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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
Third Series.
VEO TAO i, OV.
DUBLIN:
PUBLISHED AT THE ACADEMY HOUSE, 19, DAWSON-STREET.
SOLD ALSO
By HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO. (Lrv.), GRAFTON-ST. ;
By WILLIAMS & NORGATE,
London: 14, Henrietra-sTREET, Covent GARDEN.
Epinpureu: 20, Sourn Frepericx-st. Oxrorp: 7, Broap-sr.
1896-98.
DUBLIN :
Prinied at the Gnibersity Press,
BY PONSONBY AND WELDRICK,
Tue AcapeEmy desire it to be understood that they are not
answerable for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of
reasoning that may appear in any of the following Papers. The
Authors of the several Papers are alone responsible for their
contents.
LIST OF THE CONTRIBUTORS.
WITH REFERENCE TO THE SEVERAL ARTICLES CONTRIBUTED
BY EACH.
Batt, Str Rosert, LL.D.
Amendment to the ‘‘Twelfth and Concluding Memoir on
the Theory of Screws”: published in the Zransac-
tions of the Academy, Vol. xxxt., pp. 144-196,
Browne, Cuartes R., M.D.
The Ethnography of Ballycroy, in the County of Mayo.
(Plates ITI. and IV.).
See Cunnineuam, D. J.—Corrry, Gro.
Corrry, Grorcs, B.E.
On Prehistoric Cenotaphs,
On Stone Markings (Ship-Figure) hei discovered at
Dowth, in the County of Meath,
On a Cairn excavated by Thomas Plunkett on Belmore
Mountain, in the County of Fermanagh,
See Prunxerr, THomas.
Corrry, G., Brownn, C. R., M.D., and Wesrrorp, T. J., M.A.
Report on a Prehistoric Burial near Newcastle in the
County of Wicklow,
PAGE
667
74
16
586
vi List of the Contributors.
Counnincuam, D. J., M.D., and Brownz, C. R., M.D,
On some Human Remains recently discovered near Lismore
in the County of Waterford,
Cusack, Ratpx S.
On the Melting Points of Minerals. (Plate V.).
On Human Locomotion: Variation of Velocity when
Walking. (Plate VI.),
The Effect of Change in Temperature on . Bhosptionseet
Substances. (Plate VII.),
Dixon, Henry, H., D.Sc.
On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves, ; $
On the Effects of Stimulative and Anesthetic Gasses on
Transpiration. (Preliminary Note),
On Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere,
Happon, AtrreD, C., D.Sc.
Studies in Irish Craniology: III. A Neolithic Cist
Burial at Oldbridge, in the County of Meath. (Plate
>. Guy):
See Ray, Sipyey H.
Joty, Coantes J., M.A., F.T.C.D
Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions and
Quaternion Determinants, ; ; :
Vector Expressions for Curves. Part I. Unicursal
Curves,
On the Homogeaphie Divine of Planes! grheses aiid
Space, and on the Systems of Lines joining Corre-
sponding Points,
McAgpie, Davi.
Additions to the Hepatice of the Hill of Howth (County
of Dublin), with a Table showing the Geographical
Distribution of all the Species known to grow there,
Report on the Musci and Hepatice of the County of Cavan.
(Plates XXI, and XXII),
PAGE
618
627
570
515
112
606
List of Contributors.
Oxpen, Tuomas, D.D.
Remarks supplementary to Dr. Joyce’s Paper On the
Occurrence of the Number Two in Irish Proper
Names,
O’Rettty, J.P., C.E.
On the Constitution of the Calp Shale of Dublin. (Plate
DA.) - ae ; : : :
On the Orientation of some Cromlechs in the neighbour-
hood of Dublin. Part I. (Plates XIII, to XVIL.),
On the Orientation of some Cromlechs in the neighbour-
hood of Dublin. Part II. (Plates XVIII. to XX.),
On the Round Tower of Chambles, near Firminy, in the
District of St. Etienne (Loire),
Piunxert, THomas, and Correy, Groree.
Report on the Excavation of Topped Mountain Cairn,
Prarcer, R. Luoyn, B.E.
Reportupon the Raised Beaches of the North-East of Ireland
with special reference to their Fauna. (Plate L.),
Ray, Sipyey H., and Happon, Atrrenp C., D.Sc.
A Study of the Languages of Torres Straits, with Vocabu-
laries and Grammatical Notes. Part Il. .
Scnanrr, R. F., Ph.D.
On the Origin of the European Fauna,
Stokes, Gzrorce T., D.D.
Concerning Marsh’s Library and an Original Indulgence
from Cardinal Wolsey lately discovered therein,
Ussuer, R. J.
Disvovery of Human and other Remains, with Materials
similar to those of a Crannoge high above the present
Valley of the Blackwater between Lismore Castle and
Cathedral,
644
50
Oy
oO
oS
Vili List of Contributors.
Wesrrorp, THomas J., M.A. PAGE
On Magh Adhair, in the County of Clare. The Place of
Inauguration of the Dalcassian Kings. (Plate II.), 5d
The Distribution of Cromlechs in the County of Clare.
(lates VMI towx.); ‘ : : : . 542
See Corrry, Gro.; Browne, C., and Wzsrropp, T. J.
DATES OF THE PUBLICATION
OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF THIS VOLUME.
Part 1. Pages 1 to 278. December, 1896.
2H nl gy) 279) 7 426 Atri oe
Ne ns » eet op Ola dhulky, an
Sy ns », 915 ,, 588. December, ,,
oS 5 O80 O68. Maye 1898.
Pirates I. to X XID.
ppb PBIB DOaa a
yp” CADE
rd . & Bin, 9
3
PROCHEDINGS
OF
THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.
I.
QUATERNION INVARIANTS OF LINEAR VECTOR FUNC-
TIONS AND QUATERNION DETERMINANTS. By
CHARLES J. JOLY, M.A.
[Read June 8, 1896.]
1. Introductory.—This Paper is, to a certain extent, supplementary to
a Paper on ‘‘ The Scalar Invariants of Two Linear Vector Functions,”
which was published in vol. xxx. of the Transactions of the Royal
Trish Academy. The notation of that Paper is followed as closely as
possible, so as to facilitate occasional references to it.
The quaternion invariants being simply expressible as quotients of
two determinants with vector constituents, it seems desirable to con-
sider briefly such determinants, and to point out the geometrical
meaning of their vanishing in certain simple cases.!
2. Expansion of determinants with quaternion constituents.—Because
quaternion multiplication is not commutative, a determinant whose
constituents are quaternions is unmeaning until some convention is
adopted respecting its expansion. If it be agreed that the order of
the constituents in the expansion shall follow the order of the rows,
all indefiniteness is removed.
1 Determinants, whose constituents are alternate numbers, have been considered
by Clifford (‘‘ Mathematical Papers,’ p. 277). If i; and 2 are any two consti-
tuents, #?=%27=0, and t%2+%2i1=0, these being the defining formule for
alternate numbers.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. IV. B
a
veer
2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
On this supposition,
| Pp Y | = py! -qp', but not py'-p'q;
pg
2 nea? ere and i ? |=py-po=0.
p q
It is also obvious that if x is any scalar,
pao Bed, but not = if zal
pg | |p wp't+d up+p' ag+¢
Thus the columns may be treated as in ordinary determinants with
scalar constituents; but it is not lawful to treat the rows in this
manner. The former of these processes is consistent with the con-
vention that the order of the constituents shall follow the order of the
rows; the latter violates this convention.
8. Wultiplication of a quaternion and a scalar determinant.—Again,
pet gy psx’ + gy'
perry pla! + gy’
i UI
py
xy
ay!
a | py+ge py + qy’
perg'x pyrqy' |
the p and g being here, as elsewhere in this Paper, quaternions, and
the x and y being scalars. Similar processes hold for determinants of
any order.
Further, it is easy to see that, if p=w+dr+jy+kz, with similar
expressions for the dotted letters,
pp p" ligk wn y 3
pp pl £2 1 ij AN. | w' x! y! g!
p p p" 1 tg k | w'! a"! y"" gi!
4. Determinants with identical rows.—As geometrical examples,
observe that if a, B, y, 6, &., are vectors,
a f
a B
a By
a B y |=2(aVBy + BV ya + yVaf) = 6SaB y;
a By
= 2VaB;
JoLtyY—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, §c. 3
and
a By 5
a By
a By 8
a By 6
Determinants of this type enter largely into the treatment of hyper-
space by means of a symbolic algebra analogous to quaternions.
Generally, also, the determinant of the fourth order whose rows
are identical, and whose constituents are quaternions, vanishes iden-
tically. For, if p, g, r, and s are four arbitrary quaternions, the
transformation
= 6 (aSByd — BSayd + ySaBd - dSaBy) = 0.
pqre pari
JOS Pad 1) aSp+bSq+eSr+dSs
paqrs| |pqrl ad
pqrs pg nl
(in which aVp + bVq+¢eVr+dVs=0)
is the result of adding the first, second, and third columns multiplied
by a, 6, and ¢ to the fourth multiplied by d, and then dividing by d.
Expanding the transformed determinant by the minors formed from
the first and second rows, it is seen to vanish identically.
Again, if di, de, $s, and ¢y are any linear vector functions,
fia PB iy $10
pra doh gry $20
psa sh psy 30
pia iB diy $48
5. Geometrical interpretations concerning vanishing determinants.—
a £ ay)
a! B'
the four vectors are coplanar; the angle between a and #’ is equal to
that between B and a’; and, if the vectors are coinitial, the triangle
determined by a and f’ is equal to that determined by B and a’.
B2
tl
2
if
5 OP) Gey bre.
4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeniy.
If
iL Gal
a B Yala 0,
a By
the vectors, if coinitial, terminate on a line. In fact,
eee al igs
B-a y-«a
or B—a is parallel to y—a.
Consider the quaternion
a’ py
q=|a B y |=2(a'VBy + B’'Vyo + y'VoB);
a By
its conjugate is
a By
Kg=|a B y |=2(VBy.a'+ Vya.B'+ VoB.y’);
a’ Bry
and its scalar may also be expressed as a determinant,
a By
Sg =| a! B’ y' |= (ya'B - Ba'y) + (aB’y - yB'a) + (By'a - ayB),
a Boy
the terms being grouped so that the pairs within the brackets are
scalars. This may serve as a particular example of the effect of
interchanging the rows.
If a’, B’, y’ are regarded as the points of application of the forces
VBy, Vyo, and Va, respectively, Vg =0 expresses that the sum of
the (vector) moments of these forces with respect to the origin of
vectors is zero, or that the resultant of the forces is a single force
through the origin; Sy=0 expresses that the virial of the forces
with respect to the origin is zero; and generally g = 0 expresses, in
Hamilton’s phraseology, that the forces are equivalent to a single
force, and that the origin is the centre of the forces, being that point
for which their total moment q vanishes, or, more generally, is a
minimum.!
1 «*Elements of Quaternions,’’ Art. 414 (16). What is now called the virial,
was called by Hamilton the total tension. By Art. 7 of the present Paper the
relation of these six vectors may be illustrated by means of a quadric.
JoLty—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, §c. 5
6. Quaternion invariant, linear with respect to each of three linear
vector functions, expressed as a quotient of determinants.—Haying, per-
haps, sufficiently dwelt on the manipulation of these determinants with
non-commutative constituents, I shall now show that
dia hi dry -
2a PoP dry Rao 9 (di, de, $s)
3a PsP psy
is a quaternion invariant of the three linear vector functions ¢ in the
sense that it is independent of the vectors a, 8, andy. This may be
done by expressing a, 8, and y in terms of any three vectors such as
z,j, and &, and using the methods indicated in Art. 3, or by direct
expansion, which is to be preferred, as exhibiting more clearly the
dependence of the determinant on the linear vector functions. Thus,
q (di, 2; ds) SaBy
= $a (PB dsy — d2yhsP) + $i8 (dzybs0 — goadsy)
+ diy (P2038 — $2830)
= 1;(di, $2, $3) SaBy
+ piaS (PB osy — doyhsP) + HBS (doyhsa — goadsy)
+ diyS (grahs8 — $2842)
— $2.08 (PsP dry — dsyhiPh) — PBS (dsygia — dsa¢gry)
— dryS (dsadi8 — 38 die)
+ $308 (P:Bdxy — drydr8) + 8S (drydr0 — Gradzy)
+ $syS (Piad28 — di8¢22),
=Sdia (d2hdsy + dB dry)
i; G2) 3) AL a Soe
(bu dn 3) ==
is a scalar invariant, noticed in Art. 22 of the Paper already
referred to.
Now, if ¢,’ is the conjugate of ¢2,
S (doBdsy — drybs8) = S (bs'b2 — o's) B- y = 2S2By,
if 723 is the spin vector or non-conjugate part of ¢;'¢2.* Hence, if =
denotes summation for cyclical transposition of a, 8, and y,
Zia ($.Bosy — doyhoP) = 22 diaSpsSy = 2dr - SaBy.
. : .*& :
* The vector functions $3'2 and 2'93 are conjugate, since
SAGs 24 = SosrAG2u = Suge’ had.
in which
6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The quaternion is, consequently, reduced to bah
Q (dr, be, bs) = 2 (ims — Goya + bs%2) + 1s (dry pa, $s),
and is therefore, as has been announced, independent of the vectors:
a, B, and y.
Occasionally, the vector 27; may be designated by
V (ps'b2 a pa ps)
but care must be taken to distinguish between
bi V (hs'b2 — $a'hs) « p = 2hr%e « P
Pi (ds'h2 Ee o's) p= 241 Vinsp.
7. Special cases of this invariant.—As a particular case of the
preceding invariant, let ¢, = $3, and then
Q (fi fey fr) = Is (h1, Pay $2).
N21 + 2 = 0, and Hu = 0,
and
For
and the vector part vanishes. This might have been predicted, from
an example in Art. 5. If ¢.= 43,
I(r Pay fz) = Is (hry hay $2) + 4hom2 5
hence, in particular, if ¢, = 1,
q(¢1 1, 1) =4& (fi, 1, 1) + 4a;
in which expression, remembering that
22 = V (hah — d1'2),
e, is the spin-vector of q.
Now,
($1, 1,1) =2m, if ,5- my + mod, — m; = 0,
and, therefore,
q (di, 1, 1) = 2 (m + 2e,),
which is Hamilton’s first invariant. Also, in a similar manner,
qi, Pi; 1) =/3 (di, dr, 1) + 4qie,
= 2 (m, + 2die1) ;
and this is Hamilton’s second quaternion inyariant.!
7 (41; $1, $1) is easily seen to be equal to 6m.
1 See his ‘‘ Hlements of Quaternions,’’ Art. 349.
Jory—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, &§c. 7
8. On interchange of rows, six quaternion invariants are found ; these
are equivalent to one scalar, and three vector invariants—The effect of
the interchange of rows was partially considered in the 5th Article.
Closely connected with this is the effect of the interchange of ¢,, dn,
and #; in the invariant ¢(¢i, ¢2, ¢3). In order to see the connexion,
it is only necessary to remark, that if
a, = dia, ag = 2a, and a, = 30,
with similar meanings for (8, 62, 83, and yi, yo, Ys,
a) By aya
qd (dr, $2, 3) SaBy =| A Be 2
ag Bs Y3
For brevity, let 2;(¢1, $2, ¢3) be denoted by 7, as in this scalar
part transposition of the functions is without effect ;! then
Y (di, $2, $3) = Fs + 2 (dims — G2ys1 + S32);
I (ha, fay $1) = bs — 2 (digas — Hey + 3M2) 5
1 (der $a $i) = bs + 2 (diges + Pon — P32);
I (pr, a, $2) = bs — 2 (piges + Goya — $32) 5
Q (ds, fi, $2) = 13 + 2 (— Piges + Hayai + $sm12);
d (de, $1, $3) = 2s — 2 (= hijes + G2931 + G32):
The quaternions are here grouped in eonjugate pairs, and the six
different values of determinants of the third order formed by the
same three rows in different orders are exhibited.
and
9. Relations connecting vector invariants. Two reducing formule.—
The six invariants lately considered are equivalent to one scalar and
three vector invariants. I propose now to consider some reductions
and relations concerning vector invariants.
Retaining the suffix notation, let «, denote the spin-vector of q,,
e, that of ¢., and e, and «, those of 4; ¢, and 2 ¢, respectively. Let
¢, satisfy the cubic
o> — m $i + me dy — mz = 0,
2? — my’ ho? + Mz hy — Ms! = 0.
and let ¢» satisfy
1 This may be verified by expansion of the determinants, but it is otherwise
obvious.
8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
For an arbitrary vector p,
(die — f2'd1’) p = [pr' + ($1 - $1’) ] dep — $2" [$1 — (1 - $1’) ] p
= (die — $2'h1) p + 2Verhop + 2b2/ Veip
= 2V nop + 2 (ny' Veap —- Voip) :
using the fundamental relation
m,'Vep = Vedop + Vbrep + $2 Vaip,
and retaining the signification of 721.
But p is arbitrary, and (¢i¢2 - d2'fi')p =2Venp, and conse-
quently,
€12 = — M2 + M4 — frei.
Interchanging the functions ¢, and ¢,, the similar relation
: €) = + M2 + Me, — Pike
is found.
If ¢, = dy, as a particular case of these relations
3V (or = gi”) = Me; — die:
10. On cyclical transposition of a product of functions—Adding the
two relations found in the last Article,
/ °
€12 + €3] = My, €} + My €2 = Pri = Pike 3
this formula will be found to be of importance in the reduction of
the number of vector invariants. By its means the spin-vector of any
function 6 may be expressed in terms of that of $6, and of the
results of operation on the spin-vectors of 6 and ¢. More generally
by repeated application of the formula, the spin-vectors of any cyclical
group of functions such as $70, $0, 0¢? (in which the symbols 0 and
¢ are cyclically transposed) may be expressed in terms of the spin-
vector of any one of the functions (476 suppose) and in terms of the
results of operation on the spin-vectors of simpler functions.
11. When a square enters into the product, the spin-vectors are
reducible.—Replacing ¢2 by ¢2¢, in the first formule of Art. 9 (which
may be written in the form
V(diha— ba'r')=V( hips — a'r) + ma ($2) -V( pi - tr’) - 62 (di - by’)
P (didods — hi bob’) = V (di podi — p12’)
+m, (poh) V (bi — $1’) — bhi VM hi — $1’)
is the result, m(¢.¢,) denoting the m, invariant of $24).
JoLty—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, &e. 9
Now ($121 — $i'he'hi) p = $i’ ($2 — $2") dip
= 2¢,' Vechip = 2m3 Vd" exp,
and therefore as p is arbitrary,
Ve hi bedi — iho’) = 2mghy eo = 2 (fy? — 1g, + Ma) &.
The spin-vector of ¢;'¢2¢; 1s consequently reduced to a result of
operation on the spin-vector of qo.
To see the full bearing of this, observe that by a formula lately
written,
V (didodi = $1'd2 dy’) = Qmspy*€ + 2m, (291) .& — 2do1€1.
Thus the spin-vector of ¢;¢.¢, is likewise reduced to the results of
operation on the spin-vectors of simpler functions, and therefore, by
the last Article, the spin-vectors of ¢,’f2, and ¢.¢,” are similarly
reducible. Generally, therefore, having formed from any number of
functions @ a function ® = didodshidy &e., the spin-vectors of all
the functions formed by cyclically transposing the ¢ in ©@ are, by
the last Article, linearly and invariantally expressible in terms of
the spin-vector of ®, and in terms of the results of operation on
the spin-vectors of simpler functions; and, by the present Article,
if any one of the ¢ is consecutively repeated in ®, the spin-vectors
of the functions of the group are all expressible in terms of the
results of operation on the spin-vectors of simpler functions.
12. Zhus ts also the case when the same function occurs twice in the
product.—For two functions, ¢, and ¢,, the vector invariants are the
results of operation on the two spin-vectors ¢, and «,, and on one of the
three vectors €2, €, and 412. In this case the cyclical group consists
of the functions did. and dof;. The group didedid, gives a reducible
invariant. Before proceeding to the consideration of three functions,
another general formula of reduction will be given.
If 6 and w are any linear vector functions, the vector invariants of
the cycle ¢,6fiy are reducible. A function of the cycle is W,0¢, and
V (Whi. O91 — h1'0'. dip’) = V (di'f’. Og: — $10’. Wr)
+ m, (Ob1) V Whi — di’) — OG, V (edi - HY’),
by a formula of Art. 9 or 11, the functions Wd, and 6¢, replacing
¢, and ¢y.
Now, as in the last article,
(pr'p’. Of: — $0". Wor) p = di’ (W/O — OY) dip
= M3(di).V. hr! V (Wd — OW) .p,
so V (dil. Od; — $16’. hi) = 3(g1). 62 (Wd - OY),
and the theorem just stated is proved.
10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Hence, for any number of functions, it is only necessary to con-
sider the cycles in which no function occurs twice.
For three functions these cycles are to be derived from
$293, $3$i, Oif2; GiGzh3 and d3h29).
13. Search for new vector invariants may be limited to the considera-
tion of spin-vectors.—There is no difficulty in seeing that the vector
parts of any of the quaternions
g (Gigeds, 1, 1), q (d203, di 1), AC G2, ¢s); &e.;
are linear and invariant functions of the spin-vectors of the five cycles
of the last article, and of the spin-vectors of ¢,, ¢,, and ¢,. The
vectors involved in ¢(d.¢3, ¢:, 1) are
V ($1'Gobs — 3'b2'i), $V (bobs — a's’), and gobs V (i — dy’).
The first of these is, by Art. 9, expressible in terms of
V (gobs: — $1'$s'$2’),
and results of operation.
Hence, in searching for new vector invariants, it is legitimate to
investigate the spin-vectors alone of the functions formed by multi-
plying the given functions together. There is no need to investigate
separately the spin-vectors of products such as ¢,'d24s.
14. Reducing systems of quaternion invariants.—The “reducing
systems” of the previous Paper may be used in the more general
case of quaternion invariants. It is evident, from the constitution
of these functions, that
xq (Wide, Ws, Ws) + YG (Wide. Us, Ue) + £9 (Wile, Wa, Ws)
Te Pea ¢
= q [Vi (<d* =F yD ar z) Up, Us, Ws,
in which z, y, and = are scalars, and ¢ and the w linear vector func-
tions. Now, as ¢ satisfies a cubic equation
d* — m9? + md — m; = 0,
any rational algebraic function of @ may be reduced to the form
f($) =a? +99 +5,
q (if (¢) Ue, Us; Ws)
is reducible in terms of three simpler quaternions.
and therefore
JoLty—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, &c. 11
15. Locus of axes of 4, + th,.—A few properties of the system of
linear vector functions ¢, + ¢é, may here be noticed. If m, g., and g;
are the roots, and p,, f2, and ps the axes corresponding to a given value
of ¢, the vector equation
Pip + thop = gp
is satisfied for p=p;, and g=9,,"&c. Remembering that g, is a root
of the cubic
F — FM (hi + Che) + mz (fi + the) — Ms (di + the) = 0,
the vector equation denotes a cubic cone, the locus of axes of $, + thy;
the scalar equation of this cone is
Spdipduop = 0 =f.
The locus of axes of the conjugate system ¢,’+ ¢2’ is given by
dip + th:'p=gp, orby Spdipd:p=0=f".
If p;' is the edge of the cone f’, determined by ¢ and g,, it is at right
angles to two edges p, and p; of the cone f which correspond to the
same value of ¢; the vector Vp,'dy’p,’ or Vpy'¢.'pi’ is the third edge of f
at right angles to p,’.*
Thus the reciprocal of the cone f’ is the envelope of the principal
planes of the system of functions ¢,+¢,. This envelope being of
the third class, through any line through the origin it is possible to
draw three principal planes of the system of functions ¢; + 2.
Equating to zero the discriminant of the cubic in g, it appears
that six functions of the system have double roots and coincident
axes; for this discriminant is a sextic in¢. The cone f being of the
sixth class, and the reciprocal of f’ of the third, eighteen principal
planes of the system ¢, + ¢¢, are tangent to f, as well as to the reci-
procal of f’. Six of these planes evidently touch f along the six
coincident axes, and the other twelve planes probably correspond to
coincidence of p, (or of ps) with Vp,'¢dipy’.
The planes joining corresponding edges of the two cones (pi, py ;
2» Po’; and ps, ps’), which answer to the same value of ¢, intersect on
the orthocentric line
Via + tes)(dy ar to) (4 ap te).
As ¢ varies, this line describes a cubic cone.
* A particular case of this cone was considered in Art. 15 of my Paper on
‘¢ The Scalar Invariants of Two Linear Vector Functions’’ (loc. cit., p. 721).
12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
In the particular case in which ¢, and ¢, are self-conjugate, the
cones f and f’ coincide, and every generator of the single cone is at
right angles to two other generators likewise mutually perpendicular.
As a solid is strained from any configuration to any other by
gradually increasing a strain of given type, the locus of the unrotated
lines is a cubic cone. |
16. Homographic transformations.—Not only is the cone Sp¢ip¢.p = 0
the locus of axes of ¢,+?¢, but it is also the locus of axes of the
system of functions
(ad; + bg, + ¢) (ad, + Og, + €'),
a, b, c, a’, b’, and ¢’ being arbitrary scalars.
For the equation of the cone f may be written in the form
S (ad + bbe + ¢) p (a'hy + Bho + €') p (ah, + bby + € p= 0.
and then in the form
Sp (ag: + bbe +c) (a'h, + b's + c')p(ady + bb +c) (ah; + Oho + c!")p=0,
or Spiipyzp = 0.
To each cone f corresponds an infinite number of cones f’. IE
ti = (ad, + bd + 6) (a'dy + O'p, + ©’),
its conjugate is
Wal = (a'gy' + b'bo! + c')(ady! + boa! + 0);
but now the cone corresponding to f = Spypyp = 0, with respect to
the functions y, and y, is Spvy'pye'p = 0; and this cone is not the
same as Spdy'ph:/p =0, because a'd,’ + b'go! +e! and (adj! + by! + 0)
are not commutative in order of operation.
17. Condition that two functions should be expressible in the form
®;7®, and ®;1@,.—Though an arbitrary cubic cone may be written
in the form S®,p%,9;9 = 0, in which the ® are self-conjugate func-
tions, it is not generally possible to express two functions by the
relations ¢, = ®;1@, and ¢,=@,;16,. If Pi) P2, and pz are the axes
of ¢,, and g,, go, and g; its roots, then, if d, = 6,1 6,,
Dip; = A23p; = M91 V pops,
Dip, = 922;p. = L2Jo V psp,
and Pips = JsPspz = Lo Vpipz.
Joty— Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, &c. 13
To prove these relations, observe that
92Sp2Bspz = Sp2®:ps = SpsP:p2 = J2SpsPspr 3
and therefore, as ®, and %; are self-conjugate,
Sp2Psp3 = SpsPspi = SpiPsp2 = 0,
and Sp2P,p3 = SpsPip; = Sp,Pip2 = 0,
provided the roots g;, g2, and g; are unequal.
It appears, therefore, that the axes of ¢; are a self-conjugate triad
of lines with respect to the two cones Sp®;p = 0 and Sp®3p = 0.
Tf, in addition, ¢, = ®;'®,, the axes of ¢, would also be a self-
conjugate triad with respect to Sp®,9 = 0; but if two triads of lines
are self-conjugate to the same quadric cone, both triads must lie on a
quadric cone.t The condition is, therefore, the axes of ¢, and ¢,
must lie on a quadric cone.
Returning to the functions ®, and ©,, since
Vp,®ypr = If Vp,Psp1 = HG Vey Vpops || (fi = 1) €1)
the axes of ¢, lie on the quadric cone SVp®,pVadie, = 0. This cone
contains also the axes of ®,, and, by a little manipulation, its equation
may be thrown into the form SVpd¢ipVe®,¢,=0. In like manner,
the axes of ®, lie on the cone
SVpdip Va®3q, = 0.
18. Triads of lines 1n perspective with their derwed triads.—Gene-
rally the locus of lines p, any one of which is coplanar with its derived
line ¢ip and a fixed vector a, is the quadric cone Spdipa =0. If this
cone contains a triad of mutually rectangular lines 7, 7, and £,
Sas Vidwt=0, or Sae,=0.
1Tf the triangle, the coordinates of whose vertices are 21, Y1, 21; %2y Y2, 223
and 23, ¥3, 23, is self-conjugate with respect to
aa + by* + ¢227=0; axex3+ byosy3 + cz223=0, &e.,
and therefore
1 1 i
“1 Yl jf
i 1
—- — — = 0.
& Yo 22
14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
If three lines are in perspective with their derived lines, and if a is
the axis of perspective, the lines lie on the cone Sp¢djpa=0. This
furnishes an interpretation of the vanishing of the skew scalar inva-
riant JV,'—V;, in Art. 19 of the Paper on Scalar Invariants. In the
notation of that article, if p,, p2, and ps are the axes of ¢, and if
Opi = A1P1 + M2P2 + A3Ps, &C., Vp,Op. = a2 V pipe + thy V pips,
and
S Vpi0p. Vp2Pp. Vp3Ops = (G12423%91 a Api 32%3) S V pops Vpsp1 V pipr.
The skew invariant consequently vanishes, if the derived lines of the
axes of either vector function with respect to the other function are
in perspective with them.
Finally, it may be noticed, that if @ is an arbitrary vector, the
locus of axes of the functions ¢;p + aSBp is the quadric cone Spd,pa=0.
19.—Co-residual property.—The axis of the functions ¢, + td, are
all co-residual triads of lines on the cubic cone. For the four lines
common to the cone
SaVp(, + thz) p = 0
(which contains the axes of ¢,+¢¢,), and to the cone SaVpdip = 0,
satisfy the equation
wa = V. VpdipVp (d1 + te) p
= — tpSphipdop.
Three of the lines are therefore on the cone Spdipdop = 0, and are
variable with a, but independent of ¢. The fourth line is, of course, a.
The three lines common to the cubic, and Sapdip = 0 are therefore
residual to every triad of axes.
If the elliptic parameters of the axes of gp; + thy are Uy, Uy, and Us,
their sum is constant, or
Uy + Uz + Us = Up.
Unless, therefore, u is equal to half a period, the axes of tavo func-
tions ¢, + tf, anf ¢, + td, will not lie on a quadric cone.
Again, the four lines common to the quadric cones satisfy
zp=V.Vadyp Vad.p
= — aSadipdop.
Consequently, the three edges which lie on the cubic lie also on the
new quadric
Sadipdup = 0.
Jory—Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions, &c. 15
But the equation of this cone may be written in either of the forms
Sor aVpdr dep = 0, or Sh: aVpgds*dip = 0;
and therefore the axes of ¢,'¢. (or of its reciprocal ¢21¢,) also lie
on it, and are the three residual lines in which it cuts the cubic.
More generally, the equations of the quadric cones combine into
SaVp (ad, + b¢2+¢)p=0, and SaVp(a'd,+b'd,+0¢') p=0;
and, as before, their three lines of common intersection with the cubic
he on the cone
Sa (ad; + bd2 + €)p (a’g, + O'b2 + e')p = 0.
This equation, being thrown into the form
S (ag, + bd, + ey a Vp (ad, + bd, +c) (ah + O'd2 + ')p =0,
shows that the axes of all the functions of the type
(ad, + bdz + c)*(a'gy + Bde + 0’)
are co-residual triads on the cubic cone.
Lee
II.
PREHISTORIC CENOTAPHS. By GEORGE COFFEY, B.E.
[Read NovemBer 11, 1895.]
SHouLp grave-mounds in which no remains of interment have been
found be regarded as cenotaphs, is a subject that has been much dis-
cussed. Canon Greenwell rejected the existence of such monuments.
in his work on British Barrows. He writes :—
‘¢ Barrows are sometimes met with in which, upon examination,
no burial appears to have taken place, since no remains of the
body are to be discovered. In the greater number of these instances
there can be little doubt that, in consequence of the imperfect explo-
ration of the mound, the place of burial has been missed, and in other
cases that a small deposit of burnt bones or the almost entirely de-
cayed bones of an unburnt body have been overlooked... . But
there are other cases, and such have occurred to myself, when the
most careful examination has failed to discover any trace of an inter-
ment. ‘l'hese empty barrows have been spoken of as cenotaphs, monu-
ments raised to commemorate but not to contain the dead. Mr. Kemble,
holding the view that barrows were prepared beforehand, and that,
from time to time, bodies were inserted in the mounds so set apart,
believed that the barrows where no burials are found had never been
used for interment. Neither of these views appears to be a tenable
one, and both seem modes of accounting for the absence of burials much
too artificial for such a state of society as may be supposed to have
existed during the ages when barrow burial was in use in Britain.
With every wish to defer to the great practical knowledge of
Mr. Kemble, as well as to the skill with which, asarule, his mind
moulded the facts he had accumulated into a consistent and reason-
able theory, I cannot but regard this opinion as being both unnatural
and out of harmony with the general mass of evidence which the burial
mounds afford. Nor do I see any difficulty in accounting for the
absence of bones or other indications of an interment where a careful
examination has shown that such evidence has not been overlooked
through a careless or imperfect exploration. In the greater number
Correy—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 17
of instances, however, as has already been stated, the barrows are
found empty, not because they are so in reality, but because they have
not been searched exhaustively. The absence of any signs of a burial,
where a barrow has been minutely and fully examined, is due, in my
opinion, to the entire decay of the skeleton, in cases where no weapon,
implement, ornament, or vase has accompanied the body.”?
Again, under Barrow xtvu., Canon Greenwell writes :—
“Tt was the most perplexing barrow I have ever met with; and
but for my complete disbelief that monuments of a more artificial age,
such as cenotaphs, had any existence during the era of these burial
mounds, I should feel that it offers a problem very difficult to solve
on any other supposition.’”
More recent researches in the barrows of the North of England
(Archeologia, 1890) have induced Canon Greenwell to modify his
position. He now reluctantly admits the possibility of cenotaphs.
This change of opinion is based on the result of the exploration of the
barrow called ‘‘ Willie Howe,’’ in the East Riding of Yorkshire.
Concerning this barrow he writes—
‘Throughout the whole course of my barrow explorations I have
never met with anything that I can compare with this mound. It
was of more than ordinary size, and constructed at the expense of
much labour, well proportioned and symmetrically made, and in every
way appeared to have been intended for a place of sepulture. Beneath
it at the centre was a deep excavation in the solid chalk rock, in which
were found remains of animal bones almost as sound as when they
were deposited, a condition which would have equally been incidental
to human bones. No disturbance had ever taken place within the
grave to account for the disappearance of the body or its accompanying
relics, and it is almost impossible to believe that an interment had ever
been made init. I can attempt no explanation of the very peculiar
features here manifested, except one which I have arrived at with
great reluctance. Until I opened Willie Howe I had always dis-
believed in the erection of such memorials as cenotaphs at the time
when these barrows were constructed. That supposition appears,
however, to be countenanced by the experience of this mound, and I
am forced.to admit the possibility that this very large mass of chalk
stones was thrown up merely to commemorate, and not to contain, the
body of some great personage. There is still a difficulty which this
1 British Barrows, page 27. *J.c.,page 202. See also Barrows xci. and cxxix,
» Pag » Pag)
R.I.A. PROC. SER. HiI., VOL. Ivy. Cc
18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
explanation does not remove. Ifit is admitted that a mound like this
might be raised merely as a memorial, that does not explain why
beneath it a deep excavation should have been made. On more than
one previous occasion I have found mounds apparently sepulchral,
which proved to be entirely wanting in any signs of an interment. I
came to the conclusion in these cases, though it was sometimes difficult
to admit it, that the bones had gone entirely to decay, leaving no
trace behind them. It is possible, however, that in these mounds, as
in the case of Willie Howe, there had never been any burial within
them ; and that they, equally with this in question, were memorial
and not sepulchral.””?
Canon Greenwell’s position may be described as the admission of a
negative possibility. Speaking generally, the present state of the
question appears to be that cenotaphs are not yet accepted in prehis-
toric archeology, though individual archeologists support that expla-
nation of barrows in which interments have not been made.?
The hesitation of archeologists to recognize such barrows as
cenotaphs appears to be due to a misconception of the essential idea
of the cenotaph.
This is evident in the extracts quoted from Canon Greenwell, who
speaks of such monuments as memorials, whereas they are, in primitive
logic, true tombs. This point appears to be recognized by Dr. Naue in
the passage quoted in the note below.
The error prevails owing to the fact that, as far as I am aware, no
attempt has hitherto been made to combine the archeological with
the anthropological evidence on the subject. When we do so, it
becomes evident that it would be more difficult to account for the
absence of cenotaphs from the remains of a barrow-raising people than
their presence.
Before, however, proceeding with this portion of the subject, it
is desirable to further develop the archzological evidence on the
question.
1 «Recent researches in the Barrows in Yorkshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c.’’
Archzologia (1890), vol. 52, p. 24.
2 For instance, Handelmann, ‘‘ Les Tumulus et les Cénotaphes de VAge du
Bronze dans l’Ile de Sylt,” ‘‘ Cong. Préhist.’’ Stockholm, vol. i., p. 516; Naue,
‘¢ Quelques tumulus, la plupart trés bien construits, n’ont donné aucun objet—
tout au plus, et trés rarement, quelques traces de charbons. Je les considére comme
des cénotaphes, tombes de hauts personnages de la tribu décédés au loin et dont on
n’avait pu recouvrer les corps.’’ ‘‘L’Epoque de Hallstatt en Baviére,’’? Revue
Archéologique, 3 8., vol. xxvii. (1895), p. 46.
Corrry—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 19
One of the most conclusive examples of a prehistoric cenotaph,
probably the most conclusive, occurs in Ireland. It is the principal
cairn in the prehistoric cemetery on the Loughcrew Hills, Co. Meath.
The remains of twenty-eight cairns can still be counted in this im-
portant cemetery. The larger cairns are chambered, and in most cases
have well-defined passages leading to the chambers. They are sur-
rounded at the base by a curb of large stones laid end to end, within
which the cairn is heaped, and the construction is in all such cases
well and clearly defined. In the two largest of the chambered cairns,
“7”? and “9,” the boundary stones are sharply curved in at the
entrances, so that the entrances are clearly marked on the circle of the
boundary stones.! This feature may be also seen in the great tumulus
of New Grange, but it is more strongly marked at Loughcrew. Cairn
‘“‘r” is 135 feet in diameter, and the entire length of passage and
chamber measures 29 feet: Cairn ‘‘7,” 115 feet in diameter, and
passage and chamber, 28 feet.
These, as stated, are the largest chambered cairns, but they are
exceeded by the dimensions of the unchambered Cairn ‘“p,” the
largest in the cemetery, which reaches 180 feet in diameter.
This cairn is surrounded by a precisely similar curb of great
stones, which likewise is curved-in apparently to mark an entrance to
the cairn.
It is important to note the bearings of the passages to the chambered
cairns in the cemetery.
In ten cases with well marked passages, they are given by Conwell
as follows :—
Cairn F.
SSS eh lal ie tk |
BREE Se eee ee
iw)
S
20,
Thus, with the exception of S., the passage of which faces west,
1 The references are to Conwell’s « Discovery of the Tomb of Ollamh Fodhla,’’
Dublin, M‘Glashan & Gill, 1873; a somewhat romantic essay, but reliable for
descriptive details. I have checked the descriptions and measurements on the
ground.
C2
20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the bearings of the passages of these cairns lie between EH. 15, N.
and E. 20, 8. In the cases of ‘‘1’’ and ‘‘1,”’ where in addition to
the passages the entrance is marked by the curving-in of the boundary
stones, the bearings are E. 20, 8. and E. 10, 8S.
Returning now to Cairn ‘‘p,” I quote Conwell’s description of the
cairn and account of its excavation in the years 1865—68 :—
“‘This has been the largest of all the cairns in the range, the
diameter of the base beng 60 yards. The north and east sides have
been left untouched ; but on the south and west for nearly 100 yards
round the base, and extending inwards to a distance of 24 yards from
the circumference towards the centre, the dry loose stones comprising
the cairn have been entirely removed. The height of what remained
of the cairn, before commencing any of the operations upon it,
measured 28 paces in sloping ascent from the base to the summit.
The original circle of fifty-four large flag-stones laid on edge round its
base is still perfect, and on the eastern side these marginal stones
curve inwards for twelve paces in length towards a point indicated by
E. 20, 8., denoting where the entrance or passage to the interior
chambers is to be found. As the cairn at this point—which, judging
from the analogy in the construction of the other cairns, would indicate
the direction of the passage or entrance—appeared not to have been
previously disturbed, Mr. Naper and Mr. Hamilton had from the first
strong hopes of finding the interior chambers and their contents in their
original state, such exactly as they had been left in by the builders of —
this megalithic pile. Accordingly, on Monday morning, 4th September,
1865, about a dozen labouring men commenced to remove the stones,
and to make a passage inwards from this point. As they advanced in
this way into the cairn, the loose stones composing it occasionally fell
in dangerous masses, filling up excavations already made; so that it
was at length determined to make a cutting right through the cairn,
running east and west, and commencing from the top. After two
weeks spent in this labour, and with as many men as could be con-
veniently engaged at it, we did not come upon any of the interior
chambers; nor have our labours been more successful on the 3rd, 4th,
5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, and 10th June, 1868, when, by Mr. Naper’s direc-
tions twenty men were busily engaged every day in continuing the
transverse cutting through the cairn, in search of the interior
chambers. This, however, is now the only one of all the cairns left
unexamined ; and as the surface level of the ground kas been already
reached for the greater part of the way across the cairn, very little
additional labour would be required to settle the question whether or
Corrry—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 21
not this is a ‘ Blind tope.’ As the cutting proceeded, about midway
down among the loose stones, were found portions of the skulls, teeth,
and other bones of graminivorous animals, probably the ox and deer.’”}
We have here a most interesting group of facts. It may be set
down as certain that no chambers were contained in the portion of
the cairn that had been removed on the south and west sides prior to
Conwell’s excavations. The stones removed from that part of the
cairn were probably used to build the neighbouring fence walls.
The large stones round the base have been left untouched, and within
the cleared space there are no signs whatever of large stones such as
would have formed the chamber. Had such existed, they would not
have been broken up, as the loose stones of the cairn presented plenty
of suitable material ready to hand.
Not only are the large stones at the base still there, but the curve
has not been disturbed, the circle of the base is still clearly and
regularly marked by them. There is no indication on this curve of
an entrance at the cleared side. On the other hand, an entrance is
clearly marked on the boundary stones at the east side at a point
K. 20, S., which corresponds with the points of entrance to the
majority of the chambered cairns. Following up this apparent
entrance, not only was no trace of an interment found, but no indica-
tion of passage or chamber stones. In the other large cairns the
passages and chambers are formed of large stones, and no attempt at
concealment is made.
It is improbable that any interments exist in the unexplored por-
tion of the cairn, and, if any were found, it would be necessary to
look on them as secondary interments; they could in no case be regarded
as the primary object for which the cairn was erected.
We have, then, the case of a cairn which to all outward appear-
ance is a chambered cairn, with the entrance properly marked on it at
the expected point, precisely similar to cairns ‘1’? and ‘‘7,” but
which proves, on investigation, to be devoid of passage and chamber,
to be in fact a blind tomb. In this respect it is, I think, even more
conclusive than Willie Howe, as in its outward construction it would
appear that a sepulchral purpose is intentionally simulated.
We may now consider the anthropological evidence. The idea of
the cenotaph, we shall find, so far from being artificial, in the sense
of modern or advanced civilization, is essentially primitive. It is,
in fact, intimately related to the primitive theory of the soul.
1 ¢¢ Ollamh Fodhla,’’ Cairn ‘‘p,”’
22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
In a most interesting Paper on ‘‘ Certain Burial Customs as illus-
trative of the Primitive Theory of the Soul,” Mr. J. G. Frazer has
brought together a host of facts on this subject, from which I sum-
marize the following particulars, referring the reader to the original
Paper for authorities! :—
The belief is general that the ghosts of the unburied dead haunt
the earth. But burial by itself was not sufficient to guard against the
return of the ghost. Many precautions were taken by primitive man
for the purpose of excluding or barring the dead from the living.
Mr. Frazer recounts many customs for the purpose of chasing away
the ghost from his late home or barring his return thereto. Some
plans of keeping a ghost down are: to nail the dead man to the coffin
(the Chuwashé), to tie the feet together (among the Arabs), cr hands
together (in Voigtland), or neck to legs (among the Troglodytes,
Damaras, and New Zealanders). The Wallachians drive a long nail
through the skull, and lay a thorny stem of a wild rosebush on the
shroud. The Californians and Damaras break the spine.? The ghost
of a suicide has always been looked on as especially dangerous, hence
the custom of driving a stake through the body, and other customs of
similar import.°
‘¢ But,” as Mr. Frazer asks, ‘‘ what happened when the body could
not be found, as when the man died at sea or abroad? Here the
all-important question was, What could be done to lay the wandering
ghost? For wander he would till his body was safe under the sod,
and by supposition his body was not to be found. The case was a
difficult one, but early man was equal to it. He buried the missing
man in effigy, and, according to all the laws of primitive logic, an
effigy is every bit as good as its original.’’
1 Journal Anthopological Institute, Great Britain and Ireland, vol. xv., p. 64.
2 Miss Florence Peacocke, who has collected burial customs in Lincolnshire,
states that skulls are at times dug up with iron nails hammered through them;
about 1843 a skull was dug up in Messingham Churchyard with a nail through it,
and on the authority of ‘‘ Bygone Lincolnshire’? (Ed. by Wm. Andrews)—-“‘ That
the ‘ Layer-out’ in some places ties together the feet of the corpse, but it is neces-
sary that they should be unloosed before the coffin is screwed down, or else the dead
will not rise at the first resurrection.””—‘‘ The Antiquary,’’ November, 1895.
’ The general subject of the relations of the ghost to the body may be pursued
in Tylor’s ‘‘ Primitive Culture,’’ Frazer’s “ Golden Bough,’’ W. Crooke’s ‘ Intro-
duction to the Popular Religions and Folk-lore of Northern India,” and the publi-
cations of the Bureau of Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution.
4 Frazer, /.c., p. 95.
Corrry—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 23
A few illustrations which I extract, with references, from a lengthy
note to this statement, will make it clearer.
In ancient Mexico, when a trader died in a far country, the rela-
tions at home made a puppet of candlewood, adorned it with the usual
paper ornaments, mourned over, burnt it, and buried the ashes in
the usual way. Similarly soldiers who fell in battle were buried in
effigy (Bancroft, Native Races, i1., pp. 616, seg.). In Samoa the
relations spread out a sheet on the beach near where the man had
been drowned, or on the battle-field where he had fallen; they then
prayed, and the first thing that lighted on the sheet (grasshopper,
butterfly, or whatever it might be) was supposed to contain the soul
of the deceased, and was buried with all due ceremony (Turner,
Samoa, pp. 150, seg.). The Garuda-purana directs that ‘‘if a man
dies in a remote place, or is killed by robbers in a forest, and his body
is not found, his son should make an effigy of the deceased with Kusa
grass, and then burn it on a funeral pile”’ with the usual ceremonies
(Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India, p. 300). In
China, during the reign of the Emperor Chan-tuk, in the first
century of the Christian era, it was enacted that if the bodies of
soldiers who fall in battle, or those of sailors who fall in naval
engagements, cannot be recovered, the spirits of such men shall be
called back by prayers and incantations, and that figures shall be
made either of paper or of wood for their reception, and be burned
with all the ordinary rites. ... The custom is now universally
observed” (Gray, China, i., pp. 295, seq.).
In Madagascar, cenotaphs are erected for those whose bodies
cannot be found, and their ghosts are supposed to be allured thither
(Ellis, History of Madagascar, i., p. 255).
Writers, who describe the burial customs of primitive peoples,
rarely mention the case where the body is missing. I have looked
through Herbert Spencer’s Descriptive Sociology, and the only instances
given there are those from Mexico and Madagascar quoted above.
The publications of the Bureau of Ethnology of the Smithsonian
Institution, which describe so fully the customs of the native races of
America, are silent on this point. Mr. Frazer appears, in fact, to be
the only writer who has directed special attention to this branch of
burial customs. Yet the case of a missing body must have been
provided for wherever importance was attached to burial. At the
* See also W. Crooke’s ‘‘ Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India,”’
p. 231.
24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
present day funeral customs in use in many parts of Europe point, in
survivals, to the widespread recognition by primitive man of the
importance of providing for such cases. Mr. Frazer cites, amongst
others, the following instances:—In modern Greece, when a man
dies abroad, a puppet is made in his likeness, and dressed in his.
clothes, and mourning is made over it; it is not stated that the
puppet is buried. In Albania, when a man dies abroad, all the usual
lamentations are made at home, as if the body were present; the
funeral procession goes to the church, but, in the place of the bier, a
boy walks, carrying a dish on which a cracknel is placed over some
boiled wheat. This dish is set in the middle of the church, and the
funeral service is held over it; it is not, however, buried, but the
women go and weep at the grave of the relation who died last.}
Dr. C. R. Browne, m.z.1.A., informs me that in the islands of Aran
and in Innisboffin the usual wake is held in the case of a drowned
person whose body has not been recovered. Wakes are likewise held
on receipt of the news of a death abroad.
Information as to the manner in which primitive peoples provide:
for the case of a missing body is scanty, apparently because it has not
been looked for, but the examples given are sufficient for our purpose.
They enable us to understand the essential meaning of the ceno-.
taph to the Greeks and the Romans, which has been obscured by the
modern association of the idea of memorial, and render available the
large body of evidence which may be gathered from classical writers.?
The primitive theory of the relation of the soul, or ghost, to the
body is at the bottom of the burial customs of the Greeks and the
Romans. The same range of ideas, which we find in primitive man,
are clearly present.
The importance attached by the Greeks and the Romans to burial
need not be insisted on. The ghost of the unburied might not enter
Hades, but must perforce wander till burial was given to the body.
Thus, in the Z/iad, Patroclus reproaches Achilles for neglecting to
give him burial :—‘‘ Bury me with all speed, that I pass the gates
of Hades. Far off the spirits banish me, the phantoms of men out-
worn, nor suffer me to mingle with them beyond the river, but vainly
I wander along the wide-gated dwelling of Hades” (xxiii., 71). The
description of the unburied dead, and the appeal of Palinurus to Aineas
in the ned, may be also instanced (vi., 295-415).
1 Frazer, l.c., p. 96.
2 Cenotaphs are treated as memorial in Smith’s and in Seyffert’s (ed. by
Nettleship and Sandys) Dictionaries of Classical Antiquities.
CorrEy—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 25
The notion that the ghost was a double of the body, and that
injury to or mutilation of the body took effect likewise on the ghost,
is apparent in the description given in the neid of Deiphobus in
Hades, ‘‘ with all his body mutilated” (vi. 494).
It may be compared with the belief recorded of the Indians of
Brazil, ‘‘that the dead arrive in the other world wounded or hacked
to pieces, in fact, just as they left this.’
From, no doubt, a similar belief, in this case to render the ghost
harmless, Greek murderers used to hack off the extremities of their
victims.? This latter instance is compared by Mr. Frazer with the
practice among the Australians of cutting off the thumb of a slain
enemy, so that the ghost might not be able to throw the spear. The
same idea may be traced in the practice at Athens of cutting off the
right hand of suicides.*
It has not been possible within the limits of the present Paper to
do more than indicate, by a few striking examples, the general notion
underlying the Greek and Roman theory of the ghost.
These examples show, however, that in Greek and Roman burial
customs we are brought face to face with the same primitive concep-
tions concerning the relations of the ghost to the body which are
found widely distributed among primitive peoples, and which, indeed,
still survive among advanced peoples to an extent not generally
suspected,
This wider aspect of the subject has been touched on, in order
that the reader may more fully realize the force of the direct evidence
of the cenotaphs which we shall now discuss.
The erection of cenotaphs is frequently mentioned by the Greek
writers. Throughout Greece, when the relatives had not the body of
the deceased, they erected cenotaphs, which were entitled to the same
respect as true tombs.°
That the idea of such monuments is burial, and not memorial,
may be gathered from the following illustrations :—
When Athene urges Telemachus to seek for his father, she adds:
‘But if thou shalt hear that he is dead and gone, return then to
1 Tylor, ‘‘ Primitive Culture,’’ i., 451.
* Aeschylus, ‘‘Choephori,’’ 489: Sophocles, ‘‘ Electra,’’ 445—see the scholia
on this yerse, Jebb’s ‘‘ Electra,’ Appendix.
3 Tylor, ‘‘ Primitive Culture,’’ i., 451.
4 Daremberg and Saglio’s ‘‘ Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines,’”
‘¢Punus,” p. 1870.
5 Tbid., p. 1870.
26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
thine own dear country and pile his mound, and over it pay burial
rites, full many as is due.””—
Ge 2 20 a NN , ne
OynMa TE OL XEVaL KL ETL KTEPEa KTepeiCar
TOAAG par, doo éouxe. . . . (Od. 1. 291.)
Xenophon describes the burial of the dead after the battle of
Calpe: ‘‘ As the victims were favourable, the Arcadians also accom-
panied him, and buried the greatest part of the dead where they had
severally fallen; for they had now lain five days, and it was no
longer possible to bring them away; some of them, however, they
gathered together out of the roads, and buried as becomingly as they
could with the means at their command ; while for those they could
not find they erected a large cenotaph [with a great funeral pile],
and put garlands upon it’’: ots d€ py evpicKov Kevotddiov adrots
eroinoav péya | Kal rupav peyaAnv] Kal orepavous ereGecay (vi. 4. 9).
In the description in Thucydides of the funeral ceremonies of the
Athenians who fell in the first year of the Peloponnesian war there is
no mention of cenotaphs, but the underlying idea of the performance
of the burial rites of the missing is clearly indicated.
«* When the actual procession takes place, waggons carry coffins
of cypress-wood, one for each tribe. In them are the bones of the
tribe to which each individual belongs. One bier is borne empty,
fully furnished forth, for the missing who had not been discovered at
the taking up of the dead.” —pia dé krXivn Kev) héperar ertpopevyn TOV
apavav, ot dv pi etpeHdcw eis avaipecwv. (I. 84.)
M. Edward Cuq, in the article “ Funus’”’ in Daremberg and
Saglio’s Dretionnaire des Antiquités, has collected the sense of a
number of passages on cenotaphs from Roman writers. His statement
so fully covers the ground, it will be sufficient to quote the passage,
referring the reader, for authorities, to the notes there given:
‘‘Sile corps n’a pu étre retrouvé, la sépulture n’est que ‘imaginaire,’
et le tombeau porte le nom de cénotaphe (cenotaphium). La con-
struction des cénotaphes était due a cette croyance que l’Ame détachée
du corps avait besoin d’une demeure. Si on ve Iui donnait.un
tombeau pour asile, elle errait sans tréve ni repos, comme un génie
= os
1 The words kal wupay peydAny are omitted in three good mss.; they are
retained in two good ss., and in all the inferior ones. They are retained by
Dindorf, but rejected by Zeune and others. Zeune remarks that he never heard
of a funeral pile being erected in conjunction with a cenotaph. When the sepul-
chral nature of the cenotaph is understood, it is seen that the intrinsic evidence of
the passage supports their retention.
Correy—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. Dr
malfaisant. Aussi, des que le cénotaphe était terminé, appelait-on par
trois fois Ame du défunt pour l’inviter a entrer dans la demeure qui
lui était préparée.
“Les cénotaphes étaient affectés principalement a ceux qui avaient
péri en mer ou en temps de guerre. Un monument de ce genre fut
construit par Germanicus, pour les ames des soldats des légions de
Varus. Le cénotaphe était donc un enane bustum, un vacuum sepulerum
et la sépulture était mands.
‘Tl y avait une autre espece de cénotaphe érigé en mémoire d’un
défunt inhumé ailleurs: c’était un honorarium sepulcrum. Tel fut le
monument construit pour Drusus, sur les bords du Rhin, par les soldats
placés sous ses ordres, tandis que son corps, transporté 4 Rome, était
inhumé au Champ de Mars. Le christianisme a conservé lVusage
de ces cénotaphes, qui furent érigés en l’honneur des saints.
“De ces deux sortes de cénotaphes, la premiere a le caractére d’un
locus religiosus, mais non la seconde. ‘Telle est la décision d’un rescrit
de Marc-Auréle et Verus, rapporté par Ulpien.’”!
The sepulchral character of the cenotaph, and its relation to the
primitive theory of the ghost, has now been sufficiently established.?
In the grave-goods, weapons, ‘‘food-vessels,”’ &c., accompanying pre-
historic interments, we have evidence of the existence of the same
fundamental conception of the ghost as a double of the body, which
underlies the theory of the cenotaph, and it seems the natural con-
clusion that the empty barrows are cenotaphs. But fortunately I am
able to relate the evidence collected in this Paper directly to Ireland,
and thus close, at least for Ireland, the chain of evidence on the
subject.
1 « Funus,’’ p. 1396.
* We should perhaps recognise the possibility of some cenotaphs being what
may be described as fictitious cenotaphs. That is to say, where the deceased has
been buried abroad, a monument might be erected in his own country, not asa
memorial, but to give his shade a dwelling amongst his own people. The case
mentioned by Bancroft of a trader dying abroad perhaps is of this class. The
cenotaph (tumulum inanem) erected by Andromache in Epirus for Hector (buried
elsewhere), at which she made yearly offerings and ‘called on Hector’s spirit”
(‘‘Aineid,’’ 11. 300), is also in point. It is conceivable that a people migrating
from one country to another might erect tombs to their hero ancestors in the new
country, so that their shades might dwell among them in their new home. There
is no evidence that this was done, but the idea seems to be within the range of
primitive logic. Cenotaphs such as Cairn p, the most important cairn in the
cemetery at Loughcrew, appear to require some such explanation. In any case
the suggestion is worth throwing out as indicating a direction in which evidence
may be looked for.
28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The Agallamh na Senérach, or Colloquy with the Ancients, trans-
lated by Mr. Standish H. O’Grady, from the Book of Lismore, a us. of
the 15th century, is a topographical tract somewhat after the manner
of the Dindsenchus, but cast*in narrative form. It is, ike the Dind-
senchus, an invaluable store of ancient lore concerning glens, hills,
lochs, raths, and burial mounds. In some instances the opening of
grave-mounds and taking therefrom of weapons and gold is recounted.
The following story, which I extract in full (page 236), is of
especial interest, as direct evidence of a tradition of the erection of
cenotaphs in the heroic age in Ireland :—
“¢¢ Caeilte,’ said the King of Munster, ‘ what are these two great
graves that we see?’ ‘The three dglaechs that, as above, took
service with Finn at raithin na n-ingnadh and had the wonderful
hound ; it was they that slew the two warriors whose graves those are:
Donn and Dubhan, the King of Ulidia’s two sons out of the North.’ .
‘How perished they ?’ asked the king. ‘The three lay in a place
apart from the Fianna,’ Caeilte replied, ‘with their hound centrally
between them; and when once night came, there used a wall of fire
to surround them so that none might dare even to look at them. On
the night in question, the King of Ulidia’s sons kept watch for Ireland’s
and Scotland’s Fianna, and thrice made the circuit of the camp. The
third time, however, they saw the fiery wall, and Donn said: ‘’Tis a
strange thing how these three dglaechs are for now a year past, and their
hound amongst them; for they have proclaimed that after nightfall
none must go look at them!’ Then the King of Ulidia’s sons passed
inside through the fire-wall; when they were there they got their arms
ready to their hands, and so scanned both men and dog. But the huge
hound which daily they had in the chase was at this instant no
greater than a lap-dog such as a great lady or man of high estate may
keep ; one man moreover with his keen sword naked in his hand
standing sentry over the animal, while to the mouth of the same
another held a euach of fair silver; and the choicest of every kind of
liquor which any individual of the three might require of him, that is
what the hound kept on ejecting from his mouth into the cuach.
“Then to the hound, an dglaech of them said: ‘It is well, thou
noble and righteous and high-couraged! give heed now to the
treachery wrought thee by Finn!’ At this the hound wagged his
tail hard, whereby was created a factitious magic wind that made their
shields to fall from our men’s hands, their swords from their sides, and
to be cast before their faces into the fiery wall. Hereat the three
killed the King of Ulidia’s two sons; which being effected, the dog
CorrEy—Prehistoric Cenotaphs. 29
turned, applied his breath to them, and reduced them to dust and ashes,
so that nor blood, nor flesh, nor bone was ever found of them. ‘ Theirs,
then, are the two mounds concerning which thou questionest me,’
ended Caeilte: ‘but, mould and sand excepted, whosoever should
open them would not find them to contain the smallest thing.’ ”’
This remarkable passage, in addition to the evidence it furnishes
of the erection of cenotaphs in prehistoric times, is of interest as
showing that the tradition that some mounds were ‘‘ blind mounds”
was handed down to a late period. At what time the practice of
erecting cenotaphs ceased in Ireland we cannot say, or whether or not
the people of the early Christian period had contemporary knowledge
of such monuments ; but the fact that the existence of cenotaphs has
been preserved in tradition seems to explain a circumstance in con-
nexion with them noted by several observers.
Mounds, which subsequently proved to be ‘‘blind,’”’ in several
instances showed no signs of previous disturbance.
Dr. Naue speaks of blind mounds explored by him as “la plupart
trés bien construits’’ (note, p. 18). Canon Greenwell describes Willie
Howe as ‘‘ well proportioned and symmetrically made.” No sign of
disturbance was noticed at the apparent entrance to Cairn ‘‘p” at
Loughcrew, the interment in which it was therefore thought would be
found intact. Can the explanation of a case such as Cairn ‘‘p,”? where
we find the other cairns of the cemetery have been systematically rifled,
be that the fact that it did not contain anything was well known in the
locality, and it was, therefore, passed over by the mound plunderers
of early times; or did the knowledge of the treasure-seekers of the
practice of erecting cenotaphs enable them to detect such empty
mounds without the necessity of an exhaustive search ?
[ 30 ]
ttt.
REPORT UPON THE RAISED BEACHES OF THE NORTH-
EAST OF IRELAND, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THEIR FAUNA. By R. LLOYD PRAEGER, B.E., M-R.I.A.
(Prare T.)
[Read January 27, 1896.]
Tue present Paper is, to a certain extent, supplementary to the
Report on the Estuarine Clays of the North-East of Ireland, sub-
mitted to the Academy in 1892.! It is a matter of regret to me that
the termination of my residence in the North of Ireland prevented a
more full and detailed survey of the raised beaches of the north-east ;
but it may be doubted if this would have added much of novelty to
our knowledge of the characters and fauna of these deposits, as the
more important localities, such as Larne and Portrush, have now been
well worked up.
The raised beaches of the north-east have come in for a good deal
of attention from geologists, and the literature of the subject is com-
paratively extensive. Only a few papers, however, contain more
than short and general descriptions, and but very few contain definite
information relative to the fauna of the beds. It is to these last alone
that I shall have occasion to refer. But let it be said, that from the
writings in general we gather that at frequent intervals round the
north-eastern coast there exist accumulations of gravel and sand,
varying in level from high-water mark to about twenty feet above it,
and containing throughout marine shells of species, in most cases
still living m the vicinity, and, frequently mixed with these,
worked fiints of distinctly human origin, so that these beds were
accumulated, and their elevation effected, during the human period.
The raised beaches frequently rest on blue marine clay, characterized
by Scrobicularia piperata, Tapes decussatus, and other littoral shells.
Overlying the same clay, im the more open bays and estuaries, we
frequently find a deposit of blue marine clay, filled with shells that
frequent water of five to ten fathoms in depth. I have elsewhere”
1 Proc. R. I. Academy, 3rd ser., vol. ii. 2 Loc. cit.
PRAEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 31
expressed my belief that the series of raised beaches referred to is con-
temporaneous with this upper clay bed, and that the elevation that
raised the gravels to their present height, brought up the clays from
their place of deposit in some few fathoms of water to their present
position at or near high-water mark.
Professor Hull has pointed out? that the elevation above present
sea-level of the raised beaches of the east coast of Ireland increases
as we pass northward, varying from high-water mark at Dublin to
twenty feet above it on the Antrim coast; and he identifies this Irish
series with the twenty-five-foot raised beach of Scotland. Into this
suggestion (which Mr. A. Bell states* is not borne ont by the fauna) I
need not at present inquire, but may remark that my observations
bear out, on the whole, Hull’s statement as to a general increase of
elevation with increasing latitude.
Without further preface I shall proceed to my notes on raised
beaches, and they will be taken in geographical order, beginning with
the most southern.
GREENORE.
The raised beach at Greenore forms an extensive spit of low land,
projecting for half a mile into Carlingford Lough, and it has been
long known as a locality for rude flint implements. It is composed
of horizontally-bedded gravels, rising to about fifteen feet above high-
water mark, and containing marine shells from bottom to top. The
gravels rest on estuarine clay, with gravelly layers. The fauna of the
gravels, as observed on a single visit, is as follows :—
Anomia ephippium. Scrobicularia piperata.
Ostrea edulis. Mya arenaria.
Pecten maximus. Trochus cinerareus.
Lucina borealis. Inttorina obtusata.
Cardium edule. L. litorea.
Tapes decussatus. Turritella terebra.
T. aureus. Purpura lapillus.
Tellina balthica.
The estuarine clay which underlies the gravels and its fauna have
been treated of in my report before-mentioned.
1 <¢Qn the Raised Beach of the North-East of Iveland,’’ Brit. Assoc. Report,
1872, and Physical Geol. and Geogr. of Ireland, p. 107.
2 «Final Report . . . upon the Manure Gravels of Wexford,’’ Brit. Assoc.
Report, 1890.
32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
CARLINGFORD.
Just a mile from Carlingford Castle, on the way to Greenore,
beyond a piece of brackish water lying inside the railway, the road
makes a slight cutting through a raised beach for a length of about
one hundred yards. The only section is on the banks by the roadside.
There is to be seen a solid bed of oyster-shells, at between fifteen and
twenty feet above high-water mark, and for a few feet above and
below this layer are shell-bearing gravels. The deposit rests on
Carboniferous limestone. The shells found were— _
Ostrea edulis. v. ¢. Patella vulgata. r.
Cardium edule. r. Inttorina obtusata. r.
Tapes decussatus. Vv. 1. L. litorea. c.
GREENCASTLE.
On the side of Carlingford Lough opposite to that last-mentioned,
at the uttermost southern extremity of county Down, an extensive sea-
terrace is marked on the Geological Survey map. The only place
here which I have had an opportunity of examining is the shore from
Cranfield Point north-westwards. At Cranfield Point the great
deposit of granite detritus, which stretches round the southern slopes
of the Mourne Mountains, forming in many places a thirty or forty-
foot cliff facing the sea, gives way to compact blue boulder-clay, with
large blocks of polished Carboniferous limestone. A little northward
the boulder-clay is capped by a few feet of marine gravels, eight or
ten feet above high-water mark, evidently a raised beach. Saxicava
rugosa, Patella vulgata, and Littorina litorea were collected, the first
in a limestone pebble. Further northward the Carboniferous lime-
stone crops out in low reefs on the shore.
KiiLovuGu.
At the head of Killough Bay a low estuarine flat runs inland for
about a mile, at a level slightly above high water. Drain-cuttings
here show a foot of sandy clay, then a shelly layer, and under that
several feet (base not seen) of very fine, tough, pink and grey
laminated clay, without shells. The shell layer is made up of abun-
dance of Cardium edule, Tellina balthica, Scrobicularia piperata, and
Inttorina litorea. Stretching across the lower end of this flat, a fine
raised beach faces the sea. The Ardglass railway runs along the top
of the raised beach, and cuts through it at Killough Station. At this
PrarGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 33
spot, it is seen resting on red boulder-clay, its surface being twelve to
fourteen feet above high water. Shells of a few species are abun-
-dant—
Cardium edule. c. Trochus umbilicatus. £.
Trochus cinerareus. ¢. Ostrea edulis. v. x.
Littorina obtusata. ¢. Purpura lapillus. v. rv.
L. lutorea. ce. Nassa (incrassata?) v. x.
SANDEEL Bay.
Round. this little bay, which les east of Groomsport, extends a
cliff of fine sand, rising from near high-water mark to a height of
fifteen feet. A level field extends backwards from its top. The sand
is stratified horizontally, and is full of marine shells, which occur in
beds and irregular pockets, some of which almost suggest human
agency. Patella vulgata, Littorina obtusata, L. litorea, and the land-
shell Helix acutus are the prevailing species. I also observed Pecten
pusio, Mytilus modiolus, Venus gallina, Tapes virginius, Solen sp.,
Trochus cinerareus, Littorina rudis.
BattyHorme Bay.
Before the present sea-wall was built, the raised beach here over-
hung the strand as a cliff of sand and gravel twenty feet in height,
inhabited by quantities of sand-martins. Shells are rare in this bed ;
but at one spot, in a sandy layer three feet below the surface, and
fifteen feet above high water, I obtained Ostrea edulis, Mactra sub-
truncata, Trochus cinerareus, Littorina obtusata. The shells were in a
very crumbling condition. The gravels, which lie in horizontal beds,
rest, at about half-tide level, on a thin layer of blue clayey sand,
representing probably the Estuarine clay zone. Below this is the
well-known bed of submerged peat, only about six inches thick, but
containing the upright stumps of Scotch fir and other trees, in their
natural position. Below this is a thin layer of bluish sandy clay,
very tough, and full of branches and roots, succeeded by fine red
sand or fine red clay. To the westward the boulder-clay rises up
from below this series.
CARNALEA.
Mr. W. H. Patterson pointed out to me a rather interesting
deposit on the shore below Carnalea Station. It consists of a shell
bed of small extent, six to twelve inches thick, lying irregularly on
R.I,A. PROC., SER. IlI., VOL. Iv. D
34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the Ordovician rocks of the shore, about six feet above ordinary high-
water mark. It is covered with one foot of reddish clay, evidently
washed down from the slopes above. The shells are tightly wedged
together, and, though all still living in the neighbourhood, they are
of interest as having a much less littoral character than is usual in
the beds we are considering—
Anomia ephippium. f. T. magus. v.Y.
Ostrea edulis. c. LInttorina obtusata. ec.
Pecten varius. f. LL. litorea. ¢.
P. opercularis. £. Rissoa membranacea. v. Y.
P. pusio. f. Hydrobia ulve. v. vt.
P. maximus. f. Turritella terebra. ce.
Venus exoleta. Vv. ¢. Cerithium reticulatum. r.
V. lincta. rv. Aporrhais pes-pelecani. f.
V. fasciata. f. Nassa reticulata. vr.
Cardium echinatum. c. Fusus antiquus. £.
Cyprina islandica. Y. F. gracilis. v.r.
Lutraria elliptica. f. Pleurotoma rufa. v.r.
Solen ensis. r. Cyprea europeaa. V. Y.
Patella vulgata. c. Serpula vermicularis. f.
Trochus cinerareus. c. Balanus sp. f.
T. umbilicatus. f.
Krynecar, Hotyrwoop.
The Kinnegar is a sickle-shaped bank of gravel, running for half-
a-mile from the slight promontory on the shore below the town of
Holywood, in a direction parallel to the coast. The gravels rest on
the thick deposit of estuarine clay that fills the upper portion of
Belfast Lough, and they have been long noted as yielding flint
implements. At the extreme point the bank bends sharply back-
wards, so as to form a little hook. In the construction of a rifle
range in 1887 this hook was cut through, and was found to consist of
sand and shells, lying on the estuarine clay, and running in under
the gravels, which rested on it in tolerably even horizontal beds
(Pl. I., fig. 1). The following shells were noted :—
Anomia ephippium. f. V. gallina. v.r.
Ostrea edulis. ¥. ¢. Tapes virgineus. f.
Mytilus edulis. v. c. T. pullastra. vr.
Cardium edule. v. ©. T. decussatus. f.
Venus exoleta. v. TY. T. aureus. vr.
PRAEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Treland. 35
Tellina balthica. £. Turritella terebra. c.
Mactra subtruncata. vy. ¢. Cerithium reticulatum. c.
Solen ensis. r. Nassa reticulata. rv.
Patelia vulgata. f. Buccinum undatum. ¢.
Trochus cinerareus. Y. Fusus antiquus. £.
Inttorina obtusata. ce. Murex erinaceus. vy. vr.
LL. litorea. v. ¢. Purpura lapillus. £.
The deposit is, however, practically composed of Ostrea, Mytilus,
Cardium, Mactra, and Littorina litorea, mixed with sand. Immediately
above this bed was a layer of grey sand a foot deep, succeeded by
the gravels which form the Kinnegar. The sand was destitute of
shells, nor have I found shells in the overlying gravels,’ though they
- have unquestionably been thrown up by the sea as a bank between
tides, or at low-water mark. And this leads me to repeat that the
term ‘raised beach’ is commonly used to describe not only beaches,
but also banks and sea-beds, that have been elevated. The Kinnegar
was undoubtedly a bank thrown up by currents, rather than a beach;
the Curran at Larne, to be referred to presently, is a very fine
example of an inter-tidal or submarine bank which has been elevated.
A bank of similar character, still at its original level, and, like the
Kinnegar and Curran, forming a sickle-shaped spit, may be seen at
low tide at Killowen, near Rostrevor.
West Banx.
Though it cannot be described as a raised beach, being situated
between high and low-water level, reference may be made to a curious
deposit of shells occurring atthe point of the West Bank, which projects
eastwards across Belfast Lough, three miles below Queen’s Bridge, and
which, till cut through in the formation of the Victoria Channel,
formed a barrier round which all vessels approaching Belfast had to
steer. The point of the bank, which is composed of over thirty feet
of solid estuarine clay, gleams white at low water on a sunny day
but it was not until I visited the spot, in 1891, that I learned the
cause of its brilliance. Atlow spring tide, amid miles of dreary mud-
flats, the point of the bank rises out as a steep slope of pure shells,
' Canon Grainger has recorded, in ‘‘ Nat. Hist. Review,’’ 1859, Proc., p. 15,
the following shells from ‘‘ ten-feet elevation, Kinnegar, Holywood ’’:—aAnomia
aculeata, Ostrea edulis, Cardium edule, Mactra subtruncata, Littorina litorea,
Turritella communis, Cerithium reticulatum, Nassa reticulata.
DZ
36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
six feet in height. Mytilus edulis, which lives in thousands on the
surrounding flats, constitutes about ninety per cent. of the whole, but
the remainder include a number of species which do not now live in
the immediate vicinity—
Ostrea edulis. f. Trochus cinerareus. ¥.
Anomia ephippium. Vv. ¥. Lacuna divaricata. v.r.
Pecten varius. v. Tf. Littorina litorea. v.r.
P. opercularis. Vv. ¥. L. rudis (juv.). r-
Nucula nucleus. vy. r. L. obtusata. i.
Venus gallina. v. ¥. Rissoa membranacea. f.
Tapes aureus. f. R. parva. r.
Cardium edule (juv.). r. R. albella. v. tr.
C. echinatum, v. r. Hydrobia ulve. r-
C. exiguum. Vv. T. Turritella terebra. r.
Tucina borealis. v. rv. Odostomia unidentata. f.
Tellina balthica. v. r. Cerithium reticulatum. c.
Mactra subtruncata. v. r. Natica catena. v. Tr.
Mya arenaria. v. rt. NVassa incrassata. f.
Corbula gibba. v. rf. Pleurotoma rufa. f.
The rarity of Cardium edule, Tellina balthica, Hydrobia ulve, and
Mya arenaria, which live in great abundance in the vicinity, as quite
as noteworthy as the occurrence of many shells which are not now
inhabitants of the neighbourhood. This accumulation may be paral-
leled with the wonderful shell-banks of Lough Foyle, which have
been referred to by Portlock, from which, at the time he wrote, over
59,000 tons of shells, chiefly 7. terebra, were removed annually, with-
out any failure or diminution in the supply. In that case, as in
the present, most of the shells cannot have lived in the vicinity, but
must have been brought by tidal currents.
Knzzoor.
The raised beach at Kilroot was mentioned, and a short list of its
shells given, by Hull, in 1872,’ the species recorded being Anomia
ephippium, Cardium edule, Patella vulgata, Trochus umbilicatus, Litto-
rina litoralis, L. litorea, Cerithium reticulatum, Nassa reticulata,
Buccinum undatum. In the Memoir to Sheets 21, 28, and 29 of the
1 «Geology of Londonderry,”’ &c., 1843, p. 163.
2 Report of Brit. Assoc., 1872.
PrarcER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 37
Geological Survey of Ireland (1876) this list is repeated, with the
addition of Pecten maximus.
Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., in his Paper on ‘*‘ The Raised Beaches
of County Antrim,” ! gives a list of ‘‘ shells of old beach, mixed with
recent ones,’’ found on the shore at Kilroot: the species which are not
marked as ‘‘recent”? are—Wytilus edulis, Patella vulgata, Trochus
cinerareus, Littorina littoralis, L. litorea, Rissoa sp., Purpura lapillus,
Buccinum undatum, Nassa reticulata.
The raised beach is seen along the shore west of Kilroot railway
station. On the foreshore, at Kilroot Point, there is a small exposure
of estuarine clay of the lower or Scrobicularia zone,? resting on a
thin bed of submerged peat, which lies on red boulder-clay. Before
- the present sea-wall was built, the gravels were seen to rest on
the estuarine clay, so that here we have the typical succession—
Raised beach.
Estuarine clay.
Submerged peat.
Boulder-clay.
The raised beach was formerly well exposed in gravel-pits by the
railway, a short distance west, of Kilroot Staticn, and yielded many
rude flint implements, as has been recorded by Du Noyer’ and others ;
but these pits are lately worked out. On the shore the raised beach
may be seen as a thin band of shell-bearing gravel three to four feet
above high-water mark, resting on boulder-clay, or on New Red marls.
At one point the section is as shown in Plate I., fig. 2. I have the
following shells noted from the Kilroot raised beach :—
Anomia ephippium. Patella vulgata. ¢.
Ostrea edulis. Trochus cinerareus.
Mytilus edulis. Inttorina obtusata. v. ¢.
Cardium edule. LL. litorea. v. c.
Venus exoleta. Cerithium reticulatum.
Tapes decussatus. Nassa reticulata.
T. aureus. Purpura lapillus.
Tellina balthica. Buccinum undatum.
Mactra subtruncata. Cyprea europea.
Mya truncata.
1 Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, xvi. (1877).
2 See ‘‘ Report on the Estuarine Clays,”’ &c., p. 214.
3 Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vols. xxiv, xxv.
38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
LARNE.
The beds at the Curran at Larne form the classic raised beach of
the north of Ireland. Many papers contain references to this deposit,
especially in its archeological aspect, as a famous locality for rude
flint implements. J need only mention such as refer to its geological
and paleontological features. Hull’ records, as found in this raised
beach, eleven species of mollusca. Grainger? gives a list of twenty-
five species obtained by him at heights varying from ten to twenty
feet above high water. In Mr. Stirrup’s paper, already referred to, a
list of nineteen species is given. In the Report of the Belfast Nat.
Field Club [first ] Larne Gravels Committee’ a few species are men-
tioned, which were determined by Mr. 8. A. Stewart. In the Report
of the Field Club’s second Committee of Investigation, which was
drawn up by myself, fifteen species are noted. I give a full list of
the fossils which have been found, distinguishing the authorities by
the initial letters of their names (H. = Hull, G. = Grainger, Sp. =
Stirrup, St. = Stewart, P. = Praeger) :—
Anomia ephippium. H. G. Sp. Scrobicularia alba. Sp.
St. Corbula gibba. G.
Ostrea edulis. G. P. Saxicava rugosa. G.
Pecten varius. G. Patella vulgata. H. G. Sp.
P. maximus. 8. P. Helcion pellucidum. G.
Kellia suborbicularis. G. HI, pellucidum, var. levis. Sp.
LInucina borealis. G. Sp. St. P. Trochus cinerareus. G. Sp. P.
Cardium edule. H.G. Sp. St. P. T. umbilicatus. H. Sp.
C. exiguum. Sp.
Cyprina islandica. P.
Venus lincta. 8.
Tapes pullastra. G. Sp. P.
T. decussatus. P.
Tellina balthica. 8.
T. tenms. G.
Mactra species. Sp.
T. magus. G.
T. sizyphimus. G. P.
Lnttorina obtusata. I. G. Sp.
St. P.
L. litorea. H. G. Sp. St. P.
L. rudis. G. Sp. St. P.
Rissoa membranacea. H.
Turritella terebra. G. P.
1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1872.
2 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1874.
3 Proc. B. N. F. C., 1886-87, p. 519.
* Ibid., 1889-90, p. 198.
PraEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 39
Cerithium reticulatum. H. G. Purpura lapillus. G. Sp. P.
NVatica species. Sp. Buccinum undatum. H. G. Sp.
Nassa reticulata. H. G. Sp. Be
NV. pygmea. G. Fusus antiquus. H.
The molluscan fauna of the gravels is yet by no means thoroughly
worked out. Mr. Joseph Wright has recorded! sixty species of Forami-
nifera from these gravels.
Such full descriptions of the Curran beds have been published in
the Papers already referred to, that it is only necessary to summarize
that at their place of greatest development they consist of current-
bedded gravels, twenty-one feet in thickness, containing marine shells
and worked flints from top to base, and resting on estuarine clay, the
surface of which is at high water level. The vertical position of
certain bivalves proves that they lived buried in the gravels while the
deposit was accumulating. This, and the bedding, show that the
deposit is an old inter-tidal, or submarine, bank. Sections on different
parts of the Curran vary greatly. On the south side of the railway,
close to the Curran station, was seen the succession just mentioned.
A hundred yards northward a bank of boulder-clay rises up, till there
is only two feet of gravel on the top of it. In pits at the old pottery,
six feet of gravels overlay the estuarine clay, the surface of which
was here six feet above high water. In a ten-foot-deep trench, made
in 1887 for the Larne outfall sewer, along the road which crosses
the Curran near this old pottery, a good section was exposed, as in
Plate I., fig. 3, which shows the beds actually seen in the cutting
from the old pottery to the eastern shore. The thick bed of yellow
sand, which at this place suddenly intervenes between the gravels
and the estuarine clay, contained many shells. In the ten minutes
at my disposal on the day when I saw the cutting, the following
were noted :—
Anomia ephippium. v.r. Lnucina borealis. vy. x.
Ostrea edulis. c. Pectunculus glycymeris. c¢.
Pecten varius. v. v. Cardium edule. ec.
P. maximus. f. Venus exoleta, ¢.
Montacuta bidentata. Ff. V. fasciata, rv.
* “ Post-Tertiary Foraminifera of N.-E. Ireland,’’ Proc. B. N. F. C., 1879—
80, Appendix.
40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
V. ovata. v. 1. Lacuna divaricata. v. r.
_ Tapes virgineus. v. rv. Littorina obtusata. v. vr.
T. aureus, var. ovata. v. 1%. L. litorea. c¢.
Tellina balthica. c. L. rudis, var. tenebrosa. v. Y.
Serobicularia alba. v. rv. Rissoa striata. r.
S. piperata. rv. Hydrobia ulve. vr.
Patella vulgata. c. Aclis supranitida. vy. vr.
Helcion pellucidum. var. laevis. Cerithium reticulatum. y.Y.
Vues Purpura lapillus. ce.
Trochus cinerareus. ©. Buccinum undatum. vr.
T. umbilicatus. v. rv. Murex erinaceus. v.r.
T. magus. v.v. Yelampus bidentatus. v. r.
This is by far the most fossiliferous bed yet discovered in the
Larne raised beach, and ten of the species are additions to the fauna;
the shells were in a much better state of preservation than those of
the overlying gravels.
_ Stirrup! mentions this sand bed as fringing the present shore from
Larne [Harbour] northward to Waterloo, capped by gravels, the top
of which was five to six feet above high water. The sand contained
thick beds of shells, consisting for the most part of Patelle, Littorine,
and Trochi, which might be traced for several yards at a time, and
then died away. He notes the following species of fossils :—Patella
vulgata, P. levis, Pectunculus glycymeris, Scrobicularia piperata (?),
Trochus cinerareus, Littorina lttoralis, L. rudis, L. litorea, Purpura
lapillus, tooth of Bos longifrons. The last-named was found firmly
embedded in the sand at its junction with the overlying gravel, and
was determined by*Prof. Boyd Dawkins. On account of its smaller
elevation above the sea, he placed this deposit on a horizon with the
raised beach at Kilroot, &c., and considered them of a later date than
that of the Curran (along with which, by the way, he places the
glacial raised beach of Ballyrudder, which is capped by a thick deposit
of boulder-clay). But in spite of the much better preservation of its
fauna, there can be no doubt that the sand-bed is of the same age as
the Curran gravels, and has its place, indeed, near the base of the
series. Fig. 3 shows clearly how the sand runs in under the gravels,
and as to the state of preservation of its fauna, it has elsewhere?
been stated that the fossils in the lowest bed reached during the
1 Toe. cit.
2 Proc. B. N. F. C., 1889-90.
PRAEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 41
excavations of the Belfast Field Club Committee, were remarkably
fresh and well-preserved, much more so than those of the superior
beds.
This completes my own notes on the north-eastern raised beaches,
but it may be allowed to me to briefly mention any records of fossils
that have not been already referred to, in order that a complete view
may be obtained of the raised beach fauna, so far as it is known.
In Grainger’s Paper in ‘‘Nat. Hist. Review,” 1859, already
referred to, the following marine shells are recorded :—
Waite Axsey, thirty feet elevation.—Ostrea edulis, Pecten maxi-
mus, Mytilus edulis, Cardium edule, Tapes aureus, Tellina balthica,
Trochus cinerareus, Littorina litorea, L. rudis, L. obtusata, Purpura
lapitlus.
GrEENcASTLE, twenty feet elevation.—Cardium edule, Tellina bal-
thica, Littorina obtusata, L. litorea, L. rudis, Hydrobia ulve, Cerithium
reticulatum.
Banxs or Turee-Mite Water, ten feet elevation.—Wytilus edulis,
Patella vulgata, Balanus sp.
Jorpanstown, three feet elevation.—Anomia ephippium, Pecten
opercularis, Mytilus modiolus, WM. edulis, Cardium edule, Venus exoleta,
V. gallina, Tapes decussatus, Mactra subtruncata, Tellina balthica, Mya
truncata, Patella vulgata, Littorina obtusata, L. litorea, L. rudis,
Turritella terebra, Aporrhais pes-pelecani, Cerithium reticulatum, Pur-
pura lapillus, Nassa reticulata, N. inerassata, Buccinum undatum, Fusus
antiquus, Pleurotorna rufa, Serpula vermicularis, S. triquetra.
Carricxrereus, forty feet elevation Anomia ephippium, Ostrea
edulis, Pecten opercularis, Mytilus modiolus, I. edulis, Cardium edule,
Mactra subtruncata, Trochus cinerareus, Inttorina litorea, L. rudis,
Cerithium reticulatum, Buccinum undatum, Serpula triquetra. In
‘< Brit. Assoc. Report,’’ 1874, Grainger supplies the additional infor-
mation, that these were collected in a raised beach beyond Carrick-
fergus.
The lists from ‘‘one foot elevation’’ are not worth giving, in the
absence of any particulars regarding the conditions under which they
were found. In no case in this Paper, unfortunately, is any information
given relative tothe deposits from which the shells were obtained; those
from “sixty to eighty feet elevation, Co. Down Railway cuttings,”
were certainly obtained from glacial beds.!. The remainder which I
I have quoted above were, no doubt, obtained from raised beaches; but,
1 See M‘Adam, in Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol. iv., part 2, No. 2 (1850).
42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
I believe, the height of forty feet at Carrickfergus, thirty feet at White
Abbey, and twenty feet at Greencastle (which the author indicates
are heights above high water) are exaggerated; so far as I am aware,
the most elevated raised beach in the district is that of Larne, which
rises to about twenty-two feet above high water.
Mr. W. A. Traill has noted' a few fossils of Antrim raised
beaches :-—
CraIGVULLEN, three miles §.-E. of Glenarm, at the mouth of the
stream, four to eight feet above high water.—Venus ‘‘lineta or
obsoleta,” Patella vulgata, Helcion pellucidum var. levis, Littorina
obtusata, L. litorea, Trochus sp.
CLoseBurN Bay, five miles 8.-E. of Glenarm, in the townland of
Fourscore, four to eight feet above high-water mark.—Pectunculus
glycymeris, Cyprina islandica, Patella vulgata, Helcion pellucidum var.
laevis, Littorina obtusata, L. litorea, Trochus cinerareus.
Lastly, we have the famous raised beach of Portrush, discovered
by James Smith of Jordan-hill, and first described by Portlock’: ‘‘The
remarkable accumulation of shells, mixed with sand, which occupies a
bowl-shaped hollow, about ten feet above the sea on the north side of
Portrush, and open in that direction to the sea.’’ Portlock gives a
list of the fossils, eighty-eight in number, supplied by Smith, and
adds to these the coral Caryophyllia Smithi. Smith’s own comment
is worth quoting:—‘‘This shelly deposit seems to have been a sheltered
bay into which the shells have been drifted, with a small admixture
of land-shells, washed down by floods; none of the bivalves have both
valves together, but they have been but little injured by the action of
the sea; I have never met with such a variety in so small a space,
either in recent or ancient beds.”
Grainger’ gives a list of fifty-four species obtained by him in this
bed, adding a few species to its fauna; Stirrup includes in his Paper
a short list of its fossils; and Alfred Bell,‘ from material supplied by
local correspondents, has added others, bringing up the total fauna to
no less than 126 species and varieties. It is not necessary here to
reproduce this long list, but attention is drawn to the occurrence of
the following species :—Lima hians, Venus verrucosa, Venerupis irus,
fissoa albella, R. costulata, Odostomia excavata, Adeorbis subcarinatus,
1 Geol. Sury. Ireland, Memoir to Sheet 20, p. 21.
2 Geology of Co. Londonderry, &c., p. 161.
3 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1874. :
4 Ibid., 1890; and also Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Ediuburgh, vol. x. (1889-90).
PrarGErR—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 43
Trophon muricatus. The Foraminifera of the deposit, to the number
of sixty, have been determined and catalogued by Wright.! It isa
matter for congratulation that this important deposit has been s0
thoroughly worked up, as some years ago it was destroyed in the
process of road-making.
I have now enumerated, or referred to, all records that I know
concerning the raised beach fossils of the north-east of Ireland ; and it
will be interesting to compare this fauna with that of the deposits
which immediately underlie the raised beaches, with that of contem-
poraneous beds of different character, and with the present fauna of
the same regions. I would refer to my Report on the Hstuarine
Clays, pp. 213-6, for a sketch of the geological succession and general
character of the post-glacial series in the north-east of Ireland, and
the changes of conditions which they prove. It may be briefly stated
that the typical series is in descending order :—
Raised beaches,
Upper estuarine clay,
Lower estuarine clay.
Submerged peat.
Sands and gravels.
Boulder-clay.
Cotemporaneous.
The only fossiliferous Pleistocene bed yet discovered below the
boulder-clay of the district, is the gravel-bed of Ballyrudder, which
yields a markedly Arctic fauna.
The boulder-clay of the north-east exhibits the well-known typical
characteristics. Overlying it, in many places, is a fine hard red clay,
almost devoid of pebbles or blocks. This bed is more fossiliferous
than the stony clay which it overlies. Above this, sands and gravels
attain locally a considerable development, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Belfast. These beds require further elucidation: so far
as they have been examined they yield sparingly a fauna similar to
that of the boulder clay. The peat-bed, which comes next in the
succession, offers a tempting field for research. Well-preserved plant
remains, and elytra of beetles, &c., are often abundant, and mamma-
lian remains occur. We do not yet know much of the fauna and
flora of this bed, but it contains remains of hazel, alder, oak, willows,
Scotch fir, sedges, and flags. Resting on the peat bed comes the
1 Loe. cit.
* See ‘‘ Report on Estuarine Clays,” &c.
44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
lower or Scrobicularia zone of the estuarine clay, a littoral deposit
which underlies a deposit of deeper water, the upper estuarine clay,
and, in other places, the raised beach or sea-bed.
We are now in a position to compare the faunas of the successive
deposits of the series. This will yield the best and most instructive
results if, eliminating all those species which range both north and
south of the British area, we select the species which are of distinctly
northern or southern type—those which either have now their habitat
altogether outside British waters, or have the boundary (northern or
southern) of their area of distribution within this region. This should,
if the material at our disposal be sufficient for such an analysis, give
us a key to the northward or southward fluctuations of the fauna
during the periods of deposition of the beds under consideration. I
may add that nowhere else in Ireland could such a comparison be
instituted, nor do I know of any area of the same size in England or
Scotland where the glacial, post-glacial, and recent molluscan faunas
are all so completely represented and so available for comparison.
The Ballyrudder gravels and Belfast Waterworks boulder-clay are the
most fossiliferous glacial deposits in Ireland. The estuarine clays,
with a total fauna of 340 species, present, so far as I am aware, the
richest post-glacial fauna in the British Isles; and the raised beaches,
with a fauna of about 130 species, also abundantly represent the life
of the period. Lastly, the extensive researches of Thompson,! Hynd-
man,” and Dickie* furnish us with full information regarding the
existing molluscan fauna of the north-east.
For the purposes of this comparison it is necessary to assume that
the shells found in the various beds lived in the neighbouring seas at
the time of the deposition of the beds. There is, of course always the
chance of derived fossils, but this chance is small, to judge from the
very small percentage of derived forms in recent dredgings or on our
existing beaches. As regards the present fauna, however, this risk
has been obviated by admitting only such species as have been taken
alive in the district.
The Ballyrudder gravels yield a percentage of exotic forms s0
much higher than that of the local glacial clays, that it has been
thought advisable to give this deposit a separate column. The term
1 “ Natural History of Ireland,’ iv., 1856.
2 «Reports of the Belfast Dredging Committee,’’ Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1857,
1858, 1859.
3 “¢ Report on the Marine Zoology of Strangford Lough,’’ Brit. Assoc. Report,
1857.
PrRAEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 45
glacial clays has been used in preference to boulder-clays, since the fine
clay, often without boulders, which has been already referred to, has
yielded more fossils than the boulder-clay proper. The placing of the
raised beaches after the estuarine clays, is not intended to signify neces-
sarily a stratigraphical relation; but it may be assumed, with tolerable
certainty, that the raised beaches are in no case older than the clays.
N represents a species of Arctic distribution, not now living in the
British area. N represents a species, whose present distribution
ranges from Britain northward only: most of these have their head-
quarters on the Scandinavian shores. S represents a species whose
present distribution ranges from. Britain southward only: most of
these have their headquarters in the Mediterranean.
SPECIES. | E g B E 2 2 g :
FQ GO |Ro | HO) ee
Rhynchonella psittacea, “5 . | N oar = = —
Mytilus modiolus, .. ae eon) P= = N N
Pinna rudis, ie 50 50 _ _— _ — Ss)
Crenella decussata, .. me of — | N — N
Leda pernula, ve 0 eo oN N = = =}
Arca lactea, 50 oC 56 == s — S —
Astarte elliptica, ie ie 5 Hos N == = eee
A. compressa and var. globosa, pecteel NY N = = |
A. borealis, oe ae Ae N N — = =
Venus verrucosa, ae os ae —_ = — 8 —
Venerupis irus, te A0 ee — = == S =
Tapes decussatus, ., és | — Ss Ss Ss _
Tellina calcarea, - A hs Nn | — == =
T. donacina, toh ee Ee —— = = — NS)
Gastrana fragilis, , Ap = = s = =
Lutraria obtonga, ,, ae so || = — s = —
Thracia pubescens, ,, ae ae = — NS) — —
Gastrochzna dubia, ., ie ih — Ss) - _—
Pholas parva, a ae as S eek = = ane
46
SPECIES.
Chiton marmoreus,
C. albus,
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Puncturella noachina,
Tectura testudinalis, ..
Emarginula crassa,
Trochus helicinus,
T. umbilicatus,
T. lineatus,
T. granulatus,
T. montacuti,
Phasianella pulla,
Rissoa costulata,
Jeffreysia opalina,
Turritella erosa,
Odostomia pusilla,
O. excavata,
Natica affinis,
Adeorbis subcarinatus,
Trichotropis borealis,
Buccinum grenlandicum,
Fusus latericeus,
Trophon truncatus,
T. clathratus,
T. barvicensis,
T. muricatus,
Defrancia gracilis,
Pleurotoma exarata, ..
P. decussatus,
P. trevelyana,
P. pyramidalis,
z
E a au ai
FQ SO |}|HoO |] AeA
ae renin oN — = N
oe ele 2) — — N
. ee oe | — N —
56 ee oo || = = Ss 8
oe so || = — Ss 8
oe oe oo || = — s Ss)
a0 on 15 = — S =
ve ee 55 |] a8 = = —
a oe Aa || = — Ss —
oe ee 50 || = — — Ss
ee ee 2 | Wi N — —
ee no || = _— _ 8
20 PCr hac) = = =
ee eo ve = N = —
ae ee oer we N _— -—
oe . no || ast N — _
ve on oe) =e 8
: ve oo | = = s =e
oe ee N _ _ =
ae ee oo | — N = oe
ve ee wel) oN — == —
oe -- | N _ = oe
Existing
Fauna.
leeeaaet
nana ya za
RBRNR
PraEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 47
I believe that if to the above Table were added those species
whose distribution is mainly northern or southern (instead of entirely,
as in the Table) the changes in the character of the fauna would be
rendered still more conspicuous; but the groups of shells used above
will sufficiently serve the purpose.
From an inspection of the above Table the Arctic character of the
Ballyrudder fauna, and the northern character of the fauna of the
boulder-clays, is at once apparent. Not less striking is the distinctly
southern character of the estuarine clay fauna, and of the raised
beaches, when contrasted with the columns showing the facies of the
existing fauna. If we add up each column, and reduce the results to
percentages of the total fauna of each deposit, this result is still
more striking—
= A
2) =
po ae Se
S y =
ba is) Oo
= ZA MR
Ballyrudder, 50 25 15 3
Glacial Clays, ss 13 5 3
Estuarine Clays, 2 6
Raised Beaches, AO 0 3 9
Present Seas, 00 0 4 3
This result may be expressed graphically, as shown below. In
fig. 1 (p. 48) horizontal distance represents time. We have no data for
arriving at even a rough comparison of the relative intervals between
the periods under consideration, so they are assumed to be equal. On
one side of a base-line the percentage of northern or southern species
in each fauna is marked off. We thus get three curves, representing
the increase or decrease in the northern or southern character of the
fauna of the north-east of Ireland, from glacial times to the present
day.
And furthermore, if, as in fig. 2 (p. 48), we let vertical distance on
one side of the base-line represent percentage of northern forms, and on
the other, percentage of southern forms (the one-being, so to speak, of
opposite sign to the other), and draw a curve, which is the mean of the
48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
three curves in fig. 1, this curve will give an accurate representation of
the changes in the character of the fauna, as a whole, during the same
6
8
™
0
~
3
8
ww
&
Estuarine Clays
YRalsed Beaches -
Present Time
& Balhrudder
iW
Per-centages.
aur
Figure 1.
period. In these two diagrams we observe the high northern character
of the Ballyrudder fauna. A rapid dying out of Arctic and northern
Ballyrudder.
Present Time.
Fer-cenlages.
Northern.
fac kal Clays.
Esluorine Clays
&Raised Beaches
Southern:
a
que
Figure 2.
species leaves the fauna of the boulder-clay still with a distinctly
northern aspect. The high northern species now all disappear, and
PRAEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 49
the large increase of southern shells is accompanied by a slight
further decrease of northern types, till before the next period the mean
curve, indicating the general character of the fauna, has crossed the
neutral line, and the fauna of the estuarine clays and raised beaches
is seen to be of distinctly southern aspect. This is, however, the
period of maximum dominance of the southern shells. Their number
is seen to rapidly diminish, while the northern element remains
almost the same, so that at the present day the neutral line has been
again passed, and the fauna has assumed a slightly northern aspect.
A cause for this recent collapse of the southern fauna of the north-
eastern seas has not, so far as I am aware, been suggested, nor have I
any explanation to offer. It may be pointed out that the north-east
of Ireland has, at present, the most northern molluscan fauna of any
portion of the country, and this, as the diagram shows, is caused by
the extinction of southern forms rather than by the immigration of
northern ones.
The present Paper may fittingly conclude with a detailed account
of a few of the more striking of these recent emigrations from the
district. It is to be noted that the north-eastern part of Ireland is,
both zoologically and botanically, the most boreal. The mild in-
fluences which characterize the western coast extend right up to the
most northerly point of Donegal and of Ireland; and both fauna and
flora, terrestrial and marine, attain their most northerly aspect only
when we turn southward round Malin Head, and reach the counties of
Derry and Antrim. In accordance with this statement, it will be
seen that some of the shells about to be mentioned, which have now
forsaken the north-eastern shores, or show a striking diminution in
numbers, still flourish in the milder climate of Donegal, which is
actually further to the northward; while, on the other side, their line
of retreat has been down the east coast towards Dublin.
Lima hians, Gmel. In the estuarine clay period lived in immense
abundance in Larne Lough, and more sparingly in Belfast Lough,
and off Portrush. Now almost extinct in the district, a very
few specimens only having been dredged; lives in abundance in
Mulroy Bay, Co. Donegal, and sparingly off Dublin, but is not
recorded from the south or west.
Tapes aureus, Gmel. Its first appearance locally is in the boulder-
clay at Belfast Waterworks. It attains great abundance in the
estuarme clays and raised beaches, from Larne to Greenore.
As a living species it is extremely rare in the district, and in
Ireland has its headquarters in the west and south.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv. L
50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Tapes decussatus, L. A southern shell, which first appeared, like
the last, in the Waterworks boulder-clay. Attained immense
profusion in the estuarine clay period, but has now become
completely extinct in the district, having its limit in Lough
Swilly on the one side, and Carlingford Lough on the other.
Beyond these limits it is a common species round the Irish shores.
Inucinopsis undata, Penn. Attained an abundant and luxuriant
development in the estuarine clay period: now almost extinct
in the district, but found at Portrush and Magilligan. Lives
in Lough Swilly and westward, and on the easternside at
Dublin.
Gastrana fragilis, L. A southern shell, which appears in the estua-
rine clays of Strangford Lough. Im a living state its nearest
station is Lough Swilly. Elsewhere in Ireland, its present
stations are in the south and west.
Scrobicularia piperata, Bell. Appears in the Waterworks boulder-clay.
In the lower, or littoral, estuarine clay it is almost invariably
present in immense profusion, along the whole north-eastern
coast. Now quite extinct in the same area, having its nearest
stations just outside these limits, in Lough Swilly and in
Carlingford Lough. Common all round the rest of the Irish
coasts.
issoa albella, Lovén. Occurs, often in enormous numbers, in almost
every bed of estuarine clay in the loughs of Foyle, Larne,
Belfast, Strangford, and Carlingford, as well as in the Portrush
raised beach. Now completely extinct, and in Ireland only found
at Bantry Bay in the extreme south-west.
Equally instructive is the evidence afforded by certain raised
beaches of the former extension northwards and eastwards of species
which are characteristic of the west-coast fauna.
Venus verrucosa, L. A southern shell, recorded from the Portrush
raised beach, and from prehistoric shell-mounds at Rosapenna in
North Donegal! It is an abundant species in the south-west,
now finding its limit on the south coast at Youghal, and on the
west coast in Co. Sligo.
Venerupis wrus, L. Another characteristic west-coast species of southern
type, not now known north of Bundoran, but occurring in the
Portrush raised beach.
1 W. H. Patterson, in Irish Naturalist, 11., p. 50 (1894).
aoaett On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 51
Trochus lineatus, D.C. Abundant at the present time on the west
coast, as far north as Bundoran. Rare on the east coast, but
ranges north to Ballywalter in Co. Down. Its presence in the
raised beach at Fort Stewart, on Lough Swilly, attests its further
former extension.
Certain genera also exhibit, as a whole, striking fluctuations.
Trophon, so characteristic of glacial beds, is, with the exception of
T. muricatus in the Portrush bed, entirely absent in the estuarine
clays and raised beaches, re-appearing in the present north-eastern
seas with three species. Leda, another abundant glacial genus, with
three species in the local deposits of this age, is represented in the
estuarine clays and raised beaches by only a single valve of Z. minuta
at Belfast, though two species inhabit our present waters. Astarte,
with four species in the glacial beds, is completely absent from the
estuarine clays and raised beaches, re-appearing with two species at
the present day. Cyprina is, very strangely, almost absent from the
glacial beds of the north-east; it is likewise extremely rare in the
estuarine clays and raised beaches, though now living in abundance.
Tapes, a genus of rather southern proclivities, is not represented in the
Ballyrudder beds, and but very sparingly in the boulder-clays. In
the estuarine clays and raised beaches all the British species are
widely diffused, often in very great abundance, while at the present
day one species, as already mentioned, has migrated completely from
the district, and another is almost extinct. Venus, another genus of
southern tendency, is unknown at Ballyrudder, and very sparsely
represented (two species only) in the boulder-clays. The estuarine
clays yield all the six local species, which have, if anything, in-
ereased in numbers since that period. Montacuta, unknown in the
glacial beds, swarms in the estuarine clay, and is now extremely rare.
We have now traced, so far as is possible, the history and
character of the marine fauna of the north-eastern corner of Ireland.
We see that, following the Arctic climate that must have obtained
when the raised beach of Ballyrudder was laid down, somewhat
warmer seas existed during the boulder-clay period, inhabited by a
fauna still distinctly northern, but containing a few southern forms,
along with a diminishing number of Arctic species. It may be
remarked, in passing, that the character of this fauna closely corre-
sponds to that of the boulder-clay of Kill-o’-the-Grange, near Dublin,
recently described by Professor Sollas and the writer.!
1 Trish Naturalist, iv., p. 821, December; 1895.
E2
52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
A long period, represented by the eskers, brick-clays, and sub-
merged peat, must have intervened before the deposition of the next
bed of the series.
The peat bed, so far as we know its flora and fauna, points to a
climate not much differing from that which exists at present, and to
an elevation of the land slightly greater than at present. A slight
submergence allowed the deposition of the lower estuarine clay, with
its rather southern fauna, and a further submergence was followed by
the accumulation of deposits of mud in the shape of the upper estua-
rine clay, of sand-banks, such as the Curran of Larne, and of shelly
beach deposits, such as that of Portrush. At this period the southern
element of the fauna attained its maximum. Finally came elevation
of the land, and with the last change of level came the final fluctua-
tion in the character of the animal life, a distinct return towards its
former northern character, which has left the fauna as we now find it.
Ciassrrrep List oF THE PricipaL PaPERs, ETC., USED IN THE
PREPARATION oF ForEecorne Report.
Gracrat Fauna.
1843. Bryce (James), and Greorce C. Hyrypman.—‘‘ Notice of an
Elevated Deposit of Marine Shells, of the Newer Pleiocene
Epoch, lately discovered near Belfast.” In Portlock’s
Report on the Geology of Londonderry, &c., p. 738,
Appendix.
1850. M‘Apamw (James).—‘‘ Observations on the Neighbourhood of
Belfast, with a description of the Cuttings on the Co. Down
Railway,” Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin, rv., part ii., No. 2.
1860. Hyxpman (Georce C.).—‘‘ Report of the Belfast Dredging
Committee for 1859,” Brit. Assoc. Report for 1859.
1875. Gazatxezr (Rev. Jonn).—‘‘On the Post-Tertiary Deposits of
Ireland,” Brit. Assoc. Report for 1874, Trans. of Sections.
1881. Srewarr (S. A.).—‘‘ Mollusca of the Boulder-Clay of the
North-east of Ireland,” Rep. and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field
Club (2), 1. (1879-80), Appendix.
1881. Weieut (Josrpx).—‘“‘ Post-Tertiary Foraminifera of the North-
east of Ireland,” Rep. and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club(2),
1. (1879-80), Appendix.
1893. Prarcer (R. Liorp).—‘‘ Report of the Sub-Committee ap-
pointed to investigate the Gravels of Ballyrudder, Co.
Antrim,” Rep. and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club(2), mz.
(1892-93).
1895.
1850.
1859.
1871.
1881.
1888.
1858.
1891.
1892.
1843.
1873.
1874,
1877.
1878.
1881.
1888.
PRraEGER—On the Raised Beaches of N.E. Ireland. 58
Sortas (W. J.), and R. Luoyp Prarerr.—‘‘ Notes on Glacial
Deposits in Ireland. II. Kill-o’-the-Grange,” Irish Natu-
ralist, Iv.
EstuagiInE Cray Fauna.
M‘Avam (James).—Loe. cit.
GratnceEr (Jony).—‘‘ On the Shells found in the Post-Tertiary
Deposits of Belfast,’’ Nat. Hist. Review, vr.
Srewarr (8. A.).—‘‘A List of the Fossils of the Estuarine
Clays of Downand Antrim,” Eighth Annual Report Belfast
Nat. Field Club (1870-71), Appendix.
Wriecut (JoserH).—Loe. cit.
Prarncer (R. Luoyp).—‘‘The Estuarine Clays at the new
Alexandra Dock, Belfast,’”’ Report and Proc. Belfast Nat.
Field Club (2), 1. (1886-87), Appendix.
Hynpman (Grorce C.).—‘‘ Report of the Proceedings of the
Belfast Dredging Committee,’ Brit. Assoc. Report for
1857.
Bett (Atrrep).—‘‘ Fourth and Final Report . . . upon the
Manure Gravels of Wexford,” Brit. Assoc. Report for
1890.
Prancer (R. Lioyp).—‘‘ Report upon the Estuarine Clays of
the North-east of Ireland,” Proc. R. I. Academy (3), m.,
No. 2.
Ratsep Braco Fauna.
Portiock (J. E.).—‘‘ Report on the Geology of the Co. of
Londonderry, &c.,’’ chap. vi.
Hori (Epwarp).—‘‘ On the Raised Beach of the North-east
of Ireland,” Brit. Assoc. Report for 1872, Trans. of
Sections.
GraincEer (Joun).—Loe. cit.
Stirrup (Marx).—‘‘ The Raised Beaches of Co. Antrim, their
Molluscan Fauna, and Flint Implements,” Proc. Lit. and
Phil. Soc. Manchester, xvr.
Hutt (Epwarp).—‘‘ Physical Geology and Geography of Ire-
land,” chap. vi.
Wrieur (JoserH).—Loe. cit.
Betrasr Nar. Fireup Cxvus.—‘‘ Report of the Committee
appointed to investigate the Larne Gravels,” &c., Report
and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club (2), m. (1886-87).
04
1890.
1890.
1895.
1856.
1858.
1858-60.
1863-9.
1878.
1878.
1878-85.
1886.
1889.
1892.
1892.
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Bett (Atrrep).—Loe. ert.
Prarcer (R. Luoyp).—‘‘ Report of a Committee on the
Gravels and Associated Beds of the Curran, at Larne,
Co. Antrim,’’ Report and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field
Club (2), m1. (1889-90).
