some German plants."

Mr. Gourlie moved for a grant of £5 to be expended on the Herbarium
of the botanical section, and, in the absence of Mr. Smith, described a
living plant of the Tussock grass, or Dactylis ccespitosa, from the Lews.
The seed was brought from the Falkland Islands, and sown in the spring
of 1845 in pure moss simply delved, with a small quantity of guano thrown
upon the surface. The specimen shown was one of the most perfect yet
produced in this country. Thirty-seven plants have come to maturity,
two of which carried seed last year. They grew in an inclosure fourteen
yards square, formed by a turf wall six feet high, and situated within
thirty yards of the sea.

Dr. R. D. Thomson exhibited a specimen of chrome iron ore, on the
surface of which was a green crystalline body, which had been mistaken
for oxide of chrome, but which, on being analyzed last winter in the College
laboratory by Mr. Brown, was found to be a carbonate of Nickel. The
specimen was from North America, and was presented to Dr. Thomson
1>\ Mr. John Tennent of the Bonnington Chemical Works.

Mr. Gourlie exhibited several star fishes dredged by him last summer
off the Island of Bute.

198 Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute.

1st December, 1847. — The Vice-President in the Chair.

A living land tortoise, belonging to Mr. Forrester, Gordon-Street, was
exhibited; also a specimen of Epiphyllum truncatum in flower, from
Mr. Wardlaw, gardener, Ibroxhill.

The following paper was read: —

XXXI. — Notices of the Geology of the Island of Bute. By James
Bryce, Jun., M.A., F.G.S.

1. The only account which we possess of the geology of Bute, is that
given by Dr. MacCulloch, in his " Description of the Western Islands of
Scotland." During the thirty years that have elapsed since the publica-
tion of that work, no observations, that I am aware of, have been put on
record, either supplementary to this account, or in correction of it.
Indeed, the island seems to have been entirely overlooked ; — the superior
grandeur and interest of the sister isle of Arran having wholly absorbed
the attention of geologists. Yet Bute has many points of great interest
in itself; and phenomena, which in Arran are but obscurely shown, are
here fully exhibited. During a residence on the island for a part of last
summer, I had frequent opportunities of testing the accuracy of Dr.
MacCulloch 's account ; and it is but justice to the memory of that distin-
guished geologist, to say, that both in this island, and in other islands,
and adjoining portions of the mainland, which I have been in the habit
of carefully examining from time to time for a considerable period, I have
found the description of the phenomena to agree very closely with my
own observations, and the work to be an accurate and safe, as well as
most pleasant guide. I have not, therefore, in the present communication
attempted a new history of the strata of Bute ; but adopting the arrange-
ment and descriptions of Dr. MacCulloch, I merely propose to supplement
his account by such other observations as seem worthy of being put on
record. In order, however, to make the remarks which follow more
easily understood, it may be well to state, briefly, a few particulars
respecting the general structure of the island.

2. The island of Bute is naturally divided into four portions, by three
deep depressions or valleys, which traverse it in a direction perpendicular
to its greatest length, as illustrated in the accompanying sketch.

No. l.

a, Kaimes bay ; b, Rothesay ; c, Kilchattan ; m, mica slate ; n, clay slate ; s, sandstone,
old red; t, trap: r, the terrace.

Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute. 199

These low tracts terminate on either side of the island in deep bays,
or indentations of the land, between which, there can be no doubt, as
well from the lowness of the ground, as from the marine character of the
materials of which these tracts are composed, the sea once flowed, thus
forming three straits or narrow channels, dividing Bute into four islands.
1 liavo no means, either from a personal survey or otherwise, of stating
with even tolerable precision, what amount of elevation was required to
convert these narrow straits into dry land ; it is probable that it was the
same as that which was realized when Loch Lomond was placed at its
present level above the Clyde ; not, however, by one sudden movement,
but by a succession of slow and gradual movements, such as there is
reason to think may be still going on in some parts of Scotland, and as
are well known to have been long in progress, to a great extent, in the
Scandinavian peninsula.*

Another interesting feature in the structure of Bute, and one intimately
connected with the origin of the low tracts referred to above, is the
terrace which surrounds almost the whole island, at a considerable height
above high water mark, and along which the road is conducted throughout
almost the whole extent of the coast. The cliffs which in many parts rise
above the terrace are often worn into caves, and bear other obvious marks
of the action of the waves. This terrace is, no doubt, the former beach.

No. 2.

a, present sea level; b, terrace urith road; c, inland sea-worn cliff.

It is well marked along the opposite coast from Gourock to Largs, in the
Cumbrays, in Arran, and upon most of the estuaries in the firth of Clyde.
Taking this along with other evidence, accumulated by Mr. Smith of
Jordan-hill in various papers, wo cannot hesitate to admit, that at a
comparatively recent period such a change of level has been effected in
Bute as to convert a detached group of islands, separated by narrow and
not very deep straits, into continuous land.

3. The valleys which have been now described are the boundaries

* Loch Lomond is about 22 feet above the Clyde. It is specially referred to because
wo haw, in tli. country between it and the Clyde, the evidence derived from shelly
deposits, — which is much more satisfactory.

200 Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute.

between contiguous and dissimilar strata. The line of junction seems to
run fetal! the middle of the valley, but it is usually wholly concealed;
now by marshy ground, and again by deep accumulations of shingle and
other rolled and transported materials. On opposite sides, however, the
rocks are perfectly distinct. The northern portion between the Kyles on
one side, and Kaimes and Ettrick bays on the other, is composed of
mica slate. The district south of this, and which has the valley behind
Rothesay for its southern boundary, is composed of siliceous and common
clay slate. The portion reaching from this valley to that of Kilchattan,
is occupied by a coarse sandstone, usually conglomerate ; and, finally, tho
southern portion is composed of various rocks of the trap family, which
have been erupted through the sandstone, and overlie it in a nearly
conformable position. The connexion of these strata with the mainland
is most intimate. The slate and sandstone are, in fact, the terminal
portions of those great bands of sedimentary strata which stretch from
Angus to the Clyde, being parallel throughout to the granitic axis of the
Grampian chain : while the erupted rocks in the south of the island are
a prolongation of the great outburst of the igneous formations, which,
affecting a general parallelism with the same axis, extends from sea to
sea in considerable ranges, as the Kilpatrick and Campsie hills, the
Ochills, and some minor ridges in the south-east of Perthshire. The valleys
intersecting the island seem obviously a part of that great system of
parallel fractures, which run in a north-east and south-west direction on
both sides of the Grampians, and are probably due partly to the original
upheaval of that chain, and partly to the subsequent eruption of the
igneous rocks just mentioned through the old red sandstone, and the coal
formation which rests upon it.

4. The strata of sandstone are fully exposed on the shore, and in the
inland cliffs from Rothesay to Ascog. A little to the south of Bogany
Point, limestone appears interstratified with the sandstone, the two rocks
gradually passing into one another at the junction. Dr. MacCulloch
describes one bed — I noticed several others; but the beds being thin, of
small horizontal extent, and containing generally much siliceous matter,
the rock is of no great economical importance in this place. On the
north side of the small rocky promontory, south of Ascog mill, the lime-
stone assumes the nodular structure, and several thin courses of it are
seen to traverse beds of a crumbling, brown-coloured shale, subordinate
to the sandstone. This shale is of considerable thickness, and appears
in the banks above the road.

The south side of the promontory presents the following section,
(No. 3.) The lower bed, a, is a fine-grained bluish-grey nodular limestone,
often intermixed with, and undistinguishable from, the adjoining sand-
stone. This is succeeded by black, slightly bituminous shale, containing
a few very thin veins of coal, less than a quarter of an inch thick. A
bed of concretionary limestone, c, rests on the shale, tho base or paste
being an impure dark-coloured limestone, and the concretions rounded

M k. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute. 201

lumps of tho same rock, often of considerable size. The upper part of
the cliff is occupied by trap, in various prismatic forms. An interesting

No. 3.

a, limestone; b, shale, with thin coal seams; c, limestone breccia; d, trap.

change has been produced by the contact of the trap. The base of the
concretionary limestone has been so much altered from its original state
as closely to resemble the trap itself. So complete, indeed, is the meta-
morphosis, that the two rocks cannot be distinguished but by the action
of a strong acid. The imbedded lumps have undergone a similar change,
particularly in the upper part of the bed. This trap rock occupies a
considerable area, inland ; and is 100 to 200 feet thick. Speaking of it,
Dr. MacCulloch says, — " When examined on the shore it appears rather
to pass through the sandstone than to lie over it ; but there is consider-
able obscurity in this place, as the lateral junction of the two is concealed
by a cavity filled with earth." The section of the coast is better exposed
at present, probably in consequence of the continued action of the sea ;
apd there can be no doubt that the relative position of the strata is such,
throughout, as is given in the preceding section, (No. 3.) The trap
reposes upon the sandstone, and does not pass through it.

5. The most considerable mass of limestone on the island is that
which occurs on the south side of Kilchattan bay. Its characters are
accurately described by MacCulloch, but he has fallen into a slight error
with respect to its position. " This bed seems to lie above all the sand-
stone strata at this place, and to be the rock immediately in contact with
the superincumbent trap." The annexed cut, (No. 4,) shows the true
position of this bed of limestone, ascertained by a careful examination of
the ground.

At some distance above the limestone quarry, near the ruins of the
ancient castle of Kolspoke, the beds of sandstone, 6, are distinctly seen
dipping towards tho trap, both the dip and the inclination being the same
as below the limestone; and it honce appears that the limestone is here,

202

Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bate.

as in other parts of the island, subordinate to the sandstone, and of
cotemporaneous origin.

No. 4.

a, b, sandstone ; c, limestone ; d, trap.

6. The limestone and shale which are interstratified with the sandstone
in several places, and at Ascog are also accompanied by very thin veins of
coal, bear a considerable resemblance to true coal measures ; it is there-
fore not surprising that coal has been thought to exist in or under this
sandstone, and that several attempts have been made to discover it.
These, however, have been fruitless, and must always prove so ; since
there can be no doubt that this sandstone is the old red, and therefore
subjacent to the whole coal formation. Such undertakings should never
be entered upon without the sanction of a geologist or scientific miner.
As the matter is one of some importance economically, I shall briefly
state the reasons which have led me to this conclusion.

(1.) Since in the adjoining tracts the series of rocks, successively
superimposed on the central granite, is complete, and old red sandstone
occupies in these its proper place, we may fairly infer that the sandstone,
which in Bute succeeds the slate series, must be the old red. (2.) This
sandstone, if continued out on the line of its bearing, would coalesce with
that which forms the Cumbrays, and with that which, rising to the west
from beneath the great mineral basin of Ayrshire, skirts the coast from
Ardrossan to G-ourock, and from Toward Point to Dunoon, and appears
again, on crossing the firth, in Dumbartonshire and Stirlingshire, forming
the lower portions of the Kilpatrick and Campsie hills, — and thus consti-
tuting a well marked boundary between the coal basins of Lanarkshire
and the primary ranges of the Highlands. (3.) The true coal formation,
associated with carboniferous limestone, exists in Arran, separating dis-
tinctly the old red sandstone from the new. This old red sandstone of
Arran encloses beds of limestone which are similar to those of Bute, and
contain the same fossils as those limestones termed cornstones, which in
England are subordinate to the old red system. Thus the red sandstone
of Bute seems to be identified with the old red series of Arran and Eng-
land. The evidence drawn from fossils is unfortunately not applicable ;
as I was unable to find a trace of any organic body, either in the lime-
stone, sandstone, or shale, and the same statement has been made by Dr.
MacCulloch. I have no doubt, however, that organic remains will yet be
found, on a more extended and careful search.

7. The extent of the trap at Ascog has been already hinted at, (Art.

Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute.

203

4.) Tho lower limit is a projection or tongue, running off from the
principal mass, and descending to the shore, where it rests on a limestone
breccia, as already noticed. At other parts it rests on sandstone, the
line of junction ascending rapidly as it retires from the shore on either
side, to the south and west. The manner of this approach is shown in
tho annexed cut, which is a map or ground plan, and not a section. The
extent inland is somewhat less than a mile.

a, sandstone ; b, c, shale and limestone ; d, trup ; e, e, beds of lignite ; r, road cut
through the projecting mass of trap.

These trap rocks derive their chief interest from being the repository of
beds of lignite, — a substance so rare in Scotland that I believe no well
marked beds occur on the mainland, and only two or three on the other
islands ; and these far up on cliffs nearly inaccessible, in Mull and Skye.
I was led to a careful examination of this carbonaceous deposit, and the
associated beds, by the statement of Dr. MacCulloch, that some of the
strata which occur at this place were unlike any he had seen in his sur-
vey of the western islands.

The principal bed is situated in the face of the cliffs above the road, a
little to tho south of Ascog mill, as shown in the annexed section, (No. 6.)

No. 6.

s, sandstone ,• r, terrace and road; f, f, greenstone; a, trap-tuff; b, red ochre; c, %-
nite bed ; d, pisolitic ochre ; c, porphgritic amygdaloid, the upper portion much altered.

204 M k. Bryce on the Geology of the Idand of Bute.

A little above the road, a small-grained, rudely columnar greenstone
rests upon the sandstone, but the exact junction is concealed. To
this succeeds an ironshot concretionary greenstone, or species of trap-
tuft', the base being greenstone, and the imbedded portions being spherical
lumps of the same substance. This is followed by a bed of red ochre, of
coarse texture, traversed by numerous black iron seams, which have been
produced, no doubt, from a change in the oxidation of the component
iron. Over this is the lignite bed. It is three feet thick, and consists
of a hard stony coal, interstratified with a yellowish-white shale, both
being much intermixed with pyrites. The coal has been so much altered
throughout its whole thickness by the contact of the trap rock, that Mr.
Rose of Edinburgh, to whose examination I submitted the best specimens
I could find, in order that he might determine the species of wood, but
without mentioning the geological situation of the coal, was " unable to
obtain a slice, in consequence of the structure being altered by the con-
tact of a whin dike." The coal has been worked to some extent by
driving an adit inwards on the line of the dip, which is about 20° to the
westward ; but the workings have been for some time abandoned, and
the inner and lower portions are now full of water. It is said that they
would be most likely soon resumed, if too high a rent was not demanded.
Beds, indeed, so situated, and of such a character, can never bo expected
to yield much profit, or to be of any considerable economical advantage.

The floor of the coal has been already described : the roof, d, is a
peculiar rock. In consists of a base or paste of an ochreous steatite, with
imbedded round pieces of the same substance, and may hence be called a
pisolitic ochre ; it is 3} yards thick. The bed above this is of the same
character, but the base contains less soapstone, and with the imbedded
steatite it contains also imbedded calcareous spar. The base effervesces
briskly with an acid ; and hence we may call the rock a calcareous
amygdaloid. The upper portion of this bed, to the thickness of a few
inches only, is very hard, and has a semivitreous appearance, and thus
closely resembles a porphyry. In common with the trap above — and,
indeed, all the beds in this locality — it contains much disseminated iron.
The rest of the cliff is occupied by greenstone, which is the same as the
lower bed resting on the sandstone.

Another bed of lignite occurs on the opposite, or north-west side of the
trap district, overlooking Ascog lake. The coal dips to the interior
of the area, that is, nearly south. It is of about the same thickness, and
is accompanied by beds of steatite and red ochre very similar to those
above described ; but the nature of the ground is such that a complete
section cannot be had, and the precise number, therefore, and order of
the beds cannot be exactly stated. The association, however, of the
lignite with ochres and steatites here also is sufficiently distinct, and it is
even probable that these beds are persistent throughout the whole of
this district. It is to these ochreous and steatitic beds that Dr. MacCul-
loch refers, when he says, that he " has met with no similar substance

M u. Bryce on the Geology of tlie Island of BuU. 205

among the numerous trap rocks examined in the course of the survey of
the western islands." Ho has not, indeed, described any such strata:
yet casual mention is made (vol. I., p. 376) of an iron clay and jaspery
tanco, forming ( w tensive beds in the trap of the cliffs of Talisker, in
Skye, — tho same in which the lignite also occurs — and that these
are often variegated with ™d, grey, and purple colours. No further
doscriptif.ii is given, nor is tho precise position of tho coal mentioned,
the cliffs being very difficult of access. But even by such a brief notice
tho steatitic beds and variegated ochres are easily recognised ; and though
these characters are not very distinctly marked in the beds we have been
describing in Bute, yet they apply exactly to tho red and variegated
ochres which occur as members of the trap series of the north-east of
Ireland. This class of rocks attains there a much more complete deve-
lopment than in this country, both geographically and in relation to tho
number and variety of the beds. They extend continuously over an area
of upwards of 1003 square miles; and while the thickness is, on an
average, about 300 feet, in very many cases it reaches to 1100 or 1200
feet. Tho whole series reposes upon the chalk formation, while the
corresponding rocks of this country rest upon the old red and carbonifer-
ous systems. Now in this series the lignites occupy a determinate place,
they occur in the middle region, associated with the steatites and varie-
gated ochres, which are always largely developed wherever the series
approaches to completeness. Instances may be seen at various points in the
cliffs at the Giant's Causeway, at Ballintoy, at Glenarm, and at numerous
places in the interior of the district. Similar beds are associated with
the lignites of Bute and Skye, and most probably also of others of the
Western isles, though the notices are too vague to be relied on. We are
thus led to tho interesting conclusion, that such association is not acci-
dental, but has been determined by the prevalence, over a considerable
area, of certain similar and fixed conditions, regulating the succession of
the igneous eruptions, the mode of their consolidation, and the periods of
repose during which the productions of the adjoining dry land were swept
down and entombed.

8. The dikes of Bute are composed of greenstone or basalt, and are
extremely numerous. They traverse the different strata in every possible
direction, and are well seen upon the rocky parts of the coast. All
the usual phenomena are remarkably well exhibited by them, and can
be studied together in a small space. The dikes can in some instances
In- traced continuously for several miles, preserving the same direction,
and the same width, — two or more are sometimes seen to meet and to
coalesce for some distance, and again to separate, — a narrow dike branches
off into several filaments, which unite again, — portions of the rock which
is traversed are frequently found entangled in the dike; and these, as
well as the contiguous strata, present the u>nal alterations now universally
acknowledged to be the result of igneous action. It is unnecessary to
enter into any detail respecting these changes ; but there are two

203 Mr. Bkyce on the Geology of the Island of Bate.

instances which require special mention, as presenting phenomena some-
what unusual.

Between Ascog and Kerrycroy, a greenstone dike, five yards wide,
which has run parallel to the shore for some distance, gradually retires
from it, toward the latter place, and striking the inland cliff already
mentioned, whose direction here coincides with that of the dike, it forms
the perpendicular face of the cliff in front of the sandstone, rising like a
wall to the height of 20 or 30 feet. The direction of the cliff soon changes,
however, and the dike then enters the hill behind, and is lost. By this
fortunate coincidence of the two directions, the largest surface that I
have ever seen exposed in the case of a dike is completely laid bare, and
thus the structure is revealed in the most satisfactory manner. These
dikes, as is well known, are usually prismatic across, not vertically, as
the overlying trap. The reason is obvious enough ; the sides of the dike
acted as the cooling surfaces to the fused and liquid mass within ; the
imprisoned caloric of course passed off in a direction perpendicular to these
surfaces, and hence the divisional planes are also perpendicular to the
sides — or the dike is prismatic across. The following sketch will help to
convey some idea of this interesting dike ; the prisms are mostly pen-
tagons and hexagons.

No. 7.

Side view of whin dike between Ascog and Kerrycroy.

The other dike, which deserves special notice, traverses the Kilchattan
limestone. Its direction is very nearly that of the dip, and the effects
are well seen at the eastern side of the quarry. Along the plane of con-
tact the limestone is altered to the state of a granular saccharine marble,
which, on the application of a slight pressure, crumbles into a fine powder.
This is succeeded by a hard crystalline marble, the crystals appearing in
distinct flakes. Between this and the last change, which is one of simple
induration, there are many gradations. Similar effects are common at
the contact of limestone with plutonic rocks ; in some localities they are
accompanied by other singular changes of a chemical nature. Magnesia,
and sometimes silica and alumina, are introduced into the composition of

Mr. Bryce on the Geology of the Island of Bute. 207

tho limestone, so that simple carbonate of lime becomes a double carbo-
nate of lime and magnesia. Tho question whence this magnesia has been
derived, has occasioned much difference of opinion among geologists.
Some imagine that it has been transferred from the plutonic rock to the
limestone ; while others hold that, as fractures and dislocations of the
{Mirth '• crust accompanied tho eruption of these plutonic rocks, gaseous
exhalations might find their way from beneath,, and introduce carbonate
of magnesia and other substances into rocks near the surface. In con-
firmation of this view, Mr. Phillips has shown, in his Geology of York-
shire, that " common limestone is dolomitized by the sides of faults and
mineral veins far away from igneous rocks of any kind ;" and some distin-
guished chemists have expressed their belief that carbonate of magnesia
may bo sublimed by the action of great heat. (Rep. Brit. Assoc, for
1835, trans, sect. p. 51 ; Phillips's Geology, vol. IL p. 9&) Much
doubt, however, still hangs about this subject. Cases occur in which
magnesia has been introduced, although the limestone could not have
been subject to such a pressure as would confine its carbonic acid when
the rock was softened by heat.

Being anxious to elucidate, if possible, this obscure subject, I submitted
two specimens of the rock to Mr. John Macadam, lecturer on chemistry,
60 High John-Street, for examination with reference to the presence or
absence of magnesia. The following is Mr. Macadam's report; tho speci-
men referred to as No. 1 is the saccharine marble from contact with the
dike; No. 2 is the unaltered limestone from the western part of the
quarry ; both were average specimens.

" I have carefully subjected to chemical analysis the specimen of lime-
stone No. 1, with special reference to the presence or absence of magnesia ;
and I find from the indications given, that carbonate of magnesia consti-
tutes about 2J per cent, of the whole mass. The mineral is not, therefore,
a double carbonate of lime and magnesia. Its other and principal
ingredients are carbonic acid and lime, besides which silica is present, as
also, traces of oxido of iron, and alumina.

" In the specimen No. 2, I find magnesia in great abundance ; the
amount present being equivalent to 33*72 per cent, of carbonate of mag-
nesia. The other constituents present are similar to those reported in
No. 1. From the large proportions of carbonate of lime and carbonate of
magnesia present in specimen No. 2, it would appear to be a species of
dolomite. It may be noticed that the physical characters of No. 2 are
very different from those of No. 1 ; the former is difficult to pulverise,
the latter is extremely susceptible of division.

" The action of strong hydrochloric acid on both specimens causes a
portion of gelatinous silica to appear, showing the presence of a silicate,
which may be that of magnesia, since the quantity of gelatinous silica is
about sufficient to combine with the 1*28 per cent, of caustic magnesia
existing in the specimen No. 1. There is a less quantity of this gelatinous
silica in No. 2. The greater portion, however, of the silica present in both
apeoimenfl remain undissolved, in the gritty or pulverulent condition;

Vol. II.— No. 1. 2

208 Mb. Brtce on the Geology of t/ie Island of Bute.

and is hence in a state of mere mechanical mixture with the other con-
stituents of the limestone. It would require a minute quantitative
analysis to determine whether the 1'28 per cent, of magnesia exists as a
carbonate or silicate, or partly as both."

The phenomena are thus of a contrary character to what I had
anticipated, — the unaltered rock is a dolomite, and contains nearly
34 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia, while the altered rock con-
tains less than 3 per cent. What has become of the constituent mag-
nesia ? Has it been driven off by the heat to which the limestone was
exposed ? Most chemists are unwilling to admit that this is possible; and
it may reasonably be objected that if the limestone had been exposed to
so high a temperature as to vaporize its magnesia, the silica would not be
mechanically present, but would have entered into chemical combination
with the lime or the magnesia, and have formed a silicate.

That whin dikes have sometimes been the means of producing such a
combination has been shown by an eminent chemist. In a valuable paper
by Dr. Apjohn on the dolomites of Ireland, published in the Dublin
Geological Journal, vol. 1st, the details of an analysis of the white chalk
of Antrim, altered to the state of a saccharine marble, are given (p. 376) ;
and it is remarked in conclusion, that " the stone under consideration
consists of silica, combined with the mixed oxides of calcium, magnesium
and iron, (the carbonate of lime being mechanically present); and i3
therefore a mixture of trisilicates, very analogous in its composition to
olivine. We are thus enabled to understand why olivine should be so
very frequently found in trap-rocks, and to refer its origin to the contact
of silex at a high temperature with an excess of the basic oxides ; and we
have in some degree a demonstration that the dolomites which contain
siliceous sand could not have been exposed at any time to a heat suffi-
ciently high to account for the introduction into them of magnesia in the
vaporous state; for by such a heat a silicate of lime or magnesia, or of
both, would have been produced."

The presence of these silicates in both our specimens is shown by the
gelatinous silica appearing; yet a greater quantity of silica is present
mechanically; which, as already stated, seems inconsistent with the
exposure of the rock to intense heat ; unless, indeed, we could suppose
that the silica has been introduced by infiltration, or the magnesia
removed by the solvent power of free carbonic acid, at a period subsequent
to the consolidation of the dike from a state of igneous fusion. It is unne-
cessary, however, to pursue the subject farther with our present limited
knowledge of facts ; it is one of great interest both to the chemist and
the geologist, and as no instance of similar changes on dolomitic rocks has,
so far as I am aware, ever been put on record, the subject is deserving
of a full investigation. I hope to be able, in the course of next
session, to lay before the society complete quantitative analyses of a
suit of specimens illustrative of the structure of the limestones of
Bute, and the nature of the metamorphic action to which they have been
subjected.

Report from the Botanical Section. U

15th December, 1847.— Vice-President in the Chair.
Mr. Keddie gave in the following report from the botanical section: —

" The President, Dr. Walker Arnott, in the chair. The President pre-
sented to the Herbarium a collection of exotic ferns, chiefly from the
southern part of the peninsula of India and Ceylon.

" Mr. Gourlie presented 105 species of British and Foreign mosses and
jungermannia?, and exhibited the fruit of Madura aurantiaca, from the
neighbourhood of Philadelphia, sent by Mr. Gavin Watson.

" Dr. Walker Arnott gave an account of the characters adopted for the
distribution of ferns into genera, accompanied with an historical sketch of
this branch of botany.

"Among the ancients there appeared to be no distinctions except such as
Filix mas and Filix fazmina. Bauhin was the first to make any attempt
of the kind, and Tournefort in his Institutiones rei herbarice did little more
than give figures of Bauhin's genera, which depended chiefly on the form
of the fronds. Linnaous, as in every thing else, laid down new principles,
with which at this present day we are still working. Sir Jas. E. Smith,
in the Turin transactions for 1793, extended LinnaDus's views, and added
several new genera indispensable from the multitudes of species discovered
since the time of Linnaeus.

"By none of these was the subject of venation attended to, either to
assist in specific or generic characters. The first whose mind seems to
have been directed to this subject was Mr. R. Brown of London, who, in
one or two genera in his Prod, florae Novce Hollandiw published in 1810,
distinctly announced the necessity of introducing new elements ; and these
were afterwards brought out more clearly in 1830, in the first volume of
Wallich's Plantce rariores f in the description of Matonia, and a short time
after in the first part of Horsfield's Plantce Javanicw rariores; but Brown,
with that degree of caution which marks the true botanist, is far from
asserting that the venation affords in all cases a good generic auxiliary.
Presl, however, in Germany, and Mr. John Smith of Kew Gardens, have
carried the doctrine of venation to excess ; and finding it useful in some
instances for distinguishing genera with a different appearance or habit,
have applied it as an universal principle throughout this group of plants.

"Dr. Walker Arnott then pointed out some genera, to characterize which
the venation might be employed with the utmost advantage ; and others,
in which the simple and reticulated venation was to be found in the same
species, and even in the same specimen. The great error, he observed,
lay in forgetting the Linnaaan maxims — l Qua? in uno genere ad genus
stabiliendum valent, mini me idem in altcro necessario praestant,' — (Fund.
Bot. § 160 ) ; that the character that may suffice for defining one genus
may not be good for any other ; and the neglecting the equivalent one,
"character Unit v genere, non genus e charactere." He concluded by
inc ho a ting s.mio genera, in which the presence or absence of the involucre

210 Mr. Smith on the Native Agriculture of the Lews.

was of less consequence than the venation, and the presence or absence of
a central receptacle ; others in which it was the reverse, and others in
which the position and shape of the sori and form of the involucre were
chiefly to bo depended on. The whole he illustrated by specimens."

Dr. R. D. Thomson read a communication from Dr. Thomas Thomson,
jun., giving an account of his travels into Thibet, of which a full account
has since been published in Sir William Hooker's London Journal of
Botany.

5th January, 1848. — The President in the Chair.

The following members were elected : — Messrs. George Robins Booth,
James King, Andrew Fergus, John Moffat. The Librarian intimated
that John Macgregor, Esq., M.P. for this city, had presented a copy of
his works to the Society.

The following paper was then read : —

XXXII. — Some Peculiarities in the Native Agriculture of the Lews.
By James Smith Esq.

About two years ago, I had the honour of laying before this Society
some account of the Island of Lews, and of the condition of its inhabitants.

By the activity of its wealthy and generous proprietor, extensive opera-
tions are in motion, which will progressively lead to an improved condition
of the people, whilst it is to be hoped that an ample pecuniary reward
will result to the proprietor, in addition to the pleasure which will arise
to his benevolent feelings, by having promoted industry, and with it the
increasing comforts and comparative riches of the people.

Whilst these great changes are going on, it is but justice to the people
to record some excellences in their primitive agriculture, fitted for the
peculiar circumstances in which they have been placed — exhibiting an
extraordinary acuteness in their observation of natural causes. It is a
curious fact, that many of the practices now recommended by the most
forward improvers of the present day, as new and important discoveries,
have been in universal practice by those islanders from time immemorial.

I shall first speak of their treatment of their cattle and their manure.

In a country so exposed as the Lews i3 to much rain, and to heavy
gales of wind from the Atlantic, <and where there are no trees and no
mountains to afford shelter, it becomes essential to provide house covering
for their cattle in winter, and, at the same time, a constant covering for
their manure, so that none of that precious and essential aid to their
cultivation may be wasted by the winds and the water which prevail so
plentifully. I speak now of the small tenantry, who possess from one to
five acres of cropping land, with a wide range of very indifferent moorish
pasture. Their houses consist of a rather long, low, building, the walls

Mr. Smith on the Native Agriculture of the Lews. 211

of which are, in some cases, three or four feet thick, composed of stones
ami turf, to give at once strength and imperviousness to the wind and
rain. The cattle and the people are together in the same apartment,
which, to those who have been accustomed to a better system of lodging,
may appear objectionable, but to these people, in their primitive con-
dition, it has many points of convenience and economy to recommend it,
although it is to be hoped that in the improvement of their condition, the
I •liirf points of economy may be retained, whilst their household condition
shall be vastly improved.

In this long apartment, the space which is provided for the cattle
occupies the greater portion. The earth is taken out to a depth of two
or three feet below the level of the surface of the end occupied by the
people, and the space serves to contain a large quantity of manure —
indeed it holds the whole manure of a year's making, and is exactly upon
the principle of the box-feeding system now being recommended by the
English Agriculturists.

The dung is never removed from its site, until it is taken to be put
into the ground at seed time, consequently, it is never exposed to the
weather, to the winds, and to the rain, until it is deposited in the soil

The cattle are tied to their respective positions by ropes made of
heather, attached to stakes of timber driven into the ground or into the
wall, and they are arranged with plenty of room, so that they can move
around freely in all directions within the walls. A bed is prepared for
them all over the floor, consisting, sometimes, of turf and broken peat-
moss, with heather, and coarse grass pulled from the moor, and with such
straw of the crops as may, by casual damage, have been rendered unfit to
eat as fodder. Layer upon layer of this material is added as may be
required, so as to form a clean dry bed as the dung accumulates ; and
from the freedom of motion allowed to the cattle, their droppings, both
liiiuid and solid, are pretty equally distributed through the body of the
litter. The moisture descending through the manure, becomes generally
absorbed — keeping the whole mass moist, which prevents that dry
fermentation and rapid change, which is so destructive to ordinary dung
heaps. All the slops and refuse from the dwelling end of the apartment
are likewise thrown into the general receptacle, so that not an atom of
the debris of the domestic economy is lost.

The floor of the living division is formed of clay, and being so far
above the level of the floor of the cattle portion, is at all times dry. The
fire, which is of turf, is placed ia the middle of the floor, which keeps the
clay floor always warm, and as the clay is a non-conductor, only a small
portion of the heat escapes into the earth ; whilst it is diffused all around,
and affords a comfortable warm circle for the family, however large; and
in a country where the people are constantly walking through the wet
mossy ground around their dwellings, it affords the immediate means of
drying thrir pfethea and warming their bodi'

There is generally id inner room, apart from the living one, in which

212 Mr. Smith on the Native Agriculture of the Lews.

there are beds for a portion of the family — the guidman and his wife,
with the small bairns, generally sleeping in that portion where the fire is.
There is no vent for the escape of the smoke, and consequently there are
no drafts around the firo. The roof is so constructed as to permit the
smoke to sift through at all parts, so that when fresh fuel has been added
to the fire, you see the smoke escaping like steam all over the roof.
There is generally an opening at the farther end of the cattle portion, so
that some part of the smoke finds an escape in that direction, and carries
a sheet of warm smoke all along over the cattle, thereby imparting a
considerable degree of warmth.

The winter keep for cattle in the Lews is extremely scanty ; and it is
well known to the scientific agriculturist that external warmth saves
food, which is equally palpable by observation to the simple Lewsman,
who, knowing no language but the Gaelic, in which there is no literature
— no magazine of ancient lore, save the traditionary stories of his chiefs
— no science — no knowledge of the practical facts constantly arising in
this age of improvement — he is left entirely to his own observations, and
to the practices gathered from the experience of generations of his
ancestors. On all these points the Lewsmen have ready reason for what
they do practise. They say that their cattle do not thrive unless they
see the fire, and smell the smoke.

On the approach of the cholera, in the year 1832, they were compelled
to build up walls betwixt their cattle and the domicile ; but as soon as
the dread of the disease had fled, they pulled down the walls, that the
cattle might have the benefit of the fire. We shall yet see, in a more
improved system of agriculture in the low country, the application of
artificial heat, with a good ventilation for the general warmth of the
homestead, substituted for the present destructive mode of obtaining
warmth by the pent up atmosphere of a crowded stable or byre. Thus
taking another leaf from the typeless book of the Lewsman.

There are a few small openings at the bottom of the roof to admit the
poultry, and a little day-light, through which a portion of the smoke
escapes, when the wind blows on the opposite side of the house. The
roof is composed of a scanty portion of timber, to maintain its form and
position, and the bulk of the covering is made up of the stubble and roots
of the grain crops, laid loosely on and thatched over similar to a stack.
When the crops are reaped, they are generally pulled so as to gather the
roots and stubble with the grain ; and after it has been fairly winnowed,
the roots and stubble are cut off with a knife, to be placed on the roof as
I have described. There the straw is subjected to the fumes of the peat
fire, and before the summer season, when it is to be used as manure, it is
thoroughly impregnated with the different volatile products of the peat
combustion, and forms a very valuable manure. The Lewsmen have
here anticipated another of the important discoveries of the present time.
A patent has just been taken out for an improvement in the purification
of gas, where, by the passing of the gas through saw-dust, chopped straw

Mr. Smith on the Native Agriculture of the Lews. 213

or other similar material, the gas is purified, whilst the material through
which it has boon passed, is converted into a very valuable manure. In
these singular adaptations of natural circumstances by the Lewsmen, we
have an example of the openness with which nature divulges to the
uiitutMi.'iI mind, those qualities of matter which are essential to the susten-
ance and comfort of man ; whilst a knowledge of them is only reached by
the man of science through a long course of varied experiment and
laborious induction.

Thin impregnated manure is seldom dug into the ground, but is
generally applied upon the surface, when the plants of potatoes, or grain,
have made some advancement ; and the rush of growth, after the applica-
tion, is truly astonishing.

The bulk of the soil of the Lews is deep peat moss ; but the cultivated
jiaris have a soil composed of the debris of the granitic rocks, in all con-
ditions ami mixtures of gravel, clay, and sand; but so scanty is the
availablo soil, that the cultivation is generally on the lazy-bed system —
the trenches, in many instances, occupying nearly as much space as the
ridges. The active soil is seldom moved more than four or five inches
in depth, and the sub-soil is never moved at all, yet, on this scanty soil,
good crops have been raised from time immemorial, with the simple and
never varying rotation of potatoes, bere, or bigg, and oats ; and there is no
more appearance of its exhaustion now, than there was a hundred years
ago. Almost the whole of the crop is consumed at home, and the bulk
of the debris is carefully kept and returned to the soil, with the addition
of the products of the turf fuel, and a portion of the debris of the material
gathered by the people, and by the cattle from the vast extent of muirland.

There is one great source of manure which the cultivators near the
coast avail themselves of, and that is the sea- weed, which is a vast
advantage, as containing elements greedily devoured by the plants. Still,
without the peculiar management of their cattle manure, and the debris
of their household, with the addition of the peat fuel products, it is not
MMiUi that they could maintain the energies of their thin and ill-worked
soil, so as to enable them to maintain continuously so large a population
on so small an extent of arable ground.

In prosecuting the improvement of the Lews, care will be taken so to
engraft the desirable improvements in domestic economy, and in agri-
culture, of the more advanced countries, without disturbing the peculiar
excellencies at present practised by the natives, whilst they advance in
all the essentials of an improved civilization. There is ample room, both
in the extent of country and in direct proportion of its unoccupied labour,
to afford to every family a comfortable and independent subsistence, and
to ward off those starvations which have hitherto periodically visited the
regions of the north.

■2 1 i Dr. Arnott on the Proportions of the Pyramids of Egypt.

\§th January, 1848. — T)\e President in the Chair.

The following members were elected : — Messrs. James Hudson, Ph. D.,
John Knox, John Smith.

Mr. Stenhouse described some proximate principles of lichens, and
exhibited specimens.

The following paper was read : —

XXXIII. — Notes on the Proportions of tJte Pyramids of Egypt. By G.
A. Walker Arnott, LL.D., Regius Professor of Botany.

Perhaps there are no monuments of antiquity that have created such
general interest as the pyramids of Egypt, enumerated by some among
the seven wonders of the world ; and although much has been written on
the subject, it must be confessed that, at the present day, we have no
sufficient evidence, indeed, nothing but conjectures, either of the era in
which they were erected, or of the specific purposes for which they were
built, any more than we have of the kind of machines by which the
enormous stones were piled together. Some trace them to a period
coeval with, or antecedent to, Moses ; others refer them to a much more
modern age. Some consider them merely as the splendid mausolea of
the Egyptian kings ; others as having been primarily devoted to the reli-
gious rites and ceremonies practised by the priests ; and as in those days
all branches of literature and science were confined to the priests, or to
such few others whom they permitted to participate in them, so we have
two subsidiary hypotheses ; one, that the pyramids were erected on general
scientific principles ; the other, solely for astronomy, with which their reli-
gion was intimately connected.

About six or eight years ago, having occasion to enter upon the inves-
tigation of some allied topics, it therefore appeared to me that if any
additional light was ever to be thrown on the rise of these artificial moun-
tains, it might be derived from something connected with their construc-
tion. As the kings of Egypt had other burying-places much farther up
the Nile, and the bones found in the pyramids are those of a bull, I felt
very unwilling to give credence to that theory which viewed them only as
tombs ; and on the other hand, if raised for the use of the priests, as the
bones of the bull would imply, that animal being connected with their
religion, there would, in all probability, be some remarkable peculiarity
displayed indicative of astronomy, geometry (I use this term in its widest
sense), or numbers.

The pyramids, or at least the most celebrated of them, are situated in
the neighbourhood of Cairo, in the lat. of 30°; and what seems to indicate
their astronomical character is, that the entrance is on the north side, and
the passage slopes downwards at an angle almost directly pointing to the
pole star. Belzoni states the angle to be 26°, consequently the north

I >u. Aiinott on the Proportions of the Pyramids of Egypt. 215

pole star must have had a still further elevation of 4°; but others say the
angle is 27°, and I have heard it mentioned that this angle was 30°, so
that perhaps we are not yet in possession of decisive information on the
subject; at all events I know of no explanation so good of the northern
entrance and its p* Miliar <IcM-li\ it y, as its referring to the elevation of the
polo star. Having observed it somewhere stated or conjectured that the
pyramids were so constructed as to cast no shadow at noon, from the
vernal to the autumnal equinox, my attention was directed to this point,
and consequently to the precise proportions of the pyramids.

It is curious and amusing to glance over the different measurements
recorded of the base and height. Herodotus makes the height and base
the same ; Strabo makes the height more than the base, and in the pro-
portion of 25 to 24 ; but both of these measurements being widely at
variance with those given by all other writers, may be safely put out of
view, unless with the explanation I shall presently give. M. Savary
considers these ancient estimates correct, and that the true base is now
covered deeply by sand ; but then the proportions of the present base
and height ought to be the same as given by Herodotus, which they are
not.

All indeed must be aware of the great difficulty experienced in modern
times in taking accurate measurements, in consequence of the quantity of
sand and rubbish now collected around the base ; while, again, ancient
observers had not very correct instruments for ascertaining the altitudes
of solid bodies of such magnitude. On that account a difficulty arose in
my mind if the measures given by ancient writers of the height actually
referred to the true or perpendicular altitude, and consequently such
modern authors as trusted to those old ones, or made their own to tally
nearly with them, must be placed in the same predicament.

Of all who have pretended to give the measurements from their own
observations, the one in whom most confidence seems to be placed is
Belzoni : his observations were not made on the Pyramid of Cheops (a
Greek corruption of Kopts), or the Great Pyramid, but on what is called
the second one, or the Pyramid of Cephrenes. According to Belzoni,
each side of this second pyramid is 684 feet, and the perpendicular height
456. Now these numbers happen to be precisely in the proportion of
3 to 2. Farther, Trench makes the side of the base of the Great Pyra-
mid and its height 704 and 670 feet* respectively, or if these be French
feet, his measures will be 750*3 and 500 9 feet English ; or, in round
numbers, 750 and 500 feet English, which numbers are also as 3 to 2.

Among the ancient writers, or such of the moderns as givo proportions

lifterent from these, may be mentioned Diodorus Siculus, Le Bruyn,

and Prosper Alpinus ; and assuming the base to be 704 French feet, or

* Not having access to Trench's original memoir, I do not know whether these feet
be French or English: I suspect the former, from their being made to enter into the
average with what aiv known to be so, in the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Bri-

tannic.i, ;irti.l.- /.}////>/.

210 Dr. Arnott on tfie Proportions of the Pyramids of Egypt.

750 English, its proportion to the height as given by these individuals
will be in round numbers: — *

Base. Height

Diodorus, 750 643

Le Bruyn, 750 656

Prosper Alpinus, 750 625

Sum, 2250 1924

Average, 750 641

and this proportion is nearly as 6 to 5 T \y, or in round numbers as 6 to 5,
instead of 3 to 2, or 6 to 4, as in what are deemed the more correct
observations.

But if, instead of the perpendicular height, we suppose these dimen-
sions to refer to the slanting height from the middle of one of the sides
of the base to the top, and this was the only way in which a measuring
line or rod could be actually applied, and the height most easily ascer-
tained, we shall find that the above average slanting height will corre-
spond to an average perpendicular height of 520 feet,f which, although
still too great, is much nearer the truth.

That Diodorus gave the slanting height from the base to a supposed
sharp apex, I have little doubt ; there is more difficulty about the two
others mentioned above, as they may have deduced the height by a
method similar to Thevenot's; if so, their measurements ought to be
entirely rejected: but their introduction does not much disturb the pro-
portions given by Diodorus.

Among the more modern observers, Thevenot makes the base 682
French feet, which may possibly be not much under the truth, and the
height 520; but this latter was obtained by counting the number of
steps, measuring the thickness of a few of them, and thence averaging
the whole at 2J feet, French measure; the result would appear
to be too great by almost a tenth part. Indeed, the average thickness
of all the steps does not seem to exceed 27 or 28 inches English, or
scarcely 27 French inches. All attempts, however, at ascertaining the
exact height in this way, must yield erroneous and very contradictory
conclusions, and unless confirmed by some other method, may be
disregarded. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica, seventh edition, article
Pyramid, it is said " the breadth of each step is equal to its height,'' but
this is absurd.

* Ilaving no other works at hand, I have deduced the proportions adopted by me from
the dimensions given in the article Eyyi>t alluded to in the above note, and in the article
Pyramid of the fifth edition of the same Encyclopaedia, and which are chiefly copied from
M. Savary. In the two latter works, the actual measures are distinctly stated to be in
French feet, and hence require to be augmented by almost a fifteenth part to convert
them into English feet.

t Were the 641 to indicate the slanting height only up to the present platform, the
height of the platform would be 531, which is much too great.

Dr. Arnott on the Proportion* of tlie Pyramids of Egypt 217

Other modern observers, such as Niebuhr, Greaves, Davidson, and
Trench, do not by any means agree with each other, and, as M. Savary
says, " to determine the precise dimensions is still a problem." But we
may arrive at a somewhat satisfactory conclusion by taking the average
of their measurements reduced to a supposed base of 750 English feet.
Thus:—

Height

Niebuhr, 750 465

Greaves, 750 514

Davidson, 750 464

Trench, 750 500

Head, 750 484

Approximation in Ency. Brit., art. Egypt, 750 477

Sum, 4500 2914

Average, 750 485

At the summit of the greater pyramid is at present a platform of about
32 feet square. Supposing the height in the above average to be that of
the platform, it will be requisite to add about 21 feet to get the height,
if the pyramid were carried up to a sharp point ;* this gives the extreme
height, if the pyramid were complete, of about 506 to the base of 750,
numbers not very remote from the proportion already derived from Bel-
zoni's measurements, by which the base and height are as 3 to 2, or as
6 to 4.

These, then, I conceive may be assumed as the true proportions, or
rather perhaps, the proportions originally contemplated; and consequently,
the right angled triangle formed by the half base, the perpendicular
height, and the slanting height, exhibits the remarkable numbers 3, 4, 5,
the lowest integers that indicate a right angled triangle, and which made
these numbers be looked on with great veneration centuries before Euclid
became acquainted with the properties of right angled triangles, and
which, with many other portions of his geometrical knowledge, he derived
from the Egyptian sages.

I have said that Herodotus states that the base and height of the
pyramid are equal. He may have arrived at this conclusion in two
ways ; either by supposing that the phenomenon of the pyramid casting
no shadow at noon, was limited to the precise period between the two
equinoxes ; in which case, as the latitude was 30°, a vertical section would
exhibit an equilateral triangle, the height he gave being thus the slanting
height ; or he may have given the length of the ridge formed by two con-
tiguous faces of the pyramid, and it is to this, as I conceive, ho refers,
although in reality this ridge is a few feot shorter than the base, or in
tho proportion of 31 to 32 nearly. And if we suppose that, in Strabo's

* Somo of the above do not require this correction, but in others it may not suffice :
it may be allowed to the average.

218 Dr. Arnott on the Proportions of the Pyramids of Egypt.

account, the proportions arc accidentally inverted, and that instead of the
height being 625 and the base 600, he meant to say that the base was
625 and the height 600, we shall find the proportion to be almost quite
correct, on the supposition that by the height was intended likewise the
sloping line along the angle or ridge of the pyramid.

I have therefore no hesitation in assigning the following proportions to
the pyramids : — Half side of the base 3, perpendicular height 4, sloping
height from the middle of a side of the base to the top 5, and the line
along the ridge or angle V 34=5*83 nearly. Each face of the pyramid
is thus not very different from an equilateral triangle, but still sufficiently
so as to indicate that such a construction was not intended.

The angle of elevation of each face of the pyramid is about 53° 7' 9",
and hence the pyramid casts no shadow from about the 3d March to the
11th October, so that the hypothesis of this being limited to the equinoxes
is not correct. Other considerations, too, have now rendered it doubtful
to me, if these buildings were proportioned solely for astronomical pur-
poses, although there can be no question as to astronomy, and the arkite
worship being intimately connected with the worship of Isis and Osyris.

As the pyramids differed in size from each other, it is unnecessary to
speculate on what was the actual length of the sides of the base, or the
height. In all probability they were not the result of chance, but referred
to some scale of measures (either square or lineal) adopted by the ancient
Egyptians, but now scarcely known.

The subject is of more importance than at first sight it would appear,
because the angle of elevation and the proportions are more easily deter-
mined now than the actual dimensions, and when they are once satisfac-
torily obtained, the true magnitude of the pyramids will cease to be a
problem of difficulty. Moreover, the size of the great pyramid has been
attempted to be ascertained, by converting the length of the base and height
given by different authors, ancient and modern, into an uniform standard
of feet, French or English, and taking the average of the whole ; but if, as I
have endeavoured to show, the height spoken of by some could not be the
perpendicular height, we must either reject them, or assume that either the
sloping height or the length of the ridge was intended, these alone tally-
ing with the proportions ascertained by Belzoni in the second pyramid ;
and then it is obvious that, before taking the average, we must reduce
the different kinds of height to the perpendicular or true height, as I have
done. We ought also to determine, if possible, whether the observers
supposed the pyramid complete, or reckoned only the height of the plat-
form. By not adverting to these, we find in the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
seventh edition, article Egypt, (vol. viii. p. 568,) that the mean of the
observations, since the time of Pliny, gives the base 693 feet and height
510 ; while the mean derived from the ancient writers is 702 feet for the
base and 675 for the height, the average of these being 697 and 592 ;
these measures are, as I have said, in French, not English feet, as the
author would lead one to suppose. In Murray's excellent Encyclopaedia

Mi:. King on the Preparation of Chloroform. 219

of Geography, p. 1 165, the measures may have been obtained somewhat
in this way, as the base is said to be 093 feet (the above average of the
modern observations), but the height is stated to be 599 feet, greater
than the average of the observations, both ancient and modern, and is so
exaggerated that it seems to be copied from Diodorus ; and that corre-
sponds to the slanting height.

Although the writer in the Encyclopaedia Britannica deduces the
side of the baso and height by taking the mean of all observations,
he does not appear to place much confidence in that method, for he
himself adopts, as a nearer " approximation," (whence obtained is not
clearly indicated,) 750 feet for the base, and 480 for the height ; while
Capt. Head makes the base about 780, and the height 503. Now, as
already supposed, each of these heights mean the height of the platform ;
so, before getting the proportions of the complete pyramid, we must add
21 feet, making the height, in the one case, 501, and in the other, 526 ;
and even in Capt. Head's estimate, the proportion is nearly the same for
780 : 826, or 750 : 501 nearly, or 3 to 2. On the whole, 750 and 500
English feet, will probably represent these with tolerable accuracy,
agreeing with Trench's estimate, on the supposition that the 704 feet
given by him, are French feet, and that the height was the height of the
supposed pinnacles ; and if the ancient Egyptian Schoenus, consisting of
19,800 (or nearly 20,000) English feet, were divided into 160 equal
parts or units, the length of the base would be 6, or half base 3 of these,
and the height 4. It may also be noticed, that this base is almost
exactly the one-seventh of an English mile, or nearly seven and a half
seconds of a degree of an arch of the meridian, in the latitude of the
pyramid ; and that the sloping height, (625,) obtained from this base,
and these proportions, accords well with the proportional height given by
Prosper Alpinus ; while, as already said, the perpendicular height coin-
cides with that assigned by Trench, when converted from French into
English feet.

XXXTV. — On the Preparation of Chloroform. By James King, Esq.

Chloroform was discovered about the same time by Soubeiran (1831)
and Liebig (1832.) Soubeiran, in its preparation, made use of 5 parts
of hypochlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, 30 parts of water, and 1 of
alcohol of spec. grav. *852. He states that no carbonic acid was given
off during the distillation, and the residue in the retort he found to bo
water with a little alcohol, carbonate of lime, and a little caustic lime.
Leibig prepared it from 1 lb. of hypochlorite of lime, 3 lbs. of water, and
from 2 to 3 ounces of alcohol.

It was analyzed by Dumas in 1835, and found to be composed of 2
atoms of carbon, 1 of hydrogen, and 3 of chlorine. Its symbol is C 2 H
Cl 3 , or Fo Cl 3 . In its preparation he recommends the proportions of
4 lbs. of hypochlorite of lime, 12 ounces of alchohol, and 12 lbs. of water.

220

Mr. Kino on the Preparation of Chloroform.

In the preparation of chloroform, 4 atoms of the hydrogen of the alco-
hol aro replaced by 4 of chlorine, and 2 atoms of oxygen by 2 atoms of
chlorine; thus,

C 4 H 6 O2

C 4 H 2 C1 2 = 2C 2 HC1

And in the same way with pyroxilic spirit ; the oxide of methyle being
acted on, 2 atoms of hydrogen are replaced by 2 atoms of chlorine, and
1 atom of oxygen is replaced by 1 atom of chlorine.

Oxide of methyle, C 2 H 3
Chloroform, C 2 H CI = C 2 H CI,

Cl 2

Its relation to formic acid is represented by the replacement of 3 atoms
oxygen by 3 atoms chlorine ; as follows,

C 2 H0 3 = formic acid, or peroxide of formyle.
C 2 HCI3 ss chloroform, or perchloride of formyle.

The following table exhibits a few trials which I made of the prepara-
tion of chloroform by distillation with various proportions of alcohol,
pyroxilic spirit, and brewers' wash.

Experiments.

1 ...

2 ...

3 ...

4 ...

5 ...

6 ...

7 ...

8 ...

9 ...

Bleach. Powd.
by weight.

.. 8 0Z. ..

Water
20 OZ

24
20
24
32
20
24
32
24

24
24

Alcohol,

Chloroform,

by measure.

z. .

1 OZ

. 2 dr.

1 1

• li-

t»

11"

. 3i»

ll«

. 4 .-

11"

. 3 »i

2 .1

• 21»

2 .1

. 5 .1

2 .1

.. 3f.

01„

^f"

Pyroxilic spirit.

. 5 11

11"

, f„

3 1 ....

Fermented wash.

.. 1 i

11 •

20 »- ....

.. 1 .1

The spec. grav. of the alcohol was "837. The spec. grav. of the pyro-
xilic spirit "833.

The substances were first mixed in a glass vessel, and then introduced
into a retort of the capacity of half-a-gallon. The following specimens
were submitted to the meeting : —

|_No. 1, chloroform which has not been washed, but in the condition
in which it was distilled. Its spec. grav. is 1*226.

No. 2, chloroform which has been washed with distilled water, until

Mr. King on tlie Preparation of Chloroform. 221

the water with which it was washed gave no precipitate with nitrate
of silver. Its spec. grav. is 1*446.

No. 3, chloroform which has been washed with distilled water, agi-
tated with chloride of calcium, and distilled with sulphuric acid. Its
spec. grav. is 1*4995.]

I find it an advantage to remove the liquor which has been distilled
with the chloroform as soon as possible. 16 drs. of the distilled liquor
generally absorbed J dr. in 12 hours. If there has been a large amount
of alcohol distilled with the chloroform, it absorbs more. From these
trials the proportions of 8 oz. of hypochlorite of lime, or bleaching pow-
der, 24 oz. of water, and 1J oz. of alcohol, give the best results. If 1J
give 4, 2 ought to give 5J ; it only gives 5.

Chloroform is a colourless oily liquid, having an agreeable ethereal
smell and sweet taste. It is very slightly soluble in water, but soluble
in alcohol and ether. It boils at a temperature of about 141°. Its spec,
grav. is 1*4995, or 1*5.

There are several substances which, when inhaled into the lungs, cause
stupor or insensibility. We have nitrous oxide, (the stupifaciant effect
of which gas was discovered by Sir H. Davy,) composed of 1 atom of
nitrogen and 1 of oxygen. We have sulphuric ether ; composed of 4
atoms of carbon, 5 of hydrogen, and 1 of oxygen.

In October last, Dr. Simpson applied to Mr. Waldie of Liverpool,
when in Edinburgh, to recommend an agent that possessed the properties
of sulphuric ether. Mr. Waldie advised the use of chloroform, which Dr.
Simpson tried, and found to be successful. At a meeting of the French
Academy, held on the 29th of November, 1847, it was stated that at the
time the stupifaciant influence of ether was observed, several attempts were
made to find some other agent capable of producing the same effect;
and at that time M. Flourens, Secretary to the Society, having made
some trials on animals, found that chloroform possessed the same power
of rendering them insensible. Chloroform is supposed to act on the system
in the same way as sulphuric ether. For an account of the action of
sulphuric ether, I refer to a paper read by Dr. Andrew Buchanan, at a
meeting of this Society on the 22d of February, 1847.

Dr. Simpson says the superiority of chloroform over sulphuric ether
consists in its requiring a less quantity to produce the same effect, — its
action being much more rapid and complete, — its inhalation being much
more agreeable, — its perfume not being unpleasant, — and its odour not
remaining attached to the clothes.

February 2. — The President in the Chair.

Messrs. John Smith and John Knox were admitted members.
The following paper was read : —

22& Mu. Harvey on the FaU of Rain m tke Neighbourhood of Glasgow.

XXXV. — On the FaU of Main in the Neighbourhood of Glasgow,
and Description of the Gorbals Gravitation Water Company's Works.
By Alexander Harvey, Esq.

The valley of the Clyde is estimated by Dr. Thomson, in his work on
Heat and Electricity, to drain about l-30th part of Scotland, or about
l-83d part of Great Britain. He also states that the district drained by
the Clyde is not nearly so rainy as many other tracts both in England
and Scotland. The estimate, however, which he makes of the annual
fall of rain over the whole of Great Britain, as not less than 36 inches,
must be exceedingly near the truth, if we take into account many of the
districts, both in England and Scotland, where the fall of rain is consi-
derably under that quantity, along with the other districts which rise
considerably above it.

I will not take up your time with any detail of the quantity of rain
falling in other districts, but will confine myself, as far as I have ascer-
tained it, to the fall of rain in different places situated in the strath or
valley of the Clyde, where of late rain guages have been kept, and
observed with considerable accuracy, and shall, for that purpose, present
you with a tabular view of the results obtained by the different ob-
servers : —

Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Parish of Strathaven, Gilmour-} r n na A >- ork cone

ton, by Mr. John Wiseman,... j 59 * 60 4rS0 68 * 6

Parish of Mearns, by Mr. Mather, 7100 40-30 55.65

Near Paisley, Mr. Stirrat, 72*00 42*00 57*00

Ibroxholm, Mr. Gardner, 35*91 33*33 34.64

Glasgow, Dr. Couper, from 1818) on 0£ >

to 1834, J 2286

Largs, 43-50

Mean, 5964 40*73 4460

It is difficult to account for the fall of rain at Glasgow being so much
le3S in quantity than at other places in the immediate neighbourhood, as,
for instance, at Ibroxholm, only two miles to the west of Glasgow, and
upon a lower level than even the college grounds where the rain guage
was kept. The guage at Ibroxholm shows a fall of rain of about one-
half more than the record kept by Dr. Couper shows at Glasgow. It is
now pretty well established that more rain falls upon high grounds than
upon low and level plains ; and this may be accounted for by the direc-
tion given to the currents of air, by the hills causing an intermixture of
the different strata of hot and cold air, thereby giving rise to a precipita-
tion of rain from the hotter stratum ; but why such a difference should
exist within so short a distance, at nearly the same level and in the same
strath, is, as I have already said, difficult to account for, unless we sup-

Glasgow Philosophical Socieiys Procee<un|s 184-7-8

Plan of Filters and Tanks.

«00'" f -

*ft?ii«w «^ cc

SCALC .
IPO fO O Ml

' . : : : : ■ . '.

Transverse Section of Filters.

if o rt i t

■' ■" ' |Pi' ji H' 'I "' '

Scale

JO SO *0 SO Ft I

_J ! ;

Self Acting Sluice

VOL n P 222

And Description of the GorbaU Gravitation Water Co.'s Works. 223

pose that the heat of the city, or some other local cause, occasions an
absorption of the ruin-drops as they are falling through the stratum of air
immediately above the city.

Of the quantity of rain falling in this neighbourhood, about one-third
part is lost by evaporation, absorption, and other causes ; the other two-
thirds can be retained and made available for useful purposes, such as
water-power, or the supplying of large towns with water. This is now so
well understood, that water-works for the supply of the public are erect-
ing in many places throughout Great Britain, upon the principle of
collecting, and making available, the quantities of rain which fall
throughout the year, and which would otherwise pass off in floods direct
to the sea.

In 1846, an Act of Parliament was obtained by the Gorbals Gravita-
tion Water Company, for supplying the inhabitants of Gorbals, Govan,
and other places in the neighbourhood, with water, by gravitation, from
works to be erected on the estate of Upper Pollock, in the parish of
Mearns ; and since then these works have been progressing with great
rapidity towards completion ; during a great part of last summer, no fewer
than from eight hundred to one thousand men have been employed upon
them, in raising the embankments, building the tanks and filters, and in
other departments connected with the works. The works, I am happy to
say, are now very nearly completed, and in a very short time the inha-
bitants of the south side of the river will have an abundant supply of
pure water.

The source from which this water is to be obtained is the Brock Burn,
which drains an area of about 2800 acres, and the annual fall of rain in
that neighbourhood, for the last ten or twelve years, has been ascertained
by Mr. Mather to be 55 inches, two-thirds of which, or 37 inches, could
be made available ; but supposing that we can only collect 30 inches out
of the 55, it is easy to ascertain what quantity a depth of 30 inches of
water over an area of 2800 acres would be. It amounts to about 305
millions of cubic feet, or 1906 millions of gallons, which is a sufficient
supply for a population of 270,000, allowing each individual to consume
twenty gallons daily. For the purposes of the company, however, it is
not at present necessary to construct more than two reservoirs, which will
contain about fifty millions cubic feet. On the supposition that these
will bo filled three times in the year, (which is considerably below what
may be expected,) that would givo 150 millions cubic feet, or a supply
of twenty gallons daily to each of a population of 133,000 or about double
the present number of the inhabitants of Gorbals.

These calculations are not hypothetical, and are rather under than
over the result to bo expected ; sufficient proof of which we have from
Paisley, and other works of a similar kind already erected, and which
have been in operation.

Through the kindness of Mr. Stirrat of I who was, I believe,

Vol. TL— No. 4. 3

224 Mr. Harvey on the Fall of Rain in the Neighbourhood of Oktiffow.

the originator of the Paisley Water Works,* and who has, both during
and since their erection, dovotod much of his time and attention to them,
I have been furnished with a few details of the practical results obtained
at these works.

The extent of the contributing ground to the Paisley works is 793 acres,
or considerably less than a third of that of the Gorbals Company. These
works are capable of supplying 70 million cubic feet of water annually
and the actual consumpt by a population of 42,000 is about 25 millions
cubic feet. There are, however, a number of dyeworks, printworks,
breweries, distilleries, and others of a similar kind, supplied with water
from these works, and consuming about 25 millions cubic feet annually
also.

The whole water from which the company thus derive their revenue is,
therefore, about 50 millions cubic feet, out of 70 millions collected ; 20
millions cubic feet of water must thus be allowed to run to waste from the
reservoirs after it has been collected.

It has been ascertained, that out of the 70 millions cubic feet collected
in the reservoirs in one year, 65 millions of this quantity was collected
during twenty-five rainy days throughout the year.

Mr. Stirrat has also furnished me with details of the expense of erect-
ing and keeping up these works, also the revenue derived from them; but
I consider it unnecessary to detain you with these. It is sufficient to
know that the inhabitants of Paisley are now supplied with abundance of
pure water, at a cheap rate, and have been so for the last ten years,
during which period the pressure has never been taken off the pipes either
at night or throughout the day.

With these facts before the Gorbals Company, I think that they need
have no fear of having an abundant supply of water for double the present
amount of the population of Gorbals ; and were they to extend their
works to a higher level, and draw their supply from ground farther to
the south and west of their present works, they could obtain a supply of
water sufficient for a population of 700,000, or more than double the
number of the present inhabitants of Glasgow.

The water of the Brockburn has been analysed by Dr. Thomson, Pro-
fessor Penny, and Dr. Gregory of Edinburgh, all of them concurring in pro-
nouncing it a very pure water. The maximum quantity of saline matter
found in an imperial gallon, or 10 lbs., amounting to only 8*1 grains,
while the minimum quantity obtained was only 6*5 grains. The
Clyde water, which, when properly filtered, is considered a very pure
water, contains from 10 to 16 grains of saline matter in the imperial gal-
lon. The water of the Brock Burn is, therefore, much purer than that
of the Clyde, which contains nearly doublef the quantity of saline matter.

* The credit of originating these works is usually ascribed in Paisley to the late Dr.
Kerr. — Bdi t.

t The water of the Clyde contains from 10 to 10 grains of saline matter in the gallon,
according to the state of flood in the river. The statement, therefore, that the water of
the Clyde contains nearly double that of the Brock Burn is pretty correct.

v Mr. Montgomery on a New Self-Acting Railway Break. 225

Analysis of tho water of the Brock Burn, by Professor Penny :—

Organic matter, 1.150

Carbonate of Hine, 3.610

Sulj.li.itt> of lime, 0.870

Common tali 0.881

Sulphate of potash and soda, 0.299

■ncsia, 0.120

Oxide of iron, 0.070

Silica 0.150

7.150
Mr. Stirrat of Paisley, on being invited to give his opinion on this subject,
spoke in the strongest terms of the capabilities of the works. In regard to
the rain-guage commonly in use, he stated that it did not show one-half of
the quantity of rain falling. When it was set on a height, like the one
in the College, the rain falling during a storm was not correctly indicated.
Ee had kept one for fourteen years, and set up one beside it at a height
of four feet ; and he found that, in a storm, there was a difference of 30
per cent, in favour of the lower one. He had no doubt that the rain
falling in this part of the country averaged 56 inches. This opinion he
formed from three years' measurement of the reservoir at Paisley, which
showed 52 inches for each year, while the rain-guage indicated only 33.
He considered that, as the works of the Gorbals Company now stood,
they could afford an abundant supply of water to 270,000 of a population.

Explanation of Plate— The conduit which conveys the water from the reservoirs
is from 400 to 500 jards in length, and constructed of arched masonry. At the end of
the conduit next the reservoir, there is situated a self-acting sluice, differing in
construction from the one shown in the plan, but acting in concert with it. The self-
acting sluice shown in the plan is placed at the end of the first filter, and is connected
by a lever with the float in the well. The water from the reservoir passes along the
continuation of the conduit at the upper end of the series of filters, and flows in a regular
ami thin stream into the first filter, which consists of gravel, through which it percolates,
and then rises within the double wall which separates the first from the second, or
coarse sand filter, and so on till it reaches the tank, as shown in the transverse section
of filters.