Praxcer (R. Luoyp).—‘‘ The Raised Beaches of Inishowen,”
Trish Naturalist, rv.
Present Fauna.
Tompson (Witt1am).—Natural History of Ireland, rv.
Dickie (Gxrorce).—‘‘ Report on the Marine Zoology of
Strangford Lough, Co. Down, and Corresponding Part
of the Irish Channel,” Brit. Assoc. Report for 1857.
Hynpman (Groree C.).—‘‘ Reports of the Belfast Dredging
Committee,” Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1857, 1858, and
1859.
Jerrreys (J. Gwyn).—British Conchology, m.-v.
GumE to THE County or Dusiin.—HKdited by A. M‘Alister
and W. R. M‘Nab.
Sars (G. O.).—Mollusca Regionis Arcticee Norvegie. Bidrag
til Kundskaken om Norges Arktische Fauna. I. Bloddyr.
Jerrrnrs (J. Gwyn).—‘‘On the Mollusca procured during
the ‘Lightning’ and ‘ Porcupine’ Expeditions, 1868-70,”
Proc. Zool. Soc. London.
Koxett ( W.).—Prodromus Faunz Molluscorum Testaceorum
Maria Europea inhabitantium.
Prarerr (R. Lioyp).—‘‘ The Marine Shells of the North of
Treland,” Report and Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club (2),
mi. (1887-8), Appendix.
Hart (H. Cuicnesrer).—‘‘ Notes on Marine Mollusca
collected on the Coasts of Donegal and Dublin,”
Zoologist (8) Xvi.
Warren (Amy).—‘“‘ Contribution towards a List of the Marine
Mollusca of Killala Bay,” Journal of Conchology, vu.
pyaar *")
IV.
MAGH ADHAIR, CO. CLARE. THE PLACE OF INAUGURA-
TION OF THE DALCASSIAN KINGS. By THOMAS
JOHNSON WESTROPP, B.A.
(Pratz IT.)
[Read 13th APriz, 1896.]
Maeu Apuarr, now Moyare Park, although one of the best preserved
places of inauguration in Ireland, and historic as the spot where our
greatest monarch, Brian, was first made king of the little realm of
Thomond, has been only noticed, with unaccountable brevity, by our
antiquaries and historians,! which encourages me to lay before the
Academy a description of its site and sketch of its history, with plans
of the existing remains.
In the townlands of Corbally and Toonagh, little over two miles
north-east from Quin, Co. Clare, the road to Tulla dips into the
depression through which flows the little streamlet, known by the name
of the Hell river. North of the bridge, over this rivulet, we find a
sort of amphitheatre, fenced by crags, and enclosed by a low bank,
marked here and there by blocks of stone. In the area of this levelled
space rises a large flat topped mound, girt with a fosse and bank.
The tumulus (Plate 11., fig. 1) measures from 85 to 100 feet on top, and
is over 20 feet high ; it is in perfect preservation, and does not seem to
have been opened. The top has only a few sloe bushes, and a worn
slab of limestone, level with the ground, on the north side. A sloping
way, with steep sides, leads across the fosse westward to the level of
the field. A second but much smaller mound, or rather cairn, of earth
and large stones, about 10 feet high and 17 feet on top, rises 30 feet
from the last on the brink of the stream. North of the great mound,
* The only attempt at description among our predecessors being that in
Ordnance Survey Letters, R.I.A., Clooney Parish, Co. Clare, and that only in
manuscript. See Annals Four Masters, note on 1599; Royal Society Antiquaries
of Ireland, Journal, 1891, note, p. 463.
56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
and within the levelled enclosure, is a boulder of purple conglomerate,
embedding pebbles of rose quartz and red porphyry; it is about 4 feet
long by 3 feet high, and has, in its upper surface, a small oval basin,*
apparently hollowed by grinding. Across the stream, 141 feet to the
west, in Toonagh, stands a rough slab of limestone, 6 ft. 3 in. high,
from 3 ft. to 2 it. 6 in. wide, and 10 in. thick, forming a pillar in the
line of the two mounds and the sloping footway ; between it and the
stream is a shattered block like the base of a second pillar.
Half a mile towards the S.-W. we find a large stone fort, Cahercalla
(Plate 11, fig. 2), with the triple enclosure said to characterize a royal
residence.? It is built of smaller stones and with ruder masonry than
the beautiful cahers in north-western Clare and its larger neighbours
at Dromoland and Spansil Hill, still it is an interesting ruin, and of
sufficiently imposing size. It consists of a massive central cashel,
100 feet internal diameter, with walls 17 feet thick, where best pre-
served, and still 8 feet high, having a defaced gateway to the east, no
stones long enough for lintels remain in the ruin. The second ring is
a wall 8 feet and 9 feet thick, and 6 feet high, with gates to S.-E. and
S.-W., and a break or gate to N.-E., enclosing a space 214 feet in
diameter. The third, and outer, ring-wall has one existing gateway
to S.-E., and is 345 feet in diameter; the segment to the N.-W. is
levelled. Nuhell, the present tenant, states that his grandfather, when
engaged on its demolition, was suddenly taken ill, and, fancying he
had been ‘‘struck”’ by the fairy inmates of the fort, desisted from his
work of destruction; this fortunately saved the caher, and beyond the
remoyal of a small late enclosure in the central ring, no harm has
since been done. Several shapeless objects of iron were found in this
part of the wall, and thrown into the rubbish, which was heaped
against the rampart. This recalls the iron axes, described by Sir
William Wilde,* found in Caherspeenaun, near Lough Corrib. There
are several forts of earth and stone, and an overturned dolmen in the
adjoining townlands of Caherloghan and Creevaghbeg, which cannot
be considered part of the group at Magh Adhair.
Let me briefly indicate those points in which the remains may be
identified with the ancient ceremonial. Besides the elaborate article
1 Round basins also occur, with prehistoric remains, in Co. Clare in a block of
the dolmen in Newgroye, and another block near the defaced dolmen of Kiltanon,
both a few miles distant to the north.
2 As triple Celtic forts exist outside Ireland, from Scotland to Hungary, the
statement needs further examination.
> Lough Corrib, p. 245.
Westroprp—Magh Adhair, Co. Clare. 57
by O’Donovan in the ‘‘ Genealogies and Customs of Hy Fiachra,’”’ we
have a long account? of the inauguration of Cathal Crovderg O’Conor,
who died 1224. From it we gather that the cairn or mound, on
which the prince stood, had a palisade and gateway, the last guarded
during the investiture by three chiefs, a fourth alone ascended
the mound to give the rod to the candidate. The other chiefs, and
the coarbs of the principal local saints, stood below, holding the
prince’s arms, clothes, and horse, and afterwards assisting him to robe
and remount. The chief faced the north, and, on stepping down from
the stone, turned round thrice each way, as is still the custom in
Clare, on seeing the new moon. Martin, in his account of ‘ the
Western Islands” of Scotland, two hundred years ago,? describes a
nearly identical ceremony at the inauguration of a Scottish chief: he
was placed on a heap of stones, his followers standing round it, and
one of his principal friends gave him his father’s sword, ‘‘ and there
was a white rod delivered to him at the same time.”’ Then ‘‘the
chief druid or orator stood close to the pyramid,’’ and made ‘“‘a
panegyric, setting forth the ancient pedigree, valour, and liberality of
the family.” In the case of the O’Briens we know very little, save
that ‘‘Macnamara,’”’ in whose territory the mound stood, was chief
officer. A very doubtful line in only one translation of the ‘‘ Wars of
Torlough” suggests that Macnamara pronounced the titles and
descent of O’Brien at a ‘‘ pillar’? among great hosts. This may have
been interpolated in the sevententh century, but is equally likely to
preserve a true tradition. An ancient tree also was used in the
ceremony at an early period. The inauguration probably took place
on the north side of the great mound. The chiefs guarded a
gate at the foot of the sloping way; the principal spectators stood in
the levelled enclosure; the ‘‘orator’’ recited on the cairn, and
possibly the marshal presented the chief to the rank and file of his
adherents in the level field beside the pillar. As for the basin-stone
its use is not alluded to in the records cited above, but one occurs
hollowed in the native rock at Dunadd in Argyllshire, close to the
footprint which marks the spot where the Dalriadic kings were
“made.” The stone at Magh Adhair has no footprint; such a stone,
however, exists in Co. Clare at Dromandoora, which, if not of the
' Hy Fiachra, p. 432; Kilkenny Society Journal, 1852-3, p. 341; Royal
Historical and Archeological Association of Ireland, 1870, p. 349, where the closely
analogous mound, cairn, and pillar of Carnfree are described.
* Martin’s ‘“‘ Western Islands,”’ edition 1703, p. 101.
* Soc. Antiq. Scotland, 1878-9, p. 28, paper by Capt. F. Thomas, R.N.
58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
native rock, may have been brought from Magh Adhair.t That there
were formerly men in Clare willing to expend considerable labour and
money in removing any curious stone, is shown by the removals of a
huge block from Birr to Cullane by Tom Steele, of the crosses of
Kilnaboy and Termon to Kilfenora, of the cross of Kilfenora to
Killaloe, and of St. Senan’s slab to Kilkee.
History.
The origin of the mound, like that of so many prehistoric remains
in Clare, is attributed to the Huamorian Firbolgs in the first
century; the ‘‘ Lay of Carn Chonoill” giving among the names
and residences of those legendary warriors that of ‘‘ Adar at Mag
Adair.”? It is conceivable that the predecessors of the Dalcassians
held sacred the grave of some chief, and that their later conquerors
marked their victory by using it as a place of inauguration for their
own princes,’ from the fifth to the sixteenth century.
Great obscurity broods over the history of Thomond before the
middle of the ninth century. From Brian’s reign it abounded in
historizns and bards, while monastic writers collected the legends of
its saints, but strange to say, as regards its rulers, we have not even
a consistent list, still less a history of its early kings. Two divergent
accounts remain with no name in common, from Conall, son of Eochy
Balderg, in the fifth century, to Lorcan, grandfather of Brian, in the
ninth. The less known list seems to bear internal marks of genuine-
ness, and fits into the required time; the other is wrong in its chro-
nology and defective in its succession, but it is supported by the few
independent facts which do nothing to support its rival. All the
princes of both lists can be placed in the Dalcassian pedigree, except,
perhaps, Rebechan, son of Mothla (the latter possibly gave his name
to Ballyvally, baile ui mhotla, near Killaloe, in which the fort of
Boruma stands), Rebechan’s contemporary, Lachtna (Lorcan’s father),
dwelt on Craglea (where the defaced Grianan Lachtna still remains).
He appears as ruler of Thomond, at the time of the invasion of Felim,
1 Proc. R. I. A., vol. x.,p. 441. Other footprints, the MacMahons at Mulloch
Leaght, Monaghan; Belmont, near Derry ; Arzon Morbihan, Brittany; Dunadd,
Argyllshire. See also Kilkenny Soc. Journal, y., p. 451: Ordnance Survey of
Templemore, p. 441; Delandre’s Morbihan, p. 214.
2 See Revue Celtique, 1894, p. 479, by Dr. Whitley Stokes.
5 The conquest of Thomond by the Dalcassians seems to have been accomplished
between circa 380 and 420. ‘Silva Gadelica,’’ II., pp., 377, 378.
Westropp—Magh Adhair, Co. Clare. 59
King of Cashel, about 840, in the ancient history preserved in the
‘Book of Munster.” Perhaps, as in later times, Thomond was
divided between rival houses, whose records perished in the Danish
wars, while the revival of learning under Brian only celebrated that
great king’s ancestors, and their opponents were only remembered in
dry lists like that in the ‘‘ Book of Ballymote.”
In face of such obscurity in the ancient histories, it is little
wonder that the records of Magh Adhair only begin late in the ninth
century. In 877! Flan Sunagh of Cashel invaded Thomond. Having
ravaged Munster from Balboruma to Cork, he thought fit to reduce
the plain of Magh Adhair, and passing the place of inauguration,
stopped, in bravado, to play chess on its:green. While thus engaged,
King Lorcan fell upon him, aided by the stout chief Sioda, ancestor
of the Macnamaras, and, after a three days’ skirmish, so entangled
him in the country that Flan was glad to surrender, and procure an
ignominious retreat across the Shannon.
In the winter of 941 a more friendly stranger, Murchad ‘‘ of the
leather coats,”’ of Aileach, after his daring king hunt round Ireland,?
brought Callaghan of Cashel and other captives through the friendly
state of Thomond, camping a night ‘‘on the beautiful cold Magh
Adhair.” In Brian’s reign Malachy, the Ard Righ, overran Thomond
in 982, and cut down “the ancient tree of Magh Adhair,” after it had
been dug from the earth, with its roots. This insult was repeated on
a later tree, in 1051, by Aed O’Conor, King of Connaught. After
this second disaster we hear little of interest about the place. In
Macgrath’s ‘‘ Wars of Torlough’’? it is often mentioned but in merely
a historic formula. O’Brien (Conor, 1240; Brian, 1267; Torlough,
1277; Donough, 1306; Dermot and Murchad, in opposition, 1311;
Donough, in opposition, 1313) goes to Magh Eir, and is inaugurated
by Macnamara, who proclaims his regal title, and the chiefs and their
hosts consent and rejoice. So strongly conservative was public feeling
that Lochlan Macnamara, so far as is recorded, without hesitation or
protest, inaugurated his enemy Dermot O’Brien, the rival of his friend
Murchad, and soon afterwards willingly invested the latter with the
chieftainry. The odes on these and later occasions to the reign of
' «Book of Munster,’? R. I. A.; Annals Four Masters, at 877; Todd’s
“Wars of the Gaedhill with the Gaill,”’ p. cxiii.
* “The Circuit of Ireland.”
° I use the older name as more familiar at present than that of ‘‘ The
Triumphs.”” See Mr. Standish Hayes O’Grady’s translation, pp. 2, 6, 10, 32,
47, 48, 69.
60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Elizabeth preserved by Macgrath and others tell us nothing definite
of the place or ceremonial.!
In the T. C. D. list of castles, 1584, Toonagh appears to have been
ealled ‘‘Tuanamoyre.”’ I have not met the name again till 18389,
when the adjoining field, in Corbally, was still Moy Eir, or Moy Ri,
being marked ‘‘ Moyross Parks” on the six-inch Ordnance Survey, for
no apparent reason. I found it Moyare Park in 1891. The older
peasantry remembered its great meetings, held down to the time of the
famine, no doubt a survival of the ancient fair, or merrymaking, of
Eanagh Magh Adhair, which was held as early as 877 : they also said
that the mound was a king’s grave, and that Cragnakeeroge was not
its name, but that of the crags to the north-east. Now, the recent
Survey has overlaid all the genuine traditions, and when last year
I went again over the ground, it took no small amount of cross-
questioning to drive my informant to confess that it was not from his
elders, but a ‘‘ sapper,” that he ‘‘ had heard tell that it was the place
where they made a king of Brian Boru.”
1 Tn *‘ Annals of the Four Masters,’’ 1579, Donnell O’Brien, native chief of
Clare, died, and his son Torlough was ‘‘installed.’”? This may have been the last
formal inauguration.
NOTE ADDED IN PRESS.
The Book of Ballymote explicitly states that Lughad Meann seized
on Thomond as an eric for the death of the Ard Righ Crimthann
(378). The Annals of Inisfallen, however, say that Lughad’s son
Connal Eachluadh became King of Munster in 366, which would put
back the date of the father’s reign to 340. Among contending autho-
rities, it is perhaps more safe to take the later date, as the Dalcas-
sians, evidently, had only obtained the southern part of the present
Co. Clare in St. Patrick’s time.
eos)
V.
ON THE OSMOTIC PRESSURE IN THE CELLS OF LEAVES.
By HENRY H. DIXON, B.A., Assistant to the Professor of
Botany, Trinity College, Dublin.
[Read June 8, 1896. ]
[COMMUNICATED BY DR. E. P. WRIGHT. |
In a Paper in the Proceedings of this Academy,! I have advocated the
view that the sap is drawn up in trees in a state of tension, and that
under normal conditions this tension is established by means of the
osmotic attraction of the cell-sap in the parenchymatous cells of the
leaf, exercised on the water in the upper terminations of the water
conduits.
Accordingly, it seemed to me of interest to investigate the osmotic
pressures actually existing in the cells of the leaves of plants, in order
to discover if these pressures are sufficient to account for the raising of
the sap in the conduits by the attraction exercised by the solutions
which give rise to these pressures.
Various methods have been adopted in estimating the osmotic pres-
sures in cells. The most usual is to immerse the cell or group of cells
to be investigated in solutions of varied concentration, and finding what
concentration is necessary to balance the attractive forces of the cell-
sap. This may be done by direct examination of the cells, which,
when the surrounding solution is too dilute, will expand; because the
amount of water attracted into the more concentrated cell-sap will be
greater than the amount drawn from it into the surrounding liquid
which is more dilute. If, however, the surrounding solution is too
concentrated, more water is drawn from the cell-sap than it can attract
to itself, and consequently the vacuoles in the cells diminish in size.
This leads to a contraction of the protoplasm of the cell, leaving the
cell-wall as it contracts, till finally it will form a small ball lying
within the cell-wall. It is evident that when the concentration of the
surrounding solution is such that it neither causes extension nor plasmo-
lysis, the attractive forces of the solution are equal to the attractive
1¢¢ Role of Osmosis in Transpiration,”’ vol. iii., ser. 3, p. 767, Jan., 1896.
62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
forces of the cell-sap; and we may conclude that the pressure in the
cell, ifit is freely supplied with water, is equal to the osmotic pressure
which this solution couldexert. Such a solution is said to be isotonic
with cell-sap. Another way of determining when a solution is isotonic
with the cell-sap, and so finding the osmotic pressure exerted by the
cell-sap, is to observe tentatively what concentration is necessary in a
solution which will cause no alteration in form in a piece of turgescent
tissue. If the tissue expands in the solution, the latter is too dilute ;
if it contracts, the solution is too concentrated.
By these methods various osmotic pressures have been determined,
33 to 21 atmospheres in various tissues; but, so far as I am aware, the
pressures obtaining in the tissues of the leaf have not yet been ascer-
tained.
The method I have adopted in this research for estimating the
osmotic pressures existing in the leaves is the following :—A branch
bearing a number of leaves is enclosed in a strong glass cylinder,
capable of resisting high gas-pressure (e.g. 50-100 atmospheres), and
the pressure is raised in this vessel by means of an air compression-
pump, or by attaching it directly to a cylinder containing liquid CO,.
The lower portion of the branch projects from the cylinder and dips
into a glass vessel containing a weighed quantity of water. These
arrangements are shown in the above figure.
Drxon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves. 63
It is evident that when the gas-pressure in the glass vessel sur-
rounding the branch is raised and maintained above the osmotic pres-
sure of the cells of the leaf, that water will be forced from these cells
back into the conduits of the branch and into the vessel beneath.
This will become apparent in two ways: firstly, by the flagging of
the leaf, inasmuch as the rigidity of the leaf is due to the internal
pressure of these cells, so that when this pressure is overcome by the
external gas pressure the leaf will flag; secondly, by the increase of
weight in the vessel beneath containing the water into which the
branch dips. For every branch, then, we may expect to find a pres-
sure above which water will be forced back from the leaves into the
stem by reason of the squeezing out of the osmotic cells, and below
which water will rise through the conduits to the leaves, on account
of the osmotic attraction of the cell-sap of the osmotic cells. When
this critical pressure itself is maintained around the branch, water will
remain stationary in the plant. In carrying out these observations,
the form of apparatus I have used consists of a strong glass cylinder
of specially well-annealed glass, 50 cms. long, 10 cms. in diameter, and
with walls 1 cm. thick. Such a glass cylinder should, according to
calculation, be capable of resisting an internal pressure of at least 100
atmospheres. The ends of this glass cylinder are closed by means of two
heavy gun-metal castings, which project over the side of the cylinder
so as to take three long bolts with nuts, which draw the castings
together on the cylinder. lLeather-washers, soaked in bees’ wax and
turpentine, are inserted between the ends which are ground flat and the
cylinder to make the joints air-tight. The lower end is perforated
centrally, and in the perforation is sealed hermetically a narrow brass
tube, about °5 cm. in diameter, projecting into the cylinder. This tube
includes the stem of the plant to be experimented with, the lower end of
which projects out of the cylinder while its leaves are enclosed. To
make an air-tight connection between the tube and the stem, a stout
rubber tube is first bound on to the upper end of the brass tube. The
branch is then inserted into the rubber tube, and, before it has been
pushed completely down, a portion of it just above the rubber is coated
with thick glue, so that when it is shoved down into its final position
with reference to the tube, it carries this glue down into the rubber tube.
When it is in position, a copper wire is bound tightly round the rubber,
and draws it into close contact with the glue. To complete the joint,
alittle glue is smeared overit. This form of joint is simple and highly
satisfactory. The upper end of the cylinder is also perforated centrally
to admit the gas coming from the pump or bottle. This is a simple
screw-joint, made tight by a leather-washer. To the upper end, and on
64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the inside, are also attached three hooks, from which are suspended a
wire basket, carrying drying materials, and a manometer. The latter
consists of a simple, straight glass-tube, closed at one end; the other
end dips into a small vessel containing mercury. This tube is marked
off with 3, 4, 4, 4, &c., of its length from its closed end, and the posi-
tion of the mercury index tells directly the pressures in atmospheres.
When the upper end of the glass-cylinder is in position, the drying
materials and manometer hang in the cylinder. The connection be-
tween the glass-cylinder and pump or bottle of CO, is made by means
of a flexible lead tube with screw couplings.
The results described in this Paper are necessarily only preliminary,
as I was unable to procure, by the pump at my disposal, air-pressures
above 8-10 atmospheres. Higher pressures were obtained by means
of liquid CO., as there seemed a priori no reason to believe that the
presence of CO, would falsify the results of experiments which were
not continued for along duration. However, subsequent experimental
work showed that the presence of this gas profoundly modified the
behaviour of the leaves when exposed to high pressures, and conse-
quently rendered the experiments made with CO, of little value in
estimating the actual osmotic pressures obtaining in the leaves under
normal conditions, although they have an important bearing on the
question as to whether the tension is established in the sap directly by
evaporative or osmotic actions in the leaf.
I hope immediately to proceed with the investigation of this ques-
tion (z.e. the actual osmotic pressures obtaining in the cells of leaves),
as I have been, through the kindness of Mr. 8. Geoghegan, C.E., put
into a position of dealing with high air-pressures.
In the first experiment, a short branch of Acer macrophyllum was
sealed into the high-pressure apparatus, and the pressure raised by
means of an air-pump, and maintained for fifteen minutes at a pressure
between 8 and 10 atmospheres. During this time gas was continually
bubbling out from the lower end of the branch, showing that the pres-
sure had been transmitted to the inner tissues. No loss of turgescence,
however, of the leaves could be observed.
In a second experiment, a similar branch was exposed to a pressure
of 8 or nearly 8 atmospheres during fifteenf{minutes, and during this
time showed no loss of turgescence.
From these two preliminary experiments, it appears that the
pressure within the cells of the leaves of Acer macrophyllum, which
internal pressure confers rigidity on the leaves, was greater than 8 atmo-
spheres. The osmotic attraction which would give rise to this pres-
sure would be capable of drawing up a column of water 240 feet high.
Dixon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves. 65
In a similar experiment, a branch of Crategus oxyacantha was
exposed to a pressure of about 8 atmospheres for fifteen minutes
without showing signs of loss of turgidity.
As the pump I had at my disposal was unable to compress air
above a pressure of about 10 atmospheres, I discarded it in favour
of using a bottle containing liquid CO,. This was connected with
the high-pressure apparatus by suitable couplings; and, by carefully
opening the valve at the mouth of the bottle, the pressure could be
adjusted at will to any pressure up to 60 atmospheres. This has the
additional advantage that careful observations are possible while rais-
ing the pressure, which cannot be done while using the pump unless
an assistant is employed.
By means of this arrangement, the pressure was raised round the
same branch as was used in the last experiment, to 16 atmospheres,
and was maintained at this for fifteen minutes. But even at this
pressure the leaves showed no loss of turgescence. When the pres-
sure reached 10 atmospheres, the bubbling of gas through the stem
became very marked.
As it appeared possible that a certain amount of collapse of the
osmotic cells of the leaves might take place without making itself
noticeable by the flagging of the leaves, a number of experiments were
made in which the branch dipped into a vessel beneath, which latter
was weighed before and after the experiment. Any increase in weight
of this vessel would be due to the forcing backwards by the external
pressure of the cell-sap contained in the cells of the leaves, which
would in turn displace a certain amount of water from the conduits
of the branch into the vessel. A decrease, on the other hand, of the
weight of the vessel would show that the external pressure had not
crushed the osmotic cells, and that they had, in spite of its action,
drawn up water from the vessel.
The first experiment of this kind was made on a branch of Acer
macrophyllum, which bore 14 well-grown leaves. This branch was
sealed into the high-pressure apparatus, and kept at a pressure of
8 atmospheres; during one hour of intermittent sunlight this branch
drew up 0:1 gr. from the vessel below.
A similar branch, similarly arranged, and exposed to a pressure
between 8 and 9 atmospheres, drew up, in one and a-half hour’s
sunshine, 0°342 gr. of water from the weighed vessel.
From these experiments, it follows, that the osmotic cells of the
leaves of Acer macrophyllum were able to remain turgescent and draw
up water against a pressure of 8 atmospheres. Consequently, the
osmotic solution in the cells must be capable of generating a tension
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL, Iv. F
66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
equivalent to 8 atmospheres pressure, by attracting water from the
conduits. Such a tension would be capable of drawing up a column
of water 240 feet high, provided the column of water was submitted
to such conditions that it would not break. Dr. Joly and myself
have shown elsewhere that these conditions obtain im the conducting
tissues of plants.’
All the trees I have experimented with up to the present do not,
however, show that their leaves possess such high osmotic pressures
when surrounded with €O,. Thus the specimens of Cytisus laburnum,
investigated by means of the high-pressure apparatus, showed that
they were unable to transpire against an external pressure of more
than 6 atmospheres. Above this pressure the leaves begin to collapse,
and water is forced back from themintothe stem. It is, however, very
probable that all the leaves are not put out of activity in transpiration
simultaneously. Thus, I have observed, with Cytisus laburnum, that
the old leaves begin to show collapse by losing their glossy surface, and
rolling back from the edges at a pressure of 6—7 atmospheres, while
the young, small leaves, which are composed of growing tissues, remain
stiff and turgescent, even at 16 atmospheres. This is quite in accor-
dance with Wieler’s observations on the internal pressure of the cells
of the cambium, which he estimated at 13-16 atmospheres.
A preliminary experiment on Cytisus laburnum showed that the
leaves of this plant flagged markedly after an exposure of five to ten
minutes to a pressure of 16 atmospheres. The flagging in this case is
indicated by the folding down of a leaf from the base of its petiole,
and the folding back of its leaflets, so that the whole leaf has the
appearance of the leaf of a sensitive plant (Ifimosa pudica) which has
been stimulated. Besides these motions, the surface of the leaf loses.
its gloss and becomes dried-looking, the edges of the leaf roll up,
and the expanded portion becomes crumpled. The general appearance
of the leaves after twenty minutes exposure to 16 atmospheres is that
of a leaf which has been exposed to a high temperature and afterwards
dried. Microscopic examination of the cells of these leaves shows.
the protoplasm contracted from the cell-wall just as it is in plasmolysed
cells. This appearance is probably brought about by the cell-wall being
pressed in on the protoplasm, and causing the latter to force out its
watery contents. When the pressure is relieved, the cell-wall, by
virtue of its elasticity, recovers its form, while the protoplasm remains
contracted within. The space included by the cell-walls does not,
however, attain the dimensions it possessed when the cell was
1 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. 186 (1895), B.
Dixon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves. 67
turgescent, as in that case it was distended by internal pressure, and
consequently the leaf formed of such collapsed cells is flaccid.
After I had obtained this result, I set about to determine the
critical pressure for this plant, 7.e. the pressure at which Cytisus
laburnum would cease to draw up water in transpiration, and above
which the cells of the leaf would be forced to collapse, and water
would be driven back from them into the stem.
(1). In the first experiment, a small branch of this tree carrying
9 leaves was fixed in the apparatus. The pressure was maintained at
16 atmospheres. During one hour of diffused light, while the condi-
tions within the apparatus were kept favourable to transpiration, 7.¢.
the space was dried by calcium chloride, 0-950 gr. were forced from
the leaves through the stem into the flask below. During the first
ten minutes of this experiment the leaves began to flag, and soon
showed all the appearances described above.
(2). A branch of the same tree, carrying 12 leaves, some old and
some young, was submitted to a pressure of 8 atmospheres. After one
hour of bright sunshine the vessel into which the branch dipped was
found to have gained 0°400 grs. During this time the old leaves had
become flaccid, while the young leaves remained turgid. Even the
old leaves did not become markedly flaccid during the first forty
minutes of the experiment.
(3). A branch with 8 leaves was exposed to a pressure of 6 atmo-
spheres during one hour of mostly bright sunshine. During this time
the leaves showed no signs of becoming flaccid, but the surface lost
some of its gloss. On weighing, it was found that the vessel below
had lost 0:007 gr. of water. This amount, however, comes within
the limits of error of the experiment, and consequently we may assume
that neither upward nor downward motion of water occurs in these
branches when the leaves are exposed to a pressure of 6 atmospheres.
In this experiment, when the pressure was removed, the leaves re-
covered their gloss.
(4). Against 4 atmospheres, the same branch, in intermittent sun-
shine, transpired 0°622 gr. in one hour and twenty minutes, while all
the leaves remained quite turgid.
At the conclusion of this series on this branch I{measured the
amount it transpired at normal pressures still surrounded with CO,
gas, and found it to be 1:244 gr. in one hour andj10 minutes. In
air at normal pressure the same branch transpired in one hour
0-966 gr. During these last two experiments, the leaves were
slightly faded. These experiments are summarized in the following
Table.
F2
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
68
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Drxon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves. 69
The decrease in the rate of transpiration with the increase of pres-
sure which is indicated by these results is, doubtless, more marked
than here appears, as it is well known that the rate of transpiration
of a branch falls off rapidly from the time of cutting it. In the ex-
periment C at 6 atmospheres which was the second to be made with
this branch, this decrease would have been small, but in the succeeding
experiments would have become more exaggerated.
It may be noted that the amount transpired at normal pressures
was not diminished by the presence of the CO, surrounding the leaves.
As it appeared quite possible that different examples of the same
species might have different osmotic pressures in their leaves, these
branches were all taken from the same individual, and from a height
of about 6 feet from the ground. This last precaution is necessary, as
it may be that at different heights in the tree, different pressures
obtain. I propose investigating these points at a later date.
In this series of experiments there are two sources of error tending
to make the critical pressure appear lower than it is in reality :—
Ist. The mechanical crushing of the conduits themselves owing to the
external pressure. When the osmotic cells experience the pressure,
they may, without themselves suffering any collapse, move in on the
conducting tissues, which, although they are specially provided to
resist external pressure as well as internal tension, are elastic to some
extent, and consequently will become somewhat contracted. This will
expel a certain quantity of water from them into the vessel beneath ;
and, as the vessel was taken away immediately after the pressure in
the glass cylinder was lowered, the conducting tissues may not have
had time to reassume their former volume. By this means a quantity
of water would be forced back into the vessel and remain there, and
would tend to counteract the loss due to transpiration. As the greatest
amount of water I have observed forced back in this way from a
branch, which was larger than the branch used in these experiments,
was about 0-1 gr., as will be seen later, we may place the critical
pressure of the branch of Cystisus laburnum at 6-8 atmospheres. The
second source of error is more difficult to allow for. The presence of
the CO, surrounding the leaves undoubtedly acts injuriously on the
cells of the leaf, so that a leaf which has been surrounded with CO,
for several hours, sometimes shows a darkened appearance, and collapses
at a lower pressure than one which has been put in fresh into the
apparatus. With this plant ( Cytisws Jaburnum), however, the injurious
effects of CO, are not so marked nor so rapid in their manifestation
as in others. Thus the leaves do not become blackened, nor is the
critical pressure markedly lowered, so far as my present observations
have gone, within the first six hours immersion in CO,. All the
experiments quoted above were made within this time.
As an illustration of how the CO, affects the transpiration and tur-
gescence of the leaves, I will add the two following Tables of experi-
ments on Zilia americana, which I have found very sensitive to this gas.
of the Royal Irish Academy.
Ings O
Proceed
70
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Drxon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves.
Ul O1nSsotg
‘ULY NI puporsauy vyry
‘THT WIAViaL
72 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Experiment C. in Table III. is subject to a correction for the
elasticity of the branches’ conduits. In determining the amount of
water transpired, the vessel beneath was placed in a position before
the pressure was raised in the glass cylinder and removed for its second
weighing, while the pressure was still maintained. Consequently
some water was squeezed back from the conduits, owing to their
elastic yielding to the pressure, and remained in the vessel, diminishing
the amount of transpiration observed. In order to estimate how much
ought to be allowed for this, an experiment was made in which the
same branch was raised to a pressure of 6 atmospheres for ten minutes.
While the pressure was maintained a weighed vessel containing some
water was supplied to its protruding end, and then the pressure was.
lowered to normal atmospheric pressure. After ten minutes the vessel
was reweighed and was found to have lost 0:108 gr. due to the elastic
recovery of the conduits. When this allowance is made in experi-
ment C., Table III., the amount transpired becomes 0°219 gr., instead
of 0°111 gr.
In order to determine whether this elastic contraction of the con-
duits occurred chiefly in the conduits of the stem or leaf, experiments
were made in which a branch was first exposed to a pressure of
6 atmospheres for ten minutes, and while the pressure was still
maintained, a weighed quantity of water was supplied to its lower
end which protruded from the high-pressure apparatus. The pres-
sure was then immediately lowered, and the branch was left to draw
up water from below for ten minutes by means of its elasticity, and
the amount which is drawn up is measured by a second weighing.
When this amount is compared with the amount drawn up in a similar
experiment with the same branch when all the blades of the leaves
are removed, it is found that the former is very much greater than the
latter quantity. Thus with a branch of Zilia americana bearing 11
——e
1 The fact that the presence of CO» in contact with the leaves modifies so pro-
foundly their power of drawing up water against pressure, appears as an additional
argument for believing that the osmotic properties of the mesophyll-cells is a more
important factor in transpiration than the imbibition or capillary phenomena of the
cell-wall. For we can hardly believe that the solution of this gas in the water
could possibly reduce the surface-tension sufficiently to account for the difference
observed; whereas it is readily comprehensible that the presence of COz would
greatly reduce the osmotic pressure of the cells by introducing changes in the pri-
mordial utricle (possibly owing to the exclusion of oxygen and consequent intra-
molecular respiration), or even by forming insoluble substances with the solutions
in the vacuoles.
Dixon—On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves. 73
leaves, the first amount was 0°108 gr., while the latter was only 0-02
gr., an amount which approaches the limits of error of the experiment.
From this we may conclude that the elastic contraction takes place
chiefly in the conduits of the leaves.
I am at present making arrangements of repeating my experiments
conducted in CO, with air, in view of the difference in the critical
pressure obtained in the two methods.
[74 ]
Vv.
THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF BALLYCROY, COUNTY MAYO.
By CHARLES R. BROWNE, M.D.
(Prares, Df ano IV.)
[Read ilth May, 1896.]
CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
1.—INTRODUCTION, . - are I1t.— ANTHROPOGRAPHY—continued.
11.—PHYSIOGRAPHY, . ar (3. 4. Psychology, . . « 94
Se en ee. 76 5. Folk-names, . « OF
1. Methods, : : . 76 Iv.—SocioLocy:— . - Py |
A 1. Occupations, . ° oy YY
9
Po cl arl eeatcinie a | 2. Family-life and meee 99
(4) General characters, . 77 3. Food, . ; . 101
(2) Statistics of Hair and Cguthiag: 2b-xe aE
Hye Colours, . Px 82 5. Dwellings, . . 102
(c) Physical Proportions, 84 6. Transport, . : - 102
(D) Detailed List of Mea- 2 yvy.—Foix-Loze, : . 105
surements, - 85 1. Customs om , Beliefs, . 103
3. Vital Statistics (Genera 2. Legends and Traditions, 106
and Economic)— . 90 ee ee ae 106
(4) Population, . 90 1. Survivals, . 5 . 106
(b) Acreage and Rental, 91 2. Antiquities, . «SLOT
(c) Language and Educa-
tion, . 9] | Vu.—History, - & - . 108
(p) Health, . 5 . 92 | vur.—Conciupine Remarks, . 110
(z) Tengersty: : . 94 Ix.— BIBLIOGRAPHY, . 3 ait
I.—Introptction.
Tue usual local ethnographic survey undertaken anually as part of
the work of the Anthropological Laboratory, Trinity College, was
last summer carried out by me in the district known as Ballyeroy, a
portion of the barony of Erris, Co. Mayo, which was considered
worthy of study, owing to the differen
ces, said to exist, between its
inhabitants and the natives of other parts of the same barony.
As the Mullet, Iniskea, and Portacloy were the subjects of last
year’s inquiry this may be considered
as a supplementary survey,
practically completing the barony of Erris, and for this reason such
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 75
census returns as apply to the whole of Erris, taking no account of
smaller divisions, are quoted in this Paper.
Though, in some ways, not at all so primitive in habits and modes
of life as the people of the districts previously described, the popula-
tion of this district is worthy of notice, as being originally a colony
from another part of Ireland, which have remained practically un-
mixed with the local peoples until the present day.
In his extremely valuable and interesting little work on Erris,
Mr. Knight makes a statement which even now, after the lapse of
sixty years, needs but little qualification, when he says: ‘‘I have
said that there was a difference between the inhabitants of this
district and the other parts of Erris. The Irish Channel scarcely
makes such a difference between the inhabitants of the sister islands
as Tulloghaan Bay makes between Ballycroy and Erris proper.”
The facilities and difficulties experienced in carrying out the work
of inquiry differed considerably from those experienced in other loca-
lities, the greatest of the latter being the extremely scattered nature
of the population, and the absence of any assemblage of houses large
enough to be termed a village or even a hamlet.
I].—PnrysloGRAPHY.
Ballycroy has tolerably well-defined boundaries, it lies along the
coast-line, about eighteen miles south of the Mullet, and is separated
from the rest of Erris; Tulloghaan Bay and the Owenmore river
form its northern boundary; and the mountains of Maamthomas,
Nephin Beg, and Gorslieve bound it on the east and south-east. The
length of its sea-coast, counting indentations, is about forty-seven
miles (this estimate, however, includes the islands of Annagh and
Inisbiggle, and some smaller islets which do not belong to Ballycroy
proper).
As a rule the waters are shallow all along the coast, which,
though rising in some places to a considerable height, is, as a rule,
rather low.
The surface of the district does not present any very great variety ;
it gradually slopes upwards from the sea-coast to the mountains, and
has a more or less hilly or rolling surface, with an average elevation
of not more than two hundred feet above the sea-level. <A large
portion of this surface is bog, most of it still in a virgin state.
Mr. Knight estimated that of the area of over 30,000 acres, about
3675 would be “‘ green acres.’ The underlying rock is mica slate or
76 Proceedings af the Royal Irish Academy.
granular quartz. In the lower parts of the district there are several
lakes.
The climate is very mild, there being but little frost or snow in
winter; but, as might he expected from the situation of the locality,
it is very moist, rains being both heavy and frequent, and storms of
great violence often sweeping over the region from the westward.
Vegetation flourishes well, owing to the mildness of the climate, a
good example of which is the fact that palms and other exotics grow
well in the open air in the grounds of General Clive at Claggan,
in the southern part of the district. Trees of various kinds flourish
in the valleys, and wherever sheltered from the prevailing winds.
In the valleys among the mountains, the red deer used, at one time, to:
be met with in some numbers, but, within the past forty years, they
have become quite extinct. Wild fowl, in great numbers, visit the
lakes and coast-line in the winter-time, among them wild swans,
which principally frequent Lough Fahey, near the coast. The
number of the smaller wild animals is very considerable.
II].—AnruropocraPHy.
1. DMethods.—The modes of measurement and of taking observa-
tions were precisely the same as those employed in the visit to the
Mullet district in 1894, the observation forms and nigrescence cards.
were also of the same patterns; as all these have been described in
previous reports, they need no further mention here.
The instruments employed were those used in the other surveys,
with one exception, a “‘ Trinity” tripod camera of ‘‘half-plate”’ size,.
made by Messrs, Curtis Bros., of Suffolk-street, Dublin. This instru-
ment, which is very light, strong, and compact, did its work well,
and stood a good deal of rough handling, without suffering in the
least. The ‘Trinity’? hand-camera by the same makers, which did
good work the previous year, continued to do well, though the
weather was not very suitable for ‘‘snap-shot’’ work, and the brand
of plates used was not quite satisfactory. The value of a hand-
camera for field-work, as an aid to, or substitute for the heavier and
more slow tripod stand-camera can hardly be overrated, as it can be-
employed for taking the portraits of persons who cannot be induced
to get photographed by the other instruments, and it can also be used
on very rough ground or in high winds, where the other camera could
not be kept steady ; for objects in motion, and local customs or occu-
pations, it is invaluable. The chief difficulties met with were: the
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. wh
scattered state of the population, and the absence of villages in which
many people might be seen together, also the difficulty in reaching
many parts of the district, owing to the paucity of roads and the soft
boggy nature of much of the land. In some instances (more than a
third of the whole) the men measured were at work in the bogs
preparing the way for a new road, a long distance from any public
highway, and the weather being broken and rainy, the bog was soft,
making walking difficult.
Here, as in some other places previously described, the custom of
cropping the hair rather close made it very difficult to ascertain the
exact shade of colour.
A considerable number of photographs were taken, including
portraits and groups, illustrative of the customs, modes of life,
and habitations of the people, besides several views showing the
nature of the surface and coast-line, and several of the antiquities of
the district.
2. Physical Characters.
(a.) General characters.—There is, on the whole, a great unifor-
mity of appearance in the people of this district, though, on closer
inspection, at least two distinct types may be discovered.
The general appearance of the people is rather pleasing, many of
the men are handsome, and the women, too, are often good-looking,
but, as observed in the reports on the other districts surveyed, both
sexes seem to age rather rapidly, and some of the men become wrinkled
very early.
Stature and bulk.—The men are usually stoutly built, and of
about the middle stature, though extremes, in this respect, are more
common than observed in the Mullet or the Inishkea islands.
A few men of small stature were met with, and about an equal
number of tall men.
The average height of the fifty men measured was 1721 mm., or a
little under 5 ft. 8 in., the extremes were 1576 mm. (5 ft. 2in.) and
1838 mm. (6 feet).
The shoulders are broad and square, and the upright carriage of
many of the men is very noticeable.
Head.—The head is massive and well-shaped, usually broad just
above the ears ; it is usually either brachycephalic or mesaticephalic,
though a few cases of dolichocephaly were observed, one of a very
marked degree (70°7, or when reduced to the cranial standard, 68°7),
78 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
which might be fairly called scaphocephalic. The mean cephalic
index, when reduced to the cranial standard by the subtraction of two
units, is 78-5 (or almost exactly that of the natives of Inishbofin).1
The cranial curve rises to a fair height (mean altitudinal index,
65°6), sweeps evenly backwards, and descends rather abruptly to the
external occipital protuberance.
The forehead is broad, seldom receding, and not very high; the
skin is often a good deal wrinkled, even in comparatively young men,
but not so much so as in the case of the fishing populations. The eye-
brows overhang the eyes considerably, and are thick and rather level.
The glabella and superciliary ridges are often large
Face.—The face, though often long, is rather oblong in outline,
owing to the breadth of the jaws in the bigonial region. The cheek-
bones are, as a rule, prominent. The ridge or fold of skin at the
root of the nose is not as common, nor when seen, of as large size as
in the men of the fishing populations. The eyes have usually blue or
light grey irides, seldom hazel or brown, but it should be noted that
the percentage of ‘‘light”’ eyes in adults, 78-7 (a much lower figure
than observed in any of the districts yet reported on) shows a larger
proportion of dark-eyed people in the population of Ballycroy.
The eyes are deeply set, and are placed rather wide apart; there
are often wrinkles around them, as is generally observable in the
west. The eyelashes are dark and long.
The nose is straight usually, sometimes sinuous, seldom aquiline
or rétroussé. The mean nasal-index is 63-9.
The mouth is large, and the lips of medium thickness. The teeth
are, when not spoiled by excessive smoking, small, white, and very
even. The angles of the jaw are rather pronounced and square,
which gives an oblong outline to the face when viewed from the
front. The chin is often prominent. The ears are usually flat, but
in about a third of the cases observed are outstanding. But few
abnormalities of this organ were observed; in twenty-two instances,
out of the fifty men noted, the lobule was attached; im one case it
was absent, and in another extremely small, but great variations in
the form of the pinna, such as were observed in some parts of the
Mullet, were not noticeable in Ballycroy.
Skin.—The complexion is fair or ruddy, seldom freckling; sallow-
ness is not common, even in those with dark eyes. As noted in other
sections, wrinkles seem to come rather early.
1 Of the fifty men measured, 18 were brachycephalic, 26 mesaticephalic, and
6 dolichocephalic.
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 79
Hair.—The hair is usually a dark brown; next, in order of
frequency, comes the lighter shades of brown; then black, which is
commoner here than in the Mullet; then fair, and lastly red. The
growth of the hair is fairly abundant, though baldness is not un-
common. It is often wavy or curly. The beard is usually some-
what lighter in colour than the hair of the scalp, and, if allowed to
grow naturally, seems to have, in many cases, a tendency to fork at
the end.
The nigrescence index, for the adults of both sexes, is 57°71, show-
ing a larger percentage of dark and black hair than in any district as
yet surveyed.
The foregoing description is, of course, a general one, applying
only to the prevailing type; there is, however, a second type not
unfrequently met with, the chief characters of which are, long oval
face, with but slightly marked angles to the jaws, less prominent
cheek bones and sharper features.
The figure seems to be slighterin youth, but to exhibit a tendency
to put on flesh with advancing years. The hair, in this type, is
usually lighter than the prevailing tint, but may be of any colour,
owing to admixture.
The various authors who have written respecting the men of
Ballycroy are fairly agreed concerning them. They usually describe
the people as of below the medium height, dark-haired, and athletic.
In Knight’s ‘‘Erris in the Irish Highlands,’’! they are thus
described: ‘‘ This colony of Ulstermen, at whatever time they settled
in this country, still retain the ancient dialect of language used in
the north ; intermarry almost exclusively with one another ;. a hardy,
low-sized, dark-featured race; bold, daring, and intrepid in danger ;
not good-tempered, but hospitable to an extreme.”’ And again:
“The mountaineers are remarkably stout and healthy. ... The
journeys they make are quite extraordinary. A fellow in Ballycroy
thinks nothing of taking a ten-gallon keg of whisky, weight 150 lbs.
at least, and crossing the mountains to Newport, a distance of twenty
miles, sells it, and returns home in the evening, without the slightest
appearance of fatigue, and carelessly resumes his usual occupation.”
Maxwell? gives the following description of the peasantry of Co.
Mayo, including the people of Ballycroy, his own locality :—
‘‘ In personal appearance the western peasantry are very inferior
to those of the other divisions of the kingdom. Generally they are
1 Page 106.
* “ Wild Sports of the West,’’ chap. xliii.
80 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
undersized, and by no means so good-looking as their southern
neighbours; and, I should say, in other points they are equally
deficient... To overcome their early lounging gait and slovenly habits
is found by military men a troublesome task; and while the Tipperary
man speedily passes through the hands of the drill-sergeant, the Mayo
peasant requires a long and patient ordeal before a martial carriage
can be acquired, and he be perfectly set up as a soldier. These
defects once conquered, none are better calculated for the profession.
Hardy, active, patient in wet and cold, and accustomed to indifferent
and irregular food, he is admirably adapted to endure the privations
and fatigue incident to a soldier’s life on active service, and in dash
and daring no regiments in the service hold a prouder place than
those which appertain to the kingdom of Connaught.”
Though there are some men of small stature in the community,
there are also some above the middle height, and the majority are
of about the middle stature.
Ballycroy being pre-eminently the district of County Mayo,
inhabited by a colony of Ulster origin, it may not be out of place to
repeat here what was written about people of similar origin in the
Mullet, that there appears to be no foundation whatever for the
statement made originally by an anonymous writer, and quoted
repeatedly since by several writers both in this country and abroad,
to the effect that the descendants of the dispossessed Ulster tribes,
who settled in the counties of Sligo and Mayo, have through inter-
marriage and deficient food dwindled to an average height of five feet
two inches, and become prognathous, pot-bellied, and utterly de-
generate. As before stated, the average stature of the fifty men
measured was 1721 mm., or barely under 5 ft. 8 in.; no selection
whatever was practised beyond excluding some ungrown young lads;
and this average is perhaps a little below the true figure, as it was
said by several of the people that most of the best grown men were
away working as migratory labourers in England. Only three men
whose height was less than five feet three and a half inches were met
with, and they seemed to be exceptional cases. Only one dwarf is
known in the district.
1 This is a matter of opinion, in which I can by no means agree with this
author.
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 81
CrepHatic Inpices, CorrEcTED FOR ComMPARISON WITH SKULLs.
No. Index. A. Corrected Indices.
4 86.8
12 85.9
49 85.9
48 85.6
Be) 85.0 .
7 84.5
3 84.2
15 84.2
5 83.9 18 | Brachycephalic.
45 83.8
34 83.2
37 83.0 |
32 82.9
41 82.8
20 82.5 28 Brachycephals.
16 82.3
43 82.3 |
13 82.0
39 81.4
40 81.4 |
8 81.3
28 81.2
27 80.9
31 80.7
46 80.6
I 80.6 | |
2 80.4
14 80.4
33 79:8 7
36 79.8
17 79-4 : :
44 wok 26 | Mesaticephalic.
24 79-2
6 79-1
II 79.0
23 79.0
38 78.8
50 78.0 20 Mesaticephals.
22 778
29 77:8
18 77.6
47 77.6 |
9 77-5
42 77:0
35 76.8 ]
21 76.5
26 75.0 : .
oe na 6 Dolichecephalic.
ce bee } 2 Dolichocephals.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv. G
82 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(s.) Statistics of Hair and Eye Colours :—
Aputts.—I. Yales.
EYEs.
Har. ne see
air Colours.
Light. | Medium. | Dark.
|
Red, + | 1 1 3°97
Fair, 17 | — Tilo
Brown, 42 3 29°81
Dark, 44 17 43°05
Black, 12 2 11-92
Totals, 19 | 23 100-00
Percentage ) ae 2 fe
Tye Coleus, } | 78°81 | 15-23
Index of Nigrescence,
Avvtts.—II. Females.
Eyes.
Har. i! Totals. Percentage
air Colours.
Light. | Medium. | Dark.
Red, x 3 = 8 3 3°75
Fair, =A 2 — — 2 2°50
Brown, 24 3 — 27 33°75
Dark, 32 5 3 40 50°00
Black, Tn 3 4 8 | 10-00
Totals, s 62 ae | 80 | 100-00
Percentage ) eer ase ane | : we
Eye Colours, ) 11-6 1ST | S30 ee
Index of Nigrescence, . . . 63°75.
Combined Index (both sexes), . 57°71.
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 83
Cumpren.—I. Boys.
EyEs.
Har. Totals. | pier Coleg.
Light. | Medium. | Dark.
Red, Be 1 = — 1 2°86
Fair, Mi 3 ai LS 3 8°57
Brown, ae 13 1 — 14 40:00
Dark, + 13 2 22 15 42°85
Black, a 1 1 — 2 5°72
ick, ul 35 100-00 |
Percentage } 88-58 | 11-42 rele 100-00 ey |
Hye Colours,
Index of Nigrescence, . . 42°76.
Cuitpren.—II. Girls.
Eves.
Harr. Te taissae|penicaccnt son
Light. | Medium. | Dark.
Red, 1 — — 1 4°55
Fair, 2 ae =a 2 9-08
Brown, 5 = — 5 22°73
Dark, 8 B] 2 13 59°09
Black, aA _ _ 1 1 4°55
Totals, Sa 16 3 3 22 100-00
Percentage Be Re A /! ;
Bye Canes 72°72 13°64 13°64 100-00 te
Index of Nigrescence,. . . 54°54.
Combined Index (both ay . 48°65.
84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(c.) Physical Proportions.—The proportions borne by the main
measurements to the stature (taken as 100) are given in this Paper as
in its precursors. They are considerably different from those of the
inhabitants of the localities previously visited, and especially from
those of the people of the neighbouring district of the Mullet, and
from the islanders of Iniskea.
Face.
The face, though long in proportion to the stature, is, on the
average, shorter comparatively than is the case in Aran, Inishbofin,
or the Mullet and Inishkea. The average is 7-29 (canon 6°60), as
against 7°61, 7°48, and 7°36, respectively, for the other localities.
The extremes noted in Ballycroy are 6°52 and 8°68.
Upper Face-—The mean is 4:16, as against 4:42 for Inishbofin,
and 4°30 for the Mullet, thus showing the comparative shortness.
ose.—As has been noted previously, this does not bear a very
constant proportion to the stature. The extremes are 3°56 and 2°59,
and the mean 3°25, or something less than the canon (3°30).
Sirtine Herext.
The sitting height appears to be somewhat greater proportionally
than in the Mullet, &c., as the mean is 53°05, as against 51°33. The
extremes were 50°71 and 56°60.
Urrer Live.
Span.—No case of a span-stretch less than the stature was met
with here; in fact, in nearly all cases this measurement is propor-
tionately very great. The average for the fifty men measured is
105:°75, with extremes of 111°04 and 101°18. As the hmbs are not
exceptionally long, this shows considerable stoutness of build. The
mean for Aran was 101-94 (not much above the Ballycroy minimum) ;
for Inishbofin, 104:95; and for the Mullet, &c., 104°36.
Hand.—The hand is decidedly short, the mean being only 11°31,
but varying from 10°28 to 12°08: this mean is about the same as that
for Inishbofin (11°33).
Forearm.—This section of the arm is proportionately long, the
mean being 15°30, with extremes of 16°28 and 14:02. The forearm is
thus shorter than in the Mullet, and intermediate between it and
Inishbofin (15:03) and Aran (15°18).
(p.) Detailed List of Measurements :-—
INDICES. PRopPoRTIONS TO STATURE.—HEIGHT = 100.
No. 2 a a ‘ I :
s B=] a EI ct rc a a < =z %
6) q fea) a) < Za a ca 9) oA ica Pe Za
1 | 80-6 | 68-1 | 98°5 | 78-9 | 93-7 | 57-9 || 11-07 | 15-28 {105-62 | 51-79 | 7-50 | 4°37 | 3°24
21 80-4 | 64°9 |103-0 | 80-6 | 96°8 | 71-0 |} 11°45 | 15°87 {108-93 | 51-12 | 7-49 | 4:19 | 3:07
8 | 84:2 | 64-2 |120°3 | 91-1 |100-0 | 63°38 || 10°83 | 14-56 |104-54 | 52-71 | 7-16 | 3°84 | 2°85
4 | 86°8 | 69-2 |109°2 90-8 | 93°8 | 54:1 || 11°39 | 15-80 |110°61 | 51-35 | 7-33 | 4°35 | 3:44
5 | 83:9 | 70-4 |118°8 | 84°6 |190-0 | 55-6 || 11-00 | 15°62 |/106-15 | 50-71 | 7-69 | 4:26 | 3-20
6 | 79°71 | 66-3 |121-2 | 92-4 | 99-0 | 78:0 |} 11-05 | 16-02 |103°53 | 52°60 | 6°52 | 3°48 | 2°76
7 | 84:5 | 62°9 |122-0 103°4 |100°0 | 61°5 || 11°86 | 15°54 |107°38 | 53-96 | 7-14 | 4°22 | 3°15
8 | 81°3 | 62-5 |120°3 | 91-5 |101-0 | 70°6 || 12-08 | 15-24 |107°91 | 53-04 | 7-02 | 4:29 | 3:04
9 | 77°5 | 64:9 }104-9 | 88-5 {103-3 | 75:0 || 11-05 | 14-97 |104°31 | 56°60 | 7:16 | 4°31 | 3-05
10 | 85:0 | 72:0 |104°2 | 76-4 | 89-4 | 50-0 |} 10°95 | 14°66 |102°65 | 52°79 | 8-68 | 4-51 | 3-49
11 | 79:0 | 62°6 {108-1 | 85:5 {102-2 | 51°8 |} 11-01 | 14°80 |104°50 | 52°69 | 7-34 | 4°44 | 3-19
12 | 85°9 | 67°7 |116°6 | 91-3 | 92°4 | 63-0 || 11-26 | 14:94 |105-°85 | 51-29 | 6-99 | 4-22 | 3-20
13 | 82-0 | 69-4 |104°4 | 87-6 |103°2 | 60-3 || 10°89 | 14°80 |102°01 | 51°90 | 7°45 | 4°23 3°15
14 | 80°4 | 64:8 /110°4 | 82-1 | 93:0 | 51-7 || 11-42 | 14°53 |/104°32 | 51°30 | 7-94 | 4-68 | 3°44
15 | 84°2 |} 71°3 }115-9 | 90-5 | 96-8 | 66:0 || 11-00 | 14°75 |101°18 | 54°35 | 7-41 | 4°30 | 8-11
16 | 82:3 | 64°1 |104°4 | 85-3 | 99-0 | 63-6 || 11-98 | 14°46 |107-26 | 55-04 | 8-02 | 4°72 | 3-24
17 | 79:4 | 66°5 |119°3 | 98-2 {100-0 | 72-9 || 11-74 | 14°52 |106°30 | 54°51 | 7-05 | 3°96 | 2-97
18 | 77°6 | 65°5 |115°4 | 92-3 |101-°9 | 70°4 || 11-27 | 15:28 |107°91 | 52-44 | 6-94 | 4-06 | 2°88
19 | 74°3 | 62-4 |108-4 | 91-6 | 94:9 | 57-9 ||11°72 | 16°15 |105-48 | 51-19 | 7-45 | 4°48 | 3-24
20 | 82°5 | 68:0 |104°5 | 90-9 | 98-0 | 57:4 || 11-15 | 15-41 |106-40 | 54-65 | 7-67 | 4°30 | 3-14
21 | 76:5 | 64:2 {125-2 | 99-1 | 98-0 | 65-5 || 11-90 | 16-25 |110-00 | 53-45 | 6°84 | 3:92 | 3-45
22 | 77°8 | 63-9 |110°6 | 89-4 |100-0 | 70-0 || 10-68 | 15-72 |106-°76 | 51-61 | 7-29 | 4:09 | 3°56
23 | 79°0 | 61:0 {120-7 | 90:9 |103-2 | 70-0 || 11°23 | 15-17 {104-10 | 52°50 | 6°79 | 3°82 | 2°81
24 | 79:2 | 64:4 |109-4 | 84-4 [103-1 | 60°3 || 11-55 | 15-34 |106°77 | 52°74 | 7:47 | 4:49 | 3°38
25 | 70°7 | 61-6 |101-6 | 89-6 | 98-9 | 61-1 |} 10°98 | 14:95 |111-04 | 55°13 | 7-57 | 4°60 | 3-19
26 | 75:0 | 63-5 |105°6 | 86-4 |102-2 | 58-0 || 11°48 | 15-80 |104°55 | 52°48 | 7°35 | 3-97 | 2°92
27 | 80°9 | 68°6 |118-7 | 94°3 |108-2 | 64-7 || 11-07 | 16-07 |103-21 | 54°46 | 7°32 | 4:22 | 3-04
28 | 81:2 | 66°0 | 97°9 | 75°8 |108-1 | 71-4 |} 11°78 | 14°89 |104°96 | 50°74 | 7-91 | 4:20 | 3-06
29 | 77°8 | 68-2 |109-2 | 83-1 |103-0 | 59°6 || 11-64 | 15-69 |102-82 | 54-40 | 7°35 | 4:24 | 2:93
30 | 75:0 | 63:9 |112-2 | 91-1 |100-0 | 64-2 || 11°39 | 15-13 |105°58 | 55°41 | 7-08 | 4°37 | 3-05
31 | 80°7 | 63:5 |110°6 | 86-2 {101-1 | 64-7 || 10°28 | 14°94 |105-11 | 53-80 | 7-00 | 4:21 | 2°90
32 | 82°9 | 68:4 |107-1 | 86-6 | 98-9 | 62-0 || 11°68 | 15°57 |105°39 | 54-73 | 7-61 | 4:67 | 3-00
33 | 79°8 | 65-7 |109-5 | 83-5 102-0 | 50-9 || 11-60 | 14-66 |108-68 | 52°14 | 7°34 | 3:93 | 3-18
34 | 83-2 | 63-9 |120°3 | 96-6 |103-2 | 73-5 || 12-06 | 15-12 |110-00 | 52°65 | 6-94 | 4:24 | 2-90
35 | 76°8 | 64°6 |104°5 | 83-0 |104:1 | 70-0 || 11°08 | 15°34 |104:14 | 54:05 | 7-76 | 4°37 | 2°92
36 | 79°8 | 68-6 |116-0 | 90°S | 98-9 | 75-6 || 11-18 | 15:22 {106-61 | 51:50 | 6:97 | 3-69 | 2°64
37 | 83:0 | 66-0 |121°2 | 95-8 93°3 | 72°38 || 11°71 | 15°51 1110-138 | 54°43 | 7°47 | 4:11 | 2°97
38 | 78°8 | 62-2 {120-0 | 91-7 |104°5 | 68°6 |] 11°18 | 15-43 {101-61 — 6°92 | 3°86 | 2°94
39 | 81:4 | 61-9 |117°4 | 97-5 102-2 | 62-0 || 11-63 | 16°28 |105°41 | 51-74 | 7:03 | 4:19 | 2-91
40 | 81-4 | 64:4 |108-6 | 92-2 |102-4 | 67:3 || 11-58 | 15-67 |107-49 | 52-92 | 7-49 | 4:09 | 2°86
41 | 82°8 | 70-4 |120-3 | 90-7 |100:0 | 75:6 || 11-05 | 15-28 103-03 | 53-63 | 6°76 | 3-72 | 2°59
42 | 77-0 | 65-0 |115°7 | 89-3 |104-4 | 61-7 |] 11°19 | 14°64 |106-62 | 53-54 | 7-03 | 3-88 | 2°75
43 | 82:3 | 65:1 |115°3 | 91-2 100-0 | 65-1 || 10°95 | 14°52 j106-05 | 53-03 | 7-20 | 4°27 | 2°82
44 | 79-4 | 63-4 |118-1 | 92-9 |100°0 | 56-4 || 11-42 | 16°16 |110-07 | 52:40 | 7°43 | 4:04 | 3-22
45 | 83-8 | 67-0 |110°8 | 86-6 '100-0 | 62°3 || 11-55 | 16-26 (106-32 52°76 | 7°30 | 4°14 | 3:05
46 | 80°6 | 64°8 117-7 | 87-1 |102-1 | 64:0 || 10°57 | 16°35 |102°92 | 53-53 | 7°24 | 4°14 | 2-92
47 | 77°6 | 66°3 |111°4 | 86-9 | 97-9 | 61-2 || 11-12 | 14-02 '103°62 53°37 | 1°22) 1) 4202 |/2°90
48 | 85-6 | 68-6 /123-1 |104-2 | 98-9 | 63-5 || 11-64 | 15-42 /104-29 | 53-28 | 7-60 | 3-84 | 2-94
49 | 85-9 | 62°8 |118-3 | 90-0 |101-1 | 66-7 |] 11-30 | 15-63 104-98 | 54:04 | 7°02 | 4°45 | 2-98
50 | 78:0 | 63-5 |109-1 | 86-0 92-8 | 56°6 11:01 | 14:48 102-61 | 52°94 | 7°00 | 4:06 | 3-07
Mean} 80°5 | 65-6 |112°6 | 89-4 101-4 | 63-9 || 11°31 | 15°30 |105°78 55°06 7°29 | 4°16 | 3°25
[85]
86 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Locality of
Eye Hair
No. Name. Age. Galan Colour.| Skin. Ears.
Father’s Mother’s
people. people.
1 |*Conway,Anthony| 30 | Ballycroy | Ballycroy | blue | fair | ruddy | Outstanding
2 |*Cleary, Denis, .| 30 a op dark- | dark | ruddy] Flat
grey
3 | Keane, Anthony,| 24 6 2 blue | brown) ruddy} Outstanding, lobes
attached
4. |\*MacMenamon, 45 Es a0 blue | brown) ruddy | Flat
John,
5 | Lenahan, Patrick,| 22 A a light-| dark | pale | Flat
grey
6 |*Cleary, Michael,.| 38 + 5 dark- | black | ruddy} Outstanding, lobes
grey attached
7 |*Sweeney, Maners; 30 ee 5 blue | fair |pale | Outstanding, lobes
attached
8 |*Campbell, John, .| 25 aA 93 dark- | dark | pale | Outstanding, lobes
grey absent
9 |*Doran, Hugh, .| — 53 .s blue | fair | pale | Flat, lobes attached
10 |*Cleary, John, .| 25 ss Newport, | blue |far |ruddy| Flat
Mayo
11 |*Keane, Philip, .| 41 ae Ballycroy | blue | dark |pale | Flat
12 |*Conway, James, .| 40 “ dark- | dark | ruddy| Flat
grey
13 |*Cleary, James, .| 35 = Newport | blue | fair |ruddy| Flat
14 |*Corrigan, James,| 40 35 Ballyeroy | dark- | dark !pale | Flat
grey
15 |*Cleary, Bertie, .| 19 ap Newport | dark-| dark |pale | Flat
grey
16 |*Sweeney, James,| 28 5 Ballycroy | green | dark | pale | Flat
17 | Tighe, Thomas, .| 30 ss 3 green | dark | ruddy} Flat
18 |*Cleary, Martin, .| 35 is x blue | black | ruddy | Flat, lobes attached
19 | M‘Gowan, Roger,| 24 5 5 light-| dark | ruddy} Flat
grey
20 | Conway, Ezra, .| 33 55 Sligo blue | light-| ruddy | Flat, lobes attached |
brown |
21 | Ginty, Patrick, .| 22 " Ballycroy | blue | black |ruddy| Flat, lobes very |!
small, & attached |
22 |*Murray, Patrick,| 35 iS aa light-| dark | pale | Flat
grey
23 |*Kanel, John, .| 22 lM, ine green | brown| ruddy —
24 |*Conway, Michael,| 42 a “ blue | fair |ruddy| Flat
25 | Bradley, Daniel, .| 45 i as dark- | dark | ruddy} Outstanding
grey
Note.—All those whose names are marked with an asterisk (*) claimed that
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 87
AURICULAR
CEPHALIC. FACIAL. NASAL. ieyrarn HEIGHT. FORELIMB.
a a Ld : . E
: = ~ : - . 52 a u op
a SE eet PENS | See ea eh ee as male
a) S) ao| Uv gu = us} || ee) || 3 fe) us) q a Be
a) a ] an i] od on i} ah DB OF oO qd = q a oO
Seca roms .o | 2) | SO) Ia Oeil au es | S| Se at oles
= faa) 3 S|} es) |] eyes) |} OQ | ss] > a <q 9) 9) n q loo
it fy AO
| Ho
—
te)
—
_
at
rs
—
(Je)
bo
~I
~I
—
(Jt)
So
104) 57 | 38 | 382 | 180] 95 | 89 |1761, 912)1860} 195) 270
108| 55 | 39} 380 /| 126] 93 | 90 |1790| 915|1950] 205] 284
=
We)
_
=
on
for)
—
co
e
~I
on
—
(SX)
co
i
ive)
i=)
=
lor)
i=)
e
bo
[e\)
for)
fon)
—
a
[oe]
112} 49 | 31 | 80] 122) 91 | 91 |1717) 906|1795) 186} 250
—
ou
co
—
co
Oo
I
~I
—
i
bo
118} 61 | 38} 381 | 126] 96 | 90 |1772) 910|1960) 202} 280
—
o
for)
—
[JS)
oOo
-~I1
bo
ia
a
co
110} 54 | 30 | 32] 181] 90] 90 |1690| 857|1794) 186| 264
155} 118] 63 | 143] 109] 50 | 89] 384 | 180} 97 | 96 |1810| 952/1874] 200] 290
164] 118] 70 | 144] 122) 52 | 32 | 80 | 122} 90 90 |1653) 892|1775) 196] 258
156] 118} 72 | 142} 108) 51 | 36 | 34 | 120} 93 | 94 |1680| 891/1812] 203] 256
148| 122} 68 | 128] 108] 48 | 36 | 32 | 124] 90 | 93 |1576| 892/1644| 174] 236
170| 144) 80 | 150} 110] 62 | 31] 30 | 144] 94 | 84 |1773) 9836/1820] 194] 260
164 124) 75 | 134] 106] 54 | 28 | 28 | 122] 92 | 90 |1689} 890/1765] 186] 250
170; 127) 71 | 148] 116] 54 | 34 | 34 | 1384] 92 | 85 |1673) 958/1771] 199] 250
169} 187) 78 | 153} 120] 58 | 35 | 32 | 148] 95 | 98 |1838| 954|1875| 200} 272
160; 1384) 79 | 148] 110] 58 | 30] 384 | 129/100 | 93 1687 866|1762| 193) 245
170} 126) 73 | 146] 114] 53] 35 | 36 | 144] 95 | 92 |1700| 923|)1720| 187] 250
158; 186} 80 | 142} 116] 55 | 385 | 34 | 123] 97 | 98 |1695} 933)1818} 203] 245
154) 114) 64 | 136] 112} 48 | 35 | 32 | 129] 97 | 97 |1618)| 882|1720| 190] 245
160} 180) 76 | 150) 120} 54 | 38 | 34 | 135|104 |106 |1872| 981} 2020| 212) 286
150} 131] 78 | 142] 120| 57 | 33 | 30 | 126) 98 | 93 |1758| 910|1912] 206] 284
160} 132) 74 | 188} 120] 54 | 31 | 32 | 182] 98 | 96 |1720) 940|1830] 191] 264
156| 115) 66 | 144] 114] 58 | 388] 33 | 181] 99 | 97 |1680} 908|1848| 200) 273
151) 123) 69 | 136] 110} 50 | 35 | 380 | 124{ 91 | 91 |1686| 870|1800} 180] 265
158) 121) 68 | 146] 110] 50 | 35 | 34 | 128] 95 | 98 |1780| 936|1853}| 200] 270
160] 128} 77 | 140) 108} 58 | 85 | 30 | 180] 96 | 99 |1714| 904|1830} 198] 263
140| 128} 74 | 180| 114] 54 | 33 | 34 | 122] 91 | 90 11694) 934]1881} 186] 252
their families originally came from ‘‘ the North.” 2 In Irish, O’Cahan.
No.
26
27
28
29
30
él
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Name.
Lenehan, John, .
*Murray, James, .
*M‘Gowan, Bryan,
Bradshaw, Michl.
*Ginty, Thomas, .
*Conway, Peter, .
*Gaughan, John, .
*O’ Boyle, Andrew
*M‘CGuire, James,
*Lenehan, Patrick,
Gilroy!, Michael,
*Kane, Patrick,
*Conway, Neal,
*M ‘Gowan, Patrick
*Conway, Patrick,
*Keane, Bernard, .
Finn, Edward,
*Cafferky, Michael
*Conway, Michael
*Conway, James, .
*Cafferky, Hugh, .
*Cafferky, James,.
*Sweeny, Loughlin
*Conway, Peter, .
*Conway, Hugh, .
Note.—All those whose names are marked with an asterisk (*) claimed that their families originally
Age.
70
20
-| 25
Father’s
people.
Ballycroy | Ballycroy |
Locality of
Mother’s
people.
Newport
Ballycroy
Newport
Ballycroy
Eye Hair
Colour. |Colour.
light- | dark
grey
light- } dark
grey
dark- | black
grey
blue | brown
light-| dark
grey
blue | black
light- | brown
grey
light- | black
grey
blue | brown!
light- | black
brown
dark- | dark
grey
light- | fair
grey
light- | black
grey
light- | black
brown
light- | black
grey
blue | brown
blue | brown
blue | black
blue | fair
green | red.
blue | brown
blue | black
blue | brown
blue | fair
green | dark
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Skin.
pale
pale
pale
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
dark
ruddy
ruddy
pale
ruddy
ruddy
pale
pale
pale
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
ruddy
Ears.
Outstanding,
attached
Flat
Flat
lobes |
lobes
lobes
Outstanding,
attached
Outstanding,
attached
Outstanding
Flat
Outstanding
Outstanding
Outstanding
Outstanding
Outstanding, lobes |
attached
Outstanding,
attached
Flat
lobes |
Flat
Outstanding,
attached
Flat
Flat, lobes attached |
Flat, lobes attached |
Flat, lobes attached |
Flat, lobes attached
Flat, lobes attached
Outstanding
Flat
Outstanding
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo.
89
Forearm.
271
CEPHALIC. FAciAL. NAsAt. pun Hetcur. ForeEtims.
2 oa lems | rede 10 wa oh ee
mH | 4s
192) 144] 125] 68 | 1382] 108] 50] 29} 82 | 122} 98) 95 |1715| 900|1793) 197
188] 152) 123] 71 | 146] 116] 51 | 33 | 380 | 129} 93) 96 |1680) 915]1785) 186
197} 160] 145] 77 | 142] 110] 56 | 40] 39 | 180} 97 |100 |1833] 930]1924| 216
198] 154} 180] 75 | 142] 108] 52 | 31] 31) 185) 99 |102 |1770| 968)1820| 206
208} 156] 123) 76 | 188) 112] 538 | 34] 380 | 183} 99 | 99 |17388] 963)/1835| 198
192) 155] 128] 74 | 186] 106] 51 | 88] 30 | 122) 94] 95 |1760| 947|1850/ 181
193) 160) 127] 78 | 186} 110] 50] 81] 31 | 182) 90] 89 |1670} 914|1760| 195
198} 158) 127] 68 | 189] 106] 55 | 28 | 381 | 180) 98 |100 |1780} 902|1880] 201
202} 168) 118} 72 | 142) 114] 49 | 86; 384 | 129] 95 | 98 |1700] 895|1870) 205
198; 152) 182) 75 | 188) 106] 50 | 85 | 388 | 128) 98 |102 |1715) 927/1786| 190
198} 158) 119} 63 | 188] 108] 45 | 34] 88] 126) 95 | 94 |1708| 872)1823} 191
188) 156] 118] 68 | 148) 118] 47 | 84 | 84 | 124) 90 | 84 |1580) 860]1740| 185
193} 152) 120} 67 | 144] 110) 51] 385] 82 | 120) 88} 92 |1785| — |1763/ 194
194} 158) 121] 72 | 142} 118) 50) 381] 82] 120] 91 | 94 |1720/} 890/1813) 200
194) 158; 128] 70 | 189] 118] 49 | 38} 81 | 125] 82] 84 |1710} 905|1838| 197
186} 154/ 118) 65 | 142] 107] 45 | 34] 81 | 181] 92] 92 |1747] 947/1800} 198
200} 154) 121] 67 | 140] 108] 47 | 29 | 83 | 180] 90 | 94 |1707| 914|1820} 191
192) 158] 125] 74 | 144] 114] 49 | 82] 83 | 125] 96 | 96 |1785| 920|1840} 190
194] 154| 127) 69 | 150] 118) 55 | 381 | 81 | 123] 97 | 97 |1708| 895|1880] 195
191) 160) 127) 72 | 140] 110] 53 | 88] 83 | 128] 98 | 98 |1740] 918|1850} 201
196) 158) 124) 71 | 146] 108] 50 | 82] 34 | 127] 96 | 98 |1713] 917|1763]| 181
196] 152) 122} 68 | 186| 106] 49 | 30] 30 | 130] 97 | 95 |1690] 902/1751| 188
194} 166/ 117] 68 | 144] 122] 52 | 83] 33 | 133] 89 | 88 |1770| 943/1846| 206
199| 166] 120] 76 | 142] 108] 51 | 34] 32 | 125] 92] 93 |1708] 923]1793| 198
200] 156) 121] 70 | 1382] 104) 53 | 80] 34 | 127] 97 | 90 |1725] 913|1770| 190
came from “‘ the North.” 1 Mother’s name Kane, = in Irish, O’ Keon, not O’Cahan.
90 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
3. Vital Statisties (General and Economie) :—
(a.) Population.—The population of Ballycroy has fluctuated a
good deal within the last sixty years, but on the whole has not dimin-
ished as much as that of more thickly peopled parts of the country.
The Table given below shows the population of the district at each
census since 1871; also the number of houses inhabited, average
number of inhabitants per house, and number of acres per head of the
population at each of these periods :—
Census. | Population. Houses. pees | Aces a
|
1871 2041 346 4°89 25°38
1881 1991 324 6°17 26°06
1891 2036 | 344 | 5:92 25°53
This Table shows the great sparsity of the population, about 25
per square mile. Ballycroy is thus probably the most thinly peopled
district of its size in Ireland.
The region is subdivided into two districts, North and South
Ballycroy, the latter of which is the larger, and the more thinly
populated. The distribution of population, inhabited houses, and
outbuildings between these two districts in 1891, was as given
below :
POPULATION. Outbuild-
Locality. Area. Houses. | ings and
| | Farm-
Persons. | Males. Females. | steadings.
| (AS eee. |
N. Ballycroy, . 20,510 0 10 1191 588 603 197 163
S. Ballycroy, . Porte 2 18 845 424 421 147 198
= al ai as
Totals, . . . |51,882 2 28 | 2036 1012 1024 344 361
From this it will be seen that the females slightly exceed the
males in number.
Brownr—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. Si)
In Knight’s ‘‘ Erris” the following are given as results of a census
in 1831 (p. 99) :—
Houses inhabited, . : . : : ; . 424
Number of families, 3 : F 5 (05)
Number of persons, male and feole! , : . 2925
Number of males, . 9 6 ¢ : i . 1420
Number of females, ; : ; F , . 1505
Number of males over 20, : : : ; . 4738
Employed as handicrafts (sie), ; : ; P 59
Employed in agriculture, &c., : ; ‘ MO Lia
Farmers of first class, . F ; ; ? : 16
Farmers of second class, ‘ : F 3 . 489
(B.) Acreage and Rental_—tThe total area of the district is 51,882
acres, and the valuation £1937.
The holdings are small, averaging about 43 acres under tillage :
the whole would average some 15 acres, with a rental of about £5 for
the better class, about £3 for the poorer. The tillage land is in
many cases held in strips, often by two or more men in partnership.
There is but little commonage, as most of the ‘‘ mountain” or moor-
land is in the landlord’s hands, and let out for grazing. In 1891
there were 76 holdings of between £4 and £10 valuation, 289 of £2
and under £4, and 96 of under £2.
Formerly in Ballycroy, as in the rest of Erris, the land was held
by communities, under a head man or king, who parcelled out the
collops, or holdings, by lot every third year, as described by Mr.
Knight, and quoted in last year’s Report. This system has ceased to
exist for many years, and the holdings are now mostly held at judicial
rents.
(c.) Language and Education—Language.—The people may be said
to be practically bilingual, as most of them speak both Irish and
English. A number of older people speak Irish only, but they are
rapidly becoming fewer. The dialect they speak is somewhat diffe-
rent from that of the other peoples of Erris, though not so much so as
formerly, and has most of the characters of Ulster Irish. The exact
proportion of those speaking Irish only, and Irish and English, was
not ascertainable, as the census only gives language returns by baro-
nies. In 1891 the barony of Erris, with a population of 16,504, had
726 who spoke Irish only, 5394 Irish and English.
Education.—There is a very considerable proportion of illiteracy
in the district; but here again I am unable to give the exact amount,
as the returns on this subject are made by parishes, and Ballycroy
92 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
forms only a part of the parish of Kilcommon, as all Erris outside of
the Mullet is designated. In 1891 the condition as regards educa-
tion of this very large parish was as given in the Table :—
Persons. |
Number above 5 years, 10,988 | 5310
Illiterate, . : > 5382 2266
Percentage, 2 : 48°9 | 42°7 54°8
The chief reason for the high rate of illiteracy prevailing in
Ballycroy seems to be the scattered nature of the population, and the
long distances of many of the houses from any of the schools, of
which there are three in the district.
(p.) Health—The following notes regarding the health of the
people were obtained, for most of which I have to return my best
thanks to Dr. P. M‘Hale, of Ballycroy, who kindly afforded me the
opportunity of seeing many of the cases personally, and also allowed
me access to notes of cases. On the whole, the population is a healthy
one, and there is but little serious disease, though there are many
trivial ailments, for the most part attributable to the nature of their
food and dwellings, and of their occupations.
Consanguineous Marriages.—Marriages between relatives are of
pretty common occurence in this district, for several reasons.; one of
these is the strong clannish feeling of the people, another the nature
of their relations with the inhabitants of the surrounding districts ;
and, lastly, the difficulties of communication which prevent much
movement of the population. These unions are not commonly of
nearer degree than second cousins, which seems to be the most usual
relationship in these cases. In addition to these there are many, if
not the majority, of the marriages in which the parties are related
more or less distantly to one another, often in no very distinguishable
degree.
The kindness of the Rev. Henry Hewson, p.P., of Belmullet, who
supplied me with the list of marriages and of dispensations for
marriage on account of relationship from the year 1875, extracted
from the record of dispensations for the diocese which he has kept
since that year, enables me to give actual figures. In the Roman
Catholic parish of Ballycroy,! which contains about 320 families, there
1 It is not a parish in the Census Returns, but forms part of Kileommon, Erris.
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 93
were in that period 147 marriages altogether, and of these 50, or 34
per cent., were consanguineous.’ This long-continued intermarriage
does not appear to have produced any of the degenerative effects
ascribed to it by M. Devay and others. As before stated, the people
are well grown and healthy as a rule, and the proportion of serious
disease, especially congenital, is but small. The people themselves do
not appear to attribute any evil effects to this purity of strain. Its
only effect seems to be, as noted in other districts, the strong personal
resemblance among many of the people of the district which must at
once be noticeable to a stranger arriving among them.
Diseases.—The following, as far as could be ascertained, is the
state of the population as regards disease. Figures are given where-
ever they can be accurately known. The principal diseases may be
classed as follows :—
Insanity is said to be very rare in the district, but the actual
number of cases could not be obtained.
Idiocy and Imbecility.—There are no idiots properly so-called, but
there are two, or at most three,” individuals who are said to be ‘‘ weak
minded,’”? though shrewd enough in most things where their own
interest is concerned.
Epilepsy.—Several cases are known to exist, but as these do not
usually seek professional aid, the actual number is not ascertainable.
Deaf-mutism and Deafness—There is one deaf mute (a female):
parents so far as could be learned not relatives. There are also two
cases of deafness consequent on acute diseases.
Blindness.— There is no congenital blindness, but several old
people are blind either from cataract or as the result of injuries.
Malformations.—Congenital malformations are very rare. There
is a case of hare-lip in one family, parents not relatives.
Hernie.—Three cases have been noted within recent years.
Albinism.—There are four albinoes in one family; the father is
dark-haired, the mother red-haired, they are not in any way related
so far as they know.
Fevers.—No information obtained.
“* Constitutional’ Diseases—Phthisis and struma are not at all
uncommon. It is also noticeable that many of the young girls are
1 The total number of marriages for the whole barony of Erris in the same time
was 1210, and of these 265 were between relatives of a degree requiring dispensa-
tions, a percentage of 21:9.
2 Here my informants differ.
94 Proceediugs of the Royal Irish Academy.
anemic in spite of the open-air life they lead (query, is this due to
the almost exclusively vegetable dietary ?).
No information was obtainable respecting malignant disease. The
cases probably fall into the hands of ‘‘ wise’? men or women, or into
those of cancer-curers such as practise in the Mullet district.
Rheumatism seems to be very common, especially in the old.
Tonsillitis, too, is not unfrequently seen.
Hysteria is by no means unknown.
Dietetic diseases—Owing to the nature of the food, dyspepsia is
very prevalent, and the increasing use or abuse of very strong tea at
all meals seems to deserve a large part of the blame which is ascribed
to it by some of the older people.
Ento-parasites are said to be of common occurrence.
Respiratory diseases.—Bronchitis is very common in the winter
and spring months, especially among the older people.
Local affections are, as was noted in the Mullet, few, and usually
of but little importance. Several cases of ophthalmia, and some of
senile cataract, also one of ‘‘ Jacob’s”’ ulcer have been noted of late.
The teeth are usually short, broad, even, and white; but dental
troubles are by no means uncommon.
Female troubles seem to be very prevalent. The one most often
noted wus menorrhagia.
Venereal diseases.—As is the case commonly in Irish rural districts,
venereal complaints may be said to be practically non-existent.
Skin.—A number of skin diseases come for treatment, the prin-
cipal of which are eczema, impetigo, scabies, and tinea tonsurans,
Accidental injuries are of frequent occurrence, amongst the most
common of which are cuts and contused wounds, fractures, and burns.
(z.) Longevity—Though there are no centenarians now in Bally-
croy, yet there are two persons living who are over ninety years of
age, still hale and hearty, and a good many cases of people over
eighty years of age.
4. Psychology.—A sketch of the mental character of the people,
as well as the physical, is necessary to the completeness of a report
such as this, and accordingly inquiries were made on this point of
people of all classes and conditions who have daily dealings with them,
as well as such observations as could be made personally during a stay
among them of limited duration, and the result is, on the whole, very
creditable to the community at large. Asis the case with most such
communities as this, isolated by reason of origin and customs, the
people of the other parts of the barony seem to look upon the inhabi-
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 95
tants of Ballycroy with a good deal of distrust, and many tales are
told to their disfavour, for which the usual allowance must be made.
Trustworthy informants, however, seem to agree in the statements
following :—The people of Ballycroy are reputedly sharp and shrewd
in matters of business; they are good judges of character in their
customers, and can readily adapt themselves to their peculiarities,
and, their neighbours assert, are not over-scrupulous about taking any
advantage which offers. As a rule, however, creditable informants
state they are very honest in their dealings with one another.
They are fond of amusement, especially music and dancing, and
show more signs of artistic taste than were observed in any district
yet reported on, though their choice in colours may not be always
classically correct. They are sharp at repartee, and a good deal
given to joking, often of a very practical nature. Formerly this district
was noted, like the other parts of Erris, for the litigious character of
its people, but this spirit has largely died out. The faction fights
which used to occur between the peoples of North and South Bally-
croy are a thing of the past, though some few remaining signs of the
old feeling on this point were noticed. The Ballycroy people used
formerly to be noted for their quarrelsome nature, which is almost
proverbial in the other parts of Erris; but this no longer characterises
them to the same extent, a change which is said to be in part at least due
to the almost complete suppression of illicit distillation in the district.
When quarrels occur the men seldom go the length of a stand-up
fight, man to man, but make use of abusive language, and throw stones,
or several will set on one. They are not, as a rule, given to drink,
and in their everyday life are sober and quiet, but on fair days, or at
races or other public occasions, a good deal of drinking takes place.
When in liquor they are very boastful, and the local pride, which is
evident in them at all times, shows out more strongly. Most of them
seem to look upon themselves as far superior to all the neighbouring
peoples. This pride, by cultivating a sense of self-respect, seems, in
some cases, to be the moving spring of a manly and independent
spirit which is exhibited by many. In connection with this, one
curious feeling may be noted. It was some years ago considered to
be an indelible disgrace to any Ballycroy woman to sell butter.
To strangers the people are obliging and kindly, ready to afford
information, and extremely hospitable. To one another they are
generous, especially in times of trouble or adversity, when, even though
in straitened circumstances themselves, they are ready to help those
worse off.
96 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The moral character of the people is very good, as illegitimacy,
though not unknown, is of very rare occurrence. There is practically
no crime in the district, and it is a long time since any serious offence
was committed there. They are said to be devout in their religious
observance.
This section may be concluded by quoting the accounts given of
the people by writers on the district. Mr. Knight’s description,’
written sixty years ago, is practically accurate as applied to the people
at the present day. He says that they are ‘‘bold, daring, and intrepid
in danger; not good-tempered, but hospitable to an extreme. A
stranger seldom enters their country without having the usual salute
of ‘you are welcome to the country, stranger,’ given him, be he known
or not. They are considered generally very intelligent, and having
that degree of cleverness and acuteness, particularly in bargaining, said
to be peculiar to their northern origin. They are the material of a
fine people, if properly managed.”
With this account, that given by the novelist Maxwell (long a
resident in the district) closely tallies. Writing a little earlier in
the century he says? :—
‘‘The inhabitants of this district are extremely hospitable to
passing travellers, but by no means fond of encouraging strangers to
sojourn permanently among them. This latter inherent prejudice
may arise from clannish feelings, or ancient recollections of how
much their ancestors were spoliated by former settlers, who, by
artifice and the strong hand, managed to possess the better portions
of the country. They are also absurdly curious, and will press
their questions with American pertinacity, until, if possible, the
name, rank, and occasion of his visit, is fully and faithfully detailed
by the persecuted traveller.
‘On the score of propriety of conduct, I would assign the female
peasantry of this district a high place. When the habits of the
country are considered, one would be inclined to suspect that exces-
sive drinking, and the frequent scenes of nocturnal festivities which
wakes and dances present, would naturally lead to much immorality.
This, however, is not the case: broken vows will, no doubt, occa-
sionally require the interference of the magistrate or the priest; but
generally the lover makes the only reparation in his power, and
deceived females or deserted children are seldom seen in Erris.”
1 Erris, p. 106.
2 «“Wild Sports of the West,’ Chap. xivi1.
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 97
5. Folk-names.—The following list of the surnames of the district
was obtained. It contains all the surnames now in Ballycroy, with
the exception of a few families recently settled in the region :-—
Number Number
Surname. of Surname. of
Families. Families.
Bradley, 2 Kane, or Keane, 16
Bradshaw, .. 3 Kilroy, s6 26 2
Cafferky, 25 Little,} oc A 1
Cadden, 1 Lenahan, a 20
Calvey, 8 Loftus, 1
Campbell, 7 M‘Ginty, or Ginty, 14
Carey, il M‘Gowan, .. . 5
Cleary, 1 M‘Guire, 4
Cooney, 2 M‘Greal, 1
Conway, 31 M‘Hugh, 2
Cormack, 3 M‘Manamon, 16
Corrigan, 15 M‘Neely, 6
Deane, 2 M‘Tighe, 3
Dooher, 4 Malley, 2
Doran, 6 Masterson, .. 1
Dyra,! 1 Molloy, 3
Fallon, 1 Monaghan, .. 1
Finn, 2 Moran, 3
Gallagher, 5 Murray, .. 9
Gaughan, 2 O’ Donnell, .. 8
Grealis,? 1 O’ Hora, 1
Gruddy, 1 O’ Boyle, 5
Henry, 2 Sweeny, 25
Togher, 4
Some of the less numerous of these surnames are comparatively
recent importations from the surrounding districts. Some names once
common in the district have now died out. One of these was Lynott,
one of the old Anglo-Norman names.
The families whose ancestors came ‘‘from the North” take great
pride out of it, and rather look down upon those who are the descen-
dants of the aboriginal inhabitants.
TV.—Socrotoey.
1. Occupations.—Though the district is maritime, the population
is almost a purely pastoral one, sea-fishing not being practised as a
mode of livelihood by any considerable portion of the people. The
majority of the farms are of very small size, averaging about 4 to 44
acres for the poorer class, 15 acres for the better off, under tillage,
1 Not native. 2 From Inisbiggle.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. IV. a
98 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
but usually having a large mountain run, over which the tenant has
grazing rights. The average rent for a holding of the better class
would be about £5, £3 for the poorer. As in the Mullet, the land is
not usually well fenced. The principal crops are potatoes, barley,
and rye. Spade labour is almost universal. Sea-weed is the prin-
cipal manure. A plot of land is cropped until worn out; then a fresh
piece is reclaimed and fenced, and soon. During the summer months
the cattle were formerly moved to the mountain runs; some of the
younger people going off to tend them there, and living, while thus
engaged, in roughly-built huts called boothies. This custom was still
in vogue until about thirty years ago.
Many of the men—my informants stated the number at about 130—
annually go to England or Scotland every summer to work as migratory
labourers, returning to their homes for the winter months.
Along the coast-line a good deal of kelp is made, on which no royalty
is paid. The sea-weed for this purpose is sometimes brought by boat
to points where it is to be burned, but Knight mentions a method of
conveying it common in his time, and still practised. A description
of it is best given in his own words: ‘‘ Transporting sea-weed from
one part of these sheltered shores to another, either for burning into
kelp or for manure, in large masses, without any other means than a
man standing on the heap, and pushing it forward with a long pole,
is a very common practice, and hundreds of these may be seen float-
ing with the tide up and down the sound of Achill, or on the Ballycroy
shores, in the fine summer days; while a single man sits quietly on
the heap, roasting his potatoes and limpets, or other shell-fish, for his
evening meal, carried forward towards his destination without any
trouble or exertion from him until the tide slackens, or that he is
obliged to pole it forwards in some parts against the current.”
As before stated, there is practically no sea-fishing ; a few coal-fish
1 1 am indebted to my friend Mr. G. H. Kinahan for the following note on the
cutting and transportation of sea-weed :—‘“‘ During springs the weed-cutters must
be on the claddagh (the foreshore left dry during low water) when the tide is one-
third gone; the men with hooks cut the weed, while the boys and girls pile itin
heaps like hay-cocks; these heaps must be properly built to give them solidity. As
the tide comes in, the men come back and put a suggaun, made of sea-weed, round
the butt of each heap, or two suggauns, one above the other, if there is a rough
sea. Iftheseais rough, they often fasten a rope to the heap, and tow it into shelter
as the tide rises. If there is a quiet sea,a man will sit on the heap, and, as it rises,
will direct it with a pole to wherever he wants it to go; he will even go out into
he tidal race, and run with it to the place he wants to land the weeds, generally
ome harbour or coose where it can be easily landed, and carried to the land.”
Browne— Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 99
are taken occasionally ; periwinkles are gathered in large quantities on
the sea-shore, and large lobsters are sometimes found among the
crevices in the rocks. About forty men are employed netting salmon in
the chief river of the district. There is not much regular employment
for labourers, for whom the average rate of pay is about 9s. a-week.
Tradesmen are few; there are four hand-loom weavers, and two
blacksmiths. During the winter months there is little work of any
sort done.
Like the Mullet district, Ballycroy exports very large quantities
of eggs, most of which are sent to Westport and thence to the English
market. Eggs are said to be occasionally used for barter. The
women, besides the ordinary domestic duties, carding, spinning, &c.,
take part in all field labour with the men, and gather sea-weed for
manure; the only kind of outdoor work they do not engage in is
cutting turf, which is the main fuel of the district. Some of the turf
is exported to Inishkea and the lower extremity of the Mullet.
2. Family Life and Customs.—The family life of the people of
Ballycroy is on the whole very similar to that of the people of the
other parts of Erris and of the natives of Inishbofin, and so need not
be described at any length, the reader being referred for details to
the previous report.
The children of a family are sent to school young, if at all, but
their attendance is stated to be rather irregular, owing to the long
distances the children have to go and the wild nature of the country.
They leave school young, and then enter into the ordinary work of the
family.
The people do not as a rule marry as early as those of some other
parts of the country, many girls not getting married until 25 years of
age. Business and family interests have usually more to do with the
matches than romantic attachment, the matter beg arranged as a
rule by the parents beforehand. After all has been settled, the young
man goes, taking with him a spokesman to explain his errand, and a
bottle or two of whiskey, and the girl’s consent is asked ; if this be
given, the parents then arrange about the dowry, and at this stage
the match may be broken off if satisfactory terms be not arrived at.
A calf or a pig may be the cause of upsetting the arrangement.
Weddings are occasions of great feasting and merriment, and usually
are concluded by a dance. Straw boys (clommeraghs) go round to
these dances as described in the report on the Mullet. It is not
considered etiquette in Ballycroy that these strawboys should take any
drink at a wedding. The taking of the bride to her husband’s house
EZ
100 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
is another occasion of festivity, though not now of so uproarious a
nature as it was in the earlier part of this century, when it was thus
described by a writer who was long resident in the district :—
‘¢« Dragging home’ is the bringing the bride to her husband’s house.
An immense mob of relatives and clevines of ‘ both the houses’ are
collected on the occasion, and as an awful quantity of whiskey must
of necessity be distributed to the company, this high solemnity seldom
concludes without subjecting the host’s person and property to demoli-
tion.”
The ceremonies and observances relating to deaths are very fully
kept up. Wakes are still held, but only in the case of old people,
the young not being waked. Most of the old games and observances
are still kept up, but it is very difficult to obtain information respecting
them. The corpse is lifted on to the bier at the house, and off it at
the graveyard, by the relatives on the male side of the family at one
side, and by those of the female side at the other. It is considered
unlucky for the party whose side of the bier touches the ground first.
The coffin is always taken to the graveyard by the longest route. On
reaching the cemetery the coffin is carried to the place where it is to
be interred, and then the people all scatter to kneel and pray at the
graves of their own relatives. After this, new pipes and tobacco are
served out to those present, who sit down and smoke.! After the
pipes have been smoked, the weeds are cleared away and the grave is
dug. It may be worthy of remark here that a grave is not dug ona
Monday if possible, and if for any reason a burial has to be made on
that day, a sod is raised the day before. After the grave has been dug
and the coffin lowered into it, a band of women gather round it and
sing the caoine, which here has not degenerated into mere discordant
wailing, as it has in some other places, but is often really very musical
and plaintive. When this has been done, the mourners are sprinkled
with holy water and then engage in prayer; after which the grave is
filled in, covered over with rough stones, often white in colour, and
the unused pipes placed upon it. Until the prayer is over, it is con-
sidered both bad taste and extremely unlucky to leave the graveyard.
To stumble in a cemetery is believed to indicate that the person who
does so will die within the month.
Unbaptised or still-born infants are buried at night in separate
burying grounds, by themselves. One of these infant cemeteries is
at Bunmore.
1In some cases it is said that a small turf fire is lighted at which the smokers
light their pipes, but I have not seen this personally in this district.
Browne—LEthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 101
One social function, going for the sand-eels, ought not to pass
without mention; it is the cause of considerable gatherings of the
young people on the sea-shore on moonlight nights, the object
being as much the amusement as the sand-eels themselves. The
mode of taking these latter is by passing a blunted reaping-hook or a
knife through the sand.
8. Food.—The dietary of the bulk of the people is almost ex-
clusively vegetarian. As a rule it consists of potatoes, boxty (or
potato-bread), flour-bread, and, to some extent, eggs and milk. A
great deal of imported meal and flour is consumed, and tea is now
used at nearly every meal, which, as it is made very strong, and
drunk in large quantities, is probably responsible for a very large
part of the digestive trouble so common among the people. A
good deal of Indian-meal stirabout is taken during the summer
months.
Fish, when used, is obtained from Newport or Achill.
The people usually take three meals in the day.
4. Clothing.—The population, as a whole, seems to be well and
comfortably clad on public occasions, though many of the poorer
people are rather ragged in working attire. The clothing is very
largely imported, and quite modern in style; but a good deal of
greyish-coloured and other home-spun is still worn, some of which
is of a very high class. The dress worn by the women on working
days is still of the old style, a short petticoat of a very bright red,
dyed with madder or an aniline dye, a dark bodice, and a small tartan
shawl over the shoulders, and a red handkerchief tied under the chin
covers the hair. The old-fashioned heavy cloak of dark blue cloth
is worn when at work away from home. Of late it has become a
common practice among some of the better-to-do farmers to send the
wool of their own sheep to the woollen mills at Foxford or to Scotland
to be made up for them. A good deal of home-made flannel is worn
in shirts, and the blankets too are of local manufacture. The wool
for the homespuns is oiled, corded, and spun by the women, and then
sent to one of the weavers. The regular charge made by these weavers
is threepence a yard for frieze or flannel, fourpence per yard for
blanketing.
Some of the old dyes are still made use of. A yellow is obtained,
as in Bofin, from a lichen (Ramalina scopulorum ?) which they gather
from the rocks; a greenish colour is got from the tops of the heather,
also a black from some other plant, no specimen of which could be
obtained.
102 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The men wear boots as part of their everyday attire, but the
women and children usually go barefooted, wearing boots only on
Sundays and other public occasions.
5. Dwellings—The houses in this district are, as a rule, of a
superior class to those to be seen in the northern portion of Erris.
They are usually solidly built of stone and mortar, and whitewashed
outside ; but few either of the dry-stone or of the ‘‘ sod houses ” now
exist, though a few, some of which were evidently not long built,
were seen. A typical Ballycroy house is built of stone and mortar,
and thatched with straw or bent, laid on over ‘‘ scraws”’ of grass turf,
and held in place by sougans (straw ropes), which are attached to
stout pegs driven into the walls, instead of stones or beams as seen
in the Mullet. The house consists of a room and a kitchen. The
kitchen is a large apartment, entered by two doors, one in front, the
other in the rear, opposite to one another ; the floor is flagged, or of
beaten clay. At one end of this room is the fireplace, a large open
hearth, with a wide chimney. Beside the fire, at one side, is a bed
of the usual Erris type. At the other end of the kitchen is a place
for the cattle, usually paved, and provided with a small channel in
the floor, which runs out under the gable. Over this part of the
kitchen is a half loft, in which are kept agricultural implements, &c.,
and there is usually a small square hole or window in the gable of
this end, which affords ventilation and some light. Across the
apartment stretches a straw rope, on which articles of clothing are
hung to dry. The walls are whitewashed inside, and are often
decorated with cheap pictures, usually religious in character. The
furniture of the kitchen consists of the bed before mentioned, a table,
a dresser, with some cheap crockery ware, a large chest, a settle or
form, and two or three chairs or stools. The kitchen utensils are the
usual three-legged pot, a skillet, a griddle, a few wooden piggins, a
bucket, a boran or sheepskin sieve, a wool-wheel, and some cards.
Cheap lamps of modern form are in most houses, but in some the
rude ‘‘ flare,” described in the report on the Mullet, is still in use.
The ‘‘room”’ is a smaller apartment, and usually contains two or
more beds, of the usual Erris pattern, and with feather ticks; it con-
tains a table and a couple of chairs. The floor is often boarded.
6. Transport.—The means of transport are, with the exception of
the method of conveying seaweed mentioned in another section, the
same as those prevailing in the Mullet district. There are compara-
tively few carts in use, and turf, manure, and articles for market are
usually carried in the pardoges or panniers on the backs of donkeys
Browne—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 108
or horses. The better-to-do among the people possess saddle-horses,
and, as distances are long, and houses far apart, live a good deal on
horseback. As in the other part of Erris, it is common for two to
ride on one horse, the man in the saddle, and a woman en croupe.
For short distances and domestic purposes panniers, carried on the back,
are used, chiefly by the women.
For transport by sea a good many boats (about seventy) are kept
along the coast (mostly row-boats). As before mentioned, the people
do not fish as a means of livelihood, so the boats are not employed
except for transport. A good deal of turf for fuel is sent by boat from
Ballycroy to the lower extremity of the peninsula of the Mullet.
In the early part of this century, when Mr. Maxwell wrote, there
was ‘‘no road on which a wheel could turn” in the district, and, as a
consequence, no wheeled vehicles. The main road was constructed
about 1841, and others since. Need has long been felt for a direct
road to Belmullet, and one is now being constructed by the Govern-
ment which will certainly prove of great benefit to the people. The
smaller roads are very indifferent, and mostly used only for foot-
traffic, and ponies carrying panniers.
V.— Forx Lore.
Though Ballycroy is reputedly very rich in its traditional lore,
but little information could be obtained on the subject, as the people
are very reticent with strangers about such matters. The follow-
ing notes, however, were obtained :—Many ancient songs and
traditional tales in Irish are still preserved among the older people,
and repeated around the firesides in the long winter evenings;
but the old beliefs seem to be losing their hold on many of the younger
portion of the population. The principal legends of the region have
been recorded by Mr. Maxwell in a somewhat popularised form.
For the following notes I am chiefly indebted to the kindness of
Messrs. James, John, and Robert Cleary, of Ballycroy, and Mr. John
M‘Manamon. Some other informants have requested that their names
should not be mentioned.
1. Customs and Beliefs.—As remarked in the other localities re-
ported on, the number of actions or events considered of lucky or
unlucky import is very large. It is unlucky to meet a red-headed
woman on starting out in the morning on any business, especially if
fishing or shooting be the object in view. Some object to meeting
any woman as the first individual encountered on the road in the
104 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
morning, and people have been known to desist from the projected
undertaking on this account. It is also unlucky to have a hare cross
one’s path, but not so much so as the meeting of a red-headed person.
Tl fortune also follows the digging of a grave on a Monday, the
change of residence on that day, the removal of one of the pipes off a
grave, giving fire out of the house on May Day, and the molesting of
the wild swans which visit the coast in winter. To stumble or fall
in a graveyard is looked upon as a sign that the person so doing will
die within the month. The death-warnings mentioned in the report
on the Mullet are also believed in here, as is the evil eye; the con-
sequences of which may be averted in the manner mentioned therein
(7.¢. 631). Itis considered by some to be very unlucky to rescue a
drowning man, as he will be certain to do some evil to his rescuer.
The old belief that blood will start from the body of a murdered person
at the touch of the murderer, is still prevalent. Fairies are believed
in by many, and many tales of their actions are related. They are
believed to be a class of fallen angels who took part with Satan to
some extent, but whose guilt was not sufficient to condemn them to
the infernal regions, and were, instead, made to wander through the
universe. Michael Conway, who has a local reputation for his know-
ledge of their ways, says that they are of three classes—the first were
made dwellers in the air; the second, in the sea; and the third, on
the earth. They are accused of doing much mischief, both to men
and to domestic animals. Cattle becoming suddenly ill are said to be
‘“shot”’ by them, and the ‘‘cure” applied by a wise man who possesses
a fairy stone (arrowhead) is the passing of the said flint arrowhead
over the back and under the belly of the animal thrice, accompanying
the action by suitable incantations.
Changelings are believed in, and tales are told of cases of this nature.
Quite recently the fairies were supposed to have stolen away a child,
and carried him to a distance of three miles. Michael Conway states
that he knew a man who, whenout one night, heard sweet music of pipes,
and in an ecstasy he danced to the music ; he died within the year.
The people do not meddle with an old rath or fort, even though in
the centre of cultivated land, as they believe these to be favourite
dwelling-places for the fairies. A man built an addition to his house
upon a ‘‘fairy hill” : he died within the year (was drowned), and later
on his brother also died. A hearth should always be swept clean,
and new fire put down when going to bed for the fairies to warm
themselves at.
The devil, as usual, bulks largely in the local tales; he is said to
Brownu— Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 105
have appeared to one woman in chapel! Satan explained to her that
he went to the church because people were so thoughtless there, and
the women went there mostly to criticise each other’s clothes. Demo-
niacal possession is believed in, and a tale is told of a possessed man
near Mount Jubilee, between Belmullet and Ballycroy.
Considering the wild nature of the country, it is not wonderful
that ghosts should be met with, and phantoms of various kinds. The
people used to dread passing a spot on the main road after dark, as
the ghosts of people slain in faction fights there (it being on the
boundary between north and south Ballycroy) were believed to appear
there, and to haunt especially the families of the slayers. The ghost
of a sportsman, who many years ago met his death on the mountains,
is said to be sometimes seen.
On the road between Ballycroy and Bangor, Erris, a phantom dog
sometimes appears, as does a white cow, whose appearance is looked
on as adeath-warning. Several of the lakes are thought to be inhabited
by ‘‘water horses,” which sometimes come on land and endeavour to
coax unwary people to mount them, and then, having got them mounted,
carry them off into the water. They are believed to be seen once in
every seven years.
Among the customs observed may be mentioned wakes, at which
all the old games are kept up. These wakes are now only held on old
people, not on younger ones.
The funeral observances have been described in another section.
A straw cross is placed in the roof of some of the houses on All
Hallows’ Eve to avert evil. Fires are lighted on St. John’s Eve
(June 24), as described in last year’s report.
At one time the most inviolable oath taken in this district was
that sworn with the hand ona skull; this is still believed in, but never
practised now.
Straw boys (clommeraghs) go round to weddings, and dance with
the bride as in the Mullet.
Practically no information could be obtained as to the leechcraft,
or folk-medicine, of the district. Several ‘‘ wise’? men and women
practise in it, but they keep their remedies secret as far as possible.
Head-measuring, the application of various unguents and charms
for the rose (erysipelas), and the use of charms for toothache, as
described in the other part of the barony, were all that any informa-
tion could be obtained about. Many local herb remedies are said to
be in use, but beyond this vague statement no further information
could be got. The only treatments of interest in the diseases of cattle,
106 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
of which any description could be got, were the treatment of fairy-
‘shot’? animals described above, and the tying of the ‘‘ worm-knot”
with the object of destroying entoparasites.
2. Legends and Traditions.—As has been already stated, there are
a good many local traditions, mostly of a minor character; but, owing
to the reticence of the people on this subject, only a few could be
obtained, the chief of which have been recorded by Mr. Maxwell.
The ‘“‘Legend of Knock-a-Thample” is still told practically as given
in his well-known work, ‘‘The Wild Sports of the West,” and the
grave of the ‘‘Red Pedlar” pointed out. Tales are told of a daring
robber who, in past times, lived in a cave in the mountains, and who
was at last hunted down and killed. Lough Curafin, in the mountains,
is said by the country people to owe its origin to the massacre of a
priest and his people (in the time of Cromwell, they say) on the spot
where the lake now is; the ground sank down and the water covered
it, thus forming the lough. The water is dark-coloured, and the
people say that waves are on it even on the calmest days when there
is no wind; they also say that the fish in it will never take a fly.
Strange to say, though such a conspicuous character as Grace
O’Malley held the Castle of Doona, and lived for some years there,
local tradition is almost dumb about her; the story of a fight in
the courtyard, where the O’Malleys captured the castle from the
M‘Mahons, seems to be almost the only trace of her memory which
is preserved here; while a few miles off, in Achill, there are many
legends about her. This is probably due to the ancestors of the
present population supplanting the aborigines.
VI.—Anrcu20Loey.
This district contains much that is interesting to the archeologist,
but, as in former reports of this nature, all that can be done here is
to indicate what is worthy of notice to those who make Irish
antiquities their study.
1. Survivals.—Owing to the greater comfort of the people, these
are fewer than in the northern part of the barony. Querns are no
longer in use, though they were until quite recently; the type of
wool-wheel, the sheep-skin sieve, panniers on the horses’ backs, and
the use of hooped piggins are the chief amongst the remaining articles
not yet deposed by our modern appliances. The clothing has been
before referred to. One article still in use is worthy of notice, the
otter, an implement of very ancient origin in Ireland, is used some-
times for fishing in the fresh-water lakes.