The use of the self-acting sluice is to prevent the continued flow of water into the
filters after the tank lias been filled, and it acts in the following manner: — at the bottom
of the well containing the float there is a pine connecting the well with each of the tanks,
whereby tho water m the u. 11 ami that in the tank, which may be in use at the time,
is always kept at the same level, as the float rises with the water in the well it acts upon
tho sluice, by shutting it, thus preventing the water from passing onward. The water
nted from passing into tho filters, accumulates in the conduit, until it begins
to act on the self-acting sluice at the reservoir, which in turn shuts off the supply of
water from that source. It is c\i<lcnt from this that the supply of water from the
reserve. ir must he regulated by the demand at the distributing tank.

Mr. Robert Montgomery of Johnstone exliil tit ed and explained his new
Self-Acting Railway Break.

The friction or break wheel, which was nearly of full working size, was
17 inches in diameter and 2J broad; the full-sized wheel would be 18

236 IfE. MwIm kin., on ffc Mode of Preparing Manila Heui]>.

inches diameter and 3 J inches broad. The break wheel is fixed upon the
axle, between the carriage wheels. From axle to axle of each carriage
there is a frame or shears, on which all the break apparatus is fixed, this
being quite detached from the body of the carriage. The break is self-
acting, being governed primarily by the drag-bar of the carriage, on the for-
ward end of which is a strong spiral spring, which gives ease to the carriages
at the starting of the train, and allows the break to act the moment that
any stoppage takes place, from whatever cause produced. Mr. Montgo-
mery, by means of a train of four model carriages, with breaks to each,
illustrated the value of his invention in a series of interesting and satis-
factory experiments. These model carriages, of about half a hundred-
weight each, were mounted on a model railway of about twenty -feet long,
at one end of which was an upright rod, with a pulley at its upper extre-
mity, over which passed a cord, bearing a ball of metal, which supplied
the motive power. The carriages were drawn to the extreme end of the
railway, and allowed to approach the opposite terminus, with the full
amount of momentum which the descending ball gave, and showed what
might be supposed to take place upon a railway when the breaks were
not applied. The breaks were next applied to two carriages when at the
highest rate of speed, and when about three-fourths of the road was
passed ; the effect was an immediate slowing, until the train stood still at
about ten inches from the end of the railway. The railway, which, in
the above experiment, was level, was now altered to an inclination of one
foot in fourteen ; and here the power of the breaks, when applied to all
of the carriages, was so great, that they stood firm upon the rails ; and
with breaks on two carriages, came down at a slow, easy, and perfectly
safe rate of progression. The break only acts upon the forward motion of
the carriages. This was shown by the carriages being easily drawn back-
ward up the incline by a cord attached to the hindermost one, and all the
breaks applied ; and when the cord was suddenly cut through, the car-
riages did not run down the line, but stood still instantaneously, and one
or more breaks had to be put out of action before the train again
acquired any motion.

February 16, 1848. — The President in tlie Chair.

Messrs. John Macadam, John Barclay, and William Watt, were ad-
mitted members.

A vote of £24, for book-cases, was finally passed.
The following paper was read : —

XXXVI.— On the Mode of Preparing Manila Hemp. By Thomas
M'Mickjng, E

During a two years' residence as a merchant at the town of Manila,
I availed myself of every opportunity to visit the interior of the Island

Mi:. M*3I Mode of Preparing Mxmi i 1 1, ,,,/>. 227

Luzon, the chief of tin- Philippine group, of which Manila is the capital
town and the seal of government.

The Philippine Islands form a colony of Spain, second in importance
• •illy to Cuba.

One map, now exhihited, shows their position and extent in the Eastern
An-hipelago; the other map, which was constructed at the town of
Manila, shows the political subdivisions, like our counties, each under a
governor, or alcalde. The districts in which the substance known in tin-
i •mmtrv u u Manila Kemp n is produced, are designated on the map as
Alh.iy-Camariiics, \. and S., Batanyas, and the Islands of Panay and
Marimliiijue.

While on a visit at a sugar-producing establishment in Laguna district,
having expressed a wish to see hemp prepared, my host, an accomplished
Spanish naturalist, desired some of his workmen from the hemp district
to gratify me. This was easily done by going into the woods, cutting
down tho first tree, or rather large herbaceous plant, of the proper sort,
and speedily putting up the simple apparatus necessary.

The hemp plant is described in the Flora de Filipinas, a botanical work
in Spanish, by a most estimable man, Manuel Blanco, an Augustine
friar, with whose acquaintance I was honoured during my residence at
Manila. This book — now produced — is interesting as a specimen of
Manila printing and binding ; and possesses the higher value of being
the only correct and complete account of the botany of a little known part
of the world. It is the result of a lifetime, from manhood to old age,
■pent by the worthy friar, so far as he felt free to intermit civilising
labours in his clerical vocation, and give time to his darling science of
botany.

He thus describes the hemp plant, the native name of which is
Abaca : —

Musa Trogloditarum textaria.

Corolla — the lower lip almost ent

Stamens — live, without the rudiment of the sixth.

Fruit — fate-ribbed, and with many perfect seeds.

He considers it a variety of tho Musa Trogloditarum erraus, a rare
plantain which grows spontaneously in the woods, with fruit of about i
finger's-length, hitter, and non-edible; and the fibres from which plant
appear to be fully as strong as those from the cultivated variety.

In the districts already named and pointed out on the map, the hemp
plant is cultivated with care, and is of much utility. The fruit is eaten,
but is small, hardly exceeding two inches in length. The seeds arrive
at complete ripeness. The sap <>f the : tetimes used medicinally

bj the nai

When hemp is to be made, a tr. Own by the root, close to the

ground. This is an easy process, as it is not timber or woody fibre, but
comp -i\e layers of vegetable substance. In girth, it is about

equal to the common plantain. Bay eight to twelve 10 hes in diam

228 Mil. M'Micking on the Mode of Preparing Manila Hemp.

The plant is felled at the time when it is about to produce fruit; the
upper extremity ok head is also cut off, and the leaves removed. The
layers of the tree, or herbaceous plant, are torn off one by one, and the
fine skin from the inner surface removed with the knife, which every
Manila man carries in a sheath in the waist-string of his trousers, like
many of oof sailors. The layer, or roll, when stript of its skin on the
inner surface, is torn into strips, of about two fingers '-breadth. One of
these strips is placed on a plank, or rude table, the inner skinless surface
oexl the table, on which it is pressed by the sharp edge of a knife. Of
course, the knife may be held by the hand, but an easier way, and which
was done when the process was shown to me, is to fasten the knife to the
table by a string, where the blade joins the handle, and the outer end of
the handle being pressed upwards, by a piece of bent bamboo doing the
work of a spring, the sharp edge presses down against the outer
surface of the strip on the table, with sufficient force to penetrate the soft
pulpy substance, though not with such force as to wound or cut the stringy
fibre. The workman grasps an end of the layer or strip thus held to the
table by the knife edge, and pulls it towards him. I can best explain
the degree of force necessary, by saying, that, when I tried it, I had to
exert my strength, an easy pull did not suffice. The pulpy substance
remains on the side of the knife away from the workman, who pulls the
clean fibres towards him. When entirely pulled through, he changes it
end for end, grasping the clean fibre, and pulling towards him underneath
the knife the portion first held in his hand, which, in like manner, on
being pulled through, becomes cleaned fibre. If not sufficiently cleaned,
the process is repeated a second time ; but this is unusual in practice.
The specimen of hemp now produced is long and well cleaned, conse-
quently of good quality. It is part of what was made when the process
was shown to me. The hemp of commerce is sometimes shorter, from the
stem of the musa plant being cut into lengths, for convenience of lifting
it from the place in which it is felled to where the workmen are. The
hemp is also sometimes matted, from portions of the pulpy substance or
skin adhering to the fibres, when the workmen are careless or unskilful.

The portions, as cleaned, are hung up for an hour or two to dry, if in
the open air, on any branch of a tree at hand ; or, if in a house, on a peg
in the wall. No further preparation is necessary for the ordinary Manila
hemp of commerce. The product of a day's — probably not hard work —
of three persons, is about 14 lbs.

Of tho fibres thus prepared, some are fine, and fit for being woven into
cloth of considerable fineness and beauty. Such fibres the women pick
out, and roll up tightly into a ball, as big as a child's head. This is
placed in the wooden mortar, of which there is one in every house for
husking rice, and pounded for some time with the wooden pestle. This
operation renders the fibre flexible, and less liable to break. The ends
are then knotted together by women and girls, to form a continuous
thread. The weaving process is the same ns for cotton fabrics. In

Mr. M'Micking on the Mode of Preparing Manila Hemp. 220

WWtving very line hemp «-l..th, t he wind is apt to break the threads if not
under shelter. I believe, ftfeo, tlmt the threads are kept moist in weaving
from both the hemp ami the pine-apple fibre; and it is an occasional mode
of the sellers to praise the fineness of the cloth, by saying, that it was
"woven under water;" implying that the threads were so fine, that
ordinary moistening would not suffice to enable the weaver to work
them up.

The hemp cloth, when woven, is placed for a day and night in water,
with a little lime made from sea-shells, and afterwards washed and
stretched out. It is hard and rough, more so than our linen or than
China grass cloth. It is, however, a favourite material for shirts with
the Philippine islanders of both sexes. Those now exhibited are a man's
and a woman's, and constitute the only covering in common use by both
sexes of the labouring class for the upper part of the body.

When to bo woven, the hemp is easily dyed of blue and pink-
colours. To dye it blue, the natives employ the leaves of the Marsdenia
ocar, which gives blue colour in abundance. This plant is described at
page 118 of the Flora do Filipinas. To dye hemp pink, they boil the
bark of the root of Morinda citrifolia, (described at page 150 of the Flora
de Filipinas,) with a little lime or alum, till the desired colour is obtained ;
or it may be more easily done by the same process as used for cotton
thread, which is by solution of wood ashes, and oil of Sesamum Indicum.
(See Flora Filipina, p. 507.)

The price paid to the actual producers of the hemp must be very low,
as it has to be collected in small quantities from house to house, and
transported chiefly on horseback through a country where roads are few
and bad. Its selling price is commonly about lis. or 12s. per cwt. at the
outports, from which it is conveyed by coasting craft to Manila.

At Manila, the hemp is packed into well-shaped bales, measuring ten
cubic feet, and weighing 280 lbs. each, which is the shape in which it
appears as merchandize, and in which state the price is usually about 20s.
per cwt. The packing-press is a worm screw, worked like the capstan of
a ship, which, in descending, forces the hemp into a strong wooden box,
the upper portions of which are taken to pieces, and removed as the hemp
is pressed down.

The quantity exported from Manila annually is about 5000 tons weight,
of which about two-thirds or three-fourths go to the United States, and
remainder chiefly to this country, where its consumption appears to be
increasing. A considerable quantity is also made into rope in the
districts where it is produced, to supply coasting vessels, and for other
purposes; and at Manila, the manufacture of rope from the hemp for
domestic use, and fox exportation, or sale to shipping visiting the port,
is a considerable branch of indusf

Dr. Walker Amott mentioned, that, although the Manila hemp pos-
sd great tenacity, the fibre always gave way when knotted. Mr.

230 Rev. Mk. Landsbokough's List of Zoophyte.

Harvey mentioned that it could not be bleached by chlorine, the fibre
being reduced to a pulp by that agent. Mr. Gourlie exhibited a fine
specimen of manufacture from Manila hemp, and also of the prepared
fibre of the pine-apple plant.

The Librarian produced a copy of the Commercial Statistics and Pro-
gress of America, by John Macgregor, Esq., M.P. for Glasgow, presented
to the Society by the author. The thanks of the Society were voted for
the valuable donation.

1st March, 1848. — The President in the Chair.

Messrs. James H. M'Clure and John Craig were admitted members.
The following communication was made : —

XXXVII. — List of Zoophytes found in the West of Scotland. By the
Rev. David Landsborough, Saltcoats. Communicated by William
Gourlie, Jun.

Class Anthozoa. Ehrenberg.

Anthozoa Hydroida.

I. TUBALARINA.

Family — Corynida.

1. — Clava. Gmelin.

1. Clava multicornis. Found, at times, on seaweeds ; but it is rather
rare in the west. It has been found at Saltcoats, Largs, and in
Arran.

2. Hydractinia. Van Beneden.

1. Hydractinia echinata. This I had long known under the names of
alcyonium and alcyonidium echinatum. It is not rare here ; on old uni-
valve shells, and is found in Arran.

3. Coryne. Gaertner.

The name is from Coryne, a Club.
1. Coryne pusilla. Seldom found here. Found at Largs, on sea-
weeds.

4. Tubularia. Linnaeus.

1. Tubularia indivisa. Not found here, as we have no muddy shores ;
but found at Cumbraes, and in Rothesay Bay, and dredged in Arran.
It is very pretty when in a live state, with flowery heads.

2. Tubularia Larynx. This I have got from Cumbraes; but it is
very rare.

lli.v. lis. IiAXMB >f Zoophytes. 28]

II. SKKTl'LAKIXA.

Family. — Sertulariada.

5. U.u.i:< ii m. Oken.

The name is from Hahr, i herring; and it is called the Jierring-bone

coralline

1. Haleeium hah'i-lnum. I have not fouml this on the coast of Ayr-
shire, but I havo repeatedly dredged it in Arran.

2. II. muricatum. I have not found this on the Ayrshire coast; but
I have got it on oysters from Stranraer.

6. Sertularia. Linnaeus.

1. Sertularia polyzonias. This is not uncommon with us, and it is
still more common at Troon. It is almost always found on Halidrys
s'(!i>juosa.

2. S. rugosa. This is very rare with us. I have found it only once
or twice on seaweeds.

3. S. pumila. Very common here, and all along the coast, and in
Arran. It is generally on the larger seaweeds, such as Fucus serratus,
vesiculosus, and nodosus. The finest and largest specimens, however, I
have ever seen of it, were between Leith and Portobello, on young
plants of Laminarla saccharina.

4. Sertularia abietina. I have at times got specimens of this, though
rarely, amongst rejectamenta, on the shores of Ayrshire. It is found
abundantly in Lochryan, at Port- Patrick, and at Little Ross Island, near
Kirkcudbright.

4. S. filkula. This is rare with us. It is at times, however, found
on seaweeds, and about the roots of Laminaria digitata.

5. S. operculata. This is not uncommon. It is found on the stout
stems of Laminaria digitata. I once found it intermingled with the
stems of Furccllaria fastigiata. It is seldom three inches in height ;
whereas I have seen specimens from Lough Swilly, measuring upwards
of four in-

We are not rich in Sertularia, as we have only five of the seventeen
that have beon observe- 1.

7 Am nnularia. Lamarck.

The name, from antennula, a diminutive of antenna, a feeler.

1. Antennularia ramosa. I have not found this more than once on the
coast of Ayrshire ; but I have got it in the Kyles of Bute, and off Cum-
in i es, and very fine specimens, by dredging in Arran, and also from
fishermen.

It has been made a question whether thi3 be more than a variety of
Antennularia antennina, and there are many of high authority on each
side of the question. I am cti join the minority, and to say that

1 think it a distinct 1 have now Seen B considerable number of

232 Rev. Mn. Landsboeoih; b*8 List of Zoophyte*.

specimens found in the west. They are very branching ; and not one of
them approaches the torm of antennina.

Antennularia antennina. Largs, Mr. Adamson.

8. Plumularia. Lamarck.

The name from plumula, dim. of pluma.

1. Plumularia /a?cata. This is very rarely found on that part of the
Ayrshire coast with which I am best acquainted. It is found in Islay,
Arran, Kyles of Bute, Lochryan, Portpatrick, and Little Boss Island,
near Kirkcudbright.

This is the sickle-coralline. When it is so common in so many parts
of Great Britain and Ireland, a person is rather surprised that it should
be so rare in the west of Scotland.

2. P. cristata. Podded-coralline. This is very beautiful, and though
not common, it cannot be called very rare in the west. With us, it is
found only on Halidrys siliquosa, and it is generally in company with
Cellularia reptans and Sertularia polyzonias. When fresh from the deep
it is generally of a fine yellowish straw colour, though occasionally some
of the fronds arc pink. It is attached to the seaweeds by flexuous, horny,
root-like fibres. The finest plumes with us are between two and three
inches in height. The podded vesicles are large and curious.

3. P. pinnata. I have dredged very fine specimens of this in Lamlash
bay. They are found on Pecten opercularis, adhering by root-like fibres.
The largest specimens were about four inches in height, by three-fourths
of an inch in breadth. They were of great beauty, purely white, and
very delicate. I have seldom found it with vesicles.

4. P. setacea. This, though beautiful, is less so, and smaller than P.
pinnata. It is rather rare on the west coast. It is generally found on
univalve shells, but sometimes on Halidrys siliquosa. The main stem is
often clothed with vesicles. The finest and largest specimens I ever saw,
were got in Lochfine when I was aboard the Raven, with Mr. Smith of
Jordanhill and Professor John Fleming. They were rich in reddish vesicles.

5. P. Catharina. This is a very elegant Plumularia, which I have
dredged in Lamlash-bay, adhering to Pectens along with P. pinnata, from
which it differs in several respects. The pinnce of the plumes are opposite,
and more sparse. I was the more pleased to fall in with this species,
because it bears the specific name Catharina, in honour of Mrs. Johnston,
a lady to whose pencil natural science is so much indebted.

6- P. myriophyllum . Pheasant's tail coralline. I have never found
this very handsome zoophyte on the Ayrshire coast. It is found in
Arran, where it does not seem to be very rare. I have twice found it
with vesicles, which had not been seen before, and which are very remark-
able. They are figured by Dr. Johnston, in his History of Zoophytes.
It grows to a great size. One specimen I got was eighteen inches in
length. The Arran specimens do not seem to have the pinnw leaning to
one side, like ipeeime&fl from other places.

See Johnston, I. page 118.

\l\:v. lift. Lani>shokoi'(;ii\s List of Zo< >/•/>>
< AMl'AM LAKID.K.

!» I L amour.

Tho name is from Aao/xdax, one of the Nereids.

1. Laomedea dichotoma. Sea-thread coralline. Small specimens of
about three inches in height are ;it times, though rarely, found on uni-
valve shells on tin* Ayrshire coast. It has been dredged in Arran, and
in the Kyles of Bute, of larger size.

2. L. geniculata. This is very common with us. It is found during
the winter and spring months on Laminaria, on Ilalidrys, and very often it
covers more than a yard of Chorda Jilum with a thick fringe. It is very
phosphorescent.

3. Laomedea gelatinosa. This is common with us ; but the specimens
are diminutive. It is found on the underside of stones and shelving
rocks, within tide-mark. It is seldom above an inch in height.

10. Campanularia L amour.

1. Campanularia volubilis. This takes its name from campanula, a
bell. It is not rare with us. I have found it on Fucus nodosus, on
/["lidrys, with vesicles, and on Polysiphonia elongata. I have often
observed it on Sargassum, from the Gulf Stream, along with a pretty little
Plumularia. It is beautiful with a lens, but too small to appear beautiful
unless magnified.

2. C. dumosa. This, though found at times on seaweeds, is rare here.

IIVDRINA.
11. Hydra. Linn.

The name is from ' Tfya, a water serpent.

1. Hydra viridis. This is very common, especially on aquatic plants
from a pond near Stevenston, which once formed part of the first navi-
gated canal in Scotland.

I have never tried to multiply them by using the knife, but I have seen
many produced by buds, almost equalling the parent in size in a few di
and dropping off to lead an independent life.

2. Hydra vulgaris. This is much rarer here than the former, but I
have got it in tho same pond.

ANTHOZOA A STEROID A.

Family. — PmmatuKda .

12. Pennatula. Cuvicr.

1. Pennatula phosphorea. Tin's is the sea-pen, or, as fishermen call it,
tin* Oock's-comb, which, from its oolow and substance, it resembles It i-
mm interesting creature. 1 have never got it but once. It was brought to
me by a laherman, <>u a frosty morning, ami it seemed stiff ami dead.;
but on being put into sea-water, i sd, and lived with me severe]

days; when, as a reward lor the pleasure it had given me, it was returned

234 Rev. Mr. Landsboroucii's List of Zoophytee*

to its native element, the ,^ca. It seems to be rare in the west. The
fisherman said he had got it only once before ; but fishermen, in general,
see only what will bring them money in the market. Even when they
have the promise of good pay for curiosities, few of them can be at the
trouble to preserve what they class under the generic term of " Vermin."
It does not appear that it has been found in Ireland.

13. Virgularia. Lamarck.
1. Virgularia mirabilis. This takes its name from virga, a rod. It is
called in some places the sea-rush, and it is thought that it stands erect
with one end in the mud. I have never dredged it, but it has been
dredged by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, in Gareloch and in the Kyles of
Bute.

14. Pavonaria. Cuvier.

1. Pavonaria quadrangularis. This remarkable species was discovered
by Mr. M 'Andrew, who dredged it near Oban. It lives erect, its lower
extremity being sunk in the mud, like Virgularia ; and, like Virgularia,
it is phosphorescent. One specimen got was forty-eight inches in length.
It has been got only in one locality, but in that locality it is probably
not rare, as a friend of mine dredged it there without any guidance, ex-
cept verbal instructions.

Family. — Ahyonidce.

15. Alcyonium. LinnaBus.

1. Alcyonium digitatum. The name is from Alcyon, the King's-fisher;
the word itself signifying sea foam, of which the Halcyons were thought
to build their nests. Dr. Johnston says — " This is one of the most
common marine productions." I wondered at this, because it was long
before I ever saw a specimen of it. When I began to dredge, however,
I got many. At the same time, it does not seem to be so common here
as in the east country. At Leith, I got abundance of it, driven out by
an eastern breeze. I have very seldom found it on the shore in the west.

2. A. glomeratum. I have got this only once. It was sent to me by
a fisherman, who had got it on his long lines in the deep sea near Salt-
coats. The colour being fine vermilion red, I did not know what it was,
as I had not at that time heard of this species. On plunging it in sea-
water, it soon sent forth its tentacula, showing me that it was an Alcyo-
nium, and when I afterwards read the description of this species, I saw
what it was.

16. Sarcodictyon. Forbes.

1 . Sarcodictyon catenata. I had a specimen of this dredged off Cum-
braes. It was on a stone from deep water. There were inequalities on
the surface of the stone, and it had wound itself in a meandering way
around it, selecting the hollow places that it might be safer in them
The name is from actios, jksh, and oiktvov, a net.

1 1 : . v. M k. Landsborough's List of Zoophytes. 235

A Nil !<>/.<> A IIKLIANTHOIDA.

17. ZoiXTHUS. Cuvier.

1. Zo.inthus Couchii? I write this with some doubt. The specimen I
got from deep water iras earned Z. Couchii by a well-skilled friend to
whom I showed it, and comparing it with a true specimen received from
Mr. Bean of Scarborough, I had no doubt that it was the same ; but I
was not then aware of tho existence of Sarcodictyon, and as, when dried,
thej resemble each other, it is possible that there may be a mistake in
this,

18. Adamsia. E. Forbes.

1. Adamsia palliata. This is very common in many places on our
coast. The first time I observed it was in Arran, where a little stream
falls into the sea, near Brodick. It was very abundant on Trochus magus.
As at that time I had not paid much attention to zoophytes, I thought
that it was the inhabitant of the shell that had turned out to enjoy itself
in the summer evening ; and I thought the pretty spots corresponded
with the finely-tinted spots of the shell. I was still more interested in it,
however, when I learned what it was, and that it was thought to be in
copartnership with the hermit crab that took possession of the inside of
the shell.

19. Actinia. Linn.

1. Actinia mesembryanthemum. This is not uncommon with us, and
it is very pretty. The name of the genus Actinea is from axriv, a ray.

2. A. crassicornis. Very common, and large.

3. A. Dianthus. Beautiful, found on the pier, Millport.

4. A. Bellis ? Found, I think, at Saltcoats.

I am sure that many more kinds are found on this coast, but I dare
not try to name them.

20. Anthea. Johnston.

The name is from *u$o;, a flower.

1. Anthea Tuedice. This is found in deep water at Cumbraes, and
also as far up the Clyde as Gourock, where a friend of mine kept one for
more than two years in a vase of sea-water. In winter it shrunk very
much, and lay dormant, but in spring it blew itself up to great size,
and became active again.

iily. — Lucerniada\
21. Lucernaria. Muller.

1. Lucernaria fascicularis. This is not rare in the west, and yet it
had not been noticed till Mr. Alder came to stay some weeks at Ardrossan,
in June, 1846. His will-trained eye soon observed it on seaweeds. It
has often been found by my son David since, here and in Arran.

_. L. cyathiformis. This was discovered by my son David, in Arran.
in July, 184(>. It was in great plenty at one place, among the trap

286 Rev. Mr. Landsborouc.h's List of Zoophyte.

dykes near the natural harbour at Southend, Arran. He brought a spe-
cimen along with him, and showed it to Mr. Alder, who was then in
Arran. He thought that it was a Lucernaria, but he could not give the
specific Dame till Sar's Fauna Littoralis Norvegice came into his hands,
and then he saw that it was the above-named. It had not before been
observed in Britain. It is not so showy as L. fascicular is, which proves
to be the same as L. quadricornis of Mtiller.

( LASS POLYZOA. J. V. Thompson.

POLYZOA INFUNDIBULATA.

Family. — Tubuliporida.
1. Tubulipora. Lam.
The name is from tubulus, a tube, and 7toqos, a passage.

1. Tubulipora patina. This is occasionally found on seaweeds and
shells. It often lurks among the strong fibrous roots of Laminaria
digitata

2. T. hispida. Under this name Dr. Johnston includes two varieties,
which are so different, that I would be disposed to regard them as distinct
species. The more common one, I would call T. verrucaria, correspond-
ing with Dr. Fleming's Discopora verrucaria, which, however, included
T. patina also. The other I would call T. hispida. It is from deep
water, much rarer, and much more hispid than the former, without any
of those smooth vallies that mark T. verrucaria; and the border is a little
cupped, which is not the case in the other.

Tubulipora orbiculus is now by Dr. Johnston regarded as a variety
of T. hispida. It is very common here on Laminaria saccharina. It is
much smaller than either of the preceding, and I think distinct. How-
ever, I readily give way to higher authorities.

3. Tubulipora plwdangea. This is not common here. I have dredged
it in Lamlash Bay on Laminaria saccharina.

4. T. Flabellaris. This is rare. I found it at Whiting bay, Arran,
inside of a broken valve of Solen siliqua ; and I once found it here in-
side of a valve of Modiola. It is very beautiful, like a Prince of Wales'
feather.

5. Tubulipora serpens. This is very common. It is got on old shells,
but more frequently on seaweeds, especially JDesmarestia aculeata, and
Furcellaria fastigiata.

Pustulipora dejlexa. Dredged in Lamlash Bay, on Maia horrida.
This is inserted, as it was not observed till the list was finished.

2. Diastopora. Lamour.

The name is from liccgmf&x, an interval, and ^oQog, a passage, intimat-
ing some distance between the pores.

1. Diastopora obelia. This is rare ; I have got it on shells here and at
Millport, in Cumbrae ; but the finest specimens I have of it are from the
Island of Tiree, where it is pretty common on Pinfioe.

Rev. Mil Landsborough's List of Zoophytes.

:;. Alecto. Lamour.

The name of this genus is from Alecto, one of the Furies.

1. Alecto major. It seems I was the first to find this in Britain. I
got it on a fine largo Pinna sent to me from Tiree, with no other
wr appi ng than a cotton pocket-handkerchief. I remember sending it to
my friend Dr. Johnston, saying, as he mentions, that it was like a
trickling tear.

-. Alecto dilatans. Dredged by Mr. Hyndman, off Sana Island, and
by Professor Edward Forbes, off the Mull of Galloway.

4. Crisia. Lamour.

1. Crisia eburnea. This is very common, particularly on the smaller
Alga?, and on none of them more than Dasya coccinea.

2. C. denticulata. This, which was formerly C. luxata, is often met
with, though not at all so frequently as C. eburnea.

3. C. aculeata. Found by Mr. W. Thompson at Ballantrae, and
found, though rarely, by us here.

4. C. geniculata. This was sent by me, in an early stage of my zoo-
phytical studies, to Dr. Johnston, from whom I learned that it had not
before been found in Scotland. It is most abundant here, but seldom on
any thing except Desmarestia aculeata, which is often quite hoar}
with it.

5. Crisidia. Milne, Edwards.

1. Crisidia cornuta. This is not at all rare with us, being found on
Delesseria sanguinea, and oftener on Phyllophora rubens. It is the Goat's
horn coralline.

II. CELLEPORINA.

Family. — Eucratiada.

6. Eucratea. Lamour.

This is from Eucrate, one of the Nereids.

1 . Eucratea clielata. This is the Bull's horn coralline. When Dr.
Johnston states, on my authority, that it is frequent on the Ayrshire
coast, it must be from some mistake on my part. I must have meant
Crisidia cornuta ; for though this is found on seaweeds at times here,
it is rather rare. I observed it on Delesseria sent to me by Lady
fauna Campbell, got by her in the Island of Islay.

7. Anguinaria. Lamour.

Tins takes its name from anguis, a serpent.

1. Anguinaria spatulata. This is very rare here. I have got it only
once or twice on Dasya coccinea. My friend Dr. Fleming desires me to
be on the look out for it on Bryopsis y laying that it is found on

that alga oo the coast of Devon, and what for no should it be found on
tin- lame on the coast of Ayrshire ? I shall attend to this.

Rev. Mil. Landsborougii's List of Zoophyi

8. Hippotiioa. Laraour.

1. Hippothoa catenularia. The Hippothoao are very beautiful, but
very minute, and therefore little apt to be observed by unpractised eyes.
This species, though the most common, is rare here. I have, however,
found it mi shells. It seems to be pretty common on Pinnae from Coll
and Tiree.

2. H. divaricata. This elegant little zoophyte has been got, though
rarely, OH Phyllophora rubens, here and in Cumbrae. I have got it also on
Pinnoo from Coll and Tiree. It is synonimous with H. lanceolata.

9. Gemellaria. Savigny.
1. Gemellaria loriculata. Goat -of -mail coralline, and synonimous
with Notamia loriculata. I have never found the smallest fragment of
this on the coast of Ayrshire, or in Arran ; but when, in 1846, 1 visited the
Little Ross Island, near Kirkcudbright, I got as many specimens floating
in a quarter of an hour as will supply my friends for many days to come.

Family. — Celleporidce.
10. Cellepora. 0. Fabricius.

1. Cellepora pumicosa. This is one of our most common corallines, on
other corallines or seaweeds.

2. C. ramidosa. I am not sure that I have got this pretty branching
coralline here, but I have got it from Cumbrae, and I have dredged it in
Lamlash bay. The fine specimens are about two inches in height, and
branched somewhat like an antler. It is found attached to old shells
from deep water.

11. Lepralia. Johnston.

This is sea-scurf, a pretty tribe, in which there is much variety.

1. Lepralia hyalina. This is very common on the Ayrshire coast, and
also in Arran and Cumbrae. It is found most frequently on Laminaria
saccharina, but it is found also on shells and other algae. The variety
with the punctured cells is not uncommon with us.

2. Lepralia Ilassallii. This I found on Patella coerulea, on the shore
at Saltcoats, and sent to Dr. Johnston, as new to me, and it seems that it
has turned out to be L. Ilassallii.

3. L. tenuis. This I have never seen, but it has been got within my
range, having been dredged by Mr. Hyndman, off Sana Island, near the
south end of Kintyre.

4. L. simplex. The same may be said of this, which has been dredged
by Mr. Hyndman off the Mull.

5. L. ventricosa. Do. do. do.

6. L. Hyndmannii. Do. do. do.

7. L. granifera. This I found on the Ayrshire and Arran coasts, on
old shells.

8. L. Landsboromi. Dr. Johnston has done me the honour of dedi-

Rev. life, I. .\ RDfcBOfcOl am'l List of Zoophytes. 239

eating this Lepralia to inc. I sent the first specimen I got of it to
him, and I have lost the only other specimen I got, so that I would
scarcely know my namesake were I to meet him. The one was got on a
■hell on Lochfine side, and the other was got on the coast of Ayrshire.

9. L. pertusa. This is very common at Saltcoats, on the undersido of
itoMSj within tide-mark. It is as common at Arran, at Whiting bay.
It has bow dredged by Mr. Ilyndman, off the Island of Sana, near the
Mull.

10. L. annulata. I found this at Saltcoats, many years ago, when it
«ai new t<> Britain. As I had not then seen L. nitida, I thought it was
that species; but Dr. Johnston, to whom I sent it, told me that it was
L. annulata of Fabricius, and a discovery. It is found pretty abundantly
on Laminaria saccharina. I onco found it on a shell with two spines.
It has been dredged by Mr. Ilyndman, off the Mull of Kintyre.

11. L. bifork. This is rather rare with us. I once found it on a
piece of floating bark.

it, L. pediostomou This beautiful Lepralia is one of the most com-
mon at Saltcoats, and in various parts of the Island of Arran, on the
underside of stones.

13. L. variolosa. This is not uncommon on shells in Arran. It is also
found here, though but seldom.

14. L. nitida. This is a most beautiful Lepralia, and very rare both
here and in Arran. Dr. Johnston says, " I would say of it what Fabri-
cius says of his Cellepora annulata, (that is, Lepralia annulata, which I
mistook for this, which marks both its beauty and similarity,) ' pulclierrima
et perfectissima hoec omnium visorum* " The most beautiful specimen I
ever saw of it, I found on the Ross-shire shore, when waiting for the ferry-
boat to take me over to Fort-George, in Inverness-shire.

15. L. unicornis. This, which used to be called L. coccinea, is very
common on the west coast, particularly on the roots of Laminaria digitata.

16. L. Ballii. I have never seen this, but it has been dredged by
Mr. Ilyndman, off Sana Island.

17. L. coccinea. This is not uncommon with us, on the underside of
stones. It has spines whin it is entire.

18. L. ciliata. This is not uncommon on seaweeds of various kinds,
but chiefly such as Delesscria sinuosa. The variety insignis, of Ilassall,
is more generally found on Laniinaria saccharina.

19. L. immersa. This is common on shells, and stones, and seaweeds.

20. L. punctata. On Pinna ingens, from Island of Coll.

12. Membranipora. Blainville.

1. Membranipora pQota. This is very common on the large seaweeds.
The variety M. stdlata, of Thompson, is very common on Fucus serratus.

The normal kind often completely invests the smaller alg;i\

L\ M. mvnibranacca. Tin- eommon, especially lining the in-

side ui' specimens of /> ■

Vol. II.— No. 4. 4

240 Kkv. Mn. Landsborough's List of Zoophytes.

Family. — Escharidce.

13. Cellularia. Pallas.

1. Cellularia ciliata. Very beautiful, but very rare here. This, also,
I found in great beauty on the shore opposite to Fort-George.

2. C. reptans. Very common hero. It is most frequently found on
Halidrys siliquosa. The finest and largest specimens I have got were at
Troon. It is very brittle when dry.

3. C. plumosa. This is not found here. I think I dredged a little of
it in Arran. It is found in Lochryan on oyster shells. It was formerly
Acamarchis plumosa.

14. Flustra. Linnaeus.

The name is from the Saxon word flustrian, to weave.

1. Flustra foliacea. Common as this sea-mat is in many places, it is
very rarely that the smallest fragment of it is found on the shore here. I
have a specimen which was dredged in Lamlash bay some months ago, and
it has still a little of that sweet fragrance, like heliotrope, which it had
when fresh. I think this flavour is different at different places. At Leith,
where it is abundant, it seemed to me to have the flavour of Verbena
triphylla.

I never saw even the smallest portion of Flustra truncata on our western
shores, though it seems so nearly allied to F. foliacea. Dr. Johnston says
that " it is very common on the shores of Scotland." The western shores
must be excepted.

2. F. membranacea. This is very common on large seaweeds, espe-
cially Laminaria digitata. I have seen a web of this beautiful lace six
feet in length by eight inches in breadth. The polypes in this one colony
were almost equal to the population of Scotland. At times the Flustra
is roughened by little compressed linear projections, rising about a
quarter of an inch above the surface, the use of which I did not know ;
and I got it once on one of the smaller algae, where, for want of room
to expand itself on the alga, it mounted up, and was, to a certain extent,
free.

3. F. coriacea. This I have not seen, but it has been dredged adher-
ing to shells, by Mr. Hyndman, off Sana.

4. F. ? lineata. Very common with us, and especially on Laminaria
saccharina. 1 have at times been disposed to think that this was an im-
perfect state of Leparalia nitida. The rigid varieties with the spines met,
come very near it. Mr. Peach thinks it a good species.

15. Salicornia. Cuvier.

1. Salicornia farciminoides. This is a very beautiful zoophyte. The
first specimens I saw of it were from Lochryan and Portpatrick. I never
met with it on the Ayrshire coast. A month or two ago, I got a speci-
men of it that had been dredged by a fisherman off Arran.

Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. 241
VESICULARINA.
Family. — Veskulariadce.
16. Vesicularia. J. V. Thompson.
Vesicularia spinosa. This is never found here, but I have got it from
the oyster-beds in Lochryan.

17. Valkeria. Fleming.

Valkoria cuscuta. Dodder coralline, named in honour of Dr. Walker,
Professor of Natural History, Edinburgh. This pretty little zoophyte, for
several years, was got abundantly here, but of late it has been rare. It
was got on Halidrys, also on Poly, byssoides, and Rhodomena bifida. It
is phosphorescent.

18. Bowerbankia. Farre.

1. Bowerbankia imbricata. This is found occasionally here on the
small seaweeds. I have seldom seen it of late.

POLYZOA HIPPOCREPIA.
19. Plumatella. Bosc.
1. Plumatella repens. This was at one time found in great abundance
on the underside of stones, in a quarry pool at Parkend, Saltcoats ; but
the pool having been pumped dry on one occasion, . the Plumatellos
perished, and I have not seen any in the pool since. I found, what I
suppose is a variety of this, on the underside of water-plants, in another
quarry pool, and I saw the same alive in the possession of Mr. Brown of
Lanfine, who had got it in a pool near Lanfine House. It is much smaller
than those found on stones, and I would almost think another species.

Thtjiaria articulata. Sea-spleenwort. One specimen of this beautiful
zoophyte has been found in Arran since the list was made up.

15th March, 1848.— The President hi the Chair.

Messrs. C. R. Collins and Thomas L. Patterson were admitted members.
The following paper was read : —

XXX VIII. — History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.
By Charles F. 0. Glassford, Esq.

History of the Kelp Manufacture. — The history of the kelp manufac-
ture, if we could now get at all the details connected with it, would be
an extremely interesting one. Recent, however, as we may justly suppose
its origin to have been, it would require much labour and research to draw
together all the facts conuected with it, so as to show this question in all

242 Mr.. CJr.ASSFOitD's History a ptton o/ (fa 7wfy> Manufacture.

its manifold bearings. The subject is intimately associated with our social
and commercial progress as a people ; and being so, deserves some of our
attention. I have endeavoured in the remarks which I will lay before
this Society, to bring forward those details which will be of immediate
interest, and also the most important facts connected with its history.

The burnt ashes of plants have been long used and manufactured under
I variety of names, and for a variety of purposes. On the shores of the
Mediterranean, barilla, varec, salicor, and blanquette have been prepared
by burning the plants which grow on or near the shores, and applied to
such uses as soda is at present. Kelp has likewise been manufactured
on the shores of Ireland, Scotland, and the North Sea, and was chiefly of
value in former times from the soda it contained. Potashes are likewise
formed from the ashes of large timber, and are applied to purposes where
potash is required. The variety of the composition of those products
depends on their source, whether obtained from land or sea plants, or
from plants growing contiguous to the sea. I shall have occasion to
allude to this more particularly again ; kelp, which is entirely made from
plants growing in the sea, at present demands our attention. It is
upwards of a century since this article was first prepared as a regular
object of commerce on the shores of Ireland, and subsequently in Scot-
land. But it was not until the beginning of this century that it became
an object of very great importance, or was extensively made on our own
shores. The elevation of the price from a comparatively small sum of
about £3 to £4, to £20 and £22, caused the proprietors of our island
shores to exert themselves, and devote some share of their attention to
its produce. The result was a great increase on the quantity made, and
in many instances a vitiated article. The demand was raised by the
gradual increase in number and extent of our manufactures requiring soda
or alkali, which followed the troubled and warlike times of last century,
and from improvements resulting in these manufactures from the combined
influence of talent and capital then exerted. Glasgow, then as now,
exerted herself to the utmost, and became the cradle of Scottish manu-
facturing industry. Manufactures, chemical and mechanical, were then
established, and these have since increased and prospered with astonishing
rapidity. Soda and potash being largely required — and the demand
increasing with our wants, and with our energetic trading propensities —
the kelp manufacture flourished. The manufacture was pushed to the
furthest limits by the makers, and for years their prosperity continued.
From the high price, however, which it then attained, it was doomed — like
almost every other manufacture — to meet with competitors. Barilla then
entered the market, and notwithstanding the very high duty imposed on
it, entered into successful competition with kelp. This product having
once reached our shores, and found out the nature of its opponent, and
the uses to which it was applied, continued steadily to oppose and increase
in quantity, and latterly to reduce the price of kelp considerably, so much
so, indeed, that for the 22 years ending 1822, the average price was only

Mk. Glassf< l\>lpManufa<

Clo IDs. per Um. IJ-irilla at the HIM ttine, being an article richer in
alkali, that is, in sod:i, tlian kelp, commanded a higher price and a pre-
ference. The value of these commodities being then entirely dependent
upon the soda or alkali they contained, and this alkali being in the form
of carbonate, the kelp trade was yet doomed to greater changes; for on
&C reduction of the duty on barilla in 1822 from £11 Gs. 8d. to ,£8 10s.
pel ton, ami in 1831 to £2 per ton, and also on the removal of the salt
<lntv in 1828, the price of kelp gradually fell to £2 10s. and £3, at which
point it may be almost supposed it would have been extinguished. Not
so, how ever ; a considerable quantity was yet prepared by a few of the
1 [igbland proprietors, and annually sent into the soap and glass manufac-
turers and bleachers of Glasgow and neighbourhood. It may be supposed
that at this very low price it ceased to be an object of any interest. Not
so, however, for many of the landlords found it their interest to maintain
the manufacture among their tenants, even although the price realized
barely covered the cost of the support of the kelpers. In this way a great
responsibility was removed from the shoulders of the landlord, the poor
tenants were enabled to pay their rents, and probably a portion of their
food, while the landlords, besides the removal of the possible responsibility,
profited somewhat at the same time. From 1822 till 1845, ma:
remained in this position, but immediately thereafter a new and important
aspect was to be presented by kelp, — it had again to experience a change,
a temporary increase in value and in the quantity produced, and a new
feature was to be presented. The value of iodine and its demand wm
the new cause, and from the sudden and unexpected, almost unexplained
cause of a great increase in the value of that curious substance, the kelp
was for a time seriously influenced. The value of iodine rose from 6s. 8d.
per lb. to about 40s. per lb. The attention of our chemical manufac-
turers and speculators was drawn to it, and the result was a considerable
increase in the value of kelp. But this increase in value being now
determined by the value of iodine, the worth of the kelp was stamped
upon it by the quantity of that substance which it contained, and not by
the soda as before. It was now found that the kelp made and sent into
market, contained very variable quantities of iodine, depending on the
manner in which it was made, but more especially upon the peculiar weeds
employed. That prepared in Ireland, and on the north and north-

l n shores of that island, was the richest in iodine. So much wtl
this the case that the manufacturers of the salts from kelp, and particu-
larly of iodine, found it frequently better to pay £10 10s. for good Irish
kelp, than to pay £4 4s. or £5 for Highland kelp. Indeed, generally
speaking, the Irish kelp contains more than twice as much iodine as
ordinary Highland kelp. The increase of price on the Highland kelp —
from CI os. to £4 5s., and occasionally to £5 5s. — caused many of the
proprietors of kelp shores to turn their attention to the subject, and to
increase its manufacture. This they did, however, without the slightest

enoe to the oanse of the increased value of kelp, and without any

244 Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.

attempts whatever at improving the usual process. I have here
appended a list of the variations in price of iodine during the period
of its rise and fall. Comments on it would be almost superfluous ; — it
will remain an interesting document, illustrative of the fluctuation in
value of this commodity, dependent upon the combined influence of
demand and speculation.

COMMERCIAL PRICES OF IODINE,

From January, 1843, till March, 1848, showing the comparative values, compiled from
a list of actual purchases made by an extensive Commission louse in Glasgow, and
other sources. The Prices quoted are those given to the makers of Iodine, the
London Price may be assumed at from Is. to 2s. per lb. higher.

In January, 1843, the price of iodine was 4s. 8d., and was with diffi-
culty disposed of at that price, the seller being obliged to take 6 months'
bills. In June, or thereby, of the same year, it rose, however, to 6s., at
which price it continued till, at the close of 1844, it had reached the price
of 12s. per lb. cash ; from which it will be seen that an improvement had
taken place, and that the value of iodine was slowly but steadily
augmenting.

1845. Per Lb.

January, @ 12s. Od.

And little doing.
April to Dec, @ 85s. to 40s.

And at 42s. in London.
1846.
January, @ 34s. 8d. to 30s.

And now begins to decline till

May, @ 23s. Od.

June to July, n 22s. Od.

August, " 21s. Od.

September 5th and 12th ■ 21s. Od.
. 14th, . 20s. Od.

■ 18th, i 16s. Od.

This was a large purchase rather

under the market price, and sales
were difficult to effect.

October and November, @ 16s. Od.
December 5th and 6th, n 16s. Od.

■ 31st, i 20s. Od.

A temporary rise.

1847. Per Lb.

January, i 16s. Od.

Small parcels bought at this.

May, i 16s. Od.

Large purchases made at this price.

June and July, ■ 9s. Od.

Small parcels.

August, n 10s. 6d.

Small parcels.
Sep., Oct , Nov., & Dec, ■ 6s. Od.
Average price for the 4 months. This
was for small parcels, and bought
under the market price, owing to
the depressed state of trade at this
time.
1848.

January, @ 8s. to 9s.

February, @ 10s. to lis.

March 1st,.. @ lis. 8d.

■ 7th, i 10s. Od.

The tendency at present is rather
upwards, and will probably im-
prove.

I think it not uninteresting to append also a Table of the quantity of
kelp which entered the port of Glasgow for the following years, as
recorded at the Glasgow Tonnage Office : —

Mn. Glassfo » and Bmription <>f the Kelp Manuf actus. 246

TABLE OF KELP IMPOBTfl at BKooMIELAW,

as per the C'lasimi- I'mtnage Office.

Fn.m July, 1841, to July, 1842, 2565 tons.

1842, i 1843 1887 i

1843, i 1844 1965 i

1844, i 1845, 3263 ■

1845, i 1846, 6086 .

1846, i 1847 3627 ■

In addition to the above, there were about 300 tons landed at Dum-
barton, from 1845 to 1846, and about 600 tons at Greenock, making
altogether, about 7000 tons which entered the Clyde. During the same
year, (and over a period of nine months,) a manufacturer consumed about
700 tons, on the Irish shores ; and it is asserted, that 3000 tons were
consumed at Borrowstowness, on the Forth, during the same year ; from
which it would appear, that considerably upwards of 10,000 tons of kelp
were manufactured on our British shores, during that year.

It cannot fail to be observed that the large quantity of kelp brought
iuto Glasgow during the latter end of 1845, and beginning of 1846, was
somewhat connected with the elevation in price of iodine. This was the
case. Numerous chemical manufacturers turned their attention to the
business; persons were despatched to the shores of Ireland and our Scottish
isles, to increase the quantity of kelp made, to buy it up at low prices ;
and for a time much excitement prevailed. The Irish kelp rose in some
instances to £10, although the average about this time might be £8 10s.
The kelp from our Highland shores rose from £2 or £2 5s. to £4, and
in a few instances to £5 5s , and the make on our own shores was con-
siderably increased in consequence.

Within the last six or eight months, the muriate and sulphate of potash
from the kelp, which previously had been almost entirely consumed in the
manufacture of alum, having been applied to new purposes, namely, to
the manufacture of saltpetre (nitrate of potash) and pearlasb, (carbonate
of potash,) has increased the demand ami consequently the value of the
former potash salts. This has resulted from the late high price to which
saltpetre and potashes, as derived from the usual sources, have risen, and
will most probably cease on a larger introduction of the foreign articles.
This has to some extent influenced the alight elevation iu the price of
kelp which has taken place within the last half year, and which will con-
tinue until the decline in value of the muriate and sulphate of potash.
It if however to the value of iodine chiefly that we must now look for any
modifications which take place in the value of kelp, and at present it is
impossible to predict which direction may be taken.

Thcso fluctuations in the value of kelp have been productive of many
changes in the fortunes of our Highland shore proprietors, whose proper-

24G Mil. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.

ties, during the last fifty or sixty years, have alternately been utterly
worthless, and, productive of considerable wealth. When Pennant, who
visited the Hebrides in 1772, visited Collonsay, ho states that these
islands " annually produced from 40 to 50 tons of kelp, which was sold
at the rate of £3 10s. to £4 per ton." When kelp was at £22 per ton,
the same islands produced upwards of 200 tons per annum, realizing clear to
the proprietors the very handsome sum of £4000, or thereby, annually.
During 1846 the same islands produced about 90 tons at about £4 per
ton, but would have easily yielded 120 tons, with the same hands
employed, had the season been at all favourable.

^Vilson, in his "Voyage round the Coasts of Scotland and the Isles,"
in 1842, says " that in 1812, in the island of North Uist, the clear pro-
ceeds from kelp alone, after deducting all expenses, was £14,000, and
fell little short of that sum for several years after. It has been calculated
that the alteration of the law regarding the duty on barilla reduced the
income of the island and its dependencies from £17,500 to £3500," and
that " the value of the island of South Uist to the proprietor has fallen
from about £15,000 to £5000." The district called Long Island, which
includes the two Uists and several others, during the palmy clays of kelp,
produced about 4000 tons of kelp annually from their shores, and realized
about £80,000 annually. The same district at present yields little more
than half the quantity, and that, at about £2 per ton (= £4000), the
greater portion of which is paid to the kelper in wages. Macculloch,
when he visited the Hebrides in 1818, estimated the total product of
kelp from the Scottish islands at 6000 tons annually, which, if we value
at £20 per ton, must have realized to these islands the sum of £120,000
annually for a number of years. At present I have good reason to believe
that not much over 3000 tons are annually manufactured, and if we esti-
mate this at the present average price (for Highland kelp) of £2, it
appears that only about £6000 are realized, comparatively little of which
can go into the pockets of the proprietors, nearly the whole being required
for the maintenance of the kelpers and necessary apparatus.

In the beginning of the year 1845, there were only four chemical
manufactories engaged in the lixiviation of kelp, and manufacture of
iodine, in and about Glasgow, and these not very extensive. During
the following year these were increased to twenty establishments, several
of which were very extensive indeed, and capable of working up from 50
to 60 tons weekly. During this year the leys of the soap-boilers using
kelp were eagerly sought after, and three of the above number of manu-
facturers were engaged in the extraction of iodine from soap leys solely,
and other three parties partially occupied with this source. At present
there are nine manufacturers in and about Glasgow engaged with the
lixiviation of kelp, working up about 85 tons weekly, (= 4500 tons
per annum.) I estimate, however, that about 1500 tons of this quantity
is consumed at Borrowstowness, leaving about 3000 tons for the Glasgow
chemical manufacturers.

Mu. Glassfo '<ry and 1> <>f the Kelp Manufacture. - IT

From estiin;tt<\- made from information which I have collected as <
fully as possible, I should nay that there are about 600 tons of kelp at
present annually employed in the manufacture of soap, but even this is
getting slowly reduced, from the use of soda-ash in that manufacture. A
few years ago (G years) I have estimated that not less than 1100 tons of
kelp were annually employed for this purpose. The chief disadvantage
resulting from the use of kelp in snap-boiling, is the very extensive set of
■■Is required, to furnish leys even for a very small manufactory.

The oatimnton which I have here made of the quantities of kelp manu-
factured sad worked op in our chemical works, can only be considered as
an approximation to the truth. This occurs from the difficulty of procur-
ing correct information from almost any party connected with the trade,
— the utmost jealousy and suspicion being immediately excited by the most
distant query. Every one connected with the manufacture in any shape
is aware of this.

Mode of collecting the Sea Weeds. — The observations which I have now
to make regarding the collecting and burning of sea weeds, were the fruit
of a four mouths' residence in the Hebrides, in the islands of Collonsay
and Oronsay, the property of Captain M'Neill, and my remarks apply
more particularly to the practice there followed. I was sent out there by
the Messrs. Turnbull & Co. of this city, during the year 1846, to prosecute
the manufacture of the kelp, and if possible, to make any improvements
which might suggest themselves to me. I beg to lay a few of the dot
of my experience before you at present, reserving for another opportunity
all the chemical part of the subject and other details which would render
this communication of too great a length.

The methods of collecting and burning the sea weeds now demand our
consideration, and although it is a subject upon which much might be
said, my remarks shall be as brief and concise as possible. The methods
of collecting the weeds, and of burning in kilns, are differently conducted
upon the Hebridean and Irish shores; but the former demands our
attention at present. The kelp of commerce is known in the market
under the terms Cut-weed and Drift-weed kelp, the Cut-weed kelp being
solely prepared from weeds growing upon the shores, and alternately
immersed and left dry by the flow and ebb of the tides. The Drift-weed
kelp, upon the other hand, is prepared from wreck which is torn from the
rocks, and driven upon the beaches by the currents and swell of the sea.
The plants QOmprising this wreck grow always in deep water, firmly
attached to the sunken and shelving rocks, and are constantly submersed.
They possess different properties from the more landward plants, and
are usuaMy detached by the roots from the rocks on which they grow, and
thrown upon the beach daring the How tides which succeed violent storms.
The cut-weed kelp, which is that chiefly prepared on our Highland shores,
is made chiefly from two plants of the same order, from the yellow wreck
and from the blank wreck (technically speaking). The former, or yellow
Wreck, from its property of being able to float in water when cut or

248 Mh. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.

detached from the rocks, is differently and more easily managed than
the other weed, which does not float. Less extensive apparatus, and less
labour is required to collect and burn the yellow wreck, and for this
reason it is mostly used in the Highlands of Scotland. And because it
is more of a land plant — of a more amphibious nature than the drift-
weed and deep sea plants — it is much less valuable as a source of
iodine and of potash. The method of cutting and collecting the yellow
wreck, or Fucus nodosus, called bladder-wreck by the Irish, is peculiar,
and merits our attention now. The men designed for this purpose are
arranged into a company, which may consist of almost any number, but
most usually and conveniently of six or eight men. These are headed by
one who takes charge of all their operations, who is termed the master.
He, however, participates in all their labours, and requires to find his
company in their full complement of tools and materials, points out the
shore which is to be cut, and takes a general supervision, for which he
receives an extra payment at the end of the season. Each of these com-
panies are provided with a small rowing boat, having an anchor, painter,
and oars — with three or four common hay pitchforks — with one or two
spades or shovels — with two or three handbarrows, or with a horse and
car if they can be got. Each man is provided with a stout rope 30 yards
long, and with a reaping hook. The operation of cutting the wreck is
conducted only during the days of spring tides, when the greatest quan-
tities of weed are exposed, and may be carried on for eight successive
days in fine weather, during every alternate tide, when at the lowest.
The hours of low and full tides must be carefully watched by the
companies, as on this the success of their operations depends. The
cutting operations usually commence three days before the day of highest
spring tide. About two hours previous to low water, (that is, while the
tide is still ebbing,) the men proceed en masse, with their ropes and hooks,
towards the shore where their operations are to be conducted. They
range themselves along the water edge, at a distance of six to eight yards
from each other, and begin to cut the weeds in a somewhat similar manner
to the reaping of corn or wheat, and when cut, throwing the weeds behind
them with the left hand. In this manner they proceed cutting — following
the water as it recedes or ebbs, until they have cleared the whole ground
allotted to them. The ropes are then brought to the beach, their ends
tied together, and laid along the water edge. Each man then wraps a
portion of the weed round the rope, so a3 to encase it completely. This
is necessary to give the rope sufficient buoyancy, otherwise it would not
rise with the weeds when they float, and the wreck would thus become
scattered. In some parts of the Highlands ropes made of birch are used,
which swim readily, and do not require this covering process. When this
operation is securely effected, the men proceed towards the point where
they began, and with their faces in the opposite direction, {i.e., to the
shore,) cut the remaining weeds before them until they have cleared the
whole shore, and secured all the available wreck. By this time the tide

Mk. QlamVOBD'i History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. 249

is rapidly advancing upon them, and the weeds are beginning to float,
enclosed within the swaddled rope, the extreme ends of which are drawn
up as far as possible upon the shore, and securely fastened to a rock or
stone. The company are now at liberty for a couple of hours or so, and
with the exception of one or two men who may bo left in charge of the
rope, if con.-idi'n-d ins. cure, they proceed towards their temporary hut or
caliin, situated within a short distance of where they have been working.
Their firo is rekindled, the pot with writer is soon boiling, and the meal
stirred in ; when ready, the whole, which is usually pretty thick, is turned
out into a wooden cog, and when cold enough, supped. This, with sour
milk or treacle and water, followed with a bit of bannock and a drink of
spring water, constitutes tho chief ingredients of their diet. On this
simple fare these men live for two, three, or four months almost uninter-
ruptedly without experiencing any disease — with the occasional exception
of boils upon their legs or arms — and always apparently in good health
and spirits. For many hours each day they are exposed to all weathers,
wet to the skin with salt or rain water, mostly always with salt water,
and yet with few or no bad results ; on the contrary, it is said they
improve in health while so engaged, and if I may judge from my own
experience, I should certainly say, they do. For the most part these men
are tough and sinewy, possess great strength, and when they choose
evince much agility. There are few or no corpulent men amongst the
islanders.

When the tide is full, the men proceed again to the shore, and draw
the rope as far in as possible upon the beach, or if it is not a convenient
spot for landing, the boat is put in requisition, and the rope, with the
encircled wreck, is hauled into port. The boat is manned with four men
— one man at each oar, with one at the bow and one at the stern. The
end of the rope attached to the wreck is securely fastened to the stern of
the boat, and hauled along. If, however, the tide or current be
against them, different tactics are necessary. The boat shoots ahead
of the rope as far as its painter will allow, the man at the bow throws out
his anchor, and when securely fixed the whole body haul in the rope
towards the boat, the same operation is repeated until they reach their
destination or "port." This is usually, if possible, a gently sloping
beach, free from large stones and gravel, where easy access can be
had to the inland, and where there is ample freo room to dry and sort the
la for burning. The rope is now secured at the highest of tide, and
when tho tide recedes the wreck is left dry. During the next ebb tide
the weeds are carried higher up on the beach or upon the grass, and if
there bo sufficient time, spread out to dry in the sun's rays. The time
of the company is thus pretty much taken up with the various operations,
which aro conducted with considerable regularity and system. The
Weeds which have been cut during the Ipring tides, and which may
be nearly dried, aro fully dried and burned during the days of neap or
small tides. It is of the utmost importance for all their operations that

250 Mr. Glassford's History and D&cription <>/ the Kelp Manufacture.

they should have clear and dry weather, but more so especially for the
drying and burning operations. When the weeds get wet from rains, or
even have to remain moist from the want of sun heat, fermentation ensues.
The weeds then become quite soft and pulpy, run together in masses, and
finally disappear. If even dry weather should interrupt this waste, the
decomposing wreck is with difficulty saved, and the kelp prepared from it
is inferior.

The process of drying and burning this weed is identically the same as
that for the black and other sorts of wreck, and will be described after-
wards.

The proceeds of the operations of a company are for the benefit of that
company, each member participating alike in the labour and in the pro-
ceeds of their toil. The master of the company alone is remunerated
extra by the receipt of 10s. 6d. at the end of the season. The company
receives 27s. per ton of 22J cwt. for all they produce. This is all they
receive in money. There is an allowance of 1 stone (= 17J lbs.) of oat-
meal allowed to each man per week, and 1 to 2 oz. of tobacco per week ;
but these items, together with a few others in connection with this subject,
we will again return to.

The black wreck, or Fucus serratus, (from the saw-teeth-like leaves,)
is also a shore weed, and is cut with the hook. This plant does not swim
like the other, and requires therefore to be at once carried inland.
This is done with large boats capable of holding four or five tons of the
wet weeds, and each boat, according to its size, is manned with two or
three men. The boats must be strong for this purpose, and as tight as pos-
sible, and having good strong oars and a sufficient painter. It is always
kept ready for service, moored in deep water, and in a sheltered position.
When the tide is about half-ebb the boat is manned, and they proceed to
the rocks intended to be bared ; the boat is moored, and they begin to
cut the wreck from the rocks, throwing it into the boat when cut. The
boat is frequently supplied with a plank, on which the men walk when
loading and unloading, and the weeds, when lying at a distance from the
boat, are carried to it by means of a handbarrow. When the boat is full
it is rowed home to the shore, where the wreck is intended to be dried,
and landed at full tide with the handbarrow. The succeeding operations
with] this weed are identical with those for the yellow wreck. The
labour, however, of cutting and throwing the wreck into the boats, and
carrying it again to shore, involves a greater amount of time, or what
is the same thing, produces less kelp per man. This is adjusted, how-
ever, by the payment to the company of 35s. per ton of 22J cwt. for this
kelp ; and although the labour is more severe, it often happens that the
" boat companies," as they are termed, realize more remuneration for the
season than the "rope companies." The kelp produced from this plant
is richer in iodine and potash (generally speaking) than that from the
yellow wreck. This Fucus is much more a sea plant than the other, it
seldom or never being found high up on the shores. This kelp, although

Mk. GuuNBPOKD*! History ami Ik $erip&m of the Kelp Manufacture. 261

by mere tatpeetiea it cannot be distinguished from the yellow wreck kelp,
is yet superior in sunn: respects, and should command a higher price.

Process of drying and bmrnimg the Sea Weeds. — Tho drying and burn-
ing processes for both these kinds of sea wreck are, as I have said,
identical, ami I will briefly deserihe tin: operation. The plants are spread
lie sun, as (bin on the ground as their quantity and the
extent of surface will admit. This is usually done early in the morn-
ing, and as they get warmed by the sun, they are turned over and over
until mite dry. Two days of strong unclouded sunshine will dry the
weeds sufficiently for burning. They must not be too much dried, else
they bum too easily in the kiln, and by flaming carry off a portion of the
salts. The proper degree of drying requires skill and experience. To
prevent them from getting wet during the night by the heavy dews which
fall at this season, they are collected together into quoils or little heaps,
and again spread out in the morning. When sufficiently dried they are
collected into large heaps, and carried by the horse and car, or by the
handbarrow, to the point where the kiln is to be erected, and there burned.
When the weather is favourable, the whole of the wreck which has been
cut during the six or eight days of spring tides, is dried in two days in this
way, and is ready for burning. The building of the kilns is the next
operation, and is a very simple one. A convenient and level spot on the
green sward (if possible) is selected and measured out. The kiln may be
any size in length and breadth, but the size preferred is from 14 to 16
feet long, and 2 feet to 2 feet 3 inches broad. This parallelogramic patch
of earth is then surrounded with a wall of stones — collected in any way
and from any where, the shores usually supplying abundance of materials
— as perpendicular as possible on the inside, but sloping on the outside so
as to givo it strength. These walls may be 8 to 10 inches high. The
stones require to be carefully placed on each other, not ready to roll out
of their places, and not too large. It will be readily supposed that there
will be plenty of air spaces between the stones to supply the burning weeds
' with air; this is quite necessary, and their proper adjustment requires
some nicety and understanding in the architect.