Browne—Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 107
2. Antiquities—There are not many ancient buildings or monuments
in Ballycroy, which must always have been a thinly-populated district,
and of those that exist, all, or nearly all, are of far earlier date than
the Ulster colony. The remains still in existence are in much the
same condition as when O’Donovan noted them in 1838; the people
generally respect these old monuments, and so the only destroyer in
the meantime has been the weather.
The object of this section is to point out the objects worthy of
note to archeologists, not to enter upon a description at length, which
is left to more competent hands, and so only a short notice is given
here. The most ancient remains seem to be a cromleach near Claggan,
a ‘‘druidical circle”? at Tallagh, and numerous small earthen forts
scattered through the district. At a place called Kildun ( C2ll-a-dhuin),
where a peninsula juts out into the bay, is an ancient burying-ground,
and an upright monumental stone or slab inscribed with a cross within
a circle. The other buildings and monuments are apparently of more
modern date ; they comprise churches, holy wells, two castles, and a
monument. At Bunmore there is the ruin of Zempull Enna (St.
Enda’s Church), a small ancient building of which, as in O’ Donovan’s
time, there is but little standing ; not far from the church is Zobar
Enna (St. Enda’s Well),! which is covered by a beehive-shaped struc-
ture of stone, on the front of which is a slab rudely marked with a
cross. The church and well are the scene of the ‘“‘ Legend of Knock-
a-Thample,”’ which has been already referred to in this paper. Not
far from the well is what is pointed out as ‘‘the Red Pedlar’s Grave,”’
in which the murderer is said to be interred. At Claggan, in the
south of the district, outside of the graveyard, is, or was, Teach
Fiontainne (the house of St. Fintanny), the site of a small church.
O’Donovan says that ‘St. Fintanny was the author of the Pagan
History of Ireland, and is said by tradition to have lived longer than
Methusalem (svc), and to have been contemporary with the very old
woman called Cailleach Bheartha.”’ Inside the graveyard is the Well
of St. Fintanny, where stations are performed. Just outside this
graveyard is a small rocking-stone.
At Castlehill (Anock-a-chaislean) there are the foundations of a
castle torn down for building materials some time in the last century;
1 Some call this well St. Catherine’s; it is believed by the people to possess
anti-Malthusian properties; also, to be efficacious in curing eye troubles, abscesses,
and dog-bites. Stations are performed here.
At Bunmore there is also a Killeen, or ancient burial-place.
108 © Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
of the founder or possessors of this castle local tradition is altogether
silent—no one knows who they were.
The best known of the ruins of this district is the Castle of Doona
(Dun atha), of which many contradictory traditions are in existence.
Some ascribe its origin to the famous Grace O’Malley, who is said to
have spent some of her life there; others assert that she captured it
from the MacMahons. O’Donovan, whose informant was a Mr. Cormic,
whose family was of old standing in Erris, says that it was built by
Brian Revagh O’Kelly, who was married to one of the Barrets, and
flourished here in the reign of Elizabeth; another account again states
that it was built in the time of Domhnall Duall bwee, a Damnonian
chief who lived before the time of Christ. If there was ever a dun
here it seems to have been entirely removed. The castle is built of
rough rubble stones, and the walls are very thick; but the greater
part of it isin a very ruinous condition. The main tower was split
in two many years ago by the accidental firing of a turf stack in its
interior ; one half fell, the other is still standing. The court-yard
and passage to the landing still remain. Part of the castle has been
transformed into a modern farmhouse and offices.
Not far from the castle is Doona Church, a building about six
centuries old; it is about 50 feet in length, by some 20 in breadth.
It was somewhat modified in form about two centuries ago, when
certain additions were made to it. The interior is used as a burial-
place, and is choked up with graves which have raised the soil far
above the original floor level.
The most modern of all the monuments of Ballycroy is Lachta
Dahya Ban (Fair David’s Bed), a monument on the top of Corslieve
Mountain, between Ballycroy and Tirawley. ‘‘Fair David” was a
notorious robber chief who lived in a cave in the mountains, and was
a scourge far and wide; he was hunted down and killed at this spot
about two centuries ago. |
ViIi.—Hiustory.
The earlier history of the district is the same as that of the rest of
Erris, which has been given at length in the Report on the Mullet,
Inishkea, and Portacloy, and so will only receive a brief notice here.
1 O’ Donovan remarks that the skulls of the Kinnelconnell tribe, which he saw
in Doona Church, were ‘‘higher in the forehead and broader than those of the
Connacians.”’
Browne— Ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. 109
Erris was anciently inhabited by the Damhnanns, or Damnonii, a
Firbolg tribe, who held the territory for some centuries. They were
conquered by Tuathal Teachtmar, a Milesian king, some time in the
second century. The family of O’Caithniadh (O’ Kane) now held sway
until about the beginning of the 14th century, when the Anglo-
Norman and Welsh families of Burke, Barret, Lynnot, and others
obtained a foothold in Erris, and eventually became the rulers of it.
Tn or about the middle of the 17th century the district was colonized -
by the ancestors of most of the principal families now in existence
there. The exact date of this immigration does not seem to be clearly
known, but, from some pedigrees collected by O’ Donovan in 1838, the
families he mentions would seem to have been in the district for six
or seven generations. He notes that the people “have no other
chronology but the number of generations since their emigration, a
very primitive mode of calculating time.” Counting a generation as
thirty years, eight or nine must have now elapsed, giving the colony
the probable age of 240 to 270 years. O’Donovan also states that
‘« Ballycroy and Ballymonnelly (an adjacent district) were colonized
by tribes from Tirconnell about two centuries ago”; ‘ Ballycroy was
colonized by several families from the same county, who settled under
O'Donnell”; and adds, ‘‘the principal surnames among them are
M‘Sweeny, O’Clery, O’Gallagher, Conway, MacManamon, and O’Friel.
These still speak the Ultonian dialect of the Irish, and are called by
their neighbours na hUltaigh, 1.e. the Ulstermen.”” The colonists are
said, by tradition, to have come to the district by sea, and to have
landed at Fahy, near Doona Castle.
In the Appendix to the ‘‘ Genealogies, Tribes, and Customs of Hy
Fiachrach,” in the notes on the O’Clery family, the following mention
is made of the movement of this family into Ballycroy from Donegal :—
“ Cucoigeriche, or Peregrine O’ Clery, the eldest son of Lughaidh.—He
married one of the Mac Sweenys, of the county of Donegal, by whom
he had two sons, Diarmaid and John. It appears from an inquisition
taken at Lifford on the 25th of May, 1682, that he held the half
quarter of the lands of Coobeg and Doughill, in the proportion of
Monargane, in the barony of Boylagh and Bannagh, in the county of
Donegal, from Hollantide, 1631, until May, 1632, for which he paid
eight pounds sterling per annum to William Farrell, Esq., assignee
to the Earl of Annandale; but, as the document states, being ‘a
meere Irishman, and not of English or British discent or sirname,’ he
was dispossessed, and the lands became forfeited tothe king. Shortly
after this period he removed, with many other families of Tirconnell,
110 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
to Ballyeroy, in the south of the barony of Erris, in the county of
Mayo, under the guidance of Rory or Roger O’Donnell, the son of
Colonel Manus, who was slain at Benburb in 1646, and the ancestor
of the present Sir Richard Annesley O’Donnell, of Newport.” This
would place the settlement at about 1640, thus agreeing closely with
the traditional number of generations since the families concerned
eame to Erris.
More modern history can scarcely be said to exist. Owing to the
wildness and remoteness of the region, it became in the last century
a resort for smugglers, of whom many tales are told which belong
more to legend than to history.
In the first half of the present century, about 1840, the district
was opened up by the construction of the first good road, and brought
more into contact with the outer world; but it still remains greatly
isolated and comparatively unknown.
VIII.—Conctupine Remarks.
Little remains to be said in conclusion. As this paper, like its
precursors, is a record of facts observed, collected as means of forming
a basis of comparison between different parts of Ireland, theories and
personal opinions are not ventured upon.
The tradition as to the origin of the greater part of the people of
Ballycroy seems to be fully borne out by facts, but it seems probable
that all the aboriginal families were not driven out by the colonists,
and that some of them, remaining in the district, have become
absorbed into the mass. It was stated by some of the people that the
familes whose ancestors ‘‘ came from the North” rather looked down
upon some of their neighbours, whose people were there before them,
as they do on the inhabitants of the surrounding districts. The
physical differences between the Ballycroy people, and those of the
rest of Erris, are more noticeable in the casts of features and darker
nigrescence than in their physical proportions, though, as before
mentioned, some of these are noteworthy.
1X.— Breriocrapuy.
The literature referring to this region is very scanty, but the
following make more or less mention of it :—
Awnonymous.—‘‘ The Saxon in Ireland ”’ (London, 1851).
Batp.—‘‘ Map of the County of Mayo” (1813).
1 His family were hereditary historians to the O’Donnells.
BrownE—Lthnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. jit
Brnnetr.—‘‘ Six Weeks in Ireland” (1848).
Tue Four Masters (cf. O’Donovay).
Knieut, Parrick, C.E.—‘‘ Erris in the Irish Highlands and the
Atlantic Railway ”’ (Dublin, 1836).
Mac Fresis, Duatp (cf. O’ Donovan).
Maxwett, W. H.:
‘“‘ Wild Sports of the West”’ (1829).
‘¢The Dark Lady of Doona.”
O’ Donovan, JoHN :
““MSS. Letters to the Ordnance Survey of Ireland” (1838).
In the Library of the Royal Irish Academy.
“The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland,” by the Four
Masters. Translated and Annotated by Joun O’Donovan,
LL.D.
‘‘The Genealogies, Tribes, and Customs, of Hy Fiachrach,
commonly called O’Dowda’s Country. From the Book
of Lecan in the Royal Irish Academy, and from the
Genealogical MSS. of Duald Mac Firbis, in the Library
of Lord Roden ”’ (Dublin, 1844).
OFFICIAL :
“¢ Census of Ireland, 1891,” vol. iv., No. 3.
‘¢ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland.”
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES III. AND IV.
Plates III. and IV. are from original photographs of the people
taken during this visit.
Te J
Vir
ADDITIONS TO THE HEPATICA OF THE HILL OF HOWTH,
WITH A TABLE SHOWING THE GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF ALL THE SPECIES KNOWN TO
GROW THERE. By DAVID McARDLE.
[ COMMUNICATED BY F. W. MOORE. |
[Read Aprit 13th, 1896.]
In the summer of 1893, shortly after writing a provisional list of
the ‘‘ Hepaticee of the Hill of Howth,” which the Royal Irish Academy
did me the honour to publish,! I was engaged in making further research
on the hill; and I was fortunate in gathering a liverwort, which was
new to me, growing in some quantity amongst the limestone rocks
near Ballykill. I had very little difficulty in determining its correct
name to be Jungermania attenuata. It belongs to the darbata group,
and was figured by Sir William Hooker in his fine work on the
British Hepatice, under the name of Jungermania barbata, B minor.
A specimen collected by Mr. E. M. Holmes at Abbey Wood, Kent,
which is included in Carrington and Pearson’s excellent Fasciculus
(No. 74), quite settled the identification.
This was apparently the first discovery of Jungermania attenuata in
Ireland. It grows most luxuriantly in company, and mixed with a
pretty moss TZetraphis pellucida, which also seems hitherto to have
escaped notice in the county Dublin district. Professor Lindberg, in his
‘* Musci Scandinavica,” calls the former Jungermania gracilis, Schleich ;
and Mr. M. B. Slater, r.1.s., to whom I sent specimens of the Howth
plant, says :—‘‘ It is a pity the name attenuata has priority, as gracilis
is more expressive of its habit of growth.”
This interesting find was encouraging, and Mr. Moore wrote to
Captain Rochford (Lord Howth’s agent) for permission to collect in the
demesne, which was kindly granted for the first four months of last
1 Proceedings, 3rd Ser., vol. 111., p. 108.
McArpLE—Additions to the Hepatice of the Hill of Howth. 118
year, during which time I paid it several visits with. good results, and
the list would not be so extensive if this request had not been granted.
Such species as the rare Jungermania minuta, Scapania equiloba,
and Leeunea flava var., grow in great luxuriance. The last, in
company with the commoner species Leeunea serpyllifolia, clothes the
large stones, and the stems of trees which margin a small stream.
The pretty Lepidozva reptans and L. cupressina grow in large cushion-
like patches, and such exuberant growth I have only found at
Killarney. The centre of the demesne is sheltered on all sides,
ancient lianas of honeysuckle hang from tree to tree, and on these
and the fallen and decaying logs, with the damp genial atmosphere,
liverworts and mosses grow in profusion. I do not know a prettier
sight than the banks of Pella epiphylla, and Lophocolea bidentata,
yards in extent, with their white pellucid fruit stalks glistening
with dew-drops, rising from the green velvet carpet of fronds, which
I enjoyed in the wood one April day. The outer portion is backed
up with stately conifers and rare shrubs, which quite surround the
historic castle. The termination of the demesne at the hill is a natural
rockwork, planted with choice rhododendrons, which grow luxuriantly,
some of them attaining large dimensions, and, when bearing their
trusses of bloom, are a sight well worth going there to see.
To my former list I have added nineteen species. One of these is
new to the Irish Flora, and fourteen are additions to the Co. Dublin
list of Hepatice; also seven varieties of more or less botanical
interest. The total number of species now known to grow on the
Hill of Howth is fifty-five. The appended Table, which shows their
geographical distribution, will, I trust, be interesting, and I have
endeavoured to make it as complete as possible, so far as the material
for doing so at my disposal would allow. A glance over it will show
that some of the Howth plants are local in Ireland. At the present
time Howth is the only locality recorded in Ireland for Cephalozia
Francisci, and Jungermania attenuata. Plagiochila asplenioides is rarely
found in fruiting condition, so I have given a description of the male
plant, which does not seem to be well known. The range of most of
the species in Scandinavia and the Pyrenees is very striking, and it
is interesting to note that the Hill of Howth plants extend mostly
over the northern continent of Europe to North America, and from
Pikes Peak, across the Rocky Mountains, to Cape Horn, Australia,
New Zealand, Cape of Good Hope, West Indies, and Jaya. Four are
found on the Island of Teneriffe, others in the Azores and Canary
Islands. All the species, excepting three, are also found in Yorkshire
R.1.A. PROC., SER. IIl., VOL. IV. I
114 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
at various elevations. The West Riding has moorland hills up to 2000
feet. East Riding has wold chalk hills to 850 feet (cultivated), The
North has moorland hills up to 2500 feet. For this information, and
many other valuable hints as to the identification of critical species,
I offer my best thanks to the well-known Yorkshire botanist, Mr.
M. B. Slater, F.t.s., of Malton; also to Lord Howth, for granting
through his agent, William Rochfort, Esq., s.p., of Cahir, permission
to collect in the demesne.
The asterisk (*) before aname denotes that the species, or variety, is new to
the Co. Dublin.
* Frullania dilatata, Linn. (Dum.). Proliferous form, bearing leafy
shoots on the stems, and leaf margins, which reproduce the
plant. Hab.—On rocks by the side of a stream near the Baily
Lighthouse, February, 1894.
1. Lejeunea serpyllifolia (Mich. Dicks.). Libert. Carrington and
Pearsons, Exic., Nos. 135, 195. By the side of a small stream
in the demesne, on stones, and on decaying wood, plentiful.
April, 1895.
2. *Lejeunca flava, Swartz var. On stones and on the trunks of trees
in the demesne. April, 1895.
Sub-sps. *Zejeunea Moorei = L. Mooret, Lindberg, Act. Soc. Sci.
Fenn. x., p. 487. Dr. D. Moore on “ Irish Hepatice,”! p. 615,
with excellent figure on plate 44.
8. Lepidozia cupressina, Sw. (Dum.). Jungermania reptans, B. pin-
nata, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 75. LZ. tumidula, Taylor. On
peat amongst rocks, Ballykill, April, 1894; in the demesne, on
damp peat, March, 1895.
*Cephalozia catenulata, Huben., var. pallida. Spruce. Amongst
Tetraphis pellucida, Ballykill, bearing perianths, February,
1894.
* Cephalozia divaricata, Smith (Dumort), var. starkit (= J. starkit).
Funck. Nees. Hep. Eur. u. Syn. Hep. 134. On a damp bank
near the Baily Lighthouse, April, 1893.
4. Lophocolea heterophylla, Schrad. Journal Bot. i.p. 66. Hook. Brit.
Jung., t. 31. On decayed wood, Ballykill, April, 1898;
Howth demesne, April, 1895.
1R.I.A. Proc., Ser. m., vol. ii., Science, p. 590.
McArpie—Additions to the Hepatice of the Hill of Howth. 115
5. Chiloscyphus polyanthus, Corda. Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 62. By the
side of a stream in the demesne, April, 1895.
6. Saccogyna viticulosa, Mich. (Dumort). Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 60.
On a damp bank, Howth demesne, March, 1895.
7. *Scapania equiloba, Dumort. Carrington’s Brit. Jung., p. 81,
n. 38, pl. 8. fig. 26, ex parte, 1875. In the crevices of the
rocks, Ballykill (very fine), 1894-6 ; plentiful in the demesne,
April, 1895.
8. *Scapania aspera, Mill. Pearson, in Journal of Botany, December,
1892, tab. 327. On rocks amongst moss in the demesne, April,
1895.
9. Scapania resupinata, Dumort. HE. Bot. t. 2437. Amongst rocks
in the demesne, April, 1895.
Scapania resupinata, Dumort, var. recurvifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung.,
t. 21, fig. 8. Ona peaty soil amongst the heather, Ballykill,
1894, in the demesne, April, 1895.
10. Plagiochila asplenioides, Linn. (Dumort). Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 18.
On a damp bank, and on stones in the demesne, bearing
perianths, which contained unfertilised archegonia. Male
plant smaller, with a stout stem one inch or more in length, of
a brown colour, arcuate, flagelliferous at the base, with copious
root-hairs, apex suddenly incurved. Leaves distant below,
small, obovate or cuneate at apex, increasing in size upwards,
more crowded, and overlapping, decurrent at the dorsal side,
which has the margin plain to the apex, the ventral ciliato-
dentate. Amentz, at the incurved apex of shoots, formed of
from four to seven pairs of altered leaves, saccate at the base,
overlapping for one-third upwards, and enclosing the anthe-
ridia, which are large, obovate to spheerical in shape, with a
well-marked hyaline ring, pseudopodia as long as the anthe-
ridia, of which there are three in the saccate base of each
altered leaf.
11. Jungermania barbata, Schreb. Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 70. Among
rocks in the demesne, April, 1895.
12. *Jungermania attenuata, Lindenberg. J. barbata, 8 minor. Hook.
Brit. Jung., t. 70, figs. 18-22. Carr. and Pearson’s Exic., No.
74. J. gracilis, Schleich, Lindb., in Mus. Scand. p. 7. Amongst
rocks growing with Leucobrywm glaucum, Hampe, and with
I2
116 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.
13.
14.
16.
if.
18.
19.
Tetraphis pellucida, at Ballykill plentiful, June, 1893, Feb.
1894. Howth demesne very fine, April, 1895. New to the
Trish Flora.
*Jungermania ventricosa, Dicks. Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 28.
Among rocks, Ballykill, 1894-5. In the demesne, 1895.
*Jungermania alpestris, Schl. Exs. IJ. 59. Carrington and
Pearson’s Exic., 109. On a damp bank at the rabbit-warren
near the ‘‘ Ben,” very rare, April, 1893.
. *Jungermania bicrenata, Lindenberg. Syn. Hep., p. 82. Under
J. excisa, Sm. Eng. Bot., tab. 2497. On the hard peaty soil at
Ballykill, 1893-4, in the demesne, April, 1895, very rare.
Pellia epiphylla, Linn., var. endivefolia, Dicks. Thallus linear,
elongated. Dicecious. In a marshy place at Kilrock Quarries,
1893.
Blasia pusilla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605. Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 82-
84. Boggy place at Ballykill (fertile), March, 1894.
*WMetzgeria furcata, Linn. Proliferous form, with young plantlets
budding from the margin of thallus of the parent plant. On
the stems of trees near the ground by the side of a stream near
Howth village, March, 1894. Damp bank at a small bog.
Ballykill, 1895.
*Riccardia latifrons, Lindberg. Nat. Soc. Fl. Fenn., 13, p. 372.
Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 45, figs. 4-7 ef 12. Autcecious, rarely
pareecious, large, pellucid, thallus long and broad, divided into
wide stag-horn-like lobes, more or less oblong, wedge-shaped,
very obtuse, and emarginate, plano-convex. Cells large, oblong,
rhomboid ; perichetial bracts few; calyptra large and less
verrucose than in 2. multifida. Andreecium, narrow, oblong,
almost affixed to the side of the perichetium. Lindberg’ in
Hepatice in Hibernia mense Julii, 1873, lecte. On a small
bog at Ballykill, 1893-4, in the demesne, fertile (parcecious),
April, 1895.
*Lunularia cruetata, Linn. (Dumort.), LZ. vulgaris, Micheli. Nov.
gen. 4.4. On damp ground in the demesne, April, 1895.
Conocenhalus conicus, Neck (Dumort.), Marchantia conica, Eng.
Bot. t. 504. Bank of a small stream which flows into the sea
near the Baily Lighthouse, February, 1894. Stream near
Howth village, April, 1893.
1 Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicz, x.
3s
3 =o “ a bad a Extra
= aS I 8 ° a Bs European.
eo) @ meee | a] SE ig
a wg a rf i o A
W.E.N.
Frullania dilatata, . x x > SK xK XK X< | Teneriffe.
WwW. N.
Ss tamarisci, 4 x Sx x 3 <x | N. & 8S. America.
W. N.
Lejeunea serpyllifolia, x x S x x x x |N. &S8S. America.
E&sw 8. W.
op flava var., x “A x W. Indies; S.
W.ELN. America.
Radula complanata, < x x x > x x | W. Indies, C.B.S.;
Madeira ; Tene-
riffle; N. & S.
W.-E.N. America; N.Z.
Kantia trichomanes, =< x x s x < <x | N. & S. America.
3 W-E.N.
Lepidozia reptans, < << x < < x x |N. America.
E & S W|w. rare
om cupressina, . x x xX «K W. Indies; N.
W.-E.N. America.
a setacea, . xx x x < < xe x |N. & S. America.
W.N.
Cephalozia catenulata, x x x x x x x =
E. |W-E.N.
5 multiflora, . x x x x x x x |N. & S. America.
W-E.N.
- bicuspidata, x x x x <x x x |Java; C.B.S.,
W-E.N.| ? Falklands.
5 Lammersiana,.| X x x x6 ave xi .. | N. America.
‘ W.E.N.
»” connivens, . x x x Xx x x =
w. &N.
aE curvifolia, . x x x x s< x x |S. America.
ae Howth.| N.
» Francisci, . x x x x x DS x =
E.&w.| N.
39 fluitans, SK s< x Ki alos =
W.E.N.
5p sphagni, x x x < x x X | Abyssinia; N. &
E&sw| nN. S. America.
op denudata, a x < <x |N. & S. America.
W.E.N.
>» divaricata, . ~ x >< x x x x —
8. &E.
” elachista, x oe x x x =
4 fs W.-E.N
Scapania resupinata, . x x x xX | Teneriffe.
. N. &E.| W. N.
»» equiloba, > x x x ~ x Se =
Ww. N.
>> aspera, x x x x aed
W.N.
»» nemorosa, MS x S< a x x x |Java; N. & S.
W.E.N. America.
», undulata, x x x x x x x _ | Canaries.
: W.E.N
Diplophyllum albicans, < x x x x x xX | Madeira; N. &S.
2 E& SE w.N. America.
a _ minutum,.| xX S3 x x x x x ra
Lophocolea bidentata,
of heterophylla,
Chiloscyphus polyanthus,
Plagiochila asplenioides, .
Nardia crenulata, .
>» gracillima, .
»» scalaris,
Jungermania spherocarpa,
a barbata, .
a6 attenuata, .
=p ventricosa, .
a alpestris, -|
59 bicrenata, .
a9 incisa,
re inflata,
Saccogyna viticulosa, .
Cesia crenulata,
Pellia epiphylla,
», calycina,
Blasia pusilla,
Metzgeria furcata,
ap conjugata, .
Riccardia multifida,
>, latifrons,
» pigunis,
Lunularia cruciata,
Conocephalus conicus,
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4
4
A
XBX;
ae
ica]
Xx X X XB
4
cle =
XH XHXEX 2
A
.
g y
i
XH XH
r
XxX:
A .
i
Scotland.
eK at So
AOU. RGU ONT PURE, Da IRS ORD NTN Ee ON OSS Oe Oe OR” OR. DRE DR oe ON
Pyrenees.
et SORT Dee NiccoNts ONC Nea Nc, ON
Re ae os
x
OLA ah Nt ow aes ON NO OM RCE gE ERE. OR Re ew France.
x
So emer ae oS
x
Germany.
WR NNN eS, POON, OS cos OK OK OK RO ee
Ke SRR wares ON
Xx
DK SKK KOK KR OK OR Oe ee Scandinavia,
K. RK OR Ro
ar KK
Extra
European.
W. Indies; N.
America; N.Z.
Canaries ;
N. America.
N. America.
N. America.
Pike’s Peak, N.
America.
Pike’s Peak, N.
America.
N. America.
Canaries; Tene-
riffe.
N. America.
[Spitzbergen. ]
N. America.
Australia; N.Z.
N. & 8. America;
Australia.
N. America; W.
Indies; Falk-
lands; N.Z. ;
Australia;
[Nova Zembla.]
N. & S. America.
Azores; Canaries.
Azores; N. Ame-
rica.
[iat ont
WUT,
A STUDY OF THE LANGUAGES OF TORRES STRAITS,
WITH VOCABULARIES AND GRAMMATICAL NOTES.
(Part II.) By SIDNEY H. RAY, Member of the Anthropo-
logical Institute, and ALFRED C. HADDON, M.A., Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
[Continued from the ProczEpines, Ser. r1., Vol. 11., p. 616.]
CONTENTS OF PART II.
vil. Sketch of Saibai Grammar. x1. Sketch of Daudai Grammar.
Ix. Specimens of the Saibai Lan- xu. Specimens of the Daudai Lan-
guage. guage.
x. Saibai-English Vocabulary.
VIII.—Sxercn or Sarat GRaMMar.
There is only one text available for the elucidation of Saibai
grammatical forms. This is a translation of the Gospel of Mark (16)
made by Elia, a native of Lifu, who was placed on the island of
Saibai by the London Missionary Society. Sharon’s Vocabulary
(MS. 8) contains the terminals and pronouns, and there are also a few
sentences taken down at Muralug by one of us, and others from
Saibai and Boigu at the end of Sir W. MacGregor’s Vocabulary (23).
But by far the most valuable grammatical notes on the language are
those found in the Kowrarega (Muralug) Vocabulary of Macgillivray,
which represent substantially the same language as the Saibai trans-
lation.!
With these materials we have done our best to draw up a Grammar
of the Language, but it is doubtful whether the whole is strictly
1 These were based on communications made by Mrs. Thomson (Gi’om), a white
woman who had been held in captivity by the natives of Muralug for more than
four years [‘‘ Voy. Rattlesnake,’ ”’ 1., p. 301].
120 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
accurate. It will, however, form a basis for future investigation and
may thus lead in the future, to more accurate knowledge. Macgillivray
felt the want of accuracy in his materials, and in the introduction to
his Vocabulary writes thus :—
“For the materials composing the Kowrarega Vocabulary, I am
almost entirely indebted to Mrs. Thomson. Unfortunately, however, her
total want of education prevented her from acquiring any idea of the
construction of the language; nor could she always be made to under-
stand the meaning of a question—however simple in its form—framed
to elicit information on this point. Even by carefully sifting at
leisure hours the mass of crude materials obtained from her and
written down at each interview, day by day, I did not make sufficient
progress in the grammar of the language to enable me to pursue the
subject further, until her value as an authority had so far declined
that it was prudent to reject it altogether. Nearly all the words
originally procured from Mrs. Thomson were subsequently verified
either by herself or by our Kowrarega visitors”’ [ ‘‘ Voy. ‘Rattlesnake,’”’
I. p. 277 |.
The Saibai translation was printed in Sydney, and was apparently
never revised by the translator or by anyone conversant with the
language. It contains numerous typographical errors; words are
wrongly divided, and probably often mis-spelled. Many phrases defy
all attempts at analysis even when the English and Lifu equivalents
are well known. The translation had therefore to be very cautiously
used. It has been necessary to consult throughout the version in the
translator’s native tongue, and many references to the latter will be
found in the pages of the Grammar.
The Saibai version was no doubt made from the Lifu New Testa-
ment of 1873. Of this we find evidence as follows :-—
1. Mark, i.19. The Saibai has Jakobou Lebedaio, James of Zebedee,
following the Lifu idiom in Lakobo 1 Zebedaio. (Lebedaio is a printer’s.
error for Zebedaio.)
2. Mark, vi. 35. ‘‘The time is far passed,” is translated paupa
kutrapa, literally the Lifu hei hé, itis evening.
8. Mark, vi. 48. In senabi waci kubil tonar foa, the fourth watch
of the night, waci is the English word watch (Lifu ¢ = ch) and occurs
in the Lifu version in the same place ; ngéne la waci ne ginte hna eken.
4, Mark, x. 4. ‘“‘Put her away” is translated palamulpa gudé
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 121
waean, put them two away, and follows the Lifu mate set nyidoti pi.
Palamulpa and nyidoti are dual pronouns. In Lifu a married woman
is supposed to have a child, and is usually addressed by courtesy as
“you two.”
5. Mark, x. 34. ‘The third day”’ is translated goiga thrin, from
the Lifu Ja drat hna thrin. In both versions thrin is the English
numeral three with the Lifu causative suffix m. Cf. a similar instance
in Miriam, Pt. 1., p. 525.
6. Mark, xvi. 10. The words ‘‘ she went” are rendered palae
uzarman from the Lifu hner nyidotc hna tro, they two went (lit. by
them two gone). Mary Magdalene, being regarded as a married
woman, is spoken of as though having a child.
7. The word a is frequently used as a verbal particle in the Saibai
translation, and especially when it is so used in the corresponding Lifu
phrase. Cf. in Mark, xiv. 87. Saibai: Vor mangizo a iman tana a
utui. Lifu: Hner anganyrdéte hna hlepéti a éhnyt angate a mekil.
8. The characters 6, é, tr for ¢, dr for d, show the Lifu basis of
the orthography.
9. English, Greek, and Samoan words introduced have the same
form in Lifu and Saibai; e. g. wan (one); gavana (governor); waina,
(wine) ; kiona, (xwwv) ; setauro, (otavpov) ; kumete, (Sam. ‘amete).
There are some interesting instances of adaptation by the translator.
These give us glimpses of the life of the Torres Straits’ natives. The
exact rendering of the Lifu has, in some cases, been modified in order
to obviate the necessity of explanation or to suit the comprehension
of the native mind. Thus the statement in Mark, m1. 3, ‘‘ When they
could not come nigh unto him for the press, they uncovered the root
where he was, and when they had broken it up they let down the
bed whereon the sick of the palsy lay,”’ is plainly inapplicable to
the Torres Straits house. The native dwelling is usually a frail
structure of bamboo, often with a sloped roof and thatched with
leaves. The idea of four men carrying another upon the roof would
be absurd. Though the Lifu version states that the bearers went to
la hune uma, the top of the house, a phrase which is just as inapplicable
to the sugar-loaf shaped houses of Lifu, it must be remembered that
the Lifu version was made by a European, and that it was no doubt
made clear in teaching that the house referred to was strong and flat-
roofed. The translator of the Saibai Gospel avoided both explanation
122 Proceedings of the Royal lrish Academy.
and absurdity by stating that tana arakato putran lagou kalangu, ‘‘ they
cut a hole from the back of the house,”’ which, with walls of pandanus
leaves, could very easily be done.
Again, in Mark, v. 38, the phrase which is in English “‘ them that
wept and wailed greatly,” and in Litu, angate a iluilu me iteyen me
teye-kelegé, is translated into Saibai as, mura mai adan, a mainé
kunaran paruia nidizé, all shed tears and made mourning with fore-
heads of lime. In the islands of Mabuiag and Tud, mourners cover
their bodies with a mud or paste made from crushed coral. (See
Haddon, ‘‘ Ethnography,” in Journ. Anth. Inst., xix., pp. 403, 416.)
Another curious phrase gives us a picture of the sick native running
to the missionary or teacher for géugu, ‘‘ physic.” It occurs in the
leper’s appeal (Mark, 1. 40), stke ubinemepa ngulaig ngina butupatan
gouguan aima, ‘if thou wilt, thou canst cleanse me, making physic.”
Jairus is made to say (Mark, v. 23), kapuza ngi ngapa-uzar nginu geté
nabepa gamutariz a gouguan mani, a na igilenga, ‘‘a good thing thou
come, thy finger touch her, and bring physic and she lives.”
In Mark, viii., ‘“‘ Peter took him,” is translated: ‘‘ Petelu dimunu
pagean, Peter pinched him, A passage, similar to those here given,
occurs in the Miriam Gospels (Mark, xv. 16). Gair polisman Lesu kebi
metaem tegared, net Prattorio a polisman nostk taraisare ; the policemen
took Jesus to a little house, name Praetorium, and bring a band
(i.e. a row) of policemen. In the Straits the policemen stationed on
each island are the representatives of authority.
As the Miriam Gospels were revised by the English missionaries,
such phrases would no doubt be modified, but they have escaped
notice in the unknown and unrevised Saibai version.
In the following grammar, examples from the Gospel are unmarked.
Words and phrases from Macgillivray are marked (1), and from
Sharon (s), MacGregor (8).
Dialects.
It is extremely difficult to define the dialectical differences in the
speech of the western islanders of the Straits. There are certainly
variations in pronunciation and enunciation, and these have caused
various travellers to spell the same words in different ways. There is
also, to some extent, a difference in the words used :—
1. Kauralaig.—In this division the natives of Muralug have been
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—l1, 123
considerably influenced by those of Australia, in the neighbourhood of
Cape York. There has no doubt been a large amount of intercourse
with the Gudang blacks, but this has not apparently affected the
grammatical structure of the languages. The Gudang Vocabulary of
Macgilliyray shows numerous words identical with those of the islands,
yet the agreements are all in the names of objects, not in verbs or
pronouns. In Muralug words, as they appear in the vocabulary, the
slurred pronunciation of words is often marked by the insertion of 7.
Example: barit, mari, sarima, kéraba, for bait, mai, saima, kaba, &e.
2. Gumulaig.—The speech of these islanders, in the centre of the
Straits, probably represents the purest form of the language.
3. Satbailaig—The islands inhabited by this division (Boigu,
Dauan and Saibai) are very near to the Daudai coast, and have
probably received words thence. MacGregor found that Saibai words
were known to the natives of Mowat and Dabu, who, ignorant of
each other’s dialect, had to open a conversation in the island dialect.
The names given to the natives of the mainland, opposite Saibai and
Boigu, Dabu-lat, and Toga-lai, show what is probably the Saibai
termination for a clan, /aig. The names Dabu and Toga may be the
Saibai, darpa and tuga, bush and mangrove. On the mainland, in the
same neighbourhood, is the Mai Kussa, which in Saibai means Pearl
River. In Boigu final 6 is more clearly pronounced than in Saibai.
4. Kulkalaig—These people occupy the eastern portion of the
Straits, and are nearest to the Miriam. The language of Masig shows
more words like the Miriam than that of any other of the islands.
§ 1L—Alphabet.
1. VoweEts.—a as in father ; d asin at; eas ain date; é asin let;
é as Lifu é and French ¢ in /e; 7 as ce in feet; i asim it; 0 asim own;
6 as in on; 6 as German 6 in schén, or nearly as English o in forty; u as
00 in soon; % as in up.
MacGregor’s Vocabulary has a few words with d (mdz, dada-
gdiga), but no indication is given of the sound intended. In the
other vocabularies these words are spelled with a or 6. The vowel 6
represents a sound which varies between a and 0, and some words
appear to be spelled indifferently with a, ¢, 0,or 6: e.g. kat, kei, kot,
or kit; sabi or sébi; hasa or késa; mari or méri. A few words in
Macgregor have 6 where others have u; e.g. modi for mut. The
124 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Gospels have tiridiz for tauradiz; tanoriz for tanuriz. At the end of
a word 6 is very common, and in that position was written a by
Macgillivray. MacGregor notes that,'in Boigu, final 6 is more clearly
expressed than in Saibai.
In a few cases e changes with 7, getd, gitalenga.
2. DieutHones.—ai as in aisle; au as ow in cow; et as ay im may.
Macgillivray wrote e¢ where the translation has av.
3. Consonants.—h, 9; t,d; p, b; w3 J; 8, 2; 7,1; m,n, ng. These
are sounded as in English, ng being the ng in sing.
There is some confusion between the sounds of ¢ and d, p and 4,
s and s.
In the Saibai Gospel ¢ and d are often found with 7, as ¢r and dr.
These are not written in the yocabularies, and must therefore be
regarded as due to the Lifu translator’s pronunciation of the Saibai, as
in Lifu, ¢ and d are commonly strengthened with 1.
Examples: drurai, padra, drudrupiz6, for durat, pada, dudupizé and
tradiz, tridan, tronar, katro, for tadiz, tidan, tonar, kato.
Macgillivray wrote th in a few words, thi, thung. This also found
in introduced words. J, in fad, lokof, is a changefrom p. The distine-
tion between w (consonantal) and w (vocal) has been better observed in
Saibai than in Miriam. J is not found in the Gospels, and, in intro-
duced words, is represented by 7. MacGregor has 7 in a few words
where others have 2, japulaika, japudamino, jai, for zapulaig, zapu-
damoin, zaxi. Macgillivray also has 7 for 2; kaje, wir. S and z often
interchange, pudis and pudiz; musur, muzura; susu, suzu. In some
words Macgillivray wrote ch for s, chena, china, for sena, sina; and also
used shin shuma for sumai. He noted also that the Gudang tribe of Cape
York substituted ch for s in pronouncing Kowrarega (7.e. Muralug)
words. Words in ch and sh will be found in our vocabulary under 7.
# is rarely found as an initial (cf. Miriam), but is common as a
medial and final. It sometimes interchanges with J, tardan, barpudan
for taldan, balpudan. For the insertion of r in Muralug words, see
the preceding note on Dialect.
A few interchanges are found between ng and x; ngursaka and
nursak. MacGregor has gn as well as ng, but this is probably an error
in transcription.
4. Compounp Consonants.—The only real compound consonants
found (with the exception of dr and ¢ already noted) are gw and kw.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 125
A few others result from the juxtaposition of two simple consonants
through the omission of a vowel. Macgillivray wrote ¢s for s in tsika
for stké.
5. Contractions.—A vowel is often dropped between two con-
sonants, e.g. klak, for kalak ; krangipa for korongaipa, prateipa, purteipa,
in past, purutan. The final 6 or 7 is often very indistinctly pronounced
and is very frequently omitted. Macgillivray has the following note
on contractions in Muralug :—
‘‘ Regarding the allusion to a terminal vowel, it may be mentioned
here that as most Kowrarega words end in a vowel, its absence, when
a vowel commences the following word, is commonly owing to elision.
Ex.—‘ udzu umat, = my dog,’ becomes ‘udz’umatr.’? When the last
consonant in a word is the same as the first in the following word, one
of the letters is omitted. Ex.—‘ apa pirung, = soft ground,’ becomes
apirung. There are numerous other contractions, as ‘a’ for
‘ aidu, =food’; ‘ atye’ for ‘ aiyewel, = come here’; ‘mue utsem, = the
fire has gone out,’ for ‘ mue utsimem,’ Se.” [1. 279. ]
§ I1.—Pronouns.
1. Prrsonat.—These are declined as nouns by means of suffixes.
Gender is distinguished in the first and third person.
The simplest forms are as follows :—
(a) Nominative.
Singular, 1. gai, I (masculine); xgazo, ngézo, I (feminine).
2. ngi, thou.
3. nor, nu (Ss); nué (a), he, it (masculine); za, she.
Dual. 1. inclusive of person addressed, aba (um); exclu-
sive of persons addressed, ngalbe, ngalabe,
alber (a), he and I.
2. ngipel, you two.
3. pale, palae, they two.
Plural, 1. (inclusive), ngalpa, alpa (mu), you and I,
(exclusive), ngot, ngét, we, they all and I.
2. ngita, ngitana (Mm), you all.
3. tana, dri (m), they all.
An analysis of the pronominal forms is not without interest. The
na of the third person singular (fem.) is no doubt the same with the
demonstrative particle xa, and is found also in the third plural ta-na
126 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
combined with a plural demonstrative ta. Tn the second plural ta is
combined with the pronominal word ngi as ngi-ta, and Macgillivray
gives it with na also as ngi-ta-na. In the third person masculine nw or
nov (with its drawled Muralug pronunciation nwé) is probably the same
as the feminine na, for o frequently varies to 6 and a (see § I., 1).
The affix 7, which is also found in the first person masculine, may,
perhaps, mark the masculine, but is more likely to be the same with
the demonstrative 7. It occurs also in the first plural inclusive ngé-2,
which is probably the same as nga-?.
The pel, palae of the dual is also found combined with the demon-
tratives, and is the root of the verb palan, to divide, open. It may
also be used asa numeral. Latham suggested the meaning of ‘ pair,”
. and pointed out that the root p-/, or some modification of it, is the
equivalent for ¢wo in very many of the Australian languages. Latham
also noted the close correspondence of the Saibai (Kowrarega) use.
with that of the Western Australian language. ‘‘ These so closely
agree in the use of the numeral ¢wo for the dual pronoun, that each
applies it in the same manner. In the ¢herd person it stands alone, so
that in Western Australian boala and in Kowrarega pale = they two,
just as if in English we said pair or both, instead of they both (the pair);
whilst, in the second person, the pronoun precedes it, and a compound
is formed ; just as if in English we translated the Greek oda by thou
pair or thou both.’
The affixes /be and /pa have a certain amount of likeness, though
their presence in the exclusive dual and inelusive plural cannot be
explained. The / may probably be the same as the plural suffix / (see
§ u.), whilst d¢ and ya may be compared with the demonstrative 47,
or with the dative suffix ya, towards, and the directive suffix pa.
Without the affixes and demonstratives, the pronomial forms are
reduced to two only, nga and ngi (for ngo or ngé in the plural exclusive
is the same as mga, see §1). These two are, as Latham pointed out,?
1«Remarks on Voyage of the ‘ Rattlesnake’’’ in Opuscula, p. 225, and
Macgillivray, 11. p. 333.
2The difference between the first and second persons being expressed by
different modifications (mga, ngi) of the same root (xg), rather than by separate
words, suggests the inquiry as to the original power of that root. It has already
been said that, in many languages, the pronoun of the third person is, in origin, a
demonstrative. In the Kowrarega it seems as if even the basis of the first and
second was the root of the demonstrative also. [‘‘ Remarks on Voyage of the
‘ Rattlesnake,’ ’’ p. 333, and Opuscula, p. 225.]
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 127
probably modifications of the same root vg, and have a demonstrative
origin. Vga is also the interrogative, who? and is found in the
directive nga-pa, hither, to here.
(6) Instrumental case.
Singular, 1. ngatd, ngatu (ar), (masc.) ; ngdzo (fem.)
2. ngidi, ngidu (Mm).
3. nowdd, nudu (m), (masc.); nadd, nadu (m), (fem.)
No instrumental forms have been found in the dual and plural
numbers. The suffix du, té may be compared with the Miriam de.
There seems little doubt but that this case corresponds to what has
been called in Australian Grammars the nominative of the agent.
As used in the Saibai Gospels, they express the person as the agent of
an active verb.
Example: ngaté tanamulpa waean, I sent them away ; stke mata
ngizo gamuia tradiz nongo dumawakuia, wa, ngizo igililenga, if only
I touch his garment, then I live; Joane svét ngaté kuiké patan, John
there I beheaded, or beheaded by me; ngido ngina kasa wanan, you
have left me alone; ngidé ngona mina mabaegadé maipa, you make me
a good man, i.e. call me good; nozdé mamain ita seven areto, he took
seven loaves; norvdé nubepa iman, he saw him ; novdé noino waean tana-
mulpa, he sent him to them; mi watri pawa noidé mani ? what evil
has he done? nadé Petelun iman, she saw Peter; nadé ngaeapa mani,
she has done (it) to me.
The examples of the use of the nominative and instrumental pro-
nouns collected by Macgillivray were too few to generalize upon. He
noted, however, that ngatu, ngidu, nudu, nadu appeared ‘‘ to be used
only with a certain class of verbs, of which an example is afforded by
the sentence ‘ ngatu nudu matumina = I struck him’; and the use of
the second set of these pronouns (i.e. the nominative) is illustrated by
‘ngar nue’ (not ngatunudu) mulem, &c., =1 told him, &c.,’’ [11., p. 299).
The difficulty in Macgillivray’s examples is that both subject and
object have the same affix, but according to the analogy of the Gospel
the sentence should be ngaté noino mataman, with an objective in no.
His second example would be ngai nubepa muliz, I told to him. In
many cases the ordinary form of the nominative is used instead of the
instrumental forms.
128 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(ce) Objective.
When directly governed by an active verb, the singular pronouns
take a suffix na or no.
1. ngina, ngona; ana (mM).
2. ngino.
3. noind, nu (s), (mase.)
The dual and plural do not differ in form from the nominative.
Example: Lingu ngita ngina nutan 2? why do you try me? ngita
ngona gasamoiginga, ye did not take me; ngi adapa uzar a ngino malupa
taen, go out and cast thyself into the sea; noind gasaman, take him ;
noind ngapa ngaeapa poiban, give him here to me.
Ana is found only in Macgillivray’s notice. He gives it as equi-
valent to ‘‘me or my,” and states, ‘“‘I do not understand the exact
meaning of this,. . . so give an example,” “ ana gamu lupeipa = my
body is shaking (or I have the ague)” [m. p. 299]. He also gives
“ana prkt lalkall = I had a dream” ; “ guiku kikirt ana mize = I have
a sick head, or a head-ache” ; ‘‘ ana pibur aidu = give me (some)
food.”
(d.) The Possessive is formed as with nouns by the suffixes u, n,
ne, OY NU.
1. ngau, ngaumun (masc.) ; uzu (ar)! (fem.)
2. nginu.
3. nongo, nungu; nunu (mM); ne (s), (masc.)
nanu, (fem.)
Singular,
Dual, 1. abane (a), inclusive; albeine (m), exclusive.
2. ngipen; ngipene (mM).
3. palamun ; paldman (M, Ss).
Plural, 1. ngalpan (inclusive) ; ngoimun (exclusive).
2. ngitamun ; ngitanamun (M).
3. tanamun; tanaman.
The mu in the plural indicates number. Cf. Dative.
Example: Ngau apu, my mother; ngau tadai, my message; ngau
nel, my name; nginu lagd, thy house; nginu geté, thy hand; nginu
apu, thy mother ; nongo kusku, his head ; nongo kaimil, his relations ;
nongo kutaig, his brother ; nanu apu, her mother ; nanu lagé, her house ;
nanu ngulaig, her ability ; albeine kaje (a), child of us two; ngipen
paru, the front of you two; ngipen ieudepa, the asking of you two;
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 129
kaye chena ngipeine (a)? is that the child of you two? palamun tati,
the father of them two; ngalpan Augada, our God; ngalpan zapul,
our properties; ngoimun muraza, all our things; ngitamun tatr, your
father; ngitamun korkak, your hearts ; tanamun korkak, their hearts ;
tanamun puruka, their eyes.
The word ve given in Sharon’s vocabulary as ‘“‘his,” is probably
the noun suffix » or me. No examples are given of its use.
(e) The Dative is expressed by the suffix -pa.
Singular, 1. ngaeapa.
. ngibepa.
. nubepa (masculine); nabepa (feminine).
Dual, . inclusive (not found) ; ngalbelpa (exclusive).
. ngipelpa.
. palamulpa ; palenipa (m).
Plural, . ngalpalpa (inclusive) ; ngovmulpa (exclusive).
bo ee © be oo 2b
. ngitamulpa.
3. tanamulpa.
The e of the second and third singular, and the pel of the dual,
have, no doubt, a demonstrative origin. In the plural and third dual
mu is probably an indication of number. (Cf. moz, mi in verbs, and
the mu of mura, all.) The 7 inserted before the suffix when mw is used,
may be compared with the noun suffix /, though mul itself may repre-
sent mura, all. (Cf. da in Miriam pronouns.) The zz in Muralug
third dual cannot be explained.
Examples: WVgi ngaeapa iapupoibiz, you ask me; ngat ubinmepa
ngibepa ngacapa porban LIoane bapataisou kuiké, I wish for thee to
give to me John Baptist’s head ; noz capuporbiz nubepa, he asked him ;
ngalbe ubinmepa ngibepa a ngi ngalbelpa poiban senabi za, we two wish
for thee (that) thou give to us two that thing ; wara mabaeg ngipelpa
tamuliz, any man says to you two; mi mabaeg ngalpalpa kimakima
maiginga, whoever is not opposed to us; ngoimulpa muliz, tell to us ;
moidemin ngoimulpa, prepare for us; ngat ngitamulpa tamuliz, I say to
you; Lesu modobia tamuliz tanamulpa, Jesus answered them.
Macgillivray has ngai-atkéka, =for myself, and nwabépa, = for
himself, and gives the examples :—athkeka mule = tell me; nw’abepa
chena wir = give that to him [x. 299].
R.I.A. FROC., SER. II., VOL. IV. K
130 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(f) The Ablative is shown by the suffix -ngu, fem. s.
Singular, 1. xgaungu.
2. nginungu.
3. nongonongo, nungungu, (masculine); not gungu,
nanuz (feminine).
Dual, 1. (not found).
2. (not found).
3. palamulnqu.
Plural, 1. (not found).
2. ngitamulngu.
3. tanamulngu.
In the singular ngu is added to the possessive forms, except in the
third feminine, which has the ablative suffix s (or #7) ordinarily
used with demonstratives. (See Adverbs, § vz.) In the plural and
third dual mu/ is inserted as in the dative forms.
Examples: Tanamun korkak ngaungu kot sigal, their hearts are far
from me; 7gi adapadan, watri mari, nungungu mabaegongu, come thou
out, bad spirit, from him, from the man; bérodan kadaipa mani nabi
ai noi nungu, the earth brings forth the food from itself; nozdd sevene
demoni nguroweidan nanuz, he had cast out seven demons from her;
tana getéwani palamulngu, they released them two.
(g) The Ergative.—This is shown by the suffix 7a which is given
in Sharon’s Vocabulary as the equivalent of ‘“‘ with.” The Gospel
usually agrees, but in some cases it is difficult to apply this translation.
(See more fully in Nouns, § m1.)
Singular, 1. ngaibia.
2. ngibia.
3. nubia.
Dual, (not found).
Plural 1. (not found).
2. ngitamunia.
3. tanamunia.
In the singular za is added to the nominative, with the demonstrative
br inserted. In the plural 7a is added to the possessive forms.
Example: Ngaibia kaimi, follow me (be mate with me); xga
mabaeg ngaibia garabé tradiz? Who touched me? tanamun utuilé ita
Ray & Hanpon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 131
ngaibia, they have been (their abiding is) with me; mabaeg ina
sibuwanan ngibia amadan, love the man near thee; Lesu nubia gimal
tanoriz, Jesus sut on top of him; palae matadébura getiwanizs senabi
palamun api a nubia kaimi, they immediately left their nets and
followed him ; keda magi ngitamunia, don’t let it be like (that) with
you ; areto midé siét ngitamunia ? how many loayes have you (what
loaves there with you) ? ngot muta utiz tanamunia, we enter into them ;
tanamunia ai aiginga, they have no food.
For the suffix za, in the sense of ‘‘ have, possess,” see Nouns, 4 (9).
(h) The Locative suffix -nwis not found in use with pronouns. The
suffixes xanga and nge are discussed in the section on Nouns.
(7) A suffix ka appears with the pronouns vg? and ngita, but its
meaning is not very clear. It may be an abbreviation of the future
particle haz.
Example: Ngika laké uzar nginu lagipa, go home again to thy
house ; ngitaka mata korawazg ? don’t you perceive ?
(7) Self is expressed by the addition of kusazg to the singular
pronouns nga and ngi; ngatkusaig, myself; ngtkusaig, thyself. In
the plural the pronoun is reduplicated, ngéingor, ourselves ; ngitangita,
yourselves ; tanatana, themselves. In the third singular, himself is
expressed by the simple pronoun oz.
Example: Mipa ngitangita 1a uman? why did ye dispute among
yourselves? aipa baropudaipa tanatanamulpa, to buy food for them-
selves ; durat noidé igilipaliz, a kérawarg noino igilipalan, he saved others,
and he cannot save himself; kapuza nov ubigiasin not, let him deny
himself; Musaig is also used for “alone.” Jesu mata nongo kusatg sié
lagonu, Jesus (was) there alone (only Himself) on the land.
2. Iyrerrogative Pronouns.
(a) The personal interrogative is Vga? who? declined as fol-
lows :—
Nominative, ga? who?
Instrumental, ngadé ? by whom ?
Accusative, ngané ? whom?
Possessive, ngonu ? whose?
The dative, ablative, locative, and ergative do not appear.
Example: Nga ngulaig igililenga? who can be saved? ngau
dumawakuia ngo garabitradiz 2 who touched my clothes? ngai nga? I
am who? nga ngibepa poiban senabi mura sa ina? who gave thee all
K 2
132 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
these things? ngadé mani? who took it? ngadé kula taean? who
rolled away the stone ? ngonu paru ina ? whose face is this ?
Nga is sometimes added to other words. Example: Vga mabaeg
ngaibia garabitradiz ? who (what man) touched me? nginu nelenga ?
who is thy name ? (cf. the Melanesian use of ‘ who’ in asking aname).
(b) The interrogative used of things is mac? what? The follow-
ing forms are found :—
Nominative, instrumental, and accusative, mié¢? midé 2? what?
Dative, mipa? for what? why?
Ablative, mingu? from what ? concerning what ? why ?
The distinction between miéi and midé is not clearly made out in the
Gospel, but midé from its form should be instrumental.
Example: Midd ngai? is it 1? or, dol do it? mié ngt ubinmepa?
what do you wish ? huikulumai vine apangu méi mani ? what did the
lord of the vineyard? ngai midé mepa ngibepa? I do what for thee ?
Miz is sometimes reduplicated. DMizimiér sena noi keda augadapa
ipidadé-pugan ? why does he thus blaspheme God ? mzécmré is also used
for ‘which ?’ (of two) in Mk. m1. 9.
(c) Mi, the root of miéi, midd, is used prefixed to nouns as an
interrogative adjective with the meaning ‘what?’ ‘what sort of ?’
Example :—Miza? what thing? mi watripawa? what evil? mi
tonar 2 what sign? mz lagi? what place? mi ia umaméipa? what dis-
cussion? mt muamu? what wisdom? WVgalpa Augadan baselaia mi
ngadalnga minapa ? we make God’s kingdom like what?
For mipa and mingu, see Adverbs, § v1.
3. DemonstRATIVE Pronouns anp Apsxectives.—These are formed
by various combinations of particles, of which the separate meanings are
not very clear. It seems possible, however, to classify them as follows:—
na, bt, simple demonstratives, directing attention.
Place, 7, place near ; here. i.
sé, place, distant; there. Cf. adverb, szez, sez, there.
pel, pal, dual. Cf, pronouns, palae, they two; ngipel,
Number, you two; verb, palan, divided.
\ ta, plural. Cf. pronouns, tana, they two; ngita, you two.
The combinations give the following words in the vocabularies and
Gospel :—
ina, ind, this one, the, here; abi, inabi, this, the, a; inabidurai, these.
nabi, that, the.
Ray & Havpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 133
wpal, the, these two, both.
ata, the, these ; often used as a kind of plural article.
sena, that; senabi, the, those ; senabi duraz, those.
sepal, those two, both ; sepalb:, those two.
seta, those; setabz, those.
tabi, those.
Example: Ina, ind: ina kot sabi, this (is) the great law ; wara
tanamun ind, this is one of them; ngaz ind, it is 1; Keriso ind, here is
Christ. %
nabi: nabi ia, the word.
tnabi: inabi kawa, the people.
wel: wel, both (Macgillivray).
ita: ita watri maril, the evil spirits ; ita kaziel, children.
sena: sena nor, that same is he.
senabi: senabt mabaeg utun, the sower; tana iman senabt mabaeg,
they saw the man; senabi Lakobon kutaig, the brother of James ; senabe
nongo igalarg, his friends; senabe parpar ina, such mighty works.
sepal: ngipel sipalser kati mangeman, you two there, shall come.
sepalbi: sebalbi sébc, those two laws.
seta :
setabt: setabi magina kéziel, those little children.
tabi: tabi gorga ster, those days there.
Some of these words are used with a locative sense, and as equiva-
lents to the Lifu prepositions ngone, kowe, etc., with the article. Cf. § vm.
4. InpErinire Pronouns anp ApsxEctIvEs.—Wara, a, one, any,
another, a certain, cf. numerals; du, ita du, durat, some ; mura, many,
all ; sepal, both ; wrapa, the same ; wara... wara, the one . . . the other ;
wagedo, the other ; manarimal, a few; za, zangu, something (existing) ;
pawa, something (performed); 7a, something (said); m¢ mabaeg,
whoever, what man.
§ IL1.—Wouns.
1. Noun Forms.—A verb or adjective may be used as a noun
without change of form; ngulaig, to be able, able, ability.
The suffix ¢z’zga, and its plural motzinga, appear to form nouns
from a verbal root, and are thus used in the Gospel with possessive
pronouns.
134 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Example: nidizd, to do; nongo nidaizinga, his doing (Lifu, la
inet nyidéti. hna kuca, the by him deed); tanamun ngurupaizing,
their doctrine; xgitamun kérngaizinga, what you have heard;
tanamun tmaizinga, thing they had seen; mabaegau iautumoizinga,
men’s commandments (Lifu, Ja ite thina hna ahnithe hnei at, things
ordered by men); Axgadan kalmel manamoizinga, God’s joining
together (Lifu, la hnei Akétesie hna teasikeun, the by God joined) ;
wara kit ngabad gimal poidamoizinga a butupataizinga, a large room
above, furnished and prepared.
These suffixes appear to be used of persons, as well as of things.
Tana nubepa nguriweidan getilangaizinga, they cast him out, shame-
fully handled (Ut. a spoiled thing).
A suffix Jaz seems to form a verbal noun in the words: toztupagailat,
prayer, from fortupagaipa; nginu kapuakasilat, your faith, from kapua-
kasin ; stlamailat, an uproar, from silamaz, to fight. Other examples
present some difficulty. Zana getéwanizi senabi umaulai digam utut,
they let in the bed wherein the sick man lay.
The person performing an action is denoted by the noun mabaeg,
plur. mabaegal, following the verbal root ; api-angai mabaeg, fish-trap-
setting man; mamoe danalpatai mabaeg, shepherd, sheep-watching
man; minard pilai mabaeg, writer, mark-cutting man. Persons
belonging to a place are distinguished by the suffix laig: Nazareta
laig, man of Nazareta; Saibai laig, Badulatg. Hence also the names
of the islanders of the Straits, though these are formed from the names
of parts of the body and not from names of places: Kaura-laig, ear-
people ; Gumu-laig, body-people ; Kulka-laig, blood-people. Similarly
laig is used with other nouns: hikirt laig, sick person or people;
mardélaig, sorcerer ; igalaig, kinsman.
In Mark, ix. 50, /aig is abbreviated to dg, and appears in the plural :
kapuza ngita alasilgal, have salt in yourselves, iit. good thing (if) ye (are)
salt people. In Mark, vii. 26, is /g, with the dative suffix, demonilgopa.
The word igal, suffixed, appears sometimes to form a personal
noun, but its use is not very clear. Ngita muamuagigal, ngita
imargigal, you (are persons) without understanding, you do not see.
In these examples the first g represents the negative. The affirmative
has st. Tana imaizigal, they that saw it.
Some adjectives are used with the word zdaig, plur, zdaigal, to form
presonal nouns. Wgélkai idaigal, hypocrites ; tratra idaig, a stammerer.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 185
Wael, mail also appears as an affix forming nouns from verbs:
umamail, the dead ; burugémulmael, the harvest, the ripening; igzlile-
mael, the living ; kousagimael, the non-fruiting ; nongo butapitaizimael
his healings, those he had healed. The last three examples show the
insertion of the affixes /e (possessing), 2gz (wanting) and zz (thing).
In mael, ma may be compared with the ma, mu of plural verbs, and /
with the noun plural.
The instrument with which an action is performed is sometimes
expressed by the word za, (thing) following the verb.
Example: nat za, a chair, sit-thing.
2. Numprer.—The dual is expressed by the numeral wkasar, two, by
the dual demonstratives, sepal, sepalbi, or by the dual pronoun, palae.
Ukasar wapi, two fishes ; ukasar dimur, two fingers; sepal giginé
kazi, two sons of thunder; sepal magina mani, two little (pieces of)
money ; sepalbi sébi, two laws; palae api-angat mabaeg, two fisher-men.
Sometimes numeral and demonstrative are both used. Sepalbi ukasar
angai-dumawaku, two garments.
The plural is indicated in various ways.
(a) By suffixes, -l, -al, -el, -6l, -l6: Umail, dogs; tabul, snakes ;
sabil, laws; kusal, beads; mabaegal, men ; babatal, sisters; pui-tamal.
branches ; azi6/, children ; zanald, baskets.
(6) By the plural demonstrative 7¢a with or without the suffix :
Ita kazil, children ; c¢a apal, lands.
(¢) By the plural pronouns: Zana minarpélai mabaeg, the scribes.
(d) Definitely by numerals, with or without the adjective gérsar :
Tuelv cana, twelve baskets ; tuelv gérsar nanu watal, twelve were her
years ; foate kéigorsar géiga, forty days.
(¢) By the adjectives durat, some; mura, all; gérsar, many, or
kéigorsar, great many, with or without the demonstrative or suffix :
Durai nginu kutaig, thy brothers; durai kikiri, some sick; mura
kikirt laig, all the sick folk; ta dwrai mabaegal, some men; mura
mabaegau kéziel, men’s sons.
(f) By context: Ngapa mangizé urui palgizi a purutamoin, forth
came birds and ate (pwrutamoin, plur. verb).
Macgillivray has the following note on plurals in Kowrarega
(2.e. Muralug) :—
‘To form the plural of a noun or adjective, the rule appears to be
to add /e as a postfix, sometimes previously supplying a terminal
136 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
vowel if required. Example: ‘geta = hand’ becomes ‘getale’ in the
plural ; tuku = foot, kukule; ‘kutat = yam, kutaile’; ‘ipi = wife,
ipile’; ‘ kerne =lad undergoing a certain ceremony, hernele’ ; ‘makaow
= mat, makaowle’; ‘bom = fruit of pandanus, bomale.’ There are
exceptions, however; ‘ mari = shell ornament,’ makes ‘ marurre’ in
the plural; ‘gul= canoe, gulai’; ‘tawpet = short, tawpeingh’; all
nouns ending in ra have the plural in re, as ‘ kowra = ear, kowrare’ ;
and all ending in kai gain jrl/e in the plural, as ‘ cpikaiv = woman,
iptkayille’’? (11. 279].
We have found no examples of plurals in re, az, ing, or salle in the
Gospel.
3. GrnpeR.—Sex can only be expressed by the use of the words
gara, inile, male, or tpi, madale, female. Garakazt, male person, boy,
man; ¢pikazi, woman, female person; tpikaji burumé (B), a sow;
inil-tiam, a male turtle. For literal meaning of inile, madale, see
Vocabulary.
4, Case.—The noun is declined by means of suffixes. There
appear to be nine cases, Nominative, Instrumental or Nominative of
the agent, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Ergative,
and Vocative.
(a) Nominative and Instrumental.
The nominative is the bare root. The instrumental is shown by
a suffix. To agree with the pronouns, the suffix should be dé or du
but examples are not easily found, though we have in Mark, ix. 24,
maid wokailnga, cried out with tears. In most cases no suffix is used,
and in others the termination (-n) is the same as the accusative.
Example 1: Without suffiz—Giiga palgizé, the sun rose; gubé
papudamiz, the wind ceased ; tati tarai walmizin, the father quick cried
out ; mut usimoiginga, the fire is not quenched.
Example 2: With suffix n:—Béirodan kadaipa-mani nabi a, the
earth brings forth food; nongo gamu kulan lapan, cut his body with
stones ; war mabaegan Augadan baselaia ugan, a man waited for God’s
Kingdom ; adapa idumoin moroigan, to be rejected by the elders ; durat
kawakun noino gasaman, some young men laid hold of him.
(6) Accusative.
As a general rule the noun in this case does not differ in form from
the nominative, but a suffix -n is also found, especially with proper
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 137
names. This agrees with the accusative suffix in the pronouns ngéna,
ngind, néino. There seems, however, to be some confusion between
the nominative and accusative.
Example 1: Without sufixz:—Not purutan pukaté, he eat locusts ;
tana iadupalgan tanamun watri pawa, they declared their bad deeds;
nginu dokam mani, take thy bed.
Example 2: With suffix :—Nadé Petelun iman, she saw Peter;
Tana lesuné gasaman, they took Jesus ; gouguan mani, bring medicine ;
danal patamoiziu ita minarpolat mabaegan, watch the scribes; kulun.
tariz, to kneel (kulu, knee).
(e) Genitive or Possesswe.
This is shown by the suffixes u or n, ne.
Example in uv :—Gziu tatd, the child’s father ; pudau kuta, a reed’s
point ; Ludaialaigau kutkulunga, Jew’s King ; mabaegau iautumoizinga,
man’s commandments; alasiu ter, salt’s flavour.
n:—Augadan baselaia, God’s kingdom ; Mosen tusi, Moses’ book ;
Simonane lagé, Simon’s house ; gigind kazi, thunder’s child; asinan
kazi, asses’ child (foal) ; Szmonan wiu apu, Simon’s wife’s mother.
There seems to be no distinction between wu and m. It is indiffe-
rently augadau or augadan, asinau or asinan. ‘There is a peculiar use of
the genitive to denote “son of,” e.g. Lakobou Alefaio, James son of
Alpheus; Jakobou Zebedaio. This is evidently not a Saibai idiom, and
is due to the translator’s imitation of the Lifu Lakobo 7 Alefaio,
Lakobo 7 Zebedaio, in which 7 is the genitive preposition. The
meaning has, however, been curiously reversed, the Saibai being
‘‘ Alpheeus of James” and the Lifu ‘‘ James of Alpheus.”
(d) Dative.
The dative denoting motion to, or purpose for which a thing is
intended, is shown by the suffix ya. It may be compared with the
directive ngapa and the verbal prefix pa.
Example: mabaegépa, to a man; padapa, to a hill; daparpa, to the
sky ; muiapa, into the fire; wara mabaegipa mulaigi, don’t tell (to)
any man.
In names of persons 7 is usually inserted between the name and the
suffix. Cf. /in the pronominal suffix mulpa.
Example: Simonalpa, to Simon; Jesulpa, to Jesus.
With names of places, the suffix is used, Galiluiapa, to Galilee ;
138 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
and the meaning of “into” is also expressed by the word au before
the noun. Voi mangiz au Kaperenauma, or by the adverb sez, there.
Tana mangizi sec Kaperenauma, they went there (7.e. to) Capernaum.
For verbs governing the dative, see Syntax.
(e) Ablatie.
The ablative expressing motion from, or origin, is shown by the
suffix -ngu, and may be translated ‘‘ from, through, or concerning.”
Example: Mgukingu, from the water; sunagngu, out of the
synagogue ; not ngitamulpa bapataiso maringu, he baptises you from the
Spirit ; xadé Petelun iman muingu koamapa, she saw Peter warming
himself from the fire ; pepe baradarangu, from the thinness of the earth.
With personal nouns / is inserted as in the dative.
Example: Heroda Ioanelngu akan, Herod feared John; mariingu,
from the Spirit.
For verbs governing the ablative, see Syntax.
(f) Locative.
The locative meaning on, in, or at, is expressed by the suffix nu.
Examples :—Dozdénu, in the wilderness ; zabugudanu, on the road ;
nongo purukanu, on his eyes; tanamun koikaknu, in their hearts; lagonu,
in the house.
There is another way of expressing the locative by the word au, in.
Example :—Joane bapataiso nubepa au Loritana, John baptised him
in Jordan; taimanu au Dekapolz, on the border in Decapolis; au gulat,
in a ship.
The demonstrative senabi is very often used to translate the Lifu
ngone la, in the.
Example :—WNuré walimizin senabi déid, a voice crying in the desert ;
mura muds garoweidamoin senabi pasa, all the crowd assembled atthe door.
(9) Ergatie.
The ergative expresses the doing of a thing by means of, or at the
same time with, another It is shown by the suffix za, and is trans-
lated ‘‘ with”? in Sharon’s vocabulary, but the exact meaning seems
difficult to define. A reciprocal meaning is sometimes present, e.g.
when two things come in contact 7a is used. Sometimes the meaning
‘‘by, alongside.” Cf. the following examples :—
Noi uzar a nabepa getia relepan, he came and took her by the hand ;
lagé ngipen paruia, village in front of you; nongo igalgia, among or by
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 139
his kinsmen ; mata karengemin nov siét ipokdzia kazilaig ngawakaz, but
heard of him there by a woman haying a daughter ; tana wanan mura
mabaegia paruia, they put them before all the men; no? kalia znagi,
he looked back ; gubé paruia, wind (was) contrary ; Lesu muia utis lagia,
Jesus was come into a house; nod maluia uzar, he walked on the sea ;
mura utemin ita burumia, entered into the pigs.
Since this suffix gives the meaning of the Litfu, thez, with, which
is idiomatically used for “‘ have,” we often find it used for ‘‘ have” in
the Saibai version, especially with pronouns, e.g. areto set ngitamunia
mido? what bread have you? (Lifu, ye areto ther nyipunie, how many
loaves with you ?)
(h) Vocative.
The vocative is shown by the suffix ae or ée.
Example :—ngurupai-mabaegae, O teacher; ngau kaziae, O my
daughter ; Davitan kaziae, O son of David ; ngawakazié1, damsel.
The words Baba! my father! Ama/ my mother! are used instead
of the common ¢atd and apu. For a few other examples, see § 1x., 3.
(¢) There are other noun terminations, of which the use is not
very clear. All that can be done here is to give some examples.
These endings are nge, nanga, tar, ar, du, bo, béu, utu, asin, gar.
Example: Nge: Ngi nginanumaiginga Augadau va, a mabaegau
zange, thou rememberest not God’s things, but men’s things; ngédde
puinge, like trees ; vineu ap wara mabaegpange turan, give the vineyard
to other men; xgita muasin nubepa kidétaean sakat puru mabaegou
lagonge, ye have made it a den of thieves; nod keda ngadalnga uman-
gange, he was as one dead; ngau kusaig launga toridiz, a babange ngéna
waean, receiveth not Me, but the Father that sent Me.
Nanga: Poiban Mose nanga tautumiz, offer the things Moses
ordered ; palae tamuliz tanamulpa keda Iesun iananga iautumiz, they
said to them as Jesus ordered; midé nyita ngacapa bote uzar keda puru
mubaeg nanga midé? are you come out to me as against a thief ? keda
angela nanga, like the angels; hoigérsar mabaeg wagel-nanga kulainge,
many men last (shall be) first; cman heda not nanga mido palamulpa
damuliz, found as he had gaid to them.
Nenga is found in: Nongo kapu minanenga, his glory.
Tai: Nongo notai nidiz, touched his tongue; mura mabaeg alasenu
taean murtad, every man shall be salted with fire.
140 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Ai: Gulai patiz, get into the ship. Macgillivray gives gulai as
the plural of gui, but there are no examples in the Gospel. (See
Plurals, p. 136.)
Du: Ngita tana aidu poiban, give ye them food. The common
form is a, food. Macgillivray has (11., p. 313) : ‘‘ As examples of the
various forms of this word, I may give, ana pibur aidu = give me (some)
food; ina aio ? =is this eatable ? az =it is eatable.”
B, b6: This appears to be another spelling of the dative suffix pa.
Waliz gulab, walizé, climb up into the ship. Waliz gulpais also found.
Bou: Koiabiu, with aloud voice. ova for koi ta.
Utu: This is, no doubt, connected with the verb wtuz, to lie down.
Ngawakaziutu lag, the place where the girl was lying.
Asin: Perhaps connected with the verb-preposition asin, to be
with. Senabi nginu mekatasin, in thy glory; mekata, shining,
radiance.
Gar: Palae getéwanizo Zebetaiogar palamun tati, they left Zebedee
their father ; nanu aigar barpudan, all her living.
Some of these terminations are also found with pronouns. For
examples, see Pronouns, § 11.
(7) The possessive case of a pronoun is used with nouns in all cases.
In this the Saibai use differsfrom the Miriam. (See Miriam Grammar,
§ m1. /.) .
Example: Mongo kuikuigau nelpa, to his brother’s name; ngau
nelngu, through my name; nongo purukanu, on his eye.
§ 1LV.— Adjectives.
1, A few adjectives are used inasimple form. o7, kai, big; magi,
little ; apu, good; watt, bad; pepe, thin.
2. A distinctly adjectival form is given to a word by the affix nga.
Keinga, large; mapunga, heavy ; towanga, easy ; piranga, pirung (M),
wet; gégainga, weak.
A few adjectives have the termination na instead of nga; magina,
little ; swmein (m), cold.
Adjectives of quality are formed by adding Je (Muralug, re, r¢) to
the name of a quality or thing, with or without the ending nga.
Example: Dita, taste; mitale, mitalenga, mitalnga, tasty; hula,
stone ; kuldle (m), stony; isd, leaf; nisalnga, leafy ; kulka, blood ;
Ray & Happon—Zhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 141
kulkale, red; kuama, heat; kuamalnga, hot; kaura, ear; kaurare
kauralenga, possessing ears; getd, hand; gitalenga, possessing a hand.
The negative of adjectives in /e or Jenga is formed by adding 797,
g?, or ge to the noun, with or without the ending nga. Cf. Miriam
adjective in kak, Daudai tato.
Example: Soba, slow; sobaginga, smart; tari, quick; tareg?,
slow; héz¢, child, héziginga, childless; mabaegégi, deserted; mitar-
ginga, tasteless.
When persons are qualified gigal is sometimes used. Vgita
muamuagigal, ngita imaigigal, you (are) without understanding ; you
don’t see.
A few adjectives are formed by reduplication as in Miriam.
Example: Jdv, oil, zdivdi, fat; kube, charcoal, kubskubinga, black ;
mud, crowd, mudémudd, crowded.
Macgillivray has the following note on this method of forming
adjectives :—
‘The formation of many adjectives can be clearly traced: in fact,
one of the most obvious features of the language—imperfectly as it is
understood—is the facility with which many nouns may be conyerted
into either adjectives or verbs. Thus, ‘mapet = a bite,’ becomes
‘ mapeile = capable of biting,’ and is the root of the verb ‘ mapeipa =to
bite.’ The positive adjunct ‘ Jeg,’ and its negative ‘azge,’ are also used
to convert nouns into adjectives: the former follows the same rules
as those before given for forming the plural :—‘ gizw = sharpness,’
becomes either ‘ gizule = sharp’ or ‘ gizuge = blunt,’ literally, ‘ sharp-
Ness possessing, or, possessing not’: from ‘ nuki = water,’ we get the
form ‘nukile maram = the well contains water,’ or, ‘ nukegi maram =
the well is dry’: ‘ danagi = blind,’ literally means, ‘eye possessing
not’: as a further example, I may give, ‘ ipikat ajirge wap’ina badale
maperp = the shameless woman eats this sore-producing fish’? [1r.
p- 301}.
A few adjectives are formed by the addition of thung, meaning
“like, the same as.” Macgillivray gave the example, gariga thung =
like the sun, or, as bright as daylight. No examples of this are found
in the Gospel.
Colowrs.—Macgillivray noted that:—‘‘There are two forms of
each adjective denoting colour, except grey and white. Thus,
‘black’ is rendered either ‘hubi-kubi-thung’ or, ‘kubi-kubi tha
142 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
gamule,’ both meaning ‘like,’ or, ‘ the colour of’ the charcoal procured
from ‘ kubi-kubi’ =touchwood.’ ‘ Blue, green, and red’ are denoted
by compounds, signifying resemblance to ‘deep water, a leaf, and
blood,’ respectively ” [m. 303].
None of these forms are found in the Gospel, where ‘‘ white” is
gamul or gamulénga; ‘‘ red, purple,” kulukal; ‘‘ green,” maludénga.
In Haddon’s mss., however, there is a series of colour names
from Tud, similar to those of Macgillivray, but with da instead of tha.
These names are :—
Red, kulka-da-gémola. Yellow, dewa-da-géméla.
White, kobi-kobi-goméla. Blue, malu-da-géméla.
Black, katbro-do-géméla. Green, eldra-da-géméla.
There are numerous compound adjectives, e.g. kéikutalnga, long,
high ; lit., possessing big ends; kéuridanga, hard; lit., very bony.
Macgillivray gives the examples wati-ngarare, lame, bad-footed; watt-
ganule, stinking, bad smelling; wati-mitdle, bad tasted ; wati-kaurare,
bad-eared, deaf, &c.
3. Comparison is made by two positive statements, or by a
periphrasis.
Example: Uagina modobia Sodoma a Gomora senabi tonar balbat-
tridan senabi lagal, a little punishment Sodom and Gomorrah (in) time
of rectifying (than) those cities; matangadagido ngi muia utiz6 nabi
igililenga a nginu gets paunapa patan a ukasukusuké, kalmel genapa taean,
senabi mut usimoiging, worthy (better) thou enter into life and thy
two hands cut off (than to be) thrown with them into Gehenna, into
unquenchable fire.
Likeness is expressed by ngéde or ngada, or in adjectival form,
ngadalgna.
Example: ngéde puinge, like trees; keda ngadalnga sinapi kéusa, (it
is) like a mustard seed ; ngalpa Augadan baselaia mi ngadalnga minapa ?
we make God’s kingdom like what ?
4. A superlative is expressed by means of the word adapudis; lit.,
coming out beyond.
Example: nga adapudiz ? who is greatest ? durai nia adapudiz, the
chief seats ; wara salli aiginga adapudiz sebalbi sébia, have not any law
beyond these two laws; Augadau kazi adapudiz, Son of God most high ;
mina kéiza adapudiz senabi pui mura, real great things beyond all trees.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 143
Koi is used as a prefix to intensify the meaning of an adjective, as
kotsigal, very far ; kéimapunga, very difficult. Macgillivray gives the
example, ke’kamanale, very warm.—[11. 803 ].
5. The peculiar adjectival expressions noticed in Miriam are found
also in the Saibai Gospel. Zagt, zaginga, poor; lit., nothing, not
having a thing; zapu, rich; lit., mother of things; sapulaig, a rich
person ; kasa-kupal, naked; lit., bare-bellied.
§ V.— Verbs.
1. Many nouns and adjectives may be used in their simplest forms
as verbs, e.g. nov mar, he weeps; ng? mina, you are true. Where
verbal roots have been found in the vocabularies, they invariably end
in a vowel: ngurapat, teaching ; mular, speaking; pélaz, cutting.
2. VERBAL Forms.
(a) Causative-—There seems to be no definite way of expressing the
causative. In many cases it is shown by a suffix pa, which is the
same as that forming the dative case of a noun, and the same formation
as that found in Miriam, where the causative in em is also the dative
suffix. (See Miriam Grammar, p. 536 of Part I.). Macgillivray
regarded the suffix ya in Muralug as the ending for the present tense
of the verb; and in Haddon’s mss. it is also found as a present
tense ending. As used in the Saibai Gospel pa expresses an infinitive
rather than a present tense, and is very often used with another
verb.
A very common way of expressing a causative is by the use of the
verb mepa, to do, or make, the tenses of which (miz?, manz), as given in
the vocabularies, often form verbs from nouns.
Example: Zaunga-mani, to rebuke, make nothing of ; wbz, ubin, a
want ; whin-mepa, to wish, want; adapa, out; adapa-mani, to put out ;
ngapa, hither, come hither ; ngapa-mani, make come hither, 7.e. bring;
mina-man, to measure, span, make a mark ; mari-man, to pine, become
a spirit, &c. Other verbs are used in a similar way. (See Verbal
Prefixes. )
(b) Negative—The negative verb is formed by affixing zg or iyinga
to the root. This is analogous to the formation of negative adjectives
from nouns, and the verb usually has a participial or adjectival
meaning.
144 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Example: Zana kapuakasi ginga, they do not believe, or they are
unbelieving ; mui usimorginga, the fires are not quenched, or they do
not quench the fires; ngita getétridaiginga, you have not read; ngita
araiginga, you do not flee.
In some cases a negative is formed by means of the adverb Jaunga.
(c) Interrogative.— The words nga and mand their cases, ngadé, mipa,
mingu, introduce aninterrogative sentence. (See Pronounsand Adverbs. )
In many cases midé, what, is found instead of mi. Midi ngi mangiz ?
hast thou come? Jidé mata ngadogidé nidizi kapu pawa ina sabath ?
is it right to do good deeds on the sabbath?
Sometimes the interrogative sentence does not differ in form from
the affirmative. WVgita getitritraiginga 2? Have you not read?
(d) Quotations.—These are introduced by keda (Miriam, kega).
Example: Wura iamuliz keda, not umanga, all said, he is dead; nov
walmizin keda, Iesuae Davitan Kazi, ngona sibuwanan, he cried out, O
Jesu, David’s son, pity me; not capuporbis nubepa keda, ngt wara iman ?
he asked him, do you see anything ?
(e) Substantive verb.—There is no substantive verb, though in
Sharon’s vocabulary 7d, tna, not, ita, and nu are all given as
equivalents for ‘‘is.’”” These words have already been shown as
demonstratives, §n. A few examples of sentences without verbs
may be given here.
Example :—WNginu nelenga? thy name (is) who? hain ngurupat
mingadalnga ina? new teaching like-what (is) this ? »gau nel Legeona,
ita ngit kovma, my name (is) Legion, these we (are) many; ngai ind
Keriso, I here (am) Christ.
The meaning of the English “‘ to be,’”’ in compounds, is often ex-
pressed by a circumlocution.
Example: kéigorsar. mabaeg kulai taiz, a lako wagel taiz, many men
that are (lit. occupy) first place, again (or next time) are last ; ngau
sageté launga poiban, it is not mine (not my work) to give.
8. Moops anp TENSES.
In the various vocabularies of the Saibai (with the single excep-
tion of Macgillivray’s valuable Muralug (Kowrarega) list, there is a
great want of exactness in the meanings given to the verbs. For
example, the verbs ‘ give,’ ‘drink,’ and ‘eat’ appear in the five
principal lists as follows :—
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 145
Macgillivray, A ; . piberpa, wanipa, purteipa.
MacGregor, : ‘ . paibané, wanin, pourtani.
Macfarlane, : : . poiban, want, purtan.
Stone, F : : . paiban, wanka, prutika.
Sharon, : ; : . portbaipa, wan, purutan.
Macgillivray alone assigns any definite meaning to the words given
(the forms in pa being given as present tense). An examination of the
Gospel translation does not make the subject much clearer, even after
a careful comparison with the Lifu version used by the translator.
In Lifu, verbs undergo no change of form to express time or mood,
all variations in meaning being expressed by separate words or par-
ticles; and hence, no doubt, the Lifu translator’s difficulty in using
the Saibai affixes. The compilers of the vocabularies seem to have
taken the words as given in the Gospel in a general sense, and with
no attempt to discriminate their meaning. That the discrimination is
difficult, appears from the remarks of Macgillivray, whose notice of
the verb is the only one in which an endeavour has been made to
ensure accuracy. For this reason it is here given in full. He
says [11., p. 307] :—
‘‘ After tabulating 100 Kowrarega verbs in all the different forms
in which they had occurred to me, I yet failed in arriving at a know-
ledge of their mode of formation, owing to the deficiency of data on
one hand, and the presence of some apparently defective and irregular
verbs on the other. Still, some of the results are worth recording.
Leaving out the consideration of the irregular verbs, I can speak with
certainty of only two moods, the indicative and the subjunctive,
of the present and the past (probably really further divisible) tenses
of the former, and the present of the latter. As an example I may
give the verb ‘to strike,’ of which the root is assumed to be
‘matum = a stroke.’
Indicative present, nudu ngatu matumeipa =I am striking him.
9 perfect, _,, » matumina =I struck him.
He future, 5 », matumetpakar =1 shall strike him.
Imperative present, ,, ngidu matumur = strike him.
‘‘ Assuming a root to each, I find 94 of the verbs under examina-
tion to agree in haying the present tense of the indicative terminating
in pa: of these, 70 end in ecpa,! 14 in dpa, 6 in epa, and 1 in aipa.
1 Misprinted aipa in the original.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. L
146 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘¢ The perfect tense (setting aside some inexplicable irregularities)
exhibits a great variety of terminations, for the formation of which
no rule can yet be given: these are an, ana, ant; in, ina, ena; em,
ema; eima, evun; and un.
‘The future tense alone is perfectly regular ; it is simply formed
by adding kai to the present.
‘The present tense of the imperative mood in those verbs having
the present of the indicative ending in ¢pa, terminates (with one ex-
ception in 7) in 7r: in the others the terminations of this tense are ur
(the most frequent); ar (the next in order of frequency), ara, arc;
ada, eada; e, cio, eir, erur; and o.
‘¢ After all I am inclined to suppose that the Kowrarega verb,
although apparently complicated, is of simple construction; and that
its various modifications are caused by the mere addition to its root of
various particles, the exact meaning of which (with one exception) is
yet unknown. That exception is the particle aige or ge, the mode of
employment of which is shown by the following examples :-—
Wawp’ yinu nga purteip purteipaige = I am not eating your fish.
» » 99) Purteiunaige =I did not eat your fish.
- » 9 purteipakaige =I shall not eat your fish.
~ 9» 9), nanungi purtaige = Don’t eat his fish.
‘‘ A few examples may be given in illustration of the preceding
remarks :—
English. Present. Past. Future. Imperative.
Eat, .| purteipa, purteiun, purteipakai, purtar.
Bite, .| ‘mapeipa, mapanda, mapeipakai, | mapur.
Take away, .| meipa, mani, meipakai, mari.
Tell, -| mulepa, mulem, mulepakat, muleada.
Lie down, .| yuneipa, yunum, yuneipakai, yunur.
Leave behind, yuneipa, yunem, ynneipakai, yunur.
Shoot, .| uteipa, utun, uteipakai, utur.
Enter, .| uteipa, utema, uteipakai, uterur.”?
We now proceed to discuss the expression of moods and tenses as
found in the Gospel, reference being made to the foregoing notice by
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 147
Macgillivray, and to the Lifu Testament of 18738, from which the
Saibai version was made.
(1.) Mood :—
(a) Imperative-—The verbal root is sometimes used indefinitely as
an imperative. MWgapanagi! behold! look here!
Only one instance is found in the Gospel of the suffix -r given by
Macgillivray as imperative. Ngi gedé pagaear, stretch out thy hand.
The word with the ordinary (tense) ending is used in the impera-
tive. Kadaitarizo, stand up! Zman senabi ngitamun kirngaizinga, take
heed what ye hear! (lit. find your hearings); WVgalpa meamaipa
wadékapa, let us go to the other side! Jagzasin, gudd mumi! be quiet,
be still! Wgi adapadan! you come out! Ngaeapa muliz, tell me! The
plural imperative has in some cases an affix siu, miu. Ngita karenge-
miziu, hear ye! ngapanagemiu, look ye! Magina kizingu getéwanemiu
ngapa ngaeapa, let little children come tome! A dual ending mériu
is seen in, Wgipel uzarmoriu, go ye two! from uzar, go.
A prohibitive is expressed by the verbal root with the negative
affix. Waramabaegipa mulargi, tellnot any man! Usually, however,
the word maigi (from maz, the root of mepa, manz, to do, and 77) is
used to prohibit an action. MMaigi puru, do not steal! Margi akan,
do not fear! Maigi karengemin, do not listen!
The Lifu imperative expressed by /oz e, it is good that, is literally
translated by the Saibai Aapuza, good thing. Kapuza ngita ladun, go
ye! (Litu, loi e trojé nyipunie); kapuza ngi ngapa uzar, you come
here! Cf. Miriam debele (Pt. 1., p. 537). ‘Must’ or ‘ ought’ is trans-
lated, as in Miriam, by the noun meaning ‘ work,’ sageté (hand thing)
with the possessive pronoun. WVgau zageté miéi nidiz ? what must I do?
Noginu sagetié Iehovalpa ngénanumani, thou must remember Jehovah.
(6) LInfinitive-—There is no special sign for the infinitive, one verb
simply following the other. Kuikaiman koima maumizin, began to
preach much; ngai ngapa mangiz6 turan mabaeg balebaiginga launga,
I came not here to call upright men.
(¢) Desiderative—A wish is expressed by the word wbin-mepa, to
make a wish, to want. Diéi ngipel ubin-mepa ngai ngipelpa poiban ?
What do you two want me to give you? Wara lago muia utiz, a ubin-
mepa rita durat mabaegal nubepa imaiginga, went inside another house
and wanted men not to find him.
L2
148 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(d) Potential.—Ability to perform an action is expressed by the
word ngulaig, knowing, or to know how. Nga ngulaig getéwanis senabi
watrt pawa? who can forgive sins? In Mk. xiv. 8, ngulaig is used
with a possessive pronoun. Wa muasin nidizi nanu ngularg, she has
done her ability, ¢.e. what she could. The negative of ngulaig is
korawaig. Tana korawatg aipurutan, they could not eat; no korawarg
uzar, he could not go; ngai korawaig, I don’t know.
(e) Subjunctive and Conditional—There seems no definite way of
expressing a dependent sentence, and there is no change of form in
the verb. The words used to introduce a conditional sentence are
stke, if; ba, if; toma, tuma, lest; tomaka, perhaps. The adverb wa,
yes, is often used between the protasis and the apodosis: the dependent
sentence is frequently in the future.
Ex. Stke ngalpa iamuliz daparngu, kat not mulepa, Mipa ngita
nubepa toradiiginga? if we. say, from heaven, he will say, Why have you
not received him? Wgalpa uzar senabi amadan lag6, ngai maumizineka
siet, we go to the next place, that I may (will) preach there; sche
kauralaig, wa, not karengemin, if (he) possesses ears, then he hears; ba
ngaté tanamulpa waean, tana umuwalepa sier cabugudanu, if I send them
away, they (will) faint there on the way; ngat ngibia kalmel umanga,
wa, nga nginungu gudétidarginga, if I die with thee, I do not deny
thee ; stke kuikulunga taupain toraiginga senabi goiga sena, wara mabaeg
igiliginga, if the Lord had not shortened those days, any man (would)
not live ; tuma not tarai mangiz6 a iman ngita a mata utut, lest he come
quick and find you still asleep; nov cautumiz nongo niaikazi magina
gulpa noiné ugan, ind mabaeg koigorsar, toma tana nubepa kat garona-
namiz, He ordered His disciples for a little boat to await Him, the men
(were) many, lest they should crowd Him; Nga mabaeg hain waina
paieudan senabi au dépuza, tomaka papalamizi hae senabi débu buiu, what
man pours new wine into an old thing, perhaps the old bottle will
burst.
(2.) Zense :—
Three apparent tense endings appear in the Gospel, but the distinc-
tion between them is difficult to make out. These endings are pa, 7,
and n.
(a) Pa.—This ending was given by Macgillivray for the present
tense (see p. 145), but is of comparatively rare occurrence in the
Gospel. Even when used it seems to express an infinitive of purpose
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—IT. 149
rather than a present tense, usually translating the Lifu infinitive
sign troa. In the following examples there seems to be no indica-
tion of present time. Getéwani mabaegopa danalpataipa api, \eft
men to look after the garden ; zautumizé senabi pasau danalpotat mabaeg,
poipimipa, ordered the man looking after the door, to watch (Litu troa
hmekén); na ngulaig nabepa nidaipa, she knew what was done to her ;
aipa baropuddipa, to buy food (Lifu, troa ité xene). This use of the
suffix pa expresses the same idea as in the dative case of nouns.
In a few cases, the Gospel shows pa as a present tense ending.
Nongo nat kazi nubia puzipa, His disciples follow Him; mi za ngai
teudepa? what do I ask? ngita danalpataipa a poipiam, a toitupagis,
take ye heed, watch and pray. In these three examples the Lifu
has in the first case the past, in the second the future, and in the third
an imperative without tense sign.
(6) Lz, 226, 127.—It is by no means certain that these suffixes are
identical in meaning. Macgillivray refers to the ending zzz7 only once.
In a note on the words séka, sali, he says :—‘‘ These two words appear
to have the same meaning, but are used differently: ‘sok’ atchin = sal-
mizst,’ and both express ‘having been sick.’” [11., 304. |
As used in the Gospel z, 26, s¢ usually express the present tense
of an intransitive verb, and correspond to the particle a in the Lifu
version. Ngai ngibepa mulizd, I say to thee (Lifu, int a qaja kot ed) ;
not tautumiz nongo nat kazt, He orders His disciples; nod hadaip waliz
padapa, he climbs up a mountain. The suffixes 72, 720, a7, do not
always express a present tense. In many cases they are used to
translate the Lifu past sign Ana. Durai siéi putize cabugudanu, some
there fell on the path: gézga palgiz6, the sun rose (Lifu, hna hojé la
J); not kadaitarizi, he arose; Lesu nubepa nagiz, Jesus looked at him.
(ec) -n, -ni.—The ending » was given by Macgillivray for the per-
fect tense. As used in the Gospel, it usually expresses the simple past
of a transitive verb, and translates the Lifu past participle, hna, or the
present perfect, hé, ha. Not minarpalan senabi tust, he wrote that
book ; Zana nubepa angan setabi magina kiziel, they brought to Him
little children ; no? iman senabi suke kivsigal nisalnga, he saw a fig-tree
afar off having leaves.
Just as the suffixes 73, 7z6, 227 are sometimes found expressing past
tense, so also x is frequently used in the Gospels in the present tense.
Ngai iman mabaeg uzar, | see men walking.
150 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(d) There is another, and probably more correct view which may
be taken of these three endings ya, 22, n. It is to regard them as
suffixes of a similar nature to the Melanesian transitive endings, and
indefinite in tense. Then pa simply states the action generally, 2
states it as performed indefinitely, as a transitive action performed
upon some object. Compare imaipa, imizi, and zman in the following
phrases :—Vo7 danal want mabaegpa imaipa, he looked round to see the
man (Lifu, anganyidéti a goe goeéne troa xajawatine Ja ate'; tana imizi
a iman senabi kula, they looked and saw the stone (Lifu, angate a
goeéne ame hna ohne la ete). Cf. also, Lesu noino geté velpan, a nubepa
kadai taran, a noi kadai tariz, Jesus took him by the hand and raised
him, and he arose.
(e) Perfect Tense.
The verb muasin, meaning ‘to finish,’ is used with other verbs to
express the completion of an action. WNgita muasin karengemin, ye have
heard ; na muasin midizi nanu ngulaig, she has done what she could
(lit., her ability); 20? muasin tanamulpa waean, when he had sent;
not muasin camuliz, as soon as he had spoken.
The meaning of the present perfect is often expressed by the adjec-
tival ending -nga. Kazi umanga, the child is dead (Lifu, mecz hé la neko).
(f) Pluperfect.
A kind of pluperfect is expressed by the termination 7zinga, which
forms a verbal noun, and is used with the possessive pronoun. Zana-
mun imaizinga, things they had seen, lit., their things seen. (See
Nouns, § 111., 1.)
(9g) Future.
This tense is shown by the word kai (ka, kae), usually following
the verb, but sometimes preceding. It is used with the root, or with
the endings pa, 7, n. Cf. (d) above. angi kat senabi tonare, a
time will come ; ngita iman kai mabaegau haz, ye shall see the son of
man ; kat not mulepa, he will say ; ngita kai toridiz, ye shall receive.
Macgillivray also gives examples. See p.146. This faz must be dis-
tinguished from the kad or ki of emphasis. The verb ladun, to go, is
also used to express the future. NVygalpa ladun iman, we are going to
see. The Lifu future particle tro is also the verb ‘ to go.’
1 This phrase is in the ceremonious language used to chiefs in Lifu.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 151
(A) Continuance.
The word mata is used to translate the Lifu pete ké, while, and
expresses the continuance of an action. TZuna mata wakaiasimoin,
while they mourned; nozdéka mata utuipa, as he sowed; tana mata
dagiasin, they were silent. Magillivray has gul mata pongeipa = the
canoe is still under sail [m., 305 ].
(2) Repetition.
The word Jaké expresses repetition. Jesu laké mangiz au Kaper-
nauma, Jesus again came to Capernaum; ngai lak ubinmepa danalpa-
tatpa, I wish to open eyes again; ngaz laké wonigi, I will not drink again.
(jy) Emphasis.
A verb or verbal phrase is rendered emphatic by the word saz, at
the end of the sentence: Wor mamu kat, he was well. This is pro-
bably the same as the (m), Kowrarega kv of which Macgillivray remarks
(mr., 312) :—‘‘ The meaning of this is, to a certain extent, doubtful ;
however, it enforces an affirmation; Ex. ina muggi’ki = this is very
little: it is frequently used after pronouns; arri ki kabapakat = we
shall go to the dance.”
The Lifu emphatic particle fi is translated by wa = yes, verily.
Karengemin, wa karengemin a wakain-tamamorginga, hear, yes hear, and
not understand, In Lifu: troa deng, a denge li, ngo tha trotrohnine pe.
4. NumBEr.
A verb is used with a singular, dual or plural pronoun with the
simple endings. MVgai camuliz, I say ; palae tamuliz, they two say ;
tana vamuliz, they say.
In some cases, especially when the pronoun or other method of
marking number is not used, a syllable is inserted between the root
and the verbal ending. The followimg examples are found in the
Gospel :—
Dual.—Nongo ukasar kaura paleman, his two ears were opened ;
ngipel sipalser kat mangeman, you two shall come; palae uzarman, two
went. The usual forms of the verbs are palan, mangiz, and uzar, but
the examples present some difficulty, and do not agree; the infixes
being em, ma. The verbs mangiz and uzar, come and go, do not else-
where appear with the suffix x.
Plural.—tThe plural appears to be distinguished by the infix mdz,
mat, or mt. In Sharon’s vocabulary, pataméin is given as the plural
152 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
of patan, to cut. Examples from the Gospel are :—Ngalpa mulemipa,
we say; mura demoni nubepa teudemipa, all the demons besought him ;
ngau ia idimoiginga, my words shall not pass away ; durai patan pu-
tamal a tabugudanu a poidamoin, some cut branches, and spread on the
road ; mura mudé garowerdamoin, all the crowd assembled.
Many words which naturally have a plural agent are rarely found
except in the plural form, such as, garoweidamoin, to assemble together ;
gudamoin, to discuss.
5. VERBAL PREFIXES.
The Saibai verb is rarely found in the Gospels or vocabularies
(except in Macgillivray’s) in a simple form. It mostly appears with
a prefix, which, to some extent, serves the purpose of an adverb and
defines the meaning. It is in some cases difficult to ascertain the
exact meaning of the verb itself, or of its connection with the idea ex-
pressed by the prefix, but the meanings of the latter are in most cases
clear. The prefixes may be conveniently classified as corporal,
nominal, modal, and directive.
(1.) Corporal Prefixes.—These are names of parts of the body.
1. Bag, cheek ; bag-taean, to promise.
2. Dan, dana, eye; dan-paliz, to open the eyes, be awake (eye-
divide) ; danal-pataipa, to watch (put out eyes) ; dan-taean,
to exhort (roll or throw eyes).
3. Gamu, body ; gamu-diwapa, dance ; gamu-doidanu, tired
(body in wilderness) ; gamuia-mataman, to murder ; gamu-
tariz, to touch.
4. Get, geta, geto, hand; geté-nitun, to point; geté-pagaean, to
apprehend ; geté-waean, to loose, let go; geté-puderpa, to
scrape hands, etc.
5. Gud, guda, gudé, mouth ; guda-moin, to discuss ; guda-
palamiz, to overflow ; guda-purutan, to be insolent (eat-
mouth) ; gudé-nitun, to advise ; gudé-tapaman, to kiss.
6. Kakura, kuku, foot, toes; kakura-pataean, to step across ;
kukuna-mapetpa, to kick.
7. kuiki, kuiku, head; kucku-iman, to begin (find head) ; kucko-
patan, to behead ; kuiké-taean, to nod, ete.
8. Madu, flesh; madu-paman, to start, be afraid.
9. Ngéna, breath, heart; ngina-pudiz, to take a long breath, to
rest ; ngonanu-mani, to remember (bring into the heart).
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 153
10. Paru, forehead, face; paru-idun, to deceive.
11. Sibu, liver; s¢bu-wanan, to pity (perhaps ‘‘ cheer up”’) (put
a liver) ; s¢bé-papalamzz, to doubt (liver flies away). The
liver is probably regarded as the seat of courage.
12. Zabai, shoulder ; tabal-wradiz, to carry on the shoulders.
(2.) Nominal prefixes are names of objects, and are not so easily
distinguished as the preceding.
1. Baré, grass; baré-pudaipa, to buy (i.e. barter, put down on
the grass) ; cf. za-pudamoin, to sell (put down a thing).
. Bupé, the bush; bup-ariz, to flee (run to bush).
. Butu, sand; butu-pataipa, to cleanse; butu-paliz, to shake off.
. Guba, wind ; gubal-puian, to blow.
. Gud, opening (see mouth); gud-paliz, to bud.
OD Or PB CO bO
. La, iadu, word; ta-muliz, to say ; 1adu-palgan, to confess ;
iadu-turiz6, to inform; 7za-kaman, to inform ; ta-utumizt,
to command. Most verbs expressing the saying of some-
thing take this prefix.
7. Sup, covering ; sup-nuran, to cover (nuran, to wrap).
(3.) Modal prefixes.—These mostly describe the manner of the
action expressed by the verb, and might almost be classed with the
directives.
1. Dada, in the middle, between ; dada-mangiz, to meet (come
in middle).
2. Garé, together; garé-quimant, to shake, quiver, earthquake;
garé-pataman, to collect food; garé-taean, to press; garé-
nanamiz, to crowd ; garé-weidamoin, to assemble.
3. Hidé, over; kidé-taean, to turn over, overthrow.
4. Kun, back; kunia-tidiz, to return.
5. Pa, motion; pa-téridiz, to carry along; pa-telpan, to lead
along ; pa-ieudiz, to pour; pa-waliz, to land, climb on
shore ; pa-taean, to throw; pa-zilamiz, to move against,
to attack ; pa-nudiz, to press, rub along, etc. Nearly all
verbs of motion begin with pa, and it is also used with
the directives. Cf. also the dative suffix and verbal
ending pa.
6. Pal, double (cf. dual demons); tu-pal-taan, to fold (tu =
English two).
154 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(4.) Directives.—These are often combined with the prefix of
motion, pa.
1. Wgapa, hither (cf. prons. nga-2, 1; nga, who?) ; ngapa-uzar,
come hither ; ngapa-mani, bring hither; ngapa-nagemiu,
look hither. Macgillivray has the following note upon
ngapa :—
‘‘ Ngapa.—This is a word which, from the variety of
its modes of application, long puzzled me. Careful
examination of sentences in which it occurred led to
the following results:—Ilst. It may be used as an
independent word to denote motion towards the speaker,
the pronoun which would otherwise be required being
omitted. Example: ‘adur = go out,’ but ‘ngap’ adur =
come out (towards the speaker),’ ‘lak’ ngapa = to come
again, to return.’ 2nd. It is also used as a postfix to
denote motion towards the object to which it is joined.
Example: ‘laga p’ (ngapa) aigewel = come to the hut,’
‘mue’ pa teir = throw it into the fire.’ 38rd. It is used in
a third sense. Example: ‘wawpi’ pa = to go fishing,’
‘kaba’pa =to go to a dance. 4th. It is often used as an
equivalent to ‘give me,’ the hand being held out at the
same time. Example: ‘ngapa = let it come to me.’”
[11., 308].
The first of these uses is the directive; the second the
dative ; the third the verbal suffix.
2. Ada, adapa, thither, outward; ada-taen, adapa-taean, to
throw away; ada-pudiz, high (to be out beyond some-
thing else); adapuidan, to eject; adapa-mani, to take
away ; adapakadaman, to peel, to tear away. Cf. Mir.
ade, outside.
3. Kadai, kadaipa, up; kadai-tariz, to stand up; kadai-nagiz,
to look up; kadaipa-waliz, to climb up. Cf. Mir. kotor,
up, sky.
4. Apa, down; apa taecan, to throw down; apa-tanu, to sit
down; «apa-sin, to stoop; apa-nian, to sit on the
ground.
5. Mulpa, down ; mulpa-pogamiz, to descend.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 155
6. Nguro, out; nguro-taean, to keep out: nguro-weidan, to
cast out.
7. Siga, afar ; siga-taean, to convulse (throw afar).
There are apparently many other similar verbal prefixes of which
the meanings are not clearly made out. See words beginning with to7
(toitu-pagaipa, garo-toi-taean), wakai, ngoro, and giv in the Saibai
Vocabulary.
6. VERBAL SUFFIXES.
These do not appear so prominently asin Miriam. Besides those
already noted (pa, 72, n, 1zinga, etc.) there are found the endings ¢lamiz,
man, mizin, asin, ae, and at.
1. Zlamiz has a verbal form and means ‘against’; muliz-
ilamiz, to accuse (speak against); pa-zilamiz, to attack
(move against); ngurs-ilamiz, to wink (prob. from nurse.
See Voc.).
2. Mani means give, bring, take, etc., and has been already
noted. Cf. meipa.
3. Mizin appears to be connected in meaning with mani and
and metpa.
4. Asin means to be with, and has a plural, asimoim, and
negatives, asiginga, and asigt.
5. Ae. Ngoi korawaigae, we cannot tell, we don’t know!
This is almost equivalent to an exclamation. Cf. the
vocative suffix ae.
6. Ai. Ba poibanai, for it shall be given. Mark, iv. 25.
9. Peculiar phrases used to supply the place of verbs are :— Dav
adan, weep, put out tears; mai mant, make tears, mourn; tpidadé
pugan, blaspheme ; zgili palan, to save life ; walmizin, to shout, make
a c00-ey ; apa niain ngénamani, to meditate, sit on ground to think ;
tanamun mart adapa kati palagiz6 akan, they were amazed, their spirit
flew out of (their) neck with fear; tana mekenmepa mabaeg tanamulpa
amaean, they love salutations, they like men to crawl to them.
§ VI.—Adverts.
1. [yrerRogative.—Interrogative adverbs are formed by means of
the cases of miei, midé (see Interrog. Prons. p. 181) or by prefixing
mi to nouns.
156 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(a) Place.—WMilagnu? (in what place) where? Wagé, naga (s),
nager (mM), where? Wagé mi ngadalnga? where (is) the likeness?
Nalaga? (what place) where? nalaga a ngéi butupatan? where (is)
thy wish that we prepare? Walagazi? (from what place) whence?
Nalagazi pa adan senabi zaget6 ina nubia ? from whence has this man
these things ?
(6) Time.—Migiiga? (what day) when? Mi tonar ? (what sign)
when ?? Di tonar mangiz senabi pawa ina? mi tonar minaipataman
senabi mura zasei 2? When shall these doings come ? what sign shows
all these things? WVamoit? when? (Macfarlane). How long? is
translated by kurusipa mids? till what? or by mibuta? Nga
ngitamulpa baminadan kurusipa midé ? How long shall I suffer you?
Mibuta nubepa mangiz? How long since (it) came to him ?
(c) Cause.—Mipa? (for what) why? ipa nidiz sena? why do
that? Dipa ngita nukunuko poibiz? why make ye this ado? Mingu?
(through what) why? Jingu ngita ngina nutan? why do you tempt
me? Minguzé? (through what things) why? MMinguzd senabe
maikuiki a luman inabi tonar? why does this generation seek a
sign ?
(d@) Manner.—WMidi-paru ? (what appearance) how? Mid6 paru
ngoi korawaig nubepa nguroweidan? How (was it) we could not cast
him out? MMingadalnga? (what like) how? Ngalpa mi ngadalnga
nubepa minaman ? we shall measure it how ?
(e) Number.—IMida kubi ? how many ? (lit. what many) is given
by Macgillivray, but no examples of its use is found in the Gospel,
which has midé only. Areto midé siéi ngitamunia? how many
loaves have you? Jana midé gudia-teudiz ? how many baskets full ?
2. Prace.—Zné, ina, here ; sez, sie’, there; sena, senao, that there;
bradar (8) here; mata launga, not here; gurugui, around; worgi,
worég?, on, upon; mulpa, malupa (m), downward, below, lit. to sea;
nakdretpa (a), upward, above; kulaikulai, before; kapitaig (m), a long
way off ; amadan, near.
Adverbs denoting positions are mostly formed from nouns by the
suffix 7 or /é6. Cf. Adjectives. Adal, on the outside, away, off; apal,
apalé, on the ground, down, under, below; dadal, in the middle ;
1 The natives regulate their occupations during the various seasons of the year
by the constellations, which are thus signs (Saib. tonar; Mir. mek) of the seasons.
See vol. u1., p. 548.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 157
matadodalé (B), inland; gimal, on the top, over, above; segal, at a
distance; wagel, last. Szgal is declined in dat. and abl. sigapa,
to a distance; segaz’, from a distance. The word 46, meaning the
place close by, is declined like sigal: kopa, to a little distance ; koze,
from a little distance ; Adu, of a little distance.
Example: Zesu Kopa amadan uzar, Jesus went forward a little;
not kozi gurugui uzar, he had gone a little further on; hézi kain goiga
palagiz6, a little after new sun rose; ata hiu nitaman, sit hereabouts.
Macgillivray has kdreki, hereabouts. Svzéi is also declined ; svéckd,
from there.
Emphasis is given to adverbs of place and time by prefixing héz
(kat, ket) great, very ; kéi-segal, very far, etc. Examples occur in
all the authorities, and Macgillivray uses also kara with the same
meaning ; karamalupa, a long way down, far below.
8. Trur.—Wabi, now, at present ; nabi-goiga, to-day ; mata-dobura,
immediately ; kaibé, kaibu, now, soon, to-day ; kulu kubé, anywhile ;
tumatuma, by-and-by, presently ; batainga, in the morning ; bangal,
to-morrow ; matabangal (m), a week or so hence; ngul, nguli, yester-
day ; war-gaiga (B) (other day) yesterday ; kul, two or three days
ago; matakul, a week or two ago; kérékida, a long time ago; muasin,
after; Jaké, again ; mata, continually, still, yet; ngaru, ever, always.