It is essential that the ground on winch the kilns are built be level,
and also of great importance that the side of the kiln be presented to the
wind, i.e., at right angles to its direction, otherwise the burning proceeds
with tardiness, and the smoko may be the source of annoyance to the
burner. When the wreck is dry the burning commences, and the atten-
tion of the whole company is directed towards it. Two men are required
fof every kiln, one of whom constantly superintends the burning, the other
brings the wreck from the scattered clumps which are lying about, and
performs any other little duty which may bo required ; the attention of
both men, however, is pretty exclusively taken up with the proper
management of their kiln. The burning commences at four or five o'clock
in the morning, and may terminate with day light. In this way from 14
to 16 hours of unremitting attention is required from each man. The

252 Mn. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.

kiln is kindled with a layer of dry heath or straw, which when in full
blaze is slightly and carefully overlaid with the dry wreck, which speedily
takes fire and burns. As this is being consumed it is again covered with
fresh wreck, and thus the operation proceeds during the whole day.
The burner — from whom a considerable portion of nicety and tact is
required — spreads the wreck carefully over the burning mass with his
hand or with a pitchfork, leaving the ends of the wreck lying over the
walls of the kiln, which prevents the fresh weeds from crushing down the
burning mass beneath, and permits the air to enter easily through the
sides of the kiln. As the mass burns it is very apt to burst into flame.
This is to be carefully avoided by the burner, who knows that this
wastes and dissipates the kelp salts. It is also apt to fall into holes,
and present the appearance, on a small scale, of volcanic craters, this
is caused by the partial fusion of the ashes of the wreck, which runs
into a liquid mass, and must also be avoided if possible. This is
caused by too much air entering the sides of the kiln, to prevent which,
a number of firm grass sods are ranged along the side of the kiln, next the
wind. In this way the kiln is kept warm, the ash is not so apt to fuse
and run into kelp, nor to be cooled down by the access of too much air.
The burning of a kiln is divided into two periods, which are termed
floors, when the kiln has been in operation for six to eight hours, the
burner carefully levels the surface of the ashes, throws in the half consumed
wreck which may be lying along the sides and on the walls of the kiln,
and allows it to remain in this way for ten to fifteen minutes. In the
meantime, he has pulled down a portion of the kiln ends, or end walls,
and mustered the assistant burners from the other kilns, each of whom is
provided with a small iron cldt, or rake, (called a corag in the Gaelic,)
about two feet long, and having a wooden handle or shaft six feet long,
or thereby, fastened into its hose. The corag is similar to the common
hoe, but the mouth piece, or clat, is only about three inches square, and
is widest at the lower edge, for the purpose of drawing the ashes more
effectually together; they are made very strong and of good iron, as they
are quickly consumed by the hot kelp. The men (three or four) range
themselves closely together, at the one end of the kiln, they plunge their
corags into the porous ash and begin to knead and work it rapidly;
it quickly melts or runs together, and as it does so, more of the ash
is drawn into the fused magma and worked up with it, until the half
of the ash in the kiln is thus drawn together and kneaded into liquid
kelp ; it is then carefully spread over the bottom of the kiln, and the
men then proceed in a body to the other end of the kiln and perform the
same operation there. When this is done, they proceed to the other
kilns of the company and work them up in the same way. This is termed
the first floor, and it forms a cake of kelp of from three to six inches in
thickness, which floors the kiln, and forms the basis for the next floor ;
the burner proceeds with his operations as before, laying on fresh weeds
and tending them carefully again till the evening, when the second floor

Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. 253

M made, ind tin; labowi of the day are finished. The material of
the second floor generally becomes fhsed into the surface of the first, and
forms one undistinguishablc mass or cake. These cakes are of various
thirilrnoei aooording to the Bomber of floors, and to the rapidity or slow-
in— of tii B hunting. In ( 'nllonsay they seldom burn more than two floors
in the same kiln, but in the Uist Islands, and elsewhere, they frequently
havo four Ol i\< n six floors: I prefer the latter plan, as it ensures the
cleanliness of the kelp. It is obvious that much of the soil, earth and
•ton* which form the bed of the kiln, and which is generally unprotected,
gets unavoidably raked up by the corags into the fused kelp, and mixes
with it; this can only take place, however, with the first floor, the succeed-
ing floors resting on the top of which, must, unless vitiated by the
throwing in of sand, earth or stones, be quite pure and clean. I am sorry
to have to remark that these injurious and unjust practices are often — too
often — deliberately and regularly had recourse to; it is done by the
companies merely for the purpose of adding weight to the kelp aiel
increasing their returns, under the impression that as they are not
seen doing so, the fraud cannot be discovered. To the honour of the
men of Collonsay, I have to say, that although the fraud is well known,
and occasionally attempted by a few, this practice is held in detestation
amongst them, the men vieing with each other in producing clean and
good kelp. The operations of drying and burning being necessarily
performed out of doors, it will be evident that warm and dry weather
is ' essential ; indeed the success of the season entirely depends on
this, for when rain sets in at any of these periods, and continues for a
length of time, the wreck wastes and sometimes becomes totally useless,
and the kelp, which is already made, unless carefully secured and covered
from air and moisture, gets destroyed. None of the operations can go
on except the cutting and collecting, but even this is abandoned with the
prospect of wet weather, and the men are reluctantly obliged to retreat
homewards. It will be evident how materially a few wet days interrupt and
retard their operations, when we recollect that it is only during the days of
high spring tides that the weed is collected, and, that without weeds, none
ol the other processes can follow. A few wet days at any time of the
kelp season, materially affect the produce of kelp, and injures the pros-
of the kelpers, for little else can be done by them at this season, and
wet weather is too frequently accompanied in the Hebrides, with squally
winds and a swelling sea.

The materials of the structure of to-day's kilns, are taken for the
erection of succeeding kilns; they are generally too hot for the succeed-
ing day's operations. The kelp titer lying a day or two, and when able
handled, is broken up into lumps, piled up together, and covered,
first with a mass of fern leaves or straw, and finally, with a good layer of
light grass sods, which shields it from the rain, and protects it from the air :
it lies here until it is required for shipping. As it is of the greatest
importance to all parties concerned, that the kelp be carefully excluded

254 Mr. Glassforo's History and Description of the Kelp Mamuf&cturk.

from rain or moisture, I will say a few words here on this topic, believing
that the present oareless and injurious manner of keeping the kelp before
it is shipped, is entirely the result of their ignorance of its consequences.
The value of kelp at present, and for many years back, has almost entirely
depended upon its iodine, and the potash salts; the proportion of these
constituents determining its commercial value. From the potash salts, —
and more especially the muriate of potash (which is the most valuable
salt of potash) — and the iodide of sodium, being the most soluble of
all the constituents of kelp; it follows, that if we expose kelp to
moisture, in any way, that these salts will dissolve out, and will ultimately
leave the kelp an almost valueless mass. Kelp, which occasionally con-
tains caustic soda, and salts of magnesia, attracts moisture in any position,
and gets deteriorated from the loss of its valuable salts. In this way a
cargo of excellent kelp, which had lain in a damp store near the Broomielaw,
for upwards of a year, when lately brought out and exposed for sale, only
brought a few shillings per ton, to the great loss of the parties to whom
it belonged. To prevent this source of loss to the kelper, it is necessary
that it should be immediately removed, whilst still warm, to a dry shed,
safe from rain and damp, and there preserved until ready for shipping
The intelligent kelper, when he understands the nature of the source of
loss, will easily find out the means best adapted to prevent such, and
unhesitatingly adopt them.

Wages of the Kelpers. — I have already mentioned that the kelpers
receive at the rate of 27s. per ton for the "rope," or yellow wreck kelp,
and 35s. per ton for the " boat" or black wreck kelp, this is for the ton of
22-iV cwt. In addition to this, every man employed, especially if he is
a crofter — or is possessed of a house and portion of ground, for which he has
a rent to pay — is allowed £2 for the season, which sum is deducted from
his rent, or if he refuses to work at the kelp, he is forced to pay this sum to
the landlord. By this ingenious method, the remuneration is apparently
increased to a considerable sum, and the kelper is forced to pay this as a, fine,
if unwilling to contribute his labour. It is only the 27s. or 35s. per ton
which he actually receives, and on which he depends for the payment of his
food, the support of his family, and for the liquidation of his rent, &c. Each
kelper, during a good and dry season, will produce on an average 2 tons
to 2J tons of kelp, or at the rate of J a ton per spring tide. This shows
2J tons at 27s. = £3 7s. 6d., or about 8s. 6d. per week for each man of
a rope company: and 2 tons at 35s. = £3 10s., or about 9s. per week
per man for the boat companies. The landlord or proprietor, supplies each
kelper with meal, tobacco, and one or two other trifling things, which
amount to about 3s. to 3s. Gd. per week, this is deducted from the
above sums ; the remainder is for the support of the family at home.
Not so very poor nor unprofitable, when we take all the accompanying
considerations into thought, and reflect, that the time occupied by the
kelpers in kelp making, during the two or three hot summer months,
would, if not engaged in this, be spent in the most trifling manner.

Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. 255

In South Uist, WQsOB says, " the rate of wages is about £2 per ton, —
that the young and old, of both sexes, are engaged during two months of
summer, and that each family may clear upon an average £4." Each
individual ought to clear this as their wages, but then his living has to
be deducted from this sum.

Plants Supplying the Kelp. — The drift-weed, and drift-weed kelp next
reqiriftt OUT consideration. The drift-weed, as I have already explained,
II the deep sea weeds, which become detached from the rocks by the
violence of the swell, and by the rolling and striking of small pebbles
and stones against them; they are hurled from their rocky hold, and swept
by impetuous currents or eddies toward the shore. As billow follows
billow, the mass of wreck accumulates, and is borne upon their crests
towards the beach, where it frequently gets piled into gigantic ridges,
where the retiring tide leaves them. This happens usually during the
days of highest spring tide, when evidently the increased force of the
tidal current is the more immediate cause of this curious phenomenon.
A single flow tide generally completes the work of destruction, and leaves
the shores lined, at the highest water mark, with a ridge of wreck, six,
eight, and sometimes ten feet high. The beaches on which the wreck is
thrown, are mostly, what may be termed, inland, i.e., deeply indented in
the shore, gently sloping towards the sea, and unencumbered with rocks
at the entrance. The wreck is almost entirely confined to deep sea
weeds, chiefly the common tangle, or Laminar ia digitata, but with a
great variety of other plants of the same order, adhering to their leaves
and stems.

It would be impossible to do more here than allude to the family
of sea plants termed Algae. I have mentioned those chiefly em-
ployed in the kelp manufacture, because they are the most prominent
and largest; but there are a numerous and most beautiful class of
minute and various coloured plants, which, being parasitical to the larger
, are also employed in kelp making. Dr. Harvey in his beautiful
collection of marine plants, pictured in the Phycologia Britannica, has
figured nearly the whole of these, and added information upon the
habitudes, residences, and appearances of these beautiful plants. He
divides them into four classes, which he terms,

I. The Fuci, or olive coloured sea weeds, which are generally of large
size, and leathery texture: sometimes membranaceous and leafy,
and more rarely of a gelatinous or filamentous nature.
II. The Floridecv, or red coloured sea weeds ; cartilaginous and fleshy,
membranaceous or gelatinous sea weeds; often filamentous; of a
red, purple, brown red, or livid «rreeiiish-rcd* colour.

III. The Chlorosperms, or green sea weeds ; membranaceous or filamen-

tous : rarely somewhat horny plants, of a green colour, and simple
structure.

IV. The Corallines ; vegetables coated with I mistaceous epidermis,
Vol. II.— No. 4. 5

256 Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture.

composed of carbonate of lime, either red or green when fresh,
becoming white and brittle on exposure to the air. (These must
not bo confounded with the true Zoophytes, which often assume
the appearance of plants.)

The plants which furnish kelp belong to the two first groups, and
include Fucus nodosus, F. serratus, and F. vesiculosus ; Laminaria
digitata, and L. saccJiarina; Halidrys siliquosa ; Alaria esculeuta ;
Rhodomenia palmata, &c. &c.

The tangle or staffa, as it is termed in the Gaelic, is, from its size and
value, the most prominent, and is the especial object of attention. In
Ireland, where the kelpers confine their attention, in some places exclu-
sively, to the making of drift-weed kelp, it is entirely prepared from the
stems of the tangle, which are carefully separated from the wreck, carried
to their houses, and laid on the tops of dikes, &c, to dry. The more
leafy portions of the wreck are carried up and spread on the ground in
the winter months, for manure. On the Irish shores, it is said, that the
drift-weed comes in mostly during the end of April, and beginning of
May, when, it is believed by the people, that the plants are shedding
their leaves ; this they term the Scawee, a name indicative of great plenty,
in their language. It is at this period that all hands are congregated on
the shores for the kelp making. Horses and carts, or cars, donkeys with
creels slung on their backs, men, women and children, are busily engaged
collecting and saving the drift-wreck. Enormous quantities are in
this way thrown in, collected, and burnt into kelp, or taken for manure
by the small farmers on the shores of Ireland. The method of burning
there, is somewhat differently practised. A large, and nearly square,
hole of eighteen inches deep, being dug in a convenient place, and the
wreck there burned. It is similarly managed for the coraging or fusion,
but is always in larger masses than our Highland kelp, it is generally
sophisticated with sand, gravel, and stones, to a large extent, and its
value much deteriorated ; occasionally this is so deliberately done, that
one workman is constantly adding those foreign materials, while the
others are raking them into the fused mass, so as to mix the whole
well and intimately together. In this way the kelp gets as much
as it will stand, as they term it, and as such goes into market. The
Irish drift -weed kelp, when carefully and honestly prepared, as it
sometimes is on the Irish shores, is a very valuable article, and
so very rich in iodine, that during the high price of that article in
1845, the kelp, in some cases, brought £10 per ton. Drift-weed kelp
can be readily distinguished from the Cut-weed kelp, by its appearance.
The former contains masses of the charred portions of the stems of the
tangle through its broken surface, while the latter is full of the
charred cells and vesicles of the Fucus vesiculosus, and nodosus. In this
way, by a careful inspection of broken masses of kelp, the weeds from
which it is made are easily discerned, and its value may be readily

Mr. Glassfokd's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture. 257

decided upon. In ordinary years the Irish kelp is almost exclusively
made from drift-weed, but during the year 1845, when the demand for
kelp was so much increased, and its value rose, a considerable quantity
was made from cut-weed, and a large per centage of foreign matters added,
which reduced its value and materially hurt the trade. Indeed, several
of our Glasgow manufacturers, who bought Irish kelp upon the simple
assurance that it was pure drift-weed, and without properly inspecting
the article, or probably, from a want of knowledge in the discrimination
of the good and the bad, suffered very severe losses. Honesty in this, as
in other things, is the best policy, and let our Irish and Highland friends
look to this, the honest manufacturer will almost be the first and the last
patronized, and must inevitably, in the long run, make the best of it.

In the Highlands of Scotland comparatively little kelp is ever made
from the drift -weed. Last year, however, I have been told, by a Glasgow
kelp worker, a considerable quantity of drift-weed kelp was manufactured
in the islands of Uist, where it is occasionally made, and with great care,
if we may judge from the large quantity of iodine (upwards of 12 lb. per
ton) which it yielded. The drift-weed which is thrown in on the beaches
during the winter months, is either taken for manuring their fields, or is
suffered to lie on the beach and either rot, or get washed away : they have,
as yet, little idea of the causes of the difference in the value of their kelp
and the Irish kelp. When they have acquired this knowledge, I have no
doubt they will pay some little attention to this point, exert themselves
to the utmost, and improve the brand and the price of their article. All
parties concerned in its production would be better satisfied, and a
higher remuneration would be the result.

The kelper would, in this way, profitably occupy time, which is usually
spent and squandered in the most trifling manner, he would increase
his own and the comforts of his wife and family, and would at least be
helping to move the fulcrum, which would elevate him as a man and as
I reasonable and thinking being; a fulcrum which, in too many cases, is
Left entirely to the care and supervision of their lairds and landlords, and
is necessarily, but too partially done. It is an old saying — a true
one, and applies here, that " when you wish to be well served, serve your-
self." How better can a man serve himself than by applying himself
assiduously to some task.

Suggestions for Practical Improvements. — As I consider this part of
the subject of great importance to our Highland friends, and as it is one
which I have considered carefully, and urged much on the spot, I may be
permit ted to add yet a few words of direction and advice, on what I con-
to be, the best manner of Conducting the operations for making the
drift-weed kelp, and of availing themselves of what is thrown in during
the winter months. My observations, although they have been made on
the Colonsav shores, will, I have no doubt, be applicable to any portion
of our Highland mast.

As the periods when the drift-weed is thrown in upon our island shores

258 Mr. Glassford's History and Description of the Kelp Manufacture,

occurs most usually during the winter and spring months, it so happens,
thai during these months little or no employment is followed by the male
population. The fanning operations, which can only be carried on within
doors, <an easily be managed by the servants, or persons more immediately
connected with the farms, so that a considerable population are almost
entirely idle for months. It is the latter class of persons who could be
profitably employed in collecting the drift-weed, and preparing the kelp,
but to this class of men inducement must be held out by the proprietor ;
they will require to be shown that it is decidedly their interest to engage
in the operations, and every facility must bo held out for their successful
prosecution of the work. That it is their interest, must be obvious to all
who believe that labour rightly directed, is more profitable than idleness,
but that this is not apparent to them, is obvious from their condition ;
the result of incessant and unmitigated bondage, of a regular system of
grasping and grinding servitude. To convince them satisfactorily that it
is for their interest, we must proceed upon direct and simple methods.
I would suggest, that the whole proceeds or profits, remaining after
payment of unavoidable expenses, (which indeed are trifling,) be paid
over to the kelper, in money, without censorship and without control.
With these proceeds he will be enabled to pay the debts he has contracted
during the winter months, with, perhaps, something towards payment of
his rent and a few other necessaries, and thus to improve the condition
of himself and family. By this means he would become a more respon-
sible individual, ascertain his own weight and individuality, and would,
with a little assistance, be permanently raised in his own estimation,
and in that of those around him. He would, I believe, no longer willingly
and unresistingly become a burden upon the landlord, nor hang about
listless and idle, in the vain endeavour of passing the day in ease and
comfort. When he finds his labour productive to himself, and not merely
to his landlord, he would shake off his apathy and become a man, action
would be substituted for inaction, and new and better fields for industry
and enterprise would be opened up. The prospect of adequate reward
would induce him, not only to enter, but to proceed, and succeed. The
obverse policy has been long tried, and the results have been and are,
aught but satisfactory ; why not try the ameliorating process, and substi-
tute the mere aggrandizement and affluence of the few, by the bettering
of the many? it will be found, I believe, that all would be improved.

I have already remarked, that it is only at certain beaches along the
rugged shores, that the wreck is drifted up. At these points, and as
convenient to the shore as possible, I would suggest the erection, by the
landlord, of wooden sheds, of say 50 to 100 feet long, 20 feet wide, and
with side walls, 10 feet or more high, with good and tight roofs, to prevent
access of rain, and these to overlie somewhat the side walls. The side
walls might be of wood, but better if of tarpauling, so as to be readily
removable, and allow access upon all sides. The floor of this shed or
house, to be kept dry and free from wet, by means of a drain or gutter,

Mi:. GtLABSFOBD'fl HitiOiy cm ■ on of ike Ejdp Manufacture. 259

running round, to carry off the surface and roof water. In this shod the

long stalks of tin- Lc mi naria digitate are to be stored. They can be

easily ooUeoted from the mass of drift -wreck, carried up in suitable

by BOMOfL to the slmd, ami there carefully placed in

and tier-, OVOiOng :ind overlying each other, 80 as to permit

access of the air from nil sides, these tiers may be raised to the
and, if carefully placed, would get quickly dry or winnowed, and

ttome ready for burning. Fermentation could not possibly occur,
and loss from rains would be entirely prevented; and when dry enough
tor hurniiiLT, they could bo removed and converted into ashes, fresh room
being made, in this way, for further quantities of tangle as thrown up.
A lew men, with activity and care, could, in this manner, collect the
materials for many tons of kelp, and that of the most valuable kind ;
dming the winter months, the operations would be conducted at a very
small expense of manual labour, and that, during the most inclement
seasons. The apparatus required is trifling, compared with that neces-
sary for the prosecution " of the cut-weed kelp, and an expensive
armament of boats, ropes, oars, anchors, hooks, &c, &c, entirely dis-
pensed with. The ashes could either be fused into kelp, or sent off as
loose ash, the former method is the most preferable for transportation to
a distance. The latter condition would be the most suitable, if the
kelpcr designed to follow the sensible and practical advice of Mr.
Donald M'Cruumien, as recommended in his article on the kelp manufac-
ture in the " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland," for October, 1847. The valuable constituents could thus be
easily extracted and concentrated, with little or no expense for other fuel,
as the burning of the dry weeds would supply the greater portion of the
heat required. The operations being conducted simultaneously, much
labour would thus be saved, and a much more valuable and remunerative
article produced. If to these advantages we add the consideration, that
the insoluble constituents of the kelp remain to them, and might be used
as au excellent manure, the total improvement capable of being effected
in this manmr deserves the attentive consideration of the Highland pro-
prietors. Although the usual description of kiln would answer for the
production of the kelp from tangles or other drift ware, I would suggest
the following modification: — Let it be constructed of fire brick laid
together without mortar, for ease in the construction, of 2 to 3 feet deep,
and 1 feet square, the walls being of 9 inch or brick-length in thickness,
and with the air spaces in the third or fourth course from the bottom.
In such a furnace the stalks would bo consumed with much gr>
rapidity, from the increased draught produced by the height of the walls,
and the heat issuing from the top might also, if not employed as has
been already suggested, be taken advantage of to dry the tangles, by
placing stout bars of iron across its mouth on which they could bo pi
The heat OOuld be easily regulated by the air-holes below. Su.li ■ kiln
would have the advantage of cheapness, of easy construction, [and of b

260 Dr. Thomson on Sanatory Report.

readily removed to wherever it might be wanted, and also of performing
this kind of work more advantageously than the ordinary kilns. If the
furnace were built on a plate of iron, the kelp made in this manne?
and from these materials would bring the very highest market price, higher
than any at present obtained, and would undoubtedly command the atten-
tion of chemical manufacturers to the exclusion of an inferior article.
The salt which would be obtained by the lixiviation and concentration of
such ashes would be worth from £10 to £12 per ton to the chemist, even
at the present very low price of iodine.

I can only refer briefly to my concluding topic, not that I con-
sider it by any means of minor importance, but simply because I have
already occupied too much of your space. I allude to the application of
kelp, or of kelp waste to agricultural purposes. Much has been already
said and done on this subject, but I believe there is much still unsaid. In
the Highlands the wreck is plentifully taken from the shores and spread
on the grounds as a manure, where, indeed, it constitutes their main
ground of hope for the success of their crops. The utility of this practice
is known and acknowledged on all hands, and we cannot but suppose that
the like application of kelp would be attended in many cases with success.
I would press this upon the attention of farmers and agriculturists in all
parts, but chiefly in inland districts, where, by a careful application of
kelp for green crops, a native manufacture would be fostered, the condition
of a large class of our countrymen bettered, and expensive quack manures
to a great extent become extinct. The kelp for this purpose would require
to be ground, and in this state, and before application to the soil, if it were
mixed with 5 to 6 per cent, of a salt of ammonia, it would equal, nay sur-
pass any guano in productiveness, and certainly supersede it in every way.

I have refrained in the present paper from entering upon the chemical
composition of kelp, as it is my intention to lay a few details before you
on that subject in a subsequent paper, when, I shall take the opportunity
of adding what I may at present have neglected, and which would have
made this communication, it may be, of an unreasonable length.

29th March, 1848. — The President in the Chair.

Messrs. William Kerr and David Burgess, were admitted members.

Dr. R. D. Thomson read his " contributions to a sanatory report on
Glasgow." In this communication, the division of infectious diseases,
into two classes, was alluded to. One of these classes is produced by
emanations from the earth, or by particular conditions of the atmosphere,
and is not contagious or communicable from one individual to another,
It is typified by ague and Asiatic cholera. The second class is produced
by a poison generated in the human system, and is communicated by the
contact with the blood by a poison. The types of this class are small

Ana I 'itwood Mineral Water. l'i 1 1

pox, iim a 1 According to the views contained in this paper, all

personi are not eqtially Liable to be affected by khece diseases. The
dise&sefl arc all prodmcd by a poison, or seed, but the seed will not take
root onlcM it falls on a congenial soil, that is, a diseased state of the
blood, generated by a defective, or impure <liet. Scurvy and typhus
fever arc atwompanied by gymptoma which indicate a defect in the blood,
and, therefore, an error in the equilibrium of the food. Scurvy on
board ship ifl cored by lime juice, because in salt meat the soluble salts
of the beef bavc been removed in the brine; and lime juice, the author
found to contain the soluble salts which have been removed. Turnips,
potatoes, and succulent vegetables, cure scurvy, because, from the
quantity of water which they contain, they are less easily deteriorated by
the variations in the climate, than the dry corn plants. The importance
of pore air was insisted on in all conditions of society ; but a more exten-
sive view, it is obvious, must bo taken of the cause of disease. The
baneful influence of fermented fluids in undermining the constitution, and
their tendency to supply congenial soil for poisonous miasmata, were
referred to. The importance of pure water, and the circumstance, that
the fluids in the common sewers and from churchyards, filter into the
wells of large towns, were also alluded to — the constituents of the Glas-
gow wells being given.

The following contribution was communicated by Dr. R. D. Thomson : —

XXXIX. — Analysis of a Mineral Water from Titwood, near Pollockshaws.
By Mb. Edwabd T. Wood and Mb. Thomas Coutts.

This water was discharged from a bore now making near the Titwood
coal works, on the property of Sir John Maxwell, Bart., three miles south
of Glasgow. The water was come upon when at the depth of 780 feet
under the surface.

Specific gravity, 1008-8. Weight of an imperial gallon, 70,616 grains.
Constituents in the imperial gallon — result of several analyses.

Titwood Water. Airthrey Water, 1842.

Carbonate of Lime, 9*462

Sulphate of Lime, 1*341 16*062

Chloride of Calcium, 130*286 300*883

> Magnesium, 84*739 9*234

i Sodium, 543*743 363*825

Peroxide of Iron, trace

709*571 690-004

An analysis of Airthrey water, made by Dr. It. D. Thomson, is annexed
for the sake of comparison.

M Mr." Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

12th April, 1848. — The President in the Chair.

Professor William Thomson read a paper on an absolute thermometric
scale, founded on Carnot's theory of the motive power of heat, and
calculated from the results of Regnault's experiments on the pressure
and latent heat of steam.

The following paper was communicated by Dr. It. D. Thomson : —

XL. — On the Composition of the Products of the Soda Manufacture.
By Mr. John Brown.

In the year 1736, Du Hamel proved the base of common salt to be
soda. Previous to this, however, Cohausen had mentioned that salt
might possibly be decomposed by means of lime ; but as this observation
was associated with numerous errors, it was entirely overlooked. In
1737 Du Hamel succeeded in obtaining the alkali from sulphate of
soda, by fusing with charcoal, and digesting the fused mass in acetic acid,
evaporating the acetate of soda thus formed to dryness, and calcining the
residue.

Margraff endeavoured to decompose sulphate of soda by limestone,
but without success. In 1768, Hagen showed that salt might be
decomposed by means of potash; chloride of potassium and caustic soda
being formed.

Bergmann succeeded in decomposing salt by caustic barytes.

In 1775, it was shown by Scheele that salt was partially decomposed
by oxide of lead.

In 1782, Guyton and Carny decomposed salt by fusion with felspar.

Glauber was the first to show that salt could be decomposed by sul-
phuric acid, in 1658.

In 1781, Constantini succeeded in decomposing salt by means of alum*

The sulphates of lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, &c. decompose salt,
as also iron pyrites.

To convert the sulphate of soda into caustic or carbonated alkali, was,
however, the process of greatest importance. The first step, viz., the
conversion of sulphate of soda into sulphuret of sodium, was known to
Glauber, Stahl, Du Hamel, Margraff, and others. The difiiculty was to
get rid of the sulphur. Du Hamel effected this by means of acetic acid.
But in the year 1784, the present process was discovered by Le Blanc
and Dize ; and in the beginning of 1791 it was patented by Le Blanc.f
He used carbonate of lime to convert the sulphuret of sodium into car-
bonate of soda.

The proportions used by him were —

* Journal des Mines, Tom. I., No. III., p. 37—69.
t Journal des Mines, Tom I., No. VI., p. 6&.

Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture. M

2 parts dry sulphate of soda.

3 — carbonate of lime.
1 — ground charcoal.

These were intimately mixed, and introduced into a reverberatory furnace,
whore a strong heat was applied. After this had been continued for
about mi hour, the fused muss wis raked out of the furnace and allowed
to solidify. When this cooled, it was broken up and exposed to the action
of moist air, which caused it to crumble down. In this way the caustic
soda was converted into carbonate of soda, the carbonic acid being derived
from the atmosphere. After being ground, it was ready for use.

The soda process, as at present carried on, will be best considered under
the four following heads : —

I. The production of sulphate of soda from salt and sulphuric acid.

II. The conversion of sulphate of soda into crude carbonate of soda, or
British barilla.

III. The soda ash process.

IV. The carbonate of soda process.

The first stage which thus comes under our consideration is —

L The Decomposition of common Salt by Sulphuric Acid, causing the
formation of Sulphate of Soda and Muriatic Acid

The salt used in this process is obtained from the brine springs of
Cheshire which exist abundantly in the new red sandstone of that county.
The solution is evaporated till it reaches a certain strength, when all the
salt precipitates. It is then raked out into wicker baskets and allowed
to drain. The mother liquor is used for the manufacture of the salts of
magnesia. The salt thus obtained, contains, as might be expected,
numerous impurities, the principal of which are lime, sulphuric acid, and
magnesia.

To estimate the lime, a portion of the salt was dissolved in water, and
alter separating the insoluble matter by filtration, the lime was precipitated
by ammonia and oxalic acid, a largo quantity of muriate of ammonia
being added to retain the magnesia in solution.

CaO
Ca O CO a Ca O per 1000 grs.

2000 grains of salt gave,. ..15-10 8*456 4-228

2000 — — .. .14-00 8-176 4-088

Average, 4158

The sulphuric acid was precipitated by the addition of nitric acid and
nitrate of barytes: —

SO,
Ba O S0 3 S0 3 per 1000 grs.

•^<hi0 grains of salt gave,... 39-85 13738 6'869

■iOOO — — ... 39-50 13-620 6-810

Average, 6*839

2G4 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

The quantity of magnesia was ascertained by precipitation by ammonia
and phosphate of soda, the lime having been previously separated : —

2 Mg O P O a Mg O Mg per 1000 grs.

2000 grains of salt gave, ... 465 1*660 830

The carbonate of lime remained as insoluble matter when the salt was

digested in water, and was separated by filtration: —

Ca O C0 2
Ca O C0 2 per 1000 grs.

2000 grains of salt gave, 3000 1*50

By estimating the amount lost by drying the salt at 212°, the quantity

of water was ascertained : —

Water, per 1000 grs.

330-2 grains of salt lost, 1796 54-373

In order to estimate the quantity of iodide of potassium and bromide
of magnesium, 1 J lbs. of salt were put into a funnel, the lower end of
which was closed with filtering paper. The salt was then repeatedly
washed with boiling water. The iodide and bromide were thus taken
up by the water along with a large quantity of common salt. This
solution was evaporated to dryness, and the residue digested in alcohol,
which dissolved the iodide and bromide, along with a little of the salt,
leaving, however, the greater part of it, which was afterwards separated
by filtration. The filtered solution was again evaporated to dryness,
and the residue digested in water. Chloride of palladium was then added,
but no precipitation of iodide of palladium took place. The palladium
was precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen; and the sulphuret of palladium
thus formed separated by filtration. Upon testing the filtered solution
with ammonia and nitrate of silver, no precipitate was obtained. Had
bromine been present, it would have been precipitated in combination
with the silver, bromide of silver being insoluble in caustic ammonia. It
is therefore evident, that the common salt, manufactured as previously
mentioned, does not contain iodine or bromine; although it is highly
probable that these bodies are present in small quantity in rock salt, and
we might therefore be able to detect them in the brine from which the
magnesia salts are manufactured.

Upon treating the salt with bichloride of platinum, a slight precipitate
of potash bichloride of platinum was obtained : —

Sulphuric
Magnesia. Lime. Acid.

Chloride of sodium, 931*615 — — —

Chloride of potassium, trace, — — —

Chloride of magnesium, 1*066 0*381 — —

Sulphate of lime, 10098 — 4*158 5940

Sulphate of magnesia, 1*348 0*449 — 0*899

Carbonate of lime, 1*500 — — —

Water, 54*373 — — —

1000000 0*830 4*158 6*839

Mr. Brown on th> ProdmU of the Soda Manvf

80*

About cut, of this salt if iokodnoeci into the iron p<.t, A; and
upon this is run, by the pipe, 15, about 5i cwt. of sulphuric acid, of
about 1-750 specific gra-
vity, (150° Twaddell). A
violent action immediately
plaoe, and large
(quantities of muriatic acid
gas are evolved, which pass
off by the chimney, D. If,
however, the muriatic acid
can bo made use of, the
gas is absorbed either by
passing it through water contained in large cylindrical vessels, or through
a n»lnnin of coke, which retains the gas until a considerable quantity of
it is collected ; a stream of water is then allowed to trickle through the
coke, and in this manner all the gas is absorbed. At the expiration of
about two hours, the evolution of gas ceases, and the sulphate, which is
in a semifluid state, is removed to C, where it is strongly heated, in
order to drive off the whole of the acid. The whole operation takes about
four hours.

The foreign matters contained in the sulphate of soda thus obtained
are, sand, iron peroxide, magnesia, and undecomposed salt.

To estimate the sand. This remained as insoluble matter when the
sulphate was digested in water containing muriatic acid, and was separ-
ated by filtration : —

1000 grains of sulphate of soda gave, 2'82 grains of sand.
_ _ 3.38 —

1000

Average, 3*10 —

From the solution filtered from the sand, the peroxide of iron was pre-
cipitated by ammonia ; muriate of ammonia having been previously added,
to retain the magnesia in solution : —

1000 grains of sulphate of soda gave 2-15 grains peroxide of iron.

1000 — — 2-45 —

Average, 2*30 —

After separating the sand and peroxide of iron as mentioned above, the
lime was precipitated by oxalic acid and caustic ammonia : —

Ca O CO, Ca O S0 3

1000 grains of sulphate of soda gave, 7-100 9*656

1000 — — 7-367 10019

1000 — — 7000 9-520

Average, 9731

The solution thus freed from lime, \c. was treated with ammonia and

26G Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

phosphate of soda. The magnesia was thus separated as ammonia phos-
phate : —

2MgOP0 5 MgOS0 3
1000 grains of sulphate of soda gave, 270 2-893

The quantity of chloride of sodium was ascertained by precipitating the

chlorine by nitrate of silver and nitric acid: —

NaCl,
Ag CI. per 1000 grs.

200 grains of sulphate of soda gave, 4*30 8-995

1000 — — 29-70 12-373

500 ��� 13-80 11-500

Average, 10956

The sulphate of soda always contains a small quantity of free acid,

the amount of which was ascertained by determining the weight lost by

heating to redness : —

per 1000 grs.
Free Acid,

200 grains of sulphate of soda lost, T70 8*50

200 — — 1*84 9-20

Average, 8*85

Sulphate of soda, 962-170

Sulphate of lime, 9*731

Sulphate of magnesia, 2893

Chloride of sodium, 10-956

Iron peroxide, 2*300

Sand, 3-100

Free acid, 8850

1000-000
This brings us to the consideration of the second part of the process,
namely, —

II. The conversion of Sidpliate of Soda into Crude Carbonate of Soda,
or British Barilla.

This is effected by the combined action of coal and carbonate of lime.
The following Table shows the quantities commonly used : —

Theoretical
Cwt. Qrs. Per cent. quantity.

Sulphate of soda, 2 2 100 lbs 100 lbs.

Ground limestone, .... 2 2J 102-9 i 1053..