4. Manner.— Koi, kai, ket, very ; laké, more; mata, only ; mamu,
carefully ; samidd, really ; tomaka, perhaps; purke (m), well, etc. ;
kasa, just, only (cf. kusaig and Mir. no); kasa-kupal, just a body,
naked; kasa-tabu, only a snake, 7.e., a harmless one; kasa wanan,
forsake, leave alone ; nainonibe, separately.
5. Some adverbs have a reduplicated form. Jkalikal, gladly ;
mowlmoil, sadly ; kulaikulat, before ; tumatuma, by-and-by.
§ VI1.—Postpositions and Local Nouns.
These take the place of the English prepositions.
1. The postpositions used as suffixes to nouns and pronouns are :
u, n, mun, of; pa, lpa, mulpa, to, for; ngu, mulngu, from through,
concerning ; nu, at, on, in; dd, du, by, by means of; 7a, bia, munia,
with ; de, possessed of ; zg, gz, without.
The use of these words has been fully illustrated in the sections on
pronouns, nouns, and adjectives.
os) Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Ki, to, for; and s2, from, are only added to demonstratives, and
then form adverbs or conjunctions.
Macfarlane gives mani as a suffix, meaning by, but there are no
examples of its use.
2. Some nouns are used with postpositions to express relations of
place. These are paru, forehead or face; ada, outside; mut, inside ;
buado, side ; gima, top; kalé, back.
They appear as parunu, before ; paruia, opposite to, contrary;
adapa, out of; murnu, inside, within; mua, into; buadia, beside ;
malu buadia, by the sea-side ; gimainu, over, above; gimaingu, from
above ; gimia, on the top; kalanu, after, behind; kalapa, to, behind.
The word mai with the genitive case is the equivalent of the
Miriam kes, ‘sake.’ Herodian mat, for the sake of Herodias; kedazéu
mat, for the sake of that thing; mepaiangu maz, for the world’s sake ;
ngau mar, my sake.
The verb asimpa, asin, plural asimoin, neg. asigi is used with the
meaning ‘ be with.’
With, referring to persons, is translated by a noun kalmel. Wara
ngau kalmel ati purutan, one eating food with me, lit. one my com-
panion eating food; ngai ngibia kalmel wmanga, I die with thee.
A few other words are given as prepositions in the vocabulary, but .
they are mostly compounds such as nungu, from (from it).
§ VIII.— Conjunctions.
1. A, and, also, but; 6a, for, and if; mata, but, for; sche, if;
tuma, till, until; tomaka, perhaps; kurusipa, until.
Macgillivray gives za, and, with an example: Ulew’ Aburdia,
Salalallia, Wagelia, Mania= Aburde and Salalle and Wagel and Manu
are approaching.—[11., 306.] Cf. this 7a with the ergative suffix.
2. The word keda, like, thus, with the noun 26, thing, is declined
to form causal conjunctions. edaziu, for; kedazdépa, therefore ;
kedazingu, kedazingu, kedazinguz0, therefore, because.
§ 1X.— #xclamations.
1. Ua! wa! yea! yes! Misai! yes! Samido! yes! Wagar!
yes! Guire! (m) no! Ae/ ah! (of sorrow). Au! akamiz/ oh!
(of surprise). Jgur/ poor thing!
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Strats—II. 159
2. The salutations are: Jawa! good-bye! farewell! Sangopa/
good morning! The latter is perhaps a corruption of the Samoan
alofa.
Similar expressions are: Hami/ (m) kimi! (x) my dear! I
say! look here! (said bya female to a male). Hawki! (m) kiki! (x)
with the same meaning are said by a male to a female. Bedgi/ (m)
a call to a blind person. Wage! (m) mazgi/ (s.B) wan-nur / (a)
don’t! Sina! china! (a) stop! enough! Zuma! (B) wait a bit!
Ate! come!
3. The vocatives ama/ and baba / have been noticed in the section
on nouns.
§ X.—Syntax.
The following are the chief syntactical rules :—
1. The Subject precedes the verb. Gézga putizd, the sun sets.
2. The Direct Object follows the subject and precedes the verb.
' Tana arakato putran, they cut a hole.
3. The Indirect Object often follows the verb. Jesu camuliz
tanamulpa.
4. Adjectives and possessives precede the noun. Kain dumawaku,
new garment; ngau kasi, my son; lagiu kala, house’s back; nginu
watri pawa, thy evil deeds.
5. The adverb precedes the verb. Jesu mamu iman, Jesus carefully
looked ; tana muasin putra, after they had cut.
6. Government of Verbs.—There is a great variety in the cases
used with verbs, depending apparently upon the nature of the action
expressed by the verb. An examination of the commonest words in
the Gospel show them governing cases as follows :—
(a) With accusative or no case ending, when the verb expresses
the direct action of one thing upon another. Hxamples—baptise,
behold, cast out, cleanse, confess, cut, do, drink, eat, forgive, make,
pour, preach, prepare, send, take.
(6) With dative when action of one thing influences or is directed
towards another. Examples—ask, believe, betray, blaspheme, call,
come to, convulse, fear (for), give, have dealings with, inform, kneel
to, know, lead, minister to, pity, punish, rebuke, say, see, seek, send,
show, teach, tell, tempt, testify, throng, watch.
(e) With ablatwe when the action arises from the influence of
another. KExamples—fear (arising from something), issue.
160 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(d) With ergatwe, when subject and object are both affected in
the same way. Examples—enter (wtiz, Macgillivray uteipa, approach),
follow (go when something else goes), touch (two things come in
contact.
§ XI.—Numerals and Measures.
1. The Numeral system of the Western tribe of Torres Straits
islanders, collectively called in this Study the Saibai, has been very
fully discussed in the Ethnography. (See Journ. Anthropological
Institute, vol. xix., 1890, pp. 303-306.) What follows is mainly a
reprint of that notice, with some additions from the Gospel.
Throughout the Western islands of Torres Straits there were
practically but two numerals, wrapun and okdsa, which are, respec-
tively, one and two. Three is okosa urapon, four is okosa okosa, five is
okosa okosa wrapon, six is okosa okosa okosa, beyond that they usually
say ras, or ‘‘ a lot.”
There is a decided tendency to count by twos or couples.
The following Table shows the variations in the numerals as they
appear in the various vocabularies :—
Kowrarega (sic). Macgillivray
2. qguassur, [m. p. 301].
1. wardpine, ; : ;
3. uqguassur-wardpune, |
1. warabon, . : :
9 rites The Western tribe as a whole.
Re is names! 5572555 CI pees
3. warabon-augosa, .
1. warapon, . : él
2. ukesar, . Masig. D’Albertis [x. p. 387].
2. ukesar-warapon, . ou
1. wrapon, : : :
2. kusa, - : ‘ .? Masig. Stone [p. 252].
3. kusa urapun,
1. ward, urapon,
5. ‘ska, Saibai. Sharon ms.
Ray & Happon
The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 161
. urapon,
. ukasar, . : :
. uka-modobigal,
. ukasar-ukasar,
Saibai. Macfarlane ms.
mo bo re
- Ward, uUrapon,
1 . .
2. ukasar, ; .
; 1.
3. ukamodobigal, } | Gospe
4. uka-uka, }
1. 6répun, orapunt, urapun, . ; :
9. es al adie Moa, Badu, Mabuiag, Nagir, and
ee bank Wad: ‘[a:ew- |}:
3. dkésd érépun, .
1. wurapu, -
2. okasara, :
Tud. Curr [1. p. 684. ]
3. okasara-wurapu, .
3. arapint, ordpunt, :
2. ukésa, okésd, : | Muralug. [4.c.z.].
3. badagili, . : :
One hand, wrapuni-gétal, probably stood for five objects, and two
hands, okosa getal, for ten, but it is doubtful whether ten would be
recognised as being composed of five twos, 7.¢., okosa, okosa, okosa,
okosa, okosa. A Baduand a Moa man both gave wagetal wagétal for ten.
In Muralug badagili suggests that they originally counted up to
three, probably through Australian influence.t The word badagili is
a derivative from bagadi, perhaps meaning all or both (the other
numbers). Badaginga, another derivative from the same root, is used
in the Gospel for ‘‘ whole, entire.’’
’ The following are some examples of Australian numerals :—
West Australia, 1. gatn. 2. gudjal. 3. warhrang.
Gudang (Macgillivray), 1. epiamana. 2. elabaiu. 3. dama.
Cape York (W. W. Gill), 1. pirman. 2. labai. 3. ilanamina.
Raffles Bay, 1. loca. 2. orica. 3. orongarie.
Moreton Bay, 1. kamarah. 2. bulla. 3. mudyan.
Lake Macquarie, 1. wakol. 2. buloara. 3. ngoro.
* Badagi itself may be a derivative from a root béda, which appears in déda-
dogam, the left (i.e, the other) side. Bodagi would thus mean ‘not the others ”’
(t.¢., first and_second fingers) or the remaining three.
R.I.A PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv. iM
162 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
There was also obtained at Muralug ina nabigét (this here hand), or-
nabiget (this hand) for five; nabiget nabiget for ten; nadikoku (this
foot), for fifteen; and nabikoku nabikoku for twenty. Nabiget can
hardly be said to be the name of the number five, but that there were
as many of the objects referred to as there are fingers on one hand.?
In the same island maura was given for 100 (probably mura “‘all’’),
and kaigasa for 1000 (két gérsar, a great many), but these are not true
numerals.
The words wara, uka which appear in the Saibai ms. and in the
Gospel for one, two, are probably the root forms of the numerals.
Wara is also used for other, a certain, in the Gospels, and uka appears
as a verb, ukamoin, to double. Uka-modobigal, used for three in the
Gospel is also formed from uka. Modobigal means “‘ the fellow which
makes up (three) ” from the verb modobia, to answer, pay, 7.e. give in
return, and the noun igal. Cf. Daubai modobe, to make up.
The demonstratives ino (singular), zpa/ (dual), and ita (plural), are-
sometimes used with one, two, and three. One Muralug informant
gave 1=ino urapuni (this one), 2=ipal ukosa (those two), 3=tta
badagili (those not the other two), 4=«pal ukosa ukosa, 5 =ipal ukosa
ino urapuni, and 6 =ipal ukosa ukosa ukosa or wara badagilt.
Counting is usually performed on the fingers, beginning with the
little finger of the left hand. This was probably the original method.
There was also a system of counting on the body by commencing at
the little finger of the left hand, kotodimura, then following on with
the fourth finger, kotodimura gorngozinga (or guruzinga) ; middle finger,
tl get; index finger, klak-nétdi-get (spear-throwing finger); thumb,
kabaget (paddle-finger); wrist, perta or tiap; elbow joimt, kudu;
shoulder, zugu kwoik; left nipple, susu madu (breast-flesh); sternum,
kosa, dadir ; right nipple, susu madu, and ending with the little finger
of the right hand. (These names were obtained at Mabuiag; those
used in Tud and Muralug are somewhat different).2 This gives
nineteen enumerations, of which eleven to nineteen are merely inverse
1 These are suggestive of the Lifu vigesimal system, and are, perhaps, imitations
of it.
2 Macfarlane’s ms. gives a similar list for Saibai:—1. urapon; 2. wardadim
(other finger) ; 3. dadadim (middle finger) ; 4. kalakonitu, spear thrower ; 5. kuiku-
dims, chief finger or thumb ; 6. perta, wrist; 7. kudu (elbow); 8. zugu, shoulder ;
9. susu, breast; 10. kabu, back; 12. wadegam zugu, shoulder on the other side.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 163
repetitions of one to nine. The names are simply those of parts of the
body themselves, and are not numerals.?
An unexplained word Jaelé is used with numerals in Mk. vi. 7.
See Vocabulary.
This system could only have been used as an aid to counting, like
using a knotted string, and not as a series of actual numbers. In a
question of trade a man would remember how far along his person a
former number of articles extended, and by beginning again on the left
little finger he could recover the actual number.
Only the old men are acquainted with this method of enumeration,
and it is now superseded by the European system.
All the numerals now in use are borrowed from the English.
Simple arithmetic is taught in the Mission Schools, and the ciphers
are all introduced.
SEASONS.
‘There was no division of the year into months or days, and the
years were never counted. Time was usually reckoned by suns or
days, and by mouns or months.” —( Ethnography, p. 303.)
The year wato is divided into two seasons—azbu, the period of the
south-east winds, and kwkz, the season of the north-west monsoons.
Macgillivray gives avbow, summer or dry season ; kuki, winter or rainy
season. With regard to other seasons there is some uncertainty, and,
perhaps, a confusion of names. Macfarlane gives kuki, spring ; and bute,
autumn, as divisions of the year sazvwaur. In the Gospel (Mark, xii.
18) winter is translated azg¢ tonar, foodless time ; summer (Mark, xii.
28) is dékal natizé; and harvest, bwrugomel (Mark, iv. 29). Macgil-
livray gives also malgui (7.e. growing) as spring and autumn, and
1A similar system of counting is found in parts of New Guinea. Chalmers’
‘¢ Pioneering in New Guinea,” p. 75, gives fourteen numerals of Kaevakuku
Elema as follows:—1. harohapo, small finger of left hand; 2. oraheka, next
finger; 3. irohiho, middle finger; 4. hari, fore finger; 5. hue, thumb; 6.
ukova, wrist; 7. para, fore arm; 8. ari, elbow; 9. kac, upper arm; 10. hero,
shoulder; 11. korave, neck; 12. avaku, ear; 18. ubuhai, eye; 14. wira, nose.
It is then continued down the right side to the small finger of the right hand.
Also in describing the Orokolo (Elema country) counting he says :—‘‘In counting
they begin with the small finger on the left hand and go up to the arm—by the
neck, ear, eye, and nose—to the other side, then down the right arm, ending at the
small finger thereof.” (‘“‘ Work and Adventure,’’ p. 163).
M2
164 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
sulang?, the turtling season. ‘‘ Surlangi, the season when the turtle is
‘fast’ (de. copulating); this, at Cape York, usually extends from
about the middle of October until the end of November, but the limits
are not constant.’’—( Ethnography, p. 350.)
The times at which certain constellations (Dorgat) appeared were
noted, and these became the ¢onar or signs for particular dances or
occupations. Thus in Tud, the star Kerherki, which appeared when
food was ripe, became the sign for the dancing of the hap garig (see
Ethnography, pp. 303, 365). The Dorgat waralaig was one of the
constellations of Azbu (Legends, 1., p. 31), while the Dorgai kukilaig,
and Bu, the Pleiades, appeared at the dancing season in kuki (J. ¢., p.81).
Ports oF THE Compass.
As in Miriam, these only approximately correspond to the European
terms, and are named from the prevailing winds. The authorities
often differ, and some of the words are probably descriptive of the
position of the speaker rather than true names. We have found the
following words :—
N., Naigai, Nangap, Naida-dégam (north side). This is probably
the Miriam Wazger.
N.-W. wind, Xuki. MacGregor gives Nukagnabaguba.
S., Je (Mac Gregor) ; (Pin)nangap, Zadogam (Macfarlane).
S.-E. wind, Waura, Azbu.
E., Palagiz (rising), Poipetegam (look out side), Waradogam (other
side). Macfarlane also gives Pinapat.
E. wind, Waura.
W., Gaga pudizo (sun sets), Wagedegam (behind side), Kukidogam
(side of west wind),
W. wind, Kuki. (Mac Gregor).
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 165
TX.—Sprcimens oF THE Sarpart LANGUAGE.
1. Tue Heatine oF tHE LEpPER.
(Mark, i. 40-45.)
40. Wara lepera nubepa uzar, a mulpa patritiz nubepa a iamuliz
keda, nginanga sike ubinemepa, ngulaig ngona butupatan gougan
aima.
41. Iesu nubepa wakaeasin, a noi geto pagaean a nubia nidiz, a
iamuliz keda, Ngai ubimepa ngi mamu.
42. Noi muasin iamuliz mata dobura adapamizin nongo lepera, a
mina ngadalenga.
43. Iesu koima gudo wadan nubepa a waean nubepa, a iamuliz
nubepa keda.
44. Wara mabaegopa mulaigi, wa uzar, ngibepa iakman wakaia
uiamai mabaeg, a poiban Mose nanga ia utumiz tana mulpa tonar
tritran ngi wara ngadalngange.
45. A noi uzar, kuikaiman koima maumizin, a garouian senabi ia,
keda zingo noi kora waig uzar senabi lago; noi iawaig siéi mabagi
lago, tana nainanope uzar nubepa siéiki.
2. Tue Sower.
(Mark, iv. 3-9.)
3. Ngita karengemiziu, ngapanagemiu, ngapa uzar senabi wara
mabaeg utun a utun.
4. A noid6é ka mata utuipa, durai siéi putizi iabugudanu, ngapa
mangizo urui palgizo a purutamoin.
5. Durai gimal muké putizi ina magina baradar, mata dobura
malegui-adan, pepe baradarangu.
6. A goiga palgizo, baradar koamasin, a kainga, wa ramoginga.
7. Durai tutizi pui patralai dadal, kadaipa malegui adan pui
pratralinge a apapa ngur6taeamoin, a kousagimael.
8. Durai putizi ina mina baradaranu, a tardtaiz, a sirisiri, a kOusa-
lenga; a k6dusa aidainga thérte nainonop a sikiste, a wan handed.
9. Noi iamuliz tana mulpa keda, mi mabaeg kaura aidainga, noi
karengemin.
166 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
3. Tur Wickep HussanpMEN.
(Mark, xii. 1-9.)
1. Iesu laké kuika iman tana mulpa iamuliz ia mina matangada-
gid, keda, wara mabaeg vineu ApO sdwagai a papagan, apo kuiko
mamu nanitan, a modidan senabi lago apau danal patai lago, geto
wani mabaegodpa danal pataipa apo, a uzar koisigapa.
2. A aingu tonar, noi waean wara niai kazi tana mulpa siwagoiu
mabaegopa, a durai vine kousa mani.
8. Tana ki nubepa gasaman, a nubepa mataman, a nguro weidan,
a Nol iaginga.
4. Noi waean wara niai kazi tana mulpa; tana nubepa kula taean
kuikupa papolaméipa a nubepa nguro weidan geto langaizinga.
5. Noi waean wara, tana nubepa uma mataman ; a durai koigorsar,
a durai mataman a durai uma mataman.
6. Mata siéi nubia noidail kazi, noidd noino waean tana mulpa,
a iamuliz keda, Tana ngau kazipa akan.
7. Tana sOwakaiu mabaeg ia uman sei, keda, Butapa ina ngalpa
nubepa mataman, a nongo za ngalpan zapul.
8. Tana nubepa gasaman, a uma mataman, a vine apangu adataean.
9. Kuikulumai vine apangu miéi mani? a noi mangizo tana
mulpa sdwaki lagopa mataman, a vineu ap; wara mabaeg pange turan.
4. Tue Lasr Passover, BerrayaL AND J'RIAL oF CuRIst.
(Mark, xiv. 1-72.)
1. Muasin ukasar goiga ina paseka, senabi areto levene ginga;
tanamun k6i gdrk6ziu wakaea uiamoin, a tana minarpdlai mabaeg
tuna luman wara iabugud noind gasaman senabi paruidan, a noind
uma matan.
2. Tana iamuliz, keda, Maigi senabi ta mura mabaegongu silamai-
lai. ;
3. Iesu Bethanianu apatanori senabi Simonan lag6 ina lepera ; noi
apatanori a aipurutan, wara ipOkazi bi mangiz6 binibini laig alabasa
muinu muro mina za; na muasin papalamoéin senabi binibin alapasa,
na paieudan nongo kuikunu.
4. Durai mabaeg tabukiri, a iamuliz, keda, mipa kasa pa ieudan
senabi muro ?
Ray & Hapvpon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 167
5. Sike muasin, zabutamdin sena, ukamodobigal magina ina
handede, senabi denari modobia zagi mabaegopa poiban tana nabepa
tabukiri.
6. Iesu iamuliz, keda, maigi nabepa tabukiri ; mipa ngita nabepa
ipi dado mani? kapu za geté ina nado ngaeapa mani.
7. Mata sena ngita munia zagi mabaeg, ngita ngulaigé nidizi kapu
zageto tana mulpa senabi tonar ngita ubin meamaipa; ngal ngaru
niaiginga ngita munia, ind.
8. Na muasin nidizi nanu ngulaig; na sulan ugau gamunu a
zamiak ngaeapa maramatoiaipa.
9. Mina ngai ngita mulpa iamuliz, keda, senabi lagé mura ina
apal maumizin ina evangelia sena iadu palgan senabi nanu zageto,
nabepa ng6na numani.
10. Wara tuely kuiku mabaeg nel, Iuda Isakariota, a uzar k6i
garekaziu wakaeuiamoin, noid6 noino gudaran tana mulpa.
11. Tana karengemin, tana ikatiaipa a tana nubepa puzariz a
mami nubepa poiban. Noi iabu luman a Jesun gudaran.
12. Senabi kulai gdiga ina areto levene ginga, senabi tonar urui
mataman a pasekapa wakaia wiamoin, nong6 niai kazi iamuliz nubepa
keda, Nginu ubin mai nalaga, a ngdi butupatan a ngi purutan senabi
paseka ?
13. Noi waean ukasar uongo niai kazi, a iamuliz pala mulpa, keda,
ngipel uzar senabi lagapa, a ngipel dadamangiz wara mabaigia a buiu
ngukulnga patra uradiz; a nubepa peltaean ;
14. Senau noi muia utiz, iamuliz lagau lagdpa, Ngurupai mabaeg,
keda, nalagi azazi mabaeg, senabi ngai pasekanu purutan a ngau nia
kazi ?
15. Noid6 sesitaman ngipelpa wara kéi ngabad gimal, poidamoi-
zinga a butupataizinga, kapuza moidemin, ngoi mulpa siei.
16. Senabi nongo niai kazi palae uzareman, a mangeman senabi
lagonu, a iman keda noi nanga mido pala mulpa iamuliz, palae butu-
patan senabi paseka.
17. A kutrapa, Iesu mangizé kalmel tuelv mabaeg.
18. Tana apa nitaman aipa purutaipa, Iesu iamuliz, keda, Mina
ngai ngita mulpa iamuliz, keda wara ngau kalmel ai purutan ngona
eudaran.
19. Tana kuika iman watri wakasin, a iananab nubepa iamuliz,
keda, Mid6é ngai? wara keda, mid6 ngai ?
168 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
20. Iesu modobia iamuliz tana mulpa keda, Wara tana mun
tuely mabaegangu, senabi mabaeg ngau kalmel ai pagan senabi
peleit.
21. Kapuza senabi mabaegdu kazi keda ngadalnga minarpalar
nubepa, ngau kupalenga senabi mabaeg ind mabaegau kazi gudaran,
sike kazi mani aiginga wa noi mamu.
22. Tana purutan, Jesu areto mani, a eso, a maginu mani, a tana
mulpa poiban, a iamuliz, keda, mani, purutan, senabi ngau gamu.
23. Noi mani senabi ngukiai, a eso, a tana mulpa poiban, a tana
mura waniman.
24. Iesu iamuliz tana mulpa, keda, Ngau kuluka ina kain ia
utumiz paieudan tana mulpa mura mabaegopa.
25. Mina ngai ngita mulpa iamuliz, keda, ngai lak6 wonigi senabi
vinau k6usangu kurusipa inabi gdiga ngai lak6 nungu ngu wanizoO
kain senabi Augadau baselaia.
26. Tana muasin na poidan wara na. Tana uzar senabi pado
Elaio.
27. Iesu iamuliz tana mulpa, keda, Ngita mura getéwaniz6
ngaunguzo nabi kubi kubilé ina, muasin minar palan, keda, Ngai
mataman mamoe danal patai mabaeg, a mura mamoe naindndb uzar.
28. Muasin, a ngai lako igililenga, ngai kulai uzar ngita mun
parungu Galilaiapa, nigita kai wagel.
29. Petelu iamuliz nubepa, keda, Sike tana mura nginungu geto.
waniz, ngai kai launga.
30. Iesu iamuliz nubepa, keda, Mina ngai ngibepa muliz, ngi
ukamodobigal ngaungu gud6 tadiz, nabi kubilu ina, a kalakala ukasar
poibaiginga.
31. Noi koi ma iamuliz, keda, Ngai ngibia kalmel umanga, wa,
ngai nginungu gud6 tddaiginga, Mata keda tana mun mura ia.
32. Tana mangizo wara lago, Gethesemane nel, Iesu iamuliz
nongo niai kazi, keda, ApatanorOmoiu ina, kurusipa ind muasin ngal
toitu pagizo.
33. Noi Petelulpa angan, a Iakobo, a Ioane a kuika iman koérkak
koamasin, a mazarpagan.
34. Noi iamuliz tana mulpa, keda, ngau mari mina k6i kikiri, keda
kikiri um6 nanga mid6 ; ita k6u nitamau a poipiam.
35. Iesu k6pa amadan uzar, a baradaranu apatanoriz, a toitu
pagiz, a nubia mangaginga senabi haua siéi nubia sike ngulaig.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 169
36. Iesu iamuliz, keda, Aba, Baba, ngi ngulaig zanguzangu mura
ngaungu mani senabi binibini ina, ngau ubilnga lako maigi, kapuza
nginu ubilnga.
37. Noi mangiz6 a iman tana a utui; noi iamuliz Petelu, keda,
Simonae, ngi utui? ngi magao ginga poipiam senabi haua urapon.
388. Ngita poipiam, a toitu pagiz ngita muia utaiginga senabi
nutan ; mari magao, a gamu gogainga.
39. Jesu lako uzar toitu pagiz6, a iamuliz, senabi urapu ia.
40. Noi lako kunia tridizoO a imiz tana a lako utui, tana mun
puruka maitui, tana korawaig nubepa modobia iamuliz.
41. Iesun uka modobilgal mangail a tana mulpa iamuliz keda,
ngita mun utui, ngdna pudizo; keda mangizo ina haua; ngapanagemiu,
Mabaegau kazi muasin kobegad karumpalan setabi mura mabaegau
watri geto.
42. Kadaini tamau, ngalpaldui pa; ngapanagemiu, amadan
senabi mabaegan ngona gudaran.
43. Noi kozi muliz, Iuda mata dobura mangizo wara kalmel tana
munia tuely mabaeg, noi kalmel mura mabaeg koi kuiai turik a
gabagaba patra uradiz, tana mulngu wakai uiamol mabaegangu, v
minar polai mabaeg, a durai moroigal.
44. Noido senabi mabaegan noind gudaran, tana mulpa iamuliz,
keda, senabi mabaeg ngat6 gud6 tapaman, wa, sena noi, noind gasaman,
a kéima kai puzaromoin.
45. Noi mangiz6, noi mata débura Iesulpa uzariz, a iamuliz keda,
Rabi, Rabi, a noind gudé tapaman.
46. Tana nubepa get6 pagaean, a noind gasaman.
47. Wara tana murungu kadaitariz, a kuiai torik dokopingu
pardan, a mata man senabi mabaegau wakaia uiamoi lagau niai kazi, a
nono kaura patan.
48. Iesu iamuliz tana mulpa, keda, Mid6, ngita ngaeapa bole uzar
keda puru mabaeg nanga midé, kuiai torik a gabagaba patra uladiz
ngaeapa mataman ?
49. Ngai ngita munia wakai uiaipa puzipu senabi dana ngoro
ngomai lagopa, a ngita ngdna gasamoiginga, mata ngadagid senabi ia
minarpalan.
50. Tana mura nubepa get6 wanemin, a arizo.
51. Wara kawa-kuig nubia asin, nongo gamu abizé dumawagu sak
wali lino abaiginga; durai kawakun noino gasaman.
170 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
52. Noi get6é waniz senabi sake wali lino a kasa kupal arizo.
53. Tana Iesun gasaman tana mulpa k6i gorkozipa wakai uiamon
mabaeg, a tana minar pdlai mabaeg.
54. Petelu nubia wagel gabudan ulaipa senabi ngabado, koigorkoziu
wakai umai lagd, a kalemel niai kazi apata nori, a muipa koamapa
kalmel niai kozia apatanori.
55. Tana durai koigdrkoziu wakaia uiamoin, tana ia balbaigi palan,
a nubepa wakain pagaipa a noind mataman; a imaiginga.
56. Koi gorsar mabaeg nubepa ngolkai iamuliz, a tana nainonobe
iamuliz.
57. Durai kadaini taman nubepa ngalakai ia taean, keda.
58. Ngdi karengemin noi iamuliz, keda, Ngatd idimoin senabi
moidan getan moidaiginga.
59. Tana urapon iabu ia mulaiginga.
60. Tana mun wakai uiai mabaeg dadal kadaitariz, a Iesulpa
lapupoibizi, keda, Ngi modobia iamulaigia? tana mun ia miéi
ngibepa imulizilamizo ?
61. Iesu ia mulaiginga, a modobia maiginga. A tanamun kdigar-
kazi wakaia uiamoin a laké nubepaiapupoibizi, keda iamuliz, nubepa,
ngi Keriso, ngi Mamal totiu kazi?
62. lesu keda, Ngai ind ; ngita iman kai Mabaegan kazi getaddgam
apa tanori senabi Parpar, kalmel daparau zia uzar.
63. Senabi k6i gérk6ziu wakai uiamoin noidé nongo dumawaku
paiele gamGin, a iamuliz, keda, Mipa wara ia imulizilamiz6 ;
64. Ngita muasin karengemin Augada gegeté pugan; ngita mun
wakai tama main mid6? Tana mura kuduman keda mata ngadagid
noi umanga.
65. Durai mabaeg kuika iman noino mosan sulupan, a nongo paru
supu nuran, getan nubepa mataman, a iamuliz nubepa keda, pa perofeta
lak6, tana niai kazi noind mataman.
66. Petelu apatanori ngabaddnu muinu, wara ngawakazi uzar
k6igdrk6ziu waia uiamai lagau niai kazi.
67. Nad6 Petelun iman muingu kéamapa, na nubepa nagizé a
iamuliz, keda, Ngi senabi mabaeg kalmel Iesu Nazaretalaig ?
68. Petelu gud6 tadiz, a iamuliz, keda, Ngai korawaig, ngato
mamu ngurupaiginga senabi nginu 1a, Noi adapadan ioungapa, a
kalakala poibiz.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 171
69. Lak6o noind iman senabi ngawakazi niai kazi, a kuika iman
iamuliz kadain sei mabaegdpa, keda, Wara tana mun ind.
70. Petelu lak6 gudo tadiz6, soabaginga a senabi kadai tarai
mabaeg a iamuliz Petelu, keda, sike mina ngi wara tana mun mabaeg
ngi Galilailaig, ngita mun urapon iangukudu.
71. Petelu kuika iman bogailbdgail gud6 tadiz, keda, ngai kora-
waig nabi mabaeg ina ngita mulpa iamuliz.
72. A kalakala ukasare poibizi, Petelu ngonanu mani senabi Jesun
ia nubepa mulizo, keda ngi uka modobilgal ngaungu gudo tadizo, a
ukasar launga, kalakala poibiz, noi ngona numani, a noi mai.
X.—Sarpal ann Enorish VocaBuLaRry.
This Vocabulary, of about 3400 words, is compiled chiefly from the
uss. of Sharon (us. 8), Macfarlane (ms. 6), and Haddon (us. 3), but
all the words contained in other vocabularies have been added.
Words unmarked may be regarded as the common language, and are
found in the Translation (16) and in Macfarlane’s list (ws. 6); in
other cases the exact locality in which the word was obtained is
marked as follows :—
s. Saibai, from Sharon (ms. 8).
m. Muralug, or Prince of Wales Is., from Jukes (Port Lihou) (1),
Macgillivray (Kowrarega), (2), and Haddon (us. 8).
B. Boigu, or Talbot Is., and Saibai, from MacGregor (28).
mg. Masig, or Yorke Is., from Jukes (Masseed), (1), Stone
(Machik), (10), and D’Albertis (9).
t. ud, or Warrior’s Is., from Curr (15).
mb. Mabuiag, or Jervis Is., from Savage (ms. 7).
The lists collected by one of us, contain words from all of the
above, as well as from (n.) Nagir, or Mount Ernest, Moa, or Banks’
Island, and Badu, or Mulgrave Island.
The cases of nouns and verbal expressions are given with the
simplest form in square brackets. The numbers in curved brackets
refer to the pages in the Ethnography (‘‘ Journ. Anthrop. Inst.” xix.
1890), where the object mentioned is described,
172 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Saibar-English Vocabulary.
A, conj. and, also; but.
aba (at), pron. dual, us two.
abaiginga, a. not covered, uncovered, bare, naked.
abal, x. a single fruit of the pandanus.
aban (m), pron. our (inclusive dual).
abeipa (a1), ». to cover over, overshadow. [aban].
abiz6, ”. a covering.
abul = abal; abul-dan’ (lit. pandanus-eye), the kernel of the pandanus
fruit.
ada, ad. out.
adabada-mitalnga (B), ~. brackish water.
adabadu (8), . salt water.
adabu (m), 2. salt water.
adadadagainga (B), v. to dine.
adadégam, ». outside. [adadogapa. ]
adakado, ad. through.
adal, ad. out.
adan, a. open, opened; v. from adeipa.
adapa, ad. out, away, off.
adapadan, a. past; v. to issue.
adapagan, v. to come out; adapagan gulngu, come out from the ship.
Mark, vi. 54.
adapakadaman, v. to peel.
adapamani, v. to remove, to take away.
adapamizin, v. to depart, to go out, to escape.
adapa-taean, v. to throw away.
adapa-tamoin, v. to escape.
adapa-waean, v. to disperse.
ada-pudiz, adaputiz, a. superior, highest; ad. beyond.
ada-puidan, v. to eject, extend.
ada-taean, v. to leave, to abandon, to reject.
adautubaba (B), 2. a wing feather. Cf. baba.
ada-wakaimizin, v. to spite.
adeipa (m), v. to go out; to perforate, cf. adan.
adi (1), x. a mythical person turned into a rock. (Legends, i. 181).
Cf. Miriam Ad.
Ray & Havpon —The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 173
adi (B), 2. a story or tale.
adia (?), Mark, iv. 11.
adigila (rT), adizela (rT), ». a wig.
ad6 (B), 2. a goose.
adoima (m), #. an uncle; mother’s brother. Cf. tati, keuba tati,
waduam.
adtidziolai (rv), ~. a wig. Cf. adigila.
adzar (a), a. forbidden as food.
ae, exclam. ah! Mark, xv. 29.
aewldan,
aga, . an axe; aga-turik, aga-turi, an iron axe.
agaleg (m), 2. an eagle.
agu (mb), 2. a platform on which the shells of turtle were preserved
(406).
agu (Mm), 2. a cairn of stones; the back of a turtle.
ai, 2. food. ([aidu, aipa, aingu. |
aibo (mt), aibu, 2. the south-east monsoon; name of the dry season.
aidai, v. to have, to possess.
aidainga, a. having, possessing.
aideigan = aidainga. Mark, iv. 25 (or ? = not to have).
aidu, ». food. Cf. ai. |
aidu-poiban, v. to give food, to feed.
ale, v. zmperat. come! (from a place near).
aic-wél (a), v. amperat. come here!
aigar (?), nanu aigar barpudan, all her living. Mark, xii. 44.
aigi, suffix to adjectives implying negation.
aigiasina (B), ripe.
aigina, suffix, none, not; tanamunia aiaigina, they have no food.
Mark, vi. 36.
aiginga, aigingd, a. not having.
aigi-taean, v. to spend, to finish (?). Mark, v. 26; xii. 22.
aigi-tonar (s), 2. famine time; winter.
aikeka (at), pron. myself.
aima (?), ngéna butupatan géugan aima, make me clean. Mark,
i. 40.
aimaipi, aimipa, aimeipa, aimdipa, v. to make, to do, to build.
[aiman. |
aimiz, v. to commit adultery. Mark, x. 19; to destroy, Mark, iii. 6.
174 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
aimiz-gudaran, v. to betray.
aimizi, v. to betray. Mark, iti. 19; to kill, Mark, vi. 19.
ai-purutan, v. to eat food; x. a feast.
ai-za, 7. food.
ajir (m1), ». shame.
ajiran (mu), a. ashamed.
aju, (at), ”. a shell, (Cyprea).
aka, z. fear.
akagi, v. not to fear; do not fear.
akaginga, a. not fearing.
akamaiza, m.a shield. Probably a made-up word. Cf. aka, mai, za.
akamiz, exclam. oh!
akan6, v. to fear,
akir (ab), a word used in connection with the ‘‘ small name” (406).
akul, akulé, 7. the clam shell, (Cyraena); used as a spoon; also used
as a knife in making masks and other objects.
akur (at), 2. the intestines.
alae, n. alai (a), husband.
alak6, n. arent, a tear. Mark, ui. 21.
alaliz, v. to puzzle.
alase, m. salt. A Greek word introduced v7é Lifu. [alasiu, alasenv. |
alasilgal, 7. salt persons; Mark, ix. 50. kapu za ngita alasilgal, good
thing (if) ye (are) salt people. Eng. = have salt in yourselves.
alasue,
albei (11), pron. we two.
albeine (a), pron. our (exclus. dual).
albinipa (a), pron. for us two (exclus. dual).
algadi (a), 2. the barb of the javelin = (tun).
alidan (1), 2. a groin shell used when fighting. Cf. lorda.
alka (11), a spear (333), probably kalak.
alopa (at), 2. the melon or scoop shell, (Cymbium). C¢#. alup, salop.
aloté (B), 2. salt.
alpa (a), pron. let us; shall we?
alub,
alup (aluk m), 2. the melon, bailer, slipper, or scoop shell, ( Cymbeum).
Cf. salop.
am =amu.
ama, 2. mother; mother’s sister. Used only in the vocative. Cf. apu.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 175
amadan, a. near.
amaean, v. to creep, to crawl.
amai, 2. a native oven, often called képamauri. The latter is an
introduced term.
amaipa, v. to make, create.
amaizo, v. to beg.
amal (B), 2. a cloud, cumulus.
amamu, ad. well.
amau (s), mother, = ama.
ame. Cf. amai.
ameipa (m), v. to be affected with.
amori (s), 2. a sail.
amu, ”. a plaited native rope used with the dugong harpoon.
ana (M), pron. me, my.
anaga (m), ad. where?
anamu, a. hale.
angai-dumawaku, ”. coat. Mark, vi. 9.
angan-toridiz, v. to carry.
angeipa, v. to hold, to carry. [angan].
angemina (B), v. to swallow.
angizO, anguzo, v. to put on (of clothes.) Mark, vi. 9.
anwar (mg), 2. finger-nail.
aona (m), 2. the sting ray. Cf. tapi.
ap =apa, apo.
apa, 2. ground, earth, soil, country; pl. apal. [apau, apapa, apangeu,
apia. |
apa, apal, apalo, ad. and prep. down, under, below.
apa-dokam, . the under side, the bottom (lit. ground side).
apai, a. low.
apal, x. the bottom; kuikaiman gimal kurusipa apal, from the top to
the bottom. Mark, xv. 38.
apalapal (s), ~. the world (lit. below).
apapuil (?), apa, pui. Mark, iv. 32.
apasin, v. to stoop.
apataean, v. to be cast down, to be offended. Mark, iy. 17.
apatanu (B), apatanor, apatanur, v. to sit down. [apatanoriz. |
apatanori, v. abide (imperative). Mark, vi. 10.
api, 2. a fishing net.
176 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
api-angai-mabaeg, 2. fisherman (lit. net-holding-man). '
apia (? from apo); ina kai umai apia purutan laulauiu magina kaziu
borupudaizing, the dogs under the table eat the children’s
crumbs. Mark, vii. 28.
apia-iaunano (8), v. to lie down.
apiga, x. the Malay apple, a Zugenia. Cf. List of Introduced Words.
apnu (s), . a village (lit. in country).
apo, n. a field, garden, plantation; konau apo, ». corn field. Cf. apa.
apopauna, . the hand.
aporega, ”. a bird, the ‘‘ native companion.”
apu, 2. mother; mother’s sister. The common noun. [apupa.] Cf.
ama.
arage (m), arake, a. silent.
arai (s), ”. rain, = ari.
araiginga, v. not to flee; ngita araiginga, ye fee not. Mark, xiii.
18.
arakato = arkato.
arang (Mm), ”. armpit.
ararapa (Mm), 2. a small bat.
arawi (?), arawi-gul (s), x. a ship.
arepa, v. to shield.
ari, 2. a black louse.
arl (M), pron. we, us.
ari, ”. rain.
arien (mM), pron. of us, our.
ariga (Mm), ”. a fishing line.
arinipa (m), pron. for us.
ari-pudeipa (m), v. to fall; (lit. rain falls).
ari-puilaig (mb), 2. the rain-mar.; a sorcerer producing rain (401).
aritig (m), 2. a fishing line.
ariz, arizo, v. to flee.
arkaté (B), arakato, 7. a hole; arakato putran, v. to make a hole.
ard, n. dawn, daybreak.
arodardo (?), tanamulpa arodardo gard ngalekan mai kapuakdsiginga,
upbraided them with their unbelief. Mark, xvi. 14.
ardpugiz, v. to cry out. Mark, xv. 39.
asaro, v. to sneeze.
asigi, a. not with. Mark, ii. 19.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 177
asiginga, a. not being with, not accompanying or following. Mark,
ix. 39.
asima,
asimpa (?), nol gurugui nagepa puruka borbarado gamu asimpa tanamul-
pa, he had looked round about on them with anger. Mark, iii. 5.
asin, v. to be with ; prep. with. |
asir, 2. shame.
asiran, a. ashamed.
Ata (m), 2. the belly of a turtle.
atadonga, a. broad, wide.
atadrun (s), 2. native bread.
atang (m), a. flat; (see ata).
ati, m. the octopus. Cf. sugu and arti, Miriam Vocab.
au, particle expressing the locative, used before names of places.
au, exclam. oh!
auak (mg), 2.awoman. (Stone). Cf. awash.
auar, ”. a claw, =awar.
auei, ”. paint.
augada, augado, n. God (introduced meaning). Cf. augtd, Mir. agud.
[augadau, augadan, augadapa, augadano, augadal. |
augosa=uka, ukasar, two; warabon augosa, three,
augiid, ». a totem.
auwa, ”. a mat.
auwai (m), 2. the pelican, =awai; auwai-kap = awai-kap.
awai (mb), 2. the pelican ; awai-kap, the pelican dance (362).
awar (B), ”. a claw.
awash (mM), 2. a woman’s covering.
awiali,
awidizo, v. to honour.
awido (B), 2. an oyster.
azar (mt), forbidden as food.
azazi (? travelling), azazi-san, ». shoe, sandal; azazi-mabaegi, n.
a guest; nalaga azazi mabaeg, ». guest chamber. Mark, xiv.
14; azazi-zana (B), 2. foot.
azipa (mM), v. to become.
aziro (B), a. ashamed; v. to blush; n. shame.
aziran, a. ashamed.
azugerka (1), 2. name given by a girl to her sweetheart. Cf. rogaig.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. Iv. N
178 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Ba, conj., for, if; ba poibanai, for there shall be given. Mark, iv.
25; ba ngato tanamulpa waean tanamun lagopa, if I send them
to their houses. Mark, viii. 3.
baba, babo, 7. father, in vocative only. [babange. ]
baba, ~. a feather; (m), quill of an eagle.
babad, . sister, = babato or babtid.
babange; see Grammar, p. 139.
babat, babaté, 7. sister ; (see barabato) ; a sister without children (s),
pl. dabatal.
babasum (rT), ”. the eyebrows.
baba-wangu (s), 2. father.
babiid, 2. a man’s sister or a woman’s brother.
babu-iabu, 2. a ditch (lit. a stream of the road).
babun, x. the tail of a fish.
babur, 7. a scar.
bada, bad6, z. an ulcer, a sore.
bada (B), ”. a shield.
badagili (at), three.
badaginga, a. whole, entire; nginu korka badaginga, all thy heart.
Mark, xii. 30.
badalaiga (B), 2. the yaws.
badale, a. sore; (m), a. sore producing.
badalenga = badale.
*padanga, a. on the left, left-hand. Cf. béda-dégam.
badar (a1), 2. the toad fish.
badi,
badoulai pa (?), Iesu nogain mamu badoulai pa, Jesus looked round
about. Mark, x. 23.
bag, bagé, . the chin, lower jaw ; the cheek.
baga (8), 2. a duck.
bagabogub (a), 2. a stone headed club.
baga-mina, 7. a cicatrix on the face (367). Cf. mausa usal.
bagai (?), noino bagai sdlman, railed on him. Mark, xv. 29.
bage, ”. a cloud.
bager, 7. a long spear.
bag-iata, 2. whiskers, (lit. cheek-hair).
bag-taean, bagé-taean, v. to promise.
bagum6 (m), 2. lightning.
Ray & Happon. —The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 179
bagur (™), ”. pus.
bai (s), ”. grass.
baibuli (8), . an insect.
baidam, baidamé, xz. a shark; baidam togui, a shark’s fin, baidam-
sai-togui, a shark’s tail.
bai-ib (x, m), 2. the eyebrows.
balidun, 7. a shark, = baidamo.
baili x. a basket made of the leaf of the coco-palm = boi.
bait (t, ), z. the cuscus (opossum of Cape York), = barit.
balbado x. coast.
balbai, a. crooked, bent.
balbaigi, a. not bent, straight.
balbaiginga, a. = balbaigi.
balbaig-palan, v. to put straight, to explain.
balbainga, a. crooked, wrong.
balbai-pudiz, v. to peep.
balbai-tidan, balbai-tridan, v. to make straight.
balbai-tilam, v. to bend.
balbai-tridaipa, v. to make straight, to rectify.
balo, 2. breadth.
balopudan, see baropudaipa.
balpudai (? root of baropudaipa), balpudai-doid, m. a market.
balopudan, balpudan, see baropudaipa.
baltariz, v.to stand still. Mark, x. 49.
bami-nadan (?), v. to put up with; to suffer. Mark, ix. 19.
ban, misprint for bau. Mark, iv. 37.
bangal, x. the morrow, the next day, the day before. Mark, xv. 42;
(ar), two or three days hence.
banitan (?), Pilato koisarkdisar banitan sisike noi umanga, Pilate
marvelled if he were already dead. Mark, xv. 44.
barabato (ar), x. a man’s brother or woman’s sister. In vocative only.
baradai (s), . earth, soil. Cf. apa, J.
baradar, barador, ». earth, soil, ground. Cf. apa. [baradau, baradoran,
baradaranu, bara dordnu, baradarangu. |
baradi, ”. a stony hill.
bardo, n. thatch.
bari (at), 2. grass.
baribara (B), 2. a coconut, used for drinking purposes.
N2
180 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
barit (7, mu), 2. the cuscus, = bait.
bardpudaipa, barpudan, balopudan, v. to buy ; nanu aigar barpudan,
her living, i.e., her food buying. Mark, xii. 44.
bartider (a), x. mud. Cf. baradar.
batainga, ”. the morning; (m) to-morrow.
bau, . the sea; a wave of the sea; bau sik, ». waves. Mark, iv. 37.
bau, 7. a spear. ;
baua (™), a. flat, plain.
bauka (?), mosan bauka weidaman, to foam at the mouth. Mark, ix.
18, 20.
beagi (1), exclam. a call to a blind person.
beara, . the ribs. Cf. bero.
bége, v. a cloud.
beibasa, x. eyebrow. Cf. babasum.
beidum (m), . a shark, = baidam.
bepa, suffix, for.
berai (?), berai-pungaipa v. to be easy. Mark, x. 25.
béribei kar, 7. a rope fence.
bero, ”. the ribs, chest, side of the body. Cf. beara.
bero-pui, 7. a lath (lit. rib-wood).
béte (ar), x. drift-wood.
bia, suffix.
bidu (a), 2. the porpoise.
bigu, 7. a bull roarer with a low and deep note (406).
biia (a1), 2. a bird, the goatsucker.
biiu, x. the mangrove. ‘‘ A gray slimy paste used as food, and pro-
cured from a species of mangrove (Candelia?), the sprouts of
which, three or four inches long, are first made to undergo a
process of baking and steaming—a large heap being laid upon
heated stones, and covered over with bark, wet leaves, and
sand—after which they are beaten between two stones, and
the pulp is scraped out fit for use.”” Macgillivray, ii. p. 26.
bila (a), x. the parrot fish.
binibini (s), x. a cup; (B) a soup-plate (?); binibini alabasa, an ala-
baster box. Mark, xiv. 3.
bipi (?), (s), 2. the nose.
biraig, 2. a table.
birgesera. (Ethnography, p. 415).
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 181
bisi, n. the sago palm; sago.
bis-uab, . mourning armlets and leglets made of bzs7 leaves.
bizar, (m1), ». the purple yam. Cf. ketai.
boa (a), 2. the conch shell, = bu.
bobata (m) x. a grandfather.
boboam (m), 2. a shell, ( Ovulum).
bobotim (7, ), a shell ( Ovudum) = buboam.
bobu, z. a rill, a stream, = bubu.
boda-dogam (s), 2. the left side.
boda-get, . the left hand.
bogail bogail (?), Petelu kuikaiman bogailbdgail gudoétadiz, Peter
began to deny with cursing and swearing. Mark, xiv. 71.
Cf. List of Introduced Words.
bogi (s) 2. a staff, a walking-stick.
boi, boi, v. to. come, = boie.
boia (B), . light, = buia.
boibasamu (B), boibisom, ». the eyebrows, = babasam.
boibata, ”. a sister (see babato, barabato).
boie, v. to come, = boi.
boie (s), 2. the voice.
boii (mb), 2. a basket made of coco-palm leaf. Cf. baili.
bokadongo, 2. a circle.
bom (m), 2. a cluster of pandanus fruit.
boradar, ». earth, = baradai, baradar.
borbarad6 (?), noi gurugui nagepa puruka borbaradd gamu asimpa
tana mulpa, he looked round about on them with anger.
Mark, ii. 5.
borodan, = boradar. .
borupudaizinga, m. crumbs; magina kaziu borupudaizinga, the chil-
dren’s crumbs. Mark, vii. 28.
botainga = batainga ; mdge botainga, morning long before day.
botaiginga,
bradar (8), ad. here.
bru, m. an anklet (332).
brua (ub), 2. an anklet made of coco-palm leaf.
bru-mada (a), . the calf of the leg.
bru-rida (at), . the shin bone.
bu, 2. the conch shell, Fusus proboscidiferus, used as a trumpet
182 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
bu, 2. the Pleiades. Cf. kusali.
bua (a1), x. the bow of a canoe.
bua (mb), z. the wild yam ; (1) Calladium esculentum.
buai (a), 2. the bow of a canoe, = bua.
bibti (a1), z. a stream of fresh water.
buads, z. the side. [buadénu, buadia]
buboam (m1), the egg cowrie shell. (Ovulum). Cf. boboam.
bubu (s), 7. the tide.
bubuam (mb), a shell. (Ovulum).
bud, z. paint made from crushed coral used in mourning, hence
nm. Mourning.
budadigamé. (B), 2. the left side, = boda-dogam.
budaman (a), a. flooded (lit. made muddy).
budi (a1), . a shell, the small periwinkle.
bug (mb), z., ratan.
bugiri (B), a. blind.
buia, 2. blaze, flame.
buiéli (at), . flame; (prob. pl. of buia).
buiu, 2. a glass bottle; buiu ngukulnga, a, pitcher of water. Mark,
xiv. 13. Cf. boii.
buji (a1), a cane (Jagellaria).
buk (ab), 7. a small mask.
buk, 2. a common Siluroid.
buko (s), ”. sand.
buli, z. a fly.
bume (a), z. the frontlet of the dri.
bupa (s,B), ~. the bush, the forest, uncultivated land; iamuliz
nubepa senabi bupau kuikungu, spoke to him in the bush.
Mark, xii. 26. [bupau, bupapa. ]
bupariz, v. to flee. Mark, v.14. Cf. bupa, ariz.
bupur, z. floor.
bura, ”. a leaf(?). Cf. urapabura.
burbur (1), 2. a small drum, = birubiru.
burdo (m), ”. grass, thatch. Cf. bardo.
burker (a), ”. charcoal.
burkui, 2. a leak.
birom, x. a pig.
burubira, 2. a small cylindrical drum. Cf. burbur.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 1838
burugamul, burugomul, a. ripe; burugdmul kousa, when the fruit is
brought forth. Mark, iv. 29; burugomul mael, x. harvest
Mark, iv. 29.
burugo (a), 2. the horsefly (Hematopoda).
burum, burum6 (m,8), 2.a pig, pl. burumal. [burumau, burumepa,
burumia. |
birum (s) = birum.
buta (ar), ~. the wing of a bird.
buta (?), senabi buta haua ukamodobilgal, buta haua sikis, buta haua
nain, about the third hour, sixth hour, ninth hour; senabi
goigoi butanu moidemin, the day of the preparation.
buta (8), . a gate, a passage ; butaginga, no passage. Mark, 11. 2.
butapa, ». a heir.
buto, 2. autumn.
butu (a1), 2. sand, a sandy beach.
butupalizi, v. to shake off; butupalizi ngitamun sanangu poi, shake
off the dust from your feet. Mark, vi. 11.
butupataipa, v. to cleanse, prepare, mend, heal. |butupatan, butu-
pataizinga. |
butupataiginga, v. not to clean.
butupataizinga, ». washing.
butapotaiginga = butapataiginga.
buzar, ”. and a. fat.
buzo, ». a reed.
buzu (a1), ”. the back stays of a boat.
Da (8), the breast or bosom.
dabai, . the booby bird.
dabari, 2. = dabai.
daboi, x. the king fish ( Cybiwm).
dabu (mb) = daboi.
dada, dado, n. the middle ; dadaget (Moa) the middle finger ; dada-
kubilu, ». midnight; dada-dim, dada-dimu, . the middle
finger; the number three, in counting on the fingers; dada-
goiga, dadé-gdiga, . mid-day, noon.
dadaig (a), 2. the third brother.
dadalo, ». the centre, middle.
dada-mamain, dadémamain, »v. to divide.
184 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
dada-mangizo, v. to meet (lit. come to the middle).
dadan, prep. between.
dada-pasa, 7. a window.
dadeima-matameipa (at), v. to kill.
dadeipa (a1), v. to die.
dadia, x. Mark, vy. 22, 30; dadia adan, came out to meet; mabaegia
dadia mura, in the press. Cf. dada.
dadir (ab), the sternum. Cf. kosa.
dadu, n. a flag-like streamer made from coco-palm leaf.
dagam (t, m), . the bird of Paradise (Paradisea Raggiana); the
head-dress made of paradise feathers used in war.
dago, a. weak.
dagoi (ar), m. a head-dress made of cassowary feathers used in a dance ;
dagoisam (tr). Cf. samérar.
dagori (m1) = dagoi.
dai-bradara (B), 2. clay.
daje (1), ”. a petticoat, = gagi.
dak, dak6, n. the temples.
dalnga (s), a. kind (lit. possessing a bosom ; see da.)
dalpimau-mabaig, 7. lust. Cf. darpiam.
damu (s), sea-grass ; ialdamu, kadapadamu, paradamu, different species
of Cymodocea.
dan, dand, n. the eye; pl. danal; dand-ngurngomizé, n. religion
(Macfarlane); danal-pataipa, ». to watch.
dana (1), a tooth; p/. danala.
danagi, a. blind (lit. without eyes.)
danakuku (8), danakoko (a), ”. the ankle.
danakukuro (1, »), . an anklet, made of coco-palm leaf.
danaleg (a), a. alive (lit. possessing eyes).
dana-muktaean, dandmukotaean, v. to glance at, to watch.
danal-patai, v. to look after, watch.
dana-pataipa, danal-pataipa, v. to watch.
dana-nuki (m), ”. a spring. Cf. the Samoan, etc., mata-vai, spring,,
the (a) and Samoan are both literally eye-water.
daneipa (a), to rise, as the sun.
dang (B), . a border or edge. Cf. dang, teeth.
dang, dangé, n. the teeth.
danga-kikiri, 2. tooth-ache.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—-II. 185.
dangal, 7. the dugong (Halicore australis).
danga-mai (mb, 7), m. a crescent-shaped ornament of pearl shell (Lit.
tooth of pearl) (340).
danga-mari (m), z. = danga-mai.
dani, 7. a tree.
danilkau (tb), . one of the performers in the funeral dance (404).
dan6-paliz, v. to be awake.
dan-taean, v. to exhort.
danule (ar), a. wanton.
daoma (a), z. yellow ochre.
-dapar, z. a cloud (ar); the sky, heaven. [daparao, daparau, daparpa,
daparngu, daparnu. |
dapurkup (1), ”. necklace.
daraba, 2. a plantation.
darai=durai. Mark, vii. 4.
darbanu (?)
darpapa, ”.abush (?). Cf. daraba.
darpar (?) = dapar.
darpiam, 7. fornication. Mark, vii. 21. Cf. dalpimau.
darubi (x), 2. a bamboo jew’s harp.
darubiri = darubi.
daui (s), a banana.
daualban, x.arow;v.torow. Mir. segise.
dauda-laig, ~. heathen.
dauma (1), 2. the period of mourning.
dawal, v. to look (?).
dawh (™), 2. a yam.
dega (mg), x. the sun.
deka (?), ngoimulpa deka muliz, tellus. Mark, xiii. 4.
déla (at), x. a plant (Scaevola Koenigit).
delupeipa (a1), v. to drown.
der (ab), a kind of breast plate made of coco-palm leaf, which
formed a sort of yoke round the neck and extended down
the chest, being tucked beneath the wakawal.
dérabu (™), x. a wild yam.
déri (s, mu), 2. a white feather head-dress, = dri.
dewa-dagamola (1), a. yellow.
dia, x. a cloud. Mark, ix. 7. Cf. jia, zia.
186 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
diabo. Mark, v. 13.
diadi, ”. a sponge.
dibago, x. dew; (B) a fog.
dibidib, dibidibi, . a round shell ornament, the top of a cone shell
ground flat; a dish made of shell.
digidigi (ar), z. a white duck.
dimunu-pagan, v. to pinch. Cf. dimur.
dimur (mb), 2. a finger.
dipaman, 2. an oath.
dirdimai = dorddim6in.
diuidu, v. to retain; ngitamun pawa diuidu, your tradition. Mark,
vii. 13.
diwanamani (B), v. to rejoice (prob. = diwana-mani, make a dance).
diwapa, v. to dance. See gamu-diwapa.
diwi (m), x. a scorpion. Cf. idiidi.
do, 2. a bridge.
déam (mb), ”. the cross ties inside a canoe.
doar, ”. a black sea fowl.
déba-buada, . the wayside. Mark, iv.15. Cf. buadé. [dobabuadanu. ]
dodbu (s), a. old, rotten.
dobunga, a. rotten.
dobura, débura (always with mata) ; mata dobura, ad. immediately.
dddolae, x. the second brother. Mark, xii. 21. Cf. dada, alae, dadaig.
dégam, ”. a place; a bed; table. Mark, vii. 4; the floor. [dogamunu,
dokamnu. |
dégaman (? dégamanu, from dégam), in its place. Mark, xiii. 14.
dogei (a), 2. the planet Jupiter(?) Cf. dorgai.
doid, doids, m. a plain, a wilderness; balpudai ddid, a market. [doidpa
doidénu. |
dokal (?), ngita ngulaig amadan dékal natizé, ye know summer is nigh.
Mark, xiii. 28.
dokam, dokam = dogam.
dokap, dokopi, ». the thigh; kuiai torik dokopingu pardan, drew a
sword from the thigh. Mark, xiv.47. Cf. drakapi.
dongan,
dénga-wakasin, ”. a savage (Macfarlane),
dopuza, n. an old thing; dopu = dobu.
dora-tudan, v. to weed.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 187
dordiman, v. to draw out.
dordimoin = dorddiméin.
dorgai, ”. a kind of bogey or spirit; a constellation.
dorgai kukilaig, ”. a constellation (Haddon, Legends 1. 31).
dorgai waralaig, ». a constellation (Haddon, Legends 1. 381).
dorodimai-lago, . prison (lit. bondage-house).
dorddimoin, v. to bind; to imprison; to hang.
dorédimoizinga, a. tied ; ». fetters.
drakapi (m), . the thigh. Cf. dokap.
dri (ub), . the cockatoo (?) (Legends, p. 29). Cf. wem.
dri, ”. a head-dress made of white karbai feathers.
dri grer (mb), dri girer (a), ”. the dance in which the dri was worn
(362).
drudrupizo, v. to drown. Cf. dudupizo.
drurai = durai.
du (?), ita du tonaral, these signs. Mark, xvi. 17.
dua (a), 2. the cashew nut.
dub (s), ”. a swelling.
dubidubia, v. to murmur.
dubiruna (8), 2. a wound.
dudupizo, v. to overthrow, drown; to overwhelm ; to dip in a liquid ;
dudupan senabi pagara vineganu, dipped a sponge in vinegar.
Mark, xv. 36. [dudupan. |
dugunga, a. blunt.
duia-adan, v. to be convalescent.
duium6 (m), x. thunder. Cf. gigino.
dukun, . a tree with hard wood.
dulbor (a), . a fish. (Jukes.)
dumawagu, dumawaku, . calico, cloth (cf. waku), pl. dumawakul.
angai-dumawaku, ». garment. [dumawakuia. |
dumawaru (B), ”. cloth.
dumawk (1), clothes.
dun (a1), ». the eye-ball. (See dan.)
dina-kukur (a), 2. an anklet of coco-palm leaf. Cf. brua.
duna-samu (B), ”. the eyelid.
dingal, m. the dugong (Halicore australis). Cf. dangal.
dungulo (m1), m. an opossum.
dupu (8), 2. elephantiasis of the legs = dub.
188 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
dupu (™), . the bronzed ant; the ague.
dura (a), 2. the breast, chest, mammae, = da.
durai, a. some; inabi durai, these ; senabi durai, those.
durai-ina, a. these.
durai-siei, a. those.
durai-wanan, v. to remain (lit. some are left).
duréd, a. = durai; tana gasamizo ita duro tabul, they shall take up
serpents. Mark, xvi. 18.
durpum-gigo (s), 2. thunder.
duru (?), kusa duru (a), a band of beads worn on the wig.
duru zonga, a. some things; duru zonga lupaliz, some wonders. Cf.
durai.
Ege (?), kawaku ege kutau pawa, lasciviousness. Mark, vii. 22.
ejena (m), 2. an insect ( Cicada).
eka, v. to wish.
el, suffiz denoting the plural of nouns.
elari, ”. a fruit ( Wallrothia) (308).
eldrada gomola (rt), a. green.
elma (1), 2. a species of snake.
enti (1), . a spider.
eso, v. to thank.
Fad, v. a bird’s nest.
fada = fad, pad.
Ga, n. a hornet.
ga, n. the central star in the constellation dorgai-kukilaig.
gabagaba (a), 7. a club with a plain stone disc.
gabagup (mb), 2. a stone club, = gabagaba.
gabau, ”. a yam.
gabogabo (B), . a stone club, = gabagaba.
gabudan, v. to be slow.
gabu-maita (B), 7. bowels.
gabunga, a. cold, cool.
gaet (s), 2. coral.
gaga (Mg) = gagari.
gagadinga, a. weak, faint; defeated.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 189
gagai (mM), 2. a bow; (8), a gun; a dance (862). Cf. gagari.
gagal (ar), ». pl. bow and arrows.
gagari (t), ». bow and arrows; triger gagari, a gun.
gagauro (B), 2. a bowstring.
gagi, ”. an ear-ring.
gagi, n. a shrimp.
gagi (a), ”. a large petticoat made of shredded leaves, and worn by
women.
gaibur (a1), ”. the she-oak ( Casuarina).
gaidesa (1), 2. a shield.
gaiga (s), 2. the sun, = giiga.
gaiga-buia (B), 2. twilight.
gaigai (r), 2. the king fish ; the white fish.
gaiga-pudiso (B), 2. the west (lit. sun-down).
gaima (m), an abscess, boil.
gaina (B), 2. taro, = goen.
gainau, gaino, 2. the Torres Strait pigeon ( Carpophaga luctuosa).
gainowa (m), 2. a white pigeon (see gainau).
galalupa (arg), v. to be cold (Stone).
galupan, v. to shake; gamu galupan, v. to tremble.
gam (tT), 2. skin.
gam (rT), fat.
gamakauwasina (B), a. lazy.
gamalunga (B), x. analbino. Cf. gamul, gamulnga.
gamu, ”. the body. [gamupa, gamungu, gamuia. |
gamuasin (?), puruka pard madé gamuasin, an evil eye. Mark,
vil. 22.
gamu-diwapa, v. to dance.
gamu-doidanu, v. to be tired. Cf. doid, nu.
gamu-dumawaku (s), 2. clothing ; a dress.
gamuia-mataman (B), v. to murder; gamuia-mataman-mabaeg (B), ”. a
murderer.
gamuidan, v. to ignite, to burn.
gamuji (m), a. itchy.
gamul, a. white.
gamulnga (m), gamulénga, a. white, red (?).
gamunguzilamiz, a. wild (gamungu, from body, zildmiz, run).
gamutariz, v. to touch.
190 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ganguimizi (?), see garoguimizi.
ganguro (m), 2. a large lizard.
ganu, ».a smell; pl. ganul.
ganul, a. possessing smell, scented; ganul pui, 2. sweet spices. Mark,
xvi. le
ganupulman, v. to smell, make a smell.
gapu, . the sucker fish (Zcheneis naucrates), used by the natives in
catching turtle (349).
gar, suffix.
gara (m), x. Pandanus spiralis.
garabo (? gara, . the edge); tana kai garabé tradiz nongo dumawa-
kuia, they might touch the border of his garment. Mark,
vi. 56.
garagar (B), a. feeble.
garguimizi = gar6guimizi.
garakazi, m. a boy, a male (lit. male person). [garakaziu] garakaziu.
garbad (mb), ~. the gunwale of a canoe.
gariga (mM), = gdiga; gariga-titure (m), . the morning star; garig
kap (rv), a dance held in May when fruit is ripe, and connected
with the star kererki (365).
garkai (a), x. a man (black man).
garkaije (m), #. a tribe ; men, women, and children.
garo, gard, Prefix.
garoguimai (B), 7. an earthquake.
garo-guimizi, v. to quiver, to swing. [garoguimani], gardguimizin,
n. earthquake.
garo-nanamiz, v. to throng, crowd.
gard-ngalkan, 7. hypocrisy.
garo-palagiz (?); noi matadobura tanamulpa garodpalagiz, he im-
mediately talked with them. Mark, vi. 50. |
garo-pataman, v. to collect food in large quantities. Sam. to‘ona‘i. |
garo-taean, v. to press or touch (?).
garo-toitaean, v. to repent.
garouian, v. to spread about (?), garouian senabi ia, to blaze abroad the-
matter. Mark, i. 45.
garowalgaipa, v.to wash. [garowalgan. |
garowalgaiginga, a. not washed.
garowaragan, v. see garowalgaipa.
Ray & Happon —The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 191
gard-weidamoin, v. to assemble, gather together ; to approach.
garu (m), 2. the sugar cane, = geru.
garuidamain6 (8), 2. a load.
garur (mM), ”. a small wasp.
gasa (M), = gorsar. ;
gasameipa, v. to catch with the hands, to press, seize, squeeze; (B), to
hunt (kangaroo). [gasamiz6, gasaman, gasamdiginga |.
gasamoiginga, pl. v. not to take.
gat (Mb), 2. a coral reef.
gata (ar), x. shallow water. See gat, gato.
gatapogai (B), v. to dig ground for a garden.
gato, v. to ebb. See gata.
gauada (1), 2. a salt water swamp.
gaugu, 2. medicine.
gaur, gaurd (?), ngita mulpa gaur irun, more shall be given to you.
Mark, iv. 24; nabi kawa ina ngaeapa gaurd irun senabi iragud,
this people honoureth me with lips. Mark, vii. 5.
gawai (mb), name of a plant; ‘‘rope along bush,” chewed in the
initiation ceremonies (398).
gawata (B), x. a lagoon (see gauada).
gedo = geto.
gegeda (s), 2. faintness; a. faint.
gegeto-pugan (?), Augada gegeto pugan, the blasphemy. Mark,
xiv. 64.
ger, ”. a water snake.
geriga (M), ”. sun, = goiga.
gerka, m. the gall bladder (of a turtle).
geru, ». the sugar-cane; g’ru tha mitale (m), sweet tasted. Cf. garu.
gerukizi (tT), m. a man, male, = garakazi.
gét, geto, m. the arm or hand; pl. getal; gerukisi get (rT), ~. a man’s
arm. [getau, getan, getangu, getia. |
geta-digamo (8), . the right side, = getd dogam.
getal (1), 2. fingers.
getali (a), 2. a large crab, = gitalai.
getauza (mb), 2. rayed discs held in the hand whilst dancing. Cf. kababa.
get-idiz, v. to read.
get-matamizo, v. to strike the hands together, to clap.
geto, get, . the hand, fore-arm, (m) a finger.
192 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
getd-dogam, v. the right side. [geta-dogamunu. |
geto-langai, v. to despoil, damage, appropriate. [getolangan, getalan-
gailai. |
geto-langaizinga, a. injured; shamefully handled. Mark, xii. 4.
geto-nitun, v. to point at.
geto-oidan, v. to push.
geté-pagaean, v. to lay hands on, to apprehend [stretch hands. |
getd-pudeipa, v. to scrape hands, the native mode of salutation.
geto-titai, v. to read.
geto-tridai, v. to read, = geté-titai. [getd-tridizo. |
geto-tridaiginga, geto tritraiginga, v. not to read.
geto-uian, v. to reach.
geto-wani, getd-waniz, v. to let go, release, abandon; to allow; to
lose; forgive. [getowanemiu, getdéwanemin. |
geto-wonaiginga, v. not to allow. Mark, vii. 12; not to forgive.
Mark, xi. 26.
gi, n.a knife; gi-turik, ~. an iron knife.
gi, n. a tusk.
gi, 7. laughter ; gi-waleipa (m), v. to laugh.
gi (B), m. an old dry coconut.
gi (a), a. ripe.
gi =igi; zagi, a. poor.
gia-paleipa (m), v. to cook.
gido,
gigal, sufiz, used with adjectives.
igi, 2. thunder. [ gigin6. ]
gigo, gigd, suffix expressing the want of anything; za gigd, without a
thing, poor.
gigu (T), gigub, ”. a nose ornament. Cf. gub.
gima-nanitan, v. to run over; tana gima nanitan siauki, they ran there
afoot. Mark, vi. 33.
gimal, gimald, ad. and prep. on, over, up, above. [gimaingu, gimainu. |
gimael, suffix.
gimamani, v. to reap.
gimia, ad. over.
gin (ag), ”. taro.
ginga, suffix denoting non-possession.
gio (B), n. laughter, = gi.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits
girar, ”. a dance.
girer (B), . a dance.
girka,
gitalai (B), ». a crab, = getali, gitulai, gitila.
gita = get, geto.
gitalenga, a. having a hand.
gitila, 2. a crab, = gitalai, gitulai.
gitri (mg), 2. a knife.
gitulai, 2. a crab, = gitalai, getali, gitila.
giu (s), x. laughter, a laugh.
giun-pungaipa, 2. foolishness.
giung (m), a. cooked.
giure (mM), ad. no.
giusalman, v. to deride.
gi-waleipa (a), ». to laugh. [ gi-waliz. ]
gizu, 2. a point, an edge, a cape; (m), sharpness.
gizuge (m), a. blunt (lit. without point).
gizule, a. possessing a point; sharp.
gizu-paleipa, v. to cut a point, to sharpen.
g0,
goa (s, T), 2. the seeds of Pangium edule used as rattles.
goagalnga, n. a leak.
goalnga, a. leaky.
goba (B), n. a stone axe.
gobai (m), 2. the larva of the ant-lion Giypnaican
goen, ”. taro.
gogadinga, a. feeble, weak.
gogainga, a. weak.
gogob,
goguta - n. the cotton tree gem
wee ase
aie goiga.
gomola, sufiz used with names of colours.
gomu = gamu.
goinau, 2. the Torres Strait pigeon ( Carpophaga.)
gonau, 2. the skin.
gongau, . the scalp.
gonza (s), 2. health (? gouga).
R.I.A, PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv.
—II.
Cf. gua.
193
194 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
gopagop (m) = gabagaba.
gorbotot, 2. a wooden club.
gorkozi = garakazi. [godrkoziu, gorkozipa, gorkozingu. |
gorokozi = gorkozi.
gorsar, a. many (usually with koi, koi-gorsar).
goru-rido, ”. the back-bone, spine. Cf. taburid.
gorzo, ”. the bowels.
goua (B), 2. a ditch.
gouga, 2. a hat.
gouga, gougu, m. a doctor (see gaugu); medicine. [gduguan,
gougungu. |
goura (B), ”. a pigeon.
gragri ”. fever.
graka (mg), x. man, = garakazi.
graz (m), x. afish trap or weir built of stones on a reef.
grer (Mm), 7. a dance, = girar.
grido (mb), 2. the back. Cf. gorurido.
gua (mb), ”. seeds used as a rattle, = gooa; p/. gual. Cf. goa.
guago, . a hole.
guai, a. bald.
guapi (m), 2. klakaguapi, the shaft of a klak.
gub, guba (m), 2. a nose stick.
guba, gubé, z. the wind, pl. gubal; kdi-gubd, . a storm.
gubaguba = gabagaba.
gubal-puian, v. to blow.
gubau, 2. a yam.
gubau-puilaig (mb), ~. the wind-man, a sorcerer producing wind
(401).
gubo = guba.
gud, gudo, z. the mouth; an opening; iragud (m), x. the lips; pasa-
gud6o m. adoor; maram gudo, x. a pit door, a tomb. Mark, xv.
47, xvi. 2.
gud (moa), . a mouth board. (404).
gud (mb), ”. a coconut water vessel. (404).
gudagé (?), korawaig tana ai gudagé asigi, they cannot fast. Mark,
ii. 19.
gndaguda,
eudalnga (?), ngi sigo gudalnga, thou art not far. Mark, xii. 34.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 195
guda-magéda (mu), 2. the moustache.
guda-moin (s), v. to discuss.
guda-palamiz, v. to overflow.
guda-purutan, v. to be insolent.
gudaran, v. to betray ; aimiz-gudaran (s), v. to betray.
guda-taean, v. to sacrifice.
guda-toridan = gud6-toridan.
guda uiailai, v. to be forgiven. Mark, iv. 12.
guda-wodian, v. to dismiss.
gudawali (Mb), z. the lashing fastening the head of a javelin to its
shaft.
gudazi-poidizi, v. to save, to heal.
gudia-ieudaipa, »v. to fill, to be full.
gudop, x. the beard.
gudo-matamiz (?). Mark, i. 5.
gudop-iata, x. the moustache.
gudo-nitun (s), v. to advise.
gudo-tadiz (s), v. to deny.
gudo-tapamoin, v. to kiss.
gudo-tédaiginga, v. not to deny.
gudo-toridan, v. to compel.
gudo-waean, v. to unload, to unloose.
gud6-wadan, v. to be quiet, hold one’s peace. Mark, x. 48; to allow.
Mark, v. 37.
gudo-waig, v. to unloose, to forgive. [ gudauiailai, gudéwaeamai |.
gudo-wodian,
gud-paliz, v. to bud.
gudria-ieutiz [?], press of men. Mark, ii. 4.
gudu = gudo.
gudu-tapaman, v. to kiss. [gud0-tapamoin. ]
guéle (at), a. bald, = guai.
gugure (mM), ». a bow, = gagal.
gugus, v. to dig.
guigui, 2. a collective name for the firesticks, (385) ; (hence, matches).
Cf. salgai, sagai, ini, iaka.
gui-waliz, v. to mock.
gul, gulo, ”. a boat, canoe; pl. gulai. [gulab, gulpa, gulépa, gulngu,
gulai].
02
196 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
gulab, gulabo = gulpa. See gul.
gulan (?), iegese gulan, v. to cast lots. Mark, xv. 24.
gulgups, gulugupd, ad. round about; gulugupo nagepa,to look round
about. Mark, xi. 11; kobia gulgupé zilamizé, ran round about
through. Mark, vi. 55.
gulngu-rugal, n. a cargo; baggage or goods from a ship.
gulugul,
gulungu = gulngu.
gul-waku, z. a sail, (lit. boat-mat).
gumi, a. secret; v. to conceal; ad. privately, secretly ; gumi turan,
v. to call aside.
gumiginga, a. not hidden.
gumulé, sufiz used with names of colours. Cf. gimdla.
gungau (zB), z. skin, (see gonau, gongau).
gurabi (m), ”. a white lily (Crinum ?).
gurba (m), 7. a small crab.
gurgu-uzaru. See gurugui, uzar.
gurgui (?),pawa gurgui, x. tradition. Mark, vii. 9.
guru,
gurugui (s), gurgui, ad. around, round about.
gurugup = gulgspo.
gusi (s), 2. a pillow.
guzi, n. a pillow, =gusi.
gwarabatutu (a), 2. a stone club with numerous blunt projections.
gwarapatutu (B), 7. a stone club, = gwarabatutu.
Ia, n. a word; language.
la, suffiz to nouns.
ia, n. the throat; (B), the esophagus. [liapa, iangu ].
ia, conj. and.
ia, a. loud.
iabu, x. a path, a road; babu-iabu, a ditch (lit. stream-road) gubau-
iabu, a vent (lit. wind’s path). [iabuia].
iabu-gudd, n.a path,a road. [iabugudapa, iabugudanu, iabugudia ].
iabuiawai. Mark, viii. 14. Cf. iabu, iawa.
iadai-iadai, n. a messenger.
iadal (mb), m. string.
iadi, m. a stone anchor.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 197
iadu-palgan, v. to tell, relate, confess, reveal. [iadupalgailai ].
iadu-titan, v. to caution.
iadu--turizi, v. to inform.
iadu-wadan, v. to caution.
iaga (s), 2. silence.
iagamiz, v. to wonder. Mark, v. 42.
iagasin (s), a. dumb.
iagetamani (B), 7. a message.
iagi, a. dumb, without words; iagi-mari, adumb spirit. Mark, ix. 17.
iagiasin, v. to be silent.
iagi-bodai, iagi-botai, a dumb.
iagigo, a. dumb.
iaginga, i0ginga, a. no words, nothing.
iagudagudangu (?), tana iagudagudangu toeaipa, they were making a
tumult. Mark, v. 38.
iala,
iaiame, v. to burn, = ieame.
iaiamiso (B), v. to burn.
iaka, (a) 2. the sheath which protectsthe ends of the two fire-sticks, and
keeps them dry, andusually decorated with shiand timi kapul.
iakaman, iakman (s), v. to acquaint, to inform, to declare.
lakanoriz, v. to forget.
ial, n. the hair of the head ; a wig (m); feathers.
ial-ai (ub, n), 2. hair twisted in curls.
ial-bupo (mb, nN), ”. hair when short.
ialdamu (mb), 2. a species of Cymodocea. Cf. damu.
ial-kapo, (B), 2. curly hair.
ial-pat (x, T), 2. a comb.
lamar (m), 2. a species of coral, branched.
ia-mui-taean, v. to command.
iamulaigia, iamulaiginga, v. not to say.
iamuli, v, to speak.
famulizé, v. to speak.
iana (7), ”. a basket; a bag; asack. Usually made of coco-palm or
-pandanus leaf. [iananu. |
ianald, pl. of iana.
iananab (?), iananab nubepa iamuliz, say to him one by one. Mark,
xiv. 19.
198 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
iananga, see Grammar. Nouns, 4, i.
ianga,
ianga-kudru (s), 2. language.
ianga-ngadalnga (s), . a metaphor, a parable.
iange (?). Mark, viii. 33.
iangu-kudu, ». speech, language; ngitamun urapon iangukudu, your
language (is) one.
iangu (?), ina pawa iangu ngadalnga, the parable.
iapalado, ». the lungs.
iapar, 2. a band (?); kula iapar taizi nongo katro, a stone band put
on his neck. Mark, ix. 42. Cf. next word.
iaparal (mb), . pl. ornamental bands worn on the body in the merkai
dance, red, black, and white.
iapepa (at), v. to choose, to select.
iapopoibiz, v. to ask, to question, to beg.
iapopoizo, v. to ask. Mark, iv. 10.
iapupoibepa, v. to ask.
laragi (Ss), @. angry.
ia-supaman, v. to bear false witness.
iata, 2. the beard, whiskers, etc.
iatai, x. a band or company, a row of men; pi. iatial; ad. in ranks.
Cf. Mir. nosik.
iataman, v. to be angry.
iata-patizo, v. to shave.
iataran = iaturan, v. to contend, to be divided against, see iatormai.
iatial, p/. of iatai.
latizi, v. to ooze, to come in, of water; ban sik iatizi gulopa, waves
beat into the ship. Mark, iv. 37.
iatormai (?), iatormai kuikulunga, v. to make insurrection; tonar ia
taramai, insurrection time. Mark, xv. 7; iator6 moipa, ad. for
envy. Mark, xv. 10.
iatu (Tr) = iata, 2. the beard.
iaturan, y. to contend,
lauakazduedan, n. a noose.
iau-kawa, ». a market.
iaumai-laig (s), 2. a council house.
iauman, v. to discuss.
iautiz, v. to hoist.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 199
iautumiz, v. to command; x. command. [iautumizi. |
jautumoizinga, n. pl. teachings, commands.
iawa, v. imperat. farewell! good-bye!
lawaig (?), noi iawaig siéi mabagi lago, he was without in desert
places. Mark, i. 45.
iaweipa (m), v. to see, look after, watch.
iba-eba, (m1), ”. sandstone.
iban (s), v. to rub, to scrape.
ibara (mt), 2. a crocodile (perhaps introduced from Daudai). Cf. kodal.
ibdpoidan (8), v. to hunt (men).
ibu (a), x. the chin, lower jaw.
ibupoidan, v. to help, to assist.
id, ido, ”. a small bivalve shell.
idai = iadai, mina idai, ». gospel, Mark, i. 14; waro idai, some mes-
sengers; setabi idai, those people. Mark, xvi. 14.
idaig (?), suffi; tratra idaig, stammerer; ngolkai idaigal, hypocrites.
idara, n. a beetle.
ideipa, v. to unloose, untie.
ideipa (m1), v. to scold.
idi, 2. oil.
idiidi (at), 2. a scorpion. Cf. diwi.
idiidi (at), a. fat.
idiman (?), tana kuik idiman they wagged their heads. Mark, xv.
29. Cf. idun.
idimizi, v. to destroy, to erase. Cf. idumai. [idumoin, idumoiginga. |
idin (?), noi kuikuidmo nida idin senabi durai kikiri. Mark, vi. 57.
ido, ». a small bivalve shell.
idoi (?). Mark, xvi. 12.
idumai v. to vanish. [idimizi |].
idumiz, v. to melt. Cf. idumai.
idun, v. to mock.
le,
ieame, v. to burn.
ieda, v. the gill of a fish.
iedai (B), 7. a rumour, = iadai.
ieda-waiand, v. to warn. See iadu-wadan.
iege,
iege-palan, iege-paran, v. to mock, to revile.
200 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
legese (?), iegese gulan, v. to cast lots. Mark, xv. 24.
iegiadon, pleased (?). Mark, vi. 22. Cf. ia, gia, adan or dan.
ielai (a), 2. the crest of a cockatoo.
ielpaman, v. nongo kalmel ielpaman ita watri mabaegal, he was num-
bered with bad men. Mark, xv. 28.
ielpan, ielepan, v. to lead; niaipa-ielpand, v. to lead to a seat, to
malty.
iéna (m), m. a basket, = iana.
iengu (?), ngau iengu mai, for my name’s sake. Mark, xiii. 13.
iérka (Mm), 2. wax.
ieso, v. to praise, to thank. Cf. eso.
iéte (x), n. the spider shell (Pferoceras).
ietu (m), 2. a barnacle shell found on the turtle.
ieudan (?), makiam ieudan, cried out. Mark, vi. 49.
ieudapa. See gudia ieudaipa.
ieude. See ieudepa.
ieudepa, v. to ask, to beg. [ieudizi, ieudemipa. |
ieudiz, ieutiz, v. to put. [ieudan. ]
igalaig, x. a kinsman, a friend; pi. igalgal. [igalgopa, igalgia. ]
igalaigu (B), m. an uncle.
igaligal (s), a. glad; ad. gladly.
igi, suffiz expressing want or non-possession.
igili, n. life.
igililemael, . the living.
igililenga, igililonga, a. possessing life, alive.
igili-paliz, v. to give life, to save. [igili-palan. |
iginga, suffix expressing non-possession.
igipali = igili-paliz.
igur (m), exclam. of pity ; poor thing!
iwi (yiwi) (s), ”. a mosquito, = iwi.
iilo (yilo) (8), ”. the gall bladder.
ika, n. joy, gladness.
ikai (m), x. milk; sap; nipple of breast.
ikalikal, ad. joyfully, gladly. Ct. igaligal.
ikane,
ikan-pungaipa, v. to please.
ika-tiaipi, v. to please, to rejoice, to be glad.
ikur (Ss), ”. a rope.
Ray & Happon— Zhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 201
ilagiz (?), lak6 kai pa ilagiz, the rent will again fly open. Mark, 1i. 21,
See palagiz.
ilamiz, suffix, against.
ilarkoubo, n. flax (Macfarlane).
il-get (mb), ~. the middle finger; the index finger in Moa. Cf.
klaknetoi get.
ima,
imaiginga, v. not to see.
imaipa, imeipa (m), v. to see, to find; paru-imamoin, they saluted.
[imiz, imizi, iman, imamoin. |
imaizigal, m. the person seeing a thing.
imana (B), 2. the world.
imi (B), . a spouse, husband.
imi (N), 2. a sister-in-law.
imi-garkazi (B), ”. a son-in-law (lit. husband-son).
imuliz-ilamizo, v. to say things against, to accuse, to envy.
imuso (B), a species of grass.
ina, ino, a. the, this; ad. here.
inabi, a. the, this; a, an.
inabi-durai (s), pron. these.
ina-nabiget (a), ~. this hand; five.
inguje (a), v. to urinate.
ini, n. the penis; the vertical firestick. (885.)
inile, a. male (lit. possessing ini).
inil-tiam, ”. a male turtle.
injura (m), ”. a small lizard.
ind = ina.
inur (m), ”. darkness, night. [inuria. |
idbuia, x. by the way. See iabu.
io,
loipa, v. to incline.
idka v. to recline.
idnan v. to recline.
iongu = iangu.
iounga, ”. a porch. [idungapa. |
ipal, ipél, pron. both, two.
ipatamaiginga (?),ngi minaipatamaiginga, carest thou not. Mark, iv. 38.
ipataman, v. to finish.
202 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ipato, v. to finish.
ipatomaiging a. not believed. Mark, ix. 12.
ipi, z. female, wife, spouse. [ipiu, ipipa.]
ipiapo, (B) n. a fan; ». to fall.
ipidads, n. evil, sin; a. bad.
ipidad6-pugan, v. to curse, to blaspheme.
ipikai (4), n. female, woman = ipikazi.
ipikai-kaje (m), 2. a girl.
ipika-merkai (b), a man dressed as a woman in the funeral dance.
ipi-kazi, n. a female, woman, wife (lit. female person).
ipoibiso (B), m. a noise.
ipokazi = ipikazi.
ipok6zi = ipikazi, p/. ipdkéziel. [ipokdzia. ]
ipukaja burum6é (8), ”. a sow (lit. female pig).
ira (a), m. father- or mother-in-law.
irada, iradé, n. shade, shadow. [iradopa. ]
iradu-aban, v. to shade.
iragud, iraguds, n. the lips.
irka (m), m. resin, used in fixing the heads and joints of spears and
throwing-sticks. Cf. ierka.
irun (s), a. mere.
irun (?), maita kGiza irun, they were filled. Mark, vi. 42.
isau (m4), 2. a honey-comb, wax
isoa (ag), ad. all right.
ita, demons. pl. those, the,
ita (a1), m. an oyster. Ci. itro.
ita durai, demons. pl. some.
itar, n. a spotted dogfish ( Chiioscyllium).
itra = ita.
itro, n. an oyster.
iuamai (?) wakaiuamai mabaeg, z. priest.
iudepa, v. to ask, beg, =ieudepa. [iudiz.]
iudiz-mulan, v. to pour (?).
iuna (mg), ”. sleep.
iuneipa (1), v. to lie down; to leave behind
iungu-ngulaig (B), v. to interpret.
iurdiz, v. to flow.
lutan, ”. a grave.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 203
iuteipa (a), v. to pull, to drag.
iutizi =ielpan. Mark, xii. 11.
iwai, . the cloth-like spathe at the base of coco-palm leaves.
iwi, 2. the mosquito.
Ja (mg), ”. grass.
jag, v. a small species of fish.
jaga (m), 2. a fish (Lethrinus).
jaji (zB), ~. a petticoat. See gagi.
jamo (m), x. the emu.
japudamino (8), v. to buy. See za-pudamoin.
japulaika (s), ». wealth, property. See zapulaig.
jaro, m. name ofa card game, Probably introduced.
jawur (chawur) (a1), ”. a convolyulus with edible roots.
je (8), . the south; (m) m. the sky.
jena (chena) (), demons. that, these, those = sena.
jia, ». a cloud; scud.
jid (zheed) (ar), x. a cloud. Cf. jia.
jina (china) (1), v. stop, enough ! = sina.
jub (arg), ~. the arm, shoulder. (Jukes.)
juma (shuma) (m), 2. cold. Cf. sumai.
jur (a1), ~. the shoulder. (Jukes.)
Ka, n. the waist.
kab, kabo, n. a dance, = kap.
kaba, ». a paddle, an oar; kaba-nitun, v. to paddle, to row.
kababa (a), ”. a disc held in the hand during a dance. Cf. getauza,
kabuzapla.
kaba-get (tb), 2. the thumb.
kabai, ». an egret.
_ kaba-koku, . the great toe.
kaba-mineipa, v. to dance.
kaba-nitun6, v. to paddle, to row.
kaba-sia, ». the great toe.
kabi-get, 2. the thumb.
kabi-kok, . the big toe.
kabo-nadur (1), x. a tail ornament worn in dances. Cf. nadur, naduals
zamozamo.
204 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kabu, 2. the breast bone; chest (mg); the number ten in counting on
the body.
kabu = kababa; kabu-zapla(t), a dise held in the hand while dancing.
Cf. getauza, kababa.
kabudan, kabutan, v. to set on, to put on, to put before.
kadai, kadaipa, directwe ad, up, upward; v. to stand.
kadainitaman, v. to stand by. Mark, xv. 35.
kadaipa, v. to stand.
kadaipa-palagiz, v. to spill.
kadaipa-poidan, v. to ordain.
kadaipa-waliz, v. to ascend, to climb up.
kadai-tanure, v. to stand up, to rise.
kadai-taraiginga, m. not to stand; not to endure. Mark, iv. 17.
kadai-taran, v. to lift up.
kadai-tariz6, v. to stand up, to rise.
kadai-taz6, = kadai-tarizo.
kadai-wapa,
kadalo,
kadaman, v. to tear; adapa kadaman, v. to peel ; gamu kadaman, v. to
tear the body. Mark, ix. 18.
kadapadamu (mb), 7. a species of Cymodocea. Cf. damu.
kadazou = kedazou.
kadig, m. a gauntlet or arm-guard. (331.)
kadig-tam (m), x. the ornament of the kadig.
kadig-tang (mb), ”. = kadig-tam.
kadik, v. a gauntlet or arm-guard.
kado (B), blood clots.
kadré = kadai; kadré palagiz. Mark, i. 10.
kae = kai.
kaet,
kaga (mM), ”. a grave.
kagiza,
kai (B), a. large, big; ad. very = koi; kai gulo (8), . a ship; kai-
waiwai, 7. elephantiasis of scrotum.
kai (mb, s), ». a New Guinea mat. Cf. kaii.
kai, particle indicating the future tense; at the end of a sentence it is
emphatic and = ki.
kai-al6 (B), n. elephantiasis of the scrotum. Cf. kai, waiwai, kaiwaiwai.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 205
kai-ari (B), . a flood (lit. great rain).
kaiaru (B), ”, a crayfish, = kaier.
kaiba,
kai-biribizi,
kaibo, ad. now, soon; to-day (8).
kaibrodo-gdmola (r), a. white.
kaibu (m), ad. now, immediately, = kaibo.
kaied, ». a grandmother.
kaier, . the crayfish ; spiny lobster. Cf. kaiaru.
kaig (s), . a post.
kaigas (tb), 2. a kind of shark, perhaps Riina.
kaigerkitalgaka (rt), a warrior. Cf. kérketegerkai.
kaigob (mg), . an arrow.
kai guba (B), . a gale (lit. big wind).
kai gui (?), kaigui malu, ~. the sea. Mark, ix. 42.
kaigutal piti (8), ». a snout (lit. very long nose).
kali (tT), ». a mat made from the leaf of the Pandanus and
imported from Mowatta.
kai-ib (s), to-day, = kaibu, kaibo.
kai-ipiki, . an old woman.
kaikai, v. a feather; (a) a quill.
kai-kosano,
kai-maitalnga (B), a. corpulent (lit. possessing a big body).
kai mapunga, a. heavy.
kaimi (1), ». a brother-in-law.
kaimi, ». a mate, a companion, a follower; pl. kaimil ; nongo kaimil,
they that had been with him. [kaimia. |
kain, kaine, a. new ; kain ipi, bride; mabaeg kain ipi gasaman, bride-
groom.
kainga (?) Mark, iv. 6.
kaingulpa (?), burumal koi umen nanitan, diabo a padria, kaingulpa
malupa, the herd ran violently down a steep place into the sea.
Mark, v. 13.
kainidung (m), . the new moon.
kaining (a), a. new, little used.
206 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kaipui (8), a. a tree (lit. big tree).
kaisigalé = koisigal.
kaisigapa = koisigapa.
kaiwaiwai, 2. elephantiasis of the scrotum. Ci waiwai; kaialo.
kaiza (8), a. big, large (properly kai-za, big thing).
kaje (at), 2. a child, = kazi; ipikai-kaje, a girl ; miigi-kaje, an infant;
nétur-kaji, a son.
kak (x), the framework on which a corpse was dried. Cf. sara.
kakal v. to appear (?); noi kulai kakal Marialpa adapadan, he appeared
first to Mary. Mark, xvi. 9; palamulpa kakal adan, appeared
to two.
kakera (ug), . tortoise-shell.
kaki (x), exclam. Isay! Lookhere! Cf. kawki, kami, komi.
kakiam (ub, s), ”. the bird of Paradise.
kaku,
kakur, n. an egg, ovary of a fish; the testicles (a1).
kakura, kakurd, n. the feet.
kakurupataean, kakurpataean, v. to step across; prep. across; tana
muasin tarédan kakurupataean, when they had passed over.
Mark, vi. 53.
kal, kala, kalo, n. the back ; the hinder part; the outside. Mark, viii.
15 ; (at), the back of the hand; kalapa, at the back, behind;
kalanu, after that, then.
kalak, kalaka, klak, m. a spear (333); or rather a javelin, as it is
thrown with the kubai.
kalakala, n. a fowl.
kalakonitu = klak-nitu.
kalapi (1), n. a large bean, = kulapi, “the produce of a vine-like
creeper with legumes a foot in length, eaten with biiu.”
Macgillivray, il., p. 27.
kalemel = kalmel.
kalmel, ad. or n. together. [kalmelpa.]
kalmel-ménaméin, v. to unite.
kalmel-uzar, v. to accompany.
kalum-rida (a1), . the collar bone.
kalupi,
kamadi (a), . a belt worn obliquely across the chest, made of young
coco-palm leaf. Cf. naga.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 207
kamado (8), x. a necklace.
kaman (m), 2. heat, steam.
kamanale (1), @. warm.
kama-tauradiz, v. to nurse.
kami (a), a. dear (used by a female to a male, see kawki).
kamikam6 (8), 2. ringworm.
kamizingi, wur kamizingi, flood tide.
kamu (mg) z. the body, = gamu.
kamus 7. another name for the Maiwa ceremony.
kangu (m.) x. afrog. (Pronounced kang-gu).
kanguru (?); kanguru-pagamoin, v. to be spread abroad ( ?).
kap, ~.a dance. See kab.
kape (a), good, pretty, = kapu.
kape-ganule (a), sweet, fragrant (lit. possessing a good smell).
kape-parure (m), a. pretty-faced.
kap-garig, . name of adance. Cf. garig-kap.
kapi, 2, the thigh; the legs (mg).
kapi-kisuri (at), . moonlight.
kapi-taig (mu), ad. a long way off.
kapu, a. good, beautiful.
kapu, 2. seed; tomi kapu, timi kapu, small red and black seeds,
(crab’s eyes).
kapua,
kapua kasiginga, kapuakosiginga, z unbelief; »v. not to believe.
kapua kasilai, 2, faith. Mark, v. 34.
kapua kasin, v. to believe; x. faith, hope. [kapuakamoin].
kapuka-tete, 2. the west ; kapuka = kibuka.
kapukuiku,
kapu-minar, a. best (lit. good mark, probably a phrase adopted from
the mission schools).
kapu-mitalnga (8), a. edible (lit. possessing a good taste).
kaputo, z. the other side (of a river). [kaputopa].
kapuza = kapu za.
kar, n. a fence; béribei kar, a rope fence.
kara (mb), name of a tree; the raw fruit is eaten in the initiation
ceremonies (398).
kara (m), = kai, koi.
karaba (mu), 2. a paddle, = kaba.
208 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
karabai (1), ”. an egret, = karubai, karbai.
karaba-tapeipa, v.
karab (ag), n. nostril.
karabu (a), 2. nostrils.
karaig,
kara-malupa (a), ad. a long way down.
kara-nagri (wg), ad.enough. (Stone).
karar, n. the shell of a turtle.
karar-asin, v. to like, to obey.
karauaig = korawaig.
karawaigo = korawaig.
karbai, x. an egret ; karbai ial, karbai plis, or kaikai, feathers of the
egret ; (11), the blue heron.
kareki (at), ad. hereabouts. Cf. ko, of which the (a) form would be
kore.
karengaigo, a. not hearing.
karengemin, v. to hear, to listen, to obey. [karengemiziu. |
karget (a), v. little finger. (Jukes.)
karingi (1), . a lad during the initiation ceremony. Cf. kérnge.
karmiu, 7. name of a fish, = karmoi.
karmoi (m), 7. a fish. Scatophagus multifasciatus.
karomat (a), 2. a brown snake.
karta (m), . the throat, = kato.
karubai (a), 2. an egret.
karudan (1), ”. a shell frontlet, a drum pattern.
karum (1, s), x. the monitor lizard, Varanus ; called ‘‘ iguana.”
karumatapi, (karum swimming) x. a dance (362).
karuma-gam (1), . the skin of the monitor.
karuma-gingau (m), 2. the skin of the monitor.
karum-palan(?), betrayed. Mark, xiv. 41.
karusa (mg) = kaura.
kasa (m), 2. the bed of a stream, a river. Mai Kasa, Wai Kasa, names
of rivers in New Guinea.
kasa, m. the pandanus. Cf. kausa.
kasa, v. to lend.
kasa, ad. only, just.
kasa iagiasin, v. to be quiet.
kasa-tabu (), ”. a harmless snake.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 209
kasa-kupal, a. naked.
kasa-paiban6 (B), 2. a present, gift.
kasa-wanan, v. to forsake, to leave alone. Mark, xv. 34.
kasigig, a. childless. Cf. kaziginga.
kasur (a), 2.a salt water creek. Cf. kasa.
kat (ab), 2. neck.
kata-kazi (8), ~. twins.
katam, 2. a bunch, a crowd.
katam6, ”. a banana.
katamiz, a. narrow.
kata-plagis (B), ad. upwards. See kat-palagiz.
kata-pulgeipa (m), v. to jump, to leap.
katauoi (1), 2. the green parrot.
kateko (B), 2. a frog.
kato, (n), the neck, throat.
kat-palagiz, v. to escape, leap. [kadro palagiz. |
katramizo = katamiz.
katro = kato.
kaua = kawa,
kauburu (s), ”. a gourd.
kaubasin, v. to strain, labour; nol iman tana kibu kaubasin kaba
nitun, he saw them toiling in rowing. Mark, vi. 48.
kaukwik (mb), a young man; the ceremony on arriving at puberty
(405). Cf. kernele.
kaukwoiku (m), ”. a young unmarried man after initiation.
kaura (m, mb), 2. the external ear.
kaura, ”. the nautilus.
kaura (at), 2. an island= kawa.
kaura-apusd, 7. the ear hole; ieudan ukasar dimur a ukasar kaura
apuso utun nubepa, put his fingers into his ears. Mark,
vi. 33.
kaura-kikire, n. the ear-ache.
kauralenga, a. possessing ears ; ita muamuai kauralenga, the deaf.
kaurare (M), @. possessing ears; wati-kaurare, deaf (having bad
ears).
kaura-tarte (m), 2. a hole in the lobe of the ear.
kauru (a), 2. the laughing jackass.
kauruta (a), 2. bunions.
R.I.A PROC., SER. I., VOL. IV. P
210 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kausa, x. fruit, seed, nut, = kousa.
kausa, kausar, (a), . Pandanus pedunculata. Cf. kasa.
kausi (t), ~. a hawk. Cf. kudzi.
kausur (1), 2. a flower.
kautiri (a1), 2. a blue crab.
kawa, . an island; people; iau kawa, m. a market. [kawapa. |
kawakawal, kawakawial, x. pl. islands, nations. [kawakawapa. |
kawakuig, kawa-kuiko, v.a young man. Of. kernele.
kawki (a), a. dear (used by a male to a female) ; see kami.
kawp (™), 2. a seed.
kawruta,
kazi, m. a person, a child; niai kazi, v. a scholar, a disciple (lit. a
sitting person); p/. kaziel, kazil. [kaziu, kazipa, kazingu,
kaziae. |
kaziginga, a. uninhabited (lit. child not possessing).
kazilaig, a. having a child, Mark, vii. 25.
kaziol, pl. of kazi.
keda, ad. thus, as, saying ; a word introducing a quotation.
keda, v. to be like, to resemble; keda aiginga, v. to differ.
keda (a1), v. to cut.
kedamizin,
kedangadanga, v. length.
kedangadal, kedangadalnga, a. like, like this; noi kedangadalnga
umangange, he was as one dead. Mark, ix. 26.
kedawara, kedazingu, keda-zinguzo, conj. for this cause, therefore.
kedazou (?), conj. for; kedazou mai Joane iamuliz Heroda, for John
told Herod. Mark, vi. 18.
kedazodngu (s), because (lit. from the thing thus).
kedazopa, conj. therefore (for the thing thus).
kedazopuzigépa (?), kedazdpuzigépa nidaipa, (who) had done thus.
Mark, v. 32.
kegoba,
kei=kai, koi.
kei-galein (m), a. dumb.
kei-gariga (m), 2. noon-tide (lit. big sun).
ke’ipikai (at), 2. an old woman, = kai-ipiki.
kei’kuku (a), . the great toe.
keimagi (at), m. an associate, afriend. Cf. kernele.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 211
keinga (a), a. large; ad. very, = kai, koi.
kekédi (m1), a. gorged.
kekeri, ”. a bird with red breast.
kekermisina (?), purka kekermisina (8), 2. ophthalmia.
keki (at), ». a gull.
kekochipa (11), v. to forget.
kemus = kimus, sabu kemus, 7. a needle.
ke-pramek,
kerer (1) = kerer.
kererki, ». the name of a star. Cf. garig kap.
kérisa (ar), x. the blue mountain parrot.
kerkato = kérket.
kerkato-palan, v. to torment.
kérkét (m), . anger, rage.
kerketale (a1), a. vindictive, furious.
kérketegerkai (Nn), ». a warrior. Cf. kaigerkitalgaka.
kernele (a), kérnge (nN), a lad who is being initiated into manhood.
Cf. karingi, zungri, kaukwik, keimagi (405, 409, 488).
ketai, ». a yam (Dioscorea). Cf. kutai.
ketal (at), 7. a thread.
ketekete,
keuba-tati, ». uncle (lit. tati, father, keuba, perhaps for kopa, a little
way off).
keusa, ”. fruit, = kausa, kousa.
ki (m1), an affix of emphasis. Cf. kai.
kiamusa (B), 2. the point of an arrow, = kimus.
kibu, x. the loins, the lower part of the back; padau kibu, the slope
of a hill. Mark, v. 11.
kibuka (kibupa), 2. a mythical island to which the mari of deceased
persons go (318). ‘‘ Hades.”
kibu-mina, 7. a totem cut on the small of the back of a woman (lit.
loin mark) (368).
kicha (mg), m. the sun, the moon. Cf. kisuri, kizai.
kida (a), a. left.
kidakida-nagepa, v. to gaze.
kidakidan (?), tana kidakidan ia uman, they said among themselves.
kido (?), .
kido-taean, v. to turn, to overthrow ; see kita-toeailai.
212 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kidu-waru (1b), the finish of the turtle (surlangi) season.
kikira,
kikir, kikiri, 2. disease, pain, affliction; a. sick, ill; kikiri-laig, 2. a
sick person; koiku-kikiri, headache; dang kikiri, toothache ;
kaura kikiri, earache.
kimus (s), ” an arrow.
kin (tb), 2. a creeper used in making makamak.
kirer, ”. an artery, a vein, a sinew.
kirkup, 7”. a nose ornament. Cf. gigu.
kisigan (4g), . a mountain. (Stone).
kisuri (1), x. the moon.
kita-tdeailai (?) to be converted. Mark, iv. 12. See kido-taean.
kizai (s), ». the moon.
klak-nitu (s), klak-nétoi-gét (ub), kalakd-nitu, m. the index finger;
the number four in counting on the body.
k6, n. a place near, a little distance. Cf. kareki. [kou, kopa, kozi. |]
koakan, a. round.
koam=kaman, kuamé, fever. Mark, i. 31.
koamala-nagiz,
kodamapa, v. to warm oneself; nadd Petelun iman muingu kéamapa,
she saw Peter warming himself.
koamasin = kuam6, asin; kérkak koamasin, sore amazed. Mark, xiv.
33; gamu koamasin, x. fever (lit. with hot body).
kob (x), . the tail of adog. Cf. kouba.
koba (1) =kob.
Kobai (at), n. the throwing stick (334). Cf. kubai.
kobai-ngur (ub), 2. the peg or hook of the kobai.
kobai-piti (a1), x. the peg of the throwing stick. Cf. ngurr.
kobaki (a1), 2. a cough.
kobaris (a), @. unripe, uncooked.
kobebe (ab), n. a bird (Legends, p. 29).
kobegada, a. this kind. Mark, ix. 29.
kobi (x), a. black.
k6bia (?), tana ladun a maumizin kobia gulugul, they went forth and
preached everywhere. Mark, xvi. 20; noi gurugui uzar kobia
gurugup ngurupaipa, he went round about the villages
teaching. Mark, vi. 6.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 213
kobikobi (1), 2. the charred shell of the coconut, charcoal; kobikobi
marukai or gimile (a), black men. Cf. kubi.
kobikobigamol, kobikobigdméla (1), a. black. Cf. kubikubinga.
koboi-nguru (mb), 2. the hook of the kobai, = kobai-ngur.
kobu, 2. war, enemy, battle, = koubu.
kobura (B), 7. a lime gourd. Cf. Mir. kabor.
kodal, ”. a crocodile, = kudal.
kodu, x. a part.
kogwoi (m), #. the throwing stick. Cf. kobai.
koi, a. large, great, big; ad. very, = kai, kei.
koi-abou (koi-iabou), ad. with a loud voice.
koi-ad (s), 2. an anchor.
koi adumeipa, v. to rave.
koi-gakazi (s), 2. a chief.
koigaraka, ». a chief.
koi-gérza = koi-gorsar.
koi-gork6zi, nm. a chief; koigorkozi wakaiauiamoin, chief priests.
Mark, xiv. 55.
koi-gorsar, a. many.
koi-ia, a. loud (lit. big voice).
koiko-dim (s), 7. the thumb (lit. head-finger).
koik-patan = kuik6-patan.
koikoro, m. a head-dress worn by young men, a pattern on a drum.
koiku (at), 2. the head = kuiko.
koiku-kikiri, . head-ache.
koikutalnga, a. long, high, tall (having big ends):
koim, koima (s), a many, much.
koi-magaulnga, a. strong.
koil-magu, . a bunch.
koimai (r), . the scarified mark on the shoulder.
koi-maita (8), 2. the gizzard of a fowl (lit. big stomach).
koi-malu, a. deep (lit. big sea).
koi-mapu-bodali, a. sick.
koi-mapunga, a. difficult, heavy (haying great weight).
kdingar, ». elephantiasis of the leg (lit. big leg).
koi-ngona-poidan, v. to sob.
koiop, = kuidpa.
koi-pui, 2. a log (lit. big wood).
214 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
koiridanga, koiridang®, a. hard (lit. very bony).
koisarkoisar (?), Pilato koisarkdisar korkak banitan sisike noi umanga,
Pilate marvelled if he were already dead, Mark, xv. 44.
koisigal, a. far, remote; koisigapa, ad. afar, to a distance.
koi-sigazi, ad. from afar.
koi-wamen-udiz (s), ”. ebb tide.
koi-za, a. big, large, great (lit. large thing).
koi-zarasan.
kokam, kokan, x. a ball.
kokaper, 7. a spark.
kokata (11) = kwokata.
koki (a) = kuki.
koki, ”. the season for turtle feasts. Cf. kuki.
koko (a1), x. the foot. Cf. kakura, kuku.
koko-geta.
koko-kaleri (at), 7. the sole of the foot.
koko-moi (a1), 2. the sole of the foot.
koko-moka (m), z. the sole of the foot.
kola (a1), 2. a rock, = kula.
kolab (1r), 2. the shoulder-blade, or scapula.
kolam (at), 2. the shoulder-blade.
kélan (ug), 2. the shoulder.
koli (ab), x. a paddle when used for steering. Cf. kuli.
kolkar, (a1), z. blood, = kulka.
kolo (a), kolu (m), ~. the knee, = kulu.
komakoma (s), a. separate, opposed to; ngalpalpa komakoma maiging,
not against us.
komalenga, a. hot, = kuamalnga.
komi (x), exclam. I say! Look here! (see kami, kawki, kaki).
konamiz, v. to spy.
kon, ”. corn (English word corn); konau-apé, a corn-field.
konga,
konil, 2. a bundle of arrows.
kopa. Cf. ko,
k6pazi, an error for kozipa. Mark, viii. 1.
kopér (a1), 2. a tree.
kopi, 2. the half, a lump.
kopuru (a), 2. a fish, whiting (S7lago).
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 215
kora (v), 2. a crocodile, = kodal, kudal.
korabu (1), 2. the septum narium.
korawaig, korawaigé, v. to be unable, cannot.
korékida (a), ad. a long time ago.
koérkak, n. the throat ; the seat of the affections, the mind. [korkaknu
korkakonu. |
korkako-badé, v. to sigh. Cf. korkak, bado.
korkar (s), 2. the mind.
korkor, (1), 2. a crow.
korngaizinga, n. things heard. See korongaipa.
koro,
korongaigigo, a. deaf, = karengaigo.
korongaiginga, v. not to hear, = karengaigé, korongaigigo.
korongaipa, v. to hear.
korékak = korkak.
korpusdnga, a. tender; nongo tamo kérpusénga, when its branch is
tender. Mark, xiii. 28.
korsi, ». the hammer-headed shark (Zygena).
koru, 2. a corner. [korupa. ]
korul, x. the heel.
kosa (ub), 2. the sternum. Cf. dadir.
kosa, n. a river, =kasa; kosa Ioridana, river Jordan; k6ésa Galilaia, sea
of Galilee; mai kasa, Pearl River. Cf. native names of places.
kosi (?) = kazi. See next word.
k6siman, v. to rear, bring up.
kosiman (?), noi iautumizi tanamulpa niand kosiman tana senabi
imusé maludénga, he commanded them to make all sit down
by companies on the green grass. Mark, vi. 39.
kota-dimu (s), 2. the little finger.
kota-get (aoa), 7. the little finger.
kotaig (Badu) = last.
kotale (ar), a. long, high, tall.
koteko (8), n. a frog, = kateko.
koto-dimura (ab), 2. the little finger; kotodimura gorngozinga (or
guruzinga), the fourth finger.
kotuka (?), keda ngadalnga sinapi kéusa a utun kulai sena mina kétuka
mina kousakéizainaapal, like a mustardseed which when itis first
sown is less than all the seeds that be in the earth. Mark, iy. 31.
216 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kou. Cf. ko.
kouba (s), 2. the tail of a quadruped, = kob.
kouba (s), 2. war, battle, an enemy.
kouba-laba (s), 2. the tail of a bird.
koubu = kouba.
koulka (m), a. red. Cf. kulka.
koupapa (s) = koupupa. Cf. kouba.
koupupa, 7. a warrior, a soldier.
kousa, 2. fruit, seed, = kausa. [k6usau, kousangu. |
kousalenga, a. possessing fruit ; in Mark, xi. 13, a mistranslation for
nisalenga.
kozi, n. = kazi, pl. koziel. [koziu, kozipa, kozingu. |
koziginga, a. = kaziginga.
krabu (a1), 2. nostril.
krameipa (1), v. to steal.
krangipa (a), v. to hear, to understand, = korongaipa.
krar (a), m.a mask. Cf. buk.
krem (m), 2. the white heron.
kris, ”. a parrot.
kua,
kuai (a1), v. a red berried Evgenia; the crown of the head.
kuamalnga, a. hot, warm (lit. possessing heat).
kuamé (B), a. warm (see kaman), hot; 2. heat.
kuato,
kubai (8), 2. a throwing-stick ; a sling (Macfarlane). Cf. kobai.
kubaki,
kubi, n. charcoal, touchwood. Cf. kobikobi.
kubi (a), a. many, plenty
kubiger,
kubikubinga, a. dark, black.
kubil, kubild, 7. night, darkness ; a. dark.
kubilu = kubilo.
kubirk (ug) = kobaki.
kuchi (m), 2. a rattan.
kudal (s), . a crocodile, = kodal.
kudapa = kutapa.
kudrugu, 7. a small dove.
kudu, kudru, n. the elbow ; the number 7 in counting on the body.
Ray & Hapnpon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 217
kudu (?); noi balbaigi iangu kudu taean, he spake plain. Mark,
vil. 35.
kudul, 2. the elbow, = kudu.
kuduman, v. to admit, to accede to. [kudumamain. |
kudzi-kwik (1), ”. a carved wooden bird’s ( ? hawk’s) head for decora-
tion of acanoe. Cf. kausi.
kugi (a1), x. the young of sapur.
kui,
kuiai (?), kuiai torik, kuiai turik, n. a sword. Mark, xiv. 45, 47.
kuibur (?), kuibur torddiz, v. or a. tame.
kiuiur (a1), 2. a mangrove.
kuik = kuiko.
kuika-iman, v. to begin, to commence.
kuika-longa = kuikulenga, etc.
kuik-gasamiz, v. to wail.
kuiko, 7. the head ; the skull.
kuiko-patan, v. to behead.
kuik-taean, v. to nod.
kuiku = kuiko; kuiku ipi, ». a chieftainess. [kuikupa, kukungu,
kuikunu. |
kuiku, ”. root. [kuikungu, kuikunu. |
kuiku-dimo, x. the thumb; the number five in counting on the body.
See koiko-dim.
kuikui,
kuikuiga, x. brother. [kuikuigau. ]
kuiku-kikiri, 2. head-ache.
kuikukazi, ». brother.
kuikulenga, kuikulnga, kuikulénga, a. chief.
kuikulumai, 2. a lord, a chief, master ; kuikulumai vine apangu, n. the
lord of the vineyard. Mark, xii. 9. [kuikulumaipa, kuikulu-
maingu. |
kuikulunga, a. chief. [kuikulungae. ]
kuiku-dimo = kuikaiman.
kuikutanga (z), a. tall.
kuiku-waipa, v. to talk over to take counsel, usually with ia pre-
ceding. noiia mura kuiké waipa tana mulpa, he expounded
all things to them. Mark, iv. 34.
kuiopa (8), ”. the dragon fly.
218 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kuisimi, 2. height.
kuiur (m), 2. the dart of the dugong harpoon (wap). Cf. kwiuro.
kuki, x. the West wind; the North West monsoon ; the rainy season ;
winter ; spring (Macfarlane). Cf. koki.
kuki-dogam (s), 2. the West.
kukopalan, v. to save (?), mi mabaeg nongo igilenga koi kukopalan,
whoever will save his life. Mark, vii. 35.
kuku (a), , the foot, toes.
kukuama, ». a flower, a blossom ; kukuamnge. Mark, iv. 28.
kukuik6zipa, dat. of kuikukazi. Mark, xiii. 12.
kukule (a), ~. an elder brother or sister.
kukuna-mapeipa (m), v. to kick.
kukup (mu), 2. the buttocks. Cf. keep.
kukutalinga = koikutalnga.
kul (a1), a. first.
kul (at), ad. two or three days ago; mata kul (m), ad. about a week
ago.
kula, x. a stone, rock. [kulapa, kulanu. |
kula (w), 2. flat stones with faces painted on them connected with
ancestor worship (321).
kula (s), a. red.
kulai, v. to precede, to go before.
kulaikulai, ad. before.
kulai-tai, v. to advance, to go before, to pass by. [kulaitaiz. ]
kulale (ar) = kotale.
kulale (a), a. stony.
kulau-amai, 7. lime (lit. oven of stone, ¢.e. burnt coral).
kulba, kulbang (1), a. worn, old from use, ancient.
kulbulo (3), 2. an owl.
kuli, 2. the steering board of a canoe ; kuli-toidiz, v. to steer. Cf. koli.
kulka, x. blood ; kulkale (ar) a bloody ; kulkthung, a. red. [kulkau. ]
kulkadagomola, a. red, blood colour.
kulka-ieudiz, v. to bleed, to pour blood.
kulkale, a. from kulka.
kulkau (s.), ”. blood.
kulkuigau, ;
kulkulkuma (B), x. dysentry (lit. bloody excrement).
kulapi (a1), ”. a large bean, = kalapi.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 219
kulpa (s), a. old, = kulba.
kulu, 2. the knee.
kulu-damanu,
kuluka = kulka.
kulukal, a. red, purple.
kulukubo, kulukubu, ». a long time.
kulun-tariz, v. to bow the knee. Mark, xv. 19.
kuma, 2. dung, excrement, rust.
kumakuma (s), a. secret. See kumi.
kumar (mb), name of a plant used in the initiation ceremonies (399).
kumaskumas,
kumete, 2. a bushel. From the Samoan ‘umete vid Lifu kumete.
kumi (s), z.asecret. Cf. gumi.
kun, 2. the hinder part; gulngu kun, the hinder part of the ship.
Mark, iv. 38.
kunakanange (s), a. strong, tough (of cloth).
kunamin,
kuna-poibiz, v. to groan, to moan.
kunar6 (8), 2. lime; maind kunaran paruia nidizé, made mourning
with faces of lime. Mark, v. 88. See Introduction to Saibai
Grammar.
kunia (? from kun), noi ubigésia kunia onailai, he would not reject
her. Mark, vi. 26.
kunia-tidiz, kunia-tridiz, v. to return.
kunumeipa (11), v. to tie.
kunur (m1), 2. ashes.
kuote (ab), 2. the back of the head.
kup (ab), 2. the buttocks. Cf. kukup.
kupa (mt), x. a white berried Eugenia.
kupa (1), 2. the hip; maita kupa n. navel.
kupad6, n. a bay.
kupai, ”. ashare, = kopi.
kupai (s) = kupor,
kupalab6 (8), x. a tail.
kupal baba (3B), ». a tail feather.
kupalenga, a. from kupar, ngau kupalenga, I pity ; woe. Mark, xiii.
ide
kupa-luba (ar), . the tail of a bird.
220 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kupar, z. the navel. Of. Mir. kopor.
kupar6, ”. a worm.
kupe (1), 2. a medicinal plant.
kupor (s), the umbilical cord. Cf. kupa, kupar.
kupur, 7. the navel.
kupuza = kapuza.
kupwa,
kurdai (rT), ”. a kind of native rope. Cf. kwodai.
kuri (a1), m.agum tree. (Jukes.)
kurkagamulné (B),a.red. Cf. kulka, gamu, kulkadagomola.
kursai (1), 2. the ear, = kaura.
kursimi (s), 2. a height. Cf. kuisimi.
kurtumiz v. to scratch ; 7. itch.
kurtur (m), ”. a worm; (s), v. to crawl.
kuru,
ktrugat (B), 2. the post of a house.
kurusipa, con. until.
ktsa (B), 2. ariver. (See kasa).
kusa, x. Cotx lachrymae, Job’s tear seeds, pl. kusal; (hence a bead);
a belt made of these seeds (m); kusa duru (m), a bead band
worn on the wig.
kusa kap, 2. a mythical gigantic bird, born parthenogenetically from a
woman. (Legends, 1. 3.)
kusaig, kusaigé, . self; a. alone.
kusal, n. a necklace (lit. beads).
kusali (at), ». the Pleiades.
kusu (mb, m), 2. a coconut water-bottle.
kusu kusulaig (mb), ”. a broom, the dance name of piwul (404).
kut, 2. the neck.
kut (ar), kuta (s), ~. evening, afternoon, = kutapa. Cf. kuto.
kuta, 2. the end, = kuto.
kuta-dimur, 2. the little finger.
kutai (at), ”. a fibrous yam (Dioscorea). Cf. ketai.
kutaig, ”. a younger brother or sister; pl. kutaigal. Cf. kuto.
[kutaigou. |
kutaigan-nge,
kutal, 7. length.
kutalnga, a. long.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 221
kutam (?), kutam titui, a species of hawk.
kutapa, ”. the evening. Cf. kut, kuta.
kutapatai,
kutau,
kuté (s), ~. the end, extremity of anything; kabudan senabi pudau
kutanu, put on the end ofa reed. Mark, xv. 36.
kutodka (s), 2. the end, = kuto.
kutra, . evening, = kuta. [kutanu. |
kutrapa = kutapa.
kutuman = kuduman.
ku-u-rug (a1), 2. the ground dove.
kuza. Mark, ix. 5. Apparently a misprint for kapuza.
kuzi (7), ». a species of hawk.
kwai (™), 2. top of the head (?).
kwaimai (s), v. to scarify, to cut the skin so as to cause a raised
cicatrix. (366.)
kwali (ar), exclamation to arrest attention.
kwalamo (s), ”. the shoulder blade. Cf. kolam, kolab.
kwiasur, (quassur Macgillivray) (m), two, = ukasar.
kwatela (a1), ». the back of the head. Cf. kuote.
kwéada (m), 2. the gromets on the backstays of a boat.
kwig (rv), 2. the head or skull, = kuiko.
kwik (ub) = kwig; merkai kwik, a head-dress used in the funeral
dance ; kwik’uro (1) . the general term for a fillet worn on
the head. Cf. uro.
kwir (s), 2. a fight.
kwitoaean (quitoaean), v. to lose.
kwiuro, 2. the dart of a dugong spear ‘‘ wap.” Cf. kwoidro, kuiar.
kwod, ». the house set apart for men, or the open space in which
sacred ceremonies take place. Mir. sirlam; taiokwéd (1),
nm. the sacred meeting place for the initiation ceremonies
(409).
kwodai, . twisted native rope.
kwoioro (1b), 2. the dart of a wap or dugong spear (351).
kwoikwig (8), first.
kwokata (at), ». a frontlet of coco-palm leaf.
kwual, ». a curlew.
222 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
L, suffix denoting the plural of nouns.
labaipa (a1), v. to cut. [laban, lapan. |
ladeipa (11), v. to tear.
ladiak (mg), ». a chief. (Stone.)
ladon,
ladu, v. to go. [ladun. |
laelo (?), kuikaiman tanamulpa waean mata ukauka laelo, began to
send them forth two and two. Mark, vi. 7.
laga (am), ». dwelling place, hut, house. pil. lagal. [lagau, lagou,
lagapa, lagopu, lagongu, lagonu, lagia, lagonge. |
lagilaig (s), x. countryman.
lagé (s), 2. house, dwelling-place, land. See laga.
lai, suffix.
laigo, laig (s), m. country, island, place.
laig, swffic denoting persons in a group, a clan, a sect, a tribe.
laka (a), ad. again, = lako.
lakadano (B), ”. war.
lako, lak6, ad. more, again.
lakéboi (zB), v. to return. Cf. lako, boie.
lakonge = lagonge.
lalkai (m), x.alie Cf. ngolkai.
lalkeipa (at), v. to lie, to be false ; piki lalkeipa (a), v. to dream.
lameipa (m), v. to copulate.
lapan, see labeipa.
laulau, x. a table (introduced from Samoa wd Lifu). [laulauiu. ]
launga (s, B), @. no, not; mata launga, a. absent.
laungamaiginga (?). Mark, ix. 38. Apparently the two negatives
with adjective termination.
laungaman, launga, mani (s), v. to repudiate, to rebuke, to refuse.
[launga mizin. |
le (ar), a plural suffix to nouns.
le (mw) =i.
leara, ”. a species of cashew (Anacardium) (308).
leg (at), suffic denoting possession.
lenga, suffix to adjectives denoting possession.
li (ub, s, M), 2. a basket made of the leaves of the pandanus.
liwak, 2. the chameleon.
logi (a1), prep. near, close to.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 223.
logo = lago.
loia (B), x. the tongue. Cf. noia.
lokof (tb), x. medicine; sorcery. Cf. gouga, maid, and Mir. lukup.
longa (s), 2. colour.
longa (™) = launga.
lorda, ». the shell worn on the groin when fighting. Cf. alidan.
luba,
lubu (?). Mark, xi. 15, niai za lubu ngorotaran, overthrew the tables
of the money changers.
lulko (a1), ». a large palm (Seaforthia); a water basket made of its
leaves.
lumado (?), sana-lumado (B), ”. the instep.
luman (s), v. to seek, to search, to guess.
lunga (s) = launga.
lunurano, prep. around.
lupalan, be of good cheer (?). Mark, vi. 50.
lupaliz, lupalizo, v. to be astonished, to marvel.
lupeipa (™), v. to shake.
lurug (1), ”. the haunch bone.
luwaiz (s), v. to be cured.
luwaean (s), v. to shave.
Ma (8), 2. a spider, a cobweb.
mabaginga (?), mekatia mabaginga, not shine abroad. Mark, iv. 22.
Probably mabaeg with the negative adj. termination, not having
men, where men are not.
mabaeg, mabaegd, ». man; pl. mabaegal ; ngurpai-mabaeg, n. disciple ;
koi zongu ubi mabaeg, one who covets. Mark, vii. 22.
[mabaegau, mabaegou, mabaegan, mabaegdpa, mabaegangu,
mabaegengu, mabaegongu, mabaegia, mabaegae. |
mabaegogi, mabaegdginga, a. deserted, having no men; mabaegogi
lago, a desert place.
mabaeg-purtan, ». a cannibal, man-eater.
mabagi = mabaeg.
mabaro (8), . the windpipe.
mabeto, 2. a baby.
mabi (a), 2. the tail of a fish.
mabiag, 7. man, = mabaego.
224 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
mad, mada, x. pudendum muliebre.
madale (m), a. female (lit. possessing mada).
madi, sufiz, by (Macfarlane).
madu (mM, B), z. flesh; pl. madul, thigh (Macfarlane); hip (8); thigh
(8); bru-madu (a), 2. calf of leg ; wapi madul, flesh of fishes.
Mark, vi. 41.
madubo, 7. a charm, an image or idol.
madugi (?). Mark, ix. 42.
madugo, ”. a fine; ». to fine.
madu-paman, v. to start, be startled. [madu-pamemin. ]
madu-pawizo,
mae (m), 2. the bark of which daje is made.
mael, suffix.
mag (tT), 2. sweat. Cf. mordg.
magao (s), ”. strength.
magaolnga, a. strong.
magéda (a), 2. hair of groin; guda magéda, ”. moustache.
magi, magina (s), a. small; magina-kazi, child; magina-ipikazi,
girl ; magina-malil, a nail; magina turiké (B), tomahawk.
magiso (B) = magiz, v. to spew.
magi-tiom (s), 7. boy; pl. magi-tiomal.
magiz, v. to vomit.
mago, v. to perspire; ”. sweat.
magus (s), a. enduring. (Perhaps aus. error for magao).
mai, 7. pearl-shell ; maidan, a pearl-shell eye inserted in a skull.
mai (s), 2. sake; Herodian mai Filipon ipi nongo kutaig, for the sake
of Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. Mark, vi. 17.
mai (s), a well, pool.
mai, v. to mourn; ~ tears. [maid6, maind. |
mai-adan (s), maiadi (B), v. to weep, put out tears.
maid, maiid, x. sorcery. Cf. lokof, purapura.
maideg (1), 2.asmall grass petticoat, big in front and behind, imported
from Mowat. Cf. Maiwas.
maidélaig (mb), . a sorcerer.
maierchipa (M), v. to cry, howl like a dog.
maige (Mm), maigi (s,B), v. wmper. don’t! do not!
maiginga (?), lesu nubepa kudu maiginga, Jesus did not allow him.
Mark, v. 19. .
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 225
maigu (s), blind; v. to shut one’s eyes (8).
maiguma, maigumua, 2. a blind man; senabi maigumau geto, the blind
man’s hand. Mark, viii. 23.
mai-id, ”. sorcery, =maid.
maiko (B), 2. widow.
maikwik, maikuik6, maikuika (8), = markuiko.
maingu,
mainguzi (s), ”. birth; nongo mainguzi goiga, his birthday. Mark,
vi. 21. Cf. mani (8).
maipa (s), v. to bring.
maipa (?) mipa ngidd ngona mina mabaega do maipa, why callest thou
me good? Mark, x. 18.
maita, . the belly, stomach ; bowels (8); koimaita (B), ”. gizzard of
a fowl; kai maitalnga (B), a. corpulent.
MIaita-iginga, a. hungry ; v. to starve.
maita-kupa, ”. the navel.
maitileg (m1), maita-laig (s), a pregnant; n. pregnancy.
maitarun, a. filled with food. Cf. maita, irun.
maitui (?) tanamun puruka maitui, their eyes were heavy. Mark,
xiv. 40.
maiwa (m), 2. the great clam (Zridacna gigas).
maiwa (wn), 2. the performers at a ceremony during the wangai season.
Of these there were two (magina and kaiza) who danced in front
of a waus. (321.) Of. kamus.
maiwas (rT), z. a small leaf petticoat imported from Mowat, small in
front. Cf. maideg. ;
maiwazo (mb) =maiwas.
maja (B), maji (m), 2. a coral reef.
mak (m), ». a breakwind of bushes.
makamak, maka (at), 2. narrow, circular, twisted leg ornaments, from
one or two to thirty or more in number, worn round the leg
just above the calf.
makaso, 2. a mouse, arat. Probably introduced.
makiam, 2. a scream; makiam ieudan, wondered. Mark, vi. 51.
makikak = makamak.
makupui (8), ”. a flag.
makuz (a), ”. a mouse, = makaso.
mal (m), ”. deep water, =malu.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. Q
226 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
malakai, x. a word employed by the South Sea teachers for spirit, ghost,
etc., 7.e. merkai or markai, the r is changed into 1, and a vowel
is inserted between the two consonants.
maladugomola, a. sea colour, blue.
malapan (mg), x. the moon, = malpal.
malegui = malgui.
malegui (m), v. to fill (with a fluid).
maleguia-adan, v. to spring up, of plants; to put out a stem.
maleipa, v. to fill with a fluid. Cf. mal, malegui.
malgui (a), malegui, spring, autumn; v. to grow (s); ». blade of
grass; a stem (s); a stalk; malegui kai palgin, a stalk will
come up. Mark, iv. 32.
malil (s), metal; malil dibidib, brasen vessel. Mark, vii. 4, malil
urukam, 2. a chain.
malila (B), a fish spear.
malé (B), m, a passage in the reef.
malpal, malpel (s), 2. moon.
malpamiz (?), tana ina gar malpaniz senabi zapunu, they that trust in
riches. Mark, x. 24.
malthagamule (m), a. blue; sea colour. Cf. maladugomola.
malu (s), 2. the sea. [malupa, malunu. ]
maluda (Bz), blue,
maludénga, maludunga (8), blue, green (lit. sea colour); imusé malu-
donga, green grass. Mark, vi. 39.
malulonga,
malupa (a), ad. below, downwards; kara malupa (m), ad. far
below.
mamain, v. pl. from mani, take ; kudu mamain, they took counsel.
mamal, mamalenga, a. holy.
mamamoizinga, 2. things taken.
mamu (s), ad. well, carefully ; mamu-ngurpa, v. to perceive ; mamu
danal-pataipa, v. to take heed.
mamus, ”. a chief or head of anisland. This is a Miriam word and
introduced. Cf. Mir. Voc.
manamoizinga, a. joined.
mana-rimal (s), a. few.
mang (m), ”. a branch.
manga, conj. but.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 227
mangaiginga, v. not to come.
mangemin, pl. of mangizd; kulai mangemin, overtook, overwent.
Mark, vi. 33.
mangepa (m), v. toreturn. Cf. mangiz.
mangi, v. to come.. Mark, ii. 20.
mangiz, mangizo, v. to come, arrive, to overtake. [mangeman. |
mani (s), v. to give, bring, take, fetch, remove.
mani, suffix, by.
mani (B), 7. birth.
mani, x. money. An English word. [maniu. |
mani-angan,
maniginga, a. having no money. (mani = English money).
mapa (m), the gums. Cf. Daudai mapu, base, foundation.
mapar, 7. the teeth (Macfarlane). Cf. mapa.
mapeipa (m), v. to bite.
mareia (?) kukuna mapeia, (m), v. to kick.
mapeto (s), x. a baby, pl. mapetal.
mapu (m), x. weight; nongo korkak mapu poidiz, he was displeased.
Mark, x. 14
mapule (m), a. heavy.
mapunga (s), a. difficult, heavy.
marama (mM), maramo, (B), ”. a hole in the ground, a grave, a pit; a
well.
marama-teipa (m), v. to put in the ground, bury, plant, sow.
maramatiai-lag6, marama-toiai, ». a tomb. Mark, v. 2., vi. 29.
marama-toiaipa (s) = marama-teipa.
marap (M), marapi (Mm), marapo (B), ”. a bamboo, = morap; a bow.
mari (m), 2. pearl-shell; an ornament made of pearl-shell. Cf. mai.
mari, 2. a spirit, a ghost, the soul, a shadow, a reflection ; mario-kwik
(rz), a leafy mask used in the funeral ceremonies; pl. maril.
[maringu. |
maridan (s), maridan6 (s), glass, a mirror, a telescope ; maridan dibidib,
cup. Mark, vii. 4.
mari-géta (mb), (spirit hand), . the person who watched a corpse during
the first night after death to see if anything happened (402, 421).
marilaig (s), a. possessed.
m ariman (s), v. to pine away (lit. become a spirit).
mari-o-kwik, cf. mari.
228 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
markai, 2. a spirit, a demon, a white man. Cf. merkai.
markei (1), x. a heavy cumulus cloud.
markuik6 (s), ”. a generation.
marokai = markai.
maruk, 2. fowl (European). Probably introduced. Malay or Poly-
nesian manu.
marukai (1), 2. white man; kobikobi marukai (m) #. a black man.
masia-tédimis6 (B), v. to smile.
mat (a), ~. pumice; mata (ag), m. a stone.
mata (a), ad. always, constantly, still, only; a prefix expressing a con-
tinuance of the action of a verb.
mata (s), a. legal.
mata (s), a. equal, only; conj. but, for.
mata-bangal (mu), ad. a week or so hence.
mata-ddbura (s), ad. immediately, quickly, fast.
matadédalo (s), ad. inland.
matakazupa (s), conj. but.
matakeda (s), a. like to, similar.
matakul (1), ad. a week or two ago.
matalaunga, a. absent.
matama (s), to beat, strike; to kill. See matupeima.
matamari, ”. a bruise.
matamiz,
matangadagid6 (s), a. worthy, equal to, alike, same, even, uniform
matangadagidiginga, a. unlike.
matar, mataré (s), mataru (8), 2. calm.
mater (? = mata). Mark, iv. ii.
mato, ”. a joist.
matu (M, 8s), 2. a whale.
matumeipa (a), v. to strike, to beat, to kill; umalizo aici he (m1), 0.
to wound.
maumisin6 (8) = maumizin. [maumizineka].
maumizin (s), . preaching.
maura (mM), 2. a hundred. Cf. mura.
mausa-usal (a), m. a scarified mark on the cheek (367).
mauwaigérk (n), mauwaigérko (1), the instructor of a lad during the
initiation ceremonies (411).
mawago-laig (s), . adultery.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 229
mawcha (m), 2 saliva. Cf. Mir. mos.
maza (m), . the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot. Cf. koko-
mol.
mazan (T), 2. reef.
mazar (?), Mark, v.15. mazarpagan, mazarpagiz0, sore amazed.
meakata (B), a. bright. Cf. meketia, mekata.
meamai (8B), v. to goin.
meamaipa, v. pl. to do.
meamoipa, v. have done (pl).
mee (mg), ”. heaven.
megi (mg), meik (1), 2. white.
mego (B), ”. a lime spatula.
meipa (m), v. to take away.
mek (r), a. white, = meik.
meka (s), v. to wish.
mekata (s), m. radiance. See meakata, meket.
mekatasin, n. glory. Mark, x. 37.
mekatia = meket, meketia.
mekenmepa, v. to like, to wish, to want. Cf. mokenmepa.
meker (m), 2. a tree (Heritiera). The leaf, when rolled in to acylinder,
is used to distend the lobe of the ear.
meket, meketia (s), ». to shine. Cf. meakata, mekata.
mekikula (mg), m. a canoe (Stone).
melpal (mg) = mtlpal.
Memain, pl. of mizin. Mark, vi. 32, 38; viii. 10.
menaro (mM) = mina.
menir (m), ». the stern of a canoe.
mepa, v. to do.
mepaia, ». the world (?); mepaiangu mai, for the world’s sake.
Mark, iv. 17.
merkai, ». a white man (m), a spirit, the death dance; the flesh of a
corpse (mb) ; merkai mud (mb), the store-house of a maidelaig ;
ipika merkai (mb), a man in the dance dressed as a woman
(403) ; merkai kwik (mb), the head dress used in the dance
(403) ; turkiam merkai (w) (421). Of. markai.
met, n. a fin.
mi, prefiz, the root of miei or midé, used as an interrogative.
Cf. migdiga, miza, mimabaeg.
230 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
miai (B) = miei.
miakula (1), a. grey; any light tint; miakali (mg), ~. white.
mida-kubi (a), ad. how many ?
mideipa (a), v. to build, asa hut. Cf. moidai.
mid6 (a), pron. what ? which ? how ? in what manner?
midéparu, ad. how ? (Macfarlane.)
miéi (s), pron. what? [miéinge. Mark, viii. 36. ]
miéimiéi (?), pron. which of two? what? whether ?
migdiga, ad. interrog. when? what day?
milagnu, ad. where? in what place?
milo,
mimabaigo (B), what man ? who?
mina (™), a. perfectly good, true (s, B); mina (am), a. precious, right ;
mn. truth; tusi mina, Bible ; mina get, right hand.
mina, minar, 7. a mark; susu mina (m), on the breasts; kibu mina
(ar), on the loins (367).
minai-pataman (s), v. to confess, to show.
mina-man (s), v. to measure, to span; m. an example.
minananga (s), minanenga, a. righteous, holy.
minar, 2. colour (Macfarlane).
minara (t) = mina.
minapa (?), ngalpa Augadan baselaia mi ngadalnga minapa, we liken
God’s kingdom to what? Mark, iv. 29.
minara-polai, minaré-pélai, minar-palai, v. to cut or make a mark, to
write.
minarpolaiginga, ». not to write.
minasizinga, z. a custom; v. to accustom.
min’azipa (a), v. to finish, said of men’s work.
mineipa (?v. to mark) ; kaba mineipa (a), v. to dance.
minera = mina ; tru minera (T), m. a mark on the side of the face.
minga (s), pron. what ?
mingadalnga, a. like what ? of what kind?
mingu, ad. why ?
minguzo, ad. why ?
mipa (Mm), ad. why ?
misai (s), ad. yes.
mita, mité (s), x. sweetness, taste ; mita poitom (s), a. brackish.
mitaiginga (s), a. sour, tasteless.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 231
mitile, mitalenga, mitalnga, a. sweet, tasty; g’ru tha mitale (m),
a. sweet tasted ; adabada mitalnga (B), x. brackish water.
mitinit, ». a chain.
mito (a), x. taste. Cf. mita.
Initun,
miza, interrog. pron. which? what thing ?
mizin (s), to sail; tana gumi mizin inabi gul, they departed by ship
privately. Mark, vi. 32.
moa,
moaizinga, #. an ulcer; @. impure.
moamai (?), moamai kauralnga, a. deaf.
moamoa (s), 4. eminent (man).
moamu (s), x. art. Cf. muamua.
mobalmobal (?), mobalmobal palan, v. to pluck. Mark, ii. 238.
modobaig. Mark, xii. 21.
modabia, modobia (s), v. to answer, to pay; to punish; to pay the
blood price or were geld.
modobigal (?the fellow answering); uka modobigal, three. Cf.
numerals in Grammar.
moeai, v. to enlarge.
modobigipa, v. to be unrewarded ; modobigipa launga nubepa, he shall
not lose his reward. Mark, ix. 41.
mogi-botainga, ad. in the morning, long before day. Cf. migi
bateing (a1).
m0i (B), fire, = mui; moi i asimis (mM), moii usimi (mb), a stamping
dance (362).
moidai, modidan, v. to build; lagau méidai mabaeg, builder. Cf.
mideipa.
moidemin, v, to prepare.
moiga (?), ngalpa méiga kaziol, is on our part. Mark, ix. 40.
moigi (s), ~. dawn. Cf. aro.
moi-id (1), x. an eruption of pimples.
moilmoil, ad. sadly ; a. grieved.
moin, pl. suffiz to verbs.
moi-nitun, v. to float.
moken (s), 2. want.
mokenmepa, v. to wish, to want. .
molpalo (8) = mulpal.
232 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
monamdin, a. joined together, united ; kalmel monaméin, v. to unite
(Macfarlane). Cf. manamoizinga.
m0osa (B), v. to expectorate. Cf. mos.
mooso (B), 2. the lungs.
mwopa (?), mani mopa korupa, made head of the corner. Mark, xii. 10+
morap (1), morap (s), x. bamboo; sukub-morap (Nn), sukubu-morap
(r), . a native bamboo tobacco pipe.
morbaigorabini (m), ». the name of a fish (Legends, 1. 180) (? the
jumping-fish, Periophthalmus).
mori = mari, p/. moril.
morilaig, a. possessed ; watri mérlog, possessed with an evil spirit.
Mark, vi. 7. [morlogia ].
morimal, 7. & v. lean.
morlogia. See morilaig.
moro (M) = muru.
moroigé, a. old, aged, of persons only; pl. moroigal. Cf. kulba.
[moroigau, moroigdu, moroigan. |
mortu (1), a house.
mos (B), 2. spittle.
mos-aladiz, v. to spit.
mosan (?), mosan bauka, mosdbauka weidaman, v. to foam. Mark, ix.
18, 20.
mosial (?), noi mésial pidbizi, he marvelled. Mark, vi. 6.
mowiga (s), z. anelder. Cf. moroigé.
muamu, 7. knowledge, wisdom.
muamuagigal, a. without understanding.
Muamual = moamoai.
muasin (s), ad. after ; v. to finish ; comj. then, when.
mubia (?), Mark, iv. 15.
muchi (mg), 2. hair. Cf. Mir. mus.
mudamudo, a. crowded (?). Mark, ix. 14.
mudé (s), x. a house, dwelling place ; village (s).
mudoé (s), 2. a multitude.
mu,
mue (am), 2. firewood, fire; mue-kemeipa (a1), v. to kindle a fire.
mudu (m), 7.acamp. Cf. mudd.
mudul (m), mudula (B), 2. the neck.
mue-daje (m), 7. a small petticoat, worn by women.
Ray & Havpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 233.
mugara (Tt), ”. a large fish called ‘‘barracoota”’ by the settlers.
mugi = magina; mugi kazi, migi kaje (m), a child; mtgi kalakala,
chicken. mtgi bateing (m), morning.
muging (m), @. small, few, a portion of. Cf. Mir. mog.
mugu, ”. termites ; the mound of termites (m).
mugu (B), x. aremnant. Cf. Mir. mog.
mui (m), ”. the inside; muia utizo, muia utem, v. to enter (s); mui
teipa (m), v. to put inside, to hide, conceal; muinu, prep.
inside, within ; mui-ariz, ». a redoubt, refuge (Macfarlane).
mui, 2. fire, a fire brand. [muiapa, muitai.] Cf. mue.
muia-utiz, v. to enter in, togoin. [muia-utemin. |
mui-ilinga (s), a. square (possessing an inside).
muile (m), a. hollow.
muingu (?), muingu trapot, 2. the pelvic fin.
mui-teipa (m), v. to put inside; mui taean, to charge. Mark, ix.
25.
mui-wazo (mb), 2. the smaller under leaf petticoat.
muki (mg), ». water. Cf. nguki.
mukmepa, a. and v. loose.
muko (s), ». rock, stones. Cf. kula.
muku-boidan (8), v. to fasten; to tie a thing. Cf. dorodimoin.
mula,
mulai (s), v. to speak. [mulailai. Mark, viii. 30. ]
mulaigi (s), ». not to speak ; 2, nothing (i.e. no words).
mulagia = mulaigi.
mulaiginga, a. not to speak.
mulaigs (B), v. = ngulaig, to know.
mulaizi (?), nongo mulaizi ia, his oath (? word). Mark, vi. 26.
mulaka (s), ad. down.
mulepa (m), v. to speak, tell. [muliz, mulemipa, mulai, mulan,
iamuliz, mulailai. |
muli (B), v. to answer, reply.
mulizé, v. to speak, to talk.
mulngu, sufi« to plur. pron. from.
mulpa, sufix to plur. pron. to, for.
_ miulpal (a), 2. the full moon.
mulpange, suffix to plur. pron.
mulsipa (377).
234 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
mulupa (s), ad. down; v. to descend.
mumugu-sigaman (?), see wakai mumugt-sigaman.
mun (s), a suffix to plur. pronouns forming the possessive case.
munia, suffix to plur. pron.
munia (s), sufi to plur. pron. with, have.
mura (s), a. all, entire, whole; mura-urui, 2. insect.
murar, (mg), 2. a clay tobacco-pipe.
mura-wardan (B), #. Warrior.
murda-gamulnga (B), a. yellow.
murda umaizi (1), 2. a plaited string.
muri, see Legends, p. 180.
murimari (rT), poor, lean.
muro (m) = mura, all.
muru (m), 2. the cabbage palm. Corypha. See moro.
murtig (m), x. sweat. Cf. mago.
musi (B), 2. a piece.
musiginga (?), tanamun kordkak musi ginga, have no root in them-
selves. Mark, iv. 17.
musi-teipa (m), v. to scratch, pinch.
musu (M), ”. a green ant.
musur, musuro, w. armlets; plaited bracelets.
mutalo (B), x. a young coconut with water and no kernel.
muti, ”. an ear-ring ; the pendulous portion of the ear.
mutu (?), mutu trapot, the pelvic fin. Cf. muingu.
muzu, 2. termites. Cf. musu, mugu.
muzura (Ss) = musur.
Na, pron. she.
na, 2. a song, hymn.
nabepa, pron. to her, for her.
nabi, ad. now, at present, this; nabi gdiga, to-day.
nabi-gét, ina nabigét (a), a. five; nabiget-nabiget, ten.
nabikoku (m), fifteen ; nabikoku-nabikoku, twenty.
nabing (m), a. this, these.
nad = neét.
nadalai, %. the hair of the groin.
nadamai (B), v. to chew.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 235
nadan (?), ngai ngita mulpa bami nadan kurusipa midd? how long
shall I suffer you? Mark, ix. 19.
nado, pron. she.
nadu (s), pron. her.
nadu (a), 2. a grass tail.
nadual (mb) = nadur.
nadulza (r), 2. the hair on the pubes. Cf. nadalai.
nadur (), ”. a tail ornament worn in a dance, = nadual.
naga (m), 2. a belt worn obliquely across the chest. Cf. kamadi.
naga (s), ad. where?
nagal,
nagalag, x. a hawk, the sea-eagle.
nagalug, ”. a hawk, = ngagalaig.
nagapa (s), nagepa; v. to look. [magemipa. |
nagemiu, exclam. behold! look! See nagiz.
nagemilu,
nagepa, v. to look. [nagiz, nagemipa, nagemiu. |
nager (M), = naga.
nagiz, nagizi, nagizo, v. to look, to stare.
nago ad. where ?
nail, ”. the tongue, = noia,
naidai, naidai-dogam (s), 2. the north.
naigai (B), 2. the north.
nainanope, nainonob, nainonop (together?), thorte nainonop, thirty
came to him from every quarter. Mark, i. 45.
naipuisé (B), v. to lick.
najeronajero (1), 2. the dodder (a pink climbing parasitic plant).
nakareipa (a), ad. above, upwards.
nalaga, ad. where? which?; kéiza nalaga senabi sabi? which is the
great commandment in the law? Mark, xii. 28.
nalagazi, ad. whence ?
nalagi (s), pron. which ?
namoit, ad. when ? (Macfarlane. )
nana,
nanimiz, see garo-nanamiz; tana nanamoin, they consulted.
nanga, a suffix.
nangap, 2. the north ; pin nangapa, . the south (Macfarlane).
236 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
nanitna (s), v. to run, ran; a. erect.
nanu, pron. her, hers.
nanue (M) = nanu.
nanuz, pron. from her.
nanuza, pron. her thing, hers.
napa, (4g), v. to bring, = ngapa.
na-poidan (s), v. to sing; to laugh.
nar, (wg), ”. foot, = ngar.
narang (m), x. the armpit; narang stika (a), the hair of the armpit.
narangi,
narberit,
narminamis, ”. a moth.
nataizinga, n.a thing that is burnt; senabi mura gudataean natizinga,
all whole burnt offerings. Mark, xii. 33.
natam (m, mb), x. anamesake ; v. to change names with another.
natiz, natizé (?), white. Mark, ix. 3; ngita ugulaig amadan doékal
natizé, ye know that summer is nigh. Mark, xiii. 28.
nau (s),”. hymn. Cf. na.
naur (m) 2. the peg of the kobai or throwing stick (334). Cf. ngurr.
ne (s), pron. his.
neét, a dugong platform (351). Cf. nad.
negal (?), ina mura demoni negal iapa, suffered not the devils to
speak. Mark, i. 34.
neipoiz, v. to lick.
nel, nelé, m. name. [nelpa. |
nele = nel; Iesun nele adaputiz, Jesu’s name was spread abroad.
Mark, vi. 14.
nelea (?)=nel. Mark, vii. 2.
nelenga = nele, nga.
nelginga (s), a. fameless (lit. not having a name).
nep (m), 2. a grand-child.
nerawkai (1), x. an unmarried woman.
netur-kaje (m), ”. a son.
nia, sufiz, with, at; mid6 ngalpan-nia launga senabi nongo babat
are not his sisters here with us? Mark, vi. 3.
niai, v. to sit; niai-kazi (s), an attendant, servant; contract boy (8).
niai za, m. chair; niai lagd, n. a seat; niaipa ielpand, v. to
marry.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 287
niaiginga, a. not sitting.
niain = nial.
niano=niai. Mark, vi. 39.
nida (?), noi kaikudimo nida idin senabi durai kikiri, he began to lay
his hands upon a few sick folk. Mark, vi. 5.
nidai, (?) root of nidaipa.
nidaiginga, v. not to do.
nidaipa (s), v. to do.
nidaizinga, ». things done.
nidapa, v. to touch.
nide,
nidemin, v. to touch.
nidiz, nidizi, nidizo (s), v. to do, to make, act; done; . mode
(Macfarlane).
nido,
nigita = ngita.
niki, ”. a fern.
niki (?); koi tamo laké niki adan, shoots out great branches.
Mark, iv. 82.
nikiagul (mb), ”. a marine insect (Halobates).
ningaibia (? = ngibia), ningaibia gnulai ga (B), v. to translate.
nipa (a), suffix, for.
nisalnga, a. having leaves.
nis, nisd (B, m), x. a. leaf.
nis-thung (m), a. leaf like, green.
nitamau (?), noi iautumiz mura mabaegal apa nitamau, he commanded
the people to sit down on the ground. Mark, viii. 6.
nitun, nitund, v. to put out, push out; kaba nitund v. torow. Cf.
geto-nitun.
nizo (?), a misprint for nidizd. Mark, v. 38.
no, suffix to nouns.
nobaba (s), 2. skin.
nogaipa, v. to look. Cf. nagiz. [mégain. |
noi, 2. a light framework erected over the fire on which to dry and
smoke fish (311).
noi, pron. he.
noi, noia, (s), x. tongue.
noidail, ndidail, a. beloved.
238 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
noidal = noidail.
noidiz6, v. to honour. Mark, vii. 10.
noido, pron. he.
noiddka (?), noidd, ka.
noino, noind, pron. him.
noitai, (s), ”. tongue.
none (s), pron. his.
nongo (s), pron. his.
nongongo (?), Mark, viii. 30.
nonobo,
noriza (B) (?); urd noriza (B), 2. ebb tide.
nu, suffix denoting the locative case, in, at, on.
nu (s), pron. he, him, it.
nu’ abepa (m), pron. for himself, = nubepa.
nubepa, pron. to or for him.
nubepe = nubepa.
nubia (s), pron. him.
nudan, v. to rub.
nudi (a), ”. tears.
nudu (mM), pron. he.
nud (m), pron. he.
nukangaba guba (B), . the north-west wind.
nukenmepa (?) = mokenmepa.
nuk’ énei (m), a. thirsty.
nuki (a), 2. fresh water; dana nuki (m), a well (lit. water eye).
Cf. Polynesian mata-vai, which also = water eye.
nukineipa (a), v. to thirst.
nukunoko,
nukunuké (?), nukunuko iamulizo, to reason, to think about. Mark,
ii. 6, 8; mipa ngita nukunuko poibiz ? why make ye this ado ?
Mark, v. 39.
numaiginga. See ngona-numaiginga.
numani. See ngona numani.
nungu, pron. his, = nongo (Macfarlane).
nungu (s), prep. from; nungu korkak, from the heart. See nu, ngu.
nungungu, prep. from, from it; nungungu umanga, from the dead.
nunu (“), pron. his.
nupado (?), nupadd-taean, ». to roll.
Ray & Havpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 239
nur, nurd, ”. a noise, a roar, a voice.
nurage (mM), @. quiet.
nurai, ”. a sound, = nur.
nureipa (am), v. to wrap round, to coil, to twist. [nuran. ]
nuremizingi (?), wur nuremizingi (m), x. low water.
nurezingi, wur nurézingi (m), 2. ebb tide.
nurile (m), @. noisy.
nurinuri (mg), ”. a sweet potato.
nuriz,
nuro, ”. a crack, an echo = nur.
nursak, x. the nostrils. Cf. sakai, nurse.
nurse (m), 2. the white of an egg ; the mucus of the nose.
nutan, v. to try, to tempt, to taste.
Nga, pron. who? what? (person).
ngabado, . a room ; noid6 sesitaman ngipelpa wara k6i ngabad gimal,
he (will) show you a large upper room. Mark, xiv. 15.
ngadagid6, ngadogido, a. equal, lawful.
ngadal, m. number, size; iangu ngadal mura, all parables. Mark,
lv. 138.
ngadalenga, ngadalonga, n. a picture, image ; iangu-ngadalnga (s), ”.a
parable. [ngadalngange. |
ngadalenga, a numerous.
ngadalngange. Mark, i. 44.
ngadapalepa, v. to be proud, to boast.
ngadazia (s), a. legal.
ngado,
ngadu, pron. who?
ngaeapa, ngaiapa, pron. to me, for me.
ngagalaig, m. a hawk. Cf. nagalug.
ngai, pron. I.
ngai-aikeka, pron. for myself.
ngaibia, pron. with me; me, after v. to follow.
ngai-kusaig, pron. myself.
ngaingai, n. a boar’s tusk used for polishing a wap.
ngainge. Mark, x. 29.
ngalabe, pron. we two (exclusive).
ngalakai = ngolkai.
ngalapipa, v. to lie; 2. falsehood.
240 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ngalbe, pron. we two (exclusive).
ngalbelpa, pron. to us two, for us two.
ngalkan,
ngalnga (s), a. kind.
ngalngal, 7. a liana or climbing plant; one of the figures in womer
(361).
ngalpa, pron. we (pl.) inclusive of person addressed.
ngalpaldui,
ngalpan, pron. our (pl).
ngalpalpa, pron. to us.
ngana, ”. the breath, = ngona.
nganakapo (m), . the heart, = ngonakapo.
ngano, pron. who ?
nganu (a), pron. whose?
ngapa (m), prefix indicating motion to speaker ; to bring (s); to come
from a distance (B).
ngapamani, ngapamaro (B), v. to bring.
ngapanagemiu, see ngapa, nagepa.
ngapanagi, exclam. behold! lo!
ngar, ngard (m), x. the leg; foot (s); ngara-pusik, a dance (362);
ngara-taiermin, ”. a dance (362); ngaraupila, the fibule.
ngaraki, x. a young woman.
ngarba (B), 2. the collar-bone (ngarba-rid (mb.) ).
ngaru (m), the monitor lizard.
ngaru (s), ad. ever, eternal, always, never (Macfarlane) ; ngaru
poidaipa, v. to trouble, 7.e. to always be asking. Mark, vy. 35.
ngato, ngatu (m), pron. I.
ngaubaté (B), . a woman’s brother. Cf. babato.
ngau, pron. mine, my.
ngauakazi = ngawakazi.
ngaukalé = ngau, kalo, afterme. Mark, i. 7.
ngaumun, pron. my, mine.
ngaungu, pron. from me, through me.
ngaunguzo,
ngauwonl,
ngawa,
ngawakazi, ngawakozi, m. daughter. ([ngawakaziu, ngawakaziutu
lag, ngawakiée. |
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 241
ngazo (s), pron. I.
ngi, pron. thou, you (s7g.).
ngibepa, pron. to thee, for thee.
ngibia, pron. with thee.
ngidd, pron. thou, you (s7g.).
ngidu, pron. thou.
ngika. Mark, v. 19.
ngi-kusaig, pron. thyself, yourself.
ngimipamapa (B), 2. purpose (apparently a phrase, ngi mipa meipa ?
you do it why °).
nginanga (?), nginanga sike ubinemepa, if thou wilt. Mark,i.40; a
mabaeg sibuwanan a ngibia amadan apatanori keda nginanga
mido, and love thy neighbour as thyself. Mark, xii. 33.
ngingalkailaiga (B), 2. idiot (dt. you liar).
ngino, pron. thee.
nginu, pron. thy, thine.
nginungu, pron. from thee.
ngipeine (m), pron. of you two, yours.
ngipel, pron. you two.
ngipelpa, pron. to you two, for you two.
ngipen, pron. your, of you two.
ngita, pron. you (pi.).
ngitaka, ngitaka mata korawaig, perceive ye not yet. Mark, viii. 17.
ngitamulngu, pron. concerning you (pl.); among you.
ngitamulpa, pron. to you.
ngitamun, pron. your, yours (pi.).
ngitamunia, pron. with you, among you. Mark, x. 43.
ngitana (a), pron. you (pil.).
ngitanamun (a), pron. your (pl.).
ngitangita, pron. yourselves.
ngddalenga = ngadalenga.
ngode, a. like; ngdde puinge, like trees. Mark, viii. 24.
ngodo (s), a. like to.
Ngoi, ngvi, pron. we (pl.) exclusive of the person or persons spoken to.
ngoimulpa, pron. to us, for us.
ngoimun, pron. our (pi.).
ngoingodi, pron. ourselves.
ngolkai (s), a. false, ». falsehood ; liar (8).
R.I.A.PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv. BR
242 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ngomai,
ngona, ngona, pron. me.
ngona, z. breath; ngona-pudiz, v. to rest, to stay (8) ; ngdna-numa, v.
to remember; ngona-poidan, v. to sigh; ngona-puidan (?),
n. palm (Macfarlane).
ngonakapo, nm. heart, mind, lit. the seed ‘‘kapé”’ of the breath
‘‘ngona.’? The Miriam word has a similar derivation from
*« ner,” breath and “‘ kep,”’ seed.
ngonamani,
ngdnanuma, v. to remember; ngdnanumaiginga, o. to forget.
ngona-pudiz, v. to rest.
ngénu (s), pron. whose ?
ngorngomai, ngorongomai (?), dana ngorongomai lago, ”. the temple.
Mark, xi. 11, 15, 27.
ngorotaran (?). Mark, x. 15.
ngou-pamani, @. meek.
ngozo, pron. I (apparently only used by afemale speaking). Ci. ngazo.
ngu, suffix from, concerning, through.
ngudi, n. a tear.
ngugiai, m. a cup of water. Mark, ix. 41.
nguki (s), . fresh water; nguki-tuidan, v. to urinate. [ngukingu. }
ngukiai, ”. a cup of water.
ngukulnga,
ngul (3), ngulé (s), yesterday.
ngulai, a. possible; ngulai za kéigérsar, many things are possible.
Mark, ix. 23.
ngulaig (s), ngulaigé, v. to be able, can, to know how, to understand;
n. ability. [ngulaignu. }
ngulaigasin,
ngulaigépa, v. to know.
ngulaik = ngulaig.
ngulaizi, a. chosen.
ngulaizinga (s), a. and m. chosen.
ngulamai, a. obscene; ngulamai za, m.an abomination. Mark, xiii. 14.
ngulamoin, v. to hate, abhor; to be disgusted with ;{to sneer.
ngu-mabaeg = nga mabaeg.
ngurapal, ”. teaching, doctrine ; ngurpai-mabaeg, m. teacher.
ngurapipa, v. to teach; to learn, to know, to recognize.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 243
ngurngomiz6 (?), dand ngurngomiz6, x. religion. See ngorngomai.
nguro (s), ”. voice. Cf. nur, nuro.
nguro (B), . the beak of a bird.
nguro-taean, v. to keep out, to crowd out ; ». a wall (s) ; ngurd-taeamoin,
they were choked, crowded out. Mark, xiv. 7.
nguro-weildaizinga, 7. a casting out.
ngurd-weidai, v. to cast out, to expel, dismiss. [nguro-weidizi. ]
ngurpai = ngurapai.
ngurpan. See ngurapipa.
ngurr (m), ”. the hook or peg of the throwing stick (kobai). Cf.
naur, nguro (384).
ngursaka (m)=nursak. Cf. nur, saka.
ngursilamiz, v. to wink.
nguru-oidan, v. to dismiss =nguro-weid.
nhgurupaipa=ngurapipa. | ngurupan. |
ngurupai = ngurapal.
ngurupaizinga, . things taught, doctrine.
Oébada (11), 2. soft turtle eggs.
oka (m), ”. a grub found in dead wood.
okésa (toa, mb, N, T)=ukasar; okosa oropun, three.
onailai (?), noi ubigdsia kunia onailai, he would not reject her. Mark,
vi. 26.
ooja (tT), ma small cowry. Cf. uza.
orapuni = urapon.
oripara (m), 7. the rainbow.
oropun, orapuni (Moa, mb, N,T) = urapon; okdsa ordpun, three ; okosa
getal, two hands, ten.
osilai (? from asin); noi guddwadan tanamulpa kaimi dsilai, he
allowed no man to follow him. Mark, v. 37.
oudazi (?) tanamulpa oudazi poidan, healed them. Mark, vi. 13.
Cf. udas.
Pa, prefix to verbs indicating motion; pa-uzari, go away; pa-ieudiz,
pour out; pa-lagiz (pa-ilagiz), fly up; pa-pagan, to extend
round, &c.
pa, suffiz to nouns, to, for.
244 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
pa (s, B), 2. a fence, either for garden or as a protection in fighting.
Cf. ara.
pad (mb), x. the tympanum of the native drum.
pad, ”. a bird’s nest. Cf. fad.
pada, pado (m,s), 2. a wooded hill, a mountain. [padau, padapa,
padria. |
pada-kwik, x. the skull or head. Cf. pada, kwik.
padamo (m), 7. a nest.
padap (s) = pada.
padatrong (mb), ~. a bamboo rattle (375).
pads. See pada.
padotu. See Legends, p. 180.
padra (s) = pad, z. the skin used for the tympanum of the native
drum.
pa-drouradiz = pa-toridiz; ukauka tana padrouradiz, four carried.
Mark, ii. 3.
paekau, . a butterfly. Cf. paikau.
paga (s), v. to throw.
pagaean, v. to stretch out, to extend. [ pagaear. |
pagamoin (s), v. to sew, to mend; api pagamoin, v. to mend fish
traps.
pagamoin, pagdmoin (?); kanguru pagamoin, ad. round about.
pagamoman (?), v. pagamoman sepal azazi san, be (ye) shod with
sandals. Mark, vii. 9.
pagan (s), v. to throw, to descend, to sting, to pierce.
pagara, m.a sponge. Mark, xv. 36. Cf. pazara, diadi.
pagaru (xs), ”. coral. Cf. pagara. (In Jukes’ Muralug (Pt. Lihou)
Vocab. this word = seaweed.)
paget (?), paget-wanizo, v. to slip.
pagiz, pagizo (?), mazar pagizo. Mark, v. 15.
pai,
paiban6 (zB), v. = poibano.
paielega, paiclegamoin (s), v. to tear.
pa-ieudiz, v. to pour, to add (a liquid ?). [paieudan. ]
paigamozinga (s), 2. a split.
paikiu (B), . a butterfly, = paekau.
paiwan6 (?), v. palwand-pagan, v. to display.
paka, ”. a maiden.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 245
pakado, n. a bird’s nest, a cage (B). Of. pad, fad.
pakai (rT), x. the name given to the tail of a mask from Nagir.
pakazal (?), koi kutal toitu pogai pakazal ngalkan, for a pretence make
long prayers. Mark, xi. 40.
pakolgal (?), kedazingu kai mura kikiri laig nubepa pakolgal iman,
nubepa gardtaean, Isomuch that they pressed upon him for to
touch him as many as had plagues. Mark, ii. 10.
pakomari (N), ». a wig. Cf. adizela, adudziolai.
pala, pron. they two.
palado (?), ia palado, n. the lungs.
palae, pron. they two, both.
palagis (B), ”. the east, 2.e. the rising (of the sun). Cf. palagiz.
palagiz, palgizo, v. to rise, spring up, fly; goiga palgizo, ~. sunrise;
urui palgizo, n. bird; kadro palagiz, v. to fly down on.
palaguso, 7. an oven, hence a cooking pot or saucepan.
palaipa, v. to split, to divide, to open, to pluck (corn), Mark, x. 51;
to open (the eyes or ears), dano-palaipa, kaura paleman ;
kerkato-palan, v. to torment. Mark, v. 7. [palan, paleman,
palamoin. |
palaipa (s), a. sick.
palaman (am, s), pron. of them two, theirs.
palamiz (?), guda-palamiz, v. to overflow.
palamulngu, pron. from them two.
palamulpa, pron. to or for them two.
palamun, pron. of them two, theirs.
palan (?), kuk6-palan, to save. Mark, viii. 35.
pale (m), pron. they two.
palealnga, a. dry.
paleipa (a1), v. to crush, to pound with stones.
palelapudi (s), a. dry.
paleman, dual of palaipa, to open.
palenipa (a1), pron. for themselves (dual).
palepa (?), ngada-palepa, v. to boast, to be proud.
palgan (? from palagiz), iadu-palgan, v. to tell, relate, declare.
palgapalan (s), v. to smash.
palge (m), ad. completely, into pieces.
palgin (s), v. to fly, to spring up, = palagiz.
palgin6 (B), v. to flog.
246 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
palisa (21), . the down of a bird. Cf. plis.
paliz. See palaipa; dan paliz, opened the eyes. Mark, x. 52.
palngin, palengin, v. to scourge, to flog.
palpagipa (a), to finish (said of women’s work).
pam (s), v. to mean.
paman (s), v. to dig.
pamizin, ”. rape.
pamizo (?), madu-pamizé, v. to be affrighted. Mark, i. 27. [madu-
paman, madu-pamemin. |
pananaman6 (Bs), v. to kick.
pange,
panin (s), 2. adze.
panudiz, v. to press.
papagan, v. to enclose ; vineu apd sOwagai a papagan, planted a garden
and set a hedge about. Mark, xii. 1.
papalamizé (s), ». to burst, to open, to break.
papataina (?), apo papataina (B), v. to plant a garden.
papélaméipa, v. to burst, to open, to break. [papalaméin. ]
papoliz (s), v. to bruise.
papudamiz, v. to cease; gubd papudamiz, the wind ceased. Mark, vi.
51. Cf. pudeipa.
paradamu (mb), 2. a species of Cymodocea.
parama (r), ”. red ochre, paint made from red ochre.
paran (?), paran matapa, parana matampa (B), v. to snore.
paran, (s), v. to cut, = palaipa.
paranudan (mb), v. to rub noses and embrace heads.
parapar, 2. power; pl. poraporal.
pardan, » to draw.
parma, ”. red ochre (m); red (x) ; clay.
paromatam, .a female pig. Cf. burum.
parpar, 2. power; pl. poraporal.
paru (m), 2. the forehead, the face, the front; prep. by (s); parunu,
prep. in front, before.
paru-iman, v. to salute. [paru imaméin. |
paruidan (s), ”. guile, decit. Mark, vii. 22.
paruidizé, v. to deceive.
paruma (mb), a. red. Cf. parama.
pasa (s, B), 2. a doorway, gate, the opening. Cf. tamudara. | pasanu. |
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 247
pasagud (s), x. adoor. Cf. pasa, gud.
pasei (at), . a tree, the light wood of which is used for making sarima
and karaba.
pasia, ”. a pass, = pasa.
pasikaig (s), 2. a post.
pasim,
pat (BADU), ”. a short spear.
pataean (? throw out). Mark, vu. 21.
pataipa (? to put or jut out), danal-pataipa, danal-pateipa (s), v. to
watch. [danal-patamoiziu. |
patalai (? prickly, sticking out), pui-patalai, ~. thorns.
patamoin, v. p/. from patan.
patan (s), ». to cut; kuiko patan, to behead, Mark, vi. 16; gudo
patan, to gnash the teeth; butupatan, v. to heal. [patamoin,
patamoiziu. |
patapi (s), a. finished.
pataraidizo (s), v. to dispute.
patauradiso (B), v. to carry on the shoulder.
pate = pado.
pateipa (m), patepa, v. to come here.
pati (s), 2. a bell. A Lifu word.
patidan (s), v. to break (perhaps to fall down, and hence break some-
thing).
patidiz, ». to bow ; to fall down.
patiginga, from pataipa; danal-patiginga, not looking after, not
watching.
patiliz (s), a. reverenced.
patiz, patizé (s), v. to sit in; gulai-patiz, v. to get intoa ship, Mark, vi.
45, to be in a ship, Mark, i. 19.
pato, ». a fork.
patoridai, v. to question with, to dispute. [patéridizé, patéridaizinga. |
patralai = patalai.
patrauradiz, v. to bear, to carry. Of. téridiz.
patrediz, v. to deny. Cf. gudo-tadiz.
patridiz = patidiz.
patritrizo =patridiz, patidiz.
paudo (8), peace.
paudalag, ». peace.
248 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
pauimizo,
pauna (s), 2. leather.
paunap, paunapa (?), noi paunap a umizin, let him die the death.
Mark, vu. 10; nginu ngaré paunapa patan, thy feet cut off.
paupa (?) paupa kutrapa, now the time is far passed; paupa kudapa,
when the even was come; Lifu, heji hé, e hej, it is evening.
Mark, vi. 35, 47.
paupusa (1), an ornament of the kadig (871). Cf. kadig-tang.
pauto, n. peace, = pauds.
pauté (3B), x. the forehead.
pauzari, v. to go away ; pa, uzar.
pawa, z. a habit, a deed, a thing done; manner; pi. pawal. [pawau,
pawangu. |
pawadan, v. to rebuke.
pawaginga, . nothing (done). Cf. iaginga, zaginga.
pawaliz, v. to land; to draw to shore. Mark, vi. 53.
pawalman (s), v. to arouse, to wake up.
pawizo,
paza (nN), ”. a flat fish (poisonous).
pazara (s), ”. sponge. Cf. pagara, diadi.
pazilamiz, v. to attack (move against):
pearku, x. a kind of fish.
pél, z. the tail of a fish ; the breast of a fish (a).
péneipa (a), v. to dive.
pénd, v. to dive (Macfarlane).
penunamez, v. to dive, =péno (Macfarlane).
pépedu, x. a bamboo flick or whip, same as the Miriam “ lolo.”
pepe, pepenga, a. thin; pepe baradarangu, because it had no depth of
earth. Mark, iv. 5.
perta (ub), . the wrist, the forearm ; six, in counting on the body-
Cf. Grammar.
pia, ”. the bark of a tree.
pibeipa («), v. to give, = poibaipa.
pichi (21g), = piti.
pid (1), ”. a black bee.
pideipa (a), v. to dig.
piepa (?) sagul piepa (a), v. to sing.
pigin taean, v. to dream.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 249
piki (a1, 3), n.a dream; piki-lalkeipa (m), v. to dream.
pikuri (7), = pikuru.
pikuru, 7. a head dress of teeth ; pattern on a. drum, probably derived
from the head dress.
pinapai, 2. the east.
piner (1), 2. the name of a tree, Erytheina (409). (Legends, 12).
pingapa (B), prep. at.
pingi (8), 2. a fishing net (? basket).
pingulpa (?) pingulpa iabugudia, in the way. Mark, x. 52.
pinin (s), v. to anoint.
piniteipa (a), v. to shave.
piobizi (?), noi pidsial pidbizi, he marvelled. Mark, vi. 6.
pipai (s), 2. paper. Perhaps English ‘‘ paper.”
pipai (?). Mark, ii. 8.
pira, a. soft; pira kuma (s), 2. diarrhea.
piranga (s), a. soft, = pirung.
pirdan (m), 2. a black snake.
pirung (m), a. soft, swampy, spongy, pliable, = piranga.
pis (m), ”. a crack, an opening.
pisalinga (B), ”. a leak.
pisamaino (8), . rheumatism.
piti (t,m,B), the nose; piti terti (m), piti sek (am), the perforation in
the septum narium (406).
pitu, ». a ring.
piwer (m), 2. the mullet.
piwul (ab), 2. a broom. Cf. kusu, kusulaig.
plagusi (zB), x. a pot, = palagus; turik plagusi (B), 2. an iron pot.
po,
plis (rt), . feathers. Cf. palisa.
pogai,
pogamiz. See pagan.
poi (s), x. dust, powder.
poibaipa, v. to give. [poiban. ]
poibaigi, v. not to give.
poibanai (? from poibaipa), ba poibanai senabi mabaeg aideigan, for
there shall be given to the man that has not. Mark, iv.
25.
poibi (s), v. to croak.
250 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
poibizi (s), v. to crow; mipa ngita nukunuko poibiz, why make ye
this ado? Mark, v. 39.
poidamoin (s), to spread.
poidan (?), oudazi-poidan, v. to heal. Mark, vi. 18; udas-poidan, to
save, rescue (Macfarlane). Perhaps for udu-zi poidan, to hang
from or on the arm, hence to protect, save.
poidaipa, poidan (s), to choose, to pull, to pluck; kadaipa poidan, v.
ordained. Mark, iii. 14; nga-poidan6 (B), na-poidan, v. to sing
a song.
poidans (zB), v. to hang.
poidiz (?), korkak mapu poidiz, v. to be displeased. Mark, x. 14.
poimanak (?), poimanak-palan, v. to murder.
poipetegam, x. the east.
poipiam, v. to watch. Cf. danal-pataipa.
pokani (?), pokani wapi (mb), ~. the flying fish. Cf. puwi.
pokérai, . a girl.
pokirids (B), 2. the kidney.
pokoko (m), pokuk, x. the heel.
polai (? a cutting), minaré polai, ~. writing, ¢.e. cutting ianiee,
pongeipa (a1), v. to sail.
ponipan, 2. lightning ; v. to shine.
ponizinga (?), mabaeg ponizinga, m.a carpenter. Mark, vi. 3.
pordai-za, 7. a hook.
potaipa, = pataipa.
potaizimail (?), nongo buta potaizimail, he had healed many.
potur (m1), 2. a digging stick.
prak, x. coral, pl. prakil.
prateipa (a1), to eat.
pratralinge. See patalai, pui.
prue (m), 2. a tree (the general term). Cf. pui.
prutika (mg, Stone), prutai (ag, D’Albertis), . food.
puban (s), ”. paddle.
pudaizinga, z. things that fall; borupudaizinga, crumbs. Mark,
vii. 28.
pudam (s), v. to pull, to pluck.
pudamoin (?), za-pudamoin, ». to sell.
pudan, v. to open.
pudan6 (xB), v. to digtaro. Cf. poidans.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 251
pudeipa (m), v. to fall down; gaiga ptdico (3B), ~. west.
pudemin (s), v. to make obeisance.
pudiso. See pudeipa.
pudiz, v. to undress.
pudizi (s), v. to retain; balbai-pudiz, v. to peep; ngdna-pudiz, to
rest.
pud6 (mb), 2. the shaft of a javelin.
pugan (?) ipidadé pugan, v. to reprobate, to blaspheme; a. profane ;
rimarim pugan, »v. to find fault. Mark, vii. 2; watri pugan, v.
to speak evil.
pui, 2. a tree; a log; wood ; pui-patalai, pui-patralai, m. thorns
[puinge, puia. |
puian, v. to blow.
puidan, v. to hang; ngona puidan, ”. a palm (Macfarlane).
puidiz, v. (to hang ?), paru mapu puidiz, to hang a weight in front-
Mark, ix. 42.
puidiz = poidiz, korkak mapu puidiz. Mark, iii. 5.
puie (), 2. the fore fin of the turtle.
puiman, »v. to suck.
puinge (?) trees.
pukato, . a locust ; a grasshopper (8).
puki, x. a hump, the side of the abdomen.
pukuk (at), 2. the heel. Cf. pokoko.
pulman (?), ganu-pulman, x. smell.
pungaipa (s), giun-pungaipa, v. to be foolish ; berai-pungaipa, v. to be
easy. Mark, x. 25; ikane pungaipa, v. to be glad. Mark,
xu. 38.
pupariz (s), to flee. Cf. bupariz.
pupui, 7. a flute.
pupumiz, v. to heal.
pura (am), 2. the eyelid.
pura (at), skin.
purapura, x. the producing of disease or sickness by magic (puripuri),
a Daudai word rarely used in the islands. Cf. maid.
purapar = parpar. Mark, vi. 5.
puridan (?), guda-puridan, v. to be insolent.
puridoralenga (?), gamu puradéralenga, whole, well in body. Mark,
rr aly
252 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
purka, ”. the eyeball, the eye; purka kekermisina (B), . ophthalmia.
purkapa,
purke (a), ad. well, many.
purpi (a1), ~: the bee-eater. (erops ornata.)
purtan = purutan.
purteipa (a), v. to eat.
puru (s), v. to steal, rob; . theft.
puruka = purka; puruka pard mado gamuasin, an evil eye. Mark,
vii. 22. [purukana. |
purur (m, ”. the bark of a tree.
purutaiginga, v. not to eat.
purutan, v. to eat, ate ; pl. purutamoin.
pusariso (B), v. to pullarope. Cf. puzarizo.
putage (m), a. many.
putiz, putizi, putizo (s), v. to fall; goérga putizd, the sun goes down.
putra, putran (? = pudan), tana arakato putran lagou kalangu, they
made a hole from the back of the house. Mark, ii. 4.
puwi, 7. the flying-fish. Cf. pokani-wapi.
puzarizo (s), to compel, to haul, to constrain.
puzida, v. to imitate.
puzik (?), ngara-puzik, ~. a dance (362).
puzipa, v. to follow.
puzo (putso) (zB), x. a white pigeon.
Rabo (a1), 2. a mast; rab’ waku, ”. a mat used as a sail.
rada (mu), ». a sharpened stick used for for spearing fish (383), a
simple javelin.
raji (m), a. withered.
ramoginga, a. unshaded, without shade. Cf. rimo.
ranai (mg), . a girl (D’ Albertis).
rangad6 (B), ”. a mast.
rapepa, @. lame.
rapo, n. a claw.
ras (m), . a driving cloud, seud.
ras, ”. a lot.
rebata (m), ”. aunt, father’s sister. Cf. ama, apu.
rid, ridé, . bone, skeleton ; hence horn.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 2538
rid (mg), 2. the tongue (D’Albertis).
ridanga (s), a. hard, bony.
ridau, ”. enemy; v. to oppose.
ridu (8) = ridau.
rimarim (s), v. to err, to mistake; a. mad, mistaken; n. a fool ;
pl. rimarimal.
rim, ”. a shadow. Cf. ramoginga.
rogaig (T), m. name given by a lad to his sweetheart. Cf. azugerka,
rugeiga.
ruamon (s), v. to understand.
rud (a) = rada.
rugabu (m), 2. the sweet potato.
rugalo (B), ». baggage; gulngu rugal, nv. cargo, baggage from a canoe.
rugeiga (Mm), ”. a sweetheart.
rugu (?) kudru rugu, a small kind of dove.
rumbadi (m), 2. a species of water lily.
Sabi (mb), ”. tabu, prohibition ; law (s); hence, sacred; p/. sabil; sabi
lago, m. a church.
sabukemus, ». a needle.
sabukiri (s), v. to reproach.
sadeo (m), ”. a cicatrix on the breast (sadawa, sadau).
sag, Saga (Ss), sago (B), 2. a centipede.
sagad, m.a worm. Cf. kupar.
sagai (m1), ”. the horizontal fire stick (385). Cf. ini, guigui, salgai.
sagu (m), x. a kind of purple yam.
sagul, sagulo (mM, B), 2. a joke, play; sagul piepa, v. to sing.
sagul (s), v. to examine. (Perhaps introduced English “school ’).
sai, 2. a bog ; mud; shallow water on seashore. Mark, iy. 1. [sainu. ]
saima (B), 2. the float of the outrigger of a canoe. Cf. sarima.
saka (m), 2. a bone needle; a splinter (s).
saka (m), 2. the lungs. See palado. |
sakai (m,B), v. a holein arock, acave; sakai puru mabaegou lagonge,
a den of thieves. Mark, xi. 17.
sakangu, see sako.
sako (s), 2. cloth. [sakangu. ]
sakaro (B), 2. a web.
254 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
sakar-taean, v. to surname; noi palamulpa sakaria-taean Boanerege,
he surnamed them Boanerges. Mark, iii. 17.
sakar-toeam (?), amadan pasanu siéi sakar-toeam, near a door where
two ways met. Mark, xi. 4.
saladunga (B), .a foreigner, a white man. Cf. saradonga.
salgai (a), 2. sticks used for producing fire (collectively) (385). Cf.
ini, sagal, guigul.
sali (mt), a. sick.
sald, v. to bale out
salop, 2. the melon or bailer shell. Cf. alopa, alup.
salpaman, v. to lave. Cf. sald, paman.
salpumeipa (at), v. to bale.
sam = samu.
sam (m), a. cylindrical.
samera (M, T), 2. a head dress made of cassowary feathers ; pl. same-
ral. Cf. dagoi.
samido (s), ad. yes; really. Mark, xii. 26.
samu, 7. the cassowary of New Guinea; samu widizi (s), 7. crest or
head dress made of cassowary feathers.
samuda, x. the eyebrows.
samudana (m), 2. the eye lashes.
samudung (a), . the eye lashes.
san (m), sana, the sole of the foot; the foot; sana-lumado (3), m. the
instep; azazi san, asandal, shoe; nginu sananu wordgi wazin,
thy footstool. Mark, xii. 36 [sanangu, sananu. |
sana (mg), 7. the cuscus.
sangopa, exclam. a greeting; good morning!
sapara (ug), #. hatchet (Jukes). Perhaps derived from Eng. chopper.
sapi (?), Mark, xii. 42.
sapor, sapur (m), sapura, z. a large fruit-eating bat or flying fox,
Pteropus.
sapurokimus, 2. a needle (lit. a hair from sapur), sapurokimuseu goag,
a needle’s eye. Mark, x. 25.
sara, 2. a white gull.
sara, ”. posts on which the platform for corpses were supported
(402). Cf. kak.
saradonga, a. white. Cf. sara.
saragi (mM), 7. a small stick.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 255
sari (mt), x. the netting of a canoe.
sarima (m), 2. the float of an outrigger; sarim’ pati(m), 2. the pegs
of the sarima. Cf. saima.
sarodka ( ?), noi wara sardka 1dbuia uzar, as he passed by. Mark, ii.
14.
sarupa (m), a. drowned.
sasanmepa, v. to decorate.
sasiman (s), v. to rinse, to squeeze.
sau, ”. a rafter, a house post (8).
saz1 (B), ”. a creeper used to poison fish.
saziwaur, 7. a year.
seadadaget (moa), ”. the ring finger (probably siau-dada-get, outside
the middle finger).
seautari, v. to stop.
sebalbi, pron. these two.
sei, ad. there = siei.
selwadadaig (B), next.
sek (at), 2. a hole (Jukes).
sena, a. and pron. that ; ad. there.
senabi, a. and pron. that; senabi durai, pl. those ; senabi is often used
as equivalent to the Lifu ngone, in the.
senao, pron. that = sena.
senaoki, con. therefore.
senau, demons. a. the, the same.
senebi, senobi, = senabi. Mark, iii. 8.
sepal, pron. both, they two. Cf. palae.
sepalbi, pron. those two.
séraséra (s), a.a white sea or shore bird; séraséra birgesera (415).
séséré (mb), m. the name of a legendary hero who was changed into
a bird (L. 23), probably same as serasera.
sesitaman, sestaman (s), v. to show, guide. [sesitomaelai. ]
seta, pron. those.
setaura (s), 2. cross. From Greek oravpos.
setabi, pron. those.
shi (ar), x. a strip of the yellow epidermis of an orchid.
si (m), x. the forehead. Cf. paru.
sia (m), 2. the toes, ; kaba-sia, the great toe.
siaizi, com. because.
256 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
siau (? = siel, sena), siau adal (s), ”. outside.
siauki, ad. thither.
sib (B), sibu (ar), 2. the liver.
sibd-papalamiz, sibu papalamiz, v. to doubt.
sibu wanan (s), v. to have sympathy, to love, to pity.
slée = siél.
thence; durai siéi, those; siéiki, thither.
sier (m), x. the toes. Cf. sia.
sieri (?). Mark, iii. 8.
siga, sigal (s), 2. a distance; k0i sigal (s), a. far.
sigaman (?). Mark, v. 15, xii. 36. See wakai, mumugu.
sigataean (s), v. to convulse; gamu sigataean, to tear the body.
sigazi (s), ad. distance; koi sigazi, a. far. ;
sigo (? = sigal), ngi sigo gudalnga a launga senabi Augadan baselaia,
thou art not far from God’s Kingdom. Mark, xii. 34.
sik, sike, con. if.
sikekai (? if will), mid6 mid6 sike kai nubepa karengemin inabi gubé
aina malu? What sort (of man) if will hear him, the wind and
the sea. Mark, iv. 41.
sikiru (s), 2. an arrow for shooting pigs. Cf. skiiri, stikori.
sik (B), m. foam.
silamai, v. to fight, to scold.
silamiz (?), ngur silamiz, v. to wink.
silimailai (s), x. an uproar, a tumult.
sinapi, x. mustard. The Greek owazt.
sinupa (s), 2. illustration.
sinupasinupa (?), tana tuelv gorsar a iapopoizd nubepa keda, midé
paru sinupasinupa ind, the twelve asked of him the parable.
Mark, iv. 10.
sinuséikai, ad. while (?), noi sinuséikai mulizd, while he yet spake.
Mark, v. 35.
sipalseil, pron. you two there.
sipoibi, v. to hiss.
sirasira (m), 7. name of a tree, the bark of which is made into fishing
lines.
sirisiri, v. to grow up (?). Mark, iv. 8.
sirisor, v. to grow, = sirisiri.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 257
sirsirn6 (?). Mark, iv. 19.
siwagoi = sOwagai. [siwagoiu. |
sizi = siezi, from there.
sktri = stkori.
sobaginga, a. smart.
sobaidiz, v. to be slow.
sobara, ”. a dish, charger, Mark, vi. 25, perhaps an introduced mean-
ing for sobera.
sobera (Tt, N), a mat made of pandanus leaves used in the initiation
ceremonies (410). (Cf. tiro of Daudai vocabulary. )
sobi = sabi. [sobia. ]
soger (T, Mb), x. a mourning dress; (368) yi. sogerl.
soka (m), @: sick.
soki, n. a spike made of cassowary bone, a dagger.
solsimizi (m, s), v. to wallow.
soroi (nN), 2. entrails, ‘‘ guts.”
sorsimiz, v. to move (perhaps move about). Cf. solsimizi.
sowagai, v. to plant.
sOwakai, = sdwagai. [sdwakaiu. |
sowaka,
sowaki = sOwagal.
sowar (mM), ”. a species of yam. Cf. ketai.
sringi (m), 2. a cane loop or sling for carrying heads.
suagai (B), 2. witchcraft.
sugu (m), 2. the cuttle fish ; the octopus (Banu). Cf. ati.
suguba, sugubo (m), ”. tobacco ; sugubo wanipa (mM, B), v. to smoke in
Papuan fashion, ¢.e. drink tobacco ; sugubod marapi (Mm), ». a
tobacco pipe (of bamboo). Cf. sukub.
suidaninipa (B), v. to crouch.
stikori (.), an arrow with head made of a narrow, split bamboo, eee
for shooting pigs.
suka (m), 2. tobacco (Jukes).
sukub, (x), sukubu (2), sukuba (3B), ». tobacco; sukuba-marap (s),
n. tobacco pipe ; sukuba supo (B), 7. a cigarette.
sulan (s), v. to pour.
sulan (?), tana akan sulan mabaegongu, they feared the people.
Mark, xi. 32.
sulangi (m), = surlangi ; ”. the turtling season (m).
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258 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
suliz, sulizé, m. a drop ; juice.
sulupan(?), kuikaiman noino mosan sulupan, began to spit on him.
Mark, xiv. 65.
sulur (™), 2. the green turtle.
sumai (mM, B), . cold; sumainuwedan (B), v. to tremble (to be out in
the cold).
sumein (m), a. cold.
suna-suro (a1), x. the hind fins of the turtle,
sungi, ”. a sling for carrying heads. Cf. zinge, sringi.
sino (a1), 2. the tail of the dugong.
supa (B), ”. a white louse.
supamipa, v. to bear false witness. Mark, x.19. Cf. ia supaman.
supnuran (s), v. to cover; a. wrapped, covered.
supo (B), 2. a cover; a bale; sukuba supd (8), 7. a cigarette. :
surka, 2. the scrub turkey (Megapodius) (wild fowl); surka pada, the
mound of the megapod.
surlal, x. the pairing of the turtle.
surlangi, . the turtle season, or the season when turtle pair (350).
sur6 (B), 2. a pole for poling a canoe.
suru (m), poles or yards of sails.
surum, #. sand.
susu (m), 2. the breast ; gum, milk; nine, in counting on the body;
wadegam susu, eleven, in counting on the body; susu gud
(ar), x. the nipple; susu nur (Macgillvray), 2. the nipple ;
susu madu (mb), the nipple; susu mina (mb), a scarified mark
on the breast.
suzu (s), v. to suck, =susu.
Ta(s, B), 2. a feast.
tabai, 2. the shoulder, p/. tabal.
tabal-uradiz (s), v. to carry on the shoulder.
tabai, demons. those.
tabom (m1), 2. a long petticoat.
- tabu, z.a snake; pl. tabul; umal tabu, a poisonous snake; kasa tabu, a
harmless snake.
tabu, . pith, perhaps also the spinal cord.
tabukiri, 7. hate, anger; v. to be offended at.
taburid (mb) 2. the spine. Cf. gorurido, tabu, rid.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 259
tadar, nv. a large fly, the blue-bottle.
tadaunaizimael, x. pl. fragments.
tadaunaizinga, ». things remaining, fragments. Mark, vi. 48. Cf.
unaizo.
tadin, tadina (s, B), v. to covet ; toshoot an arrow. Perhaps really means
_attain, reach something aimed at; tademin. Mark, xvi. 20,
confirm.
tadin (s), v. torub.
tadiz (s), v. to rub.
tadu, . a kind of crab ; tadu kap (mb), m. the crab dance (362).
taeak, x. an arrow. Cf. tarek, taiak.
taeamoin, v. to pick, to choose. [taiamoin. |
taean (s), v. to throw, to dash; to invert, shove ; to roll ; tubal-taean, a.
round ; kuik-taean, v. to nod; guda-taean, v. to sacrifice. | taea-
man, taeamoin, tdeaipa, tolaipa, toeailai. |
taga (m), 2. the mangrove. Cf. biiu.
tagi (? language).
tagir (s), a. dull.
tagur (a), the name of a plant, a species of flag (Philydrum).
tai (ab), ~. a place for mourning; probably any open place where
ceremonies or dances are held.
taiai (x), (Legends, 180).
taiak (B), ”. an arrow.
taiamoin=taeamoin. See taean.
taiék ‘b) = taiak.
taidisa (B) =toidai.
taiermin (?), ngara-taiermin, 7. a dance with jumping (362).
taima, . a partition, a boundary. Cf. toimia [taimanu. |
taimi (s), 2. boundary.
taiokwéd (vr), 2. the sacred meeting place of men for the initiation
ceremony (409). Cf. tai, kwod.
taiwa (B), 2. the coast. Cf. tawala.
taiz, taizo (s), ~. position; wakai-taiz, v. to recollect; kulai taiz,
v. to be first; wagel taizd, to be last. Mark, ix. 35.
takam (Nn), ”. the name of a fish.
taku (m), 2. a three- or four-headed fishing-spear (333).
tal, 2. a finger-nail, or toe-nail; the oval piece of melon-shell cemented
on to the handle of the kobai, or throwing-stick (333).
S2
260 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
taldan (s), v. to cross; ad. across. Cf. tardan.
talpura (a), . glass, a bottle. Cf. Mir. tarpor.
tam, tam6 (s, B), ”. a branch, a bough; p/. tamal.
tamaiginga, a. without branches.
tamain, :
taman, v. to witness, bear testimony. Mark, xv. 4.
tamiz, v. to leave.
tamamoiginga, see wakaintamamoiginga.
taman (s), ». the shore. Cf. taiwa, taima.
tamananga (s) = tamo.
tamoi (B), 2. the “‘ iguana.”
tamu (m), . the platform of a canoe (Macgillivray). Cf. the Mir.
tum, top. The correct word is, no doubt, natara.
tamudan (s), v. to shut, to close.
tamudara (B), 2. a door, that which closes the opening. Cf. pasa.
tana, pron. they.
tanabado, a. blue.
tanaman (m,s) pron. their.
tanamul (s), pron. them.
tanamulngu, pron. from them.
tanamun, pron. their, theirs.
tanamunia, pron. with them.
tanatana (s), pron. themselves. [tanatanamulpa. |
tanenipa (a), pron. for themselves.
tang. Cf. tam (371). :
tangu (s), 2. a feast. Cf. ta; tangu tonar, feast time. Mark, xii. 39.
tanigi (m), 2. name of a fish, Diacope octolineata.
tanoriz, v. to sit; kadai-tanoriz, v. to arise.
tanu, v. to sit (?) tana nubepa geto asin tanu, them that sat with him.
Mark, vi. 22.
tanure, kadi tanure (m), to stand up.
tanureipa (m), v. to sit down.
tanuriz = tanoriz ; kadai tanuriz, v. to arise.
tapamoin. See guda-tapaman.
tapan (Mm), 2. a species of yam, Convolvulus. Cf. ketai, sowar.
tapeipa (am), v. to swim.
tapi, ». the sting ray. Cf. waki.
tapi (s), ”. position ; v. to spread, to swim.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 261
tapi (1), 2. a part of anything; a half. Cf. mugu.
tapimula (Mb) = tapi, sting ray.
tara, . the shin.
tarai, a. quick, suddenly = tari.
taraitarai (B), 7. haste.
taran (? to cut), Mark, xiii. 20, noido taupain kai taran, he will cut
short.
taratar (s), tartar (B), v. to boil.
tarbar narberit (m), ». the shoulder. Cf. tabai.
tardan (s), tarddan, v. to cross; ad. across. Cf. taldan.
taregi (1), a. slow.
tareipa (m), v. to touch.
tarek (m), ”. an arrow. Cf. taiak, terig.
tari(m), ad. quickly, = tarai.
tarika (at), 2. a gun.
tariza (s), v. to arise ; the word seems really to refer simply to a move-
ment of the body; kadai-tariz, to arise ; kulun-tariz, to kneel
tarizelam, tarizilamiz. v. to run.
taro (ar), 2. the nails of finger or toe; the claws of a bird. Cf. tal.
tarodan = tardan.
taroiginga (?), mabaeg wordgi tardiginga, whereon never man sat.
Mark, xl. 2.
tarotaiz, v. to take in, to goin (of plants and seed) (?). Mark, iv. 8.
tarotoiaiginga, v. not to take in, not to understand (?); tanamun
korkak tardtoiaiginga senabi ia, they understood not that
saying. Mark, ix. 32. .
tarpeipa (m), v. to sew.
tartaean, v. to delve. Cf. tarotaiz, tarte, taean.
tarte (m), ”. a hole; tarte paleipa (m), v. to bore a hole. Cf. terti.
tarteipa (m), v. to turn over.
tatagamulinga (B), a. brown.
tata, tataia, v. to stammer. Cf. tratra.
tati (m), . father; the general term, not vocative; keuba-tati, n.
uncle. {[tatipa. |
tatureipa (at), v. to make (said of men’s work).
tauanga, a. light, easy. Mir. pereper
taumi(B), ”. an ant.
taupainanga (s), a. short.
262 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
taupain, taupainga, a. short; taupain toraiginga, not to shorten.
Mark, xiii. 20.
tauradiz = toridiz, kama-tauradiz, v. to nurse in the arms.
tawala(s),. the shore. Cf. taiwa, taima.
tawpei (m), a. short, low. Cf. taupainga. Mir. teupai.
tazo,
teio, teipa (a1), v. to throw into.
ter, tera (at), 2. bitterness ; savour (in Gospel), v. to flavour ; alasiu ter,
the saltness, Mark, ix. 50; ter unaipa, to leave a taste, to
savour.
teralnga, a. sour.
terarl (m1), a. sour.
terig (m1), 7. an arrow.
terku (t) =turku.
terti (ab), ahole; piti terte, 2. a hole in the septum narium (406). Cf.
tarte.
tete (B), 2. the leg.
thi(m), 2. a cliff.
tholpén (?), sepal magina mani keda wadogam sapi thélpén, two mites
which make a farthing. Mark, xii. 42.
thung (m), swffir, like, same as.
ti(B), 2. bread fruit.
tiap (mb), tiapi (at), the wrist.
tiati (B), 2. a traitor.
tiapururu (mb), 7. a string armlet (394).
tidaimipa (B), 2. joint.
tidan (? to make or put out); balbai tidan (s), v. to rectify, make
straight; tonar tidan, tonar tidand, v. to testify, to mark, to
prove.
tideipa (a), v. to break, as a stick.
tidiz, v. to retreat ; kunia tidiz (s), v. to return.
tigi (s, B), 2. the brain.
tigu, ”. headache.
tikat, n. a flea.
tiki (a), x. the name of a shell (Sanguinolaria).
timi, m. the name of a plant, Abries precatorius; timi-kapu, n. small
red and black timi seeds (crabs’ eyes) pl. timi-kapul.
tiom (?), magi tiom (s), 2. boy.
Ray & Havpon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 263
tira (ab), . the holes bored in a canoe and its gunwale.
tira (at), ”. the leg; the ancle.
tiriap (mg), v. to sneeze.
tiridisa (B), v. to lift, =toridiz.
titan,
titoi (B), 2. a star, = titul.
titu, m. a star, pl. titul.
titui (s), ”. a star.
titui (?), kutam-titui, . a species of hawk.
titure (m)=titui; gariga titure (m), 2. the morning star ; titure uzarizi
(a1), a falling star.
toad (s), . the roof of a house.
toaizinga, ». things that are thrown; ngitamun kakurupa toaizinga,
things thrown to your feet, your stumbling blocks or trespasses.
Mark, xi. 25.
tobai (rT), 2. a mat.
tobud (?), senabi tobud burumau ulak, a great herd of swine feeding.
Mark, v. 11.
toda, . a bee.
todi (ar), . tortoise-shell.
todi (at), a fish hook (? made of tortoise or turtle shell). Cf. tudi.
todipa (?), apia todipa, to pass by (apia, from apo).
toeaipa. Seetaean. ~
togui, ”. fin (?); baidama togui (N), 2. shark’s fin; baidama sai togui
(x), 2. a shark’s tail.
toiai. See taean.
toiaipa. See taean.
toidai (s), v. to bite. [ toidiz. |
toidail, a. wild, 7.e. biting; toidail urui, ». wild beasts. Mark, i.
13.
toidal (s), . animals. See toidail.
toidan, v. to dip; kuli toidiz, v. to steer.
toidi (s), toidiz, v. to bite.
toimia (s), %. boundary, = taima.
toitupagailai, ». prayer.
toitupigaipa, toitupiigaipa, v. to pray; . worship. [tditupagiz. |
tokitip, . a man’s brother, or woman’s sister. Cf. babtid, tukéap.
tokoiap = tukéap.
264 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
tokuiap6 (B) =tokoiap.
toma (?)=tuma; senabi nubepa toma ngonanumani senabi korkak
badaginga, to love him with all the heart. Mark, xii. 33; lest.
Mark, i. 9.
tomaka (s), ad. perhaps.
témamiz. See ukain.
tomamoiginga,
tomar,
tonar (s), 7. a sign, time ; a mark or cicatrice; an exhibit (s); aingu
tonar, food time. Mark, xii. 2. The equivalent of the Mir.
mek. tonar tidan6, tonar tridan, v. totestify, to mark, to prove ;
pl. tonaral.
tongawa (?). Mark, ix, 42.
topi, z. the name of a bird.
tora, v.aridge. Cf. kéru.
toraiginga (?), urapon ia ina ngibepa gamu toraiginga, one thing thou
lackest. Mark, x. 21. Probably a misprint for toridaiginga.
toridaiginga, toriddiginga, y. not to receive.
toridan (s), v. to sail.
toridan, n. a neighbour.
téridiz (s), v. to carry, lift, raise; to accept, receive ; kuibur-torddiz,
v. to be tame.
tormai. See ia tormai.
totaku (ab). ”. the hull of a canoe.
toti=tati. [totiu. ]
towanga, a. easy, light. Cf. tauanga.
tra, n. the hills of the termites.
tradiz =tadiz.
tragor, a. hard (?=tagir, dull) ; tanamun tragér korkak, their heart
was hardened. Mark, vi. 52.
trapot, ~. the dorsal fin of a fish; muingu trapot, mutu trapot, n. the
pelvic fin.
tratra, a. deformed; stammering, haying an impediment in the
speech ; tratra idaig, m. stammerer.
tridai,
tridaiginga,
tridan = tidan.
tridiz = tidiz.
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 265
tridiz6 = toridiz.
tritraiginga. See geto tritraiginga.
tritraizi, a. withered ; tritraizi gitalenga, having a withered hand.
Mark, iii. 3.
tritran = tidan.
tronar = tonar.
tru (?), tru minera (1), 2. a mark on the side of the face.
trukuiap = tukuap.
tsika (at), x. afoam. Cf. siko.
tu (mb), ». a petticoat made of shredded coconut leaves worn by men
when dancing (365).
tu (s, 8), 2. smoke; dust (Macfarlane).
tuana,
tubal (?), tubal-taean (s), a. round.
tubs (?), tana ngitamulp tubo nidaiginga, whosoever shall not receive
you. Mark, vi. 11.
tudan (?), dora tudan (s), a. weeded.
tudi (a1), ». a fish hook. Cf. todi.
tliga (1), x. a mangrove swamp. Cf. taga.
tugo (ab), 2. pole of outrigger.
tuginga, a. clean.
tuidan (?), nguki-tuidan, v. to urinate.
tukéap (1), ~. a man’s brother or a woman’s sister (Macgillivray) ;
a friend, a guest, a cousin (B).
tukuap (s), 2. a companion, a mate.
tulaiginga, a. clean.
tulainga (s), a. dirty.
tuma (8), v. wait-a-little; con. until; tuma lako kai igililenga
mabaegau kazi umangu, till shall be living again the son of
man from death. Mark, ix. 9.
tumai,
tumatuma (a), ad. by and by, presently. Cf. tuma.
tumaiauian (s), a. attending.
tumawaean, v. to compel.
tumi (a1), ”. a small black ant.
tumit (m), 2. dirt.
tumitale (a1), a. dirty.
tun, tuna (m), a. a large barbed javelin or “‘ spear’’ (333).
266 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
tunan (mg), v. sleep (D’ Albertis).
tuo (1), x. smoke. Cf. tu.
tupaltaean, v. to fold (=tu, Eng. two, pal = pala, taean).
turam (?), iadu turam, v. to inform.
tureipa (a), v. to call for ; turan (s), v. to call, to bid (8).
turik, turika, . iron, a blade; aga turik, ». an axe; gi turik, ”.a
knife ; elap turik, 2. hoop iron; turik plagusi (8), ”. an iron
pot.
turk, turks (3x), 2. the bowl of a bamboo tobacco pipe.
turkékai (at), 2. a man.
turkiam (nN), (?) turkiam merkai.
turkikai, n. a cock-fowl.
turkt (s) = turk.
turong (m), a. light. Cf. towanga.
tusi, 7. a letter, a book. A Samoan word introduced wid Lifu; hence,
tusi mina, Bible, z.e. precious or true book.
tutio,
tutu, 2. a rod.
tuwa (377).
U, suffiz denoting the possessive case, of.
ua (mM), ad. yes.
uari (r), ”. lime.
ubalo, ~. bladder; ubal-madu (3s), xz. the calf of the leg.
ubi (at), ~. greediness; v. to want (s).
ubigasin, v. to dislike (Macfarlane).
ubigiasin (s), v. to ignore, to be without a wish for.
ubigosia (?), noi ubigdsia kunia onailai, he would not reject her.
Mark, vi. 26.
ubile (a), a greedy.
ubilnga, ”. will, wish; ngau ubilnga lakd maigi, kapuza nginu
ubilnga, not my will but thy will. Mark, xiv. 36.
ubimepa = ubinmepa.
ubin, ”. a wish.
ubinmepa (s), ubinemepa, v. to wish, to desire, to like. [ubin-
meamaipa. |
ubinmizi (s), v. to love.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 267
ubu (a1), 2. the name of a plant (Melaleuca (?)). See wobu.
ubur (a), ”. the name of a plant (Mimusops kaukit.)
udar (mg), ”. an oar. Cf. Mir. uzer.
udas-poidan, v. to rescue, to save. See.oudazi.
udu, (m), 2. the arm, the upper arm.
uduma (B), 2. dirt.
udup, 2. hiccough.
ugan, ugano (s), v. to wait.
ugauganpagaip, ”. noise.
uiai,
uialai. See gudauiailai.
uiamai, uiaman, uiamoin, uiamon. See wakaea-uiaman.
uiu, ”. side.
uka, (s), a two.
ukailenga (?), Iesu muasin walmizin senabi koiabou ukailenga, after
Jesus cried with a loud voice. Mark, xv. 37.
ukain (?), senabi warwar ukain tomamiz, the cares of this world.
Mark, iv. 19.
ukamenamo6 (8), a. double.
ukamodobigal, a. three, thrice (Macfarlane).
ukamodobilgal, a. third.
ukamoin (? double), tana lako worgi ukamoin umanga, these shall
receive greater punishment. Mark, xii. 40.
ukasar, a. two; ukasar-ukasar, four.
ukasukusuk6 (?), mata ngadagido ngi muia utizo nabi igilelenga a
nginu geto paunapa patan a ukasukusuko kalmel genapa taean,
it is better thou enter into life maimed, than having two hands
to go into hell. Mark, ix. 48.
ukasure = ukasar.
ukatam, a. ripe. Cf. katam.
ukauka (8), a. four; ukauka modobai, five.
ukesar (mg), a. two,= urapon; ukesar warapon, three.
uki (mg), . fresh water (Jukes). Cf. nguki.
uk6sa (at), 2. two, =uka.
ukwasur (uquassur, Macgillivray) (), a. two. (uquassur warapune,
three ; uquassur-uquassur, four.)
uladiz,
ulaig (?), tanamulpa gougu ulaig, healed them. Mark, vi. 5.
268 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ulaipa, v. to follow. Mark, xiv. 54.
ulak (?), senabi tobud burumau ulak, a great herd of swine feeding.
Marks iva dle
uleig (m), a wet. Cf. urainga.
uleipa (a), v. to come, to approach.
um (s), = uma. |
uma (m), a. dead; x. death; v. to kill (s); uma-matan (s), v. to drown,
umau lago (s), ”. house of dead, tomb ; uma kazi, n. abortion ;
uma mataman, v. to murder; umau nguki, poison. [umau;
umapa, umangu. |
umagigal, a. not dead.
umaginga, v. not to die.
uma-gud (s), a. stale.
umai, ”. the dog, p/. umail ; umai-dangal (mb), ”. a necklace or coronet
of dogs’ teeth.
umal (B), a. venomous, deadly.
umaliza, 2. (a deadly thing ?); umalizé matumeipa (a), v. to wound.
umamail, 7. the dead.
Umamdipa (?), ngita ia umamédipa tana mulpa? What question ye
with them? Mark, ix. 16.
uman (?), ia uman, v. took counsel, Mark, iii. 6; tanatana ia uman,.
they said to one another. Mark, iv. 41.
umanga, a. dead, sick; v. to die; x. death.
umangange (?), noi kedangadalnga umangange, he was as one dead.
Mark, ix. 26.
umanguzo, ”. abl. from the dead (?).
umapa (s), ». to kill. Cf. uma, umanga.
umaulai (?), tana getdwanizd senabi umaulai dégam utui, they let
down the bed wherein the sick of the palsy lay. Mark, i. 4.
umeipa (am), v. to make (said of women’s work). Cf. tatureipa.
umem (mg), 2. death. Cf. uma.
umen (?), burumal k6i umen nanitan, the swine ran down a steep
place. Mark, v. 13.
umizin (?), nol paunap a umizin, let him die the death. Mark, vii.
10.
umkuki (humkuki) (mg), . water.
umu, probably = gamu.
umuwalepa (s), 2. palsy ; a. faint, trembling.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 269
una,
unab (s), a. safe.
unabo (s), v. to bless.
unaigi (?), getd mina unaigi, hath never forgiveness. Mark, iii. 29.
unaipa (?), ter unaipa, to savour (taste remains). Cf. unaizi.
unizimaen, 2. fragments, remain
unaizi, unaizo (s), v. to remain behind, to be left ; senabi kalapa unaizo
ipokazi, the woman that remained behind. Mark, xii. 19.
nuao (m), 2. the hawk’s-bill turtle.
unawa, 7. turtle-shell. Cf. wanawa.
ungwakazi (), 7. woman. Cf. ngawa kazi.
uotiz, v. to disappear.
upi, 2. a large bamboo knife.
upiri (B), ”. poison.
upiuz (s), v. to whistle.
upu (m), 2. a chain of ponds; a blister.
ur, urd, 2. water, brackish water (8); ur budaman (8), ». raft; uro
waisa (B), 2. flood tide; urd noriza (B), ”. ebb tide. Cf. wér.
ur (mg), 2. fire. Cf. miriam ur.
urab, urabo, urap, 2. the coco-nut, the drinking nut; urab a bura (™),
n. coco-nut leaf. Cf. mutale, gi, baribara.
ural. See ur, urd; urai dudupisa (B), v. to drown.
urainga, a. wet, moist.
urapa (s), @. the same.
urapon (s, B), @. one.
uraponia, v. to agree. Cf. urapon, ia.
urapu = urapon, urapa; urapu ia, the same words. Mark, xiv. 39.
urapun, urapuni (mM), a. one, = urapon; urapuni-getal, five.
urazi (mb), ”. the olive shell.
ure (m), 2. a bird, an insect, ashell, =urui, uroi; natam-ure, ». a tem-
porary name for us, quartz. (838).
urge (m), a. wet. Of. urai, ur.
urge (?), urge daje (ar), 2. a long petticoat.
urilonga (m), a nothing (Macgillivray).
urimano (B), v. to strike.
urma (m), 2. dew.
urmi (s), a. ferocious.
uro (Mf) = uru.
270 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
uroi (M, B), 2. an animal, a bird, an image; uroi lagé (3B), n. a cage;
urui palgiz, . bird.
urpu, v. to anoint.
uru (m), a. white.
uru (tb), z. rope used for turtle fishing.
uru (4g), 2. the sea. Cf. ur, urd.
urudan (sy), a. obscured. Cf. iradu.
urugabau (s), urugabao (B), 2. sweet potato. Cf. rugabu.
urui (N) = uroi, a mask.
urukam6, 2. rope, string; mapil urukam (s), . chain.
uruwain (wb), a stone used in sorcery (399.)
urupugan (s), v. to bathe.
urza (m), 2. the loggerhead turtle.
us, ”. a cut, a cicatrix.
us (mM), 2. quartz.
usa (m), ”. the kangaroo. Cf. usaru, usur.
usabutu, ”. salt. Cf. alas.
usal (?), mausa-usal, ~. ascarification of the cheeks, = bagamina (367).
usar (s), v. to walk, go.
usaru (8B), x. the kangaroo, wallaby. Cf. usa, usur.
usimai (s), v. to extinguish.
usimaipa gub, v. to kill the wind (427).
usimoi (s), v. to extinguish.
usimoiginga, v. not to extinguish.
usur (m), 2. the kangaroo, = usa, usaru.
utaiginga, v. not to enter.
ute (a), 2. sleep.
uteipa (a), v. to sleep.
uteipa (m), v. to enter, to go out of sight. [utem, uteman, utemin,
utiz, utizi, utizo. ]
utiz, utizi, utizo (s), v. to hide, to go into, to enter.
utoi = utui.
utointiaipa, v. to doze.
utémoin, v. to join.
utu (at), x. honey.
utu (a4), z. a small palm (Seaforthia).
utui (s), v. to lie down, to sleep ; a. asleep.
utuild (s), ». to dwell.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 271
utuipa, v. to lie down, to sleep.
utulag (mg), 2. a house (Stone), lit. = sleeping-place.
utumiz, utumoin, utumoizinga. See iautumiz.
utuipa, v. to sow.
utuna (B), v. to plant.
uza (rt), 2. asmall cowry. Cf. ooja.
uzai (m), a. putrid.
uzameipa,
uzar, v. to go, to walk, to depart. [uzaripa, uzariz, uzareman, uzarman,,.
uzarmoriu. | .
uzaripa (a), v. to go away.
uzarizi (m), v. to go away; titure uzarizi (m), 2. a falling star.
uzarmoriu v. imperat. go; ngipel uzarmoriu, go ye two.
uzimeipa (m), v. to go out (as a fire). Cf. usimai, usimol.
uzu (a), pron. mine (if a female).
uzur,
Wa, ad. yes; v. to acknowledge; particle of emphasis preceding verbs,
wa kapuza ina ngita adataean Augadan sabi, full well ye reject
God’s law. Mark, xii. 9.
waba, ”. dove.
wad (mb), 2. a fish with blue spots.
wadai (r), 2. a large, red, flat bean or seed.
wadan (s), v. to caution, to detain.
wadegam = wadogam, wadegam susu, eleven, wadegam-zugu, twelve,.
in counting on the body.
wadogam, 2. the farther side, Mark, x. 1 ; waddkapa, to the other side.
wadokam (s), ”. half, the other side; wadokam malu, the other side
of the sea. Mark, v. 1.
wadokapa. See wadogam.
waduam, ”. uncle. Cf. keuba-tati.
waean (s), ». to send. [waeaman. |
waeapa, v. to swim.
wagal (s), ad. behind. See wagel.
wagar, exclam. yea! yes!
wagedegam, 2. the west.
wagedo (s), a. other.
wagedoka, w. the other side. Cf. wadogam.
272 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
wagel (m, s), ad. last, after, v. to come after. Mark, xiv. 28.
wagetal-wagétal (moa, BaDu), ten (lit. one hand and one hand).
wahu, exclam.
wala,
waiginga (? maiginga), iabuia waiginga, nothing by the way. Mark,
Sale (oe
wailitutu (a), x. the saw-fish; walitutu kap, 7. the saw-fish dance.
wainis (mb), ”. a small bull-roarer with a-shrill sound (375).
waipa (zB), 2. a land-shell.
waipat (mb), ”. a head-dress consisting of a single plume.
waisa (?), urd waisa (B), 2. flood tide.
waitud (mb) = waiitutu.
waiwai, ”. the testicles. Cf. waiwi, mango.
waiwi (mb), 2. an armlet made from the shell of the Conus millepunc-
tatus (339).
waiwi, 2. the mango.
wakabi (mb), ~. an instrument used in mat making.
wakadar, 7. a dale, valley.
wakaea,
wakaean, v. to chase, to pursue.
wakaeangan, v. to be patient.
wakaea-uiamoin (?),v.; koi gorkoziu wakaea uiamoin, x. chief priests.
Mk., xiv. 1. [wakaea-uiamoin, wakaea uiamon, wakaia-uiamai. |
wakai, a. ecclesiastical (Sharon); wakai mumugu sigaman(?) Mark,
v. 15, xii. 36.
wakai (?), kapu wakai boie daparngu adapadan, a voice came from
heaven. Mark, i. 11.
wakaia-uiamai. See wakaea-uiamoin.
wakaiasin, v. to pity, to regret; to have sympathy, to mourn;
grief. [ wakaiasimoin. |
wakaimizin, v. (?); ada wakaimizin, ». spite.
wakaintamamiz (s), wakaintémamiso (B), v. to think, to consider.
wakaintamamoiginga, wakaintomamoiginga, v. not to consider, not to
think.
wakaisin = wakaiasin.
wakaisupaman, v. to lead astray.
wakaitaiz, v. to recollect, to understand. [wakaitamain. |
wakaitamamai, ”. thought.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 2738
wakaiuiaipa (?), ngai ngitamunia wakaiuiaipa puzipu, I was daily with
you teaching. Mark, xiv. 49.
wakasin (?), donga wakasin, a. savage.
wakasin = wakaiasin.
wakasu, ”, oil; kaigorsar kikirilaig wakasunu pinin, anointed with oil
many sick persons. Mark, vi. 13. [wakasunu. |
wakau (s, M,B), 2. a belt, the band of a petticoat ; pl. wakawal.
wake (B), 2. the hornbill. Cf. worke.
waki (1), x. a sting ray; a spear armed with spines from the sting ray.
wakiantamizo = wakaintamamizo.
waku (m,s), 2. amat; gul waku, x. a sail; duma waku, x. clothing.
waku (B), v. to sell. (Perhaps a misprint for sail).
walaika (mg), v. to walk.
walap, ». a hat; patralae pui patan walap, plaited thorns (for) a hat.
Mark, xv. 17.
walchi (m), x. the name of a plant, Xerotes Banksvt.
waleipa (a1), v. to climb.
waleipa (?), gi waleipa (a), v. to laugh.
walepa. See umuwalepa.
walgan (B), ”. an adze.
wali (a), x. name of a creeping plant, a vine used for making fishing
lines, hence a fishing line ; a cord, twine (8).
waliz, walizo (s), v. to climb, ascend.
walkadun (m), ”. a wallaby.
walmizin, walomizin, v. to call, to proclaim, to cry out. Cf. waldo.
[walmer, walmeamain. |
walnga (mb), ”. ‘‘rock-fish.”
walo (B), 2. a cry ; a cooey.
waltidun, v. to cry out (p/.). Mark, xy. 13. ; they cried out.
walunga, 2. the steering board, ‘‘ rudder ” of a canoe.
walupa (s), v. to plant.
wama (Tt), wamo, 2. honeycomb; wamau-idi (1), honey (lit. honey-
comb’s oil). Cf. isau.
wamen (s), v. to walk quick.
wamenudiz (s), koi wamenudiz (s), v. to ebb, of the tide.
wamulaig6 (8), ”. a sister who has children.
wanan, v. to put, leave, deposit (s); durai wanan, v. to remain; sibu
wanan, to pity. [wanemiu. }
wanawa (B), . turtle shell. Cf. waru kara, unawa.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. UI., VOL. IV. a
274 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
wanemiu. See getowaniz.
wanes (mM) = wainis.
wangai, . the ‘‘ wild plum.”
wangepa (m), v. to fill (with solids), seven ianalo wangamoino, they
filled seven baskets. Mark, viii. 8.
wani (mb), 2. the soft turtle.
wani, 2. drink.
waniman. See wanipa.
wanin (B), v. to drink.
wanipa, v. to drink; suguba wanipa, to smoke, 7.¢. to drink tobacco.