Coal dross, 1 3 61'7 ■ 33-6 *

These, after being intimately mixed, are introduced into a reverberatory
furnace, and strongly heated. The mass soon becomes soft, when care
must be taken to stir it frequently, in order to expose a fresh surface to
the heat. When it becomes of the consistence of dough, the chemical
action commences, and jets of inflamed carbonic oxide begin to issue from

Mi;. Soda Manuf cut

it. The evolution of gas soon becomes very rapid, bo much so, that the
whole mass sppeart to 1)0 in a state of ebullition. When this cease-,
operation is completed, ami the fused mass is raked out of the furnace and
allowed to solidify. The cake thus obtained is the crude carbonate of soda.
Tins process consists of two sub-processes, which might be conducted in
separate furnaces; 1. The coal is consumed at the expense of the oxygen
of the sulphate ol soda, causing the formation of carbonic oxide and sul-
phuret of sodium.

Na S0 3 + 4 C = Na S + 4 CO

2. The sulphuret of sodium thus formed is decomposed by the car-
bonate of lime, with the formation of sulphuret of calcium and carbonate
of sodn.

Na S + Ca C0 2 = Na C0 2 + Ca S

But if this compound was digested in water, a reverse action would
immediately take place ; sulphuret of sodium and carbonate of lime being
again formed. To obviate this difficulty, a large excess of lime is used
in the process, nearly twice as much as would otherwise be absolutely
necessary. This excess of lime causes the formation of a compound
insoluble in water, the composition of which is 3 Ca S -f- Ca 0. This sub-
stance has no effect upon a solution of carbonate or caustic soda.

Analysis of Soda Ball, or Crude Carbonate of Soda.

An average sample was obtained by pounding a large quantity of the
soda ball, and from this the specimens analysed were taken.

1. To estimate the amount of soluble and insoluble salts.

A portion of the substance was thrown on a weighed filter and washed
with water at about 120" F., until a portion of the filtered liquor left no
residue on evaporation. ' The filter and insoluble matter were then dried
in a water bath and weighed : —

Soda Ball. Insol. Matter. Sol. Matter.

100 gave, 59-87 4013

100 — 58-92 41-08

100 — 59-90 40-10

Average, 5956 40'43

2. Sulphate of soda.

After saturating the soda ball with pure muriatic acid, and separating
the insoluble matter by filtration, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by
chloride of barium : —

Sodar.all. BaOS0 3 BaOS0 3 p.c. Na 0S0 3 p.c.

•Jl.ViOgave, 850 3-466 2-147

11000 — 130 1181 0-733

78-30 — 0-70 D-960 0-001

Average, 1-872 1-160

2G8 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufar/

3. Chloride of sodium.

The soda ball was digested with nitric acid and filtered, and from the
filtered solution the chlorine was precipitated by nitrate of silver : —

Sodar>all. AgCl. CI. NaCl. Na CI p.c.

98 gave, 5*400 1*350 2-250 2-295

100 — 3-679 0912 1532 1532

Average, 11.39

4. Soda.

The total quantity of available soda, that is, soda existing as carbonate,
sulphuret, and hydrate, was determined in the following manner: — A por-
tion of the soda ball was thrown on a filter and washed with warm water,
until all the soluble matter was taken up ; the filtered solution was then
exactly neutralised by dilute sulphuric acid, which was afterwards precipi-
tated by chloride of barium. From the quantity of sulphate of bary tes thus
obtained, the amount formerly got from the sulphate of soda was deducted,
and from the remainder the per centage of alkali was calculated : —

Soda Ball. BaOS0 3 BaOS0 3 BaOS0 3 p.c. Soda p.c.

44-60 gave, 4060 91-031 — 1-872 = 89-159 24593

100 — 88-96 88-960 — 1-872 = 87*088 24-024

48-50 — 42-76 88-164 — 1-872 = 86-292 23-800

Average, 24-138

5. Sulphur.

The amount of sulphur was determined in two different ways : — 1st, The
soda ball, after being very carefully pulverised, was intimately mixed with
about four times its weight of nitrate of potash, and heated in a covered
platinum crucible. The nitrate of potash was thus decomposed, and the
sulphur converted into sulphuric acid by the oxygen of the nitric acid : —

KO NOA + S = S0 3 + KO + N0 2

The fused mass was dissolved by muriatic acid, and after filtering the
solution, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by chloride of barium.
2d, The soda ball, moistened with a small quantity of water, was inti-
mately mixed with a quantity of finely pulverised chlorate of potash, and
to this muriatic acid was added, drop by drop, until, upon a fresh addition
of acid, no more gas was evolved. The flask containing the substance
was then gently heated by means of a water bath, care being taken to
keep the temperature below 180° F., as chlorous acid explodes with
great violence at about 200° F. When all action had ceased, the solution
was filtered, and the sulphuric acid precipitated by chloride of barium.
From the weight of the sulphate of barytes thus obtained, the former
quantity, 1*872, was deducted, and from the number thus found, the
amount of sulphur was calculated : —

Mr. Brown on the Produ<t> <,f t/„- Soda Manufacture. y/.i

Sulphur,
Soda Bull. BaOS0 3 BaOS0 3 p.c. c.p.

By ist (19-34 gave, 1790 92*554 — 1-872 = 90-682 12-507

Method, J1953 _ 1820 93*189 — 1-872 = 91-317 12-595

By 2d (28-90 — 27 00 93-425 — 1-872 = 91-553 12627

Method 120-eO — 27^0 91-891 — 1-872 = 90019 12-416

Average 12*536

6. Magnesia.

This was precipitated by ammonia and phosphate of soda : —
Ball Soda. 2 MgOP0 5 MgO p.c.

100 gave, 0980 0-350

7. Silica and sand.

The soda ball was dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution evapo-
rated to dryness. The residue was then digested with strong muriatic
acid, and the insoluble matter separated by filtration : —

Ball Soda. Silica and Sand. Silica and Sand, p.c.

56-00 gave, 430 7'679

The silica was separated from the sand by strong caustic potash : —

Ball Soda. Sand. Sand, p.c. Silica, p.c.

5600 gave, 2-40 4*285 3*394

8. Iron and alumina.

A portion of the soda ball was dissolved in muriatic acid, and after
separating the insoluble matter, the iron and alumina were precipitated
by caustic ammonia : —

Ball Soda. A10<fcFe 2 3 A10&Fe 2 3 p.c.

61*20 gave, 3*45 5637

19-53 — 1*15 5888

2910 — 145 4982

Average, 5*502

The peroxide of iron was separated from the alumina by caustic
potash : —

Ball Soda. Fe 2 3 Fe a 3 p.c. Fe p.c. AlO p.c.

61*20 gave, 294 4*804 3*363 0833

29*10 — 1*20 4*123 2886 0-859

Average, 3-129 0-846

9. Lime.

From the solution filtered from the alumina and iron, the lime was
precipitated by oxalate of ammonia : —

Ball Soda. I CO a CftO CaO p.c.

61*20 gave, 3300 18*480 30194

29*10 — 15*50 8*680 29-828

21*80 — 1205 6*748 30-954

Average, 30-325

270 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

10. Carbonic add.

By the addition of muriatic acid to the ball soda, sulphuretted hydro-
gen and carbonic acid gases were evolved, which were passed through a
strong solution of caustic barytes. The precipitated carbonate of barytes
was filtered as rapidly as possible, care being taken to keep it covered
with a plate of glass during the process : —

Ball Soda. BaO C0 3 C0 2 C0 2 p.c.

45-35 gave, 28*90 6-487 14304

90-18 — 59-20 13289 14-736

Average, 14-520

11. Carbon.

To determine the amount of carbon, a portion of the ball was heated
with muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness. Dilute acid
was then added, and the insoluble matter thrown on a filter, which had
been previously dried at 212°, and weighed. The total amount of carbon,
silica, and sand, was thus ascertained. The whole was then ignited and
weighed, and from the loss the per centage of carbon was calculated: —

Ball Soda. Insol. Matter. Carbon, p.c.

100 gave, 15*941 which lost, on ignition, 7-998

12. Water.

The soda ball was dried at 212°, and the amount lost estimated: —
Ball Soda. Water. Water, p.c.
50-00 lost, 0-35 0-700

Whilst washing out the soluble salts, it was observed that the filtered
solution was of a greenish colour, and upon boiling it a green coloured
substance was deposited, after which the supernatant liquor became
perfectly colourless. Upon examining this precipitate, it was found to
consist principally of silica and alumina, with a little lime. From this
it was concluded to be artificial ultramarine, which i3 frequently found
in the crevices of the ball furnaces, and which, when dissolved in caustic
soda, yields a green coloured solution, precisely the same as that men-
tioned above : —

Ball Soda.

200 gave, ,

Ultramarine.
... 0-46

Ultramarine, p.c.

: 0-23

100 —

... 0-36

0-36

Sulphate of soda,
Chloride of sodiui

Average,

0-295

.... 1-160

.... 1-913

Soda,

.... 24-138

Lime,

.... 30-325

Sulphur,

... 12-536

Carbonic acid, .
Sand,

.... 14-520

.... 4-285

Mr. Brown on the Products of the Smta Manufacture. -~il

Silica, 3-394

Magnesia, 0*350

Alumina, 0*846

Iron, 3*129

Water, 0*700

Carbon, 7*998

ritr.ti.iarine, 0*295

Carbonic
Soda. Lime. Acid. Sulphur.

Carbonate of soda, 35*640. ..21*120... — ...14*520...

Caustic soda, 0*609... 0609... — ... —

Aluminate of soda, 2*350... 1*504... — ... —

Sulphate of soda, 1*160... — ... — ... —

Sulphuret of sodium 1*130... 0905... — ... — ... 0*454

Chloride of sodium, 1*913... — ... — ... —

Ultramarine, 0*295... — ... — ... —

3CaS+CaO, 29*172... — ...24*024... — ...10296

Caustic lime, 6*301... — ... 6*301... —

Sand, 4*285... — ... — ... —

Sulphuret of iron, 4*917... — ... — ... — ... 1*786

Silicate of magnesia, 3*744... — ... — ... —

Carbon, 7*998... — ... — ... —

Water (hygroscopic,) 0*700... — ... — ... —

100*214 24*138 30*325 14*520 12-536

It will be seen that, in the above analysis, I consider almost all the
soda to be united with carbonic acid, there being very little caustic soda.
Unger and others who have examined the soda balls, fall into the error of
supposing a large quantity of the alkali to exist as hydrate, and also of
always finding carbonate of lime. But if a portion of the ball soda be
digested in alcohol, and the alcoholic liquor carefully examined, it will
be found that it holds in solution a very small quantity of alkali, which
I consider to be as sulphuret. If, on the contrary, the soda balls con-
tained caustic soda, it would be immediately dissolved by the alcohol,
and we would obtain a strongly alkaline solution. This however is not
the case. But if the ball soda be digested in water, the liquid will be
found to contain a large quantity of caustic soda, which, however, can easily
be accounted for in the following way: — There exists in the ball soda a
large amount of caustic lime, and whenever water is added to it, a
decomposition takes place, — carbonate of soda and caustic lime becoming
carbonate of lime and caustic soda, —

NaO C0 2 + CaO = CaO CO, + NaO.

Some analysts have also found water of combination in ball soda ; that
is, water united to soda or lime. But this is impossible : for where does
the water come from ? The materials contain none. A small quantity

Vol. II— No. 4. 6

272 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

of water is certainly formed in the combustion of coal, but this is not
sufficient to account for it. The method of analysis pursued in the
determination of the amount of water combined with soda or lime was,
I think, very incorrect. It was to burn the ball soda with chromate
of lead, and determine the weight of the water given off. Had any
un decomposed coal existed in the waste, it would have contained hydro-
gen, and water would consequently have been formed, the oxygen being
derived from the chromic acid of the chromate of lead.

As might be expected, I found, upon trying samples taken from dif-
ferent furnaces, that the constituents were subject to great variations.
Thus, the lime varied from 27 to 34 per cent. ; the soda from 22 to 265
per cent. ; the sulphur from 10 to 16 per cent. ; — but they always stood
in a certain fixed relation to one another ; for when the quantity of lime
was large, the amount of sulphur was proportionally increased, and the
per centage of soda consequently diminished. The following table will
suffice to show this : —

I. II. III.

Soda, 26-480 22-000 24-138

Lime, 26-959 33-807 30-324

Sulphur, 10-527 13-820 12-436

I insert here two analyses of soda balls, the one from Cassel by Unger,
the other from Newcastle by Richardson. They both get hydrate of
soda and carbonate of lime, and are I think wrong in both of these,
although the other parts of the analyses are probably quite correct.

The manufacture in Cassel and Newcastle is carried on almost exactly
in the same way as here.

From Cassel. From Newcastle.

Sulphate of soda, 1*99 3*64

Chloride of sodium, 2*54 0*60

Carbonate of soda, 23-57 9*89

Hydrate of soda, 11*12 25*64

Carbonate of lime, 12*90 15*67

3 CaS, CaO, 34*76 35*57

Sulphuret of iron, 2*45 1*22

Silicate of magnesia, 4*74 0*88

Charcoal, 4*59 4*28

Sand, 2*02 0*44

Water (hygroscopic,) 2*10 2*17

99*78 100*00

This brings us to the consideration of the third division of the soda
process, namely, —

III. The Manufacture of Soda Ash from Ball Soda.

The first point is to extract all the soluble matter from the balls.
This is done by digestion in warm water. The vessels used for this pur-
pose are large square iron pans, five or six of which are usually worked

Mi;. Brown on tlie Products of the Soda Manufacture.

together. They are so contrived that the water which runs into the first
pan passes through the whole six in succession. In this way a very
saturated solution is obtained. From the last digester, the liquor is run
into a largo iron vessel, where it is allowed to settle. The insoluble
matter which remains in the pans is of no use, and is thrown away as
waste. It is a source of great annoyance to the manufacturer, as also
to the whole neighbourhood of the place where it is deposited, largo
quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen being evolved from it. Numerous
attempts have been made to recover the sulphur from it, but without
success.

The following analysis of fresh soda waste was made in the same way
as that of the ball soda : —
1. Sulphuric acid.

The waste was digested in pure muriatic acid, and after separating the
insoluble matter by filtration, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by
chloride of barium : —

Waste. BaO S0 3 BaO S0 3 p.c. CaO S0 3 p.c.

2800 2-10 7-500 4396

30-95 2-20 7-108 4-166

Average, 4*281

2. Sulphur.

The sulphur was oxydized by chlorate of potash and muriatic acid,

and the sulphuric acid thus formed precipitated by chloride of barium : —

Ba O SO 3 , Ba O S0 3
Waste. BaOS0 3 p.c. fromCaOS0 3 Sulphur, p.c.

2775 gave 2756 99-315 — 7304 = 92011 12689

3090 — 32-40 104-854 — 7304 = 97*550 13-455

26-95 — 27-80 103*154 — 7304 = 95-850 13 220

Average, 13182

3. Silica and sand.

' By dissolving the waste in strong muriatic acid, evaporating to dryness,
and dissolving the residue, the silica, sand, and carbon remained as
insoluble matter, the last of which was destroyed by ignition. The silica
and sand were then separated by caustic potash : —

Waste. Si 0& Sand. Si O Sand. Si O p.c. Sand p.c.

50-00 gave 5-513 containing 2-640 and 2873 5280 5*746

4. Peroxide of iron.

After separating the silica and sand, the iron was precipitated by
caustic ammonia. It contained a very small quantity of alumina : —
Waste. Fe,o s Fe a O 3 p. c.

2000 gave, 1*10 5-500

50*00 — 2-46 4-920

21-40 — 1*44 6*729

Average 5*716

274 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

5. Lime.

After the iron had been precipitated by ammonia, the lime was thrown
down by oxalic acid : —

Waste. CaOC0 2 Ca O CaOp.c.

21-40 gave, 17*10 9*576 44747

48-90 — 3910 21-896 44777

Average, 44762

6. Magnesia.

After separating the lime, the magnesia was precipitated by phosphate
of soda and ammonia : —

Waste. 2MgOP0 5 Mg O MgOp.c.

48-90 gave, 0-970 0-346 0-707

7. Carbonic acid.

A quantity of the waste was put into a flask, and dilute acid slowly

added to it. The carbonic acid thus disengaged was passed through a

solution of caustic barytes; and from the quantity of carbonate of

barytes thus precipitated, the amount of carbonic acid was calculated : —

Waste. BaOC0 2 C0 2 C0 2 p.c.

30-80 gave, 1565 3-513 11-406

27-20 — 13-30 2-985 10974

Average, 11-190

8. Soluble and insoluble salts.

The whole of the soluble matter was extracted by water, and the resi-
due dried at 212°, and weighed : —

Waste. Insol. Mat. Insol. Mat.p.c. Sol.Mat.p.c.
71-2 gave, -52-50 73-736 26-264

9. Carbon.

The amount of carbon was determined in the same way as in the ball
soda : —

Waste. Si O Sand & C. Carbon. Carbon p.c. Insol. Salts p.c.
50 gave, 11-552, lost on ignition 6039 12-078 61-658

10. Carbonic acid in insoluble salts.

Waste. BaOC0 2 C0 2 CO 2 in Insol Salts.
20-30 gave, 1570 3-525 ... 10-657

11. Lime in insoluble salts.

Waste. CaOC0 2 CaO CaO in Insol. Salts.
23-80 gave, 20-90 11-704 30*448

12. Bisulphuret of calcium.

A portion of the waste was digested with muriatic acid and a large
quantity of water, and heated till the whole of the sulphuretted
hydrogen was dissipated. The sulphur which remained was then oxydized

Mk. Bkown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture. 275

by chlorate of potash and muriatic acid, and the sulphuric acid thus
formed precipitated by chloride of barium. But as this method does not
yield very accurate results, the amount of bisulphuret of calcium given
below can only be considered as an approximation : —

Waste. BaOS0 3 Sulphur. Sulphur p.c. CaS, p.c.
358 gave, 1145 1579 2205 3*583

13. Hyposulphite of lime.

About 100 grains of tho waste were digested for twenty-four hours
with a solution of oxalate of potash. A salt of the oxide of copper was
then added, by which all the sulphur was precipitated. The precipi-
tated sulphuret of copper was separated by filtration; and to the filtered
solution, sulphuric acid was added. At first, no precipitation took
place; but after standing for one or two hours the solution became
slightly turbid. The quantity of sulphur was, however, too small for
estimation.

14. Water.

Waste. Water p.c.
100 grains lost by drying at 212°, 2*10

Soluble salts, 26264

Insoluble salts, 73*736

100000

Sulphate of lime, 4-281

Sulphur, 13-182

Silica, 5-280

Sand, 5-746

Peroxide of iron, 5*716

Lime, 44762

Magnesia, 0*707

Carbonic acid, 11*190

Carbon, 12'079

Carbonic acid in insoluble salts, ... 10*657

Lime in insoluble salts, 30*448

Bisulphuret of calcium, 3*583

Hyposulphite of lime, trace.

Water, 2-10

Carbonic
Lima Sulphur. Acid.

Carbonate of lime, 24*220 13*563 — 10*657

3CaSCaO, 20*363 16*769 7*187 —

Carbon, 12*709 — — —

Silicate of magnesia, 5*987 — — —

Sand, 5*746 — — —

Peroxide of iron, 5*716 — — —

276 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

( Sulphate of lime, 4-281 1*645 — —

Hyposulphite of lime, trace — — —

Bisulphuret of calcium,.... 3*583 1*929 2-205 —

Sulphuret of calcium, ... . 8*527 6-631 3*790 —

Hydrate of lime, 5*582 4*225 — —

Carbonate of soda, 1*309 — — 0*533

Water (hygroscopic), 2*100 — — —

3^
a

99.492 44*762 13*182 11190

As might be expected, the quantity of lime, sulphur, and carbonic acid
is subject to great variations — every sample varying to a considerable
extent.

Upon examining a sample of waste three or four weeks old, I found
the quantity of hyposulphite of lime to be much greater than in perfectly
fresh waste. Another specimen which had been partially exposed to the
action of the atmosphere for three years, was entirely converted into sul-
phate of lime, sulphite of lime, carbonate of lime, and hyposulphate
of lime. Some specimens were obtained which consisted entirely of sul-
phate of lime, carbonate of lime, and caustic lime. These experiments
are very interesting, as they show the gradual oxydation of the sulphur
which the waste contains.

The waste in the soda ball consists entirely of oxysulphuret of lime
(3 CaS CaO,) and caustic lime. The 3 CaS CaO soon, however, decom-
poses, giving rise to sulphuret and bisulphuret of calcium, and caustic
lime. The bisulphuret of calcium being very efflorescent, forms on the
waste heap a yellow coating of small prismatic crystals. The sulphur is
then further oxydized, the first products being hyposulphite and sulphite
of lime : the process still continuing, hyposulphate and sulphate of lime
are formed; and this oxydation goes on till sulphate of lime remains.
The caustic lime is also, for the most part, converted into carbonate.

It would be very interesting to ascertain the exact amount of each of
these substances present in waste in different stages of decomposition ;
but there are as yet no methods known by which sulphurous, hyposul-
phurous, and hyposulphuric acid can be accurately determined, especially
when existing along with sulphuric acid and sulphurets, as in soda waste.
Under these circumstances, it would be impossible to make a series of
analyses of the waste in its different stages of decomposition, upon which
perfect dependence could be placed. But it is to be hoped, that as the
science advances, these at present insuperable obstacles may be entirely
removed.

The following is an analysis by Unger of a sample of waste from
Cassel : —

Mk Baowi * tfc !',■■ incts of the Soda Mwmfmti

Carbonate of lime, 19*56

3CaS + CaO, 32-80

Carbon, 2-60

Silicate of magnesia, 6*91

Sand, 309

Iron peroxide, 3*70

Sulphate of lime, 3*69

Hyposulphite of lime, 4*12

Hydrate of lime, 11*79

Bisulphuret of calcium, 4*67

Sulphuret of calcium, 3*25

Sulphuret of sodium, 1*78

Water, 3*45

100*31

The soda waste thus affords ample room for further researches, which,
if carefully prosecuted, might yield very interesting results. But without
dwelling any longer on this subject, I pass on to the consideration of the
remaining part of this division of the process, viz., the manufacture of soda
ash from the liquor containing the soluble matter extracted from the ball
soda.

This liquor contains carbonate of soda, caustic soda, sulphuret of sodium,
sulphate of soda, and chloride of sodium, with a little aluminate of soda,
the greater part of which is, however, soon decomposed by the action of
the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, carbonate of soda being formed
whilst the alumina precipitates. This solution is boiled down in an iron
pan until it is nearly dry. The analyses of this and the remaining salts
were made in the following way : —

1. Carbonate of soda.

The amount of carbonate of soda was determined by ascertaining the
weight of the carbonic acid, which was evolved on the addition of muriatic
or sulphuric acid to the salt.

2. Sulphuret of sodium.

The amount of sulphuret of sodium was ascertained by passing
the gases evolved on the addition of muriatic acid to the salt through
a solution of arsenious acid in caustic potash. The sulphuret of
arsenic thus formed, was precipitated by neutralising the potash
with nitric acid. It was then thrown on a filter, dried at 212°, and
weighed. From its weight the quantity of sulphuret of sodium was cal-
culated.

3. Hydrate of soda.

To ascertain the quantity of hydrate of soda, a portion of the substance
was heated strongly with carbonate of ammonia, in order to convert the
hydrate and sulphuret into carbonate. The amount of carbonic acid was
then determined as formerly, and the difference between the results of

•27* 1 Mr. Brown on tin- PtodmcU of the Soda Manufacture.

tho two experiments gave the amount of carbonic acid equivalent to the
quantity of soda existing as hydrate and sulphuret in the sample. The
amount united to sulphur was then deducted, and the remainder gave
the per centage of hydrate.

4. Sulphate of soda.

A portion of the salt was dissolved in a pretty large quantity of water,
and nitric acid added to expel the carbonic acid. The sulphuric acid
was then precipitated by chloride of barium.

5. Sulphite of soda.

The salt was boiled with strong nitric acid, in order to oxydize the
whole of the sulphite of soda and sulphuret of sodium. Water was then
added, and the sulphuric acid precipitated by a salt of barytes. From
the quantity of sulphate of barytes thus obtained, the amount got by the
former experiment was deducted, and the remainder showed the quantity
of sulphate of barytes equivalent to the amount of sulphite of soda and
sulphuret of sodium. The per centage of sulphuret of sodium being known,
the sulphite of soda was easily determined.

6. Chloride of sodium.

After expelling the carbonic acid by nitric acid, the chlorine was pre-
cipitated by nitrate of silver.

7. Aluminate of soda and insoluble matter.

A solution of the salt was acidified by muriatic acid, and the insoluble
matter (principally sand) separated by filtration. From the filtered
solution, the alumina was precipitated by caustic ammonia.

The salt obtained by evaporation from the liqour from the keaves, after
drying at 212°, yielded on analysis, —

I. II.

Carbonate of soda, 68*907 65-513

Hydrate of soda, 14*433 16*072

Sulphate of soda, 7-018 7*812

Sulphite of soda, 2*231 2-134

Hyposulphite of soda, trace trace

Sulphuret of sodium, 1*314 1*542

Chloride of sodium, 3*972 3*862

Aluminate of soda, 1*016 1*232

Silicate of soda, 1*030 0*800

Insoluble matter, 0*814 0*974

100*755 99-961

This salt is then introduced into a reverberatory or carbonating furnace,
where it is strongly heated. In this process the sulphuret of sodium is
converted into sulphate of soda, and part of the hydrate of soda into
carbonate. The salt, when removed from the furnace, is ready for the
market. In Newcastle and some other places, it is dissolved and car-
bonated again; and when thus manufactured, it contains less caustic
soda. Soda ash thus prepared contains from 48 to 53 per cent, of avail-

Mr. Drown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture. 279

able alkali, that is, alkali combined with carbonic acid and water, and
yielded on analysis, —

Analysis of Ash
from Germany,
I. II. by Unger.

Carbonate of soda, 71614 70461 62-13

Hydrate of soda, 11-231 13132 17*20

Sulphate of soda, 10*202 9*149 8*66

Chloride of sodium, 3*051 4*279 3-41

Sulphite of soda, 1*117 1*136 0*35

Aluminate of soda, 0*923 0-734 1*11

Silicate of soda, 1*042 0*986 2*56

Sand, 0*316 0*464 0*62

Water, — — 3*96

99*496 100-341 100*00

The next stage of the process which comes under our consideration

is,-

IV. The Carbonate of Soda process.

The carbonate of soda balls are lixiviated with water in the same
way as in the manufacture of soda ash. The liquor from the settler
is pumped up into a pan, where it is evaporated till it becomes nearly
dry. It is then taken out of the pan in colanders, thrown up in a heap,
and allowed to drain. The sulphuret of sodium and caustic soda soon
deliquesce and drain out from the salt.

This salt, after drying at 212°, gave, when analysed, —

i. n.

Carbonate of soda, 79641 80*918

Hydrate of soda, 2*712 3-924

Sulphate of soda, 8*641 7*431

Sulphite of soda, 1*238 1*110

Sulphuret of sodium, trace 0*230

Hyposulphite of soda, trace trace

Chloride of sodium, 4-128 3*142

Aluminate of soda, 1*176 1014

Silicate of soda, 1*234 1-317

Insoluble matter, 0*972 0*768

99*742 99*854

This salt is then introduced into a reverberatory furnace and carbonated.
The last traces of sulphur are thus oxydized, and almost the whole of the
hydrate is converted into carbonate.

Tins salt yielded, on analysis, —

280 Mr. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture.

I. n.

Carbonate of soda, 84-002 83*761

Hydrate of soda, 1*060 0*734

Sulphate of soda, 8*560 9*495

Sulphite of soda, trace 0*386

Chloride of sodium, 3*222 3*287

Aluminate of soda, 1013 0*620

Silicate of soda, 0*984 0*780

Insoluble matter, 0*716 0*846

99*557 99-909

A finer kind of soda ash is frequently made from this salt by dissolving
it in water, evaporating to dryness, and carbonating. It contains very
little caustic soda, and should average about 50 per cent, of alkali. It
yielded, on analysis, —

I. n.

Carbonate of soda, 84*314 84*721

Hydrate of soda, trace 0*280

Sulphate of soda, 10*260 9*764

Sulphite of soda, trace —

Chloride of sodium, 3*480 3*140

Aluminate of soda, 0*632 0*716

Silicate of soda, 0*414 0*318

Insoluble matter, 0*250 0*498

99*350 99*437

It is from this salt that the crystallised carbonate of soda is manufac-
tured. The ash is dissolved in boiling water until the solution has a
specific gravity of 1*255, (50° Twaddell). It is then run into a cistern,
where it is mixed with sufficient cold water to reduce the specific gravity
to 1*21, (42° Twaddell). This occasions the deposition of a quantity of
earthy matter. A small quantity of bleaching powder is then added to
the liquid, which causes another deposition. After this has been allowed
to settle, the solution is carefully decanted into another pan, and evapor-
ated till it attains a specific gravity of 1*27, (54° Twaddell). From this
it is run into another cistern, from which it passes into the crystallising
pans. The average time taken in crystallisation is eight days ; but it
of course varies very much with the season of the year and the state of
the atmosphere. The crystallisation is very much assisted by placing a
few bars of wood, two or three inches broad, on the top of the liquor.
The crystallised carbonate of soda yielded, on analysis, —

i. n.

Carbonate of soda, 36*476 36*931

Sulphate of soda, 0*943 0*542

Chloride of sodium, 0.424 0*314

Water, 62157 62*213

100000 100*000

Mb. Brown on the Products of the Soda Manufacture. 281

As it contains 10 atoms of water of crystallisation, its formula is
NaO C0 3 +10 HO ; and the per centage calculated from this formula
gives,—

Carbonate of soda, 37500

Water, 62*500

100-000

By driving off the water from these crystals by heat, a very pure car-
bonate of soda is obtained, which is used by the glass makers. It
yielded, on analysis, —

i. n.

Carbonate of soda, 98*120 97*984

Sulphate of soda, 1*076 1-124

Chloride of sodium, 0*742 0*563

99*938 99-671

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Dr. Thomson and Mr. Wood on the Composition of Shea Butter. 283

26ih April, 1848. — The concluding meoting of the Session was held t\n<
evening. — The President in tJie Chair.

Mr. William Clark was admitted a member. Mr. William Connell
was elected and admitted a member.

Dr. Gregory of Edinburgh read a paper "On the Preparation of
Creatine, with remarks on the Composition of the Juice of Flesh," and
exhibited several beautiful specimens of creatine, creatinine, inosinic acid,
&c. The thanks of the Society were voted to Dr. Gregory for his kind-
ness in coming to Glasgow to read this paper.

The following paper was read : —

XLI. — Note on the Composition of Shea Butter and Chinese Vegetable
Tallow. By Dr. R. D. Thomson and Mr. Edward T. Wood.

Shea Butter. — This substance is a vegetable product of Western
Africa, and was first brought into notice by the celebrated Mungo Park,
during his first journey in 1796. The tree from which it is procured, he
describes as very much resembling the American oak, and the fruit (from
the kernel of which being first dried in the sun, the butter is prepared by
boiling the kernel in water,) has somewhat the appearance of a Spanish
olive. The kernel is enveloped in a sweet pulp under a thin green rind,
and the butter produced from it, besides the advantage of its keeping the
whole year without salt, is whiter, firmer, and, according to Park, of a
richer flavour than the best butter he ever tasted made from cow's milk.
The growth and preparation of this commodity seem to be among the
first objects of African industry, and it constitutes a main article of their
inland commerce. This butter is abundantly produced not only towards
the Gambia, but also in the countries adjoining the Niger, as it is men-
tioned by the Landers and other recent travellers. Mr. John Duncan,
who penetrated by Dahomey, describes the tree as resembling a laurel,
and growing to the height of eighteen or twenty feet. The leaf is
somewhat longer than the laurel, and a little broader at the point. The
nut is of the size and form of a pigeon's egg, and of a light brown colour ;
the substance of the shell about that of an egg. The kernel, when new,
is nearly all butter. The shell is crushed from the kernel, which is also
crushed and boiled with a little water in a pot for half an hour. It is
then strained through a mat, when it is placed in a grass bag and pressed.
A good sized tree will yield a bushel of nuts.

Shea Butter appears to be the same as that which is called Galam butter,
and is derived from a species of Bassia, but the species has not yet been
made out, as no specimens of the flower and fruit have reached botanists.

The oil upon which the following experiments were made, was obtained
through the kindness of Dr. Carson of Liverpool, from Mr. Jameson,
for mer l y of this city, and now of Liverpool, whose benevolent exertions

284 Dr. Thomson and Mr. Wood on the Composition of Shea Butter.

for the improvement of Africa are so well known. The colour of the oil
is white, with a shade of green. It is solid at the usual temperature in
this country. At 95° it assumes the consistence of soft butter, and at
110° is a clear and liquid oil. "When boiled in alcohol, the greater part
is dissolved, and crystallizes on cooling, in needles. It dissolves in cold
ether, and separates in needles by evaporation. The oil was saponified
by means of caustic potash in a silver basin, the soap separated from its
solution by common salt, and decomposed by tartaric acid. After being
crystallized out from alcohol five or six times, and freed by pressure from
adhering oleic acid, the acid was obtained in fine pearly scales, fusing
at 142°. It was united with soda, and yielded a salt in fine pearly scales.
Its atomic weight was estimated by means of the silver salt. In the
first, second, and third experiments, the silver salt was formed by precipi-
tating an aqueous solution of nitrate of silver, by an aqueous solution of
the fatty acid united to soda. In the fourth and fifth experiments, an
alcoholic solution of the acid was precipitated by a solution of nitrate of
silver in alcohol, and hence the excess of acid.