[wanin, waniu, waniman. |
wanizo (s), v. to drink.
wanizo (?), paget-wanizo, v. to slip.
wan-nur (m), v. don’t.
wap, 2. a dugong spear (351).
wapiada (a), 2. the cotton tree (Bombaz.)
wapai (m), 2. the forearm.
wapi, . a fish ; pokam wapi (mb), x. the flying fish.
wapu (m), 2. the shaft of a dugong spear. Cf. wap.
war=wara; war dadim, a. two in counting on the body.
wara (M, $s), @. another ; a, an, one (s); wara.. . wara, the one... the
other.
warabon = urapon, one; warabon augosa, three.
waradogam (s), 2. east.
waralaig (?) ; dorgai waralaig, name of a constellation. (Legends, 31),
warange (s) = wara.
waranis (M), ”. a green pigeon.
warapon (mg)=urapon, one; ukesar-warapon, three.
warapune (mM), @. one, = urapon.
warawara,
waraz, ”. the olive shell. Cf. urazi.
wardadim. See war.
wardan, n. an eclipse.
wargaiga (B), ”. yesterday.
waro = wara.
waroi (mb), ”. a common siluroid.
warogiawaliz (?) ngaukalo ngapa uzar parpar waro giawaliz, after me
cometh another mightier than I. Mark, i. 7. (giawaliz per-
haps = giuwaliz. )
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 275
waru, ”. a turtle; tortoise (mg); warukaz, a young turtle; kidu
waru, the end of the turtle season; waru kara, turtle shell.
Cf. iniltiam.
warup, ”. a drum.
warwar (?) senabi warwar ukain tomamiz, the care of the world.
Mark, iv. 19.
wasalolnga, a. rough.
wasili (rt), 2. a kind of basket.
wata (s), 2. dry wood, fuel:
watal,
watang (m), a. dry.
wata’ pateipa (a), v. to dry up; wata patain (s), ”. dry ground; wato
patan nanu kulka, her blood dried up. Mark, v. 29.
watar, wataro, 2. firewood, fuel.
watekum (m), @. sorry.
wati, a. bad, evil, abominable ; wati ngarare (a), a. lame (bad footed) ;
wati ganule (1), a. stinking (bad smelling); wate mitale (m),
a. bad tasted; wati kaurare (a), a. deaf (bad eared); wati
parure (m), a. ugly (bad faced) ; wati kikiri (s), 7. sin.
watipawa (s), 2. sin, evil deeds.
watiza, ”. a bad thing.
wato (s, B), 2. a year; pl. watal; aigi wato, famine, foodless time.
Mark, xiii. 8.
watri = wati.
watripawa = watipawa. [ watri-pawangu. |
watro = wati.
watu (arg), v. or x. whistle.
watur (m), ”.alog. See wata, watar.
wau (B), 2. the betel nut (not eaten in Torres Straits); wau iana,
nm.apurse. Mark, vi. 8.
waura (B), 2. the east wind; the south-east wind.
wauri,
waus (N), 2. a funeral screen (320). Macgillivray, ii. 37.
wawpl (a) = wapi.
weaima (Mm) = wem.
webasa (mg), x. the eyebrow. Cf. babasam, boibasamu.
weiam = wolam.
weibad, 2. turtle eggs.
weidaman (?), mosobauka weidaman, foaming. Mark, ix. 20.
276 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
weidan, a. greedy.
weidan (?), kula mura weidan, senabi mura kula weidan ina,
buildings. Mark, xiii. 2. . Cf. nguro-weidan.
weidizi,
welmeipa (m), to waken. Cf. wal, walmizin.
wen, 2. the cockatoo.
wer (s), z. water.
wera (m), the stomach.
weragi (m), hungry (lit. no stomach). Cf. maita iginga, Mir. wererge.
Wiamo (B) = welam, woiam.
wibu (m), the name of a plant (Parinarium).
widan (s), v. to sew.
widizi,
wiepa (m), v. to give.
wier (1), 2. the palm of the hand.
wila (1), x. a species of freshwater herring.
winipa (m), v. to get up.
witiganu, x. a stink. Cf. wati, ganu.
wobar, ”. a fruit = ubur.
wobu (m) = ubu.
woiam (s), 2. a joint.
woibado, z. spawn. Cf. weibad.
wokailonga (?), Iesu walmizin senabi koi nurainga kapu wokailonga,
Jesus cried with a loud voice. Mark, xv. 34.
wokau (1), 2. a belt, = wakau.
wokowai, 2. a belt, = wakau.
womar = wome.
wome (7), 2. a string game “‘cat’s cradle” (361).
womer (mM) = wome.
womer (1), 2. a sea bird, perhaps the frigate bird. [ canoe.
womiraukwik (1), 7. a carved wocden bird’s head for decoration of a
wonigi = wanigi, v. not to drink.
wonizinga, ”. drinking.
worgi = wordgi; maigi wara kulanu worgi wanan kalmel pudailai,
there shall not be left one stone upon another, that shall not
be thrown down. Mark, xiii. 2.
worke, v. the hornbill. Cf. wake.
worégi (s), ad. upon ; mabaeg worogi tarciginga, whereon never man
sat. Mark, xi. 2.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 277
woropu-taean, to throw down, to stumble, to offend. Mark, ix.
43, 45, 47.
worpupudaiginga (?). Mark, vii. 4 (not wash ?).
wuko (B), 2. gum.
wunu (™m), 2. a fog.
wur (m), 2. the sea; wur pusakuradun, high water ; wur nuremizingi,
low water; wur kamizingi, flood tide; wur nurezingi, ebb
tide.
wurup,
Za, 26, n. a thing; niai za, 2. chair.
za (M), afix, expressing the thing spoken of.
zabai, ». the pectoral fin of a fish.
zabudamoin, v. to buy.
zadogam (s), 2. the south.
zaget, zagetd, zagito (s), 2. work, labour. Cf. za, geto.
zagetolaig, a. having work; noi zagetolaig kuikulumaingu, he has
work from the Lord, the Lord needs him. Mark, xi. 3.
zagetopawa (s), 2. a deed, a doing.
zagi (s), zagigal (s), @. penurious, poor (lit. without a thing).
zaginga, a. having nothing, empty.
zagitapa, v. to prepare, get ready.
zagita (s), 2. work; pl. zagital. Cf. zaget.
zai (?), zai adu palgano (8), 2. a signal.
zalaunga (?), mina zalaunga senabi gouga tanamulpa gamu puridora-
lenga, they that are whole have no need of the physician.
Mrankev ite did
zamiak (?), na sulan ngau gamunu a zamiak ngaeapa maramatoiaipa,
she is come aforehand to anoint my body (pour on my body) to
the burying. Mark, xiv. 8.
zamozamo (s), 2. a tail ornament made of cassowary feathers used in a
dance. Cf. nadur, kabonadur.
zamu (s), x. the cassowary. Cf. samo.
zanga (s), 2. a thing.
zanguzangu (?), things, pl. Mark, x. 27, xi. 11.
zapawaean, v. to send.
zapla (?), kabu zapla (7), 2. discs held in the hand during a
dance.
zapudamoin (s), v. to compensate, to gain, to sell.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. IV. U
lis) ee Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
zapul (s), 2. riches, wealth. See za, apu. [zapunu, zapuia. |
zapulaig (s), a. wealthy.
zapupamoin (?), misprint for zapudamoin.
zaputamoin = zapudamoin. [ zaputamoigigal. |
zaram (mM), v. name of a fish, Pelates.
zarzar (mb), ”. leafy twigs.
zasel, = za, sei, these things.
zaungalaig (s), ”. a shelf.
zazi (mb), 2. a large leaf petticoat. Cf. gagi.
zazuman, . firewood, fuel.
zeinga, d. level, smooth; x. a plait, a flap.
zelamiz = zilamiz.
zeza, n. a creek.
zi, suffiz to pron. from.
zia (s), x. acloud. [ziangu. |
zilamiz (s), v. to run.
zinga, suffix.
zinge (8), 2. a sling for carrying heads, = sunge.
zirasan,
ziziman, v. to drive.
ZO = Za.
zogo (M) = zugu.
zorki, m. a spike of cassowary bone, used for husking coco-nuts.
Cf. soki.
zubnanamiz, zubd-nanamiz (s), v. to throng.
zugu (m), ”. the arm, upper arm; eight in counting on the body;
wadegam zugu, twelve, in counting on the body.
zuguba, zugubu (s), 2. tobacco.
zugukwoik (mb), zugu kuiku (x), 2. the shoulder.
zinga, ”. a boy or lad before initiation. Cf. karingi, kérnge,
kaukwik.
zunga, ”. the name of a tree.
zungri(N), ”. = zlinga.
zurana (m), a. boiling.
Ree’d June 1 --Oct.2o0
XI.—Sxrrow or Daupar Grammar.
Tho materials available for the elucidation of Daudai Grammar are
of the most meagre and scanty description. They comprise: (1) A
few notes in the Rey. HE. B. Savage’s Vocabulary of Murray, Mabuiag,
and Daudai (ms. 7). (2) Some phrases and sentences at the end of
Sir W. MacGregor’s Kiwai vocabulary (22). (38) A few sentences and
hymns printed for Mission use, by Rev. E. B. Savage. We believe that
as a matter of fact the translations were partly due to a Miriam native
teacher. The greater part of the latter is printed.in the Specimens of
the Daudai Language.
It is very evident that what is known of Daudai Grammar has been
obtained by means of the Miriam language. The Rev. KE. B. Savage’s
Vocabulary has the Miriam, but no English equivalents to the Daudai
words, whilst the translation and hymns correspond word for word,
and often inflexion for inflexion with the Murray versions. For these
reasons it is obvious that too much stress cannot be laid upon the
accuracy of what is here set forth, and much is certainly left for
further explanation and exhibition.
In this sketch notes taken from MacGregor are marked (x), those
from Savage’s ms. are marked (xs).
DIALECTS.
The words given in Savage’s ms. represent the western portion of
the district in which the Daudai language is spoken, though some
words are marked as representing the dialect in use at Perem (Bampton
Island) or at Kiwai. The vocabularies of D’Albertis and Beardmore
represent the language about the mouth of the Binature or Katau
river, especially of the village of Mowat (Moatta or Mouatta).
MacGregor’s vocabulary was ‘‘ drawn up chiefly at the village (on the
Island of Kiwai), usually called ‘ Kiwai,’ but named by its own
people ‘ Iasa,’ and is ‘‘ used by aboriginals of Ipisia, Saguana, Samari,
Mabudamu, Auti, Wiorubi, and Sumai villages.’’?
‘¢ With dialectic differences, the language is understood all over the
Island of Kiwai, and round the coast as far as the Mai Kisa, and for
1 Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1890, p. 124.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. x
280 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
80 or 100 miles up the Fly river. Kubira and Doropodai use a diffe-
rent language, but many members of those tribes have a knowledge of
the Kiwai tongue.”’!
The principal dialectical variation consists in the loss of a sibilant.
or guttural in Mowat or Perem, which is retained in Kiwai.
Example: Sera (x), era (m), breath; wisa, wia, buy; sito, cto,
outside; soro, oro, bone; sopu, opu, earth; besere, buere, girl; sepate,
epate, ear; sto, 10, dog; muso, muo, hair; boso, boo, fight; zso, ari,
food, eat; oswa, ou, sky; swroma, wramo, north; suswa, uo, wind; osio,
010, young man, etc.
Kara («), ara (m), fence; herigedio, erigedio, work.
In some cases the dialects have different words.
Example: Sai (x), wovo or zbiu (a), day; wrisina (x); arimina (P),
fish; ¢roidiro (kK), erauidiro (kK), mitidiro (pv), hear; oswa (Kk), ou (P),
aromo (mM), sky; damari (K), eurt (Pp), see; didiri (x), auana (P), men;
sagana (K), gamuno (mM), moon, etc.
MacGregor notes that ‘‘the Sumai people speak very indistinctly,
and as if the tongue were folded, and they slur over the words so as
to produce many contractions which puzzle the ear at first.’”?
§ 1.—Alphabet.
1. Vowerts.—a as in father; dG asin at; eas ain date; é as in let;
7 as eein feet; asin it; 0 as 0w iM own; 0 asin on; U as 00 iN soon;
u as in up.
The orthography of Beardmore’s ms. is very uncertain, and in many
words difficult to make out. The consonants present little difficulty,
but the vowels and diphthongs are sometimes puzzling, as the indeter-
minate English spelling is used. Thus the syllables da, de, di, do, du,
are written, dah or dar, day, dee, dow or doh, doo. The short sound of
the vowel is expressed by doubling the following consonant :—Terrico
for tériko, dubbi for ditbi, attah for dta. We have transcribed Beard-
more’s vocabulary in the uniform orthography.
Besides the vowels given above, there seems to be in Mowat a
broader o sound. In Beardmore’s ms. this is frequently written or, oar,
or ar. Thus, woworgo for wowogo, dorbee for dobi, boor for boo, torp-
orboar for topo-obo. Beardmore also, in some Mowat words, wrote u
1 Thid., p. 124.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 281
where D’Albertis used 0, and vice-versa. ortu for moto, moh-or for
muo, do-or for duo. Beardmore also used o for short d. Zoggaha for
tagaa, gobba gobba for gabagaba.
2. Dirxrnones.—ai as in aisle; au, as ow in cow.
Beardmore usually has y or 7 for az, ow for au. Savage apparently
uses ou for au.
3. Consonants.—h/, 9g; t, d; p,b; w; 8,83; h3 r, 1; m,n.
Beardmore and D’Albertis often have gh where others have g.
They also usec. In the former it is always equivalent to an English ¢
in a similar position, as copo-or for kopoa, coolar for kula, cow-e-tar-too
tor kawitato, care for kea. D’Albertis uses it also for & in camicami,
for kamikamt, cunaro for kunaro, caco for kako; but in ace it is possible
that the Italian ¢c or English ch im chin may be intended, especially as
k is written before e in other words, keakea, kersimae, etc.
D’Albertis has 6 for Savage’s w and Beardmore’s w. Jbcu for zuio
or twia, obera for owera or wera. In one case he has v for wu, viard for
ware.
In ¢zoche for zoke, D’Albertis has ¢z for z and ch for k. It is
doubtful whether / should be used. It is written by Beardmore and
D’Albertis, and in a few words in Savage’s ms. MacGregor only uses
it in the words szhua, poho, tumaho, and hanuabot. The last is a Motu
word.
§ u.—Pronouns.
1. Persona:
These are declined by means of suffixes. The cases found are the
Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, and Ergative.
(a) Nominative-—The simple forms of the pronouns are as follows:
Singular, 1, mo, 1; 2, v0, thou; 8, nou, he, she, or it.
Plural, 1, nwmo, we; 2, nigo, you; 3, né, they.
For mo and ro, MacGregor writes I/ou and rou.
Dual and Trial forms also appear thus :—
Dual, 1, nimo-to, we two; 2, nigo-to, you two; nei-to, they two.
Trial, 1, nimo-ibz, we three; nigo-ib7, you three; 3.
NVimo-to and the trial are given only by MacGregor. Savage has
nimo-1bi-na with the possessive as the equivalent of the Miriam posses-
sive merzba, so that it appears as a special form for the inclusive rather
than as a trial.
>.¢
282 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The instrumental forms of the pronoun do not appear. MacGregor
has n’mo-sirio0, nigo-sirto, we all, you all.
(b.) Accusative. The objective or accusative case does not differ
from the nominative except in its position in the sentence.
(c.) The Genitive or Possessive case is irregularly formed.
Singular, 1. mo-ro; 2. ro-ro; 3. nou-na.
Dual or plural, 1. nimo-ta, nimo-na, nimo-ibi-na ; 2. nigo-nai ;
3. ned-ndt.
Ro does not appear as a possessive suffix elsewhere in Daudai. I,
may be compared with the Miriam ra. The suffix na in nou-na.
nei-na, nimo-na is the same as that used with nouns. The plural
forms nimo-ta, nimo-ibi-na, nigo-nai, nei-nai are given by Savage who
also has a 3rd dual, neito-nai. Nimona is only found in the text.
MacGregor gives oro as well as roro, for thy; oro tu, thy hand; ore
epuru, thy head. In the plural both MacGregor and the text have the
simple form of the pronoun as a possessive. Vimo kigiro, our life ;
nimo tu (x), our hands; nzgo moto, your house.
(d.) The Dative of the personal pronouns is shown by the suffix
-gido. This is usually added to the possessive of the first and second
persons singular, and to the simple forms of the other pronouns. It
is translated ‘‘to”’ or ‘‘for,’”? and in some phrases is difficult to dis-
tinguish from an accusative.
Singular, 1. moro-gido, mo-gido; 2. roro-gido, ro-gido; 3. nou-
gido.
Plural, . 1. ntmo-gido; 2. nigo-gido; 3. nei-gido.
Ro mogido uosa, thou givest to me; nimo nobot rogido erudomott, we
here pray to thee; gesona nougido sibomuguruti, good (it is) to believe
on him ; ner nougido ortrai ouato satauro, they hanged him on the cross;
nou nimogido uarabar, he helps us ; Ifose emetiodoi neigido, Moses com-
manded to them.
Some sentences given by MacGregor are:—Woro gido oosa, roro
(gido) oosa, nou gido oosa. These are translated—I give you, thou
givest you, he gives you, ete. In the plural—nimo gido oosa, nigo gido
oosa, ner gido oosa. The first two of these agree with the above if
divided, mo rogido oosa, ro rogido oosa, but the remainder present a
difficulty, gido being used as if a pronoun, “ you.”
(e.) The Ablative is shown by the suffix -gaut, from. In the first
and second person singular it is joined to the possessive form. |
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 283
Singular, 1. moro-gaut; 2. roro-gaut; 8. nou-gaut.
Samuito lepera-tanar oritorai nougaut, quickly the leprosy departed
from him. This is the only example found.
(f.) The EZrgative is shown by the suffix -gomoa, which corresponds
in meaning to the Miriam -dog and Saibai -d7a, and may be translated
‘‘with.’’ The suffix is added to the possessive in first persons.
Singular, 1. moro-gomoa; 2. ro-gomoa; 8. nou-gomoa, no-gomoa.
The only example is:—Zberiti waramai numabu, nougomoa numa-
bua, take away the false thing, with him (is) the real thing.
(g-) The equivalents of the Miriam karababu, mabu, tababu are
expressed in Savage’s ms. by means of the word zmarai, joined to the
personal pronouns.
Mo-imarat, myself; imarai, thyself; no-imarat, himself. In the
text :—nou noimarai kigiro, he himself is life.
The ms. also gives simarai, himself, but, in the text, semera is
“yvourself.”” Oguitogu/ simera arapoi nougido muguru buaraigo, Go!
show yourself to him the sacred chief.
2. InrERROGATIVE PRONOUNS:
The personal interrogative is Botur ? who? (MacGregor, beturo ?)
This is declined like the personal pronoun now. Botu-na? whose ?
botugido 2 to whom? ‘Who? is used in asking a person’s name as in
the Melanesian languages. Ro paina ro beturo? or, Ro paina beturo ?
who is your name?(x). Savage has however Bedar roro paina?
what is your name?
What ? is cbeta 2? beda? or bédar? MacGregor gives also boro, and
nunamabu, and the examples: Nebeta, nebetaro? what is this?
Nebetarerearo? what is that? Beda mutu noosart 2 what do you want
for this? beda didiri rogu? what man comes? beta is declined,
Ebito-gido ? for what ? why ?
The only example in the text is—Bedar roro paina ? what is thy
name ?
3. Dremonsrrative Pronouns AND ADJECTIVES :
The ms. does not distinguish between the nearer and remote
demonstratives this and that, but the words given are gotna, gov noina,
Abara, abra, now, appears as a demonstrative equivalent to ‘‘ this” in
abra-sai (x), to-day ; abra-duo (x), to-night. Cf. Miriam, abele.
MacGregor has tatari, this, but the word is properly an adverb,
“near.” He also gives gzdo, mosia, that.
284 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Nou tau goina arago (xs), he said this ; gotna tau sporigat (xs), that
is finished; s¢rzo arubt nougido ogu gov dirimorogaut (KS), many men
came to him from that country.
4, INDEFINITE Pronouns AnD ADJECTIVEs :
Ata, natira (x), another; gotaonaosa (kK), each; beturo (K), some
others; nirubiro (K), any one; arua (Ks), some; nauto nari (x), all
the same ; s¢vzo, many, plenty.
§ r1.—LVouwns.
1. Noun rorms.—A verb may be used as a noun without change of
form. Vou kigiro, he lives; nimo kigiro emadi, our life (he) bought.
In Mark i., 44, the ablative suffix -gaut is used to form a noun in
karadabuti-gaut, a sign. The whole phrase, however, in which it
occurs corresponds so closely to the Miriam, that it is probably a mere
imitation and not an idiom.
Cf. Karadabuti-gaut ro tau dodiat,
with . atame-lam mama emetu idigirt.
sign thou finish heal.
Adjectives when used as substantives appear to have a terminal
na. Geso, good; gesona, a good thing; durupi geso numabu, gesona
uaito uagoria, the body is a good thing, (it is) good (to) carefully look
after it; gesona nougido sibomuguruti, good (it is) to believe on him ;
geso ouera, a good word. The demonstratives gov, gona show the same
distinction.
The persons performing an action or possessing a quality are indi-
cated by the words dubu, man, or arubi, people, following or preceding
the verb or adjective. Absdiru dubu, an oarsman ; koropa arubi, sick
people; arubi uibu, black people. So also in MacGregor’s list of tribes
Kadowarubi, Katau people ; Tudorubi, Tud people ; Attarubi, Dararubi
ete.
The suffix daz is also found with names of people, and may be the
Saibai zdaig. Cf. in MacGregor’s list: Dawanidai, Dauan folk;
Bigomidai, Boigu folk; Sazbodai, Saibai folk. A few words show the
Saibai daig in the form raig. Moaraigo, Moa people ; Badaraigo, Badu,
people.
Many words in the list of tribes end in darimo. This is probably
the word dirimo, land. Hence, Dawaredarima, Dauar land; Waki-
darimo, Nagir land; Baramodarimo, Perem land, etc.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages. of Torres Straits—II. 285
2. Numprr.—The dual is shown by the numeral netoa. Moro tuo
netoa, moro aro netoa, your two hands, your two feet.
MacGregor states that in Kiwai the plural is sometimes formed by
adding ro to the singular. Some words in the vocabularies to which a
plural meaning might be assigned end in 79, though they are not given
as plural. Such words are dirimoro (xs), dirimo (x), land; dodo (x),
beach, shore ; dodoro (x), coast.
In the text the plural is formed by the word mabu following the
noun. Jabu literally translates the Miriam giz, and has the same
meaning of ‘‘ origin or foundation.’? Jwio mabu, days; koimt mabu
(Mir. kaimeg giz), disciples.
The adjectives srvo and rorodia are also used to express the plural.
Sirio arubi a numabu, many men and things; srio tanar, every act.
Some nouns appear to have an irregular plural. Dubu, a man ;
arubi, didiri, men ; orobo, a woman ; wpt, women.
These methods of expressing the plural are sometimes combined.
LIwio mabu rorodia, all the days ; sirio sat mabu (kK), many days; arube
mabu keake a arubi uibu, arubt numabutato a sirio buaraigo, white men
and black men, poor men and chiefs.
3. GznpER.—There is probably no gender. There are no examples
of the method of distinguishing sex.
4, Casr.—The noun is declined by means of suffixes. The cases
found are the Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative,
and Locative.
(a) Nominatwe.—This is the simple form of the noun.
(6) The Accusative does not differ in form from the Nominative,
but is known by its position following the verb. Oradubu atauti sirio
numabu, God made many things; now dodiai sirio koropa arubi, he
healed many sick men.
Often, however, the accusative precedes the verb as in Miriam and
Saibai. Kigiro agiua, give life ; moto odoro, enter the house ; wadura
waopo, prepare the pipe. |
(c) The Genttive or Possessive is shown by the suffix -na. Oradubu-
na mere, God’s son; Lesuna ouera, Jesus’ word; girop-na numabu,
thing of the heart ; dediri-na ouera, men’s word.
(d) The Dative is formed by the suffix -to or -ito. Savage’s ms.
gives ou-to for Mir. kotor-em, to heaven; opu-ito, to the world, Mir.
geseb-em ; mauro-ito, to a place; Mir. uteb-em.
286 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
In the text, Nimo nau oputo aue iuio Sabath, we to one place come
great Sabbath day. In MacGregor, oromozto, to deep water; potorto,
to shallow water. The suffix -gzdo, used with pronouns, is found
with Proper nouns also. Ogu Lesugido, come to Jesus; erudomote
Lesugido, pray to Jesus.
(e) The Ablative is shown by the suffix -gaut, from. Opu-gaut,
from the ground ; sobo mere-gaut, from a little child; roro sugu moto-
gaut, from thy holy house; szvo dirvmorogaut, from many lands ;
Oradubu na mere ougaut ororua, God’s son came down from heaven;
uba tanar eberiti nimogido girop-gaut, bad deeds take away for us from
the heart ; sirio darubi a numabu nouna tuogaut, many menu and things.
(are) from his hand.
(f) The Locative appears to be formed by the suffix -afo. It is
apt to be confused with the Dative.
Lesu ouato omiei, Jesus dwells in Heaven; poputo omier, to kneel,.
rest on knees; nou teapariato omiet, he stayed in a barren place.
§ 1v.— Adjectives.
1. Many adjectives are used in a simple form as wba, bad; eke,
small ; geso, wade, good; auo, big.
2. Adjectives are formed, as in Miriam, by the reduplication of a
noun. Zamatama, thin, skinny, from tama, skin ; ipucpu, dirty, from
wpua, dirt; ururu, deep, from ur, sea.
In many cases the root of a reduplicated adjective is not separately
found. Boroboro, rotten; gabugabu, cold; kobokobo, weak; wmumue,
whole, entire ; torutoru, easy.
The usual effect of reduplicating a simple adjective is to intensify
the meaning. Lkeburi (x), little ; eheburiekeburi (x), very little;
auo, big ; auoauo, very big.
3. Adjectives expressing the negation of a quality are formed by
the suffix -tato, which corresponds in meaning to the Miriam kak,
Saibai ig7. Kawikawi, crooked; kawittato, straight, not crooked;
tuaitato, dislike ; nuwmabutato, poor, no things.
Some times the ordinary negative pua is found instead of the suffix.
Adina pua (m), bad, not good.
4, The suffix -na seems to form a noun from an adjective. See
Nouns, 1.
5. Adjectives are also found with a suffix -7m7, but the meaning is.
Ray & Hanpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 287
not clear. It often appears with adverbs. Dogo, dogoaimi, doguaimi,
yet, still, continually ; sopuime, short ; tagara, tagaraimi, old; tuturu,
tuturuim?, all; natura, naturaimi, another; sobo, small; sopwme,
short, low.
5. There is a kind of adjectival suffix, 7a, which gives the meaning
of ‘‘real, true, or very,’’ when added to a noun. Oradubwia, real
or true God.
§ v.— Verbs.
1. Most verbal roots commence with a vowel. When they do not
so commence, it is probable that a prefix is present or that the word is
a compound.
2. VerBat Forms:
(a) Causative. There is one example in the hymns of a causative
formed like the Miriam by means of the dative suffix. This is the
word erapo-ato, to make strong, from erapo, strong.
(6) Negatwe. The Negative is indicated by the adverb pua, pat,
or puai not, preceding the verb. Sac puar emereuti, sun does not
shine ; puad oroto, not cry; pat karamarago, not scold; nimo par korio,
we do not play.
(ce) Interrogative. This is shown only by the use of the Interroga-
tive pronouns or adverbs.
(d) Quotations. The word gebo is the equivalent of the Miriam
kega, Saibai, keda. Nougido arago, gebo, moro diriuo, ro dodiat, said to
him, thus, my wish, thou (art) clean.
(e) There is no substantive verb.
3. There is very little data for the study of the moods and tenses
of the Daudai verb. MacGregor gives some forms for the Kiwai with
the remark that ‘‘ the inflection of verbs is apparently complicated, and
is not mastered.” A few notes are found in Savage’s Vocabulary.
Others may be gathered from the text. All these show that the
verbal root is modified by prefixes and suffixes to express variations of
mood, time, and number.
4. Moon:
(a) Imperative. This does not appear to differ from the indicative.
Uaito damari! carefully consider! Oguitogu! go! So also the prhiobi-
tive: Puat arago ata didiri! don’t tell any man! Toretato/ fear not!
(b) Infinitive. The infinitive is shown by the word xo preceding
the verb. Nou nimogido uarabai no geso tanar auagati, he teaches us
288 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
to do good actions ; imo nauoputo no erudomoti, we assemble to pray ;
nimotbina girop omiet no uba tanar eberiti, abide in our hearts to take
away bad deeds.
(ce) Desiderative. A wish is expressed by diriuo. Wo diriuo
emoputt roro geso tust, I wish to read your good book; nemo diriuo
kigiro, we wish to live.
The negative is diriuotato, or pai diriuo. Lesu par diriuo nimo no
oriai, Jesus does not wish us to die.
(d) Potential. A kind of potential is expressed as in Miriam by
the word wmoro, to know how; in the negative, wmorotato. Tesu
umorotato tamar airogu goina dirimorogaut, Jesus could not openly walk
about that country ; mo umorotato, I cannot.
(e) Subjunctive and Conditional. These are indicated only by the
conjunctions.
° +5. Enre-
In Savage’s ms., and in the text, the verbs undergo no change to
indicate Tense. MacGregor gives the verbs go, give, eat, and preach,
in Present, Past, and Future. An analysis of his examples shows as
follows :—
(a) The Present is the simplest form of the verb. Oosa, give; ogu,
go; wiso, eat; totomo auera, preach.
(6) The Past has the prefix n-, in all persons and numbers :—
Mou duduata nogu, Nimo duduata nogu, I, we went.
Rou duduata nogu, Nigo duduata nogu, Thou, you went.
Nou duduata nogu, Nei duduata nogu, He, they went.
Doro gido sukuba tao noosa, I gave you tobacco.
Roro nort tao niriso, Thou atest sweet potatoes.
Moro totoma tao nauera, I preached.
In these examples duduata is a noun ‘“‘ yesterday,” and tao a verb
*¢ finish.”
(c) The Perfect is shown by the verb tao. Savage uses tau to
form a past, and also as a separate verb, ‘‘to finish.” MacGregor has
tao with all the examples of o0sa, noosa, inthe past. Nou gido sukuba
tao noosa, he gave you tobacco, etc., and also with the verbs “ to eat,
preach.” See examples above.
The text has: Vou tau ogu, he has come; goina tau tporigat, that
is finished ; now tau edea nouna numabu, he has put down his things.
(d) The Future is shown in MacGregor’s examples by the suffix -y/,
Ray & Happon— Zhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 289
Nou gido sukuba dogo oosart, he will still give you tobacco; nimo gido
sukuba dogo oosart, we will still give you tobacco.
With the verbs ‘“‘ to eat” and ‘‘to preach,” the suffix -77 is used
with the prefix n-. oro nort dogo mirisorz, I will still eat sweet
potatoes; moro totoma auera dogo narogort, I will preach, I will
preaching word still say.
In the singular number of these verbs ‘‘ eat’ and ‘‘ preach”
MacGregor’s examples have the forms moro, roro, instead of mou and rou.
In the text the particle mo seems to mark the future. WVimo no
oguitogu, we will go! Jesu par diriuo nemo no oriai, Jesus does not
wish that we shall die. Cf. Remarks on Infinitive Mood.
(e) Continuance of an action is shown by the word dogo, yet, con-
tinually. Mer dogo aue amadt, they continually rejoice; dogo opito,
gradually grew up. See also examples in future (d).
6. Nomper AnD Person :
Some verbs are marked as plurals in Savage’s Vocabulary, but they
are so few that they cannot be classified.
Sing. aidima ; Plur. aradimai, to cover.
5 UD? », vborite, to sow.
In MacGregor’s example of the verb ‘‘to go,” there appear
prefixes varying with the number and person of the verb. Thus a,
ogu, meaning go; abrasai and doguaimi, to-day ; duduato, yesterday ;
dudua, to-morrow, we have the following :—
Present :
Sing.—1. Mow abrasai doguaimi nai. Plur.—1. Nimo abrasai nimairi.
39 2. Row abrasai doguaimi nai. 2D 2. Nigo abrasai imairi.
00 3. Nou abrasai doguaimi nai. a5 3. Nei abrasai vimoguiri.
Past :
Sing.—1. Mou duduata nogu. Plur.—1. Nimo duduata nogu.
09 2. Row duduata nogu. » 2. Nigo duduata nogu.
39 3. Nou duduata nogu. 30 3. Nei duduata nogu.
Future :
Sing.—1. Mou dudua nai. Plur.—1. Nimo dudua nimairi.
3 2. Row dudua wairi. » 2. Nigo dudua imairi.
99 3. Now dudua nairi. » 93 Nei dudua vimairi.
Probably with a fuller knowledge of the language the exact
meaning of these variations may be explained.
7. Dreecrives :
It is probable that certain particles are used as directive prefixes,
but their exact determination is difficult.
290 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Oro, down. Orodobi, to set (of the sun), go down; ororua, come
down ; orogurio, to blow; oromiado, to sitdown. (D’Albertis has omia,
to sit, and omzez in other vocabularies is given for stay, remain.)
Ort, up. Oriboa, to stand up.
Oto, away. Otoboa, to leave; otumat, to send away ; otoaz, to cut
down (away). MacGregor has auto-ogu, go away.
Cf. otig7, to put out; otoz, to leave ; ototoro, to tear; otaauti (x), to
divide.
Benu. Benupedudi, to believe; benumuguruti, to repent.
8. SuFFIxEs:
Certain syllables are commonly affixed to verbs which sometimes
appear without them, and hence they must be regarded as suffixes.
Such syllables are ¢7, di. Aratoro, arotoridi, ask; arogo, aroguti,
speak ; auodi, auoduti, pour; bodoro (Mir. deskemer), bodorodi (Mir.
deskemereda), persecute.
There is also an appearance of suffixes in the words aurat, auaruo,
to prick, sew ; epuruo, to hide; emereuis, to scorch; emereuti, to light up.
Several verbs denoting mental operations end in diro. Hrawidiro,
troidiro, mitidiro, to hear; kitamodiro, to teach; atamudiro, to inter-
pret (atamuai, teach); meragidiro, emeragidiro, to remember, think.
Lroruodiro is ‘‘ to drown.”
9. As an example of the variety of verbal forms we give the verb
ogu, go, asit appears in the vocabularies. Unfortunately, the compilers
of these have rarely given the exact shades of meaning.
(kK). Auto-ogu, go away; au-ogu, bring; butau-ogu? where are
you going? ogu, come, walk; 7m-ogo-rumo, to beckon to come; ragot-
ogo, to beckon to go; rogo, g0; wiroguri, he comes; nitariguro Kanani,
Kanani comes.
(Savage ms.) Aguitogo, go (Mir. ket bakeam); mr-cgu, walk ;
arogoto, go; guit-ogu, go; kim-ogu, bring; n-ogo-dumo, go; ogu, go;
ogu-nita, go, (Mir. kei tabakeam), ogu-itogu, gone; ogu-nita, came.
(D’Albertis). Agoitogo, walking; nitago-ogo, coming.
§ v1.— Adverbs.
1. INTERROGATIVE :
(a) Place—Boro? where? Buaraigo boro? Where is the chief?
Gabo boro? Where is the road ?
MacGregor also has: Pe boigaro ogu? Where has the boat gone ?
Butatiogu? Where are you going?
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 291
(6) Zime.—Bedaiuio? When? What day?
- (c¢) Cause —Ebitagido? Why? Whatfor? Zbitagido nou oriai?
Why did he die?
_(d) Number.—Bedamota? (xs), bedamutu? (x). How much?
How many ?
The word bedar or beda (x) translates the Miriam nako? Beda
didirt rogu? What man comes ?
2. Prace:
Naitawatawa (&). here; nodot rom (x), here; gonouw, there (Mir.
dali), nobot, there (Mir. penoka); nebetaromi (x), there; gido (x),
further ; gavme, distant; giatoa (x), distant; mureso, far off ; wru, uru
-apuo, out of sight ; wapureto, next; taugo (xs), first ; dogobe, round;
eregetet (K), downwards; wege, back, alongside ; oswa (K), upwards.
3. Time:
Abara, now; oiti, then; duduo, to-day; abrasav (x), to-day;
abraduo (x), to-night; duo, in the night; araporto, near sunrise ;
duduért, duduaere (x), in the morning; duduo saz (x), to-morrow;
waraoit or uaro-ito (Mm), to-morrow; dogo, dogoaimi (x), by-and-by ;
duduata, duduata sai («%), yesterday ; duotaw (mu), yesterday ; duomutu
(x), day before yesterday, day after to-morrow ; duatata, on the third
‘day ; tagara, tagaa (mu), for a long time, long ago; nanito, always ;
qportgaitato, unending, for ever; sat sero, every day, daily.
4, Manner:
Dopr, likewise, also; dogo, yet, continually ; mina, again, always ;
gurigart, in vain; menae, secretly; warto, carefully ; naturat, only ;
nouororo, like ; tamaz, openly.
§ vit.—Postpositions and Local Nouns.
1. The use of the simple postpositions, used as suffixes, have been
illustrated in the sections on Nouns and Pronouns.
They are ro, na, of ; gido, to, ito, to, for; gaut, from; ato, at, in;
gomoa, with, by.
2. As in Miriam and Saibai, some nouns are used with suffixes to
indicate positions. Those found are: ou, sky, top; nro, inside; zz,
back; magumo, bottom; tatari, a place near; twrz, middle. They
appear as owato, above ; ntroato, in the inside ; ¢rdato, under; drito edea,
put behind ; magumoato, under; tatarito, to near; turiat, among,
between. Sto, outside, is probably a word of the same kind.
3. Other words given in the vocabularies as equivalents of the
292 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
English prepositions are: Apuo, beyond; goboromi, at; paa, paha,
with, in company of, equal with; pope, along with, equal to; ro,
with; sugu (P), outside; wabutu, behind. Uagediai, around, is also a
verb, to surround.
§ vir. Conjunetions.
1. #, also, and; nuairomi, whether, or; numada, if; goinagaut,
from this, because, for ; gebo, thus, saying ; gedagebi, gedogibo (x), so,
like, as.
§ x1.—L£xclamations.
Ie! yea! Lyvaue! (x) Farewell!
§ x.— Syntax.
Words seem to be arranged as in Miriam and Saibai, but the texts
available are too scanty to afford much guidance.
§ rx.— Numerals and Measures.
1. Noumerats.—Only two distinct numerals appear to be in use.
These are: nau, nao (K) one; and netau, netoa, or netewa (x) two.
MacGregor gives them repeated for higher numbers, thus: Wetewa
nao, three; netewa netewa, four; netewa netewa nao, five; netewa
nelewa netewa, six; netewa netewa netewa nao, seven; netewa netewa
netewa netewa, eight; netewa netewa netewa netewa nao, nine. For ten
and numbers above he also gives modoboima, modoboima nao, etc. In
these modoboima is probably a hybrid word composed of the Motu ima,
hand or five, and the Daudai word modobe, to complete. It would
thus mean the hands or the finish of the hands, 7.e, all the fingers.
Savage’s ms. has potoraimi, four.
The English numerals will no doubt be introduced. TZhri for
‘‘three ’’ is used in the text.
2. Measure.—The only unity of length is the fathom, dodobu,
measured as in Miriam.
§ xir.—Points of the Compass.
These are given thus :—
N. or N.W., swroma (x), wramo (™).
S. sve-raragoro (x).
S.E. wroa (m), susu-rarugoro (XK).
S.W. sza (x).
E. dibiri-duba (x).
W. ste (K), trara-sukumai (x).
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 293
XII.—Sprcimens oF THE Davpar Lanevace.
1.—Tue Heatine oF tHE LEPER.
(Mark, 7. 40-45.)
(From the Rev. E. B. Savage’s translation.)
40. Nougido ogunita ata Jlepera, a poputo omiei, a
To him came acertain leper and on knee sits and
nougido arago, gebo, numada ro diriuo, ro umoro mogido
to him ask thus uf thou wish thou can me
dodiai.
heal.
41. Jesu nougido nirimogari, a tuo otuturo, a nougido
Sor him pity (had) and hand stretchesout and him
orogiama, a nougido arago, gebo, Moro diriuo; ro dodiai.
touches and tohim says thus My wish thou heal.
42. Nou tau goina arago, samuito Jepera tanar_ oritorai
He fintsh this SAaYINE quick leper Sashion rises up
nougaut, a nou dodiai.
Jromhim and he zs healed.
43. Jesu nougido emeteodoi, a nougido émériai, a nougido
to him commands and him sends away and tohim
arago, gebo.
Says thus.
44. Uaito damari! puai arago ata didiri; oguitogu!
Carefully look not speak another person go
simera arapoi mnougido muguru buaraigo, a agiuai irio
thyself show to him holy chief and give Sood
numabu Mose emeteodoi neigido; karadabutigaut ro tau
thing Moses commands to them a Sign thou finish
dodiai.
heal.
45. Lepera oguitogu, a mabuedea no ouera arago, a
Leper goes and begins to word say and
arago uagediai; goiagaut Jesu umorotato tamai airogu
says around through that cannot openly walk
goina dirimoro; nou teapariato omiei, a sirio arubi nougido
that country he inbarren place stays and many men to him
ogu goi dirimorogaut.
came that country from
294 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
2.—OnraDUsBU.
(From the same as preceding.)
Oradubu atauti sirio numabu—sai, a wuoog, a opu, a
God makes all things day and animals and earth and
ou, a oromobo, a didiri. Nou noimarai kigiro. Ata didiri
sky and sea and man. He himself Zife. Other man
pai atauti, umorotato. Sirio arubi, a numabu nouna tuogaut.
not make cannot. Many men and things his hand from
Nou iributi arubia, a sirio tanar opuato. Nou nimogido
He takesknowledgeof men and all doings on earth. He us
auo nirimogari. Nouna mauro ouato. Nou pai diriuo,
greatly loves. Hts duelling insky. He not wth, ltke.
gumasa tanar. Nou dogo ~meragidiro arubi rorodia, a
e-'bad actions. He continually remembers men all and
neigido agiuai aue geso numabu, giropna numabu. Nou
to them gives many good things of heart thing. He
uaito erauidiro didirina ouera kudu. Nou Oradubuia.
carefully hears men’s speech. He True God.
Gesona nougido sibomuguruti. Baba eso! Nimo au amadi.
Good thing tohim to believe. Father thanks. We greatly rejoice.
3.—JESU.
(From the same.)
Jesu Oradubu na Mere. Tagara, nou ororua opuato, no
Fesus God’s sont. Formerly he camedown ftoearth to
arapoi Oradubu na gabo. Nou dogo omiei sirio_ urato,
show God's path. He remained stayed many year
sobo meregaut. Nou erhaigiri Bethlihem, a dogo opito.
dittl from child. He was born and gradually grewup.
Pai uba tanar auagati. Nou dodiai siro koropa arubi—
Vo bad action aid. He healed many sick persons
togiri, damaruperi, a sirio durupi tematema. Uba_ arubi
shaking blind and many bodies stck. Bad TER |
nougido opio para Saturo. Uapureto, thri sai, nou mina
him struck dead cross. Afterwards three days He gain
kigiro oritoral, a ioro ouato. Ebitagido, nou orichiai? No
life rOse and ascended to heaven. Why he dé. To
eberiti nimo gimasa omabu. Nou nimogido uarabai no geso
putaway cur evil mature(origin). He us helps Zo =. good
tanar auagati. Gesona nimo_ uaratai.
actions do Good thing we pray.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 295
4,.—Srrio Poxo.
(Hymns. From the sheet of Hymns.
Bibliography, No. 20. For com-
parison, the corresponding Miriam version is added from the Hymn-
Book, No. 13.)
Daudar.
2. ERuDoMOTI.
1. Baba, nimo_ noboi,
Lather we here
Rogid erudomoti:
to Thee pray
Ro pai _araribia,
Thou not put out
Nimo diriuo kigiro.
We wish life.
Ro nimo mitidiro,
Thou us hear
Nimo roro uwaratai
We Thee pray
Au numabu midobo,
Great thing suttable
No nimogido uagori.
to Sor us care for.
Nouna Oboro Zugu
Hus Spirvet holy
Nimogido agiuai,
to us glue
Nimogido erapo
us strong
Iuio rorodia.
days all.
Nouna gabo arapoi
His path show
Nimogido arubi;
for us men
Uareuo nimo girop,
Open our heart
Roro ouera mitidiro.
Thy Word hear.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv.
Ie
Mirran.
90. SaBaTH.
Baba, keriba ike,
Marim esorerapar :
Ma nole ki imuda,
Ki edede lagelag.
Ma keribi asoli
Keribi mare damos
Gaire lu abkoreb
Ko keribi nagri
Ma keribi ikuar
Mara Lamar Zogo
Ko keribi saserim
Gaire geregere.
Mara gab natomelu
Keribim uridili
Diski keribi nerkép
Ko mara mer asoli.
we
296 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
5. Ornopar Ovato. 42. UIABA KO OBAPIT KOTOR GE.
Meeting Above.
Nimo dogo au amadi 1. Meriba au sererege
We still greatly rejoice
Tesu na _ ouera Ade ra mer nagri,
Fesus’s Word
Arubi girop warui Le la nerkép depegili
men heart turned
Uba _ eberiti. A uite giz adem.
bad = taken away.
Tau Tesu nirimogari Emetu Iesu erapei
Finished love
Ouato Satauro, Tumeme satauro
on cross
Sirio nouna koimi Gaire abara uerem
all His Sollowers
Orodai_ ouato. Obapit kotor ge.
meet above.
Numada nimo_ koropa, 2. Ese meriba gimegim
If we sick
Aue tematema, A au asiasi
great pain
A nimo iuaitato A meriba obogai
and we not like
Goina opuato, Abele geseb ge;
(to be) this land in
Nimo dogo au _ amadi, Meriba au sererege
We sttll greatly rejoice
A TIesu au_ eso, A esoao Adim,
and greatly thank
Goinagaut nimo umoro Abelelam meriba ko
because we know
Orodai ouato. Obapit kotor ge.
meet above.
Arubi mapu_ keake, 3. Gaire kakekake le
Men white
A arubi_ uibu; Pako golegole ;
and men black
ee
Arubi numabutato,
men poor
A sirio Buraigo.
and many chiefs.
Nei Oradubu na mere
They God’s Son
Sibomuguruti,
believe.
Sirio dirimorogaut,
many lands-from
Orodai ouato.
meet above.
Puai oroto noboi,
Not cry there
Pai karamarago ;
not scold
Nei puai durugeri,
they not hungry
Puai tematema.
not sick.
Nei dogo aue amadi,
They sttll greatly vrezoice
Sirio sail mabu,
every day
Sirio Iesu na mere
All Fesus’s children
Orodai_ ouato.
meet 2m heaven.
9. Insu Ororva.
Fesus came down.
Oradubu na Mere,
God’s Son
Ougaut —_ ororua,
Jrom heaven came down
No kigiro agiuai
to life give
Arubi rorodia.
men all.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 297
Gaire le nole lu kak
A gaire Opole ;
Uiaba Iesu ra uerem
Gaire gedelam,
Uiaba uridili ko
Obapit kotor ge.
4. Nole ezoli abele,
Nole ataparet,
Uiaba nole uererege,
Nole asiasi ;
Uiaba au sererege
Gaire gereger,
Gaire Iesu ra uerem
Obapit kotorge.
24. Inso ApE ra Usrem.
1. TIesu Ade ra Uerem,
Kotolame uatabu,
Ko edede nakuare
Le gize uridili.
ve W
2. Au tanar kauitato
Great actions right
Tesu uaito arapoi;
carefully show
Nou nimogido uosa
He tous gives
Nouna geso jauali.
Hits good Book.
3. Nou satauro orial,
He cross died
Nou mina oritorai,
He again rose
Nou ouato omiel,
He in heaven stts
No nimogido auri.
to Sor us. look
4. Nimo aue _ uaratai
We greatly ask
Nouna Oboro Zugu,
Hts Spirit holy
Nimogido uarabai,
us help
Tuio rorodia.
days all.
10. Iesv wa Nimmrocari
Fesus’s love.
1. Satauro! Satauro!
Cross Cross
Nimo dogo _ eso,
We stziZ thank
Iesu ovato oriai,
upon (tt) died
No kigiro uosa.
to life give.
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
2. Gaire tonar barkak
Tesu natomertare :
E meribi nakuare
Abara jauali.
3. E emetu eumida:
E edede akaida:
E emri kotore ge,
Ko meribi dasmere.
4. Meriba abi damos
Abara Lamar Zogo:
Meribi upinati
Gaire geregere.
22. Saravro Drxtapor.
1. Satauro! Satauro!
Meriba _ esoao,
Iesu emetu eumida
Mi edede nakuar.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 299
2.
Au nirimogari
Great pity
Tesu nimogido ;
Sor us
Iesu ouato omiei,
in heaven sits
No nimo_ uarabai.
to us help.
Tesu. pai diriuo
not wish
Nimo no oriai;
us to adie
Nou nimo_ nirimogari,
He us . Loves
Nimo rorodia.
us all.
Nimo _ eberiai
We cast away
Aue uba_tanar,
many bad = actions
No Iesu geso Buraigo,
to good chief
kauitato.
right.
Auri
Follow
Tesu_ geso Masta,
good Master
Nimo atamuai
us teach
Roro diriuo auogati,
Thy wish do
Sirlo sai mabu
all days.
2.
Tesu mi omare
Tesu mi aseser
Tesu kotor ge emeri
E meribi dasmer
Tesu nole la kak
Meriba eumida
E gaire le au omare
Le giz uridili.
Mi naba ademe
Gaire adud tonar
Ko Iesu debe Opole
Irmili barkakem.
Iesu debe Kole
Ki ereuereme
Mara lagelag ikéli
Gair gereger.
300 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
XII1.—Davpai anp EnetisH VocaBuLaRy.
This Vocabulary, of some 2000 words, is compiled chiefly from the
ms. Vocabulary of Rey. E. B. Savage (us. 7), the Mowat Vocabularies
of Haddon (ms. 2), and Mr. E. Beardmore (us. 1), and has been
greatly extended by the Kiwai Vocabulary of Sir William MacGregor
(Nos. 22 and 23). Words have also been added from the texts (Nos.
19, 20), and from D’Albertis (No. 9). m indicates the Mowat dialect ;
ms, the Mowat of Beardmore; p, Perem; x, Kiwai of Mac Gregor ;
Ks, the Kiwai of Rey. E. B. Savage; F, mouth of the Fly River, from
some ms. notes by the Rev. James Chalmers, relating to some
ethnographical specimens, many of which are in the British Museum ;
the figures in brackets refer to the illustrations of these objects
in Ethnographical Album of the Pacific Islands, by Edge Partington
and Heape (vol. u.). A few words have also been added from
Domori Islands in the Fly Estuary.
abara (m), 2. to-day.
abara, abra, ad. now.
abarkai, v. to come. Mir. tabarki.
abea (m), z.a woven bag, like a net.
abera, x. father. Cf. baba.
aberaburt (x), 2. aunt.
aberuti (x), v. to boil; obo aberuti, v. water boils. Cf. bibiriti.
aberuti (x), v. to leak.
abidiro, abidiru (x), v. to paddle. Cf. aibi.
abidiru dubu (x), 2. oarsmen.
abo (K), z. house posts.
abodo (K), 7. asong. Cf. wasare, poho.
aboriora (108), to micturate.
aborohi, ”. good spirits who inhabit the Megapodius mounds. They
come to men in their sleep, and tell them where to find
dugong, turtle, and fish, and where to make fruitful gardens.
Ann. Rep. 1894, p. 58.
abraduo (x), . to-night.
abrasai (kK), 2. to-day. Cf. doguaimi.
adabuai, v. to marry ; @. married.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 301
adabuti, v. to meet in one place, to add, to spell, to place one upon
the other.
adagauri, v. to step over.
adiga (a), adigo, z. an armlet of rattan worn to defend the left arm
from the bowstring.
adimo, ”. evening; afternoon. Cf. erasugumai.
adina (m), a. good.
adina-pua (a), a. not good, bad.
adiowera, adiowara (a), ”. good talk. Cf. adina, wera.
adipirudureru (x), a. bright.
adiriti, v. to smear, to anoint.
ado (K), ”. a cap.
ado, v. to allow.
adorowa (kK) = adoruti.
adoruti (x), v. to thatch (?) ; weri adoruti, weri adorowa, v. to make a
roof.
aga, ”. an anchor.
agaba (?) agaba tériko (at), v. to cut with a tomahawk ; agaba giri (a1),
v. to cut with a knife.
agadioti (xs), v. to stir up.
agamu (a), 2. the cheek. Cf, ogomu.
agareba (ar), 2. a fern used as food.
agasipi (K), ”. a turban.
agati (k), v. to wave, of feathers.
agiriti, v. to haul.
agiwai, v. to give. Cf. ua, uosa, nimoria, noosa.
agoago (kK), 2. a yellow dye. Cf. sowora, madira.
agoita (a1), v. get out of the way.
agoitago (m), 2. walking.
aguitogu = Mir. kei bakeam.
agumanakai (F), x. a charm stuck in a canoe when going turtle or
dugong fishing (pl. 203).
agurabai (?)
agurabuti (x), v. to pluck; pasa agurabuti (x), v. to pluck feathers
from a bird.
agurubai (K), v. to dig.
ahima, v. to go in a boat, to pass over the sea. Mir. atiem.
ahera, ”. a centipede.
302 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ahauma, v. to arise.
ai (K), v. to go.
aibi (4), z. a paddle oar; abidiro (x), aibidira (a), v. to paddle;
abidiru dubu, z. oarsmen.
aida (Pp), m. mother. Cf. mau, ida. (Also given as x by MacGregor.)
aidimuti, v. to choke.
aidomai. v. to cover (sing.).
aiéna (m1), 2. a species of snake (Saib. elma), the same as bigu.
aimagoiti, conj. then, so that.
aiodori (K), v. tide goes down the river.
aipura (Kk), ”.a handle. Cf. dudu, dudupo.
aira (m), 2. the lower limbs.
airerea, v. to have, get, possess. Mir. nagri. Cf. iriuia.
airimaheruo, a. bright, shining. (Mir. zorom). Cf. airimerua.
airimerigodoi (xk), v. tide goes out.
airimerua, 7. lightning.
airimetaruti, v. to look round. Mir. égéli.
airioridoro (x). v. to rise, of the sun. Cf. oritorai.
airo, n. the foot; airona, stocking (?), Mir. teter wali; airo gabo,
sole of foot, shoe. Cf. sairo.
airodori (?)
airogabo, n. sole of foot, shoe.
airogo, airogu, v. to walk, to walk about.
airoriro (Kk), v. tide comes in.
airororo = Saibai, gurgui uzar, Mir. digemili (xs). The meaning is
not given (probably means going round about. Cf. airoriro).
airorosoriauti (kK), 7. ache.
airupata (m1), 7. the feet. Cf. airo.
alwadi(?) misprint for amadi. In (xs) given as equivalent to Mir.
sererge.
amadi, v. to rejoice. Mir. sererge.
amaditi, v. to bind round.
amahaudia, v. to go down.
amahiri, amairi, 7. to squeeze, press together, connect, join.
amamurika, v. to fight.
amario, v. to fast, go without food.
amawitu (xk), x. a venomous snake.
ame (7), m. a kind of dye.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 303
amedei (x). a. inland, to the bush.
ameduti (K), v. to twist, of a snake. Cf. garamaduti, amaditi.
ameopuro (ar), x. a gourd for carrying lime.
amesosogoro (F), 7. a charm, shaped like a sausage, fastened to the
holes in the rim of the ear of lads when initiated, made of
young frond of sago palm, and dyed with ame (pl. 193, 4).
amiaupu, 72. a bottle (? water skin.)
amiditi (K), auera amiditi, z. a rumour.
ami-igerai (mu), v. to haul taut.
amiopuru (K), 2. a lime gourd, = ameopuro (m).
amo (m), 2. the breasts; milk, (x).
amoiopo (m1), 2. the mamme. Cf. amo, iopu.
amoisi (K), v. to suck, of a child at the breast. Cf. amo.
amu (M), = amo.
amura (Kk), . the bird of Paradise, Paradisea Raggiana.
amutia v. to put out the hand orfoot. Mir. itir.
anega (a), x. Calladium esculentum ; taro.
apararubi ”. a guest, a stranger. Mir. sub le.
aparatara, ”. an ant.
apate (m), 2. = epate.
aperarubi (K) = apararubi.
apisau (K), ”. aspider. Cf. gaira.
aporu (aM) = epuru.
apuo, prep. beyond, on the other side of, Mir. apek ; . a part, remain-
der. Mir. kaier.
aputi = Mir. atatko, Saib. malan (xs).
ara (mM), 7. a fence.
arabertmo v. to fight, to strike. Cf. korodia.
aradimai, v. to cover over (plur.). Cf. asidimai.
aradiri (ar), . red earth.
aragiria (m), v. fight him.
arago, v. to speak.
aragotai, aragoto, v. to carry on the shoulders.
araia (Mm), 2. heat, sweating. Cf. era, eraia.
araigini, v. to be born, to go out. (Mir. osmelu). Cf. erhaigiri.
aramiditi v. to keep one waiting when another has sent him. (Mir.
bamesili, Saib. nurai).
aramorubi (kK), x. God, apparently from aromo, sky, and arubi, man-
kind. Cf. oradubu.
304 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
arapol, v. to show.
arapori, araporia, v. to differ, to divide.
araporio, . time near sunrise. Mir. gereger osakeida.
ararabia, araribia, v. to cast out, to thrust out.
ararupo, v.to burst. Mir. arperik.
aratabuti (x), a. all.
arategere (K), v. to carry under the arm.
aratiaiado, v. to taste. Mir. tepdesker.
aratoro, v. to ask [aratorodi, aratorodoi |.
arawai, v. to clothe. Mir. ami. Saib, angai.
ari (a), v. to sing.
ariaga (mu), ”. a fishing line.
aribamo (Kk), . a species of banana.
arigiti (kK), v. to scratch, shave.
arigoita (m), v. to get out of the way.
arima, 2. blood; arima ne, dysentery.
arimina (pM), ”. a fish. Given as x also by MacGregor. Cf.
irisena.
aro (m), ”. a large rattan cane.
arogo. v. to speak ; to ask, bid (x); ”. a message (x).
arogoto, v. to go.
aroguti, v. to speak. Cf. arogo.
aromi (?)
aromo (a). 2. heaven, the sky. Said to be inhabited by white people
with white hair and beards.
aromorubi (kK), ”. the inhabitants of aromo; m. earthquake. Cf.
momorua.
aru, v. to sow (sing.). Cf. iboriti.
arua, a some. Mir. uader, Saib. durai.
arua (Mm), 2. a species of snake (Saib. tabu); erawa arua (Mm); 7. a
poisonous snake.
arubi, x. mankind (a); many men (Ks) ; an assembly (x). (Mir. gaire
le.) Cf. dauari, auarubi.
arubia, v. to fly. Cf. uarubia.
arumo, 7. the penis.
arumo (Kk), 7. a heavy thunder shower.
aruo, 2. neck. (Given in Savage’s Voc. as equivalent of Mir. tabo.)
asidimai (x), v. to cover. Cf. aradimai.
asio (kK), v. to cut with a knife. Cf. itouti.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 305
asio, v. to sneeze.
asioro (K), v. to bale ; obo asioro, to bale out water.
asisopu (Kk), 2. the armpit ; asisopu-muso, the hair of the armpit.
asumo (x), 2. a variety of sweet potato ; keakea asumo, a white variety ;
dogodogo asumo, a red variety.
ata, a. another, other.
atamuai, v. to teach.
atamudiro (x), v. to interpret, translate.
atapia (Mm), 2. paper.
atari (x), . the lobe of the ear, (when long and torn). Cf. usia.
atatiai, v. to detest, hate, be disgusted with.
atauti, v. to make.
ateria, v. to out-run, to pass by.
atima (Domori), . cap used by Obere, bush tribe, in dancing and
fighting (pl. 191, 3); atima-ata, net worn by Obere on head
when in mourning for parents or wife (pl. 191, 2).
atio (m), ”. a fern.
ato, suffix, mn, at, on.
atiimiai (x), v. to fill up.
atumiai, v. to catch fish.
aturupo (K)(F), 2. the bowl for the waduru or pipe (pl. 188, 1).
au (?), au-tuburo (ar), 2. the stomach.
auagati, v.to do, make. Cf. wogati.
auaguama, v. to speak ill of. (Mir. desauersili. Saib. gegedopugan.)
auana (Pp), 2.aman. Cf. didiri, arubi, dauari.
auarubi (P), ~. many men. Mir. gaire le. The Mir. le giz is trans-
lated by the Daudai dauari.
auaruo, v. to sew.
aue, a. tight, fast, firm.
aue, @. plentiful, numerous. ,
auera (kK), 2. speech, language; auera amiditi, . rumour. Cf. ouera.
augaruharuru, v. to follow. Cf. ougi.
auia, a. bigger. Cf. Mir. kale.
aumaro (K), ”. a species of banana.
auo, a. large, great, big; auo obo, ».deep water. Cf. oromoito; auo
pe, ”. a ship.
auo durupi dubu (x), a. corpulent, lit. big body man. Cf. Motu, nuana
bada, corpulent, lit. his belly big.
auoauo, a. very large.
306 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
auodoi, v. to spill.
auoduti, v. to spill.
auogu (K), v. to bring.
auomaro (K), 2. a species of banana.
auoto, v. to plait.
aural, aur, v. to put forth.
auti (?) otaauti (x), v. to divide.
autoogu (K), v. to go away.
autuburo (m), z. the stomach (D’Albertis). Cf. auo, tuburo.
awadau, 2. a species of banana.
awado (?) tepetepe terisi awado (x), v. to flog.
awala (K), ”. a pelican.
awo (K), a jelly fish.
awogu (mM), v. come here. Cf. ogu.
awua (m), 2. plenty. Cf. aue, auo.
awugo (F), 2. belt worn by young men.
Baba, 7. father (in vocative only). Cf. abera.
baga = bago ; bagamuo (m), x. the beard.
bage (xk), x. white shells (?). Cf. bata.
bagi (m), ”. a belt worn in a dance; a girdle (x).
bago (ar), x. the chin; bagamuo, 7. the beard.
bagoro (x), ”. a variety of sweet potato.
bagu (m1), = bago.
baika, baiko (x), n. a trade bag, a sack; auo baiko, large sack ; sobo
baiko, small sack. (Probably introduced from Eng. bag.)
bana (a), 2. a partner (in dance).
bane inatoroa. Mir. be iwaokai, streaks of light at sunrise. Cf. Mir.
be, 1waokai.
bani, 7. the faint light before daybreak.
bano (x), ”. a long, thin centipede.
bara, ”. a sheet of metal. Cf. malili, marirzi.
barahoro (mu), 7. the ribs. Cf. barasoro.
barako (x), ”. a variety of yam.
baranedo (x), ”. a variety of banana.
barasoro (x), ”. the ribs. Cf. barahoro.
bari, . the end (x), 7. blade ; point of a palm frond; bari-ato, at the
last, until.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—I1. 307
baribari, a. young, of a coconut.
baroma (kK), ”. a pig.
basabasa (x), ”. a net for fish.
bata, 2. a girdle, belt ; along band used for carrying firewood ; cuirass
of cane. (Mir. wak.); bage bata (x), a leather belt; poto
bata (x), a belt with white shells. Cf. bagi.
bata (x), a. thick.
batamere, (F), ”. a frontlet.
be,
bedaiuio ? an interrogative particle. Mir. na?
bedamota? bedamutu (x), ad. how many? Mir. naket ?
bedana (x), pron. which one.
bedar ? pron. interrog. what? Mir. nako. Cf. bertu.
begube (F), jew’s harp. Cf. pekupe.
benupedudi, v. to think, believe. Mir. odaratare.
benumuguruti, v. to repent. Mur. obazgeda.
beo (a), the liver.
ber, 2. a boar’s tusk.
bereburo (m), ”. a girl.
berego (x), ”. a variety of banana.
beromamu (8), ”. a kind of arrow.
berseai (kK), v. to throw away; leave off! Cf. isiro.
bertu (m), pron. what ?
besére, beseri (xs), . a girl, an unmarried woman; daughter (x).
Cf. bueri.
besi, a. slow, difficult, moist, heavy (of the eyes). Mir. beber, wapum.
beturo (x), pron. interrog. who? Cf, botur.
beu (x), ”. the liver; imuru beu (x), x. the spleen.
bibiriti (x), v. to boil (active) ; iro bibiriti, to boil food.
bidibidi (x), m. a pendant of shell worn from the neck. ? dibidibi.
bidu (x), m.ashark. Cf. biju.
bigi (at), 2. the coceyx; the loins (x); the back (Beardmore).
bigu (M1), ”. a species of snake, so called by the bush men. (Saib.
elma.)
biju (a1), 2. a porpoise. Cf. bidu.
bio (F), 2. post of house on which trophy-skulls are suspended.
biroro (at), 2. scolding, (D’Albertis). Cf. wiroro.
boa (K). ”. a variety of yam.
308 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
bobo, z. a lagoon, a pool; a bog, swamp (K); an excavation, well,
water hole (x) ; obo-bobo (x), a lagoon.
boboku (¥), a kind of arrow.
bobua (? bobo), edea bobua (x), ”. a grave.
bodoro, v. the breast ; the chest, bosom.
bodoro, v. (? to hunt or persecute) in Savage’s ms. as equivalent of
Saibai wakaean, Miriam deskemer. Plur. bodorodi = Mir.
deskemereda.
boia (kK), 7. a variety of banana.
boigaro (?)
bomakiwa (F), 2. boar’s tusk worn as a pendant from neck. Cf. boromo.
bome (F), 7. a headdress worn in fight and dance.
bod (ar), v. to fight. Cf. boso.
borguborgu (x), 7. baggage = burgoburgo ; borguborgu sirio (x), .
wealth or property (plenty of baggage).
boro, ad. interrog. where ?
boroboro, a. rotten.
boromapoa, z. a dance held before a pig hunt. Cf. boromo.
‘ boromo (x), #. a variety of banana.
boromo (a), = baroma, buruma.
boso (x), v. to fight; ~. war; boso didiri, x. a warrior ; wasare boso,
n. or v. whistle. Cf. boo.
botama (a), 7. cloth; kari botama, z. white cloth.
botuna, pron. interrog. whose ?
botur, pron. interrog. who?
bramgerama, bramgerima (21), 7. sister.
buama (x), z. the cowry shell. Ovulum.
buaraigo, z. a chief. Mir. opole, tarim le. Cf. mamoosi.
bubu (x), 2. a fog.
bubuama (x), ”. a variety of banana.
bubuere (x), z. a cloud.
bubugiro (xk), ”. a variety of banana.
budano (x), ”. a variety of yam.
buere (2), 2. a girl, an unmarried woman. Cf. beséri.
buérméri (P), buere-mére (a1), 7. a little girl. Cf. buere, mére.
bugomu (x), 7. acicatrix. Cf. nato.
buku (x), 2. an owl.
bumese (x), 7. a white lily.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 309
burgoburgo (x), 7. baggage.
burkéma (x), x. whitebait ; burkoma orobai, v. to catch whitebait.
buroburo (F), 2. the cylindrical drum with annular ends (pl. 189, 6).
buru (x), v. to break.
buru, a. empty; obo-buru, empty of water.
buru, 7. the outside ; buru-mouro, the outside of a place.
buruma (Mm), 7. a pig.
buruma (kK), 7. a variety of yam.
burumamaramu (Ff), a bull-roarer: when used all women and children
leave the village and go into the bush. The old men swing it
and show it to the young men when the yams are ready for
digging (May and June). The name evidently signifies ‘‘ the
mother of yams” (pl. 201, 2).
bururu (Domori), 7. a headdress used in dancing and fighting.
busere (K), 2. a girl; busera (F), a young girl.
butauogu (K), v. where are you going?
dadara (?), dadara dubu (x), m.a fool. Cf. karatai duba.
dadu (x), x. a bunch of grass tied on a pole and stuck up on a canoe,
hence, a flag.
dagoi (m1), 7. a head-dress made of cassowary feathers worn in
dances.
daguri («) (F), 2. a head-dress of black feathers. Cf. dagoi.
damari, 7. the eyes (Mir. pone); the eyeball (x) ; damari muo (m), x.
eyelash or eyebrow; damari tama, eyelid (x); damari gede
(x), 2. ophthalmia.
damari, v. to shut the eyes, to consider. (Mir. erkepasam.)
damarupere, @. blind. Mir. sadmer.
damedame (x), to swim.
damo (xk) (?), oromo damo, z. the ocean. Cf. oromo.
dapurkup (a1), 2. a necklace.
daradari, a. foolish.
darapi (?).
darimo (11), 2. a house for men.
dau (1), sago.
dauari, x. men. (Mir. le giz.) Cf. auarubi, arubi.
daunomu («), a stone axe.
dawane (x), x. the summit.
310 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
debiridaguri (Domor1), . short head-dress worn in dancing and fight-
ing (pl. 191, 4).
dewara (x), ”. the yaws.
di (x), ”. a pig net.
dibadiba, m. a dove.
dibi, a. full. Mir. osmeda.
dibidibi (a1), ». the round shell ornament.
dibiriduba (x), 2. the east.
didididi, a. fast, quick; v. to be quick.
didiri (ks), ». man, mankind; men (x). Cf. auana, dauari, arubi.
diridiri (x), a. brown; x. a variety of sweet potato.
dirimo (x), x. the ground.
dirimoro, 7. land, country.
dirioro (K), a venomous, of snake; ”. a venomous snake.
diriuo, v. to desire, to wish; diriuo-tato, pai diriuo, a. unwilling.
diro.
diruo (K), ”. or v. purpose.
diware (x), = diwari.
diwari (m), 2. the cassowary.
‘diwari (F), x. dagger made of leg bone of cassowary, also used for
opening coconuts (pl. 193, 2).
doa, v. to murmur (Mir. wekuge) ; don’t want to go (m).
dobari (a1), = dubari.
dobi (at), = idobi.
doburu (™), ”. the pelican. Cf. awaia.
dodiai, v. to save, to heal.
dodo, n. a bed.
dodo, ”. the shore, beach, coast, land. Cf. dodoro, tuturuo.
dodobu (x), ”. a fathom.
dododenamati (m), v. to forget.
dodogonimati (x), v. to forget.
dodonamatigi, v. to forget. Mir. okataprik.
dodoro (x), ”. the coast. Cf. dodo, tuturuo.
dogo, ”. a torch, flame, lamp. Mir. be. Saib. buia.
dogo, ad. yet, still, by and by, continuously (Mir. mena) ; v. cmperative,
hold on! wait a bit. (Mir. warem.)
dogoaimi (x), ad. by-and-by.
dogobe (x), a. round ; dogobe sagana (x), . full moon.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 311
dogodogo (x), a. red; dogodogo asumo, w. a red sweet potato.
doguaimi (xk), ”. to-day.
dokatota (1), v. to hack, said of the sago palm.
dokitotiti (x), ». the fireplace frame in a house.
dopi, 2. the stomach. Mir. kem.
dori (rf), 2. a headdress worn in the dance only.
dorogra, a. false.
doto (x), ”. the hip.
dou (x), 2 sago; dou iopu, a cone of sago; dou tarame, ”. sago in a
small roll; isi dou (at), ». cooked sago. Cf. siahu. ‘‘ Sago is
prepared by the women ; it is put up in small rolls about two
inches in diameter, called ‘dou tarame,’ and in large bundles
about one foot or nine inches in diameter, and about three feet
in length, wrapped round in leaves, and stiffened by the midrib
of sago leaves tied on to it. These bundles are called ‘dou
siahu.’ It is eaten roasted in leaves or on the coals, or made
into a pie with clams in the shell.’’—Mac Gregor, Report, 1890,
p. 40.
doua (x), v. to kill (a mosquito).
dri (at), x. a white feather head-dress.
driomoro (a), 2. earth, soil. Cf. dirimoro.
dua.
duatata, ad. the third day since, the third day hence.
dubari (at), 2. banana.
dubi (at), 2. the upper part of a water spout.
duboro (x), ”. pandanus ; duboro pasa, x. pandanus leaf; tiro, x. mat
made from pandanus.
dubu, a. male; ”. a husband; man (m).
dudi (x), x. the mainland on the right bank of the Fly River.
dudu (x), 2. a handle; a fanshaped tomahawk. Cf. dudupo, aipura.
dudu (x), 2. areed.
dudu (x), 2. a variety of banana.
duduaere (x), ”. the morning.
duduaereta (x), ~. the fore-noon.
duduata (x), ». yesterday ; duduata sai (Kk), ». yesterday.
duduere, ad. in the morning.
duduo, ad. yesterday, to-morrow; duduo sai (x), ad. to-morrow.
dudupo (x), . a handle, Cf. dudu, aipura.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. Z
312 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
dumehe, ~. a row of men, a generation. Mir. nosik.
dunini (x), (?), in MacGregor’s voc. given for ‘squirrel,’ but there
are no squirrels in Kiwai.
duo, ”. night, ad. in the night. (D’Albertis gives duo, day.)
duomuto, dnuomutu, 2. to-day (a); ad. the day after to-morrow, the
day before yesterday ; after.
duotau (m), 2. yesterday ;
dupamutu (F), 2. a kind of arrow.
dupu (m), x. elephantiasis.
durugere, v. to be hungry ; 2. hunger; obo durugere, a. thirsty.
durugi (x), v. to dine.
durugi, 7. darkness ; a. dark.
durugidurugi, a. dark.
durupi, . the body; trunk or stem of a tree; durupi-nibo, 7. a
perfume, lit. body scent. (The Mir. geme-lag has the same
meaning); uibo durupi(x) an albino; durupi tato (x), a. feeble
(no body)-
durupiwoa (m), a. lazy.
E, conj. also, and. Mir. pako.
ea (K), ”. a spade.
eamo (x), v. to squeak, of birds.
ébériai, ad. away ; v. to put away.
eberiti, v. to cast away, to throw away.
ebeta, pron. interrog. what? what thing? Mir. nalu.
ebia, v. to break.
ebiari, v. to be unable. Mir. nab. Saib. ian.
ebiba (m), 2. stone. Cf. nora.
ebitagido, ad. interrog. how? why? lit. for what thing. Cf. ebeta,
gido.
ebonupoe (x), 2. the heel.
edamari=damari, idamari; edamari muso (xk). eyebrow.
ede (x), x. asnake ; kiso ede, . a snake said to be poisonous.
edea, v. to put, to place, to put down ; to bury (x); edea bobua (x),
nN. a grave.
ediai (a1), v. to come up from below.
ege, 7. (? the outside) ; ege auana, . heathen. Mir. nogle. Cf. buru.
Ray & Havpon —The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 313
egediuti (P), v. to stir up. Cf. agadioti.
egethia (kK), v. to put the burning tobacco into the mouth to blow
smoke into the waduru.
eka (x), 2. lime; white paint ; eka iriso, v. to eat lime.
eke (x), a. little.
ekeburi (x), a. little, young; ~. a remnant; ekebure obo, x. shallow
water.
ekeburiekeburi, a. very little.
emaaliopu (K), 2. stone axe,
emadi, v. to buy.
emado (am), . the leg; emadu-kako (m), x. the tibia.
emapura (K), ”. son-in-law.
emaserue (x), lightning. (? lightening in MacGregor’s list.)
émera, v. to leave, put aside.
emeragidiro, v. to think. Cf. meragidiro.
emerewis, v. to scorch.
emereuti, v. to lighten, to light up.
émériai, v. to send ; to give up; leave m.
emeriuidiro, v. to lighten, light up.
emetiodoi, v. to speak, to pour out words, to command. (Mir. mer.
tigrl.)
émeuti, v. to make straight, to adjust, judge.
emherai, v. to stop any one from fighting. Mir. daismuda. Saib.
guduadan.
emiserai, v. to comfort, console.
emoa (m), 2. a stone hatchet.
emoaiopu (Fr), ”. the stone of the old stone axe, now placed round
graves, ‘‘ but it is not now known what they were used for in
the long ago.” (pl. 198, 2.) Cf. emoa, iopu, emaiiopu.
emoputi, v. to count. Cf. oputi.
emososiriti (K), v. to tie a man by the hands.
enadi (x), v. to shake hands.
eneaurl (K), v. to see. Cf. idamari.
eneene (K), ”. a small brown ant.
epate (1), 2. the outer ear. (Mir. laip.) Cf. sepate.
epe (m), v. a fern.
epeduai (xk), v. to throw, to throw the tete. Cf. berseai, isiro.
epi (?)
Z 2
314 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
epidabia (x), 2. the ring finger.
episuromoroa (x), 2. a door.
epoo (xk), v. to plant. Cf. ibauti.
epora (m1), z. enclosures of wood.
epuko (a1), 2. the head.
epurkod, z. a hat. Mir. aper.
epuro (m),=epuru ; epuro-muo, x. hair (of head).
epuru, 7. the head; skull; epuru muso (x), . hair (of head) ; epuru
temeteme, 2. headache; epuru ivi (F), x. frontlets worn by
old men.
epuruo, v. to take away, to hide.
era, n. fire; light (xk); era ota, fire wood; era itai (K), ». to roast.
era eragido itai (K), v. to warm.
era (K), ”. a snake, said to be poisonous,
era, hera (pP), x. breath; eratato, a. without breathing, continuous.
Cf. sera, seratato.
erabai (P), v. to grasp, catch. Cf. orobai. (Mir. erpei.)
éraéra, n. heat, sweat; a. hot.
eragumito, v. to burn. Cf. era, fire, and suffix ito.
eraia (m), v. to roast.
eranapar, v. to take breath, to rest. (Mir. nerezi.) Cf. era.
erape uibu (xk), z. coal, lit. steam ship charcoal. Cf. era, pe, uibu.
erapo, a. strong, well. Mir. saserim.
erapotato (xk), a. strong.
erasugumai (K), ”. evening, sunset. Cf. adimo.
eratato, a. continuous, lit. without breathing. Mir. nerkak.
erau, ”. anger.
erauidiro (ks), v. to hear. Cf. mitidiro.
erawa (M), a poisonous (? fierce); erawa arua, 7. poisonous snake.
« Cf. erau.
erawabu (kK), 2. a venomous snake.
erawo (K) %. a variety of yam.
ereberiai, v. to rise, as the sun; z. sunrise. Mir. gereger eupumada.
eregedioti (x), v. to hang.
eregeduti, v. to fall.
eregetei (K), ad. downwards.
eregeti, v. to lose, to fall. [eregetidi.]
eregetuti, v. to destroy. Mir. eogerdi.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II.
erehia (m1), @. tired.
eremétérai, v. to turn round.
ereno, 2nter. an exclamation of wonder or surprise. Mir. waiai.
eresa (K), ”. a border or edge.
eresapua (x), ”. half. Cf, sapua.
ereta ( ?)
erhaigiri, v. to go out, to be born.
erigedio (Pp), 2. work. Cf. kerigedio.
erudomoti, v. to pray.
esee (K), 2. an edible snake, said not to bite.
esirigo (x), 2. the calf of the leg.
eso, v. to thank.
esume (K), ”. an artery or vein; skin.
etaauito, v. to glance.
ete (x), ”. the little finger.
etebeai (x), v. to double ; to catch (m).
etebuti, v. to roll up.
eteturi (m1), 2. the ring finger.
euri (P), v. to see. Cf. damari.
Ga (x), 2. a cockatoo.
gabagaba, ». a stone club.
gabigabi (x), 2. a straw cross belt worn in dances. Cf. genaio.
315
gabo, m. a path or road; sole or shoe; (airo gabo = Mir. teter gab) a
gate (K); doorway (m).
gabu, v. to warm one’s self.
gabu, 2. cold. (Mir. ziru.)
gabugabu, a. cold.
gadi (x), ”. fat, flesh. Cf. sirigo.
gagama (x), 2. the spoonbill.
gagari, x. bow ; bow and arrows; ‘trigger’ gagari, a gun; a bamboo
(x). ‘‘The bow is made of a piece ef bamboo, nearly an inch
thick, about two inches broad in the middle and tapering to
the ends. The inner surface is on the convex side.”—Ann.
Rep. 1890.
gagi (M), ”. an ear-ring.
gagimere (F), #2. an ear-ring worn by all.
gaime (x), @. distant, far, far away. Cf. giatou, mureso.
316 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
gaira (K), 2. aspider. Cf. apisau.
gama, ”. a cylindrical drum with jaws at one end ; tériko-gama (m), 2.
a piano or other European musical instrument (Beardmore).
gamada siea (kK), ”. Piper methysticum.
gamasa, a. bad.
gamo, ”. the turtle; gamo soro, turtle shell. Cf. tumanua.
gamosusu (K), 2. a variety of sweet potato.
gamii (m), 2. a turtle.
gamuno (m), 2. the moon (in D’Albertis).
ganoni (m1), . the moon; ganoni gerger (m), x. the moon (in Beard-
more mss.). Cf. gamuno, sagana.
garahia ( ?) apate garahia (m), 2. the drumofthe ear. Cf. epate, gare,
la.
ganopa (x), 2. a cavity.
ganumi, 7. the moon; ganumi mere, z. white people.
garagaro (F), ”. a kind of arrow.
garamaduti (x), v. to twist, of twine. Cf. ameduti, amaditi.
garaoro (F), 2. loop on which an enemy’s head is suspended.
gare (x), 2. the externalear. Cf. sepate, epate.
garetato (K), a. deaf, lit. without ears.
garigari, ad. in vain. Mir. sagim.
garigari (x), v. to loiter; garigari dubu, 7. a loiterer.
garo (kK), m.a baler, made of the spathe of the leaf of the coconut
palm.
garoroa (K), ”. a snore.
gato (x), v.mud; gato titi, . to smear or paint with mud in mourning.
Cf. Saibai bud.
gatotiti (x), v. to smear or paint with mud.
gaua (xk), 2. acreek. Cf. oromo turi, gou.
gaumabu (x), z. an armlet made of wedgewood ware.
gaut, suffix, from.
gebo, ad. sign of quotation, thus, saying thus; Mir. kega. Saib. keda.
geborara (xk), v. to speak, to say.
geboso (kK), ”. a noise.
gédagebi, ”. proverbs. (Mir. babisdari mer); a. like, the same way.
(Mir. mokakalam.)
gede (?)
gedogibo (x), ad. all the same. Cf. gédagebi.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 317
gege (x), 2. a crescent-shaped breast ornament; nese gege, a breast
ornament of pear] shell.
gemaicpo (m), . an extraordinary swelling of the glands of the groin.
géméde, v. to rail at, to abuse.
gemedi, 2. adultery.
genaio (a), 2. a necklace or crossbelt of dogs’ teeth; (F) ornament of
dog and wallaby teeth worn by men and women when they
fight or dance.
geradu (x), v. to spit.
geraduru (x), 2. saliva.
gere (?)
gesere (K), 2. a shrub ‘‘ grown usually in the (? sweet) potato gardens,
with leaves nearly like those of the ash, but smaller. Eaten
as a vegetable.””—Mac Gregor, Rep. 1890, p. 40.
geso, gesona, a. good.
gia (M), ”. resin.
giatou (kK), a. distant. Cf. mureso, gaime.
gibo (Kk), v. to answer, reply. Cf. waratai.
gidinaro (K), demonst. pron. that.
gido, suffix, to, for.
gido (x), a. further; ad. there.
gigido (at), 2. the spinal marrow.
gimai (K), z. a white pigeon.
gimini, ”. the back; gimini-kako (a), ”. the spinal column; gimini
poa (x), z. the back; gimini soro (x), the backbone.
gimini (ar), 2. a sand bank.
girl, 2. an iron knife.
girl (x), fingers. Cf. igiri, tuigiri.
giriopu (x), . the sternum.
giromi (x), #.(a variety of banana.
girop, z. the heart. Mir. nerkep.
giwarl (K), 2. poison.
gobodo (x), ”. a variety of banana.
goboromi (K), prep. at.
godio (?)
gogonea (F), 2. a large conical fish-trap made from spines of sago palm.
gogu (K), v. to go.
goi (?)
318 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
goina, a. this, that.
goinagaut, con. because, for, through this.
goinoina, @. this, that.
goiri (K), 2. an oyster.
goma (Domori), 2. a drum.
gomasai (m), bad. Cf. gamasa, gtimasa.
gomia (?) obo tao gomia (x), 7. flood.
gomoa, suffix, along with, belonging to, with, alongside. (Muir. dog,
Saib. bia.)
gonia (x), 2. a fish-catcher, made of wicker work, ‘‘ shaped like a
candle extinguisher, about 18 inches in diameter at the lower
end, and about 8 to 5 feet high. They chase the fish in
shallow water, and place this implement over it, then press
the sides together to secure the prey.””—MacGregor, Rep.
1890, p. 40. Cf. gogonea.
gonimati.
gono drogu (m), v. are they, is he, is it coming here. Cf. ogu.
gonou, ad. far away. Mir. penoka, also given as equivalent of Mir.
dali, he there.
gope (K), 2. a shield*; (r), figure-head of a canoe, it gives a good
passage (pl. 185, 3).
gopegope (F), 2. an ellipsoidal slab of wood carved with designs of the
human face or person, and hung on a new house for good luck.
gore (xk), 2. the betel nut.
gorogoro (xk), 2. a white duck.
goropo (m), z. a stone club, with star-shaped disc.
gorumo (xk), 2. a feather (from the breast of a bird). Cf. pasa.
gotaonaosa (xk), a. each.
gou, goua, ”. a river; ”.a passage in a reef (m); goua bara (x), n. the
bank of a river; pari goua (x), ”. a drain or ditch.
gu, ”. kinsman, friend, neighbour, probably one of the same clan or
totem. Mir. boai. Saib. igalaig.
gubadora (x), 2. or a. cold.
gubiri (kK), v. to bury. Cf. edea.
gubo, x. a path. Cf. gabo.
* «© No shields are used about the Fly River, neither is the spear seen.’’”—
Chalmers ms. This word is probably introduced. Cf. South Cape, opea, shield.
Ray & Happon— Zhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 319
gubu (x), z. a hammer.
gudigudi (a1), x. a button, an auger.
gudogudo, a. thick.
guere (K), 2. stingaree, sting ray.
gugi (Kk), 2. a star.
gugi (Kk), z. a stone club with round disc.
gugu (F), 2. head-dress worn in dancing and fighting (pl. 192, 2).
guguba (x), 2. a plant ‘‘ with large five-lobed leaves which are eaten
cooked. We found this not unpalatable, the taste and feel
being that of a plant belonging to or allied to Malvacea.”—
Mac Gregor, Report, 1890, p. 40.
gugurta (x), 2. a species of lizard.
guitogu, v. to go. Cf. oguitogu.
giimasa, a. bad.
gumi (K), a. ripe.
gupuru (x), ”. the navel. Cf. Mir. kopor.
guri (at), 2. the forehead ; the face.
guri (K), m. a shrub; guri sirigo, ». guri fibre.
gurtru, 2. thunder. The noise made by the Aromorubi cutting fire-
wood.
Hari (m1), v. to sing. Cf. wasare, poo.
harubi (ar), 2. = arubi..
hera, ”. a breathing. Cf. sera.
heranapar, v. to rest, to take breath.
heratato, a. continuous (Lit. not breathing).
hoihoi (a1), 2. a boy.
hollogo (mu. D’Albertis), x. bird. Cf. wowogo, uoog.
hono (a), x. gall.
huhua (a1), ». the wind. Cf. susua, uo.
huraaua (mB), 2. a bag.
la, an emphatic suffix to words; a. true, real. Oradubuia, true God.
ia (Ks), 2. a fence.
iadohia, v. to speak. Mir. ditagi.
iano (F), 2. a kind of arrow.
lapo (K), v. to bring. Cf. auogu.
laprumu (M), ”. a wig.
320 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
iaprupat (a1), 2. a comb.
iarabuti, v. to answer, to speak.
iare (kK), z. an edible snake, said not to bite.
iaroguti, v. to preach. Mir. okadeskeda.
iarubo (x), v. to fly.
liauira, v. to sow.
lawa (K), 2. a tooth, teeth; baroma iawa, z. a boar’s tusk; iawa
temeteme, 7. tooth-ache.
ibaba (x), x. a species of beetle.
ibauti (kK), v. to plant. Cf. epoo.
ibirorogomai (m1), ”. evening.
ibiu (a1), 2. the sun; ibiu-irogoro (m), x. morning.
ibonara (m), 7. teeth.
iboriti, v. to sow (plur.). Cf. aru.
ibubu (x), . a variety of banana.
ida (a1), m. mother. Cf. aida.
ida baba (a), . mother.
idamari (m), z. the eye; v. to see (kK); idamari duduo (kr), blind, lit.
eye-dark.
idi (?), idi sirigo (x), ”. a fibre, perhaps a kind of taga sirigo.
ididi (xk), v. to build; moto ididi, to build a house.
idiidi (x), a. coloured, white and blue.
idobi, . crying ; v. to weep, cry.
idobisuo (K), x. tears. Cf. idobi.
idopi= idobi.
igiri (at), z. the nails (of fingers or toes); claw (K); middle finger (x).
ihehea, v. to pluck.
lio (K), ”. a curlew.
ima (x), 2. the ankle.
imadi, v. to carry, bear. Mir. tekau.
imadi (x), v. torob. Cf. piro.
imairi (K), (v. to go ?)
imarai, pron. thyself.
imo. In Ann. Rep., 1894, p. 59, ~. sun. Perhaps a misprint for
iwio, or ino.
imogorumo (kK), v. to beckon to anyone to come. Cf. ragotogo.
imoria, v. to feed. Mir. desisi.
imoriatorimo, v. to feed. Mir. derasisi.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 9821
imorio, v. to give. Mir. aisuer.
imuru (?), imuru-beu (x), ”. the spleen.
inaitato, v. to dislike. Mir. obogai.
ini-ipa, ”. noon.
Imo (Ks), ”. sun.
inoriro (x), v. tide goes up river.
io (K), m. the edge (of an axe); point of an arrow. Cf. eresa, bari,
muba.
10, ad. yes.
10 (P), a. fast, quick. (Mir. wamen). Cf. sio.
lopu, @. ripe.
iopu, . fruit, a seed; an egg; gamo iopu, turtle’s egg; wowogo
lopu, bird’s egg; dou iopu, 2. a cone of sago.
ioputi (x), v. to read.
ioritoroi (x), v. to return.
loro, v. to climb up, to ascend ; to hoist up (m).
i0to (K), 2. an ulcer.
ipa (K), 2. the clam; ipa soro, the clam shell, used as a knife, and also
for making lime.
ipare (K), ”. a native pie, made of clam and sago.
ipauipau (x), a. light green. Cf. sisiasisia.
iperiti, v. to snatch. Cf. uaigiri.
ipl, . a piece, a part. Mir. mog.
ipipu, @. plentiful.
ipiriti (x), 2. the face.
ipogi (K), ”. a comb, also in Perem and Mowat.
iporigai, 2. end; v. to finish; tau iporigai, to have finished. Cf. tau.
iporigaitato, a. without end, eternal.
ipu, 2. the lips.
ipua (x), 2. dirt. Cf. opu, sopu.
ipuaipua (x), a. dark blue.
ipuipu, a. dirty.
ipusu (xk), 2. the upper lip. Cf. ipu.
ipusuata (kK), ”. the lower lip.
ipuu (m), 2. the whiskers.
iragido (?)
irako (F), 2. a pillow.
irao (K), 2. an insect.
322 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
irao (K), ”. a variety of yam.
irao (F), 2. a Kiwai pillow used by old men.
irara (?), irara-sukumai (xk), 2. the west. Cf. sie, sia.
iri? v. to shout, to call.
iri, n. the underside ; iri-ato, prep. under, underneath. Mir. mud-ge.
iriato, prep. under.
iribu (x), 2. a variety of banana.
iributi, v. to take knowledge of, to detect, find out. Mir. opasereret.
iridou (mu), x. cooked sago. Cf. dou, irio.
irigiri (m), ”. the foot. Cf. sairo, airo, igiri.
irimo (x), ”, the name of a tree, the wood of which is used for canoes.
irio, a many. Cf. sirio.
irio, v. to eat, to bite. Cf. iriso, topo.
iriona (P), 2. food.
iripuadoi (x), v. to burn.
irira (m), a. lost.
irisai wada (xk), m. enemy.
irisina (Ks), 2. a fish. (MacGregor gives both irisina and arimina as
‘fish? in Kiwai) ; irisina tudi (x), ”. a fish-hook.
irisino = irisina.
iriso (xs), 2. food; v. to eat (xk). Cf. iris, topo.
iritoedea (x), v. to put behind. Cf. iri, ato, edea.
iriuia, v. to have, get, possess. Mir. nagri. Cf. airerea.
iriveitorai (?), x. power, strength.
iriwoto (x), v. to hunt men.
iro = irio (x), iro bibiriti, v. to boil food.
irobouai (x), v. to jump.
iroidiro (x), v. to hear.
irorisiai (kK), v. to die. Cf. uparu, utua, para.
iroruodiro (Kk), v. to drown.
irosorai (xk), v. to crouch.
irimai (xk), v. to call; . signal (x). Cf. wiroro, koromai.
isio (?), isio karamatiai (xk), v. to carry a child astride on the neck.
isiro (x), v. to throw away.
isisaia (K), 2. a variety of banana.
isisira (K), ”. plaited rope, string, cord, twine.
isisira (K), a. sour; thin.
isosirai (K), v. to fasten. Cf. mopo, emososiriti.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 328
itai (1), v. to heat; era itai (x), v. to roast; eraera gido itai, to warm ;
‘‘kettle”’ itai (a1), v. boil the kettle.
itira (1), 2. cord or twine.
ito (ar), ”. a basket.
ito-dubu (x), a. generous, liberal.
itouti (Kk), a. to cut with a knife. Cf. asio.
itoiriti, v. to bind.
iu, v. to run; iuuarario, v. to run along with.
iuea (m), @. inquisitive.
iui = 1ui0.
iuio, 2. the sun; daylight (P) ; ipipu iuio, daily ; iuiipa, noon. Cf. sai.
iuo (at), salutation, good-bye.
ivi (M), ”. rope.
iwia (m), = iuio; iwia beriai. . daylight, sunrise; iwia daugemi,
sundown.
iwio, 2. the sun; iwio-mere, 2. all people who have yellow skin,
e.g. Japanese, Manilla men.
iwiopoa (a1), 2. a sweet potato.
lyvauo (x), farewell.
Kabi, 2. a tomahawk, axe; wari kabi (x), a stone axe.
kadami (K), ”. a shrimp.
kadau, a. wild, not tame. —
kadaudiro (ks). Given in Savage’s ms. as the equivalent of Mir.
marmar gem.
kadig (1), 7.an armguard. Cf. adigo, kadigo (Domori).
kaegasi (F), 2. charm worn by Osio, uninitiated lads, in dance.
kago, . a branch.
kaiani (x), ». a rat; a masked dancer; a variety of banana.
kalara (K), 2. a species of beetle.
kairadubu (at), 2. a brother.
kakaba (x), 2. a fowl.
kakau (a), a. crooked. Cf. kauitato.
kakikawi (x), @. curly.
kako (at), (? 2. bone). Cf. tukako.
kaméka (x), 2. the scrub turkey.
kamikami (m), 2. a waterfall.
324 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
kanega (F), ”. carved wooden implement stuck into trophy-skulls
(pl. 197, 5, 6).
kani (K) n. ginger.
kani (x), 2. a leprous spot. Cf. nato.
kara (x), m. a fence; pari kara, garden fence. Cf. ara.
karadabutigaut, 7. a sign, mark. (Mir. atamelam.)
karai (kK), ». rope. Cf. sawaivi.
karakara (x), a. salt; karakar-aba (at), x. water not for drinking;
karakara obo, salt water. Cf. karokaro, oromoboa.
karakarai (x), a. bad.
karamarogo, v. to scold, quarrel.
karamtiai (?), isio karamtiai (x), v. to carry a child astride on the
neck.
karamusio (xk), v. to kick.
karao (K), 2. a variety of yam.
kararo (F), z. ‘‘mask worn by men in last stage of initiation; men
are getting on for forty when these are worn; they dance with
these on, and are called oboro (spirits), of which women and
children are terribly afraid. It is the Semese of the Elema.”
—Chalmers.
kararu, ”. a lath.
kararuso (xk), 2. rafters. Cf. kararu.
karatai (K), v. to know not, be unable. Cf. umorotato; karatai auera
(k), a. dumb; karatai dubu (x), ”. a fool. Cf. dadara dubu.
karaudina, 7. clothes.
kari (kK), ”. rope.
kariko (x), 2. calico. The English word.
kari-botama (a), x. white cloth. Cf. botama and kea.
karokuro (Kk), a. hot, pungent, of Chili pepper; immature, unripe,
green.
karo (F), 2. small conical fish trap, baited inside, made of ‘‘ loire palm ”’
(rattan) spines (pl. 194, 6).
karu (?), karu-auana, 2. sower.
karum (™), ”. the ‘‘iguana,”’ Monitor or Varanus.
kashu (m), . cough. Cf. kosea.
kaua-aupu, @. folded ; v. to fold.
kauarubai, . master, ruler. Mir. sirdam.
kaudo (x), 2. a top-knot.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 325.
kauitato, kawitato (x), a. straight; v. to square (x).
kauta, ». a plank.
kawi (K), 2. a variety of yam.
kawikaur, a. crooked; curly (x).
kea (at), a. white.
keakea, a. white. Mir. kakekake; m. a woman’s petticoat (1).
keakea didiri (K), x. a white man; keakea dubu (x), ». white men;
keakea sopu, ». whiting, got from Manouetti, and used as
paint in dances.
keanenese sirigo (K), . a variety of fibre.
kéau (x), 2. a tree frog.
kekuti, v. to break.
keneobira (kK), 2. a variety of banana.
kepeduti (1), . the beating of the heart.
kerere (kK), 2. iron. Cf. malili, turika.
kerigedio (xs), ». work; v. to do work. Mir. dorge, lugem. Cf.
erigedio.
kergedioia (Kk), = kerigedio.
kersemae (m), 2. the croton.
kes, . a shield. (In MacGregor’s Vocab. probably the Motu, kesi,
Kerepunu, gehi. Cf. note to gope.)
kigiro, a. alive, v. life.
kikop (ks) (?).
kimogu, v. to bring. Mir. taraisare. Cf. omidai, uabogoi.
kiochi (m), 2. a little stick for lime.
kiokio, x. a piece. Mir. mizmiz.
kiri (kK), v. to laugh. Thisis, no doubt, a Motu word, and introduced
through Motu interpreters. The proper Daudai word is wari.
kisoede (K), x. a venomous snake. Cf. ede.
kitamodiro, v. to teach.
kiwura, ”. the dart of a dugong harpoon. Cf. wap.
kobodo (x), ”. a variety of sweet potato.
kobokobo, a. weak.
kodoboa, v. to tempt, to try.
kodoruti (kK), ~. a variety of yam; kodoruti keakea, white yam;
kodoruti dogodogo, red yam.
kogomupi (F), 2. the open end of a pipe, waduru.
koidumo (xk), ”. a variety of banana.
326 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
koikumo (x), 2. a variety of banana.
koimi, . cousin. Muir. kaimeg.
koka, n. a dream.
kékaiam (a1), ». the Bird of Paradise ; a head-dress made of these
feathers, worn in war.
koko (x), n. a variety of mango.
koékowa (x), 2. a large edible crab.
kokuri (kK), 2. a variety of banana.
kolodiri, 2. sister. Mir. berbet. Saib. babat.
kolotoi, v. to deny.
komogurti (xk), v. to tremble.
kono (x), 2. bread. Cf. kunu. This is apparently the same as the
Miriam kon, Saibai kona, and a corruption of the English word
corn.
kopadi nimabu (ms), 2. curses.
kopago (at), 2. a wild duck.
kopo (x), 2. a piece ; a. short (x).
kopoa (1), a. red.
kopume (x), = kopo, short.
korikori (K), 2. a parrot.
korio, x. a game, play, fun.
korodio (x), v. to strike with the fists. Cf. araberimo.
korodiriai (kK), x. a man’s elder sister. Cf. mabia, kolodiri.
koromai (?) koromai gido (x), v. to call. Cf. wiroro, irumai.
koropa, a. sick ; ”. fever (x).
koropoduti (ks), = Mir. akeulam. Meaning not given.
korosodo (Domori), 7. a head-dress.
korotoi, v. to dispute.
korpaguti (x), x. skin disease, chloasma; korpaguti magore ». ring-
worm, not scaly.
korutia, v. to accuse.
kosa (at), 2. the seeds known as Job’s tears. Coix lachryme.
kose (K), v. to expectorate.
kosea (K), 2. or v. cough.
koteretuti (F), v. a kind of arrow.
koumiri (x), 2. the bough of a tree.
krupu aromo (m), 2. béche-de-mer.
kriti (a1), a. cranky.
Ray & Havpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 327
kubira (x), 2. a bay.
kudu, ”. voice, tune; ouera kudu, language. Mir kodomer.
kuekere (Domori), ». a knife used for cutting off heads.
kuikui-hopo (m), 2. the heart.
kukra, a. lame.
kula (ar), 2. a plate.
kumo (x), ”. a variety of banana.
kunaro (m), #. cinders.
kunu (x), ”. Indian corn. Introduced. Cf. note on kono.
kuraere (x), 2. a stone. ;
kirakira (1), 2. a fowl. (Perhaps introduced from Saibai.) Cf.
kakaba.
kusa (xk), ”. beads (i.e. seeds of Cotx lachryme. Cf. kosa.)
kuto (xs). Given in Vocab. without Miriam or Saibai equivalent
(? a man’s end).
Ma (?)
mabi (a), a. small.
mabia (i), 2. a man’s younger sister.
mabu, 2. basis, foundation.
mabu (x), @. false ; . ‘‘ gammon,”’ untruth.
mabu-auera (x), v. to lie, speak untruths.
mabuedea, v. to begin, lit. to put a foundation. Cf. mabu, edea.
mabumaro (x), ”. a variety of banana.
mabuniuorodu (?), v. to pick out at the roots ; iawa mabuniuorodu (x),
v. to pick the teeth.
mabuo (x), 2. a shell armlet.
mada (?)
made (K), ”. a variety of banana.
madia (? madio) madia wowogo (x), 2. a head-dress composed of a ray
of white feathers ; madia wowogo pasa (K), 7. a head-dress of
feathers, ten feet high,
madigo (Fr), 2. belt worn by all.
madio (kK), ”. a dance.
madira (K), ”. a yellow dye. Cf. sowora, agoago.
madirimo (xk), ”. a black dye. Cf. uibu.
maja (Bm), 2. a coral reef.
magai (kK), ”. the sugar cane.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2A
328 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.
magata, 7. the mouth.
magatasia (K), m. the mouth, (magata, and sia, hole).
magi (1), 2. the cuscus.
magore (?)
magumo, z. the bottom of a thing ; (Mir. lokod) magumo-ato, prep.
under, beneath.
maidek (a), 2. a petticoat.
maiwas (m), 2. a small petticoat.
makamak (a), x. leglets.
malili, x. a sheet of metal. Cf. List of Introduced Words.
mamaru (kK), v. to spew.
mamoko (xk), 2. an island.
mamoosi (xk), z. a chief. Introduced from the islands in the Straits.
Cf. note in Miriam-English Vocabulary under mamus, and
Introduced Words.
manakai (xk), m. a devil, soul. Cf. urio, and Introduced Words.
maniapu (kK), ”. the Papaya. (Mammy apple) (?) English.
mao (m), ”. the neck; mao-kako (am), 2. the cervical vertebre.
mapoi, v. to name; paina mapoi, v. to call by name (Mir. nei atker).
mapu-wara (mM), = mabu auera.
marabo (x), x. bamboo; obo marabo, ”. bamboo water-vessel.
marai (xs), 7. self.
maramu (xk), 7. mother. Cf. aida, ida, mau.
mari (m), ”. son, boy. Cf. mére. ‘
mari (K), ”. a mirror, looking-glass. Cf. Saibai mari, and maridan in
Introduced Words.
mariri = malili.
maru (?).
marugu, 7. a blade of grass, a shoot. Mir. wai.
masea (K), #. a variety of yam.
mataro (x), 4. calm.
mate, v. to deride, to laugh at. Mir. neg.
matigi, v. to deceive. Mir. okardar.
mau (ks, K), ~. mother. Cf. ida, aida, maramu.
mauku («&), #. a variety of banana.
maumora (m), n. the dugong.
maupo (Kk), ”. a butterfly.
maura (K), mauro, . a place, a dwelling place, village. Mir. uteb.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 329
mautu (m), ”. a house. Cf. moto.
me (?).
megamo (x), 2. family.
megedubu (x), 2. an edible snake, venomous and much dreaded.
megemege (K), 2. a variety of yam.
mekalgamalung (m), 2. a white man.
menahe, ad. secretly.
meragidiro, v. to think. Cf. emeragidiro.
mére, méri, 2. a child, boy, son; sobo mere (m), ~. boy or son. Muir.
omasker, werem.
merigodoi (?).
miari (m), 2. the upper part of a water-spout.
mibomibo (x), a. difficult, heavy, weighty.
midiri (kK), ~. the name of a shrub; midiri sirigo, ». fibre from
midiri.
midobo, ad. the same, according to (Mir. abkoreb).
mimiamo (F), ”. image shown at initiation, same as Uvio.
mina, ad. again, also.
miniminiai (at), 2. a small rattan cane.
minoko (x), ”. a variety of yam.
miradu, ». brother. Mir. keimer. Saib. kutaig.
miriuao, 2. fruit.
miro (K), ”. peace.
“miruu (m), 2. a sweet potato (D’Albertis) ; a yam (Beardmore).
miti (K), 2. root.
mitidiro (Pp), v. to hear. Cf. erauidiro.
mo, pron. I. :
mo (m), a. good; mo buere, 2. good girl.
mobere, ». digging stick and used for fighting by women (pl.
202, 5).
mobini (kK), ”. a species of Dracena.
moboa (?).
mobuo (Kk), ”. a dove.
moburo (K), ”. rain.
modobe, v. te complete, fulfil.
modoboima (x), a. ten, apparently a hybrid from Daudai, v. modobe,
and the Motu ima, hand, ‘‘ completed hand.”
mogido, pron. to me.
330 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
moguru umuru buru (F), . wooden female figure fastened round neck
and hangs down in front; girls like young men to wear them.
Cf. uvio-moguru, urumuruburu, etc.
moimarai, pron. I myself. Cf. mo, imarai,
moini, v. to love, to pity.
momi, ”. to leave waiting. Mir. naokaili.
momo (x), 2. an edible snake, said not to bite.
momogarina, 2. fabulous animals like pigs with spiked claws. They
live in hollow logs, roam at night, and devour men, pigs, and
dogs.—Ann. Rep. 1894, p. 58.
momogo, v. to serve. Mir. memeg.
momogosio (K), . a fire-place, made in the house or on a canoe.
momoro (K), ”. a variety of yam.
momorua (m), 7. earthquake. Cf. aromorubi.
monobainomi (xk), v. to stay.
monoboi, pron. I here. Mir. kakanali.
mopo, a. fastened, fixed; w. a knot; v. to fasten (x). Mir. mukub.
mora (?). D’Albertis has mora api, stone.
moro, pron. my, mine.
moro, 7. honey.
morogomoa, pron. with me. Cf. mo, gomoa.
moromoro (Kk), ”. wax knobs on the gama.
moronamiradubu (x), n. friend (lit. my countryman.) Cf. moro,
namira, dubu.
mosia (K), a. that.
mosore, ”. husk.
motai (a), 2. a bed.
moto, m. a house; a house for women (mM); wowogo moto, (K) m. a
bird cage.
motu (™), = moto.
mou (Kk), pron. I.
mu (x), ”. the flower of the double red Hibiscus.
muapo (m), 2. testicles. Cf. muopu.
muba, v. a beak ; a point of land, cape (kK); muba-muso (x), x. beard,
moustache.
muguru, a. tabu, holy, sacred. Mir. zogo. Cf. zugu; hence Oboro
Muguru, Holy Spirit. (Mir. Lamar zogo.) Cf. moguru.
muo, ”. hair. Cf. muso, (Mir. mus.)
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 331
muopu, muhopo, 7. the testicles; scrotum (K); muopu ra sigiri (K),
n. elephantiasis of the scrotum.
mure, v. to be silent, to hold one’s peace. Mir. bazeguar, bamer.
mureso, a. far off, distant. Muir. muriz-ge.
muru, a. knowing; muru auana = Mir. le pardali, z. a wise man.
musiboo (a), z. or v. whistle.
muso (K), 2. hair.
muto (K), 7. a variety of yam.
mutu (?), mutu dubu, z. master, owner. Mir. kem le; dirimoro
mutu dubu, z.-owner of country ; namutu dubu,z. a native
thing.
Na, a possessive suffic to nouns.
nagoria, v. to be grieved.
nai (K) (?), nai tawatawa (x), ad. here. Cf. noboi rom.
nairi (?)
nakobokoba (?)
namabu = numabu; namabu owaigati (K), 2. work.
namaderagediai (K), v. look here!
namira (K), 2. one’s native place; country.
namu (K), #. a man or woman’s elder brother. Cf. niragerema.
namutu-dubu, . a native thing.
nani (K), a. true.
nanihe, a. true, to be depended upon.
nanito, x. always. Mir. niai karem.
nanito (K), 2. this way.
nao (K), a. one.
napar. Cf. era, eranapar.
naramdu, z. the eldest child. Mir. narbet. Saib. kuikuigo.
nari (?)
nati, x. a mosquito.
nato, n.a wound; a cicatrix; leprous spot (kK). Muir. ziz. Cf. bugomu.
kani.
natura (kK), a. another.
naturai, a. only, alone. Mir. tebteb.
naturaimi (K), a. another, different. Cf. ata, natura.
nau, @. one.
nau-ouputo, v. to assemble (lit. to be in one place, Mir. netat gedim).
332 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
nauto nari (x), a. all the same. Apparently nau, tonar, wrongly
divided.
ne (?) ”. excrement ; arima ne, . dysentery.
nebeta (xk), pron. interr. what is this ?
nebetaro (K) = nebeta.
nebetaromi (x), ad. there.
nei, pron. they.
neigido, pron. to them.
neina, pron. poss. theirs.
neitararoro, pron. they two, those two. (Mir. ui darali.)
nemabu (x), 7. athing. Cf. numabu.
nepiri (F), 2. a notch cut in a bamboo beheading-knife; each notch
indicates that a head has been cut off.
neragiwai, v. to stumble.
nese (x), 2. pearl shell; nese gege, x. a pearl-shell breastplate. nese
orogori, ”. a pearl necklace.
netewa (x), a. two. Cf. netoa.
netoa, a. two. Cf. netewa.
netowa = netoa.
ni (?)
nibo, v.to stink. Mir. semelag; v. to smell (x); gamasa nibo (x),
n. stink.
nibonibo (?) piro nibonibo, v. steal greatly (?). (Mir. au eruam.)
nibonibo (x), ”. a smell.
nigo, pron. you; your.
nigoibi (K), pron. you three.
nigoto (K), pron. you two.
nigosirio (K), pron. you all. Cf. sirio.
nimairi (?)
nimidai (K), v. to buy. Cf. uosa.
nimo, pron. we.
nimo (Kk), 2. alouse. Cf. nimu.
nimogido, pron. to' us.
nimoibi (kK), pron. we three.
nimona, pron. our.
nimoria, v. plur. to give. Cf. agiwai, ua, uosa.
nimosirio (kK), pron. we all. Cf. sirio.
nimoto (x), pron. we two.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 333
nimu (x), %. a flea.
niragerema (K), a man or woman’s younger brother. Cf. namu.
nirimagari (K), x. a present. Cf. nirimogari.
nirimogari, v. to pity. Mir. omare. Cf. moini.
niriso, v. to eat. Cf. Grammar.
niro, 2. the inside, the belly, bowels, entrails, tripe (kK). (Mir. Saib.
mui); niro-ato, prep. in the inside, within ; niro temeteme (x),
diarrhea or stomach ache.
nirubiro,
nitago-ogo (mM), 2. coming.
nitara (K), (?) nitara waméai (x), v. to return.
niti (?)
no, conj. that, so that.
noadu, v. to give.
noboi, ad. here, there.
noboirom (x), ad. here. Cf. nai tawatawa.
nogerebu (K), ”. a generation.
nogereburo (x), 2. an uncle.
nogodumo, v. to go.
nogomoa, pron. with him. Cf. nou, gomoa.
nogu (?)
noimarai, pron. himself.
nono, ad. there, pron. demons. he there. Mair. peike, pedali.
noora, ”. coral. Cf. nora.
noosa (K), v. to give. Cf. agiwai, ua, uosa, nimoria.
nopo (a), #. the tail of a fish ; the handle of a spoon.
nora, 2. a stone ; nora-api (a), 2. stone.
nori (K), 2. a sweet potato; nori agurubai, v. to dig sweet potatoes.
noridori (K), v. the tide comes in.
notiderai, v. to bring.
nou, pron. he.
nouea, v. to espy (sing.). Cf. ouea.
nougaut, pron. from him.
nougido, pron. to him.
nouido, ad. so much. Mir. absaimarsaimar.
nouna, pron. his.
nouororo, a. like in features. Mir. kaise.
nowai (x), 2. the Polynesian chestnut.
304 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
nuairomi (K), ad. whether, or.
nuku, 2. adish. Mir. tanelu.
numabu, 7. any thing, thing; numabu mutu dubu, 7. owner of pro-
perty. Mir. lukem le.
numada, cov. if, though.
nuna (K), a. edible ; . a thing.
nunamabu (K), pron. what ?
nupu (k), 2. tail = nopo.
nusaso (x), v. to cut up, chop; era ota nusaso, to cut up firewood.
Oa, v. to give. Cf. ua, uosa, agiwai, nimoria.
oa, (m), m. a sail; turi oa (m), 2. the foresail; wami oa, (m), m. the
jib ; wapu oa, (a) 2. the mainsail.
oagoberai (kK), a. square. Cf. kauitato.
obera (a), ”. speaking.
oberi (K), ”. bush men.
obira, ”. banana.
obiriodoi, v. to undress.
obo, 2. fresh or drinking water; wade topo obo (x), drinking water ;
obo tao gomia (Kk), 7. flood; auo obo omio (x), n. flood tide,
(deep water stays); ekebure obo, ». shallow water; obo
durugere, a. thirsty ; obo airodori, n. ebb tide (water to shins) ;
obo iroridoro, 7. flood tide (water drowns).
oboro, ”. a spirit, a ghost; obora-tama, shirt, a sash, cloth, lit. ghost-
skin.
oboronepe (Kk), ”. a variety of banana.
oboturao (ar), the wind-pipe.
obu buru, a. empty.
odarai, v. to put in, to lay in.
odio (m), v. to do, to make.
odio, v. to eat, to drink, to smoke tobacco in Papuan fashion by
swallowing the smoke; to dine (kK); obo odio (x), v. to eat
water, to drink; tutu odio, v. to drink from the hand.
odiodoi, v. to touch.
odiro (?)
ododa (K), v. to beat; gama ododa, to beat a drum.
odomuto (x), 2. a variety of yam.
ddoddo (m), 2. the breast.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 335
odoro, v. to enter, go in; eaten (K).
odotorapi, odotorupi, z. the tongue. Cf. watatorope.
oduara (x), 7. the collar bone.
odumu (x), v. to shrink.
oea (at), 2. looking, guarding.
ogeribai (a), v. to catch. Cf. ogu, erabai.
ogirio, {K), v. to crawl.
ogomu (x). 2. the cheek.
ogu, v. to go; to come; to walk.
oguitogu, v. to go.
ogunita = Mir. kei tabakeam (? to go forth).
ogurumo, v. to spread.
ol, ”. a coconut; o1 baribari, a young nut; oi samaga, an old nut;
ol (a), #. a coconut shell; oinimo, coco fibre; oi mosore,
coconut husk; oi mosore sirigo, fibre made from husk; 0i obo,
coconut milk; oi sugu, coconut cloth; oi pari, coconut grove.
oio (2), m. a young man. (Mir. makeriam, Saib. kernele). Cf. osio.
oiobai, v. to take up.
oisusuopu (xk), z. kidney. Cf. oi, susuopa.
oiti, ad. then.
olwo, ”. grief; olwono nagoria, v. to be grieved. Mir. okasosok,
okabatageli.
olwoll (kK), a. lazy.
omia (a), #. sitting.
omidai, v. to bring, carry, take up ; to find (x).
omidiro, v. imperative, stay here! youstay! Mir. nawa.
omiei, v. to sit, stay, stop; poputo omiei, v. to sit on the knees.
omio, (x), v. to kneel.
omioi (K), v. to stop; auo obo omio (x), x. flood tide, lit. deep water
remains.
omo (2), a. short. Cf. sopuimi.
omo (x), ”. a green ant.
omogu, v. to carry, receive.
omoriti, v. to prune, thin out. Mir. paret.
omu, #. a boundary.
onatato, m.open. Mir. paret kak.
oosa (K), v. to give; wisa oosa (K), v.to pay. Cf. agiwai, noosa, uosa.
opai, v. to shut.
336 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
opia (x), v. to kill =opio; didiri opia, v. to murder; didiri opia dubu,
nm. a murderer.
opio, v. to strike; opio para, v. to kill. (Mir. ipit.)
opito, v. to grow. Mir. omeili.
opo (?)
opu, #. soil, land, earth; the world.
opuo (M), 2. yam.
oputi, v. to count.
ora, v. to seek, to look for; ebiari ora, to be unable to find. (Mir. nab
deraimer. )
oradubu (xs), 2. the word used in the translations for God. Cf.
aramorubi. Oraoradubu is another name for uvio-moguru.
oraruo (K), v. to take down; tiro oraruo,v. to take down sails. Cf.
ororua.
oriai (P), a. dead. Cf. orichiai.
oribo, v. to rise.
oriboa (m1), x. standing up; v. to get up.
oribdo (x), v. to wake from sleep.
orichiai (Ks), a. dead; v. to die. Cf. oriai.
oridiro (?)
orimiriti, a. dead.
orio, a. new, clean, fresh.
orio (x), v. to blow ; tuture orio, to blow the tuture.
oriodoi, v. to return, retreat. Mir. takomeda.
oriomu (Kk), ”. a variety of banana.
ériora (m), . the first of the south-east monsoon.
oriou (F). Cf. ouou.
orirai, v. to remain.
oritorai, v. to rise up; airi oridiro (x), v. to rise, of the sun.
orkienkok (a), 7. the hornbill.
oro, m. bone. Cf. soro.
oro, v. the sea. Cf. uro.
ordbai, v. to catch, to grasp; to carry in the hand (x). Cf. erabia.
(Mir. erpei) ; usaro orobai, (x), v. to hunt kangaroos.
orobere, 7. saliva.
orobo, 7. sing. a woman, wife, spouse. Cf. upi.
orodaj, v. to meet. Mir. obapit.
orodai (?) = Mir. babisdari.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 337
orodobi, v. to set (of the sun).
orodu (x) (?), pe orodu (x), v. to pole a canoe.
orogiama, v. to touch.
orogori, v. to put on (clothes) ; nese orogori, ”. a (pearl) necklace.
oroguriato, v. to bow the head.
orogurio, v. to stoop.
oroi (m), ”. a star.
oromai, v. to shout, to call to.
oromaturuo (m), . the cesophagus.
oromiado (P), v. to sit.
oromidi, v. to strike, scourge.
oromo (xk), ”. ariver. Cf. goua; oromoturi, 2. a creek; oromoito, to
deep water, a term used in steering. Cf. ito; oromo damo, 2.
ocean.
oromobo, ororomoboa, v. the sea ; sea or salt water (x).
oromoria (m), v. to share out.
oroomai, v. to be silent, quiet.
orooro (K), ”. a thorn.
orooti, a. full. Mir. mitkar, osmeda.
oropio (K), v. to smash.
orori (?), orori mawa (K), ”. the howl of a dingo.
ororo, x. the face; the front of anything ; moto ororo, the door, the
front of the house. Mir. op meta.
ororua, v. to come down.
ororuso (K), 2. meeting.
orosa (K), 2. sweat.
orosidiro (x), 2. the shoulder.
orosiodiro, v. to make or get ready.
oroto, v. to weep.
orotodum, v. to weep.
orourai (x), v. to prick with spear.
orowoduti, v. to ooze.
oruria, @. withered.
oruso (kK), v. to chew.
osa (K), 2. the joining of point to arrow.
osio (Ks), ”. a young man, youth; osio (xk), ”. an infant; osio-mere,
male baby; osio-besere, female; (F) uninitiated lad. Mir.
makeriam, Saib. kernele. Cf. oio.
338 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
osio (K), ”. a wound.
osoméai (K), v. to lick. Cf. osomiai.
osomiai (Kk), v. to kiss.
osoruo (K), v. to go down, to go outside.
osua (kK), ”. the heavens. Cf. ou.
osua (K), v. to put up, ad. upwards ; tiro osua, v. to put up sails.
osuderuti (x), v. to sweep.
osupata (x), . the instep.
ota, v. a tree; wood, flagstaff (xk); ota tama, bark; ota arima, gum,
sap. Cf. peére, soro.
otaauti (K), v. to divide.
otai-hopo (m), ”. the loins.
otakapuki (x), x. the heart. Cf. tusuopu.
otaota (F), 7. nose ornament worn by women when dancing (pl.194,1,2).
otapara, a. dry (lit.dead wood). Cf. ota, para.
otigi, v. to put forth.
oto, 7. the thumb ; oto-turi (a), ”. the forefinger.
oto (xk), 2. a wooden or steel adze for sago making. Cf. otoai.
otooto (Domori), ”. a kind of arrow, with numerous barbs.
otoai, v. to split, cut, divide.
otoboa, v. to stand up, arise. Mir. tekue.
otoi, v. to leave, put aside.
otoirai, v. to bind. Cf. itoiriti.
otoiriti («), v. to make fast a rope. Cf. otoirai, itoiriti.
oto sairo (K), . shoes.
ototoro, v. to break, rend, tear.
otouri (K), v. to stamp with the foot.
otumai, v. to send away.
otuturo, v. to stretch forth.
ou, x. sky, a. high ; prep. ou-ato, at the top, above. Cf. osu.
ouea, v. to espy, to see (plur.). Cf. nouea.
ouera, 7. a word; ouera kudu, language; oueramito, things = Mir.
merkem. Same as auera.
ougi, v. to follow.
oumiriti, a. dead (of things). Mir. eumilu lu.
ouou (F), z. ear pendant used as a weight to distend the lobe of the
ear (? orion), (pl. 190, 1-4).
owaigati (Kk), namabu owaigati, x. work.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 339
Paa = paha.
paara (kK), a. dead. Cf. para.
padi (x), ». the brown cuscus; uibuuibu padi, the black cuscus;
keakea padi, the white cuscus. Cf. parima.
pae, 2. a great number, alot; a. plenty. Mir. lakub.
paha, a. equal, like, accompanying ; prep. along with. Cf. pope. Mir.
kemem, okakes.
pai, ad. no, not; (used before other words). Cf. puai; pai diriuo a.
unwilling.
paii (r) a Kiwai pillow made from sago palm.
pai auri dubu (x), ~. a blind man. Cf. idamari, auri.
paina, 2. a name.
pako, z. a sound ; v. to explode (x).
papu (a1), x. the knee. Cf. popu.
paputa, x. a porch. Mir. maisu.
para (P), v. to die; a. dead. Cf. uparu, paara.
para, a. ripe.
parako (x), 2. a variety of sweet potato.
paramuti (x), x. burnt corkwood ; paramuti uibu (x), v. to paint body
black for dancing.
parani (x), 2. a net for fish.
parapara (m), 2. the lungs. Cf. barahoro, barasoro.
pari, 2. a plantation, a garden; pari goua, ”. a ditch or drain.
parima (mt), x. the cuscus. Cf. padi.
paromiti (F), 2. a wooden female image shown only once a year at the
initiation ceremony. It is kept wrapped up in tiro matting
(pl. 195, 3). Cf. uvio moguru.
paruiana (F), . a kind of arrow.
paruparu, 2. elephantiasis of the leg.
pasa, 2. a leaf. (Mir. lam. Saib. nguz0); a feather (x). Cf. gortimd.
pasaro, 2. hill, mountain. (Mir. paser). As there is only one small
hill, Mabudauan, in the whole of Daudai, this word is probably
introduced from Miriam. Cf. podo.
patara (x), 2. the platform or deck of a canoe; a raft.
pate (x), x. a bell. A Lifu word introduced from Miriam or Saibai.
pato (x), 2. a variety of yam.
patu (?)
patura (x), 2. breadth.
340 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
paudo (xk), z. a treaty. Cf. Mir. paud, Saib. pautd, from which this
is probably introduced. The proper word is miro.
pauna, 7. skin (of an animal). Mir. paur.
pauoko (xk), 2. a cloth worn as a kilt.
patioro, patioro gagari (K), z. a gun; patioro, Eng., powder, gagari,
bow.
pe, 2. a canoe or boat; ekeeke pe (K), a whaleboat ; auope, z. a ship;
era pe, 2. a steamer.
peba (x), x. a book. The English word ‘‘ paper.”
pédua, v. to shoot. Mir. itimed.
peére (K), 2. wood. Cf. soro, ota.
pekupe (¥F), x. jew’s harp played by young lads (osio). Cf. begube
(pl. 197, 4).
pere, a. the left side ; pere tuo, the left hand.
peredara (K), n. a variety of sweet potato.
plago (F), m. pan pipes.
pida (x), z. a torch made of coconut fronds.
piperiti, v. to squeeze. Cf. amahiri.
pipiauri (xk), ”. a black duck.
pira (a), v. to have none.
piro, v. to steal; piro nibonibo, to steal greatly. (Mir. au eruam.)
piro (?”. wing); piro pasa (Kk), ”. a wing feather.
pitu (x), ”. the buttocks.
pitu (x), ~ .the nails; sairo pitu, toe-nail ; tugiri pitu, finger-nail ;
oto pitu, thumb-nail,
pitupitu (K), z. a species of beetle.
piu (x), 2. the midrib of a leaf.
piu (K), ”. the cross beams connecting the outrigger float with the
canoe ; thwarts.
piuri (K), ”. an armlet made with Coiw lachryme; (¥F) the cross-
shoulder belts and armlets decorated with coix seeds worn when
going to fight.
piuri (K), z. a variety of yam.
po, %. song; po-abo, v. to compose a song. Cf. poho.
poa (a), x. nothing. Cf. puai, pua; adina poa, a. no good.
poa (K), , a skin disease, Eczema marginata ; ringworm.
podo (x), .ahill. (Saibai pada.) Probably introduced. Cf. pasaro,
and note.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits—II.
poduti, v, to tear, to destroy.
poho, x. a song, a word; tune (x). Mir. wed. Saib. na.
poniponi (m1), 2. lightning.
poo = poho.
poitoi-ita (a), v. to keep off the wind, in sailing. Cf. poto.
pope, a. along with, equal. Cf. paha. Mir. okakes.
popo (x), ”. a bale, bundle; sukuba popo, x. a cigarette.
popu, 2. the knee.
popuipa (x), ”. the knee, = popu.
poputo-omiei, v. to kneel, Wi. to sit or rest on the knees.
poputomioi (xk), v. to kneel, = poputo-omiei.
poro (x), 2. an edible snake, said to be very fierce.
34]
poto (? . shallow water) ; potoito (x), ”. to shallow water, in steering.
poto (?); poto bato (x), ». a belt. Cf. bata.
potoraimi, a. four, given in Rev. E. B. Savage’s Voc. as the equivalent
of the Mir. neis a neis, two and two.
pou (x), ~. the Biri palm ; pou sirigo, x. fibre made from pou leaf.
poubari (x), 2. plaited rope.
pua = puail.
puai, ad. no, not (used after other words). Cf. pai, poa.
puda (m), . the handle of a club.
pukai (x), ad. = puai.
pupu (x), 2. or v. fan.
puripuri, ”. magic, witchcraft.
puruao (&), ”. a headdress from Debiri (pl. 191, 5).
Ra (?)
ragotogo (xk), v. to beckon to anyone to go.
raguta (x), v. to carry on the shoulder.
rarugoro (?)
reresebo (K), ”. a joint.
ro, pron. thou, you (siqg.).
ro, prep. with.
roa (?)
robeturo (?)
rodiro (?)
rodori (x), v. tide goes down river.
rogomoa, pron. with thee. Cf. ro, gomoa.
342 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
rogu (2)
roriro (xk), v. tide goes up river.
roro, pron. thine, your (sing.).
rorodi, rorodia (Pp), a. all. Mir. uridili. C?. tuturumi.
roro-oto (kK), v. to grow.
rorota (K), 2. birth.
rosidiro-auana, 7. a writer, scribe. Mir. aotale.
rukupo, 7. medicine, paint. Mir. lukup.
rupi (K), 2. a venomous snake, edible.
Sabi, z. tabu, prohibition, law; v. to tabu. Perhaps a Saibai word.
saemiti, n. corkwood (burnt) to blacken the face.
sagana (K), n. the moon; sagana gege, crescent moon. Cf. gege;
dogobe sagana, full moon; sagana suokara, a halo round the
moon.
sagarunepe (K), m. a species of snake, probably a lizard resembling a
snake.
sagigi (am), 2. a swelling.
sai (ks), m. daylight; sun, day (xk); sai sirio, ad. daily; sai epi,
mn. noon; sai iri sukumai, the sun sets. Cf. iuio.
saimabu (K), n. a watch (time-piece). Cf. sai, mabu.
saipo (kK), n. a dance, hopping on one foot. |
sairidoro {K), the shins.
salrigiri (kK), 2. trotters (foot-claw). (Cf. sairo, igiri.
sairo (kK), m. the foot, leg. Cf. aira, airo; sairo oto, m. a boot; sairo
pata, n. the sole of the foot.
samaga, a. old, of coconut.
sami, ”. bad spirits, in the form of dwarfs, with immense heads.
They carry large bows and arrows, are blackened with charcoal,
and decorated with cassowary plumes. They can endow men
with power of fiying, cause snakes to bite and kill, pigs to
destroy gardens, winds to wreck and drown.—Ann. Rep. 1894,
p. 58.
samo (M), ”. a cassowary.
samo (K), 7. a feast.
samo, n. pride, boasting; samo patu, v. to be very proud. Mir. au
bauspili.
samoito (kK), samuito, a. quick; v. to hasten. Mir. sobkak.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 343
samuitoi, ». to be quick. Mir. kabdigili.
sana (m), v. will give.
sano (m), 2. the tail of a quadruped. Cf. nopo.
sapua (K), 2. a side, remnant; ere sapua, sapua nao (x), x. half.
saputa (kK), ”. or v. purchase.
sarima (x), 2. the outrigger float. Cf. Mir. and Saibai.
sarimisa (m), ”. a coloured man.
sarina (K), ”. a traitor.
sarugosio (x), 2. the nostrils.
sarusaru (K), 2. a centipede.
saso (K), 2. taro.
saul, 2. a post.
savori e ipa (F), . shell used in sharpening a bamboo knife (weri).
sawa, ”. canoe; sawa ota, . the mast of a canoe; sawa tiro, n. the,
sail of a canoe; sawa ivi, 2. the stays of canoe mast; sawa
peere, x. wooden step used for supporting the mast of a canoe
(pl. 194, 3).
sawalvi (kK), ”. a cord made of split creeper.
sawasawa (x), 2. twilight.
sebeda (x), . a land shell.
segudo (xk), . a dragon-fly.
sene (K), ”. a variety of yam.
seneniti (K). 2. an iron anchor.
sepate (x), ”. the lobe of the ear. Cf. epate, gare.
seporo (Kk), ”. a cigar wrapper.
sera (K), ”. breath. Cf. era, hera.
serao (K), a wild; ». work.
seratato, a. continuous, lit. without stopping to breathe. Mir. nerkak.
sere, ”. a net.
si (m), v. be quiet! hush!
sia (kK), 2. the south-west; sie rarugoro, ”. the south.
sla (K), 2. a hole (in lobe of the ear); wadi sia, . a hole in the
septum nasi. (F) the hole in a bamboo pipe in which the bowl
is inserted.
sia (K), ». a nut used as a rattle in dances.
siahu (K), 2. a large bale of sago.
sibara (K), ~. a crocodile ; a variety of banana.
sibo (x), 2. the lungs. Cf. torutoru.
R.I.A. FROC., SER. I, VOL. Iv. 2B
344 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
sibomuguruti, v. to believe; (Mir. oituli); pai sibomuguruti, ». to
disbelieve. (Mir. watur kak.)
sidiro (?)
sido, x. the spirit which controls death.
sidobari (x), . the croton.
sido oradubu, 2. God.
sie (kK), 2. the west. Cf. sia, irarasukumai.
siea (?)
sige (a), v. to finish. Cf. tau.
sigiri (? m. swelling) ; muopu ra sigiri (xk), elephantiasis of scrotum.
sigubia (K), 7. a variety of banana.
sihua (K), ”. a bale of sago.
sikara (x), . the crayfish.
simarai, pron. himself.
sime (kK), . a variety of banana; sime sirigo, z. fibre from banana
stem.
simera (Ks), pron. yourself, thyself (in Text No. 19).
sio (K), ”. dog.
sid (xs), a. fast, quick. (Mir. wamen.) Cf. io.
siremasepate (Domori), z. a kind of arrow.
siri (K), 2. the Chili pepper.
sirigo (kK), 2. flesh; fibre of plants. For varieties of fibres see: guri,
idi, keanenese, midiri, 01, pou, sime, sosome, taga, toma, turio.
sirio, a. many, all. Cf. irio.
siripo (K), z. shame. siripo ia, a. ashamed.
siro = sirio.
siro (K), a myriapod (Julus).
sisiasisia (Kk), a. light green. Cf. ipauipau.
sisiuna (K), 2. a parrot.
sito (Ks), m. the outside. Cf. sugu.
sito (kK), . a basket made of coconut leaves. Cf. ito, tito.
siuia kikop, a. thorny, prickly. Mir. zigerziger.
so (Domori), 2. ornament of strips of dog’s skin, fastened in girdle
behind and worn in dances (pl. 192, 5).
sobo, sobu, a. small, little ; sobo mére, z. lad, boy; sob ota, . a little
thing.
sobomara (K), ”. a variety of banana.
sobu mere (K), ”. an idiot. Cf. sobo.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 345
sodo (kK), 2. a cartridge.
soge (x), 2. the flying fox (Pteropus).
sogere (K), witchcraft. Cf. puripuri.
sogeri (kK), 2. armlets and leglets of twine; (F) worn by widows
round neck, hanging down back and front, when in mourning
for husbands.
soke (x), ”. a variety of banana.
sokeri (F), 2. arrow used for long distances.
soki, ». a stick to husk coconuts with ; a walking stick, a staff.
sopu (K), ”. clay; uibuuibu sopu, black clay for painting the body,
obtained at Kiwai; dogodogo sopu, red clay from Dudi.
sopuanotoi (x), 7. Hell.
sopuimi (xs), a. short. Cf. omo.
sopunii (Kk), 2. a snake, said not to bite.
sorea (K), 2. a snake, said not to bite.
soro (K), ”. bone; shell; wood after the bark is peeled off ; ipa soro,
clam shell, (F) used as a knife for taking out the kernel of
the coconut.
sosido (kK), ”. a variety of banana.
sosome (K), the hibiscus, Hvbiscus tiliaceus (Fiji, Vau.); sosome
sirigo, 2. fibre from the hibiscus.
sosoro (xk), 2. the forehead.
sosugoro (Kk), 7. ear ornaments of worsted or twine.
sou (xk), ”. famine.
sowora, sowore (xk), turmeric, used as a yellow dye. Cf. agoago,
madira.
suabi (K), 2. grasshopper.
suago (K), 2. grass; suago pasa, grass leaf; suago miti, grass root.
sugu (P), 2. the outside. Cf. sito.
sugu (x), 2. coconut cloth.
sugumai (xk), =”. sukumai; era sugumai (xk), ”. sunset.
sukuiba (x), 2. tobacco; sukuba popo (x), ”. a cigarette, lit. tobacco
roll.
sukuba (x), ”. scaly ringworm.
sukumai (kK), = sugumail, v. to set, of the sun; irara sukumai, the west.
Cf. sie, sia.
sungei (a), 2. the cane sling by which heads are carried. ‘
suokara (kK) x. a halo.
346 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
sura (m), 2. a flower.
suroma (x), ”. the north or north-west.
suru (4), 2. beacon, a mark.
susa (K), . a land shell.
susi (x), v. to sit.
susu (K), 2. bladder.
susu (?), susu rarugoro (x), ”. the south-east.
susua (K), v. to blow; susua epuro, v. to blow with the mouth.
susuo (K), = susua; auo susuo, #. a gale, lit. big blow.
susuome, susuomi (x), #. a fly; the house fly.
susuome (F), m. an arrow with a sharp conical tip which breaks off
in the wound.
susutuwia (Kk), ”. a rainbow.
Tabaro (x), ”. a mat.
taga, n. the pandanus root ; taga sirigo (x), fibre from pandanus root.
tagaa (m), ad. a long time ago. Cf. tagara.
tagara, a.old; ad. formerly, along time ago; tagaraia, ad. from of old.
tagaraimi (x), ad. formerly; tagaraimi gogu, ad. long ago, lit. going
a long way back.
tagu, m. time.
taira (xk), n. a cobweb.
taiua, n.arock. Mir. neid.
tama (m), m. skin; ota tama, m. bark; oboro tama, n. cloth, a sash.
C. esume.
tamai (xs), ad. openly.
tamari (?), tamari muba (x), . a snout.
tamatama, a. thin, lit. skinny. Cf. tama.
tamo (m), tamu (x), m. wing of a bird.
tanar, n. custom, habit, fashion. Mir. tonar.
tanu (?), tanu-auana, naked.
tao (x), ». to finish. Cf. tau.
tarame (x) (?), dou tarame, m. sago in a small roll. Cf. siahu.
tararoro (?), nei tararoro, pron. they two. Savage mss.
tariguro (?)
, aro (xk), v. to come.
taropura (K), . a bottle for lime, a glass bottle. Perhaps introduced
from Miriam tarpor.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—Il. 347
tatamu (m), ”. the chin, lower jaw.
tatari, a. near.
tatarito, ter. a form of greeting. (Muir. maiem.)
tataritu (x), v. he comes.
tato, sufiz no, not. Mir. kak. Saibai igi.
tau, v. to finish; sign of the past tense.
tau ima godio (x), v. to swallow.
taugo, a. first.
tawatawa (?), nai tawatawa (x), ad. here. Cf. noboi rom; tawatawa
tuturu (x), 2. the world.
tea, v. to stand. Mir. akur.
teapariato, n. grass. Mir. soge. The Daudai word is apparently a
compound of tea, ‘stand,’ pari, ‘ garden,’ ato, ‘in.’ The proper
equivalent of soge is suago. In the ms. translation appended
to the Daudai text, teapariato is explained as ‘in a barren
place.’
teere (F), 2. collective name for arrows.
tema, era tema, ”. smoke.
tématéma, a. painful, sick, sore; v. to suffer pain ; 7. disease.
temeteme = tématéma; niro temeteme, n. diarrhoea or stomach ache.
tepe (m), 2. fresh-water bivalves; mussel.
tepere daredare (K), . a bird, the spurred plover.
tepetepe (?), tepetepe terisi awado (x), v. to flog.
teraiai (Domori), ”. a kind of arrow.
tere (kK), 2. an arrow. Cf. were, teere.
tere (xk), 2. flooring made from the Te palm.
tereniri (K), 2. a species of Dracaena.
terisi (?), tepetepe terisi awado (x), v. to flog.
térik, tériko = turiko ; térik-arubi (a1), ». a white man; tériko-gagari
(ar), 2. gun.
tériko (ms), 2. tomahawk.
tete (kK), m. a fish spear ; epeduai v. to spear with the tete.
tibi, 2. root.
tidi (x), m. a species of gourd.
tigiri, ”. the shoulder, shoulder joint; tigiri-kako (m), ». the
shoulder blade; tigiri soro (x), 2. the shoulder blade.
tigiro, n. the brain.
time (?).
348 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
tirikarubi, n. a white man. Cf. térik.
tiro (K), m. a mat made of broad strips of the leaf of the pandanus
fastened together, used for sleeping mats and sails; tiro
oraruo, v. to take down sail; tiro osua, v. to put up sail; sawa
tiro, n. a sail. Cf. oa.
titi (K), . a basket made with a small and fine plait. Cf. ito, sito.
titi (K), m. a carving on wood, ». to tattoo.
titi (kK), v. to smear, to paint, to rub, into the skin as ointment; gato
titi, v. to smear with mud in mourning; titi rosiodiro, v. to
write.
titi (K), a. beautiful, smart, “flash.”
tiwa (Kk), ”. the pole for poling a canoe.
toabuti (x), v. to bite.
toboro, n. a cloud.
togiri, a. trembling ; z. palsy.
toia (Kk), x. foam.
toka (x), n. a lime spoon.
toma (K), z. bread fruit; toma sirigo, . fibre made from breadfruit.
‘‘The seeds are eaten, but the pulp is usually thrown away.”
—MacGregor, Rep. 1890, p. 40.
tooto (Domori), x. a wooden implement used for opening coconuts. Cf.
oto (pl. 194, 5).
topo (kK), z.food; good (1); wade topo obo, topo opo, (x), ”. drinking
water. Cf. tupobo.
topo (K), ”. a venomous snake.
tore, a. frightened, afraid; v. to be afraid; n. fear.
toribo (x), ”. twins.
torope,
torotoru (x), ad. light.
torutoru, a. easy, ight. Mir. perper.
torutoru (kK), 2. the lungs. Cf. sibo.
toto, 2. an iron nail.
toto (x), 2. a ladder (staircase).
totoboa, v. to stand.
totoma, totomo, v. to exhort, preach; n. a story, a tale (x).
totototo, a. sorry, grieved.
tsime (ks), x. a banana. Cf. sime.
tu (a4) = tuo.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 349
tuburo (a), tuburu, ”. the inside (Mir. teibur) ; the stomach (x).
tudi (1), 2. a fish-hook ; irisina tudi (x), m. a fish-hook.
tue (x), . the fore-arm.
tugiri (m) = tuigiri.
tugu (x), 2. the sticks fastening the piu to the sarima.
tuhai (a), 2. veins.
tuigiri (k), 2. the hand. Cf. giri, igiri, tue.
tuiopo (m), 2. the finger. Cf. tue.
tuipikako (at), x. the ulna.
tukako (m), ”. the shoulder.
tumaho (x), ”. the wrist.
tumanababa (x), 2. a stone club with star shaped disc.
tumanua (x), 2. a fresh-water turtle.
tumodi, a. right, on the right side; tumodi tuo, . the right hand.
tumodia (m), v. to go straight. Cf. tumodi.
tumi (K), 2. a mushroom.
tumu, 2. the bush, forest, uncultivated country. Mir. sumez.
tuo, ”. the forearm and hand; tumodi tuo, ». the right hand; pere
tuo, m. the left hand. Cf. tue.
tuo (kK), 2. ashes.
tupata (at), 2. the hand.
tupi (K), ”. the upper arm.
tupoa (x), 2. the elbow.
tupobo (at), z. drinking water, fresh water. Cf. topo, obo.
tupopo (a1), 2. the elbow.
tupuo (xk), 2. the elbow.
turi(?) oromo turi, m. a creek. Cf. gaua gou.
turi (m), ”. the middle (finger?) ; oto-turi (a1), forefinger ; turi-hia
(a), the middle finger (lit. real middle: cf. ia); ete-turi (m),
the third or ring finger (lit. little middle: cf. ete).
turi-oa (a), 2. the foresail.
turiat, prep. in the middle, in the midst.
turihia (m), . the middle finger.
turik, turika, turiko, x. iron; a. foreign (x); turiko wedere, . an iron
oven; turik-arubi (a), x. a whiteman. Cf. List of introduced
words.
turio (K), 2. a creeping plant; turio sirigo, m. a fibre made from turio.
The root of this plant is sometimes eaten.
350 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
turo (x), v. to go.
turube (x), x. the centre. Cf. turi.
turuo (a), turuturuo (x), 2. the throat.
turuoturuo (x), z. the wind pipe.
tusase (K), 2. a plaited armlet.
tusoro (K), v. to squeeze.
tusuopu (x), 2. the heart. Cf. otakapuki.
tutai (1), . an armlet worn near the shoulder. The musur of
Saibai.
tuto (?)
tutuopu (x), ”. a wooden hook, used for hanging things upon.
tuture (x), . the conch shell (Fusus or Zriton) used as a trumpet.
tuturo, tuturu, a. long; tall (xk); tawatawa tuturu (x), #. the
world.
tuturuimi (xs), all, (Mir. uridili.) Cf. rorodia.
tuturuo (x), n. the coast. Cf. dodo, dodoro.
Ua (2), v. to give. Cf. uo, uosa, agiwai, nimoria.
uaa (Kk), v. to bathe.
uabogoi, v. to bring.
uabugol, v. to guide.
uada, a. blessed. (Mir. werkab.)
uadi (11), m. the nose ; uadi-muti (a), ”. a ring worn in the nose.
uadoro, v. to speak good, praise.
uadow, v. to wonder.
uaerlivi (F), #. a frontlet worn by youths before initiation.
uagediai, v. to surround; ad. around.
uagi (a), z. the thigh; uagi-kako, wu. the thigh bone.
uagi (F), z. implement used for husking coconuts made of leg bone of
@ cassowary.
uagori, v. to take.
uagoria, v. to look after, to care for.
uagumai, v. to wag the head.
ual, a. strong.
uaigiri, v. to snatch away with the intention of stealing.
uaito, ad. carefully; uaito uagoria, v. to take great care of. Mir.
mamoro.
uaiuai, a. hard.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 351
uapa, D. a woman’s petticoat ; (F), the narrow petticoat which is tucked
between the legs. (D’Albertis says that this word is not used
on coast at Mowat, but only in the interior.)
uapaibi (F), 2. carved steering paddle (pl. 202, 3).
uapuréto, ad. next, after.
uarabai, v. to help, to comfort. Mir. upinati, upiatidar.
uaramai, a. false.
uararai, v. to lose, take no heed; a. thoughtless. (Mir. didmirki,
Saib. dantadumain.)
uaratai, v. to ask.
uarekabo (mM), m. a bone spoon.
uareuo, v. to open.
uari, v. to laugh. Cf. mate.
uariu, v. to turn over, to turn up. Cf. uarui.
uaro (a), 2. feathers.
uaro (F), 2. a wig worn by old men.
uaroito (1), ”. to-morrow.
uarubia, v. to fly. Cf. arubia.
uarui, v toturn over. C. uariu.
uaruo, v. to receive sight. Mir. bakaerti.
uatotorope (m), ”. the tongue.
uba, ubana, v. bad.
uba, ubaru (x), ~. an edible snake, venomous.
ubagouaidumo, v. to defile. Cf. uba, goua.
uege, prep. on the bank, along-side.
uere (M), ”. arrows.
ugaeai (xk), v. to bark.
ui (Ks), v. to ery out, shout.
uia, v. to pay back. Cf. uisa.
uiai (P), m. rain. Cf. uisai.
uiari (m), ”. a shower of rain.
uibo (a1), uibu (x), 2. coal, charcoal ; uibo durupi (x), ”. an albino.
uibuna (x), a. light blue.
wibuuibu, a. black.
uisai (Ks), ”. rain. Cf. uiai.
uiui (K), 2. a variety of mango.
umamu (K), ”. a yam.
umiriti, v. to wash.
302 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
umo (m), 2. a dog.
umoro, v. to know how. Mir. umele; umorotato, v. not to know, to
be unable. Cf. karatai.
umumue, a. whole, entire. Mir. kemerkemer.
uo (mu), 2. night.
uo, x, the wind. Cf. susuo, huhua.
uo (KS), wmter. no.
uo (Kk), v. to sleep; uo utua (x), v. to lie down to sleep, Cf. utua,
utuo.
uomo (x), 2. a boundary.
uoog, ”. an animal, a bird. Cf. wowogo.
uorogomai (?), given in Savage ms. as equivalent to Mir. lem. = sun.
uosa, v. to give (Ks), to buy (x). Cf. nimidai.
upara (kK), 2. death. Cf. paara, para, uparu.
uparu, v. to die; a. dead; poisonous (of snake), (x). Cf. para.
upi, 2. plur. women; woman (kK); upi baroma (Kk), ”. a sow. Cf.
orobo.
upuro (m), 2, the navel. Cf. gupuro.
ura, ure (M), ”. an island or small reef. Cf. mamoko.
ura (m), 2. a flower. Cf. sura.
ural (?)
uramo (m), 2. the north-west wind. Cf. suroma.
uramu (xk), ”. husband, wife, spouse.
uraoa (mM), 2. a bag.
urato, m.a year. Mir. urut, Saib. wato.
urio (K), ”. a demon, ghost; the soul. Cf. manakai.
urio (? m. dagger); urio soro (Kk), ~. a dagger made of cassowary bone.
uro (K), x. the sea. Cf. oro.
uroa (a), 2. the south-east wind.
uroro, v. to shut partly, to shut a little way.
urouro (Kk), ”. the hold or inside of a canoe.
uru, ”. the south-east. Cf. oro, the sea, which is to the south-east
of Daudai. Mair. sager.
uruapuo, a. out of sight, probably from the preceding word. Cf.
uru, apuo, and Mir. sagerop from sager.
uruma (K), ”. a variety of banana; (r), a head-dress worn by bush
tribes in dancing and fighting (pl. 192, 3).
urumi (F), ”. a drum (warup).
Ray & Happon—TZhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 353
urumuruburu (F), 2. charm in form of wooden female image, worn by
young uninitiated lads (pl. 198, 1). Cf. moguru-umuru-buru,
uyvlo-moguru.
ururu, @. deep.
ururudo, prep. at the back, behind. Mir. sor-ge.
usaro (K), x. a kangaroo; a dance held before a kangaroo hunt.
userio (K), 2. a variety of yam.
usia (K), 2. the lobe of the ear (in its natural state). Cf. atari, sia.
utua (ar), 2. to sleep; to lie down, to die (x). Cf. irorisiai, upara,
para.
utuo, v. to sleep.
uumohoro (a), 2. the pelvis.
uuwo, 2. the place of departed spirits. (Supposed to be somewhere
on the Fly River.)—Ann. Rep. 1894, p. 59.
uvio-moguru (F), 2. wooden female image, used during initiation, not
to be seen by women and children. Cf. oraoradubu, mimiamo,
paromiti, moguru-umuru-buru, urumuruburu (pl. 195, 1).
uwere (#), 2. bamboo pointed arrow used in killing pigs. Cf. were.
Vedasi, ~. the pubic shell, used also as money. Ann. Rep. 1894,
p- 58. .
vaduru (F), waduru.
vaene (F), z. carved and painted dance staff (pl. 202, 6).
vedere ere (F), x. pubic shell worn by men when fighting and dancing
(pl. 204, 4).
Wabagoii (x), v. to guide; wabagoii dubu, m. a guide.
wabi (K), 2. a species of lizard.
waboda (x), 2. a variety of banana.
wabutu (x), prep. behind.
wada (kK), 2. a bowstring, formed of ‘‘a piece of bamboo about one-
fourth inch broad and half as thick.’””,—Ann. Rep. 1890.
wada (?); irisai wada (x), 2. enemy.
wadai (m), 2. red flat seeds.
wade (x), a. beautiful, fine, good; wade topo obo, . drinking water ;
wade odio, a. edible ; wade sai, . fine day.
wadere (m), a. good. Cf. wade, adina.
wadisia (kK), 2. a hole in the septum nasi. Cf. wodi, sia.
304 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
wadoa (x), the pepper eaten with betel nut.
waduru (x), the native bamboo tobacco-pipe (pl. 188, 2).
waea (kK), 2. the hornbill. Cf. orkienkok.
wagi (Kk), 2. the thigh.
wala (K), v. to warn.
waiati (K), x. a water melon.
wairi (1) ad. forward (for’ard). (? whether this is not the Motu vaira,
face, front ; vaira lao, to go forward.)
wakaru (Domori), x. bag in which dress of all kinds is held (pl.
191, 1).
wameai (?) nitara waméai (x) v. to return.
wami (1),
Wanogoro (x), 2. a coral reef.
waopo aibi (xk), v. to steer. Cf. aibi.
wap, ”. a dugong spear. Cf. Saibai.
Wwapa (K), 2. a petticoat.
waperbi (™), v. to come aft and steer. Cf. waopo aibi.
wapu (Mm), wapu oa (m), z. the mainsail of a canoe.
Warame (K), ”. deceit, falsehood, ‘“‘gammon”; warame dubu, 2.
a lar. Cf. mabu.
waraoit,
waratai (K), v. to answer, reply. Cf. gibo.
waratoto (x), x. a bridge.
warea (K), 2. a venomous snake.
wari, v. tolaugh, smile; wari patu (™), v. to laugh greatly. Cf. kiri.
warikabi (kK), z. a stone axe.
wariu (kK), 2. a hawk.
waro (mM), x. rope; perhaps introdueed. Cf. Motu, varo, Kerepunu,
waro, Sinaugolo, walo.
waromi (x), v. to dwell.
waroti (K), v. to wash.
warubai (xk), 2. a load.
waruku (x), 2. an edible snake, said not to bite.
wasare (K), m. a hymn; wasare boso, z. or v. whistle. Cf. poho.
wasi (?) wasi nakobokobo (x), a. lazy. Cf. o1woil.
watatorope (x), 2. the tongue.
wateripi (m), z. the tongue.
waupi (?)
Ray & Happon—Zhe Languages of Torres Straits—II. 355
waupo (x), v. to make, prepare.
wedere (x), ». a large slipper shell (Oymbium) said to be imported
from Mowat; hence, ”. a basin, bowl, clay cooking pot, sauce-
pan; turiko wedere, ”. an iron oven.
wera (m), ”. speech, talk. Of. auera, ouera.
were (m). 7. clay.
were (M), ”. an arrow; (F) a bamboo beheading knife.
weri (1), 2. a bamboo knife.
weri (Kk), 2. leaves of palm for thatching roof; a roof; weri adoruti,
weri adorowa, v. to make a roof.
wibu, a. black ; wibu arubi (m), x. a black man. Cf. wibi.
wierl (M), 2. rain.
wieri (1), 2. sandy beach. Cf. wio.
wihari, ». rain. The overflow from the rivers and swamps of
Aromo.
wio (x), ”. sand, the beach, a sand bar.
wiora (m), v. to hoist up.
wiroguri (x), v. he comes.
wiroro (x), v. to call. Cf. irumai, koromai.
wisa (K), ”. payment; wisa oosa, v. to pay.
wiwi, 2. the mango.
wodi, 2. the nose.
wogati (kK), v. todo. Cf. auagati.
woito (x), 2. or v. dream.
woka (F), 2. a small dish for holding food and sometimes used as
pillow (pl. 193, 8).
wopa (mr), 2. a large petticoat. Cf. wapa.
woperbi (1), v. to steer.
woroworo (x), ”. anger.
woto (?)
wowogo, ”. a bird; wowogo moto (x), ~. a bird cage; wowogo toto
(x), m. a nest.
wowogo ia (K), 2. a white crane (lit. real bird) ; wowogo ia maru ma,
a sooty crane with white neck.
Zoke (a), n. a dagger made of cassowary bone. (Written tsoche by
D’ Albertis.)
zugu, a. tabu, holy. Mir. zogo.
356 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
XIV.—Listr or Iyrropucep and Apaprep Worps.
In this list all words not otherwise marked are derived from the
English, and are commonly used in both Miriam and Saibai. wm denotes
that the word is used in Miriam, s in Saibai, p in Daudai, u in Mowat,
K in Kiwai.
Ad (m), God, a deity.
alabasa, alabaster.
alas (a), alase(s), salt. Lifu alase from Greek GAs. [Alase-nu (s), in salt;
alasiu ter (s), flavour of salt, saltness ; alasilgal (s), salt people. }
angela, angel.
ao (s), a tomb, lit. a pit.
aper (at), a hat.
apiga (s), the Malay apple, Hugenia sp. Probably introduced with the
fruit from the Melanesian islands. Fiji favika; Banks’ Islands
gaviga; fate kafika; Malekula havih; Santo aviga.
aposelo (s), apostola, apostle.
aramobert (x), God, sky-man.
arem (mM), heaven, lit. sky.
arenio, lamb. Greek apvods.
areto, bread, loaf, sacrament. Greek, dpros.
aromo (mM), heaven, lit. sky.
asinad, ass. Lifu, asina, Latin asina. [asinau, asinan (s). |
Augadé (s), God. This appears to be the same word as Augid, a totem,
asazt (s). This word probably means ‘travelling.’ Azazi-san,
(travelling foot), shoe, sandal ; azaz¢-mabaeg (travelling-man),
traveller, guest.
Bao = bau.
bapataiso, to baptize, baptism.
baroma, a pig. Probably introduced with the animal from New
Guinea. Motu, baroma.
baselaia, kingdom. Greek, Bacideia. [ Baselaiapa (s). |
bathi (at), a measure. Lifu bathe from English jdath. (‘‘ Bath” was
used to translate the English “‘ firkin”’ as being approximately
the same measure.—Rey. J. Sleigh).
bau (m), chair, lit. seat ; bau-lu, a table.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 357
boks, box.
bégawlbégail (s), cursing and swearing. Mk. xiv. 10. (?), plur. of bogai,
from Eng. slang term.
boonarrt. This word is given by Jukes for “coconut,” and is the
native pronunciation of ‘‘ bow and arrow.’’ When ships first
visited the islands these were common articles of trade. The
natives may have known that ‘‘doonarr?”’ signified the weapons,
or they may have thought that 1t was the English for ‘‘ coconut.”
It is certainly not a Torres Strait word.
borom = baroma.
buket, bucket.
burum = baroma.
but, boot.
Dana-nuki (s), a spring of water. This is a curious word given in
Sharon’s vocabulary, and literally means eye-water. It
corresponds literally to the Samoan mata-vai, also meaning a
spring of water. Dana = mata, eye, nuki = vai, water. The
Lifu word for spring is gege (pronounced whewhe).
dapar (s), heaven, lit. sky.
debe merkem (m), the Gospel, lit. debe, ‘good,’ merkem, ‘speech’ or
‘message.’
demon (s), demon, devil; demonilgépa, to one possessed.
dia, aclub, imitated from a Lifu model. Lifu yea (pronounced dia).
diabolo, devil. Greek duéBodos.
diakona, deacon.
dibedib, a dish, lit. a sp. of shell. Cf. dibedibc in Vocabs.
Disémba, December.
iden, Eden.
eit, eight.
ehalesia, church. Greek éxxAynoia.
elefen, eleven.
Ellene, aGreek. Greek "EAAnv.
erurwur (a), to smoke a tobacco pipe in native fashion, lit. to drink
heat.
esorapa (m), to pray, lit. sit with bended head.
esorgiru (at), to pray, lit. to bow the head in worship.
etage (at), to read, lit. to point to, to count.
808 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ethent (s), heathen; ethenlgépa, to the heathen.
etkobet (mt), to bury, lit. to lay a corpse on not 7m the ground.
euangelia (a), evangelia (s), Gospel. Greek edayyéduor.
eser, a dish, lit. Cymbium shell.
Faiboibo, marriage. Lifu facboibo; Samoan fa’aipoipo. This was a
Rarotongan word, akaiporpo, introduced into Samoa for a
‘‘marriage with a religious service.” From Samoa it was
taken to Lifu and thence to the Straits. Fa, fa’a, aka is the
Polynesian causative prefix, zyo has reference to loving. Tahit.
ipo, a darling. Haw. zo, a sweetheart, paramour; Gambier
Isd. zyo, married.
Satf, five.
falaua, flaua, flour.
farthen, farthing.
Faul, fowl.
Februart, February.
Jifete, fifty.
jiva, fever.
foa, four.
foati, forty.
Gavana, governor. {[ gavanalpa, (s). |
gem-wali (a), shirt, chemise, lit. body-cloth.
gena, hell. [genapa(s).] Heb. Gehenna. Samoan, kena, Lifu, gena.
geru (s), sugar cane. Cf. Hayter Islands and South Cape garu.
getidiz, geté-tidiz (s), to read, lit. to put out the finger, to point.
giz-mer (mM), sermon, lit. many words.
glas, glass.
gold, gold.
government.
grim, green.
Handed, hundred.
hanuabot (x), night. This word is only found in MacGregor’s Kiwai
list, and is perhaps due to a Motu interpreter. It is the Motu
word for night and is, literally, hanua, country ; bo, dark, the
common Melanesian words vanua and bongt.
haua, hawa, hour,
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 359
Hebru, Hebrew.
Hedis, Hades, hell. Greek aéys.
hook, hook.
Idolu (), money, lit. precious thing.
Lsaraela, Israel; Isaraela logau kuikulunga, the king of Israelites.
Januari, January.
jauali (a, D), paper, letter, book. A Miriam word with an introduced
meaning, and should properly be spelled stawwali. Zrau is the
dura-mater, the parchment-like membrane covering the brain,
walt is calico or cloth, especially European cloth.
Judaia-le (at), Jew.
Julai, Sualy.
Jun, June.
Katkat, food,a meal. This word is in use all over the South Seas, and
is derived from the Polynesian kav.
kaip, a spoon, lit. a shell; Lap tulik, an iron spoon.
kamela, camel.
kapsize, capsize.
kask, cask.
kat, eat.
kau, cow ; kimiar kau (x), bull, lit. male cow ; kauwra paur (a1), leather,
cow’s skin.
keneturto, centurion. Greek xevrupiwv. [keneturialngu (s). |
ki, key.
kiona, snow. Greek xudv.
klok, clock.
kobar, vessel, cup, dish. Probably from English copper.
kohena, priest. Heb. it)
kon, corn.
kopa, dried coconut, the copra of commerce.
képamaurt, the earth-oven (properly ame (a) dma (s)). This word is
as widely spread in the South Seas as kaka’. Dr. Codrington
informs us that it is compounded of kopa= English ‘‘ copper”’ and
maurt = maort, i.e. a native of New Zealand. Hence it is the
maori’s copper, a term used by whalers, traders, etc., to
designate the native method of cooking.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2
360 Proceedings of the Royal lrish Academy.
kot, coat.
kot meta (m), court-house, judgment hall. [kot-em, to the court. }
kotor (at), heaven, lit. above.
kumala, sweet potato (Ipomaea chrysorrhiza). Lifu kumala from Samoan
‘umala. Pratt in his Samoan Dictionary says it is an introduced
word. The word is widely used in the Pacific. Tongan
gumala; Marquesas, kumaa; Banks Is., Fiji and Maori,
kumara.
kumete, basket. Litu kumete from Samoan ‘wmete, a wooden bowl.
kunu (Kk), maize. English, corn.
Lamar (x), demon, devil, lit. /e, man, mar spirit.
lamepa, lamp.
laulau, table. Litu Jaulau from Samoan lJaulau, a tray made of plaited
coconut leaf.
le neg (at), reapers, lit. men (of) seeds. Cf. meta-neg.
lepera, leper.
leuen, levene, leaven.
lino (s), linen.
lino-wali (m), linen. English and Miriam.
luko, wolf. Greek vos.
lukup (m), medicine, paint. Perhaps from Miriam Jw and Saibai
kupe, a medicinal plant.
Mall, an iron plate, a sheet of metal; malil-lager (m), a chain.
Perhaps from Lifu melele, thin.
mamoe, Sheep. Lifu and Samoan mamoe. Introduced into Samoa from
Tahiti and also used in Rarotonga.
mamus, chief. A Miriam word introduced into Saibai and Daudai.
It seems to have originally been a personal name, Mam-mus,
Red-hair, but is now applied to the native placed in authority
on each island by the Queensland government.
manakai (p), soul, ghost. Cf. Malakai in Saibai vocab.
mani, money. [maniu, maniginga (s). |
map, map.
maram-gudé (s), a tomb, lit. a pit with mouth.
maridan (s), mirror, looking-glass, lt. spirit-eye, i.e. by which one
sees the spirit or reflection of anything.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 361
Mark, March.
masita, master.
Mei, May.
met, an anniversary, a festival. The term is taken from the annual
gatherings in London known as ‘‘ May-meetings.” In the
Straits ‘‘mays’’ have no reference to the time of year, but
simply denote the annual examinations, sports, etc., at the
mission schools and stations.
mer-akesmu (at), oath, swearing, lit. fall down word.
meta-neg, a barn, lit. house (of) seed. Cf. le-neg.
minarpalat (s), write, writing, lit. mar, mark, palaz, cutting;
minarpalat mabaeg (s), a writer, scribe.
minuta, minute.
misinare, missionary.
mog-wali (at), towel, lit. bit (of) cloth.
Monde, Monday.
monkt, monkey.
muro, myrrh. Greek pupov.
Va, hymn, lit. song.
nan, nine.
naipo, knife.
nant, goat. English, nanny.
nérkép (at), the mind, heart, soul, lit. kép, seed, nér, breath.
net, net.
ngénakapo (s), mind, heart, soul, lit. kapé, seed, ngina, breath.
nidel, needle.
nog-le (at), heathen, lit. outside men.
Novemba, November.
numela, number.
Oktoba, October.
osua (K), heaven, lit. sky.
ou (P), heaven, lit. sky.
Paip, pipe.
pama, palm-tree.
pasaro (D), hill, from Miriam paser.
ZaCZ
362 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
paseka, passover. Greek wdcxa. [pasekapa (s). ]
pat, bell. Lifu pate; pat wit (a), to ring a bell. The Lifu pate isa
piece of wood hollowed out like a canoe, and struck with
one or more sticks. The Miriam zp7t is “ strike.”
paun, pound.
patoro (x), gunpowder. English powder.
peleit (s), plate, dish.
pen, pen.
pen, penny.
pensil, pencil.
pentekosta, Pentecost. Greek revrnkoords.
pertper (mt), mirror, looking-glass. A Miriam word with introduced
meaning, lit. lightning.
peritom, circumcision. Greek zepitoyy.
perofeta, prophet.
pes, candlestick. The proper meaning is ‘‘ handle.”
pi (a), gunpowder, lit. wood ashes.
podo (b), hill, from Saibai pada.
pot (s), gunpowder, lit. ashes.
polisman, policeman. In the Miriam Gospel, Mark, xv. 16, this word
is curiously used for “soldier.” Gatr polisman Iesu kebt
meta-em tegared, net Praitorio, a polisman nosik tarasare,
Policemen Jesus little house-to took, name eae and
policeman-band called together.
pusa, cat. English, puss.
Rabi, rabbi.
Ring, ring.
Sabath, sabbath. {sabathau, sabathini, and sabathipa (s). |
sagul (s), school, v. to examine.
saima (Ss) = sarima.
salmo, psalm.
sarima (D, 8), outrigger float. Probably from Hayter Island, sarime,
Motu, darima.
Satana, Satan. Satanara uted (m), hell, lit. Satan’s abode.
satauro, cross. Greek oravpés ; satawroem (m), to crucify. [satauropa,
sataurangu (s). |
sefen, seven.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 368
Septemba, September.
setadia, furlong. Greek ordédu.ov.
shippo, ship.
stkés, six.
sinapt, mustard. Greek civamu.
sok, a nail, really a spike made of cassowary bone ; sok tulik, an iron
nail.
sokop, sukub, sukuba, ete., tobacco.
sor tulik, a cup, lit. iron shell.
spun, spoon.
stor, a store, shop.
suke, fig, figtree. Greek odxov. [sukeu, (s). |]
sunag, sunagog, synagogue. Greek cvvaywy7.
Tabo kaukau, a trade necklace of beads, from tabo, neck, kaubkaub,
balls.
taim, time.
talani, talent.
talofa, talopa, to greet, to shake hands (an introduced custom).
Samoan tdlofa for ta alofa, the ordinary salutation, from
alofa, to love, compassionate.
tanelu (m), a dish, plate, basi. Samoan ¢dnoa, a dish or plate, and
Miriam Ju, thing.
taual, towel.
tecbur-tulik (a), a sword, lit. pith-iron, z.e., the iron which is inside a
sheath, like pith in wood.
telona, a publican, taxgather. Greek tedwvns.
ten, ten.
teriko-gagart (s,D), gun, musket, to shoot with a gun. English
trigger, and gagarz, to shoot.
thausan, thousand.
therte, thorte, thirty.
thri, three.
Thursde, Thursday.
tik-a-tik, a watch.
titi (D), to write, lit. paint.
témahauk, axe. English, tomahawk.
triger-gagart, a gun, lit. “‘ trigger bow and arrow.”
364 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
tu, two.
tuelf, twelve.
tuente, twenty.
tult, tulik, turik, iron. Crawford (Grammar and Dictionary“of the
Malay language, p. clxxv.) says that ¢uli, tudi, turi is
probably the English word “tool.”
turtk-arubi (D), a white man. From turik, iron, arubi, man.
Tusde, Tuesday.
tust (s), book. Samoan tust, lit. to mark native cloth, hence writing,
letter, book. Introduced into Lifu from Samoa.
Umau-lagé (s), tomb, lit. Jagé, house, umau, of the dead.
Vina, wine.
vinega, Vinegar,
Waci, watch. This is the English word spelled in Lifu fashion,
ce = ch in chin.
waind, Wine, vine.
walt, European cloth or calico; wali demed, a curtain or veil, lit.
shutting cloth.
wan, one.
Wensde, Wednesday.
werkab («), happy, blessed. Perhaps from wer, appetite in sense of
desiring, wishing, kab, to dance.
wik, week.
Zogo, holy, lit. a charm or fetish; sogoyziauwali, Holy Scripture;
zogo-le, a priest ; zogo meta, a church.
When the introduced word differs in pronunciation from its
English original, such as numela, masita, the alteration is due to Lifu
influence, as the natives of Torres Straits have no difficulty in
correctly pronouncing such words as number or master. Lifu and
Samoan require every consonant to be followed by a vowel, and hence
the modification of the English and Greek words introduced by the
Lifuan teachers.
In the detection and derivation of Lifu words we have derived
much assistance from the Rev. J. Sleigh, for many years resident on
Lifu.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 365
XY.—Conctupine Remarks.
(A) Bibliography.
The following additions have to be noted :—
(27) (n. d.) Hymw Boox.—Saibai.
[Mentioned by D’Albertis, New Guinea, p. 350. |
(28) 1880. D’Axrertis, Luter Marta.—Alla Nuova Guinea: cio che
ho veduto e cid che ho fatto. Torino, Londra. 8°.
pp- Xviand 588.
[Contains: p. 567. Vocaboli usati nell’ Isole York, Torres
Straits, p. 568. Vocaboli usati dalla gente di Moatta, alla foce del
Fiume Katau.] For English Version, see No. 9.
(29) 1883. New Guinea Numerats. Letters by Messrs. A. H. Sayce,
Krebs, A. H. Keane, and Coutts Trotter. In Academy,
vol. xxiv. (1883) pp. 285, 302, 317.
On p. 317, a letter by Mr. Coutts Trotter contains the Saibai
numerals.
(30) 1892. Qurrnstawp.—Annual Report on British New Guinea,
from lst July, 1890, to 30th June, 1891, with
Appendices. Brisbane: By authority, James C. Beal,
Government Printer, William-street.
Contains, among other vocabularies: pp. 128-132, ‘* Abo-
riginal Vocabulary of the Dabu tribe. ‘Table showing certain principal
words, &c., used by aboriginals of the Dabu tribe, and more or less
understood by other tribes between Mowatta and the Mai Kussa, on
the coast of British New Guinea. (Some words have been taken from
the neighbouring Toga tribe, when the two dialects differ.)
This vocabulary is discussed in the next section.
(31) 1892. THomson, J. P., F.R.G.S.—British New Guinea. Lon-
don: George Philip and Son.
An Appendix.— ‘“‘ VI. New Guinea Dialects,’ contains: pp.
286-292, Vocabulary of the Kiwai Language ; pp. 292-294, Vocabulary
of the Language spoken at Saibai, Dauan, and Boigu, and understood
on the adjacent coast of New Guinea; also, on pp. 320—322, Aboriginal
Vocabulary of the Dabu Tribe. The Kiwai and Saibai vocabularies
are from the Annual Report on New Guinea, 1890 (See Bibliography
in Part I. of this study, No. 23, p. 470), and the Dabu from No.
30, above. There is nothing original in this book.
366 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(32) 1892. Scuutensurnc, Dr. A. Grar vy. p.—Grammatik, Vocabu-
larium und Sprachproben der Sprache von Murray
Island. Leipzig: Verlag von Wilhelm Friedrich,
K. R. Hofbuchhandler.
The whole of this work is founded upon the two Miriam
Gospels (see No. 13 in Part I., p. 469). No reference is made to any
other sources of information.
(33) 1893. Happon, Pror. A. C.—‘‘The Secular and Ceremonial
Dances of the Torres Straits,” in Internationales
Archiv fiir Ethnographie. Bd. vi. 1893, pp. 131-
162.
Contains, on p. 148, the Waiitutu Kap Kudu, or couplets of
the saw-fish dance of Thursday Island, with a note on New Guinea
songs.
(34) 1893. Ray, Srpney H.—‘‘ The Languages of British New
Guinea,” in Transactions of the Ninth Interna-
tional Congress of Orientalists, held in London in
1892, vol. m. pp. 754-770.
This contains a suggested division of the dialects of British
New Guinea into Melanesian and Papuan, with a classification. On
pp- 760-762 the Miriam, Saibai, Dabu, and Kiwai pronouns are com-
pared with those of other dialects. An Appendix contains twenty-five
words and Numerals in the Torres Straits and other New Guinea
dialects.
(35) 1893. Kern, Dr. H.—Review of the ‘“‘ Study of the Languages
of Torres Straits. Part I.’’ Contained in Interna-
nationales Archiy fiir Ethnographie.” Bd. vr. p. 181.
Dr. Kern points out that more stress is to be laid on the con-
struction than on the vocabulary, when determining the relationship to
other languages. We fully appreciate this.
(36) 1894. Ray, Smyey H.—‘‘ The Languages of British New
Guinea,’ Journal of Anthropological Institute, vol.
XXiv., pp. 15-39.
An amplification of No. 34, antea.
(37) 1894. QurENstanp.—Annual Report on British New Guinea,
from 1st July, 1892, to 30th June, 1893; with Appen-
dices. Brisbane: By authority, Edmund Gregory,
Government Printer, William-street. 1894.
Contains :
Appendix I.—Report of the Resident Magistrate for the Western
Division.
Ray & Hapvpon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 367
Appendix P.—Native Habits and Customs in the Western Division,
by B. A. Hely, Resident Magistrate.
Appendix U.—Nos. 1-4, Land Tenure of the Tribes of the Daudai
Coast, by J. B. Cameron and B. A. Hely.
These Appendices contain numerous words and names used
in the Daudai district. They have been added in XIII. and XIV. of
this Study.
(88) 1894. Quzrnstanp.—Annual Report on British New Guinea,
from 1st July, 1893, to 30th June, 1894, with Appen-
dices. Brisbane: By Authority, Edmund Gregory,
Government Printer, William-street. 1894.
Contains: pp. 50-55, Appendix L, Report of the Resident
Magistrate for the Western Division.
[Contains native names. |
(39) 1895. Ray, Srpyey H.—A Comparative Vocabulary of the
Dialects of British New Guinea, with Preface by Dr.
R. N. Cust. London: Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.
A comparison of fifty-two British New Guinea Dialects, in-
cluding the Kauralaig, Saibai, Dabu, Mowat, Kiwai, and Miriam of
Torres Straits and the adjacent coasts of New Guinea.
MS. 11. Fisoy, Rey. Lorturer Fison.—Saibai compared with Nineteen
New Guinea Dialects in twelve words of common use
(pp. 2-3).
Words common to Saibai and Kaurarega, pp. 4-6;
words common to Kaurarega and Gudang, pp. 6, 7; pro-
nouns, p. 8.
[The examples are taken from Macgillivray and the Saibai
Gospel. |
B. Connexion or THE LAnGuAGEs.
The publication of a vocabulary of the language used by the
Dabulai and Togalai people on the mainland opposite Saibai Island
(contained in the Annual Report, 1892, Bibliog. No. 80), is of some
assistance in indicating the relationship of the islanders of the Straits
to those of the mainland. Sir Wm. MacGregor points out (Rep.
p. 43) the great difference which exists between this language and
those of Kiwai and Saibai. Some Saibai words in the Dabu vocabu-
lary are no doubt owing to the Saibai language being the means
through which the words were obtained. It is very remarkable,
however, that there are numerous agreements between the Dabu and
368 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the Miriam, which are not exclusively confined to trade words,
and can hardly be due to a recent contact of the peoples.
The
following lists will exhibit the connexion of the four languages,
Dabu, Miriam, Saibai, Daudai :—
ENGLISH. DABU. MIRIAM. SAIBAI. DAUDAI.
bead, kusa, kus, kusa, kusa.
cassowary, diram, sam, samu, samo.
father, baba, baba, baba, aba.
Kangaroo, tar, usar, usa, usaro.
seed, kapa-biu, kep, kapu, lopu.
snake, dibe, tabo, tabu, topo.
tobacco, sakaba, sokop, suguba, sukuba.
yes, ao, wao, wa, io.
ENGLISH. DABU. MIRIAM. SAIBAT.
bay, kopa, kop, kupado.
boat, gara, nar, eul.
crocodile, kaja, koje, kadal, Kadal.
driim, arap, warup, warup.
flea, totok, titig. tikat.
flesh, mid, med, madu.
knife, turik-ata, kor-tulik, gi-tulik.
game (play), tongoi, segur, sagul.
gum, tauto, sus, susu.
jaw, tebu, ibu, ibu.
matches, guigui, goigoi (fire-stich,),| guigui (fire-stich).
paddle, kaba, 7. ireb, v., kaba, karaba, 2.
peace, piuda, paud, pauto.
shark, baidamo, bezam, baidamo.
pipe, turku, tarkok (pipe-bowl),| turku (pipe-bowl).
rat, makat, mokeis, makas.
sago, bisi, bisi, bisi.
vomit, maunjeje, megi, magiz.
ENGLISH. DABU MIRIAM. DAUDAI.
beach, dardar, dodo-mer, dodo.
coconut, ngol, ue, ol.
hand, tang, tag, tuo.
knot, mukup, mukub, mopo.
plenty, uog, au, alo.
shoulder, dago-kut, tugar, tigiri,
snore, gararam, gegermer, garoroa.
Ray & Happon—The Languages of Torres Straits—II. 369
ENGLISH. DABU. SAIBAI. DAUDAI.
ditch, gorai, goua, goua.
fish-hook, tudi, tudi, tudi.
reef, maja, mazam, maja.
sneeze, achi, aslo, asoro.
* ENGLISH. DABU. MIRIAM. ENGLISH. DABU. MIRIAM.
banana, opa, wo, kaba. husband, enumua, kimiar.
beetle, seresere, isiri. nipple, nono, nano.
belly, kom, kam, | gém, kém. | palm (hand), | dhag, tag-gab.
blood, mem, mam, | mam. red, mamam, mamam.
breast, gnam, nano. | salt, gagor, gur (salt
eyeball, ikapa, irkép. | water).
fly, arko, narger. smoke, imo, kemur.
foot, mak, mek (foot- |) star, piro, wer.
print. | water, ime, ni.
friend, tabad, tébud. |
heaven, utah, kotor. |
ENGLISH. DABU. SAIBAT. ENGLISH. DABU. SAIBAI.
ask, mulagan, mulai(speak).|| necklace, amuta, kamado.
basket, enyaunga, iana. oyster, it, ita, itro.
bid, muleige, mulai(speak).|| pole, sur, suro.
bite, dangdang, dang (tooth). || reed, boch, buzo.
black (dark), | kuta, dabar, | kuta-pa salt water, | adabour, adabu.
(evening). || sand, chirum, suru.
call, mule, mulai(speak).|| sea, bau, bau.
cloud (dark), | dabar-dag, | dapar (sky). || shrimp, euilji, gagi.
come, wia, aie, boie. south east, | wura, waura.
flog, metamar, mataman. turtle, waru, waru.
God, augad, augado.
hasten, taramani, tarai (quick).
ENGLISH. DABU. DAUDAI. ENGLISH. DABU. DAUDAI.
demon, kabor, oboro. ulcer, ute, ioto.
man, rabu, dubu. wood, ro, soro.
These comparisons and those in Pt. I., pp. 505-507, show that the
island languages (Miriam and Saibai) are more alike than those of the
mainland (Daudai and Dabn).
They also show that Miriam is more
370 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
like the mainland languages taken together, than it is like the Saibai,
and that Miriam is more like Daudai than the Saibai. The
correspondences between the island languages and the Dabu are
equal. These results may be tabulated thus :—
MIRIAM. SAIBAI. DAUDAI. DABU
Tee ee) ee ce an ey eI eer
SAIBAI, . 109 a PP eaae fet aie a
Daupal, . | 94 ails 25 pire : iw, 19 aa
it cen a Cle ee «a "
Other Papuan vocabularies published in the Reports, 1892-1894,
are those of: (1) Domara and Mairu (central portion of South Coast of
New Guinea and Island of Mairu); (2) Toaripi (the same as the
Motumotu); (3) Orokolo (nearly the same as the Toaripi) ; (4) Maipua
(on the Purari Delta). These show no correspondences (beyond those
in Pt. I., p. 509) with the Torres Straits or Daudai languages.
The distinction between Melanesian and Papuan first indicated in
the first part of this study, has been more fully illustrated as to
language in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1894),
and in the ‘‘ Decorative Art of British New Guinea’’—Cunningham
Memoirs, Royal Irish Academy, 1894. It has been adopted by Mr.
A. H. Keane in his work on “‘ Ethnology,’’ Cambridge, 1896; and is
further confirmed by the existence in German New Guinea of non-
Melanesian dialects.1 In the Katedong or Bush language in the
Hinterland of Finschhafen, nouns and pronouns are declined as in
Miriam. The verb has complicated forms :—
Indefinite case, mama, father, nengo, mother, maleng, earth.
Case of author, mama-dsi, nengo-dst, maleng-dst.
Final, mama-te, nengo-te, maleng-te.
Locative, mama-he, nengo-he, maleng-go.
Vocative, mama-matr, nengo-mat,
Praedicative, mama-tine, nengo-tine,
1See Zeitschrift fiir afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, I. Jahrgang.
1 Heft., 1895, p. 83. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Kai-Dialekte auf Grund des
yon Herrn Missionar Joh. Fliert in Simbang gesammelten Materials bearbeitet von
W. Griibe.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits.—II. 371
The Katedong numerals are mo, one; jejahe (pronounced yeyahe),
combined as in Miriam, jahe a mo, three ; jahe a jahe, four ; me mo (one
hand), five.
C. Miriam Grammar.
The Murray Island Grammar of Dr. A. Graf. v. d. Schulenberg
(Bibliog. No. 32) is based on the translation of the Miriam Gospels
(No. 18), which formed part of the material for our grammar in
Part I. Dr. Schulenberg makes no reference to other sources of
information, although a vocabulary and notes on the language were
published by his relative, v. d. Gabelentz, in 1882 (No. 11). The
omission, no doubt, arose from the translation being styled ‘‘ Murray
Island Language,” whilst the vocabulary (based upon Jukes, Macgil-
liyray, and Stone) is called the language of Errib and Maer.
Dr. Schulenberg’s work is thus arranged :—
(a) Grammatik, 1. Laut- und Betonungslehre, pp. 1-2.
1. Der Sprachbau, ‘ aes 3-6.
m1. Wort- u. Formenbildung,. ,, 7-58.
Iv. Hilfsworter, . P Boy ass 59-67.
v. Zum Satzbau, . os 68-77.
(6) Vocabularium, . : ; » 19-114.
Lehnworterverzeichnis, ; : . 5, 115-116.
(c) Sprachproben, », 117-188.
Considering the faulty character of the translation used, and the
absence of outside information, Dr. Schulenberg has made a fair
attempt to elucidate the forms of Miriam Grammar, but it is manifest
that when the soi-disant translators of the Gospel express themselves
ignorant of the grammar, we cannot expect an entire absence of
error from the work of those who attempt to analyse their productions.
It will be convenient here to give asummary of Dr. Schulenberg’s
Grammatical forms for comparison with our grammar in Part I. :—
1. Nouns.—Case endings: Possessive, r, ra; Dative, 2m; Illative,
em; Ablative, or Elative, Jam; Causal and Instrumental,
de; a second Instrumental, «; Locative, ge; Emphatic
Article, with Proper names, e¢; probable accusative
(obsolete), ending 7.
Plural by gatr, gaire, gai or gis. Plural prefix w« in
ugab, uader, uridilr.
372
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
2. Adjectives—Same as Rand H. Pt. I., p. 534.
3. Numerals.—Neisiem and neisem are noted, but they are not
shown as causative.
4, Pronouns—As in R and H. Pt. 1, p. 527.
The word dali
is called a verb, and translated thus :—
kaka nali, ich bin es.
mana nali, du bist es.
e dali, er ist es.
darali, zwei (beide) sind, waren.
dali,
pedala, hier, dort, sein.
Other forms given are wadali, tamdali, tadali, edali.
VERBS :
de, causative.
di, causative or directive outward.
da, directive thither.
e, emphasises author of the action,
when action goes out to the
third person.
a, gives negative character to the
sentence.
a, in positive sentence only with
tager, 1s reciprocal.
dara, plural, and summarises.
na, uncertainty and futurity.
ba, expresses a mournful or some-
times excited condition of the
mind.
te, motion thither or hither.
Prefixes.
tara, instead of ¢e in sentences
which indicate completed
action.
2, conditional or accidental.
0, direction from before, or from
above.
zo, only in word zobaru, position
before.
ua, direction from above.
ia, only in tauataba and tadali
has demonstrative meaning.
ao, on, on upper side, above or high.
est, (2)
oga, (°)
oka, (?)
ué(e), ue(e), on upper side.
Suffixes.
er, a7, ir, or, ur, DO special meaning.
em, corresponds with noun ending
for accusative.
Kam), corresponds to ending for
ablative.
dam (?)
lu, perfect, the realization of an
expectation.
li, perfect and continued action.
7, nearly same as UW.
(Z)e7, action goes out to two persons.
(r)ti, perfect.
are, plural subject.
ruk, action from below.
rik, up, thither.
ot, into.
meida, down.
eder, participal meaning.
ua, oa, out down.
le, mankind.
ao, action in solemn or serious
fashion.
Jane (9)
0, probably same as prefix o.
os, doubtful.
Ray & Happon— The Languages of Torres Straits.—I1. 373
Most of these meanings are conjectural. Hence, as we have
stated in Part I., much is yet to be done in the study of the Miriam
verb.
As Dr. Schulenberg was unacquainted with the Lifu origin of his
translation he has not distinguished loan words from Lifu, and Samoan
from the native words. In his Lehnworterverzeichniss, the word
ares, said to be Greek, is native, kotem is derived from the English
court, not from cot or cottage. Telona is Greek.
Concerning the relationship of the languages, Dr. Schulenberg has
only the following note :—‘‘ An das Malayische erinnern mehr oder
minder entfernt die Personalpronomina: ka =ich, ma=du, e=er.
Murray t statt mal.s konnte man finden in (de) taut: sahut =
antworden, (ne-)tat: suatu, satu = eins, (ne-)te: alifuru sel = wer?”
In bringing to a close this Study of Languages, which are probably
destined to pass away before the advance of civilization in New
Guinea,’ the authors would express their obligations and thanks to
all who have aided in bringing it to a successful conclusion, especially
to the generous friend who gave the sum of £30 to enable the
Academy to print the Second Part of this Study ; we regret that his
modesty will not permit us to record his name. Any further
information on the languages, verification or corrections of the
grammar notes, would be welcomed by the authors, at the Anthro-
pological Institute, 3, Hanover-square, London.
1 According to Rey. J. Chalmers (Globus, rxm. 21, p. 336), the population of
Torres Straits in 1893 was only 1473, distributed as follows :—Saibai, 242; York
Is., 95; Dalrymple, 62; Stephen, 26; Darnley, 137; Murray, 340; Mabuiag,
195; Badu, 124; Moa, 92; Tauan, 30; Boigu, 130.
[874]
IX.
VECTOR EXPRESSIONS FOR CURVES. By CHARLES JASPER
JOLY, M.A., F.T.C.D.
Part I.—UnicursaL Curves.
[Read DrecemBER 14, 1896.]
1. Vector equation for a unicursal curve of the n™ degree.
Ler ay, a, a2...a, be any given and constant vectors, and a, a, dy
..@, be given scalars; then the general vector expression for a
unicursal curve of order may be written in the form
at” + nat" '+..,+ a,
OT at + nat! +...44.
in which ¢ is a variable scalar parameter, and p is the vector to a point
on the curve. For, consider the number of points on this curve locus
which lie in an arbitrary plane SAp=1. This number is equal to the
order of the scalar binary equation in ¢, which is obtained by substi-
tuting in the equation of the plane the vector to a point on the curve
expressed in terms of the parameter ¢. Arranged in powers of ¢, the
result is
(Sra, — a)” + 2 (Sra, — a) t+ 3n(n — 1) (SA, - a2) ”* + &e. =0,
which gives x values of the parameter, or determines 7 points in the
plane, where ¢” is the highest power of ¢ in the numerator or in the
denominator of the given vector expression.
2. Vector equation for a tangent line and osculating plane.
It is sometimes convenient to suppose the numerator and the deno-
minator of the vector expression to be rendered homogeneous in # and y,
where ty=. In this case
p= (aa ae a,)(zy)” a $ (zy)
(dot, «+» an)(zy)” — f (ay)
and here ¢(xy) is a binary quantic with vector coefficients, and f (zy)
a binary quantic with scalar coefficients, and in general both quantics
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 379
are of the order ». The point on the curve determined by z=z, and
y = y, may be called the point 7,y;.
Vector expressions for the tangent line and the osculating plane at
Z,y, may be readily assigned.
The equation of the tangent line is
Oa ts +95) $(eun)
Ce +95) fle)
where zy; are given, and zy variable. This is in fact the equation of
a right line passing through z,y,, as appears on putting x=, and
y=¥Y,;, and also passing through the consecutive points z,+dz, and
y, + dy;, as also appears on putting =2,+xdz, and y=y,+ndy,, and
using Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions.
The vector expression for the osculating plane at the same point
is, if u, v, and w are variable parameters (whose ratios only are
essential),
@ & &
(urate 9 aeidyy “ 73) o (am)
Le PE RAGE SESE Le |
(“aat? dady, ini)? rep
Retaining only terms of the second order, it is obviously possible
to expand
$(2, + da, + 40x, y, + dy, + 4@y,)
in the form
=
ad? a P
(uz Ts oi ei dy, Ww — }(21y1);
in which u, 2, and #, are independent of the coefficients of d, and
involve only z,, y:, their deriveds, and the number z which determines
the order of the binary ¢(zy). This being so, the vector expression
lately written involving linearly two independent parameters (the
ratios of u, v, and w), is seen to represent the osculating plane at zy,
as in the neighbourhood of the point the deviation of the curve from
the plane is a quantity of the third order.
R.I.A. PROC., SER, Iil., VOL. IV. 2D
076 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
3. Example.—Poles of chords of a conte.
I pass on now to consider the vector expressions for a conic, the
the pole of a chord, and the centre of the. curve.
By the first article, the general equation of a conic is
rier + Qary + ayy”
OT Gye + Qayry + ary”
and, by the second article, the tangent at x,y, is”
_ @ (at + Hy) + Y (121 + O41)
PO 2 (yt. + yy) + Y (G2, + Ayr)
Given both 2,y, and .r,72, the point
=p Oy Ly + 04 (LyYo + Loi) + ayo
AL Xz + Ay (LyY2 + L2Y1) + Ae sY2
is situated on the tangent at z,y,, and on that at x.y. This point is
consequently the pole of the chord joining the two given points on the
curve.
Two points on the curve may be considered as given by the quadratic
equation
b,x? + Qhry + boy” = 0,
the vectors to these points being determined by substituting the roots
of this quadratic in the vector expression for the conic. The pole of
the line joining these two points is
_ Oyby — 2ayb, + aby
Agha — 20,0, + eb,”
since LYot+ TY, =-2b, and aa,=6, if yy. =4y.
The points at infinity on the conic are determined by the quadratic
Ay? + Qary + doy” =0,
since, when this vanishes, the vectors to the points determined are
infinitely long. The pole of the chord joining these points, or the
centre of the conic is
_ Fog — 2a;% + ast,
Oe Cia a2)
_ Joty— Vector Expressions for: Curves. 377
4, Invariants of binary quantics with non-commutative coefficients.
The following rule may consequently be stated :—In order to deter-
mine the pole @ of the chord joining the points determined by
bu? + 2hxy + by? =0,
form the (12)? invariant of this scalar quadratic, and of the-vector.
quadratic
(ay — A003) 2? + 2 (a, — MO) ry + (m-a2)y’,
and equate to zero the result.
This suggests consideration of invariants derived from binary func-
tions of zy whose coefficients are not commutative. In other words,
the investigation is suggested of those functions of the coefficients of
the various powers of « and y in the expressions
(Po Pi Po a - Pn)(ty)”; and (Yo O OAC Qn (zy),
which remain unaltered when a linear scalar transformation is effected
onz andy. Asitis generally impossible to determine values of z and y
which shall make these binary functions vanish, it is most convenient
to treat these invariants by means of differential operators.
Suppose
2=I1X+mY, and y=l'X+im'Y,
and suppose that when this scalar transformation is made,
(PoPr~ ++ Pa)(ty)”=(PoPi- ++ Pa (XY),
(Goa » +» Gur ty)” = (QoQ. + Qu) XY)";
or, in other words, suppose that the binaries on the left-hand side of .
these equations transform into the binaries on the right.
Now, for this linear transformation,
d rn,
rN aie
and
y —1'm) -
and
eid ye) 4 sed ie
Opn eno as
and, consequently,
d ad\" d a \"
a aN Bh = oth | Spee
(Um! - U’m)" (po r+ + + Dn) (S : =) (22a) arin aee a) ce a
2D2
378 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Hence
U / n ad d f nt
(in! Un) Bopa---Ba)( Fy =) = (ae to (CY)
Pe
EP Pe AP = = *z) (sO, ++» Qu) XY)";
and this is a definite covariant quantic of the order n’—™» in x and y,
provided the order of multiplication of the non-commutative coefficients
pand g, and P and Q is preserved. In this case the operator is written
to the left of the operand. The new covariant
d ad \"
(tn! am Um)" (Gof has Qno)(ty)”. (Po ave Pn) (S = =)
(Oe. 0, XV (PPS PB, ( : ae
is found when the operator is written to the right of the operand.
This covariant differs from the former only in the order of multiplica-
tion of the p and g, and of the Pand Q. Here p is always to the right
of g, and P to the right of Q; in the other case, p is always to the
left of g, and P to the left of Q.
When =n’, these are invariants for the linear transformation.
It is easy to extend this theory to any number of binary quantics,
but the order in multiplying the coefficients must be carefully
attended to,
5. The vanishing of a vector invariant with respect to the parameter
determines the pole of a given chord of a conic.
Forming the (12)? invariant of the vector quadratic (in which @ is
an arbitrary, but given vector),
(a, — 4,7) 2? + 2(a,—aya) ry + (a, - a.) y’,
and of the scalar quadratic
bz? + Wb ry + boy’,
the result is
(a, = a2) b, = 2 (a, = aya) b, + (az = 2) b,.
The invariant vanishes if, as in the third article, a is the vector to the
pole of the chord joining the points determined by equating to zero
the quadratic
byu* + 2b,xy + doy.
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 379
6. For any unicursal curve the vanishing of a corresponding invartant
determines a definite point, the ‘‘ pole”’ of n given points.
Take the general twisted curve of the x” degree, and suppose the
vector to a point on it to be given by
pa BV) _ (a+ 09)(eH)
SF (2 Y) (Goth «+» Mm) BY)”
Take also a scalar binary of the x degree
EF’ (xy) = (bbb. - . bn) (zy)” = 0,
whose vanishing determines definite points on the curve, and con-
sider the (12)" invariant formed between this and
af (xy) ~ (zy).
It may be written in the form
BFP \n — (PP ns
where (/7’),, is the (12)” invariant formed between the scalar binaries
FJ (ay) and F'(«y), and (¢F),, that formed between (zy) and F'(zy).
Jf this invariant vanishes, a definite point is determined by the
vector
and, for the sake of brevity, this point may be called the pole of the
n points on the given curve determined by /'(xy) =0.
In particular, when these points lie in a given plane SAp=1, the
binary /'(zy) = 0 is replaced by the binary
Sr¢$ (zy) — f(xy) = 0.
In this case
(FP n= SX(Fb)n— (SP )n and (PF’)n = (PSAP)n — (PF ns
where
f (SP)n = Mon — 2Ayay4 + &e. + (—)"Aug = (-)"(PP )n
an
(PSAP), = a,SAra, — na, Sra, + Ke. + (—)*a,Sray,
al
Gian = Ally — NA Ay» + &C. + (—)"andy = Gy@en ee
1 The use of the word ‘‘pole”’ in this extended sense is due to Professor W. K.
Clifford, who has given the theorems of Arts. 7 and 8 for curves of the n‘* degree
in w-dimensional space. ‘‘ Classification of Loci,’’ collected works, p. 312.
380 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Thus the pole of the x coplanar points is given by
_ (PSAS)s — (SA)
— BA(F$)e— (FA a
In particular, as the points at infinity are determined by f(zy) = 0,
the pole of the points at infinity is
($f )n
By = ed
(SF )n
7. Distinction between curves of odd and even order. When n is odd, the
pole of n coplanar points lies in their plane. The locus of poles of
parallel planes is a right line parallel to a fixed direction.
It is now convenient to consider separately curves of odd and curves
of even order. Taking in the first place curves of odd order, (f/),=0,
F (Df )n = An — On%g — 0 (14,1 — On-1%) + Ke. =— (fd),
an
(PSAP), = a,SAa, — a,SAa, — 2(a,SAa,. — an~SAa;) + &e.
= V.V (a,a, — naa, + 4n(n — 1) aa, .— &e.)X.
Thus the pole of the points in the plane SAp=1 is given by the
equation
VrKkt+e
Bien ee
in which
Lb = Oly — Only — 1 (GiM_4 — On1%) + &C
and
k = V(a,a, — Naja, + &e.).
In particular, the pole of the points at infinity is situated at the point
at infinity on the line parallel to c, since (ff), =
Again, the pole of n coplanar points lies in their plane; for
(Prk +0) t)
Sra = Sr. Sarr as
Further, the locus of the poles of a system of parallel planes SAp =¢,
is found by replacing A by f°, and is the right line
Vrx + te
Bx Sru
These locus lines are all parallel to the vector c; that is, they all pass
Joty—Vector Expressions for Curves, - Biol &
through the pole of the points at infinity. . Again, the locus of poles
for the system of planes x Yolo Io aviiio
seen = he
which pass through a fixed line, is the line
_ VAtsp)et E+ 8)e
one we :
8. When n is even, the pole of the points in a plane is the same as the.
pole of the plane with respect to a fixed andere. WC. ;
Tin the second place, for curves of even order,
(FP) n= 2 (Qotn — RUM 1 + &e.) = 2, suppose ;
(bf n= (SP) n = 40m + Any — 0 (014 n-1 + Onath) + Ke. = 25 _..
and Gal
(PSAP)n =aySAa, + a, SAG, — 2 (a, SAay4 + A, 1SAa,) + Ke = 2A,
where @ is a self-eonjugate linear vector function defined by the equa-
tion just given. And now the eae of the sen in SXp = 1 is, es
Art. 6,
mn —t
"Sol
and the pole of the points at infinity is
Just as in the last article, the locus of poles of the system of parallel
planes SAp =¢ is
el OA te
CaaS ce
and, as A varies, all these locus lines pass through the peut @,, the -
=ai of the points at infinity.
For curves of even order, it is possible, by taking the origin at the.
point @, to render the ee u zero—at least, when J is not zero.
This may be verified directly by changing the origin, and then form-
ing the invariant 1; but it is otherwise obvious that this is the case,
since f(#y) is unaltered by a change of origin, and therefore 7remains'
382 Proceedings of the Royal. Irish Academy.
unchanged. Or directly, changing the origin, the expression for the
curve of order ” (odd or even) becomes, when the origin is at p,,
p= (5 = GyPoy 1 — Poy + + + In — GnPo) (tY)” :
(yt « + « Mp) (4y)”
The invariant
(ay — MP0) Mn ~ (1 — Myo) dz +. ~ «+ (—)" (Gn — Ano) M
may, when is even, by choice of p, be made to vanish; but when x
is odd, it is independent of p,, and cannot be made to vanish by chang+
ing the origin.
Thus, for curves of even order, the pole of the points in SAp=1 is,
if the origin is taken at the pole of the points at infinity,
a =~ I6(),
and the locus of the poles of the system of parallel planes SAp=¢ is
the line
p=-t'P6 (A).
Let the quadric Sp@p = const. be constructed, then the locus of the
poles of points in a system of planes at right angles to a given radius
vector to the quadric is the central perpendicular to the corresponding
tangent plane.
In this case, also, the locus of poles of the system of planes
S(tA + s)p=t+s,
which pass through a given line, is the line
“ 6 (tA + sp)
a Cae
The pole of the plane SAp=1 being given by a=-J"6A, will not
lie in the plane (as in the case of curves of odd order) unless
Sr\o = -— I SrOA = —- [Saha = 1.
Thus the locus of poles which lie in the corresponding planes is the
quadric surface JSp@"p=-1. The tangent plane at a to this surface
is
ISphia=-1 or Spr=1,
and the quadric is also the envelope of the planes which contain their
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 383
poles. More generally, the pole of the plane SAp=¢ with respect to
this quadric is the point
a=-—tI“6n,
and this is precisely the point which is the pole of the points in
which the twisted curve meets the plane with respect to that twisted
curve of even order.
9. Standard vector expression for curves of even order.
Remembering the definition of (PSAP), = 26(A) in Art. 6, it follows
that, if A and w satisfy the relation SAG =0, the (12)" invariants
derived from the two scalar quantics SA¢ (zy) and Su¢ (xy) vanishes.
Hence, if A, », and v satisfy
SpOv = SvOX = SrGp,
and if
$ (zy) SApv = Vay A (2, y) + VoA B(a, y) + Vip C(a, y),
where
A (2, y) = SAG(a, y), &e.,
the (12)" invariants (BC), (CA),, and (4B), of the sealar binaries all
vanish. If, further, SA@A=- J, the (12)” invariants
(AA), = (BB), = (CC), =— 22.
If, again,
Ja=-6, JB=-6p, and Ly=- hh,
it follows at once, since
Sr\a=1, and Spa=Sva=0, that aSrpv =Vyyr, &e.,
and that a, 8, and y are conjugate radii of the quadric surface
ISp§" p =- 1.
Hence the vector equation of the curve of even order may be written
in the form
_ oA (xy) + BB (ay) + yO (ay)
fee gay area ee
I (+Y)
where
(AA), = (BB), = (CC), =— (ff )n = — 22
and
(BO (64s 1C4B)2= 0;
384 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
aid -becans&iin 5 = oft -esehy of} to poms 7liag
1=0, or a(Afn +B (Bf n+ ¥(Ofn=0,
(Af). = (Bf)n = (Cf), = 0.
Tf a B, and y are taken to be the principal axes of the rise
ae [Spps-1,. aio aoa To ape
the additional simplicity of the mutual Pech earLy, of tbe coordi-
nating veetorsis obtained.
10. Introduction of a second invariant, which cannot generally: be made
to vanish when.n.is odd,-and is then a vector.
Again, consider the invariant (12), obtained by operating with the
operator derived from the quantic
(BoBiBs - - - Bn) (zy)
on the quantic itself. This is, by the principles of Art. 4,
BoBn 3 MPrBy-a ce afte (—)"BnBo-
First, taking the case in which 7” is odd, the invariant ‘is a vector,
and its half is
V (BB, 7 nBiBn1 + &c.);
For example, if the binary quantic is
Pp (Gp, - - - An) (Zy)” — (aya, . . . Gy) (ZY)”,
the invariant is
V [ (pay — a5)(pa, — an) — 2 (pay — a,)(pay_1 — On1) +. &e. |
Vp [adn — nd, — M (@,Aq-) — On ad,) +...) + V(ayay — Naan» + &e.)
= Vpi+K
in the notation of Art. 7. This invariant cannot in general be made
to vanish by change of origin of vectors; if it vanishes, Sin=0, and
this is not generally true. In fact, it is easy to see that, on change
of origin, the invariant x becomes x+ Vp,, where p, is the vector to
the new origin, and thus the scalar Sx: is quite independent of the
position of the origin, as it has been shown already that c« does not
change with change of origin.
————
_Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 389
As an example, take the case of the general twisted cubic
at? + 800° + 8a,0y" + a3y?
in Aye? + 8ax?y + da,vy? + a3y”
Here |
L = Aglz — 30) — 3 (a, — aot),
and.
k = Va a3 — 3 Vaya.
The origin may be supposed to be taken on the curve,'so that a3;=0.
Then if .=0, a, a,, and a, are coplanar, and the curve must be plane ;
if Sux=0, Sa,a,a,=0, and again the curve is plane; if k=0, a, is
parallel to a2, and here again the curve is plane.
11. But when n is even, tt is scalar, and rts vanishing determines the
director sphere of the quadric of Art. 8.
When ~ is even, this invariant is a scalar, and its halfis —_
SB Bn - SB Bra + &e.,
in which the last coefficient must be halved.
The binary quantic
P (aot «+» Gn)(zy)” — (aga. . . &,)(ey)”
affords the invariant
S (ap — a)(anp — ay) — 2S (ap r-a1)(A,1p — G1) + &e.
= p*l — 2Spu + (Saa, — nSaja,1 + &e.),
using the notation of the 8th Article.
If this invariant vanishes, the vector p must terminate on a sphere
whose centre is the point J-'s — the pole of the points at infinity. For
this point as origin, the equation of the sphere is
pl + Sa a, — nSaja,1 + &e. = 0.
Consider an ellipse referred to its centre as origin with a and £ for its
axes major and minor; the equation of the ellipse is
a(1—#) + 2B¢
=acosu+ B sin wu = ——
p B 1+?
, uw t=tandu.
For this curve, 7=1, and the equation of the sphere is
Rae ya
386 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
that is, the sphere contains the director circle of the conic as a great
circle. A similar result holds for the hyperbola
a(1+¢) + 2Bt
p=acoshu+ B sinhu = 1-# ;
if ¢=tanh dw.
Taking the equation of the general unicursal curve of even order in
the standard form given in Art. 9, the invariant of the present article,
being the (12)” invariant of the quantic
pf (zy) - aA (xy) — BB(xy) -yC (zy),
reduces at once to
p?- a? — B?- 77 =0,
and the sphere is the director sphere of the quadric
ISp"p =- 1.
Referring to the list of vanishing invariants which is given at the close
of the article cited, there is no difficulty in proving this.
12. Furmation of a system of curves called ‘* Emanants,” projective with
the original curve.
From any binary quantic a system of emanants may be derived by
the aid of operators of the type
x z +4 i
tie dy
In connexion with a curve
_ P (ey)
I(2Y)
of order m, may be considered the emanant curve
d ad \?
(5 +y 5] o(t) ¢
p =
d a \?
(275 ay =) f (a1)
of order p, if z, y are regarded as variable, and x, y, as given. Now,
if y is any linear vector function, the original curve is projected by
operating by y, and replacing Wp by p. Thus
_, Play)
Pa ¥-Fay)
Jory— Vector Expressions for Curves. 387
is the equation of the projected curve, and as the constant function y
and the operator
& i +4 g
da, y dy,
are commutative in order of operation, the emanant curves project into
emanants of the projected curve.
The emanants of any order p defined by x,y;, have the same tangent
line and osculating plane at the point
= (“1y1)
S (em)
at which they meet the original curve. For, at any point e=2, y=y2
on the emanant, the tangent line is
d d \ ad gq Ne
(2 da, ear dy; pale * da, + Y2 dy, =) $ (m9)
OE Cones
(2 dix, vy dy, ale * day TG: dy, =) J (ni)
and this becomes identical with the tangent line at x,y, to the original
curve when #,=2, and y= %.
In like manner, the osculating plane at zy. on the emanant is
z a a? a d d \r2
da? or 8 dic dy, 0 dy? Oe = Ua dy, $ (x11)
Ee en
dx,” dx dy, a es dx, nay, | F (m1)
and this is, when z, = 2, and y, = y,, the same as the osculating “lame
at xy, to the original curve.
13. General properties of the emanant curves.
The emanant at x,y, of order p intersects the emanant at 2,y, of
order n—p. In fact,
ds tii dbun? iio ah \8
if (2 Je + Yaa a blah) (agus a) (£22)
p = d d d n—p ?
(2: 2 de + 2 ay Sf (an) (agethay) SJ (242)
is a point common to the two curves. Again, as the equation of the
388 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
tangent line at the point whose parameter is z,: y. on the emanant at
xy, of order p may be written in either of the forms
(eis a\h Ya ca ee earn,
—— SS
a dz, Y ay, \ dz, va, ) de
eKu7cl]l]TcT_—_—__™™™™™™_=zmz =, “
da a\f od Dh ee
(7 a tat a F (a1)
1 1
(2+ = \( z 4 HV" 4 (eu)
_ de, "9 dy, \ de, dy se
(=z ae an ae ony,
= S| Sa == 2Yo
dz, 7 dy,)]\"' de," dys} oy
or
the emanant at zy, of order p has a common tangent line with the
emanant at zy, of order n—p+1.
And, similarly, as the osculating plane at the point z.y. on the
emanant of order p at x,y, is
a e\(. a ar af
_\ dz? dz.” dz,dy, © dy |\"* dz. * Py, $ (791)
oi DR sTPOERR: Ie aORe pa | AR MET Ti caer eE
( ae ICR F (sth)
or
(eM s5 # °: wo» #\(x ts (x42)
\ dz* dry, ” dye )\™ + +1 Gy, } % (Faye)
ria = Py aay | See et
Ji) dade dy2) 1 de, ry dy] Ye
this plane osculates likewise the emanant at zy, of order n-p+2.
Again, if both z,y, and z.y, vary together,
{ 4a d \P °
Le SS LS L }
AB aa! (Zi)
= ak eh ger ,
\* de, +927 dy, ) F (ay)
is the equation of a surface which is the locus of emanants of order p,
or of order n—y. In particular, the first emanants and the tangent
lines are curves on the developable whose cuspidal edge is the given
curve.
Mixed emanants may also be considered ; but it seems to be desir-
able to explain, in the first instance, a notation which may be con-
veniently used in discussing their properties.
Joty— Vector Hxpressions for Curves. 389
14. Syzygy of Date curves, os) Pines
_ Take for example a conic. Let the point vy, on it be denoted by
the symbol (11), and the tangent line thereat by the symbol (1). A
point on this tangent line may be denoted by the symbol (12) or (21),
and the second tangent through this point may be denoted by (2), and
its point of contact by (22).
Again, for a cubic, the first or conic emanant at 2, y, may be sym-
bolized by (1), the tangent line at the point by (11); the osculating
plane by [1], and the point itself by (111). The point whose para-
meter is 4, : ¥, on the conic (1) may be called (122), and the tangent,
line thereat (12) or (21).. In general, the order in which the figures
occur within the brackets is arbitrary.
Two figures complete a syzygy for a conic, consisting of two points
(11) and (22) on the conic, their pole (12), and the tangents (1) and (2).
15. Description of a syzygy for the twisted cubic. |
For a cubic a complete syzygy of points, curves, and planes may be
derived from three figures. In the osculating plane [1] lie the points,
lines, and the conic involving the figure 1 in their symbol. The planes
[1] and [2] intersect in the line (12). The lines of intersection of the
three osculating planes [1], [2], and [3] are (23), (31), and (12), and
they intersect in the point (123). This point has been called in Art. 6
the pole of the three points (111), (222), and (333).
In the plane [1] are the lines (11), (12), and (13), and these are
tangents at the points (111), (122), and (138) to the conic (1). The
points (122) and (133) are the points in which the tangents (22) and
(33) to the cubic meet the plane [1]. But since the lines joining the
points of contact of a conic inscribed in a triangle to the opposite ver-
tices concur, the lines joing (111) to (123), (122) to (1138), and (183)
to (112) concur in some point P;. If P, and P; are points’ similarly
formed in the planes [2] and [3], the following groups of collineations
may be written down :—
(111), (128), P,; (122), (118), P,; (188), (112), Pi;
(OPEN, (IIB), 22 (OBE, Oy ae (CUD), (By vers
(333), (128),.P5;. (311), (382), P;; (822), (831), 2.
Again, taking a plane through the points (118), (221), and (382) ;
in virtue of the collineations it passes through P,, P., and P;. In like
390 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
manner, a plane through (112), (223), and (331) passes through P,,
P,, and P,; and since these planes do not in general coincide, P;, P2,
and P; must lie ona line. Hence it follows that (111), (222), (333),
and (123) lie in a plane, as has been more generally proved for curves
of odd order in the 7th article.'
16. Linear construction for this syzygy.
The properties proved in the last article give a means of construct-
ing, not only the conics, but the three points of osculation, when the
osculating planes and the tangents are given.
The intersections of the planes determine the lines (23), (31), and
(12). In the plane [1], the five points (112), (113), (122), (128), and
(133) are given, since they are points of intersection of the given and
constructed lines. The point P, is constructed by joining (122) to (113),
and (133) to (112); and the point (111) lies on the line joining P, to
(123). The conic (1) in this plane is uniquely determined, as it has
to touch the three lines (11), (12), and (13) at the constructed points
(111), (112), and (113).
It should be remembered that it has been proved, in Art. 13, that
these conics lie on the tangent-line developable of the cubic. The
theorem respecting the locus of their centres, given in Salmon’s ‘‘ Three
Dimensions,” will be generalized in a future article of the present
Paper.’
17. Syzygy for the twisted quartic.
The syzygy for the twisted quartic
_ (a,a,020304) (xy)*
, CNALALS) (ay)”
consists of the following system :—Denoting a point on the curve by
(1111), the first emanant (a twisted cubic) at this point by (1), the
second emanant (a conic) by (11), the tangent line by (111), and the
osculating plane by [11]; there are four sets of points, cubics, conics,
lines, and planes, whose symbols involve only one of the four figures
1, 2, 8, and 4. In addition, there are the mixed emanant conics (12),
and their planes [12]. The conic (12) may be described either as the
1 See Art. 337 of Dr. Salmon’s *‘ Three Dimensions.”’
2 See ‘‘ Three Dimensions,’’ Art. 340; and Art. 21 of this Paper.
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 391
conic emanant at the point (1222) on the cubic (1), or as that at (2111)
on the cubic (2). This conic (12) is related to the conics (11) and (22)
as follows. The planes [11] and [12] intersect in the line (112) which
touches the conic (11) at (1122), and also the conic (12) at (1112).
Similarly, the line (122) les in the planes [22] and [12], and this
line touches (22) at (1122), and (12) at (1222). The line of inter-
section of [11] and [22] cannot be expressed by a symbol of the kind
here used, but (1122) is a point on it. The point (1122) lies on each
of the conics (11) and (22), and the plane [12] touches both the conics
at this point, as it contains the tangent to each. Again, this point
(1122) is the pole of the chord joining (1112) and (2212), two points
on the conic (12). These points lie on tangents to the quartic, and
generally (12) meets the tangents (111) and (222), tangents to the
quartic, and to the conics (11) and (22) respectively.
Again, for three figures, there is the line (123), through which the
planes [23], [81], and [12] pass, and which is a tangent to the three
conics (23), (81), and (12) at (11238), (2231), and (3312), respectively.
Similarly, introducing a fourth figure, three new lines (234), (314),
and (124) are found, and these lines intersect with (123) in the point
(1234), which is the pole of the four assumed points. Through this
pole pass the six planes of the type [12], which intersect by threes in
the lines of the type (123).
18. Remarks on the general syzygy.
In general, for a curve of the n” degree, the pole of » points
LY15 TY; +++ Yn May be denoted by the symbol (1, 2,...).
Through this point pass 4” (n—1) planes of the type [1, 2,...(m-—2)],
whose symbols involve only (n—2) of the nm figures. These planes
intersect in ” lines (1, 2,...(#-—1)), through each of which »-1
planes pass. Given »-—1 points, and combining them with an arbi-
trary n™ point on tke curve, the locus of the poles is the line
(1, 2,...(#—1)). Given only (~-2) points, and combining them
with two arbitrary points, the locus of the poles is the plane
[1, 2,...(w—2)]; but if the same arbitrary point is taken twice
over, the locus is the conic (1, 2,...(m—2)). Im general, the ema
nant curves may be considered as loci of poles. Thus the first emanant
(1) is the locus of the poles of the system consisting of a given point
“Yi, and an arbitrary point zy taken n — 1 times.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IY. 2E
392 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
19. The osculating planes of the quartic envelop the quadric of
Art. 8.
More especially for the quartic curve, it is easy to show that its
osculating planes envelop the quadric JSp6“p=-—1 of Art. 8. Taking
the point x,y, three times over, and an arbitrary point zy, once, the
pole is (1112), and it lies on the tangent (111) to the quartic. Now,
in the osculating plane [ 11] the points are z,y, taken three times over,
and the fourth point «’,y’,, in which the plane meets the curve. The
pole (1111’) of these four coplanar points lies in their plane, and con-
sequently lies on the quadric JSp#"p =—1, and the osculating plane is
the tangent plane thereat. It should be noticed also that, taking the
point (1111) twice, and two other points zy; and zy,, which lie in a
plane with (1111) taken twice, that is to say, the points which lie in
a plane through the tangent line (111), the locus of their poles (1134)
is a right line in the osculating plane. For, the points being coplanar,
the theorem of Art. 8 holds good, and the locus of poles of a system of
planes through a line with respect to a quadric surface is a right line.
This line meets the conic (11) in two points. Corresponding to these
poles, the variable plane touches the quartic in a second point, or it
contains two tangent lines, or every tangent to the quartic meets two
others, or the rank of the developable formed by these tangent lines
is 6,1 as will be otherwise proved later on.
It will also be shown that there are four planes which pass through
- four consecutive points on the curve. The theorem of Art. 8 holds with
respect to one of these points taken four times. These four points con-
sequently lie on the quadric JSp6"p =— 1, and as the osculating planes
touch the quadric, the quartic touches it likewise at each of the four
points.
20. Characteristics and reciprocal of unicursal curves.
There is no difficulty in determining the characteristics of these
unicursal curves, using the principles laid down in Arts. 326 and 327
of Salmon’s ‘‘ Three Dimensions.”” In accordance with Dr. Salmon’s
1 See “‘ Three Dimensions,”’ Art. 330. The number of tangents which meet a
given tangent is s — 4, where 7 is the rank.
JoLty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 393
notation, suppose the degree of the curve to be m. The scalar equa-
tion of the osculating plane is
Ch Pp # Cf db & Of Pd F
| CS, SEE ES, BOT EL eb i
da? dxdy dy? dady* dy? da? * dy? dx dxdy
9 &b @h &b
yy oF dady dy?’
and as this involves z: y in the degree 3(m-—2), the number of oscu-
lating planes through an arbitrary point is m= 3(m- 2).
In like manner, if the tangent (in which z’ and y’ are variable)
meets an arbitrary line p=at+tf,
sop (tt af _ a) _ oth a 9.
dx dy
\da dy dy dz,
and as this involves x: y in the degree 2(m-—1), the rank of the
curve is7=2(m-—1). From these three all the characteristics may
be deduced.
It is simpler, perhaps, to notice that the curve is the reciprocal
with respect to the sphere p?+1=0 of the plane
Spd (zy) +f (ay) = 0,
which involves the parameter x: y in the degree m. The characteristics
of the curve are thus the reciprocals of those given in Art. 329 of the
‘Three Dimensions.” They are, in Dr. Salmon’s notation,
a=4(m—8); x2=2(m—-1)(m-8); h=4(m-1)(m-2);
B=0; y=2(m—2)(m—38); g=4(9m?—53m+ 80).
In Art. 349 it is shown that the quartic considered in Art. 17 of
the present Paper is the excubo-quartic through which only one
quadric surface can be drawn.