I. 3*73 grains of silver salt gave 1*05 metallic silver = 1*126 oxide of
silver ss 301 9 per cent. AgO.

II. 10*65 grains of silver salt gave 3*01 silver = 3*221 oxide of silver
= 30*23 per cent. AgO.

III. 2*85 grains gave *861 AgO = 3021 per cent.

IV. 4-71 grains gave 1*30 silver = 1*394 AgO = 2953 per cent.
V. 2*72 grains gave *743 silver = *797 AgO = 29*30 per cent.

The following table will express the per centage composition of the
silver salt by these five experiments : —

I. II. III. IV. V.

Acid, 69*81 ... 69*77 ... 69*79 ... 70*41 ... 70*70

Oxide of silver,... 30*19 ... 30*23 ... 30*21 ... 29*59 . . 29*30

Taking the mean of all these experiments, the constitution of the
silver salt will be —

Acid, 70*10

Oxide of silver, 29*90

And the atomic weight of the anhydrous salt is —

Acid, 33*97

Oxide of silver, 14*50

Or leaving out the two last determinations, we shall have as a mean for
the three higher results, the atomic weight of the acid equal to 33*82.

To determine the composition of the anhydrous acid, the three following
analyses were made by means of oxide of copper, and chlorate of potash : —

I. 285 grs. of silver salt gave HO = 2*30 grs. and C0 2 = 5*73 grs.
II. 3*91 i « > sa 3-39 ■ i = 7*87 -

III. 3*667 « „ „ = 3*058 . . _ 7*334 ■

I)u. Thomson and Mb. Wood on Ute Composition of Shea Butter. 285

The following table gives the composition of the above salt in 100

parts: —

Anhydrous
I. H. m. Mean. Acid.

0, 54-73 54-88 54-54 54-71 7783

H, 8-94 8-78 9-22 8.98 1277

0, 612 6-75 6-94 6-60 9-40

AgO,... 30-21 29-59 2930 29-71 —

From the facts, which have been stated in reference to the acid
contained in the Shea butter, it is obvious that it is Margaric acid, the
same substance which is found in human fat and butter. There is little
doubt that, on examination, this acid will be found extensively distributed
in the vegetable kingdom. Its presence in the Shea butter may assist in
explaining the statement of Park, that this substance, when fresh, is
equal in taste to butter.

Chinese Vegetable Tallow. — This is a solid oil long known to those
who are acquainted with China, where it is extensively used for making
candles. It is derived from the seeds of the Stillingia sebifera, which,
according to Fortune, (Wanderings in China, p. 65,) are pulled in Novem-
ber and December. They are placed in a wooden cylinder with a per-
forated bottom, over an iron vessel filled with water, which is boiled, and
the seeds well steamed, to soften the tallow. In ten minutes they are
thrown into a large stone mortar, and beat with stone mallets to separate
the tallow from the other parts of the seed. The tallow is thrown on a
sieve, heated over the fire, and sifted, and is then squeezed out by a
peculiar press. As imported, it is a hard white solid oil, with a green
shade. It fuses at about 80°. The oil was saponified, and the acid
separated and purified according to the method already noticed. A soda
salt was formed, and from this a silver salt was precipitated.

14*38 grains of this salt, when burned, left 4-03 grains of metallic
silver, which gives the following for the composition of the salt : —

Atomic Weight. Per cent.

Oxide of silver, 4-328 14-50 30-03

Acid, 10052 33-67 69-97

The acid was not quite pure, for when heated it softened at 143°,
became very soft at 149°, of the consistence of cream at 150°, and quite
fluid at 154°. It obviously, therefore, retained some stearic acid, but
must have consisted principally of margaric acid } as stearic acid fuses at
167°. There is no doubt that both of these oils might be advantageously
employed in soap-making, the supply apparently, from the statements of
the traders, being unlimited.

280 Mil. Tennent on the Yellow Prussiate of Potash Cake.

The following paper was communicated by Dr. R. D. Thomson : —

XLIL- — Examination of the Yellow Prussiate of Potash Cake. By
Mr. Hugh Brown Tennent, Laboratory Assistant, Glasgow College.

Yellow prusstate op potash or ferrocyanide of potassium was dis-
covered by Macquer, and used as a test for persalts of iron. It was
introduced into calico printing by Charles Macintosh, Esq., of Campsie,
and was first manufactured upon the large scale at Campsie.* The process
consists in igniting substances rich in nitrogen, such as, hoofs, horns,
dried blood, woollen rags, &c, with carbonate of potash, in iron pots.
The fused mass is then digested in water, and the yellow salt crystallized
out. As much difference of opinion has existed respecting the composi-
tion of the black cake, when it is removed from the iron pots, previous to
its digestion in water, the following experiments were made for the
purpose of throwing some light on the nature of its constituents, and as
the analyses are somewhat complicated, every step has been carefully
described.

50 grains were digested in cold water, and filtered, the filter being
previously dried at 212° and weighed, it was then washed, until the
washings gave no reaction with nitrate of silver. The filter was again
dried and weighed, when it gave 40*50 of insoluble matter, showing the
presence of 59*5 per cent, of soluble salts and water.

I. Analysis of the Soluble Salts.

1. Estimation of the Carbonate of Potash. — To the solution which passed
through the filter, as previously described, chloride of barium was added,
which gave a bulky white precipitate, consisting of carbonate and sulphate
of barytes, and caustic barytes. To determine the true quantity of carbonate
of potash, the precipitate, after being rapidly washed under cover and
ignited, was introduced into a flask containing a tube filled with hydro-
chloric acid, the bottle was then closed with a cork, through which a tube
filled with chloride of calcium passed. The whole was then weighed and
the weight carefully noted; the bottle was then shaken so as to overturn

* The following is an interesting note from Mr. Clarke regarding the commercial
history of the prussiates : —

" Campsie Alum Works, 2d October, 1848.
u My Dear Sir,— The period when prussiate of potash and prussian blue were first
begun to be manufactured here, was in 1807-8. The works were erected in 180G-7; and,
when I came here in 1809, the manufacture of both these articles was in operation, and
had been so for fully a year before. The prussiate was for some time, at that period,
sent to the calico printers and dyers in a liquid state, with printed directions for the
proper mode of applying it; but there was also a crystallization of it made when I came
here, and in this form it came very soon to be preferred, and the liquid was abandoned.
" I am, my Dear Sir, yours truly,

M ROBT. CLARKE.
" Dr. R. D. Thomson."

Mil. Ti:\nent on the Yellow Pruswite of Potash Cake. ttl

the tube containing the acid. After the action had completely ceased,
the cork was removed from the flask for a short time, so that the carbonic
acid remaining in the tube might mingle with the air, and thus be expelled
from the flask. It was then weighed. The loss in weight was 4 # 61 grains
= 9*22 grains per cent, from the expulsion of carbonic acid, equivalent
to 29.3 carbonate of potash in 100 parts of the cake.

2. Estimation of the Caustic Potash. — 50 grains were treated in the
same manner as the first, and through the solution a current of carbonic
acid was passed, so as to convert the caustic potash into carbonate, and
the solution heated to expel the excess of carbonic acid. Chloride of
barium was added, which gave a bulky precipitate, consisting of carbonate
and sulphate of barytes, which were treated in the same manner as in the
former experiment. The excess of carbonic acid over the former experi-
ment gave the quantity of carbonic acid taken up by the free potash, ami
from this the quantity of caustic potash was calculated. The total
loss of carbonic acid amounted to 6*72 grains = 13*44 grains per cent,
from which, if we deduct 9*22 grains, we obtain 4*22 grains of carbonic
acid as saturating the free potash. The hydrate of potash required to
saturate this amount of C0 2 , is 10*93 grains per cent.

3. Estimation of the Sulphate of Lime and Potash. — After digesting
the carbonate of barytes in hydrochloric acid, and filtering, the sulphate
remained upon the filter equal to BaO S0 3 11*96 = 4*12 SO s . Oxalate
of ammonia was added to a fresh portion, and boiled for some time, so as
to decompose the sulphate of lime, which, after being burned, left 1*04
carbonate of lime = 1*90 sulphate of lime. I'll grains of SO s being
required to unite with the lime, there remain 3*01 grains SO s to combine
with potash. Hence the amount of sulphate of potash is 6*62 grains per
cent.

4. Estimation of the Chloride of Potassium. — The solution from 100
grains was treated with nitrate of silver, and boiled with nitric acid, so as
to decompose any cyanide of silver that might have been formed. The
precipitate was then washed, dried, burned, and weighed, when it gave
3 grains chlorido of silver = 1*58 chloride of potassium.

5. Estimation of the Cyanide of Potassium. — 100 grains of the black
cake were washed in a covered filter with cold water until all soluble
salts were removed. To the solution, which was carefully protected from
tin- air, nitrate of silver was added a3 long as a precipitate, consisting of
chloride, cyanide, carbonate, and oxide of silver, fell. The whole was
then thrown upon a filter and washed. It was boiled with nitric aeid,
and the silver dissolved was precipitated, as chloride of silver, by hydro-
chloric acid ; this precipitate was then ignited and weighed. After
deducting the quantity of chloride of silver equivalent to the carbonate,
caustic potash, and also the chloride of potassium, from the excess of
chloride of silver, the cyanide of potassium was calculated, thus: —

\,„ II. — No. 4.

Mk. Ti:.nm:nt on (he Yellow PrmtiaU of Ptfaal i
I'nMl quantity of Ag CI, 116-66

29-30 KO C0 2 = 60-27 Ag CI.

10-93 KO HO =27 48 Ag CI.

1-58 KC1 = 3-00 Ag CI.

90-75

Leaving 2491 AgCl = 11-42 KCy.

A second experiment gave 11-72 K Cy.

A third experiment gave 10-95 KCy.

To determine whether the precipitate of cyanide of silver contained
any ferrocyanide, after being ignited and weighed, it was digested in
nitric acid, and tested by the following reagents : — yellow prussiate,
hydrosulphuret of ammonia, caustic ammonia, and caustic soda, which
gave none of the reactions characteristic of iron ; thus proving the absence
of all trace of iron. If there had been any ferrocyanide present, those
tests could not have failed in detecting the iron. This is in accordance
with Liebig's views, who states that the fused mass does not contain a
trace of ferrocyanide, but it contains a large quantity of metallic iron, as
well as sulphuret of iron, by the action of the sulphuret of potassium
(which is derived from the sulphate in the potash,) on the oxide of iron
of the blood, when dried blood is used, or that formed from the vessels.
If the mass be treated with cold water, and the filtered solution evapo-
rated, no ferrocyanide is obtained ; but if, while covered with water, it is
gently heated for some hours, iron is dissolved, and a yellow solution is
obtained, which is rich in ferrocyanide of potassium. These results are
opposed to those of Runge, who affirms (Poggendorff's Annalen, LXVI.
95,) that if the black cake is washed with spirit (he does not state the
strength,) till nothing more is taken up, the black residue, when treated
with cold water, gives yellow prussiate.

II. Analysis of Insoluble Matter.

1. Estimation of Volatile Matter. — The black mass, from 50 grs., after
being ignited, lost 9 = 18 per cent, of volatile matter.

2. Estimation of Sulphate of Lime. — The residue was then washed
with water, until the liquid passing through ceased to give a precipitate
of Ba CI, when it lest in weight 4*76 = 9'52, to which add 1*9 obtained
in former experiment, and we have 11-42 CaS0 3 .

The insoluble portion was fused with NaO C0 2 , the fused mass was
then treated with HC1, and evaporated to dryness ; HC1 was again added
to the dry silica, and after standing for some time, water was added ; it
was then filtered, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed, when it gave 1-65,
or 3*3 per cent.

3. Estimation of Iron. — The solution filtered from the silica was
treated with caustic ammonia, which gave a bulky brown precipitate con-

m:n j on the Yellow Prussiate of Pvtaxh Cake.

289

■Sting <>t* peroxide of iron, weighing (H2 = 1224, which, when reduced
to tin; nit.'t;illic state, gives 8-56 per cent.

4. Estimation of Carbonate of Lime. — The solution filtered from iron,
was treated with oxalate of ammonia, which precipitated the lime as
oxalate, which, after being burned, gave of CaO C0 3 *36 = -72 per cent.

The following are the results of the analyses of the entire prussiate
cake : —

Carbonic acid, 921

Chlorine, 075

Cyanogen, 4*32

Soluble, •{ Sulphuric acid, 9*83

Potassium, 7*46

Potash, 32-91

Lime, 4-78

(Volatile matter, 1800

Silica, 3-30

Insoluble, <J Carbonic acid, *30

Iron and Sulphur, 8*56

Lime -42

99-84

These may be arranged in the following manner : —

' Carbonate of potash, 29*30 29'22

Hydrate of potash, 10*93 11-81

Chloride of potassium, . . . 1*58

Cyanide of potassium,... 10 95 11*72

Sulphate of potash, 6*62

^ Sulphate of lime, 1T42

Soluble,

11-42

Insoluble, <

r Volatile matter, 18*00

Iron, ^ g. 56

Sulphuret of iron, /

Carbonate of lime, *72

L Silica, 3-30

101*38
There is an excess, probably, in consequence of the irregular dis-
tribution of the organic matter through the different portions used in the
analyses.

Analysis op the Prussiate Cake Refuse.

After the yellow prussiate has been dissolved out from the black cake,
there remains a quantity of carbonaceous matter, iron, &c. known under
the name of prussiate refuse. From its great bulk and weight, the
M vunmlation of this matter becomes a serious incumbrance to the prus-

290 Mr. Tenxext on the Yellow Prussia te of Potash Cake.

siatc manufacturer. It possesses considerable decolorizing power, and
was at one time tried by the sugar refiners ; but the result did not prove
satisfactory. The following analysis would lead to the belief that it might
be of benefit as a manure, although the experiments hitherto made have
not confirmed this idea. Probably the active ingredients might be
extracted by treatment with sulphuric acid and washing with water.
The black matter, when treated with an acid, effervesces, and at the
same time the smell of sulphohydric acid is evolved.

1. Estimation of Volatile Matter. — 60 grains being dried at 212°, lost
1 1*4 grains, = 19 per cent, of water. The dry mass was then ignited, and
lost 21-73 grains = 36*22 of carbon.

2. Estimation of Soluble Sulphates. — The residue was then washed with
water, and gave of soluble salts 7*44, or 12*40 per cent., which consisted
of sulphate of potash and lime. This solution was divided into two por-
tions : to the first, chloride of barium was added, which gave of BaO SO a
19*43 grains per cent. = 6*70 S0 8 . The second portion was then
treated with oxalate of ammonia. The precipitate of oxalate of lime,
after being burned, gave of carbonate of lime per cent. 5*35, = 6*75
CaO S0 3 . The solution filtered from the oxalate of lime, was evaporated
to dryness, and heated to redness, when there remained of sulphate of
potash 3*025 grains, = 5*04 per cent.

3. Estimation of the Silica. — The insoluble portion in water was fused
with carbonate of soda. The fused mass was then dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid, and evaporated to dryness. Hydrochloric acid was again
added, the solution heated, and after standing for some time, water was
added ; it was then filtered, washed, dried, and ignited, and gave of
silica 6*45 grains, = 10*75 per cent.

4. Estimation of Iron and Alumina. — Ammonia was added to the
solution filtered from the silica, which precipitated the iron and alumina.
This precipitate, after being washed, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
and then boiled with caustic soda, which precipitated the iron as peroxide,
and dissolved the alumina. On filtration, the peroxide of iron remained
on the filter, and when ignited, weighed 835 grains, = 13*91 per cent.
The solution containing the alumina was then neutralised by hydrochloric
acid, and the alumina precipitated by carbonate of ammonia. It weighed
1*40 grains, = 2*33 per cent.

5. Estimation of PJtosplioric Acid. — 50 grains of the refuse were calcined
and fused with carbonate of soda. The silica being separated in the
usual manner, to the solution ammonia was added, which precipitated the
alumina, peroxide, and phosphate of iron. This prenipitate was well
washed, and digested in hydrochloric acid. To the solution, tartaric acid
was added to retain the iron in solution. An excess of ammonia was
then poured in, until the white precipitate which was formed had com-
pletely redissolved. Sulphate of magnesia was then added, and the solu-
tion allowed to stand for 24 hours, when a crystalline precipitate deposited,
which was thrown upon a filter, and washed with water containing

Report from ttie Botanical S<<

ammonia. It was then dried, ignited, and weighed, and gave of phosphate
of magnesia 80 grains, = 1*60 per cent. = 1-03 grains per cent, phos-
phoric acid. In a second experiment, 100 grains of the refuse gave
1*56 grains phosphate of magnesia, = 1*002 grains phosphoric acid.

<!. Estimation of the Carbonate of Lime. — To the solution filtered from
t In- iron and alumina of the analysis of 60 grains, oxalate of ammonia was
added, which gave a precipitate consisting of oxalate of lime, affording
of carbonate 2* = 3*33 CaO C0 2 per cent.

7. Estimation of the Magnesia. — To the solution filtered from the
lime, phosphate of soda was added, and from the phosphate of magnesia
obtained, the quantity of magnesia was calculated. The amount of
phosphate of magnesia per cent, was 2*75 grains = 1-63 magnesia. The
constituents of the refuse of the black cake are therefore as follows, with
the addition of other trials : —

Carbon, 3623 3480 3450

Water, 1900 1980 18*35

Sulphate of potash, 504 5-65 5 92

Sulphate of lime, 675 613

Silica, 10-75 10-30

Oxides of iron, "1

lovl

}

Sulphuret of iron,

Carbonate of lime, 3*33 4*96

Phosphoric acid, 1-03 1-002

Alumina, 2-33 2-65

Magnesia,. 163

10000
In some of the analyses, a quantity of titanic acid was obtained along
with the silica, obviously derived from titanium contained in the iron pots.

Mr. Keddie gave in the following

Report from the Botanical Section.

January 11, 1848. — The Treasurer acknowledged a gift of £5 from
the Philosophical Society for the Herbarium.

Dr. Walker Arnott exhibited specimens of plants illustrative of the
genera of Chrysobalanea), and made some observations upon them, show-
ing that the genus Prinsepia should be rejected from that order, as being
more allied to Prunus, belonging to the order Amygdaleae.

February 8. — Dr. Walker Arnott explained the general principles of the
OaqwIWy theory, in order to illustrate the structure of the fruit of the
Cucurl »it;i« t ;i\ He stated the views entertained on the subject by Scringe
and De Candolle, according to whom the middle of the back of the car-
pcllary loaf is in the axis, whilst the upper surface and margins are
towards the outside. lie also noticed the explanation gi\en by him- It

BH Dr. Arnott on the tntroductbn *f

(Dr. Walker Arnott,) in the article Botany in the Encyclopaedia Britan-
nil ;i, by which it would be a mere modification of a common axile placen-
tation. Dr. Lindley was the first to indicate that the placentation was
parietal: but that view was weakened by Dr. Wight, (in his Illustrations
of Indian Botany, and in the Madras Journal,) who reverted to the axile
utation, but apparently differing from Seringe, by supposing that it
was the upper surface of the carpellary leaf that was next the axis. He
then referred to the opinion stated by Dr. Lindley in the " Vegetable
Kingdom," that the true structure of the Cucurbitaceae had been mis-
apprehended, " the illusion having arisen from three parietal placentae,
with revolute (convolute is obviously meant) seed-bearing edges projecting
forward in the cavity where they adhere." Dr. Walker Arnott mentioned
that he had come to "a different conclusion from all these by observations
made during last autumn, at a time when he had no opportunity of con-
sulting any works on the subject. He agreed with Lindley that the pla-
centation is truly parietal, but differed with him widely as to what were
the carpellary leaves, the true ones being revolute, not convolute, and
alternating with those considered as such by Lindley; in fact they are
represented by the dark places in Lindley 's figure, (p. 313.) This theory
agrees most with Dr. Wight's, and chiefly differs in this, that the carpel-
lary leaves are at first distinct from each other, and not united till the
ovary is advanced, which latter hypothesis is necessary to the axile
placentation.

March 14, 1848. — Mr. Gourlie exhibited specimens of Gutta Percha,
and read an account of that substance by Dr. Oxley of Singapore, pub-
lished in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago. He also exhibited a
specimen of Strychnos toxifera (Sir K. Schomburgh).

April 18, 1848. — The following paper was read: —

XLIH. — On the Introduction of Anomalous Genera into Natural Orders.
By Gr. A. Walker Arnott, LL.D., Regius Professor of Botany.

In defining natural orders, or in referring plants to them, it appears to
me, that of late years botanists have been frequently pursuing a method
which must soon lead to inextricable confusion. When one reads the
character of an order, it is to be expected that every plant referred to
it must not positively disagree with that character. The character of
a species ought to be such, that any of its varieties will arrange themselves
under it : — in the same way in a genus we have a right to expect that
no species will be referred to it that militates against the generic
character. The character may be altered according as we know new
species, or if we see occasion to break up the old genus into several;
but there must be no incongruity between the generic character and
the plants referred to the genus. And, indeed, it is rare we find this
to be the case, unless when through laziness one has taken the generic
character without sufficient examination from some book, and admits

.1,1", '■

into tin; | i<'!i the composer of that character bad m.t

«M)ntcii)j)l;it<M |.

The mum law applies to natural orders, which are merely nat
groups of genera, or large natural genera; but here, unfortunately,
practice ami fcheoi -y in often iridelj in opposition. Numerous instances
miiiht bfl quoted. Thus UnwiiMHiliiieffi, as defined in some of our
British Floras, is said fco be polyandrous, whereas Myosurus has never
more than five stamens. If Myosurus had not been ■ native of Britain,
I would not object to this, because if we can abridge the character of a genus
or order, by omitting all that has no reference to the species describe 1 in
the book, it is a great boon to the student, or to one who is not engaged
in general botany ; but such abridgment must not be at the expense of
accuracy. In the same way I do not object to European, or N
American, or even medical floras stating the Violaceae to have irregular
corollas, because every species found in Europe, in North America, or
used in medicine, has such ; but if we published the flora of Guiana or
East India, we cannot restrict the order in this way, because plants do
occur there with quite regular flowers, and differing in no other respect
from that order. In a general work, we must therefore have a general
or universal character, but it is there that we find numerous failures.

In nature every thing is continuous, and thus there may be said
to be but one great natural order, perhaps only one genus: every
attempt to break it up, and form smaller orders, must be, in a certaiu
degree, artificial: and there can be but one object in breaking it up,
that of conveying information more easily to others, about the plants
that are already described. Now, in order that the affinities of such
plants may bo exhibited by their relative position, it is of importance
that such divisions be as natural as possible : but in order that such
divisions be also useful, each must be rigorously defined. There are,
therefore, two elements inseparable from each other, and it is the
judicious combination of these that must limit a natural order.

On a former occasion I made some remarks to this Society on the
Chrysobalaneae. So long as this was retained in the great group of Rosa'
there was necessarily a very great latitude in the ordinal character ; but
tho almost impossibility of framing one applicable to all the genera, ami,
at tho same time, sufficiently definite so as to exclude other or d
induced botanists to divide it into several, the more as there were three or
four tolerably well marked groups. Perhaps no living botanist has
studied that order with more attention than Dr. Lindley ; and yet, whei
from the desire not to split it up into too many orders, or from trusting too
much to natural appearances, we find that some parts of the characters
are in the above position ; I allude particularly to his Sanguisorbeaa and
ftpmOPCP (proper). The former (I refer to the Vegetable Kingdom, as
tuin lining tho latest views on the subject), he defines as apetafous, \>itli
a solitary carpel inclosed in the hardened calyx tube and forming a false
up, ami with the ovnlc Bofitarj ( to

294 Dr. Arnott on the Introduction of

apotalous nature of the flowers, he places this order in his School
Botany among the Monochlamydea). Now among the twelve genera here
referred are Alchemilla, Poterium, Adenostoma, and Leucosidea; but
Alchemilla has sometimes two, three, or four carpels or ovaries ; Poterium
and Leucosidea have from two to three ovaries ; there are two ovules in
Adenostoma; and in that same genus and in Leucosidea there arc five
petals. Yet Lindley says, " This order, usually combined with Rosacea),
appears to demand a distinct station, on account of its constantly
apotalous flowers, its hardened calyx, and the reduction of carpels to one
only ; it is not, however, distinguishable by any other characters ; and
therefore Agrimonia, sometimes stationed here, must be preserved among
Rosacea), because of its petals." The above observations show that
there is no character to be depended on except the hardened tube of
the calyx, and that is found also in Agrimonia, the very genus referred
to Rosacea*.

If we now look to the character of Rosacea) in the same excellent work,
it is said to have polypetalous flowers, carpels free from the calyx, and
quite, or nearly so, from each other ; these may be solitary, but there must
be two or more ovules in each ovary. Here, however, the characters of
some genera adduced do not all respond ; the genus Rosa itself giving the
name to the order, has a solitary ovule in each carpel as in Sangui-
sorbea), so also has some Iiubi, and the genera Aremonia and Agrimonia,
which last, in fact, differs in no respect from Sanguisorbea), except by
having petals. Far be it from me to say that Sanguisorbea) ought to be
re-united to Rosacea), for so many genera have no petals, and under
no circumstances ever produce any, while the calyx itself is frequently
more or less coloured as in Monochlamydeae, that the presence or absence
of petals in this tribe is probably of sufficient importance without any
other distinctive characters, the introduction of which has only served to
produce a false cliaracter.

What also tends at the present day to embroil the orders, is the
removing a genus from one order with which it is found not to agree, and
the placing it in another with which it agrees tetter, but the former precision
of which this new adjunct overturns, even although, what is often not
done, the character of the recipient order has been really changed to
admit of the insertion of this new ally. Let me take a familiar instance.
The place of the genus Parnassia in the Natural arrangement has been
long a debateablc point. De Candolle placed it at the end of Droseracca),
although he properly defines Droseraceao to have copious albumen and a
circinnate vernation, while Parnassia has no albumen whatever and
the common kind of vernation. Herein he is followed by Babington in
his manual, seemingly without being aware of the exalbuminose nature of
the seeds of Parnassia, as this is not alluded to. Sir James Smith referred
it to Saxifrageoe, and for some time was followed by Lindley, but as the
stamens are not perigynous, (although perhaps as much so as in some
Saxifrages themselves,) and the true Saxifragea) have albumen and a

Anomalous Genera into Natmtal ' >nUrs. 2L>.»

-lender embryo, and a pla<-cntati<>n, whicli is either axile or sutural, i
parietal U in /'tirnassia, it was afterwards removed. Don proposed to
plan- it in llyperieacox, and so now has Hooker in the British Flora,
and Lindlcy in the Vegetable Kingdom; yet Hypcricaceso is essentially
(liMiniriiishrd by its opposite leaves, long styles, oblique petals, which are
spirally twisted in estivation, and axile or sutural placentae, while Par-
nassia differs in every one of these particulars.* If, then, Paracusia is to
bo referred to Hyporicaceae, we have a right to expect that the character
of that order shall bo remodelled for its reception. But the question
.! rises, Is such a step judicious? Are we to break down the limits of any
order which is otherwiso as natural in habit as the definition in words is
precise ; and this for the reception of some genus, merely because wo do
not well know how to dispose of it V

Lower down in the scale of arrangement we do not hesitate to constitute
an aberrant species into a new genus, rather than destroy the unity and
harmony of the other; and why this rule is not applied to genera when
put into an order, I have never been able to discover. It is certainly of
great benefit to science for an able botanist to indicate his views of the
affinity of such a genus to some other, and to a third and to a fourth
genus ; but if the writer ends by placing the genus where no one else
would look for it, and in an order which he has not carefully recharacter-
ised for its reception, he creates new confusion.

Two methods for avoiding this are obvious : the one is to remodel the
character of the order so that the entrant genus may form a legitimate
part of it, provided this can be done without impairing the ordinal
distinctive characters. The second is to retain only in an order those
genera about which there can bo no dispute, and which together yield a
good and precise character to the order, and reject all the anomalous
genera. That this last is to be preferred there seems little doubt ; and
the only question that can arise is as to what is to become of these rejec-
tamenta; — are they to be erected into independent natural orders ?

To this I see little objection : genera are but collections of species,
natural orders are mere collections of genera ; but, as we often find it
absolutely necessary to constitute a single species into a genus, there
can be no impropriety in extending the analogy and constituting a single
genus into a distinct natural order. The only inconvenience is, that
when other allied genera are discovered, we may have to alter consider-
ably the ordinal character, that being only applicable to the first known
genus ; but we have the same to do in species and genera, and then we
do not talk of it as at all inconvenient. It may be urged, that when a
genus is isolated, and the ordinal character can contain no more informa-
tion than that of the genus, it is sufficient to keep the genus in its proper

* In fact, Parnassia docs not agree with the character of Lindley's Guttiferalcs, to
which Hypericacea: belongs, hut with Violules, even after the character of that
alliance is amended to admit of Viola itself, which it scarcely does at present.

286 Dh. Thomson's Letters from Thibet.

place in the system without calling it a distinct order. This, however,
is a mero dispute about words ; it is of no consequence whether it be
called a genus or an order, provided it be kept distinct from every other
order whatever; and if the place of such genera alongside of other
orders be not very clear, it may be prudent to collect them all together
at the end of the system, and arrange them according to some artificial
key. The objection to the last plan is, that if one's herbarium is arranged
according to some book, there will be a great number of genera placed at
the end, and thus widely removed from orders with which there is some
generally acknowledged affinity, though not a very intimate one. By the
former method, we have, in Endlicher's Genera Plantarum, genera intro-
duced at the close of those orders to which they are most allied, with
asterisks, to denote that these are only allied, but do not actually belong
to the order or agree with its character. But from the names and
characters of these genera not being printed in the same type as the
names of the orders, a person consulting the book will readily pass them
over, and not compare the plant in his hand with them. It appears to
me that both methods might advantageously be followed : the isolated
genera might be placed in the general system wherever the writer con-
ceives it to be best, with remarks upon them ; but all such ought again
to be arranged at the end according to some simple but accurate method,
to serve as a key to those which may be said to be

Rari n antes in gurgite vasto.

I have been led into these observations by having occasion lately to
consider the limits of the Order Polygalacese.
** *** ***#

I might illustrate these principles by a reference to many other orders,
but the above will suffice to show the necessity of as accurate and precise
definitions being given to natural orders, if we wish others to understand
our writings, or obtemperate to our views of affinity, as they are to genera;
and that it is necessary to reject a genus, if it breaks in upon a group
of genera already united by several prominent characters. It does not
matter much what becomes of the intruder : it must seek some other
house of refuge, or occupy one by itself, if it cannot procure entrance into
another, or get some friend to associate with it, without a quarrel.

Letters were read from Dr. Thomas Thomson, jun., dated Iskardo,
the most northerly part of the Indus, from which it appeared that
the first division of the Thibet expedition under his charge would be
detained at this station during the winter, in consequence of the depth
of snow in the mountain passes into Cashmere, which is the next destina-
tion of the expedition. The appearance of the country at this season was
described as rather desolate. The valley of the river is filled with
alluvial deposits, sometimes containing shells (planorbis and lymnaea
were found). The height above the sea of Iskardo is 7000 feet. The

I J k . T i i om son * 8 Letters from Thibet. -J. •J 7

mountains are tipped with BBOW, with a few juniors on their sides; hut
beyond the precincts of the village, there is no true vegetation. A species
of rose and a Hippophao are the most abundant plants ; a Barberry is fre-
quent and new; several Gentians, an Iris, Prunella vulgaris, Veronica
an.iLMllis and beccabunga are found, and also a species of Parnassia.
The stems and stray leaves of these plants were only, however, observed,
as the winter was far advanced.

LIST OF MEMBERS

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW,

AT COMMENCEMENT OF SESSION 1848-49.

ORIGINAL MEMBERS.

Aitkcn, Peter, 96 Argyle-Street.

Buchanan, A., M.D.West George-Street.

Eadic, James, at J. & J. Wright's, 127
Ingram-Street.

Handyside, Nicol, 18 Gordon-Street.

Hart, John, 158 Hope-Street.

Hart, Robert, 158 Hope-Street.

Hastie, Alexander, M.P. -

Herbertson, John, 86 St. George's Place.

Liddell, Andrew, Plean House, Falkirk.

Lumsden, James, sen. of Yokcr.

Smith, George, Port-Dundas.

Stewart, John, 1 1 Argyle-Street.

Ure, John, 1 6 Montrose-Strect.

Watson, George, Surgeon, 54 West Nile-
Street.

A damson, Frederick, 23 West George-
Street.

Adamson, O. G., 23 West George-Street.

Ambrose, Wm., Writer, 135 Buchanan -
Street.

Anderson, Andrew, M.D. Andereonian
University.

Anderson, Duncan, Deaf and Dumb
Institution.

Allen, James, sen. 84 Buchanan-Street.

Bain, Andrew, St. Enoch Square.
Baird, John, 73 St. Vincent-Street.
Bulloch, Robert, 177 West Regent-
Street.

Bankier, William, J. A A. Dennis-

toun's, George Square.
Barclay, John, Dalmamock Print Works.
Barclay, Robt., Dalmarnock, 78 Ingram-
Street.

Bartholomew, Hugh, City und Suburban
Gns Works.

Bell, James, St. Enoch Squnre.

Bell, MutthewP.,245 St. Vincent-Street.

Bluck, John, 93 London-Street.

Bluckie, Robert, 38 Queen-Street.

Blackie, W. G., Ph.D. 25 Richmond-
Street.

Bogle, Jumes, 91 Buchunun-Strect.

Booth, George Robins, Engineer, 131
Hope-Street.

Brown, George, St. Rollox.

Brown, Willium, Atholl Place.

Brown, Willium, Power-Loom Munufuc-
turcr, 46 Gruh urn-Street.

Bryce, Jumes, High School

Buchunun, George, 1 50 Butb-Street

Buchunun, George S., 7 Brandon PlucC.

Buchunun, Jumes, jun. Taylor & Buchan-
an's, 49 West George-Street.

Buchanan, Thomas G., 157 Buchanun-
Street.

Buchunun, W. M., 12 Centre-Street.

Burgess, Duvid, Brassfounder, 47 Portu-
gul-Strcet.

Buttery, Alex. W., Monkland Iron and
Steel Works.

Otl lender, Thomas, 14 Stirling 8qnare.
Caldwell. James 12 Croy Place.

yoo

List of M

Campbell, Donald, Chemist, 136 Argrle-

StlVOt.

Campbell, John, 24 Glassford-Street.

Campbell, .Inlin, Surgeon, 33 North
Frederiek-Street.

Carrick, John, Superintendent of Streets,
Police Olluv.

Carswell, Hugh, Calico Printer, Alex.
Wingate's, National Bank Buildings.

Chambers, David, Miller-Street.

Clark, James, 12 Exchange Square.

Clark, William, 44 John-Street.

Clugston, John, John King & Sons,
National Bank Build., Queen-Street.

Cockey, William, 118 Argyle-Street.

Cohen, S. P., 105 Buchanan-Street.

Collins, Charles R., Paper-maker, Kel-
vindale.

Colquhoun, Hugh, 177 West Regent-
Street.

Connal, William, Plumber.

Couper, James, 45 Garngadhill.

Couper, James, Insurance Broker, Royal
Exchange Buildings.

Craig, Andrew, 23 West George- Street.

Craig, John, Mineral Surveyor, 289 Par-
liamentary Road.

Craig, William, 24 Carlton Place.

Crawford, John, M.D. Andersonian Uni-
versity.

Crichton, William, Canal Office, George
Square.

Crum, Walter, of Thornliebank.

Cunliffe, Richard S., 12 Centre-Street.

Cunningham, David, 23 Canning- Street,
Calton.

Davidson, James, 24 South Frederick-
Street.

Dawson, Thomas, Carron Company's
Office.

Dunlop, C. T., Charles Tennant &
Co.'s.

Dunn, William, of Duntocher.

Easton, John A., M.D. 39 Montrose-

Street.
Edington, Alex. G., D. Boyd's, 119

Ingram-Street.
Edington, Thomas, 8 Blythswood Square.
Erskine, John, Dunn's Work, High

John-Street.

Fairlie, Matthew, 20 Ingram-Street.
Ferguson, Alexander, St. Rollox.

Fergus, Andrew, Surgeon, 55 Sauchie-
hall-Street.

Fin< Hay, John, M.D. Sauchiehall-Street.

Finlay, John, Ironmonger, Buchanan-
Street.

Fisher, John, 135 Buchanan-Street.

Fleming, J. G., M.D. 52 West Nile-
Street.

Fleming, Robert, Ironmonger, 29 Argyle-
Street.

Frecland, Robert, of Gryffe Castle, 56
Wilson-Street.

Fyfe, John, Dalmarnock House.

Gale, William, 59 St. Vincent-Street.

Gardner, William, Royal Bank Place.

Geddes, Wm., Dyer, 14 Gordon- Street.

Gilmour, William, jun. 9 London-Street.

Glassford, Charles, 157 High-Street.

Gordon, Professor L. D. B., Bath-
Street.

Gourlie, Wm., South Frederick-Street.

Griffin, Charles, Prince of Wales Build-
ings.

Griffin, John J. London.

Graham, Alex., Lancefield Company.

Graham, C. M., Lish & Co.'s, Wilson-
Street.

Graham, Rev. John, Stirling Road.

Graham, Robert, 124 St. Vincent-Street.

Grant, Alexander, Whitevale, Gallow-
gate.

Hall, Alfred, M.D. 123 St. Vincent-
Street.

Hamilton, Patrick J., 181 St. Vincent-
Street.

Harley, Archibald B., 241 Buchanan-
Street.

Harvey, Alexander, at J. & A. Ander-
son's, 114 Candleriggs- Street.

Harvey, George, at J. & A. Anderson's,
Candleriggs-Street.

Harvey, James, National BankBuildings,
Queen-Street.

Hill, Laurence, jun. Buchanan-Street.

Hill, Thomas, West-Street.

Houldsworth, John, Cranstonhill.

Houston, John, 25 Candleriggs-Street.

Hudson, J. W., Ph.D. Athenaeum.

Hunter, Moses, Macfarlane-Street, Gal-
lowgate.

Hutcheson, Graham, James Hutche-
son & Co.'s.

Hutcheson, J. A., High School.

/ I /

lliitclic-oii, Williiiin. M.I > RO] il Lunatic
Asylum.

Johnstone, Jas., Willow Park, Greenock.
Johnstone, Robert, Merchant, Blyths-
wood Square.

Kcddie, Wm., Scottish Guardian Office.
Kerr, William, Merchant, 25 Gordon-

Street.
King, James, 75 Renficld-Street.
King, William, Adelphi Distillery, Go-

van-Street.
Knox, .John, Manufacturer, Dundas-

Street.
Kyle, Thomas, 40 St. Vincent-Street.

Laidlaw, David, 116 Areyle-Street.

Laing, Alex., Anderson ian University.

Laird, Robert, 69 Ingram- Street.

Lancaster, George, at William Smith &
Co.'s, North Exchange Court.

Lceshing, Francis, Provan Place.

I.iwellen, J. H. H., 86 West Regent-
Street.

Long, William H., Writing Master, 15
Bath-Street.

Low, William, Chester.

Lumsden, James, jun. 20 Queen-Street.

Lyon, G. J., 139 West Campbell-Street.

Miller, Alexander, Chemist, 12 Croy
Place.

Miller. James, 94 Nelson-Street.

Miller, John, jun. St. Vincent-Street.

Miller, John S., 27 South Frederick-
Street.

Mitchell, Alexander, 36 Miller-Si

Mitchell, Andrew, jun. 30 Miller-Street.

Mitchell, George.

Mitchell, W. G., 76 Virginia-Street.

i, John, C.E. 112 West George-
Street.

M.nv, William, Montrose-Strcet.

Morgan, John, George Square.

Murray, James, Monkland Iron and
1 Company.

Murray, William, Monkland Iron and
Steel Company.

Macadam, John, Lecturer on Chemistry.

80 High John-Street.
M'Andrew, John, 28 Miller-Str.
MT.ridc, John, 72 Glassford-St i
MBri.le, William, 72 Glassford-St iv i .

M'Clure, James I lowe, 138 Wert Regent-
Street.

MConnell, James, 69 Ingram-Street.

Maconochie, Professor, University.

M 'Donald, Henry, 136 George-Street.

M'Dowall, John, 101 Hill-Street.

M'Gregor, Robt., M.D. West Nile-Street.

M'Haffie, John,IIill Place,Stirling , sRoad.

M'Intosh, J. M'Gregor, 44 Brunswick
Place.

M'Intosh, Peter, Stockwell-Street.

Mackain, Dan., Water Company's Office.

MacManus, Henry, 1 Ure Place.

MacMicking, Thomas, 252 Brandon
Place.

M'Nab, Alexander, 148 Ingram-St:

M'Pherson, Hugh, Farmer, Bin;
M'Pherson-Street.

Neilson, J. B., 12 Gordon-Street.
Neilson, Walter, Engineer, Lancefield.

Paterson, Thomas L., Merchant, 23
Exchange Square.

Patterson, Adam, West George-Street.

Penny, F., Ph.D. Andersonian Univer-
sity.

Quinlan, Andrew, MJX West Hurlet,
100 St. Vincent-Street.

Ramsay, William, at Finlayson & Mon-

criefFs, 8 Gordon-Street.
Randolph, C, 12 Centre-Street.
Risk, Andrew, Paisley.
Robb, Charles, 9 Apsley Place.
Robb, George, Chemist, Hope-Street.
Robertson, Patrick, 23 Richmond-Street.

Salmond, Robert, Banker, 176 West

George-Street.
Sebright, J. W., 133 St. Vincent-Street.
Shanks, James, Civil Engineer, 23 Gar-

scube Place.
Smith, James, of Deanston, 49 West

George-Street.
Smith, John, LL.D. of Crutherland, 68

St. Vincent-Street.
Smith, John, 103 St. Vincent-Street.
Smith, William, Lancefield Spinning

Company.
Somen ille. Wm., 9 Candleriggs-Street.
Spens, William, 141 Buchanan-Street.
Stein, Andrew, 118 Union-Street.
Stenhouse, John, Provan Place.

302

List of Members.

Stevenson, James, 23 Royal Exchange
Square.

Stewart, James Rcid, 1 1 Argyle-Strcet.

Stewart, Robert, Omoa Iron Works, 37
West George-Street.

Stewart, Peter, M.D. 3 Great Welling-
ton-Street, Paisley Road.

Strang, William, 62 Jamaica-Street.

Sutherland, George, 14 Cathcart-Street.

Tennant, Charles J., of Charles Tennant
& Co.'s.

Tennant, John, of Charles Tennant
& Co.'s.

Tennent, John, Bonnington Chemical
Works, Edinburgh.

Thomson, Francis H., M.D. 100 Hope-
Street.

Thomson, George, 69 Ingram-Street.

Thomson, James, Civil Engineer, Col-
lege.

Thomson, James, Manufacturer, 2 South
Exchange Court, Queen-Street.

Thomson, John, Annfield Pottery.

Thomson, Professor William, University.

Thomson, Robert Dundas, M.D. 8
Brandon Place.

Thomson, Thomas, M.D. 8 Brandon
Place.

Thorburn, George, jun. 59 Hutcheson-

Strect.
Turnbull, John, Bonhill, George-Street.

Walker, Archibald, Distiller, St. Ninian-
Street.

Walker- Arnott, G. A.,LL.D. 31 Lync-
doch-Street.

Wardrop, Henry, 25 Gordon-Street.

Watson, Charles, 9 Buchanan-Street.

Watson, Thomas, M.D. 54 West Nile-
Street.

Watson, Thomas, Merchant, John-Street .

Watt, John, Civil Engineer, 109 Hope-
Street.

Watt, William, Manufacturing Chemist,
Dunchattan, Duke-Street.

White, John, 31 Union-Street.

Wilson, Alexander, 1 87 Stirling Road.

Wilson, George, Dalmarnock, 100 St.
Vincent-Street.

Wilson, John, 100 St. Vincent-Street

Wilson, William, 100 St. Vincent-Street.

Wingate, Alexander, National Bank
Buildings.

Wylie, Robert, 28 Argyle- Street.

Young, A. K., M.D., 43 Bath-Street.
Young, J., Jeweller, 90 Buchanan-Street.

INDEX

HOB

Adam, Mr. J., Analysis of Cobalt

Calx, 175

Analysis of Mica Slate, 100

Agriculture of Lewis, 4, 210

Airtlirey Water, Analysis of, 261

Alcohol, Mode of Testing, 94

Alexander, Mr. G., Analysis of Hum-

boldilite, 100

Annual Revenue and Expenditure

of the Society, 8, 88, 135, 196

Antrimolite, Analysis of, 98

Apparatus for Inhaling Ether, 186

Arnott, Dr. Walker, on Ferns, 209

on the Pyramids, 214

Characters of Plants, 214

Anomalous Genera, 292

Arrow Root, Effect on Blood 56

Ascog, Geological Section at, 203

Atomic Weights and Theory, 85

Balfour, Dr., Excursion to Islay, 22

Ball Soda, 267

Barley, NepauL on, 75

Blantyre, Lord, Experiments with .

Manures by, 8

Bleaching Powder, Effect of, on Cop-
per and Lead, 68

Blood, on, by Dr. Buchanan, 16

Botanical Excursions, 22, 1 00

Botanical Section, Reports from, 13, 100

Britain, Unemployed Lands of, 73

Brock Burn, Analysis of, ...225

Brown, Mr. J., Analysis of a Slag,... 163

onMolybdateofLead,180

on Soda Manufacture, 262

Analysis of Clays,

172, 173

Bryce, Mr., Geology of Bute, 198

Buchanan, Dr. A., on Blood, 16

Effect of Food on Blood, 49

On the Wound of the Ferret, 104

On Inhalation of Ether, 153

Vol. n.— No. 4. 8

Buchanan, Mr. W. M., on the Reac-
tion Water Wheel, ill

Bute, Geology of, 198

Butter, Shea, 283

Caries of Teeth, 131

Cascrome, or Lewis Plough, 4

Cattle of Lewis, 200

Ceradia Resin, Analysis of, 14

China, Analysis of, 176

Chinese Tallow, 283

Chloroform, Preparation of, 209

Clark, Dr., on Contents of Solids,.... 161

Clarke, Mr. R., on Prussiates,.., 286

Clays, Analysis of, 171

Clay Slate, Analysis of, 100

Clutterbuck, Mr., Analysis of Hum-

boldilite, 100

Colonsay Mode of Making Kelp, 251

Common Salt, Commercial, Analysis

of, 263

Conversational Meeting, 65

Cotton, Gun, Analysis of, 163

Couper, Mr.R. A., Analysis of Clays,171
Coutts, Mr. Thomas, Analysis of

Mineral Water, 261

Creatin, Creatinin, 283

Crichton, Mr. W., Analysis of

China, 176

Crum, Mr., Mode of Analysing Nitric

Acid, 163

on Potato Disease, 90

on Cupric Acid, 68

Cupric Acid, on, 69

Dalton, John, Dr., Biography of, 79

Decay of Teeth, 131

Digestion, Experiments on, 14

Dove, Herr, on Earth's Temperature, 140
Drift- Weed Kelp, 256

Earthenware, Analysis of, 17 7

304

Index.

PAOX

Earthquake at Glasgow, 137

Education, State of, in Glasgow, 134

Eggs, Effect on Blood, 54

Epiphytes, or Air Plants, Constitu-
ents of, 9

Ether, Inhalation of, 153

Exhibition of the Philosophical So-
ciety, 145

Ferret, on the Wound of the, 104

Findlay, Dr., on Potato Disease, 92

Fire Clay, Analysis of, 174

Fish, Effect on Blood 55

Fleming, Mr., on Nepaul Barley, 75

Food, Blood after taking, 49

Fuci used for Kelp, 255

Gismondine, Analysis of, 99

Glassford, Mr., on Kelp Manufac-
ture, 241

Graywacke, Analysis of, 100

Gordon, Prof., on the Temperature

of the Earth, 140

Gourlie, Mr., Present of Mosses, &c. 209
Gun Cotton, Analysis of, 163

Harringtonite, Analysis of, 98

Harvey, Mr., on Fall of Kain at

Glasgow and Gorbals Water Co., 222

Hemp, Manila, on, 226

Higginbotham, Mr. John, Analysis of

Blue Clay, 173

Humboldilite, Analysis of, 100

Indian Corn, Nutritive Power of, Ill

Iodine, Commercial Prices of, 244

Islay, Excursion to, 22

Kelp, Amount Produced, 246

Kelp Manufacture, Mr. Glassford

on, 240

Kelpers, Wages of, ,.254

Kilns for Burning Kelp, 251

King, Mr., on Chloroform, 209

Kintyre, Excursion to, 22

Landsborough's, Rev. Mr. , Dredging

Excursion, 12

List of Zoophytes in West of

Scotland, 230

Lewis, Dr., Analysis of Clay Slate,... 100

Lews, Visit to the, 1

on the Agriculture of the,....210

Library, Report on, 191

PAO»

Liddell, Mr., Statistical Account of

the Society's Exhibition, 145

Macadam, Mr. J., Analysis of Lime-
stones, 207

Macbryde, Mr., Analysis of Gray-
wacke, 100

M'Gregor, Mr., M.P., Presentation

of his Works to Society, 230

M'Micking, Mr., on Manila Hemp, 226

Manila Hemp, on, 226

Manganese, Test for, 72

Manures, Experiments with, 8

Members of Philosophical Society,

List of, 297

Mica Slate, Analysis of, 100

Mineral Water from Titwood, Ana-
lysis of, 261

Molybdate of Lead, Analysis of, 180

Montgomery, Mr., on a Self-Acting
Railway Break, 225

Nepaul Barley, Experiments on, 75

Nice, Notice of the Geology and Cli-
mate of, 192

Nickel, Carbonate of, New Mineral, 197

Office-bearers of the Society, 8, 89, 136,
196.

Parry, Mr., Analysis of Antrimolite, 98

Gismondine, 99

Phacolite,... 99

Penny, Dr., Analysis of BrockWater,225

Phacolite, Analysis of, 99

Phimister, Mr., Education Table, by, 134

Plants of Islay, 29

Plants, rare near Glasgow, 1 03

Pony Plough of Lewis, 4

Porcelain, Analysis of, 176

Potato Disease, Artificial 90, 92

Potatoes, Experiments on, with Ma-
nures 8

Prussiate of Potash Cake, Analysis of, 285
Pyramids of Egypt, Height of,., 214

Railway Break, New, 225

Rain at Glasgow, 138

Nice, 193

Glasgow, 222

Raphilite, Analysis of, 99

Reaction Water Wheel, Theory of, 111

Refuse Prnssiate, Analysis of, 999

Richardson, Mr., Analysis of Soda
Ash, 272

lifU-.r.

800

Salt, Common, Analysis of, 264

Salt in the Air in Storms, 195

Scotland, West of, Zoophytes of, 230

Scurvy, Cause and Cure of, 261

Sea Weeds for Kelp, 247

Serum, White, 49

Shea Butter, Analysis of, 283

Slag, Analysis from a Lime Kiln,.... 163
Smith, Mr., on the Agriculture of

Lews, 210

Series of Thermometers, 137

Visit to Island of Lewis, 1

Soda Ash 271

Soda, Ball, 267, 272

Soda, Carbonate, Crude, 267

Soda, Carbonate Process, 299

Soda, Carbonate, Pure, 277

Soda Manufacture, on the Products

of, 262

Soda, Sulphate, Composition of, 266

Soda Waste, Analysis of, 270

Sodium, Chloride of, 263

Solids, Mode of Calculating Contents

of, 161

Stenhouse, Mr. , on the Principles of

the Lichens, 214

Stevenson, Mr. Jas. C, Analysis of

Wollastonite, -. 97

Stirling's Air Engine, on, 169

Stirrat, Mr., on Paisley Water Com-
pany, 224

Sutherland, Mr. G., on Unemployed

Lands of Britain, 73

Tallow, Chinese, 283

Teeth, Decay of, 131

Tennent, Mr. H. B., Analysis of

Prussiate Cake, 285

Thomson, Dr. F. H., on Teeth, 131

Thomson, Dr. R D., Analysis of

Ceradia Resin 14

on Analysis of Minerals, 97

Chemistry of Food 137

on Digestion,

Thomson, Dr. R. D., on Fall of Rain

near Glasgow, 138

Sanatory Report, 260

on Shea Butter, 283

Test for Alcohol, 94

Thomson, Dr. T., Jun., Present of

Plants, 88

Thomson, Dr. T., Life of Dalton,,... 79
on the Geology

and Climate of Nice, 192

Thomson, Mr. J., on Epiphytes 9

Thomson, Professor W., on Stirling's

Air Engine, 169

Tourmaline, Brown, Analysis of, 99

Turnips, Experiments with Manures

on, 8

Tuss::ck Grass, Specimen of, 187

Ultra Marine in Ball Soda, 270

Unger, Analysis of Soda Waste, by, 277

Venation as a Character of Ferns,... 209

Wages of Helpers 254

Waldie, Mr., on Chloroform, 221

Waste, Soda, Analysis of, 271

Water Company, Gorbals, 224

Water, Mineral, from Titwood, near

Glasgow, 261

Water Wheel, Reaction ill

Weeds, Sea, Mode of Collecting, for

Kelp, 247

Wilson, Mr., on Calculating the

Contents of Solids, 161

Wollastonite, Analysis of, 97

Wood, Mr. E. T., Analysis of Tit-
wood Water, 261

Shea Butter and Chinese Oil, 283

Yellow Prussiate of Potash 285

Zeolites, Analysis of some, 87

Zoophytes in West of Scotland, Cata-

of, 230

GLASOO w :
rtU.ITKP DY BILL AMD BAI5, ST. MOC1I SQUARE.

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CONSTITUTION

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF GLASGOW.

INSTITUTED-1802.

Non flngendum aut excogitandum, sed inveniendum, quid Nature facial
aut ferat.— Bacoh.

GLASGOW:

PRINTED BY BELL & BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.
MDCCCXLV.

CONSTITUTION

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF GLASGOW.

Office-Bearers.

The business of the Society shall be conducted by the
following Office-Bearers, namely, a President, Vice-Presi-
dent, Treasurer, Secretary, Assistant-Secretary, and Twelve
Councillors, elected annually, as hereinafter prescribed.
The Council shall hold their Meetings on the days of the
Ordinary Meetings of the Society, at seven o'clock in the
evening, without summons. They shall record their pro-
ceedings in a Minute-Book. Five a quorum.

II.

President.

The President shall take the chair on all occasions, when
present, and shall convene Meetings of the Council, or
Extraordinary Meetings of the Society, when deemed neces-
sary by himself, or when he is requested in writing to do
so by Three Members.

III.

Vice-President.

In absence of the President, the Vice-President shall
take the chair; when both are absent, any Member may be
voted into the chair.

IV.

Treasurer.

The Treasurer shall have in charge the Property of the
Society, and shall receive all Payments due to the Society.
Whenever the sum in his hands amounts to twenty pounds,
he shall deposit it in one of the Glasgow banks, in name
of the President and himself conjointly. He shall pay
such sums as may be ordered by the Council, and shall
keep an account of all his intromissions in the Society's
General Cash-Book, which account shall be balanced

annually, on the third Wednesday in November, and be
examined, with the Vouchers, by two Auditors, appointed
by the Society, at the first meeting in November, and who
shall not be Members of the Council. There shall be
appended yearly to this Financial Statement an Inventory
of all the Property possessed by the Society.

The Treasurer shall also keep a Register of the Names
of the Members of the Society, which shall be presented
at the General Annual Meeting in November, and be so
arranged as to distinguish such Members as have not paid
up their Subscriptions to that date.

Secretary.

The Secretary shall record in the Minute-Book the
transactions of the Society, and give an abstract of the
papers that are read at the Ordinary Meetings. He shall
also conduct the Society's correspondence.

VI.

Assistant-Secretary.

In the absence of the Secretary, the Assistant-Secre-
tary shall perform his duties. The Assistant-Secretary
shall also act as Secretary to the Council, and keep the
Minute-Book of their proceedings.

VII.

Librarian.

The Librarian shall have charge of the Books belonging
to the Society, and shall keep a Catalogue of them and an
account of their circulation among the Members. He
shall levy the fines incurred by breach of the Library regu-
lations, and pay over the same to the Treasurer, a week
before the annual accounts are made up in November.

The Library Regulations are founded on the following Agreement,
entered into between Anderson's University and the Philosophical
Society of Glasgow, December 2&th, 1840 : —

1. — The Books contained at present in the Andersonian Library
shall remain the property of the Andersonian University.

2. — The Books purchased by the Philosophical Society, from
and after the month of January, 1840, shall be the property of the
Philosophical Society.

3. — The connection between the Society and the University
shall cease whenever either party shall desire it. In the event of
a separation, the Books in the Library shall be divided agreeably
to the right of property declared in sections 1 and 2.

4. — The Society shall continue to hold its meetings as hitherto,
in the Andersonian Library, and shall have the privilege of deposit-
ing its Books and property in the same room ; the use of which
is granted for that purpose by the Managers of the University.
The Society shall have the use of the Books in the Andersonian
Library, and free admission to the Andersonian Museum. In

consideration of these advantages, the Society shall pay to the
University a yearly rent of Five Pounds, payable annually at
Whitsunday, and shall also be at the expense of lighting and
warming the Library, when required for their use, and shall pay
for presses to contain their own Books.

5 — The Books belonging to the Andersonian Library shall be
under the care of a Librarian appointed by the University. But
it is agreed that this Officer, or the Janitor of the University,
shall also exchange the Books for readers in the Library of the
Philosophical Society, and keep the Library Account- Book of the
Society. The Regulations for the Management of the Library
shall be jointly agreed to by the Society and the University, and
shall apply equally to the Books belonging to both parties.

6. — This agreement shall not be held to affect the liferent right
to the Andersonian Library, now possessed by life-subscribers, or
granted to the original Members of the Philosophical Society, by
the agreement between the University and the Society, of date
27th February, 1832.

Regulations for the Management of the Library.

1. — The Books may be exchanged daily between the hours of
ten and four, or between six and eight in the evening, by the
Librarian, or his substitute.

2. — No reader can be allowed more than one volume at a time,
of Books that havo been less than three months in the Library,
or three volumes at a time, of Books that have been more than
three months in the Library.

3. — The day of entry of every Book into the Library shall be
marked in the Library Catalogue, and on the Book itself.

4. — The time allowed for reading the Books, and the fines for
keeping them too long, shall be as follows : —

AFTER ENTRY.

TIME ALLOWED.

FINES IF KEPT LONGER.

First Month,

Second «fc Third Months,

After the Third Month,

Three Days,
Seven Days,
Two Weeks,

One Penny per Day.
Threepence per Week.
Twopence per Week.

faT If a reader, who has incurred Jines, refuses to pay them, his right to read
Books from the Library shall be suspended. The fines shall be paid
to the Librarian, or his substitute.

5.— When a Book is returned, it may be borrowed again, pro-
vided no other reader has bespoken it.

6. — If any reader retains a volume three months at one time,
the Librarian shall write him to return it immediately ; and if he
does not comply, the Society may replace it, charging the reader
in default, not only with the price, but also with the three months*
fines due for not returning it. If the volume belongs to a set of
Books, the whole must be so replaced, if the volume wanting can-
not be got apart.

If any Book is damaged when returned, a fine equivalent to the
injury, as the Society shall determine, must be paid; and if
injured so as to be unfit for use, it must be replaced by a complete
copy.

7. — None but Members of the Philosophical Society shall be
entitled to read the Books belonging to the Society's Library.

8. — Members engaged in drawing up papers to be laid before
the Society, may have an extra number of volumes, and be
allowed a longer time to read them, upon producing an order to
that effect from the convener of a Sectional Committee. Such
orders are to be preserved and delivered to the Society's
Librarian.

9. — Any circumstance occurring, not provided for in these
Regulations, shall be submitted to an Ordinary Meeting of the
Society, and their decision shall be final and binding on all con-
cerned.

VIII.

The Funds.

The Funds shall be employed, under direction of the
Council, to defray the necessary charges of the Society; to
purchase books, models, and instruments; to print the
Society's Transactions; or for any other purpose that the
Council may judge to be conducive to the advancement,
convenience, and prosperity of the Society.

IX.

Sections.
The Society shall be divided into the following Sections: —

Section A. — Agriculture, Statistics, and Domestic Economy.

— B. — Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology.

— C. — Physics, including Mechanics and Engineering.

— D. — Physiology and Natural History.

— E. — Botany.

Each Section may meet separately, and read and discuss
papers, its Secretary furnishing an abstract of the pro-
ceedings to the next Ordinary Meeting of the Society.
The Members of the Society may attach themselves to one
or more of these Sections, according to the direction of
their pursuits. Every Member shall communicate his
intentions in this respect to the Secretaries of the Sections
that he wishes to attend. The Members of each Section
shall be convened by its Secretary, at least four days
before the last Ordinary Meeting of each Session, for the

purpose of electing a Chairman and Secretary, and such
other Office-Bearers as may be required.

Members.

There shall be three classes of Members, Resident, Cor-
responding, and Honorary. Upon admission, each Member
shall sign his name to the following Declaration, in a book
kept for the purpose, and shall receive a printed copy of
the Laws of the Society, and a Diploma, sealed with the
Society's seal, and attested by the signatures of the Presi-
dent, Vice-President, Treasurer, and Secretary.

The Corresponding and Honorary Members shall enjoy
all the privileges of Resident Members, except that of
Voting.

Declaration.

I hereby bind myself to observe and obey the Laws of the
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, faithfully and conscien-
tiously, and to use my utmost endeavours to promote the interests
of the Society. I further bind myself to be careful of its Library,
and all its other Property.

XI.

Resident Members.

Resident Members shall be proposed at one of the Ordi-
nary Meetings, by three Members, who, from their own
personal knowledge, shall certify the fitness of the indi-

vidual recommended, who shall be balloted for at the next
Ordinary Meeting. The Secretary shall inform Members
of their election by letter. Upon his admission, every
Member shall make payment of one guinea in name of
Entry-money, and pay his first year's Annual Subscription.
Failing to comply with the terms of this Article, within
two months after his election, he ceases to be a Member
of the Society.

The Annual Subscription to the Society shall be 15s.,
which shall be paid on the third Wednesday in November.
Members whose Subscriptions are in arrear shall not have
the power to vote on any question, nor to use the Library,
nor be entitled to receive the printed Proceedings of the
Society.

Members neglecting to pay their Annual Subscriptions
for two years, shall be held to have resigned.

Members about to become Non-Resident, shall, on pay-
ment of their Subscriptions to the date, and giving notice
in writing to the Secretary, become entitled to resume their
position as Resident Members, whenever they return to
Glasgow, upon payment of the current year's Subscription.

The Property of the Society shall be vested solely in the
Resident Members, and be under the management of the
Council.

Those resident Members of the Society who are referred to
in paragraph 6 of the Agreement, recorded in Article VII.,
are exempted from payment of the Annual Subscription of
15s* But, by a formal Resolution of the Society, and by
this Regulation, they are declared to be liable to the pay-
ment of 5s. on the third Wednesday in November annually.

XII.

Corresponding Members.

Men of Science, not resident in Glasgow, from whom
early and valuable intelligence on Philosophical subjects
may be expected, are eligible as Corresponding Members.
They shall be proposed and ballotted for in the same
manner as Resident Members, but they shall pay neither
Entry-Money nor Annual Contributions.

XIII.

Honorary Members.

Individuals who have contributed in an eminent degree
to the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences, may be
elected Honorary Members, by Ballot, upon the recom-
mendation of six Members presented at a previous Ordi-
nary Meeting. Honorary Members are liable to no pay-
ments.

XIV.

Meetings of the Society.

The Ordinary Meetings shall be held in the Society's
Rooms, every alternate Wednesday evening, from the first

Wednesday in November till the last Wednesday in April,
inclusive. The Secretary shall announce these Meetings
by circular, addressed to every Member who shall intimate
his desire to receive such notice. Seven Members shall
constitute a quorum. The chair to be taken at eight
o'clock, when the ordinary business of the Society shall
proceed as follows: —

1. The Minutes of the previous Meeting to be read and

confirmed.

2. New Members to be balloted for.

3. New Members to be proposed.

4. Business respecting the Society to be disposed of.

5. Essays to be read.

6. Experiments to be performed.

7. Models, Drawings, Specimens, &c, to be exhibited.

8. Such subjects connected with the Arts or Sciences

to be discussed as may be suggested by any of the
Members.

There shall be a General Meeting of the Society held
Annually, on the third Wednesday in November, or as
near that day as may be, due intimation of which shall be
communicated to all the Members of the Society by the
Secretary, in writing. At this General Meeting the Council
of the preceding year shall resign office, the Treasurer first
exhibiting a« clear statement of the Funds and other pro-
perty of the Society, and the Secretary presenting a Report
on such occurrences during the past year as the Council
may think worthy of record. These documents shall be
transcribed into the Minute-Book. Thereafter, the Society

shall elect Office-Bearers for the ensuing year. Any of the
former Office-Bearers may be re-elected. None shall vote
at this Meeting but Resident Members, whose Subscrip-
tions are paid up to the date.

XV.

Transactions of the Society.

All scientific papers shall be approved of by the Council
previously to being read before the Society. The author
of every Memoir read before the Society shall deposit
a copy, with permission to publish it. The Council shall
determine which of these papers shall be published, and
also the manner of publication. Every Member of the
Society shall be entitled to receive one copy of the printed
Proceedings gratis. The Proceedings shall also be sold to
Members and to the Public, at a price to be fixed on by
the Council.

XVI.
Of Voting.

Votes for the election of Office-Bearers, and the admis-
sion of Members, to be given by ballot; all other votes
viva voce.

Any motion may be carried by a simple majority of

votes, excepting for the admission of Members, when one-
fifth of the votes tendered shall exclude. When the votes
are equal, whoever is in the chair has a casting vote, in
addition to his deliberative vote.

A motion for either of the following purposes, viz. —
1st, For disbursing more than One Guinea; 2d, For alter-
ing, annulling, or enacting Regulations — shall not receive
final sanction until it has been approved of at two Ordi-
nary Meetings of the Society; at either of which Meetings,
should the motion be negatived, it is lost for that Session.
But no vote shall be taken on any such motion, unless it
has been previously considered and agreed to by the
Council.

BBLL AMD BAIN, PRINTERS.

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