2E2
394 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
21. Extension of a theorem of Cremona’s.
The extension of Cremona’s theorem, referred to in the note {to
Art. 16, is as follows: the locus of the pole of the points in which a
variable first emanant meets a fixed plane, is a conic section. Or still
more generally, let the first emanant be
‘iia s
- le nay)?
d d
(aga)
and consider the locus of the pole of the points determined by the first
emanant
where F'(zy)=0 is a scalar binary of the n™degree. In the notation
of Art. 6, the pole is
d d d d *
laaethay)? (tata) Ff
| d d d d }
(aztng)s. (agrng| La
(db aF dp dF\ (db dF (db dF
ae mae eas (ae dy )..* (ar dic iz). \* ara) ie
~ “TF aF mics aF\ (df dF le (oe
at (7 dz i) Wap dy whet dy dz he dy “da )n4
dF
dx’ dz
the binaries of the order x — 1, and it is evident, that if x, : y, varies,
the locus of the poles is a conic section.
yon—
Here, as in the article cited, (Zz is the (12) invariant of
nl
22. Unicursal curve regarded as the locus of the mean centre of corre-
sponding points on any number of homographically divided lines.
The general unicursal curve admits of a simple geometrical con-
struction. Let ¢e....+4, be the roots of f(t, 1)=0, and let the
curve be
£: g(t, 1) (aay. - . an) (¢, LN as
at fG@l) Ga... 0)
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 395
Now
2 co ah (t) — af (t)
i” I (4)
ag , 5 ashen) = a f (6)
aE EDR (el)
by the method of partial fractions; or, if
__ > (41) med &
oe TG ares: é,—t
is the equation of the curve. Here q, «...«, are the vectors parallel
to the asymptotes, and the construction is :—Take a system of m lines
through a point, and divide them homographically ; the locus of the
mean centre of corresponding points on the homographically divided
lines is a unicursal curve of the most general kind. If the lines are
real, and the homographic divisions also real, the curve has m real
asymptotes to which these lines are parallel.
The line p= 4 is homographically divided when ¢, is given and
=
t variable. The corresponding point on the line parallel to & is
NE:
— ? and adding all these and dividing by x, the validity of the con-
struction is evident.
Suppose, however, that f(¢,1)=0 has a pair of conjugate roots,
q + af —1e,. The terms arising from these are:
dh (e+ +/—1 1 ¢,’) ag (6, — o/ — 141")
Cap ie Coy ae Gage Sie yeaa
eto/—le! ———- GEOG ey
7 eee ee Sy Sie: (4-0)? + ey?
Thus, when two of the roots of f(¢,1)=0 are imaginary, the cor-
responding homographically divided lines are imaginary also; but they
combine into a real ellipse. Ina similar manner, if two roots are equal,
a parabola replaces two of the lines.
396 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The quartic having four real asymptotes may be described as the
locus of the mean point of a tetrahedron whose vertices determine
homographic divisions on four given lines. If only two asymptotes
are real, the locus is the mean point of a triangle, two of whose
vertices determine homographic divisions on two lines parallel to the
asymptotes, while the third vertex determines homographié divisions
onaconic. Finally, if the curve has no real asymptote, it is the locus
of the middle point of a line joining homographic points on two given
conics; or, more generally, it is the locus of a point dividing in a given
ratio the line joining corresponding points on a pair of conics homo-
graphically divided.
re! ? notice that
the equation of a tangent is
Fa € (@,- t) on t
= Fila Se a ee eee se i tee rar
A €> [ e = pe (e, = ty)? |
p= ve + > ( = t,)°
When ¢,=4,
p=%a+ 25
62 — 6;
is the equation of the asymptote parallel to «,, the sign & including
(m — 1) terms.
. 7 2&7 — eo » . .
Thus, for a conic, the centre is , as the vector to this point is
€; — e2
on both asymptotes. The equation of the conic referred to its centre
is easily seen to be
€ 2 —t €5 é,—t
- .-—— + .——
p Gs 2, (Sle ee ee
or
€; — €2 Git ae é,—t
p= cosh uw + ——sinhw, where e“= .
2 — @} ly — €; é,-t
‘ Two curves are homographically divided when there is a one-to-one corre-
spondence between corresponding points.
Joty— Vector Expressions for Curves. 397
23. Curve constructed by three developables.
Unicursal curves may also be regarded as generated by the points
of intersection of homographic planes of three unicursal developables.
If three developables are the envelopes of
Spgi(t) =f: (4), Spd2(t)=f2(é), and Spds(t) =fs (4);
the points common to three corresponding planes is
F _Si(t) V2 (2) $3 (8) + f2()Vbs (4) bi (2) + Fs (4) Vi (4) be) |
Shi (£) 2 (2) 3 (2)
The degree of the curve is ”; + % + %3, Where m, %, and 3 are
the degrees in which the parameter occurs in the expressions for the
planes of the developables. Thus, in particular, a twisted cubic is
the locus of intersection of three corresponding planes of homographic
systems through right lines; here
T=, =%3,—1,
24. Inverse and pedal curves.
The inverse of the curve
dy) ., 9 __ Sly)
Fay) ~ ? ” (ayy
if the radius of the sphere of inversion is unity. Multiplying above
and below by $(zy), the equation of the inverse is
Bs _S (zy). $(2y) ,
T° (xy)
This is of the form considered in the present Paper, the vector to a
point on the curve being expressed as the quotient of a vector bimary
quantic by a scalar binary.
398 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(xy)
Ff (zy)
pendiculars from the origin on the tangent lines, is easily seen to be
given by
The pedal of the curve p= or the locus of the feet of per-
dd db
_ ay
O° df apap af”
da dy dx dy
or by
7 pb ab (#8 af ie af)
_ da dy \da' ty Wy dz
lo F_ a GY
(z dy dy’ =
This curve is in general of the degree 4(n — 1).
[ 399 ]
X.
ON THE MELTING POINTS OF MINERALS.
By RALPH CUSACK.
(PratEe V.)
[ COMMUNICATED BY PROF. G. F. FITZGERALD, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S. F.T.C.D. |
[Read NovemBEr 9, 1896.]
Hirnerto mineralogists appear to have made no efforts towards obtain-
ing the melting points of minerals in their natural state, though the
subject is one full of interest, especially in the case of ejected igneous
rocks and lavas, which at the time of ejection were subject to no
great pressure from the surrounding strata. There is also the theoretic
interest attached to such minerals as are the only known representa-
tives of a particular molecular grouping.
As will be seen from the determinations given further on, melting
points afford in many cases an easy and very convenient means of
identifying minerals, and may be used for this purpose where only
minute quantities of the mineral can be obtained.
The instrument used for the following determinations is Dr. Joly’s
meldometer—an instrument fully described by him in a Paper
published by the Royal Irish Academy. The working of this instru-
ment depends entirely on the expansion of a platinum ribbon heated
by an electric current under suitable control. The instrument shown
in the accompanying figure? is the latest form of the meldometer, as
made by Messrs. Yeates & Son (see page 400). - It consists of a
rectangular piece of slate cut as shown, on which are affixed two
forceps, one of which is rigid, and the other free to rotate round a
vertical axis, the lower end of which axis dips into a trough of
mercury, to ensure good electrical contact. A small spiral spring
attached to the vertical axis of the movable forceps, which may be
seen at the left-hand side of a figure, serves to keep the platinum
ribbon stretched when it is fixed in position. Projecting from the far
end of this forceps is a flat steel spring, on the further end of which is
fixed a small gold plate with which the platinum point of the micro-
meter screw, when carried forward, makes contact, which contact
1 Proc. R. I. Acad. vol. ii., Ser. 3, p. 38, Pl. vi.
? Kindly lent by Yeates & Son.
400 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
closes the circuit through a galvanometer, not seen in the figure, but
situated inside the eyepiece of the microscope. The instrument I
used had not the microscope attached to the bed plate, but separate
from it ; otherwise the instrument was identically the same as that in
the figure. The forceps are bent over at the ends, allowing a trough
to be raised, and surround the ribbon when in position. This trough
can be lowered when necessary, and has been found very advantageous,
{i Tm i
i HT
as it helps greatly in excluding draughts, which are fatal to accurate
working. This trough, however, forms a dust-trap, and will give rise
to trouble if not very carefully and frequently cleaned, as the particles
of the minerals dealt with fall into it, and the slightest breath of air
blows them on the ribbon, which is thereby rendered too dirty, and so
useless for further determination. The rheostat used was the same as
that employed by Dr. Joly, except that German silver wire was used
Cusack——On the Melting Points of Minerals. 401
in place of the carbon rods. An additional self-working rheostat was
introduced for convenience. This rheostat was formed of a carbon
rod, about 2 feet in length, enclosed in a glass tube in an upright
position; mercury is allowed to flow in from an adjoining vessel and
surround the carbon, thereby reducing the resistance. Without any
attention being paid to the rheostat, the flow of mercury can be
regulated so that the resistance alters either slowly or rapidly as is
convenient to the observer.
It would be as well, perhaps, to explain the operation of fixing
the ribbon between the forceps, and also how the curve for the
expansion of the ribbon is arrived at.
The ribbon used was supplied by Messrs. Johnson & Marthey, and
weighs 0°0073 grammes per centimetre, 3°80 inches of which were
taken, and clipped at each end at about 30°. The ends thus clipped
were fixed in the forceps, and adjusted, so that when a suitable current
was passed through, the entire ribbon was uniformly heated.
The ribbon, when adjusted so that it is heated uniformly, is raised
to a bright red heat, and left thus for a few minutes ; the current is
then cut off, and the whole apparatus allowed to cool before calibra-
tion is commenced. To calibrate a ribbon the milled head of the
micrometer screw is turned until the point of the screw comes in
contact with the spring projecting from the other arm of the movable
forceps from that to which the ribbon is attached; the number of
divisions through which the head has moved are then read off; a
speck of silver chloride (the melting point of which is assumed from
the determination by Carnelly) is then placed on the ribbon, the
current is turned on, and the resistance to the current is reduced by
the rheostats in the circuit, till the AgCl is seen to melt, a micro-
scope being used to aid the eye. I may here observe that a small
concave mirror was found very convenient for illuminating the sub-
stance under observation. The ribbon is not sufficiently luminous of
itself until the melting point of cupric oxide is reached. The expan-
sion of the platinum ribbon should be carefully followed with the
micrometer screw till the substance melts, and should then be instantly
stopped. The point of the screw can be kept in contact with the
spring by use of the galvanometer in the eyepiece; this becomes
quite easy after a little practice. The number of divisions moved
through is again read on the head, and this reading, minus the previous
reading, gives the expansion of the ribbon for AgCl. This expansion
is then marked off to scale on an ordinate, the temperature at which
AgCl is known to melt on another ordinate at right angles; and
402 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
thus one point on the curve is obtained, the normal temperature of
the room (about 12°) being subtracted from the known melting point
of the substance used to calibrate.
A similar process is gone through with each of the other substances
used in calibration. I have always found potassium bromide, black
copper oxide, and paladium, most convenient. Sometimes a specimen
of actinolite was used as coming conveniently between CuO and pala-
dium, but with very slight advantage, as the curve was found always
to pass very close to the poimt thus obtained. Actinolite presents
considerable viscosity, and thus has no very definite melting point,
but still was useful as a verification of the curve. A numerical
example may be useful as to the method of finding the curve of expan-
sion for a ribbon. ‘Thus, in the case of black oxide of copper the
reading of the screw-head at starting was 1986 divisions from zero,
when the CuO melted ; the head was reading 2329 divisions; so that
2329 minus 1986 gave the number of divisions, the head moved
through between the normal temperature of the room (12°) and the
melting point of CuO, so the screw-head advanced 348 divisions.
Each of these divisions represents the +;3>, part of an inch, therefore
the screw advanced through 324%> parts of an inch; the ribbon when
cold measured 3°83 inches.
Dividing 343 by 38,300, the number 0:008955 is obtained. This
is plotted on the ordinate to a convenient scale of 0°002 to an inch.
Logarithmetic paper can be procured ruled to this scale. The known
melting point of CuO, 1055°, minus the temperature of the room, 12°,
was plotted on the ordinate at right angles to the temperature scale
at the point corresponding to 1043°C. CuO is then marked on the
curve at the point corresponding to 1055° C., the temperature at which
CuO is known to melt. The first melting in the case of this sub-
stance, CuO, must always be used as any subsequent melting is
higher. Other substances used for calibration are dealt with in the
same manner.
A curve once obtained for a ribbon (see Plate V.), the determination
of a melting point is calculated from an observed expansion by
calculating the value (of 1,—1,) divided by 1,, corresponding to the
expansion ; then plotting the ordinate and finding the temperature
corresponding to this ordinate, and adding the number of degrees
corresponding to initial temperature.
A great portion of one’s time would be taken up plotting curves if
the above operation was necessary for each new ribbon that was used ;
as a ribbon very soon gets dirty, the melted particles of the minerals
Cusack—On the Melting Points of Minerals. 403
adhering to it. By cutting a number (say ten) of ribbons at the same
time, so as to have them all the same length, and being very careful to
have the ends cut away to exactly the same extent, the necessity of
plotting a new curve for each ribbon is done away with. After many
trials I found that ribbons carefully cut and adjusted properly in the
forceps, so that the head of the screw read the same for each ribbon
permitted of such being used to the one curve.
The amount the ribbons are cut away at the ends is very impor-
tant, and great care should be used in seeing that they are cut away
an equal amount if a common curve is to be used for a number of
ribbons. The best method is to cut each separately on a steel with
a very sharp knife, but they may also be marked with a needle point
and afterwards cut with a scissors.
When one requires to determine the melting point of a mineral the
first step necessary is to reduce that mineral to the finest powder ; for
this purpose a diamond mortar and two agate mortars are indispensable.
It has been found most convenient to prepare say ten specimens at a
time, and keep the specimens when powdered in little well-corked
bottles, as, if the powder gets damp, it is harder to put it on the
ribbon so nicely as when quite dry. I have always found the best
method of placing the powdered mineral on the ribbon is to use a
moderately fine needle. By putting the point of the needle into the
powder and then placing the poimt gently on the ribbon, some of the
mineral is found to have remained on the latter. If too much remains
the superfluous portion may be removed with a clean camel’s-hair
brush. The smaller the portion under observation is the easier it is
to determine its melting point ; especially in the case of minerals that
have a tendency to pass through a period of viscosity previous to
melting. The specimen should always be placed on the ribbon when
cold, and the micrometer should be read every day before starting
work, also when work is finished. I never found the ribbon to
permanently expand more than the 10,000th of an inch when care
was taken not to overheat it. The ribbon should always be allowed
to cool to its normal temperature before reading, as otherwise it
would not have regained its original position.
The minerals dealt with in this paper are those of very common
occurrence, along with such specimens of rarer minerals as could be
obtained in their crystalline state, in as pure a condition as possible,
to make up a group.
Considerable difficulty arises, dealing with the subject of the
melting points of natural minerals, in obtaining authentic specimens.
404 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Fortunately this difficulty is considerably lessened by the fact that
only small quantities of minerals are required, and these can often be
obtained from a museum specimen without injuring the specimens in
any way.
In many cases without a quantitative analysis it is quite impos-
sible to give the composition of a mineral with accuracy. In such
cases all one can do is to give the locality from which the specimen
was obtained as a clue to possible peculiarities in its composition ;
although in the exact sense one would not be likely to find many
specimens of exactly the same chemical composition even when taken
from the same locality.
Small variations in chemical compositions do not appear to effect
the melting point seriously. Several specimens of the same minerals
from different localities show melting points that vary very little ;
only about 2 or 3 per cent. as will be seen by the tables at the end.
Thus a specimen of augite from Terra del Fuego and one from
Vesuvius differed in their melting points only by 12°. That from the
former melted at 1187°, and the latter melted at 1199°C.
When one finds that the hardness and specific gravity of two
specimens of augite vary very considerably with their composition, it
is not surprising to find that their melting points also vary some-
what. But whereas in extreme cases the specific gravity of augite
varies nearly 10 per cent., the melting point only varies, as far as
observations have been made, 1 per cent. The greatest variation
observed is that of Diallage, one specimen melting at 1264°, and
another at 1300°. In this case I may have chanced to hit on extreme
specimens, for the first specimen melted at 1300°, and the second I
tried melted at 1264°, but when the other three specimens I had
obtained were determined it was found that they only varied 14°.
Diallage is slightly viscous, so has no definite melting point. I have
to thank Dr. Sollas for his kindness in giving me out of the museum
several specimens I would otherwise have been unable to obtain;
and I have also to thank Dr. Joly for his kindness in lending me
instruments, for many specimens, and for the assistance he frequently
gave me.
It would be interesting perhaps to give an account of the behaviour
of some of the specimens when on the ribbon.
Actinolite.—Of the four specimens examined, three were of the light
green fibrous variety, and one a dark olive green crystal quite destitute
of fibrous structure, and yet the melting points differ by only 16°, that
of the granular specimen being the lowest ; this might be accounted
Cusack—On the Melting Points of Minerals. 405
for by the fact that it is nearly impossible to reduce a fibrous substance
to powder ; its appearance under the microscope resembles particles of
finely chopped hay rather than a dust. Actinolite is viscous, but it is
possible to determine a point at which it is decisively melted; in fact
all the silicates present a period of viscosity in a greater or less degree,
so that none of them can be said to melt at any definite temperature,
but one can say a substance is melted at this temperature, and is not
at that. The difference between the two temperatures is never more
than about 10°, so that leaving a margin of 5° on either side of
the temperatures given, the substance may be said to melt within
that range, except in very exceptional cases, which are especially
mentioned.
Tremolite.—The two specimens were to all appearance similar, and
behaved the same as actinolite.
Hornblende undergoes a short period of viscosity which is only
perceptible with difficulty.
Diopside.—The specimens examined were all transparent, two were
of a pale green, the other was nearly white; their behaviour was
similar to hornblende.
Diallage—Different specimens of this mineral varied very much as
to their melting points, more so than any other mineral examined, but
this has been remarked on elsewhere. ‘The period of viscosity varies
with different specimens, and the way the substance is ground was
also found to affect the melting point ; only after the greatest difficulty
was it reduced to a sufficiently fine powder to obtain the results
given ; the previous results with the same specimens were very much
higher.
Augite is not distinguishable from hornblende on the ribbon.
Spodumene behaves rather like the felspars, and has to be reduced
to the very finest dust ; it bubbles at about 1200° C.
Wollastonite.—Both specimens were white, and presented fibrous
structure ; their viscosity was hardly observable.
Enstatite.—A specimen of the variety Bronzite was observed to be
viscous at about 8° below its melting point, which is slightly more
than is the case of most minerals.
Olivine is the most viscous mineral met with; one specimen was
viscous at 13283°, and only flowed freely at 1407°, but after careful
observation it was found to be melted at 1378°, but to retain a globular
form, which was hard to distinguish from the surrounding dust, as
only the very smallest particles are seen to melt at this temperature.
If the larger particles are watched on the ribbon it will be seen that
406 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the side next the ribbon is melted, and that the upper side is not
altered, or at least only softened slightly. In some minerals when the
under side is melted the rest of the particle is not supported on it, so
that it in its turn comes in contact with the ribbon, and is melted when
the ribbon is left at the temperature at which the under part was
observed to melt, but in the case of Olivine and a few other minerals
this is not so; as, when the underside melts, the upper portion is
supported on it, and if the temperature is not raised it will stay thus
never melting, radiating heat as rapidly as it absorbs it. As this
temperature is the same as the temperature at which the minutest
particles melt, I have put it down as the melting point in the case
of Olivine, and several other equally viscous minerals that behave
similarly.
Garnet.—The specimens of Almandine garnet examined were not
of any particular interest ; they were slightly viscous, and melted at
very much the same temperature. One was found at the junction of
the granite and the gneiss near Carrickmines ; it was transparent and
dark red.
Vesuvianite presents no viscosity, and bubbles up at about 1100°.
Epidote changes colour as it is heated and bubbles up at about
1000° ; one specimen of epidote was fibrous, and it melted at a higher
temperature than the granular specimen.
In Meonite, Nepheline, Sodalite, and Leucite nothing -reniabkarte
was observed ; they were all observed to bubble slightly, except
Nepheline, when fused.
The Felspars.—Two specimens of Adularia were examined, both
transparent, and melting practically at the same temperature. Adularia
bubbles up at about 1230°, which the other felspars have not been
observed to do; it can thus easily be recognised. All the felspars are
viscous to a large degree; a margin of 15° is allowed from the time
the substance is first observed to soften till it melts. The figures
given are those at which the smallest particles of the dust were
observed to be melted on the ribbon. When melted they look more
transparent. This is a very good means of observing when the
substance is melted, for then the ribbon looks like a strip of paper
with a number of pinholes in it held up to the light, and after a few
trials it is possible to catch the temperature at which the pinhole
appearance first occurs. Before this temperature is reached, however,
the little particles are observed to tumble about the ribbon showing that
they are going through a period of viscosity before the melting point
is reached. The felspars are not distinguishable from one another by
Cusack—On the Melting Points of Minerals. 407
their behaviour on the meldometer, except Adularia, which bubbles
up.
The Zourmalines are the most erratic minerals observed, as will be
seen from the temperatures given in the tables, ranging as they do
over an extent of 90°, a specimen of dark green tourmaline which was
quite transparent, having a melting point as high as 1102°C., while
one specimen of Schorl from the Wicklow granite melted as low as
1012°, and another at 1018°, a specimen of Rubbellite melted at a
temperature nearly intermediate between these, at 1068°; but when
the great variety in composition of the tourmaline is considered, the
variation in their melting points is not surprising.
The Oxides present no peculiarity as far as their melting points
are concerned ; some are quite infusible, or rather infusible below the
fusing point of platinum. Rutile melts at 1560° C., or 60° above the
melting point of the paladium, and the melting of Brookite is not
distinguishable from it. These very high temperatures are very
difficult to deal with, as the glare and heat of the ribbon are very
great, and very trying to the eyes. The fact that Brookite and Rutile
melt at the same temperature tends to show that the melting points
‘of substances of the same chemical composition are not influenced by
the molecular structure or difference of symmetry. Zircon probably
melts at about 1760°, as when the platinum fused the Zircon dust was
stuck on to the ribbon, and was apparently rounded at the edges as if
partially melted. It was not observed to melt under the microscope.
The specimen of Uranite was rather earthy, but was the only one
obtainable, and perhaps the observation is not very trustworthy.
Corundum showed no signs of fusion even at the highest tempera-
ture.
Quartz melts easily, but undergoes a long period of viscosity ;
nearly 20° of a margin ought to be allowed on either side of the
given melting point ; it was observed to be soft at 1406° C., and only
ran freely at 1440°, but was liquid at 1425°, being at this temperature
observed to flow like thick glycerine when the temperature was kept
constant. When the temperature was very slowly raised it was observed
to flow more and more easily till at 1440° it flowed like water.
The Phosphates are interesting as they vary a great deal in their
melting points. Wavellite being quite infusible, while Vivianite,
iron phosphate, is fusible at 1114°. Several attempts were made to
obtain the melting point of Turquoise, but with no success. It is
certainly infusible at 1500°. A specimen of perfectly transparent
Apatite from Switzerland was fusible at 1221°.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Tl]. 2F
408 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Of the Sulphides, Stibnites, Galena, and Zinc Blende were easily
determined, but some of the sulphides were either decomposed or
oxidised immediately on fusion, if not before, so that their melting
point could not be satisfactorily determined. Iron pyrites suddenly
decomposed at 642°; whether it is fused at that temperature or not it
is impossible to say, as the specimens suddenly became a greyish yellow
colour, or rather a substance of that colour was suddenly formed on
the ribbon, What the substance was could not be satisfactorily
discovered, as the quantity was so small that it could only be seen
under the microscope, but probably it was sulphur. Galena behaved
somewhat similarly, only the substance formed was white. Realgar
and Orpiment both changed colour as the temperature was raised, but
I noticed that if the temperature was kept constant the colour did not
change during the time the temperature remained constant.
The subject of the sulphides is perhaps the most interesting in
connexion with the meldometer when the pyro-chemical side is con-
sidered, as the charges that take place can be so much better observed
on the ribbon under the microscope, than when observed in connexion
with the blowpipe. As this Paper deals exclusively with the points
of fusion of minerals, very little can be said in connexion with
the sulphides, which nearly all appear to decompose at low tempera-
ture.
A remarkable phenomenon which still remains unexplained was
observed to occur in the case of some minerals just before the point
of fusion was reached, and was particularly remarked in the case
of CuO.
When the temperature of fusion was nearly reached, it was
observed that round a single grain of the substance under observation,
a halo had formed, which increased in size as the temperature con-
tinued to rise. If the temperature remained constant the substance
did not fuse, but the halo continued to increase in size for a consider-
able period, but very slowly after the first thirty seconds, stopping
altogether in about two minutes (this was observed in one case with
CuO). One is inclined to think that material from the undersurface of
the substance formed some compound with the platinum of the ribbon,
and that this, being more fusible than the CuO, flooded out on the
ribbon, causing the halo appearance. But what combination could
occur between CuO and platinum? Again if the substance was
viscous, and a very bad conductor of heat, it might have been caused
by the undersurface in contact with the ribbon being melted first, and
flowing over the ribbon, which actually occurred in the case of olivine.
Cusack—On the Melting Points of Minerals. 409
This substance is, however, very viscous, whereas CuO has a very
definite point of fusion, so this explanation will not account for the
case of CuO. The roughness of the fragment of CuO, and the move-
ment and regularity of the halo, appear to negative any explanation
depending on the reflection of light. In fact I have not been able to
arrive at any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon.
The meldometer, as will be seen from this Paper, can be used as
a high temperature thermometer up to the melting point of platinum,
reading with ease to 2° C. In the present instrument no attempt
has been made to magnify the expansions of the ribbon; this could
best be done by lengthening the arm, especially for a short range,
say of 300°, and thus obtain closer readings.
A far more interesting use the meldometer could be put to is that
of analysis in place of the blowpipe. Here it would be of enormous
advantage—one would have no waste, and could always have the use
of a microscope, and use only very small quantities of the minerals.
In the meldometer, not only can the reduction or oxidisation of a
mineral be observed under the most favourable circumstances, but
also the temperature at which such changes take place can be recorded.
The meldometer is also much cleaner to work with (and one never
gets a red-hot spark into one’s eye as is sometimes the case with the
blowpipe), and it is very much easier to handle in every respect than
the blowpipe. Sublimates can also be very easily obtained with the
meldometer, as any one who has read Dr. Joly’s Paper, on the
‘Melting points of Minerals,” will have seen. He there describes
many of the sublimates he obtained, and also the means used for
obtaining them.
It is interesting to consider what the melting points of minerals are
influenced by, whether it depends entirely on the chemical composition
of the mineral, or if the molecular structure influences it also.
Asan example: both rutile and brookite fuse at the same tempera-
ture, though of different forms of symmetry ; but topaz and kyanite,
though nearly of the same composition (some of the oxygen in the
kyanite being replaced by fluorine in the topaz), show in the case of
kyanite a fusing point of 1090°, whereas topaz is quite infusible. Can
the infusibility of topaz be accounted for by the presence of fluorine ?
It would appear as if the laws of fusion were very complicated.
The following list of the minerals whose melting points have been
determined may be of interest. The procedure in arriving at the
! foc. cit., p, 38.
2F2
410 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
melting point of a particular specimen, once the curve is got, is the
following :—First a tiny speck of the mineral is put on the ribbon,
then the micrometer screw is adjusted till the point is just in
contact with the spring of the arm; the galvanometer will then
oscillate if the head be moved the slightest bit back. The contacts
can be made so that a movement of the 20,000th of an inch of the
point of the screw will make or break the circuit through the galva-
nometers. This forms a very delicate means of reading the expansion
of the ribbon. When the screw is thus adjusted the trough is raised
so as to surround the ribbon, and then the microscope can be placed
so as to have the speck in the field of view. This is difficult,
and it was found convenient to use a pointer of a little piece of
platinum wire to find the speck. If the mineral is expected to melt
before a temperature of 1000° is reached, a ray of light should be
thrown on the speck by means of the mirror previously mentioned ;
the current is then turned on, and the resistance in the circuit
decreased till the mineral is observed to show signs of melting; the
screw is kept following the expansion of the platinum all the time,
till the substance is observed to melt, then stopped, and the expansion
calculated as previously shown. The first determination is generally
too high, and at least four or five trials are made before the melting
point is satisfactorily arrived at, but generally ten to fifteen are found
necessary when dealing with a viscous body. If one knows about the
temperature at which the body may be expected to fuse, five or six
are, however, generally sufficient. The expansion at each trial is
generally less than the previous one, and thus a point can be arrived
at, which is the lowest at which the mineral under observation is
observed to be fused. One can in a similar way determine the lowest
point at which a substance is soft, as when soft it can be seen falling
about on the ribbon.
The following example may illustrate this. The mineral was a
specimen of Diallage. When cold the ribbon was 3°83 inches long,
the head reading 1812 divisions :—
Ist trial, 2276 was reading of head.
and _,, 2284 33 &
srd_, 2263 av 3
AE ah 5, 2267 » 53
ERE ines 2260 e
6th ” 2264 ” ”
Cusack—On the Melting Points of Minerals.
I then concluded Diallage was melted at temperature corre-
sponding to 2260 — 1812 = 3°83 = 0-01169 or 1264° C.
By making similar trials I found that the little particles fell
about first at a temperature of about 8° lower.
SILICATES.
BIsILicaTEs.
Actinolite (green)— _ Diallage—
A. 1288°, Greenland. A. 1264°, —.
B. 1282°, Glenely, Scotland. B. 1300°, —.
C. 1272°, Tyrol C. 1278°, —.
D. 1275°, — D. 1284°, —.
E. 1270°. —.
Tremolite— :
Augite—
A980. ==.
B. 1219°, Bunbeg,
Donegal.
County
Hornblende—
A. 1187°, Arendal, Norway.
B. 1196°, Vesuvius.
C. 1200°, —.
Diopside—
A. 1187°, Ala, Piedmont.
B. 11999 ==
C) 11959
A. 1188°, Tyrol.
B. 1199°, Vesuvius.
C. 1187°, Terro del Greco.
Spodumene—
1173°, Killiney.
Enstatite—
1295°. Bronzite.
Wollastonite—
A. 1208°, New York.
B. 1208°, Manta Somoma.
412
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
UNISILICATES.
Olivine— Meionite—
A. 1378°, Vesuvius. 1281°, Vesuvius.
B. 1863°, Vesuvius. ;
Ch isis Nepheline—
softens > Carthagena, Spain. A. 1070°, Arendal, Norway.
at 1342°, B. 1059°, Vesuvius.
Garnet, Almandine—
A, 1264°, —.
B. 1268°, Dublin granite.
C. 1263°. Bohemia.
Vesuvianite—
A. 1024°, Binn.
B. 1035°, Vesuvius.
Epidote—
A. 954°, Portrane.
B. 976°, Arendal, Norway.
Zoisite—
995°, —.
Dioptase—
Pe7iey
Axzinite—
995°, Switzerland.
Sodalite—
A. 1183°, Vesuvius.
B. 1127°, Vesuvius.
Leucite—
1298°, Vesuvius.
Adularia—
A. 1168°, Ceylon.
B. 1164°, Switzerland.
Albite—
1172°, Mourne Mountains.
Microcline—
1169°, Binnenthal.
Labrodorite—
Ae 5e
B. 1223°, Basalt, Howth.
SUBSILICATES.
Tourmalines—
A. 1018°, Schorl., Dublin.
B. 1012°, Abs, Norway.
C. 1068°, Rubbellite, Massa-
chusets.
D. 1102°, Dark green.
E. 1013°, yellow.
Cyanite—
1090°, Donegal.
Topas, infus.
Titanite—
A. 1142°, green, Switzerland.
B. 1127°, pink, Switzerland.
Staurolite—
1115°, Wicklow.
Andalusite—
1209°, —.
CusackK—On the Melting Points of Minerals. 413
OXIDES.
Zircon, : . infus. Brookite, . . 1560°.
Cuprite, . =. L162?: Uraninite, . : A882.
Zincite, . «92602. Corundum, . infus.
Cassitirite, . ee ha Quartz, ‘ s, ‘P4252:
Rutile, : 1560". és softens, 1406°.
PHOSPHATES.
Vivianite, . se LL14?s | Apatite—
Wavellite mmfus., Cork. . A. 1221°, Switzerland.
B. 1227°, Rengrew, Canada.
SULPHIDES.
Molybdentte, Panitsse. Galena, . Bey (ey ict
Realgar,* . ah “(2). Zincblende, » 1049°.
Orpiment,*. . 825°(?). | Lron Pyrites PUR | Sas C2) |
Stibnite— Marcasite, . MN Pd Ch
ANTS US?
B. 523°.
* If Realgar or Orpiment are suddenly raised to the above temperatures they
appear to melt before subliming.
T Oxidizes suddenly.
[ 414 ]
XI.
CONCERNING MARSH’S LIBRARY AND AN ORIGINAL
INDULGENCE FROM CARDINAL WOLSEY LATELY
DISCOVERED THEREIN. Bry REV. GEORGE THOMAS
STOKES, D.D.
[Read Fzsrvary 8, 1897.]
Wauew Archbishop Benson visited Dublin last September, he paid a
visit to Marsh’s Library. I met him at the door, and, as we entered,
I told him that this was the library once owned by Bishop Stillingfleet.
of Worcester, and described upon his monument by the great critic
Bentley as ‘a library the like of which was not anywhere else in the
world.” ‘‘Oh, no!” he replied; ‘‘this cannot be Stillingfleet’s
library ; because when I was at Hartlebury Castle, the other day,
the Bishop of Worcester told me he had Stillingfleet’s library there
and he showed me some books which once belonged to Stillingfleet.”
‘Well, your grace,”’ replied I, ‘‘ the bishop may have some few books,
the relics of his library, but the corpus or body of Stillingfleet’s library,
is now before your eyes ; and I will show you proofs thereof in various
presentation volumes, made to Dr. Stillingfleet by various authors,
even before his consecration.” And so I did, showing the archbishop,
for instance, Cave’s ‘‘ Lives of the Fathers,” with the autograph inscrip-
tion of Dr. Cave, describing Dr. Stillingfleet as ‘‘ that illustrious and
learned man, Canon of Canterbury and of St. Paul’s.”” But Marsh’s.
Library contains much more than Stillingfleet’s collection. It is a
composite institution. It contains three episcopal libraries, an ordi-
nary clergyman’s library, and a portion of another library, the
property of a vicar-general. Let me describe it somewhat in detail.
First of all, Stillingfleet’s library is the basis of the whole collection.
Then, there is Stearne’s library ; and Stearne was the learned Bishop
of Clogher. Then there comes Archbishop Marsh’s own library,
largely composed of Oriental works, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac—
though he gave many of such works to the Bodleian. For Marsh was
a great Oriental scholar, and is described by a contemporary Oxford
divine as ‘‘ the greatest pillar of Oriental learning in the West since the
Sroxkes—Concerning Marsh’s Library. 415
time of Ussher.”! The fourth library is that of the Rev. Dr. Bouhercau,
the first librarian of the institution, which completely fills the present
reading room of ‘‘ Marsh.’* And the fifth library, largely, perhaps,
it might be said, entirely composed of manuscripts dealing with Irish
history, was the property of that eminent canonist, historian, and Ori-
entalist, Dr. Dudley Loftus, who lived and died in Upper Exchange-
street, as it is now called, or as it was then styled the Blind Quay, at the
back of Parliament-street. The library thus constituted was for long the
only public library in Dublin, and continued such down to the earlier
part of the present century. The late Dr. Stubbs of Trinity College,
not so very many months ago, came into it one day and showed me
the Latin dictionary for the sake of which, as he told me, he used to.
frequent ‘‘ Marsh’s”’ in the ‘‘ thirties,” and out of which he gathered
all the Latin which took him on to fellowship; and, to show the
marvellous conservatism of the atmosphere and of the place, he went
and put his hand upon it, standing in the very spot where it stood
sixty years before.? Now, as naturally may be supposed, the contents
1 Marsh despaired of Oriental learning in Ireland, and therefore bestowed nearly
1000 codices, Hebrew and Syriac, upon the Bodleian Library. His own private
library, which now forms a portion of that founded by himself and called after him,
is largely composed of Oriental books. It is curious that Marsh should have so
despaired of his own favourite study and its fate in Ireland, seeing that his friend
and contemporary, Dr. Dudley Loftus, was a Dublin Orientalist whose fame was,
just then, world-wide: cf. a paper by me on Dr. Dudley Loftus in the Journal of
the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for 1890-91, pp. 17-30. Dudley Loftus
printed Syriac works here in Dublin more than 200 years ago. I wonder what
became of his fount of Syriac type? It can scarcely have been that used in the
printing of Dr. Gwynn’s learned work on the text of the Apocalypse. A paper on
Oriental Scholarship in Dublin since 1600 would be very interesting. Ussher,
Loftus, Huntingdon, Marsh, form a goodly succession of Orientalists.
? Bouhereau was the first librarian. He was originally a Huguenot physician.
He came to Dublin after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and became the
pastor of the Conformist Huguenots, who worshipped in the Lady Chapel of St.
Patrick’s. He was also the first librarian of ‘‘ Marsh,’’ and was Under Secretary as
well to the Lord Lieutenant of that day. He was the ancestor of the family of
Burroughs. He wasa good scholar, and among his books in ‘‘ Marsh”’ is a French
translation of Origen against Celsus which he printed at Amsterdam in 1700. This
translation is praised both by Mosheim, in his German translation of the same,
published in 1745, and by Dr. Westcott, in his article on Origen in the Dict. of
Christian Biography, vol. iv., p. 122.
8The lexicon which had proved thus useful to Dr. Stubbs was Gouldman’s
‘¢English and Latin and Latin and English Dictionary,’’ published at Cambridge
in the year 1669. It had been Archbishop Marsh’s own property, as
416 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
of Marsh’s Library, composed of such materials, are largely eccle-
siastical and historical; but they are by no means exclusively so.
Ecciesiastics are physicians for the soul; but in ancient and modern
times alike, they have magnified their office and loved to be physicians
for the body as well; and, in consequence, there is no place where you
are so sure of curious “‘ finds” in the region of ancient medicine as in
these old ecclesiastical libraries of the seventeenth century; and not
in medicine merely, but also in law, ecclesiastical and civil, botany,
poetry, music, and various other directions which modern physicians
will maintain, come more legitimately under a clergyman’s cognizance.
Some time ago I had an American oculist in the library, and I
presented him with a treatise on diseases of the eye dating from the
days of King Charles I. He looked over it with great interest, and
assured me that there were several remedies and drugs there mentioned
which are now used as the very latest ideas by American practitioners. -
While again, if the Bombay Government would only communicate
with me, I could easily send them notes from several works giving
them the concentrated experience of the physicians of England, France,
Spain, and Italy, concerning the plague in the days of Charles II.
The poet, however, tells us that ‘‘our little systems have their
day”; and so it was with ‘‘ Marsh.”
It had its day more than half a century ago, and then served its
generation well as a public library; but it has been cut out by other
public libraries, which have since sprung into existence and are more
accessible, while the mother of all the really public libraries in Dublin
has been left stranded up under the cathedral shadow, and stranded
so completely that I found on my appointment as its ‘‘ keeper”’ that
the number of visitors and readers for the previous twelve months had
been exactly two.! Well, we are better now. ‘The learned treasurer
of this Academy and even some stray members of the Council, at times
appear there, and prove the magnitude of the resources of which I
have spoken. The wise man, however, assures us that God has made
all things double, one against another, and that He has made nothing
unequal; and so it has been with ‘‘ Marsh’s.”’
proved by the motto which he inscribed in all his books, ravray7 thy "AAHPcav.
It is very useful to young students, because it marks all the quantities both of
proper names and of ordinary words.
1 Perhaps nothing will show the depth of ignorance prevalent still about ‘‘ Marsh,”’
as the fact told me by several persons of late that the very police who live next door
to the library in the ancient Archiepiscopal Palace have assured inquirers that they
did not know where it was, and had never heard of it. The constables who said so
must have been comparatively young members of the force.
Srokes— Concerning Marsh's Library. 417
The very neglect into which the library has fallen has had a
counterbalancing advantage. It has had, for instance, a marvellous
preservative influence upon it. Nothing has been more destructive
of ancient work than the keen desire for restoration which has seized
like a fever upon the public mind. The first thought which an ancient
building suggests now-a-days is this—‘‘ Here we have something to
restore’; and, under the restorer’s hand, much genuine ancient work
has disappeared which the ignorant contempt and neglect, and white-
wash of our forefathers handed down to us. So it has been with
‘“Marsh.” It was for long years handed over to dust and oblivion; but
dust and oblivion have preserved its treasures, while knowledge and
use would have brought literary thieves and literary loss in their train.’
And so it is that in Marsh’s Library you will find books still which even
the British Museum does not contain, and certainly would much desire
to possess, a specimen of which I now desire to bring under your notice.
During the Christmas holidays I happened to be reading the 2nd edition
of Maskell’s great work, called Monumenta Ritualia Anglicana, origi-
nally published about 18435, and re-published, in 1882, by the Clarendon
Press. That work is very interesting to a librarian, a bibliographer,
or a ritualist, in the technical sense of that word, but is uninteresting
to any one else. It goes into great details about ancient service books,
whether manuscript or printed, specially of the use of Sarum, the use
which prevailed in Irish churches from 1200 to, say, 1550. Mr.
Maskell always speaks as if the only places where you could see
specimens of those distant times were the British Museum or else
the libraries of Oxford, Cambridge, and Lambeth. He makes an
occasional mention, but very ‘“‘ occasional,” indeed, of the Dublin
University Library as a place where some few ancient copies are
preserved, but ignores every other Irish institution. I must confess
that thereupon the fire kindled, and I thought within myself—well,
I will look and see what ‘‘ Marsh’’ can do in this matter. Let us see
whether the British Museum, and Oxford and Cambridge, are the
only places which possess ancient printed copies of Sarum Service
Books. I at once set to work, and found in ‘‘ Marsh,” between
1 During the period when the library was much used a large number of the most
valuable books were stolen. The thieves showed great discrimination in the books
which they abstracted, as they were always rare and even unique editions. This
fact led the Governors, about 120 years ago, to order that no one should read saye
in the reading room, and that every reader should be searched on his departure.
This order is still, in its original shape, exhibited on the walls of the library, dated
Oct. 14th, 1779.
418 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Breviaries, Missals, Processionals, Manuals, Psalters, and such like,
fully a dozen at least original Sarum and York Service Books, some
of which, like the one I now exhibit, are not found in any of the great
collections to which alone Mr. Maskell referred.1. Here now you may
fairly ask me how comes it to pass that ‘‘ Marsh’s Library ”’ is so rich
in these ancient service books. The best explanation of that richness
will be found in the original constitution of that library, as I have
already explained it. Its main constituents are three great episcopal
libraries. The three owners were wealthy men for their times. Two
of them, Marsh and Stearne, were old bachelors—and all three were
book-lovers. All three, too, belonged to the seventeenth century,
when the great Rebellion and its troubles had broken up old households
and flung large libraries on the market; and hence the owners of
these libraries had unique chances of picking up rare old works, of
which they diligently availed themselves.?
Now amongst the books to which I first turned, when I wished to:
find out the riches of ‘‘ Marsh,”’ were those formerly belonging to Dr.
Stearne, once bishop of Clogher, and, previous to Swift, Dean of
St. Patrick’s.° There I founda Psalter according to the use of Sarum
! The reader will see at the end of this paper a tolerably complete list of all the
ancient printed English liturgical works still in ‘‘ Marsh.’? Some of them contain
most interesting manuscript notes and notices.
2 In the same way the Irish Land Acts and Irish Land troubles have already
brought some rare old books into the Irish market. Twenty years ago I picked up.
in Cork an uncut copy of Du Pin’s ‘‘ Ecclesiastical History ’’ in the original Dublin
edition of 1724, printed by George Grierson, at the sign of the Two}Bibles, in Essex-
street. The ancestor of the modern owner had been a Dublin judge of that period.
He was of literary taste, which was more than could be said for his descendants,
and he subscribed for this great work in 3 folio volumes. And there in his house it
lay unnoticed till necessity forced its sale. A short time since I picked up again,
for a few shillings, a copy of a celebrated mediswval work, the ‘‘ Pupilla Oculi”’
of John De Burgh, composed about 1300 and printed in 1504. This work was the
theological handbook of the English clergy from 1300 to 1560.
8 Stearne was a learned man and an antiquary of no mean powers. He was, like
the late Bishop Reeves, an indefatigable scribe. He was connected through his
grandfather with Ussher, while his ancestors had been Meath clergymen during the
whole of the seventeenth century. Stearne copied Ussher’s aud Dopping’s Surveys.
and Records of Meath and left them to Marsh’s Library, where they now remain.
They are full of information about the parishes of Meath in that period of obscurity
which followed the Reformation. The ‘‘Stearnes’’ often spelled their name
** Sterne.’ Thus, this very month of March, the Rey. Dr. Groves presented
‘*Marsh’’ with a copy of a work, ‘‘ A Defence of the Protestant Faith,’”’ by Enoch
Sterne, LL.D., Clerk of Parliament, Dublin, 1755. He was a member of the same
family once seated at Garrycastle, near Athlone. The name is, however, always
written ‘‘ Stearne’”’ in the Matriculation Book of Trinity College.
SroxEs—Concerning Marsh’s Library. 419
and York, together with the Latin hymns in daily use in these churches.
Now these ancient English Psalters require a word of explanation.
They are no longer in use either in this country or on the Continent,
having been superseded by changes in the service books made by the
Pope subsequent to the Council of Trent. They are not what are
now called Psalters in the Church of England. Maskell defines them
as ‘*books in which the Psalms are contained, divided into certain
portions for matins and the hours, so as to be gone through in the
course of a week.”’ The Sarum and York Psalters were simply the
Prayer Books of the educated laity in the year 1500; and as such
they are generally like modern Prayer Books, convenient in size,
either small octavos, or else smaller still. Maskell states that there are
three of these Sarum and York Psalteries, or Prayer Books, in the
Museum Library; one printed at Paris in 1516, for much of English
printing was then done at Paris and at Rouen; another printed at
Antwerp in 1524; and athird, dated in 1529, without any colophon. But
not one of these Sarum and York Prayer Books was printed in England.
Now the very first book I took down from Bishop Stearne’s collection
was this unique volume, ‘‘ A Psaltery and Hymnery according to the
use of Sarum and York,” dated in the year 1524, and printed in the
city of London. All the Sarum Prayer Books in the British Museum
mentioned by Mr. Maskell were printed abroad, while this one in
“Marsh” was printed in London. But this was not the only curious
and interesting point about it. The colophon, or imprint, of this book
was, as usual in that age, at the end of the book, and on the very last
page, instead of on the title-page, as is the present custom. This
colophon ran as follows: ‘‘ Explicit Psalterium cum Antiphonis do-
minicalibus et ferialibus, suis locis insertis, una cum hymnis Ecclesiae
Sarum. et Eboracen. deservientibus. Impressum in civitate London.
per Richardum Pynson regis impressorem Anno Domini MDXXIIII.”
Now let me give you a brief description of this unique Prayer
Book. It is an octavo volume in the original binding of embossed
sheepskin. The title-page consists simply of the words “ Psalterium
cum Hymnis,” underneath which are the letters R. P., being the
initials or device of the printer, Richard Pynson. The contents
of the book I need scarcely refer to, as they are too strictly theo-
logical for this Academy. There are some points, however, of general
interest to which I may briefly refer. The Calendar prefixed to the book
is an interesting specimen of the method of computing time in the early
sixteenth century, which has, indeed, in more ways than one left its
impress upon modern life and practice. The number of days is
appended to the name of each month, and the length of the nights in
420 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
each month is duly given. Some few Celtic saints—St. Brigid, St.
Patrick, St. Petroc, St. David—are commemorated, but they are very
few indeed. Then comes the Psalter, followed by the Canticles from
the Old and New Testament, and the Te Deum, where a rubric is
added, stating that this hymn was said by some to have been composed
by St. Ambrose and St. Augustine at the baptism of St. Augustine ;
but that this was a mistake, as it really was composed by St. Nicetus,
of Treves, as Cassiodorus declares in his work about the Institution of
Holy Scripture.1. This statement gives us a glimpse of the condition
of historic knowledge at that time, as Cassiodorus lived a clear hundred
years before St. Nicetus, so that he must have been a prophet to
be able to tell what Nicetus would compose a hundred years after
Cassiodorus had died. However interesting the book may be on
these questions, they have more attraction for a Historical Society than
for such a body as ours devoted to literary subjects from an antiquarian
point of view. Looking at the Psaltery from that standpoint, the most
curious topic is its printer, Richard Pynson.? He was, as I have said,
the earliest printer in the city of London, as printing was first established
by Caxton in Westminster, where Caxton was succeeded by his son-
in-law, Wynken de Worde.
Richard Pynson and De Worde were fellow apprentices to Caxton
and great friends all through life. Pynson established his printing
press at Temple Bar, where he printed his first work in 1493, under
the title of ‘‘The Dialogue of Dives and Lazarus upon the Ten
Commandments,” which ought to be very useful and edifying reading
for the wealthier members of this Academy, though we can scarcely
be quite certain about the authenticity of the reports. Three years
later he printed there the first classical work published in England,
1Cf. the article on St. Nicetus (3) 25th Archbishop of Tréves in the Dict. of
Christ. Biog. iv. 38.
2 All books dealing with the history of printing, such as Palmer, Mattaire, Cotton,
Humphreys, Blades, are full of Pynson; cf. the article on him in the Dictionary
of National Biography.
8 Pynson also printed the ‘‘ Ship of Fools,” in which the first fool was the
“¢ Book Fool’’ or Bibliomaniac, who is thus represented :—
*T am the first fool of the whole navy,
To keep the pompe, the helme, and eke the sayle,
And this is my minde, and this one pleasure have I
Of books to have great plenty and aparyle,
Yet take no wisdom by them, nor yet avayle.”’
He has them only for show and for their fine bindings.
Sroxes—Concerning Marsh’s Lnbrary. 421
which was the ‘‘ Comedies of Terence.” From that press he continued
for forty years to pour forth numerous books of every sort and
condition, among which was the ‘‘ Booke of Cookery” in 1500, and
the first edition of Henry the EHighth’s work against Luther a
short time before he printed this Prayer Book under our notice.
You will observe, too, in the colophon of it, he calls himself the
king’s printer, thus correcting a mistake made by Mr. Maskell, who
states that he was not appointed king’s printer till the death of
Rastell, in 1536, the brother-in-law of the celebrated Sir Thomas
More, who up to that time, held the post. This colophon shows
that Pynson was appointed some twelve years earlier at least.1 But
I have reserved to the last, the point for the sake of which I have
called the attention of this Academy to our Sarum Psalter. In
proceeding to examine this old book, I had a keen eye to the
advice of Mr. Bradshaw, about closely scrutinising the linings of
the binding, as in them Mr. Bradshaw made some of his own most
curious discoveries. The binders of the early days of the sixteenth
century had to get linings for their book covers, and as manuscripts
were then plentiful they often used up an old manuscript which,
then regarded as useless, is now of untold value and importance.
Well! pasted inside the front cover I found a printed document which
I proceeded to examine and found to be an indulgence from Thomas
Wolsey and Laurence Campeggio, soliciting liberal alms for the comple-
tion of the north porch and chantry chapel of Hereford Cathedral.?
The document was evidently a pew bill which had been dispersed
through the church in modern fashion, which some pious Christian
had fastened, nearly four hundred years ago, inside his Prayer Book,
for future use, and there it lay till I found it on the 18th day of last
January. I shall now proceed to give a brief abstract of it, but inas-
much as the original owner of it seems to have used the book a
good deal, the document has been cracked and torn right through
from top to bottom, rendering the meaning at times very difficult
to make out. The document which is about 8 inches long by 5
inches broad,? proceeds thus—‘‘ Be it knowen to all cristen people
1 Humphreys, in his ‘‘ History of Printing,’’ tells us that Pynson died in 1530.
Rastell may have been appointed on Pynson’s death.
2 Hereford Cathedral has, in the past, owed a good deal to such documents.
The bull of John XXII. canonising Bishop Thomas Cantelupe seems to have touched
upon this topic; cf. Dean Merewether’s pamphlet on the condition of Hereford
Cathedral, a.p. 1841.
3 A similar document of the same period was found by Mr. French in Trinity
422 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
that there is a porche of the Cathedral Church of Hareforde buil-
ded in honour of our Lord through oblacion and Alms of Christen
people that have had confluence unto the most reverent fathers in
God, Lord Thomas Legate of the Apostolic see of Rome, Arch-
bishop of York, and Primate of England, and Laurence Compegus
also Legate of the Pope of Rome.”
The document then goes on to state the desire of these two digni-
taries for the completion and due furnishing of this chapel, in order that
the ‘‘Chapell Preste” there singing for the time being, might have
every due convenience for his sacred office, and then grants to every one
duly contributing to this object and confessing in the said chapel and
performing certain other specified religious duties upon Christmas
Day, St. Ethelbert’s Day, the feast of St. Thomas of Hereford,’ and
certain other suitable feasts, an indulgence of one hundred days; and
further announces that the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops of
London, Salisbury, Coventry, and Lichfield, the bishops of Hereford,
Rochester, Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph, St. David’s, and curiously
enough, Thomas Bishop of Leighlin, had agreed to add forty days’
indulgence to every such person who thus qualified. Now there are
special points of interest in this indulgence of which I have merely
given an abstract. The first is the local one for ourselves. What
College more than twenty yearsago. Itis some ten years or so older than Wolsey’s
*« Indulgence,” and is in Latin, not English. It is printed in much the same style.
It can be inspected in the glasscases in the Long Room of the College Library.
1 The two feasts of St. Ethelbert and St. Thomas of Hereford were specially
observed in the cathedral of Hereford, which was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
and to St. Ethelbert. Ethelbert was king of the East Angles, and was murdered
by Offa of Mercia in a.p. 794. He was buried at Fernlega, afterwards Hereford,
where a miraculous image celebrated his fame. (See the Article by Dr. Stubbs on
Ethelbert (3) in the Dictionary of Christian Biography). Ethelbert’s feast was cele-
brated on May 20th. St. Thomas of Hereford was the special local saint. He had
been Thomas Cantelupe, Bishop of Hereford. He died with a great reputation for
sanctity in 1282. His fame as a miracle worker was widespread. The possession
of his relics was a source of great wealth to the cathedral. See more about him in
Bishop Swinfield’s ‘‘ Household Roll ”’ and its notes, p. clxxxiii, published by the
Camden Society in 1855. His feast was celebrated on Oct. 2nd. He was canonised
by Pope John XXII. in 1320, upon the petition of Bishop Swinfield, supported
by Edward II. He was, even before his canonisation, a very popular saint in
England. Surius tells us, in his Lives of the Saints, that more than sixty persons
had been raised from the dead at his tomb. In Swinfield’s Roll, p. /, we learn that
Edward I. gave the greatest proof of his belief in Cantelupe’s powers ; for when one
of his favourite hawks was ill, he sent an offering for him to Cantelupe’s shrine.
He is one of the saints who have been Lord Chancellors of England.
Sroxrs— Concerning Marsh's Library. 428
brought the Bishop of Leighlin there amongst these English and
Welsh bishops, and who washe? Well, Ware will tell us that he
was Thomas Halsey, Bishop of Leighlin from a.p. 1515 to 1521.
He was an Englishman, and never once saw his diocese in the centre
of Ireland. He was appointed Bishop of Leighlin by the influence of
Archbishop Baimbridge, Wolsey’s predecessor in York, who was just
then acting as Ambassador for Henry VIII. in Rome, when the see
of Leighlin fell vacant. Hulsey was an Englishman in high office at
the Vatican, was Prothonotary for Ireland, and Penitentiary for the
English nation in Rome. He was a great favourite with Archbishop
Baimbridge, and the Archbishop’s influence secured his appointment.
He never saw or visited his Irish diocese; but managed it through
his deputy and Vicar-General, Charles Cavanagh, Abbot of Duisk,
and then dying in London, in the year 1521, was buried in the Savoy.
The second point of interest about this Indulgence is its date. If
the Bishop of Leighlin is mentioned in it as granting an indulgence,
it is clear that it must have been issued before his death, which took
place, as I have now said, in 1521. This seems contradicted by two
facts: (1) Campeggio is mentioned in it as legate, and he notoriously
came to England in 1528 as special Legate of the Pope in the matter
of the divorce of Henry VIII.; (2) The date of the Prayer Book
stated in the colophon is 1524. This would seem to prove that this
indulgence was issued, in the year of Campeggio’s residence, about that
question of divorce, which Mr. Brewer’s great work, ‘‘ Letters and
Papers of Henry VIII.,” states to have been from September, 1528,
to about the same date in the next year. But then comes a difficulty.
If this indulgence was issued in 1528 or 1529, how do there appear in
it the names of several bishops like that of the Bishop of Leighlin,
who had been dead several years? Could dead bishops grant indul-
gences to living men? But the Bishop of Leighlin, too, is not the
only difficulty if we date the Indulgence in 1529. Richard Fitzjames,
Bishop of London, is named in it; and he died seven years before, in
January, 1521. Edmund Audley, Bishop of Salisbury, is mentioned ;
and he died in 1524, five years before.! William Attwater, Bishop of
Lincoln, is named; and he died in 1520. These difficulties led me
1 Audley was succeeded by Campeggio himself as Bishop of Salisbury, and yet
he does not give himself that title in the Indulgence. Henry VIII. took such a
fancy to Campeggio on his first visit to England, that he bestowed on him the see
of Salisbury when it fell vacant, which brought with it a splendid palace in Rome:
cf. “Campeggio’s Life,” p. 164. Campeggio was made a cardinal in 1517: cf.
Godwin’s Praesules.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. 1V. 26
424 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
to seek another solution. This was not Cardinal Campeggio’s first
visit to England.1. He came here and spent a year, in 1518 and
1519, striving to induce Henry VIII. to join the Pope and the
other Christian princes of Europe in a crusade against the Turks,
in defence of Hungary, giving him a conditional promise, if he did
so, of the title, subsequently bestowed for quite a different reason,
of ‘‘ Defender of the Faith.’ He also utilized his spare time, in con-
junction with Wolsey, in striving to introduce extensive disciplinary
reforms amongst the English clergy ; and a reference to this zapepyov
on Campeggio’s part we find in the words of the Indulgence, which
speaks ‘“‘of the great confluence of Cristen people unto the most
reverent fathers in God, Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio.” But
then you may say, what about the date of the Prayer Book, 1524?
Does not that prove that the Indulgence must have been later? My
solution, simply, is: the Indulgence was printed and dispersed in
Hereford Cathedral in 1518. It lay there for some years, and then,
after the Psalters or Prayer Books were printed in 1524, by Pynson,
some clergyman, perhaps, took up a copy, and, wishing to preserve it
for future reference, stuck it into the front of his book, where I found
it. Our Indulgence has, then, this great historic interest. Itis a
sample of the Indulgences issued by Tetzel for the rebuilding of St.
Peter's, which caused, just at that time, such a storm against papal
authority ; and, therefore, is a specimen of a document issued at least
fifteen years before there was any rumour of religious differences in
England, and, as such, occupies a unique position, so far as I know,
amongst the remains of the past, in Jrish libraries at least. I did
intend to call your attention to some other documents of interest as
regards Dean Swift and some other topics; but, as I think it is far
better to send the Academy away longing rather than loathing, I
propose to defer the consideration of them to some future occasion.
The following is a complete list of the Sarum books in Marsh’s
Library, so far as we have been enabled to identify them up to the
present :—
1. Missale ad Usum Sar. Paris, F. Regnault, a.p. 1531.
Iterum, Rothomagi (Rouen), 1554.
ir. Psalterium cum Hymnis Sar. et Ebor. Lond., R. Pynson, 1524.
Iterum, Psalterium ms. Saec. xv.
1 See Ligorius, in his ‘‘ Life of Cardinal Campeggio,”’ pp. 160-164: Paris, 1678.
Ligorius was a great friend of the Campeggio family, which had produced many
distinguished lawyers at Bologna in the fifteenth century.
Sroxes—Concerning Marsh’s Library. 425
ut. Portiforium seu Breviarium Sar. 8vo. Paris, F. Regnault, 1555.
Iterum, pars estivalis tantum, ad Us. Sar.
This is a large 8vo edition. Its title-page and Uolophon are
inconsistent. The title-page is dated Londini, 1555. Its
Colophon is dated Paris, F. Regnault, 1535. I suppose the
explanation is that Regnault printed a large edition in 1535.
During the latter part of the reign of Henry VIII. the sale
fell off. When Mary ascended the throne, that sale revived.
Regnault stuck in a new title-page, and sold off the old
edition, and at once went to press with a new and much
handsomer edition of the Sarum book.
tv. Processionale ad Us. Sar. Lond., 1555.
VI.
VII.
Vil.
This volume has on the last page a Latin inscription which
plainly represents the feelings of the Ecclesiastical owner
towards Edward VI. and his party. It runs thus: “ This book
pertains to the Parochial Church of St. John-super-Sore in
the year one thousand five hundred and fifty-three, being the
first year of Queen Mary, to whom may God grant the years
of Methuselah, and more than that, &. John Drury, Vicar.”’
Fronting the title-page a Latin hymn is written, and on one
of the fly-leaves the name of the owner in 1634, Robertus
Apriceus (Ap-Rys). Drury’s inscription seems inconsistent
with the Colophon.
. ‘ Hore B.V.M. Sec. Us Sar.” Paris, F. Regnault, 1519.
Whose name and device are on last page; but the
Colophon says it was printed by Nicolas Hickman, at the
expense of Francis Byrckman, of Cologne. It is beautifully
ornamented with pictures.
Martyrologium Sar. London, 1526, Wynken de Worde.
This is Whitford’s translation of the Martyrology of Sion,
lately reprinted by the Bradshaw Society.
Manuale ad Us. Sar. Rothomagi (Rouen), 1554.
Postilla ad Us. Sar. ; or, Exposition of the Epistles and Gospels
for the whole year. London, 1509.
Printed, as the Colophon tells, by Julianus Notarius,
Bookseller and Printer, at Temple Bar, at the Sign of the
Three Kings.
426
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘“«Expositio sequentiarum et Hymnorum totius AnniSec. Us. Sar.”
Printed by Wynken, or Wynandus de Worde, a.p. 1515.
Original stamped binding. The Colophon, which calls it
“¢ Prosarum,’’ tells us that Wynken de Worde was then living
in the parish of St. Brigid, Fleet-street. The ‘‘ Expositio’’
is bound up with some works of St. Chrysostom on the
monastic life, addressed to his friend Stagirus; his Sermon
on the Dignity of the human Origin and the prophecies of
Julianus of Toledo. Some of these were translated by an
Abbot Ambrose, dedicated to the Emperor Sigismund, and
printed in the town of Alost, in Flanders, by Theodore
Martin, who introduced printing into Belgium in 1473:
cf. Mattaire, Annal. i. 106.
Iterum: Lond. 1515, Wynde de Worde. In the Colophon it is
called Prosarum Sec. Us. Sar.
1x. Primer according to Sarum use.
Upon the title-page occurs the following :—‘‘ This Prymer
of Salysbery use is set out a long wout ony serchyng, with
many prayers and goodly pyctures in te kalender in the
matyns of our lady in the houres of the crosse, in the vii
psalmes and in the dyryge. And be newly enprynted at
Rowen 1538.”
Printed by N. Le Kour.
Published by F. Regnault, Paris.
Original binding and many pictures. The spelling is curious.
P.S.—No. IV., as above, is a Processional which seems to me on
further investigation to belong to York, not to Sarum. In the front
of this book is a short MS. Service with brief rubrics beginning :—
Sacerdos dicat hunc versum sequentem ‘‘En rex venit
mansuetus tibi Syon; filia mystica humilis, sedens super
animalia, quem venturum jam predixi lectio prophetica.”’
In another book there occur the following notes, showing that the
worthy owner at times used his book for secular purposes :—
“Item I shoulde (sold) a black Hoggehrele for 4s. 3d.’’
‘* Item I shoulde thre shepe (sheep) for 14s. 4d.”
eoxelili,
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE EUROPEAN FAUNA. By R. F.
SCHARFF, Ph. D., B.Sc., F.Z.S., Keeper of the Natural History
Collections in the Dublin Museum of Science and Art.
[Read NovemBer 9, 1896. ]
Two years ago I communicated to the Royal Irish Academy a short
report on the origin of the Irish Land and Freshwater Fauna (76a).1 I
then stated that a careful study of the Irish Fauna would enable us,
not only to prove the former existence of a land-connexion between
Treland and Great Britain, but also to approximately ascertain the
time of its arrival from the continent of Europe. I showed that
the Mammals of Ireland, both recent and extinct, and also the Mollusca
were perhaps more serviceable in a research of that nature than other
groups of animals. Atthe same time I emphasized the importance of
a study of the freshwater fishes in elucidating the extent of the land-
connexion.
The range of the species of Coregonus in the British Islands and
that of the Chars, which I referred to, seemed to indicate the former
existence of a fresh-water lake between England and Ireland. Pro-
fessor James Geikie has since pointed out to me that he had long ago
come to the same conclusion on purely geological grounds (35 4, p. 512),
though, as we shall see further on, he assumes that the fresh-water
lake came into existence at a time when, according to my opinion, it
must have already been converted into an arm of the Atlantic. At
the end of my report, I mentioned that, so far, my inquiries into the
origin of the Irish fauna had led me to the following conclusions :
‘‘Treland was in later Tertiary times connected with Wales in the
south, and Scotland in the north, whilst a freshwater lake occupied
the present central area of the Irish Sea. The southern connexion
broke down at the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, the northern
connexion following soon after. There is no evidence of any subse-
quent land-connexion between Great Britain and Ireland.”
1 Jide Bibliography at end.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2H
428 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
I have not changed my views since,: and hope to be able to show
in the subsequent pages that I have very strong evidence for this
belief. From my previous remarks on the land-connexion, it is evi-
dent that the whole of the Irish fauna therefore must have reached
Treland at the commencement of or before the Glacial Period, and sur-
vived the latter in that country.
As the origin of the Irish fauna forms the key to the solution of
‘the problem which I propose to discuss, I intend to deal with it more
fully than has been done, before entering on the larger subject of the
general European fauna.
The researches which are at present being carried on into the Irish
fauna and flora by a Committee appointed by the Royal Irish
Academy, have established many facts possessing important bearings
on the origin of the plants and animals of Ireland, and these facts
have been of much use to me in the preparation of this Paper.
Professor Sollas has been good enough to discuss the whole subject
oi the origin of the European fauna with me, and I should like here-
with to express my gratitude to him, as he has induced me to reinvesti-
gate some of the more important issues raised in this essay.
I have also to acknowledge the kind assistance rendered me by
Prof. Giglioli on Corsican Mammals, and by Prof. O. Boettger, Prof.
Penck, Prof. Depéret, Prof. Suess, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. Haddon,
Messrs. Carpenter, Praeger, Welch, M‘Ardle, Halbert, and many others
for information on various subjects.
The Divisions of the Irish Terrestrial Fauna.
A careful study of any section of the Irish fauna and flora
reveals the fact that there are in it minor groups of animals or plants
which on the Continent live altogether in the north, some which
inhabit exclusively the south, and others again to which no particular
limit of range can be assigned. JBesides these there are a small
number of species peculiar to Ireland, which we need not consider
here. Taking the fauna as a whole, we find that we can establish
three distinct divisions as follows :—
I. Animals with a wide distribution,
Il. with a Northern distribution.
III. a with a Southern distribution.
1 It will be seen later on that my conclusions point to the Glacial Period being
of much longer duration than is usually assumed, that in fact the earlier part of
it, corresponds to what is now generally looked upon as later Pliocene. According
to this view the migration of the bulk of the Irish fauna would naturally have
taken place during the Glacial Period.
ScHarrr— On the Origin of the European Fauna. 429
I. Those of the first division comprise all animals whose origin is
obscure. Many of them may at some time or other have been intro-
duced by man, such as the rat or the mouse. The majority, however,
I think, are of great antiquity, and their origin dates from some remote
geological age. They appear to be mostly indifferent to changes of
temperature, and many thrive equally well in cold and in hot
countries. The small brown slug (4griolimax laevis), the Painted
Lady butterfly (Vanessa carduz), and the barn owl (Strix flammea) are’
familiar examples.
IT. To the animals of the second division belong those of which we
have distinct evidence, from their geographical range, that they are of
Arctic origin. As I hope to prove later on, 'they have arrived in
Ireland directly from the north. Among the Mammals, the reindeer,
which formerly inhabited this country, the Irish stoat, and the Irish
hare form part of this northern section. The beetles Pelophila bore-
alis and Blethisa multipunctata, the butterfly Coenonympha typhon,
the small shell Vertigo alpestris, as well as the common stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculeatus) have all reached Ireland from the north.
III. The third division includes the bulk of the Irish fauna. In
the first place, we have to consider those animals whose birth-place
appears to be in South-western Europe, then we have those which
originated in the South or South-central Europe, whilstthere are others
which came to Ireland from the south-west, though they may primarily
have migrated there from central Asia across Southern Europe. No
very strict line can be drawn between the animals of South-central
and those of South-western European origin, but we may with Edward
Forbes (33 a, p. 12), regard the most southern as the oldest. A good
many of these are altogether absent from England, whilst they are
mostly confined to the west coast in Ireland. Taking all the Irish
southern types into account, we find that the majority are confined,
in the remainder of the British Isles, to the south-western parts of
England and Wales. In some cases they appear again in the extreme
north of England and in Scotland without, however, being known in
the intermediate tracts.
We can sub-divide this southern fauna, therefore, into a south-
western and a south-central one: to the former belong the well-
known bullfinch (Pyrrhula ewropaea), the dipper (Cinclus aquaticus),
1 Among the Ivish plants we have some species, such as Spiranthes Romanzoviana,
Eriocaulon septangulare and Sisyrhynchium angustifolium, which appear to belong to
the same division.
2H2
430 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
and the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita); also the following Mollusca,
Geomalacus maculosus, Pupa anglica, Helix fusca and H. pisana;—the
beetles, Rhopalomesites Tardyi, Eurynebria complanata, and Otiorrhyn-
chus auropunctatus. Among the Irish woodlice, Platyarthrus Hoffman-
seggit belongs to this first division, as well as the Hemipteron Lygus
atomarius, and the millipede, Polydesmus gallicus. Some of the species
peculiar to Ireland have their nearest relatives confined to the south-
west of Europe, e.g. Zegenaria hibernica, which is closely related to
the Pyrenean Zegenaria larva.
The badger (Meles taxus), is for our purposes a South European
type of the second sub-division, though it originated probably in Asia.
The following Mollusca also belong here :—Helix aculeata, H. rufescens,
HI. virgata, H. acuta, H. nemoralis and many others; also the beetle.
Strangalia aurulenta.?
Fauna of Great Britain and Ireland.
In treating of the fauna of Great Britain and Ireland, I have found
the need of a suitable term in contrasting the faunas of the two islands,
as ‘‘ British” is understood zoologically to include the fauna as a whole.
At Dr. Sclater’s suggestion, I adopt the term Anglo-Scotian for the
fauna of Great Britain, and Hibernian for that of Ireland. When we
compare the Anglo-Scotian with the Hibernian fauna, we find that in
the former we also have the general, the northern, and the southern
constituents just as in the latter; the fauna being, however, richer,
we have more of the northern forms (confined chiefly to the north of
Scotland), and more of the southern, principally seen in the south of
England. But we have in addition an eastern division, composed
mainly of immigrants from Siberia and Eastern Europe, which is
apparently quite wanting in Ireland (see map 1). Some of the more
quickly-spreading Siberians have overrun the whole of Great Britain,
but the majority of them are confined to the south-eastern parts of
England, and their range scarcely extends to Scotland or Wales.
Botanically, this division corresponds to some extent with Watson’s (91)
‘¢ Germanic type of plants.”
The Zoogeographical provinces of the British Islands.
Not very many attempts have been made, to my knowledge, to
sub-divide the British Islands into zoological or botanical provinces of
1 The following Irish plants may be mentioned :—Arbutus unedo, Euphorbia
hiberna, Simethis bicolor and Sibthorpia europaea.
2 Cotyledon umbilicus, and other plants probably belong to this type.
ScHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 431
the great Palaearctic, or, as I should prefer to call it, the Holarctic
Region (76 ¢). Only one or two of those who deal with the subject,
treat it at all exhaustively. I believe Mr. H. C. Watson was the first
to group together the British flora into six provinces, and this idea was
1.—Map of the British Islands indicating roughly the tracts principally
occupied by—
— the northern fauna ;
\ the southern fauna; and,
/ the eastern fauna.
afterwards more completely carried out in his ‘‘ Cybele Britannica”’
(91). Messrs. Moore and More adopted similar divisions in their
‘Cybele Hibernica’’ (58). Only five botanical provinces were
recognized by the late Prof. E. Forbes (83 a), who added in each case
examples of animals, which seemed to him to belong to these provinces.
432 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
On a previous occasion, however, he had separated the British Isles
into ten districts, according to the distribution of their Molluscan
fauna (383 ¢). In an endeavour to reduce the number of these districts
I erred in the opposite direction, in recognising only two, viz. one,
including the south-west of England and Wales with the whole of
Treland and Scotland, and the other, the larger part of England and
Wales (76d). It was only subsequently that I learned that a dis-
tinguished French conchologist, Dr. Fischer (31), had also divided the
British Islands into two provinces, from a study of their Molluscan
fauna. But his provinces are somewhat different from mine—the
south-west of England, Wales, and the west of Ireland form one; the
remainder of England, Scotland, and the rest of Ireland the other (31,
pp. 51-84). An important point, relating to the subject I am about
to discuss, is that Dr. Fischer’s first province represents in his scheme
only part of a larger ‘‘ Atlantic province’ of the European sub-region,
while the second, which includes the greater part of England and
Ireland, and the whole of Scotland, is a portion of his ‘‘ Germanic
province.”
Another division of the British Islands into two districts has been
proposed by Mr. Jordan (44, pp. 45-52). Both are portions of his
large Germanic sub-region of the Holarctic region. One of them
includes Scotland and the north of Ireland, the other the remainder
of Ireland, England, and Wales. The latter province forms only
part of a larger ‘‘Celtic district”? to which belong also Holland,
Belgium, North, Central, and South-west France.
In describing the collections illustrating the geographical distribu-
tion of animals in the Dublin Natural History Museum, Mr. Carpenter
referred to the fact that he had, in one of the cases, roughly grouped
the animals of the British fauna in three divisions, 7.¢., those with a
wide range over the British Islands, those characteristic of the south-
eastern and lowland districts of Great Britain (which he calls the
‘‘ Teutonic Fauna’’), and those characteristic of Ireland, and of the
western and highland parts of Great Britain. The animals of the latter
division he has termed the ‘‘ Celtic Fauna’’ (16a, p. 117). He recog-
nized more recently that it contained two distinct groups of animals,
one including those of northern and the other those of southern origin
(164, p. 215). Lastly, Dr. Kobelt, in a short paper on the Distribu-
tion of the British Mollusca, expresses the opinion that the British
fauna takes its origin from various sources, and that there are probably
more than three distinct groups (52, p. 83).
The significance of these facts has been greatly minimized by the
ScHarFrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 433
advocates of accidental introduction—a subject of much importance, of
which I have now to treat.
Accidental Means of Dispersal.
This includes, of course, also introductions by man, and, following
Darwin, it should more properly be called ‘‘ occasional means of
distribution.”” Darwin (21a) has shown that seeds of plants may be
easily transported to islands by wind, or by floating logs of wood, or
even by birds. He has also referred to the fact that locusts and other
insects, and eggs of fish and snails are sometimes blown to great
distances from the land. He has given many other instances of the
manner in which animals and plants might have reached islands.
Mr. Wallace, and other naturalists, have likewise collected examples
of these occasional introductions. Moreover, all that is known of the
means of dispersal of land and freshwater Mollusca has recently been
brought together by Mr. Kew (50) in a painstaking and excellent
work. It is astonishing how many cases of accidental introductions
are known to this author, but nevertheless he remarks (p. 97): “‘ It
must be admitted that neither freshwater nor land shells are really
well furnished with means of dispersal; the transportal of a species
of either group over a large expanse of ocean, or to great distances on
land, with subsequent establishment, must be an extremely rare and
exceptional occurrence, and one which happens only once or twice in
many hundreds of years.”
All these views, however, do not particularly refer to the fauna or
flora of Ireland, and the only hint that at least a portion of the flora
owed its existence in that country to an accidental introduction, was
given by Prof. Hennessy (39). He suggested that, as there were
times of prolonged and intimate intercourse between the people of the
northern coast of Spain and those of Ireland, the conditions for bring-
ing the seeds of various plants from one country to the other probably
existed, and that to this fact is due the similarity in the flora of the
two countries.
I have already admitted (p. 429) that some of the Irish Mammals
may have reached Ireland by means of an accidental introduction
through the agency of man. That many of the non-resident birds, and
even, perhaps, some residents, are brought to this country by an
occasional means of dispersal is undoubted. The same we may assume
to be the case with a few shells, worms, wood-lice, spiders, and
centipedes, and to a greater extent, perhaps, with insects. But
454 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
in the great majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish between a
true native and one which has only strayed to Ireland accidentally,
and the latter only form an extremely small and insignificant per-
centage of the Irish fauna and flora. Mr. Murray (60, p. 16) was
of opinion that only a slight intermixture occurs in the flora of an
island from occasional dispersal, and he was disposed to reckon the
proportion of such colonization at not more than two per cent. in the
most favourable circumstances. In the fauna he thought it must be
much less. *
As regards Ireland, I believe the animals derived from accidental
or occasional means of dispersal amouut to five per cent. of.the whole
fauna at the most. Land and freshwater Mollusca are generally
looked upon as particularly liable to accidental dispersal.
If they had been to any great extent carried to Ireland by
occasional means of dispersal instead of gradually spreading to that
country on a formercontinuous land-surface, speculations based on their
range would be futile. Dr. Blandford (8, p. 43), who speaks with an
authoritative voice on the subject of distribution of mollusca, says:
‘The prevalent idea that land-mollusca, or their eggs, are trans-
ported by floating logs, appears to me extremely improbable in a great
number of forms, because, so far as is known, very few hibernate in
wood, or lay their eggs there; and as the wood is carried to the sea
during floods caused by heavy rains, which would certainly make
every snail leave its hiding place, the notion that some would remain
ensconced in the clefts appears to me quite opposed to the habits of
the animal.”
Darwin (214, p. 353) tells us how Baron Aucapitaine immersed a
number of Cyclostoma elegans for a fortnight in the sea, by way of
experiment, and that almost all survived the treatment. He naturally
concluded that the operculum, with which these shells are furnished
was of distinct advantage in enabling them to float across arms of the
sea to anisland. Supposing Ireland had been stocked in this manner.
with shells, we should expect operculate species, or even such which
provide themselves with a membranous diaphragm during winter, to
be abundant. But this is not the case. Neither Cyclostoma elegans
nor Helix pomatia, the two species which were experimented on,
inhabit Ireland, though both occur in England and in France. More-
over, as a matter of fact, the shells of the former species have again
and again been washed ashore within recent years on the Irish coast ;
but though this must have been going on for centuries, yet Cyclostoma
elegans has not established itself in this country. The only Irish
ScHARFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 435
operculate land-shell (Acme lineata) lives permanently underground,
and is therefore less liable to accidental transportal than other species.
Owing to the facility with which the rabbit was successfully in-
troduced into Australia, and to the fact that many European weeds
flourish far away from their native land after haying been accident-
ally transported, perhaps with ballast, we get quite an exaggerated
idea of the facility of artificial introductions of both plants and
animals.
It is fully admitted that many animals and plants are easily
transported to new countries by accidental means or voluntarily by
man, but, in most cases, they have not been able to retain a per-
manent footing in their newly-adopted home. There are innumerable
instances on record of species having been planted on spots where
they did not previously exist, and the introducers claim that it is
highly interesting to watch their progress. In the great majority of
cases we find that, fortunately, these species utterly vanish after a
few years. .
Sportsmen have for many years tried to permanently establish the
English hare, Lepus ewropaeus, in Ireland. Lord Powerscourt tells me
that he imported a number of them thirty years ago, and that they at
first increased, but that latterly they have decreased considerably.
They have never spread during all this time, but remained in close
proximity to the house where they were originally turned out. From
Southern Sweden we hear of similar experiences. Now it cannot be
said that a species which thrives so well in England from north to
south, could not stand the Irish climate, or that of Southern Sweden,
which is not unlike that of Northern Germany, where this hare is
common. It is, therefore, manifest that the difficulty of establishing
the English hare permanently in these countries is altogether uncon-
nected with climate or food. I shall refer to this subject more fully
later on when dealing with the Ivish hare.
Attempts have frequently been made to acclimatise snakes in Ire-
land, but the experiment has always failed. Even the Natterjack
toad (Bufo calamita), which is common about Dingle Bay on the west
coast of Ireland, has been imported in large numbers to Dublin, with
a view to establishing it in such suitable localities as the Phoenix
Park. Not a trace, however, remained of it a few years after the
introduction.
These few instances will suffice to show that it is by no means so
easy as it is generally supposed, to establish an animal in an area
which it was previously not known to inhabit, and that really only
436 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
a very small percentage of the Irish fauna can be due to an occasional
means of dispersal. But it will be well to examine the views on the
origin of the Irish fauna of the leading zoologists, botanists, and
geologists who have made the geographical distribution of animals and
plants their special study.
The Irish Fauna and Flora migrated to Ireland on Land.
Few naturalists were more thoroughly acquainted with the British
terrestrial and marine fauna and flora than the late Prof. Edward Forbes.
His view (334, p. 65) on the subject is therefore of special importance :
‘‘The greater part,’ he says, ‘‘ of the terrestrial animals and flowering
plants now inhabiting the British Islands are members of specific
centres beyond their area, and have migrated to it over continuous
land before, during, or after the Glacial Period.” Dr. Wallace
remarks in ‘Island Life” (89, p. 338): ‘‘ When England became
continental, these (animals of Central Europe) entered our country ;
but sufficient time does not seem to have elapsed for the migration to
have been completed before subsidence again occurred, cutting off the
further influx of purely terrestrial animals, and leaving us without
the number of species which our favourable climate and varied surface
entitle us to.”” If we turn to Prof. Boyd Dawkins’ works, we find
the following sentences bearing upon the point at issue (22a, p. ii.):
“<The wild animals are of equal interest to the geologist, the arche-
ologist, and the historian; for they afford to the first a means of
classifying the deposits with which he has to deal, while in arche-
ology and history they bear a direct relation to the members and
civilisation of the human dwellers in the same region. They are also
valuable to the geographer and physicist, since the occurrence of the
same animals in islands as on the adjacent continent implies a con-
tinuity of land between them in former times.” I have already
quoted Prof. Leith Adams in my note on the origin of the Irish
fauna, and I would only reiterate the statement, that he agreed with
Prof. Dawkins’ views on this subject. Speaking of the southern
fauna of Ireland, Mr. Carpenter remarks (168, p. 218): ‘‘ The land-
tracts over which these distinctly Pyrenean and Mediterranean
animals had travelled to Ireland, were covered by the waters of the
sea, while early races of men were still able to ramble into Britain
over an isthmus where the waves of the Straits of Dover and the North
Sea now roll.”
These are some of the opinions expressed by zoologists. As for
botanists, Mr. Watson is, perhaps, the highest authority on the
ScHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 437
geographical distribution of British plants. His view, as expressed
in the ‘‘Compendium of the Cybele Britannica’ (91, p. 72), is as
follows: ‘‘ As a whole the flora of this country sufficiently accords
with the belief of a former land continuity between England and
the Continent.”
Most geologists maintain in a general way that, in later and post-
Tertiary times, the British Islands were connected by land with the
Continent ; but the opinion is chiefly derived from the fauna, and we
do not, therefore, get any fresh evidence from a different source.
Few, except Prof. J. Geikie, moreover, express themselves clearly as
to their views on the former physical geography of Western Europe
during these times. Mr. Jukes-Browne, however, gives a more
definite, though somewhat guarded, decision on the subject (46, p. 34):
“It is quite possible that England was joined to France by land
which united the Tertiary and Cretaceous basin of Hampshire with
the northern part of France, its southern border being perhaps a
range of high chalk downs, which extended south-eastward from the
Isle of Wight, and was continuous with the chalk districts of
Normandy. It is conceivable that the Oligo-miocene upheaval had
lifted this tract of country to a considerable elevation above the sea,
the rise being greatest over the southern, or Isle of Wight, axis, but
the whole country sharing in the uplift. If this were so, the tract in
question would form an isthmus between the eastern and the south-
western seas, and may never have been wholly submerged until late
Pleistocene time.”’ Speaking of the English Forest-hed Mr. Clement
Reid says (72a, p. 186): ‘‘ The large number of Mammals already known
from the Forest-bed seems clearly to point to a connexion with the
Continent, and to wide plains over which the animals could roam.”
Prof. de Lapparent (54, p. 1382) deduces from the similarity of
the Pleistocene Mammalia of England, with those of the Continent,
the existence of an isthmus connecting these countries, which he
thinks cannot have been ruptured until a comparatively recent date.
Finally, if everyone were of Prof. J. Geikie’s opinion, I would
have been spared the writing of this paragraph, for he says (358,
p- 505). ‘‘No one doubts that the flora and fauna of our islands
could only have immigrated by a land-passage.”” But even if none of
these naturalists had expressed their opinions on the former land-
connexion between the British Islands and the Continent, anyone who
carefully thinks over the subject must come to the same conclusion.
It is difficult enough to imagine how, under the present configuration
of Ireland, the mammoth, the wolf, and the bear reached the island.
438 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
But when we come to the less conspicuous Invertebrates, we are
confronted with cases which give us even less chance of escaping
from the inevitable assumption of a land-connexion with the Continent.
How are we, for instance, to suppose that earth-worms reached
Treland, or Testacella, a slug-like molluse, which spends its entire
existence under ground, or Platyarthrus Hoffmanseggii, a blind wood-
louse, which also lives below the surface of the soil, in the nests of
ants, unless by slow migration on land? Having decided then that
the bulk of the Irish fauna migrated to Ireland on land, we have
next to consider what was the nature of that land-connexion before
we proceed to discuss the views as to the time when the migration
took place.
On the Nature of the Land-connexion.
Prof. J. Geikie refers to the now submerged land between Great
Britain and Ireland in the following terms (35a, p. 248): ‘‘If the
whole area of the British Islands were elevated so as to convert the
adjoining seas into dry land, we should find an elongated lake extend-
ing from the Scottish Highlands southwards to the regions between
Wales and Wicklow county in Ireland, a length of not less than
240 miles, with a maximum depth of 594 feet.’’ In a beautiful map,
reduced from the Admiralty charts, Prof. Geikie gives still more
details. The southern shore of the lake was in the latitude of
Wicklow. It then stretched almost due north, sending off an arm
towards the Firth of Clyde, and another to the Sound of Jura.
The extreme north-west shore was situated between the Co. London-
derry in Ireland and Argyleshire in Scotland. A little further to the
west lay the watershed which divided the rivers draining into the
lake to the east from those flowing directly west towards the Atlantic.
Such an elevation of land, as that described, is supposed by
Prof. Geikie to have taken place after the Glacial Period, and Mr.
Kinahan’s views agree with this in the main points (516). Prof.
E. Forbes believed that some of the Ivish plants at present confined
to the west coast arrived long before the rest of the fauna and flora.
(88a, p. 14). According to his theory there was, at an ancient pre-
Glacial Period, a geological union or close approximation of the west
of Ireland with the north of Spain. The flora of the intermediate
land was a continuation of the flora of the peninsula. ‘The destruc-
tion of this land had taken place before the Glacial Period, but a
number of the southern species had meanwhile reached Ireland.
Only the relics, he thought, of this most ancient of our island floras
ScHARFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 439
are now left, the mass of the less hardy species having been destroyed
by the climatal changes of the Glacial Period.
These views cannot possibly be upheld any longer. Ireland may
have had a southern extension as far as Spain in early Tertiary times,
though, as far as I know, no geological proof can be adduced to
i
nea
' d mM? yi
)
-}
Sees Een Sac Ne
Se Eats
SS
2.—Map of the British Islands during Pre-Glacial Times. The shaded parts
represent the sea and lakes, the light parts the land. (Rivers have
only been inserted on the west coast).
support such a view. But it is a mistake to suppose that the
Lusitanian flora, and, as we know now, it is accompanied by a similar
fauna, is peculiar to Ireland. Fragments of it occur, undoubtedly, in
the south-west of England, in the Channel Islands, and along the west
440 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
coast of France. That flora migrated, therefore, along the ancient
sea-border from the south, across the south-west of England, or the
land that lay beyond it. (See map, fig. 2.)
Another feature in the physical geography of Ireland, which is
worth mentioning, is that there seems to be some reason for supposing,
as Mr. Close has pointed out (17, p. 242), that the west coast was
formerly higher, relatively to the east, than it is now.
By means of these data we can, therefore, construct the annexed
map, showing approximately the geographical conditions of Ireland
at the time when the earliest migrants reached the country from the
south.
Under such geographical conditions as prevailed in ancient Ireland
any animal could have walked, or any plant could have progressed,
on terra firma, from the north of France to Ireland, across the south
of England. ‘True, the large river, which emerged from the southern
end of the lake referred to above, might have arrested their progress
to some extent, but probably much less than a bog or a series of hills
might have done. A river, as a rule, changes its course frequently
in the course of time, and large slices of country which formed the
left bank may, in this way, be suddenly transformed into the right,
with their fauna and flora, without any effort on the part of the
animals or plants. They also had the option apparently of traversing
England northward, and entering Ireland from Scotland. Prof, Leith
Adams (1a) and Mr. Alston (3) believed that all the Irish Mammals,
and Prof. Geikie thinks that many of the smaller ones, may have
adopted this more circuitous route. The range, however, in Ireland
of the southern fauna points emphatically to its having entered that
country from the south, and not from the north. A very large
number of the southern animals are altogether absent from Scotland,
and become scarcer as we proceed north in Ireland.
The northern animals and plants undoubtedly came across from
Scotland, and in the county of Londonderry, which part of modern
Ireland they first touched, they still are more common than in any
other portion of the country. But they did not originate in Scotland.
Under the present geographical aspect of Great Britain they could
only have come from the south. The majority of the northern
animals and plants not being known, however, south of Northern
England, throws doubt upon such a view. We might suppose
that they arrived in the south, when the climate was colder,
and that they were exterminated in the present more unsuitable
climate of Southern England, while they survived in Scotland. The
ScHarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 44]
difference of climate is much too slight, however, between these two
countries to produce such an absolute extinction of the northern fauna
and flora in the south of England, and we are forced to the conclusion
that they arrived from the north. Especially as a geologist of such
eminence as Prof. Judd tells us that (45, p. 1008): ‘‘ Down to post-
Glacial times, Scotland and what are now its out-lying islands, re-
mained united with Scandinavia. But at a very recent period, and
indeed since the appearance of man in this part of our globe, the
separation of the two areas, so long united, was brought about.”
It was from Scandinavia, therefore, that our northern animals and
plants came. Many of them possibly originated there, but the home
of others lies no doubt far beyond even the confines of Scandinavia, in
the Arctic Regions.
Thus Iveland had, as we have seen, two land-connexions with the
continent of Europe—one by way of the south of England to France,
and the other by way of Scotland to Scandinavia.
Prof. Leith Adams believed (10, p. 100) as stated above, and in this
view he is supported by Mr. Alston (8, p. 6), that Scotland was
connected with Ireland long after the latter became disconnected from
England, and that the whole of the Irish Mammalian fauna migrated
to Ireland by way of Scotland.
On the Time of the Migration.
Before discussing the views current among zoologists and botanists
as to the geological period during which the Irish fauna and flora
migrated to Ireland, I should like again to draw attention to the fact
that the Forest-bed is now more generally recognized as constituting
the most recent formation in the Pliocene Series, which is succeeded
by the Pleistocene. As the Glacial Period is supposed to have formed
a phase of the Pleistocene Epoch, the term “‘ pre-Glacial ” throughout
this memoir, will apply to the pre-Pleistocene times, and will include
the Forest-bed. It must be remembered that I adopt these terms for
convenience sake only, and in order to make my views more clear, and
not because I agree with them. I shall endeavour to show later on
that it is not at all justifiable to place the Forest-bed in the Pliocene
Series.
The questions which I have dealt with in the preceding pages
have been comparatively simple and easily answerable, but the problem
as to the particular geological Epoch or Period during which the fauna
arrived in Ireland is an extremely difficult one. With the exception
of Prof. Forbes, no one has really attempted to seriously set himself to
442 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
unravel the problem, and I need therefore only briefly state the views
current among the leading naturalists, who have given some thoughts
to it.
Prof. Forbes (33 a, p. 14) believed, as already mentioned, that the
south-western Lusitanian flora is not only the oldest, but that much
of it survived the supposed severity of Pleistocene climate in Ireland.
Next in age, comes the northern or Arctic flora, which he held to be
glacial (p. 11), and finally the great mass of the fauna and flora
migrated to Ireland, in post-Glacial times (p. 10). The deficiencies in
the Irish fauna of certain Mammals and Reptiles met with in Great
Britain, he explained by the assumption that the migration of the
species less speedy of diffusion was arrested by the breaking up of that
land-passage which united the two islands. The latter explanation
has been adopted by almost every naturalist since.
Prof. Leith Adams treats of the Mammalia only, but I presume
his observations apply to the whole fauna. He thinks (14, p. 86)
they migrated from Scotland into Ireland during post-Glacial times.
“The absence of the slow-travelling mole and other local species,” he
says, ‘together with the amphibian and reptilian evidence furnished
by Thompson, seem to me to still further strengthen the belief that
the land-communication between Great Britain and Ireland, at the
close of the Glacial Period was neither extensive nor probably of long
duration.”
Dr. Wallace (89, p. 338), differs from the preceding naturalists in
so far as he recognizes that we possessed before the Glacial Period ‘‘a
fauna and flora almost or quite identical with that of the adjacent
parts of the Continent and equally rich in species.” The submergence
he says, destroyed this fauna or at least the greater part of it, and the
post-Glacial elevation and union with the Continent cannot have been
of very long duration. ‘‘The depth of the Irish Sea being somewhat
greater than that of the German Ocean, the connecting-land would
there probably be of small extent and of less duration, thus offering an
additional barrier to migration; whence has arisen the comparative
zoological poverty of Ireland.” Dr. Wallace does not specify whether
his ‘‘ we possessed”’ includes Ireland, but it is evident that he believes
the mass of the Irish fauna and flora to be of post-Glacial origin.
We obtain something more definite from Prof. Boyd Dawkins
(22 b, p. 152), for he tells us that it is highly probable that the bear,
wolf, fox, horse, stag, Alpine hare, and also the mammoth and rein-
deer, have lived in Ireland before the Glacial Period. Whether these
became extinct during the Glacial Period and remigrated to Ireland
ScuHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 443
afterwards he does not mention. During later Pleistocene times,
he continues, Southern and Eastern Britain were inhabited by an
abundant Mammalian fauna, while ice and sea acted as barriers
to their free migration into Ireland and Scotland. This is a
very important point and one with which I thoroughly agree, viz.
that a barrier prevented the fauna during later Pleistocene times from
invading Ireland and Scotland. As Prof. Dawkins looked upon the
Pliocene Forest Bed as early Pleistocene, it is amere change of phrase-
ology to speak of the barrier as having existed throughout what we
now call Pleistocene times. At the close of the Glacial Period the
British Islands stood, according to Prof. Dawkins (p. 151), at least
600 feet above their present level, and were joined to the mainland. I
cannot quite agree with him here. The whole west coast of the British
Islands must have been at a higher level than it is at present through-
out the Pleistocene Epoch and joined to Norway, not separated as he
indicates on the map. No doubt there is a deep hollow running
along the south-east coast of that country, but it becomes shallower
as we go north towards the Atlantic. The hollow, however, is
probably of recent origin, as has, I think, been suggested by Prof. J.
- Geikie.
That the bulk of our recent fauna migrated to Ireland at this time
is evidently Prof. Dawkins’ belief, though I cannot find that he
expresses a definite opinion on the subject. Prof. J. Geikie solves the
problem of pre-Glacial or post-Glacial migration without much trouble,
for he remarks (35 a, p. 505): ‘‘ As neither our animals nor our plants
could have existed here”’ (in the British Islands) ‘‘ during the last
Glacial Epoch; it follows that they must be of post-Glacial age.”
Similarly, Mr. Kinahan informs us (51 0, p. 6) that the great northern
ice-cap, which was moving south over Ireland, crushed all before it.
The evidence as to the existence, however, of a fauna in Southern
England at any rate, during the Glacial Period, is so overwhelming
that I can hardly believe that many naturalists will accept Prof.
Geikie’s views. Nevertheless, there are certainly some who do, and
among them Mr. Clement Reid, the distinguished author of the
“British Pliocene Deposits,’’ who remarks (72 d, p. 300) that, ‘‘in the
Britain of the present day, we may study the re-peopling of a country
over which everything had been exterminated.”’
Though Mr. Carpenter (160) admits that what he has termed the
‘Celtic fauna”’ of Ireland is much older than the Teutonic, he
seems disposed towards the view that the migration took place “in
Pleistocene times, as the ice passed away.’ He concurs therefore
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 21
444 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
with most of preceding writers in the view that the migration was
post-Glacial.?
Mr. Lydekker (57 6) does not wish to offer a definite opinion on
the subject, though he prefers to incline towards Dr. Wallace’s view.
Mr. Barrett-Hamilton (4, p. 68) thinks that there is much in
favour of the view I expressed in my short preliminary note (76a),
but that an adaptation of Mr. Bulman’s views to Ireland might account
for the peculiarities of the flora and fauna of the south and west. This
brings us to Mr. Bulman(14q@). He dissents from the conception that
the British fauna and flora was totally destroyed during the Glacial
Period, and is satisfied that survivals from pre-Glacial times persist
in the British Islands to the present day. As the south of England
was free from ice, we had, as he observes, ‘‘ an area capable of afford-
ing an asylum to a considerable number of our plants and animals.”
I perfectly agree with him, especially in his suggestion that there
may have been other areas in the British Islands besides the south of
England fitted to preserve temperate life during the Glacial Period.
The opinions expressed by zoologists, botanists, and geologists is
overwhelmingly in favour of the post-Glacial ‘age of the present British
fauna. It is believed, even by most of those who admit that the
British Islands were inhabited by a very similar fauna and flora in
pre-Glacial times, that a vast destruction of animal and vegetable life -
took place during the Pleistocene Epoch, and that very few, if any,
species survived the change of climate brought about by the Glacial
Period. As I have already indicated, I do not share these views.
However, before stating my arguments, not only as to the time of the
migration, but as to the changes in the physical geography of Europe
on which it depends, I will briefly summarize my conclusions.
Conclusions.
At the commencement of the latter half of the Pliocene Epoch, or
we might say about the time of the deposition of the Red Crag, the
Atlantic was closed inthe north by a continuous land-connexion between
northern Scandinavia, Spitsbergen, Franz Joseph’s Land, Northern
Greenland, and Arctic North America. (See fig. 6, p. 466.) The
Pacific was likewise separated from the Arctic Ocean by a land-barrier
between Alaska and Kamtchatka. The Arctic fauna and flora was
thus enabled to spread into Northern Europe and North America.
England was also connected with France and Ireland, and Scandinavia
and Ireland with Scotland. (See p. 441).
1 Mr. Carpenter has changed his opinion since (see “ Irish Nat.,” 1896, p. 65).
ScHARFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 445
A marine expansion from the White Sea then spread across Northern
Russia into the North European plains, and the sea thus formed, which
I propose to call the North European Sea, joined the united basins of
the Aralo-Caspian and Black Seas. The Siberian fauna was, therefore,
unable to enter Europe, while the more southern Central Asiatic
fauna continued to migrate into Southern Europe, as in Miocene and
early Pliocene times, by a land-connexion which joined Asia Minor
and Greece.
A gradual retreat of the North European Sea to the north opened up
a passage in Eastern Europe by which the Siberian fauna poured into
Central Russia, Germany, France, and England. (See fig. 5, 461.) There
is distinct geological evidence that this vast migration of the Siberian
fauna and flora occurred after the deposition of the lower continental
boulder-clay. The advance guard composed of Mammals arrived in
England during the deposition of the Forest-bed. This marks, there-
fore, not only the time of the first retreat of the North European
Glacial Sea, but also that of the disconnexion of England and Ireland,
since none of the Siberian Mammals entered the latter.
Meanwhile the Central and South Asiatic Mammals, which, as I
mentioned, had rambled into Southern Europe, spread into Northern
Africa and Western Europe along the shores of the Mediterranean.
Many subsequently invaded Central Europe, and also spread north
into Great Britain and Ireland. These and the Arctic Mammals
mostly retired before the Siberian invaders. Hence the purely Arctic
species had also reached Western and Central Europe before the
advent of the latter.
The Siberian Migration.
As my conclusions contain much with which many geologists will
probably disagree, I shall commence by making some statements,
which are universally acknowledged to be founded on reliable evidence.
There is a general concurrence of opinion among geologists that
the climate of Europe in early Tertiary times was almost- tropical,
and that during the succeeding epochs the temperature became more
and more temperate, and at last intensely cold, culminating in the
Glacial Period, and that since that time the climate has again amelio-
rated. To quote Sir Archibald Geikie’s words (34, p. 837): ‘* At
the beginning the climate was of a tropical and sub-tropical character,
even in the centre of Europe and North America. It then gradually
became more temperate, but flowering plants and shrubs continued to
live even far within the Arctic Circle, where, then, as now, there
212
446 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
must have been six sunless months every year. Growing still cooler,
the climate passed eventually into a phase of extreme cold, when
snow and ice extended from the Arctic regions into the centre of
Europe and North America. Since that time the cold has again
diminished until the present thermal distribution has been reached.”
The late Prof. E. Forbes pointed out, as I have already mentioned
(p. 429), that the Lusitanian element in the flora of the south-west of
Treland is the oldest; and so much was he impressed with that idea,
that he held that it must have arrived long before all other British
plants. We know now that many of the animals belonging to that same
migration, e.g. Geomalacus maculosus, offer examples, as well as many
of the plants, of what is known as “‘ discontinuous distribution.” And
this alone is a proof of the great antiquity of that Lusitanian element
in the Irish fauna and flora. ‘‘ Discontinuity,” says Dr. Wallace (89,
p- 69), ‘‘ will therefore be an indication of antiquity; and the more
widely the fragments are scattered, the more ancient we may usually
presume the parent to be.’”’ Now, the original home of that fauna
and flora is South-western Europe, possibly even’ some area still
further south, of which some of the Atlantic Islands may be the last
remnants. The homes of all other components of the British fauna
and flora lie further north. The bulk of the Irish fauna and flora,
though southern, is derived, as I stated (p. 429), from South-central or
Central Europe. Their distribution is continuous across England, and
they are distinctly of more recent origin than the Lusitanian element.
We then pass on to the northern or Arctie division of the Irish
fauna and flora which came last, and which has scarcely penetrated
the island. Hence, there is no doubt that the sequence in the origin
of the fauna and flora of Ireland from the temperate to the Arctic
agrees perfectly with what we have just learned was the succession
of the climates during the more recent geological epochs. When the
climate was mild in Ireland the southern animals and plants migrat«d
north ; as it gradually became colder they ceased coming north, and
species accustomed to more temperate climes took their place, until
at last the Arctic ones began to arrive.
In speaking of the Irish Arctic fauna, we must not, as so many
naturalists have done, confuse animals of an Arctic with those of
a Siberian origin. It is very important to distinguish these two
elements, both of which are present in the fauna of Great Britain,
though only the former has reached Ireland.
It is now a good many years ago since Mr. Bogdanoy (9, p. 26)
has brought under our notice that the Arctic animals which have
ScHarFr— On the Origin of the European Fauna. 447
been discovered in the Pyrenees, viz. the reindeer, the Arctic hare,
the willow grouse, &c., have nothing to do with the animals which
invaded Europe from Siberia during the Glacial Period. In that they
are, indeed, of quite a distinct origin, and that they came from Scan-
dinavia, I fully agree with him, but will leave the discussion of the
Arctic migration until I have considered the origin and history of the
Siberian fauna.
In order to show the importance of the Siberian element in the
English fauna, I will give a list of the species of the Mammals which
have migrated to Great Britain from Siberia, marking those with a *
which still exist or only became extinct in historic times in the
country. There is no reason to suppose that any of the latter became
extinct and have since been re-introduced.
Canis lagopus. Myodes leminus.
Gulo luscus. ,, torquatus.
*Mustela erminea. *Mus minutus.
fo), putorius. *Arvicola agrestis.
» vulgaris. * ,, amphibius.
*Sorex vulgaris. 5 arvalis.
Myogale moschata. * , gilareolus.
Lepus diluvianus. » so gregalis.
») europaeus. ay) atbiceDs.
Lagomys pusillus. Equus caballus.
*Castor fiber. Antilope saiga.
Cricetus songarus. Ovibos moschatus.
Sphermophilus eversmanni. Alces latifrons.
3 erythrogenoides. », machlis.
Rangifer tarandus.
We have geological evidence that most of these twenty-nine
species of Mammals emigrated from Siberia to Europe across the
Steppes of Southern Russia. Along with them came a large number
of other forms of life, and also plants; and as we adyance eastward
from England, we meet with them in increasing numbers to the pre-
sent day. But not only on the Continent do we find these survivals
of the vast Siberian migration which has been so ably described by
Prof. Nehring (62a & b), no less than ten species still live in Great
Britain (including the recently extinct beaver). On the other hand,
not more than three of the species mentioned on the list above have
been found fossil in Ireland, and only one still survives. This very
significant fact will be referred to more fully later on. Meanwhile
448 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
it should be remembered that these three species, viz. Mustela
erminea, Equus caballus, and Rangifer tarandus, occur in Ireland in
varieties distinct from those found in Central Europe ; and on this
and other grounds, to be more fully discussed in another chapter, I
believe that they came by a different route from those found in Eng-
land, and that Ireland was not connected with England at the time
of the arrival of the Siberian emigrants in the latter country.
3.—Map of Europe on which the stream of the Siberian migration, as revealed
from fossil evidence, is roughly indicated by dots. The principal
mountain ranges have been marked in black.
It may be asked, how do we know that these animals migrated
from Siberia, and what route they came by? In the first place a
large number of them still inhabit Siberia or Southern Russia, and
many closcly related species which have never reached Europe are
confined to Asia. Take, for instance, the genus Arvicola. Over
ScHaRFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 449
forty species live in the Holarctic region, while only a few enter the
boundaries of the adjoining regions. . The majority of them are
entirely confined to North America and Asia, while none have a very
wide range in Europe. But we have also undoubted geological evi-
dence from the remains discovered in the Tchernosjem district of
Southern Russia, and described by Prof. Nehring (62a), that a migra-
tion on a vast scale must have taken place. And as we proceed
westward, we still find in strata of a similar age traces of the same
invasion, but in such diminishing numbers of both species and indi-
viduals, that there can be no doubt whatsoever as to its direction from
east to west. Even at the present day there are occasional recur-
rences of these events of past ages, though on a much smaller scale.
It is not many years ago that an announcement was made to the
naturalists of Western Europe that enormous flocks of Pallas’s sand-
grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus), a native of Central Asia, had suddenly
appeared in Eastern Germany. A few weeks later they invaded
England, and a good many even came as far as Ireland.
The accompanying map has been constructed from data furnished
by fossil remains of the Siberian fauna,! and is intended to show more
clearly the direction of the migration throughout Europe in past
times. More recently many of the survivors of this migration in
Europe have spread into regions to which they had originally no
access. Thus many have penetrated into Scotland, Scandinavia, Italy,
and the Spanish peninsula long after the bulk of the invasion had
either become extinct or had retired to their native home.
According to the prevalent views of the origin of the Alpine fauna,”
the more Arctic members of the Siberian invasion should haye found
a congenial home in the Alps, but they did not survive there any
more than in the plains. Such typical Arctic species as we find there,
for example the Arctic hare, either originated in the Alps, or migrated
to them at a much earlier period (see p. 471).
We have still to inquire into the causes which led to the Siberian
migration, and to ascertain the geological period during which it took
place. In order to arrive at a more satisfactory conclusion on these
problems, it is of some moment to study the extinct fauna of Siberia.
‘‘The Siberian paleontologist,’’ observes 'I'cherski (88, p. 487),
1 The distribution of fossil Mammalia hasbeen compiled from Nehring (62 2),
Woldrich (93), Woodward and Sherborn (95), Harlé (38).
* Compare these views with those expressed on this subject by Prof. Th. Studer
(82, p. 28).
450 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘is confronted with enigmas of the very contrary nature to those
which the learned men of Europe have striven to unravel. He vainly
attempts the solution of the problem of how to account for the remains
of a southern fauna in the ice-bound northern latitudes of his own
country, whilst the latter marvel at the past range of Arctic animals
to Southern Europe.”
The brilliant researches of this distinguished Russian naturalist
have been collected together in a memoir on the scientific results of
an expedition to the New Siberian islands (88). We learn from this
interesting work that remains of the Saiga antelope, tiger, European
bison, mammoth and rhinoceros have been discovered not only in
the extreme northern limits of the mainland of Siberia, but even
in the New Siberian Islands, which are situated in the same latitude
as the northern part of Novaya Zemlya. ‘It is evident,” says
Tcherski (p. 451), ‘‘ that these large animals could only have lived
in these extremely northern latitudes under correspondingly fayour-
able conditions of the vegetation, viz. during the existence of forests,
meadows and steppes.”
It is generally assumed, he continues, that the European fauna ©
which was driven south during the Glacial Period, regained gradually
their former territory in post-Glacial times.
If we applied the same principle to Siberia, and if it is assumed
that the remains discovered on the New Siberian Islands are of post-
Glacial origin, we must also inquire into the causes which produced
such remarkable changes of climate in Northern Asia within recent
times. Or we might, resumes Tcherski, suppose that this migration
from the south to the Arctic regions of Siberia, took place in the
so-called Interglacial Period. But if such an abnormal amelioration
of climate had happened within the Arctic Circle in Northern Asia, it
is evident that similar or even more intense effects, must have been
produced in Europe, which entirely disagrees with the paleontological
data. Moreover, interglacial deposits are wanting almost all over
European Russia, and as there are no indications (p. 462) that Siberia
was glaciated during the earlier portion of the Glacial Period, it seems
all the more unwarranted to conceive such climatic fluctuations.
Tcherski believes (p. 468) that there is no doubt that the gradual
lowering of the temperature, which has been clearly demonstrated to
have occurred in Europe and North America during later Tertiary
times must also have affected Siberia, and as some Siberian forms of
life had already made their appearance in Western Europe in pre-
Glacial times (Forest-bed), a considerable southward extension of the
ScHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 45}
Siberian fauna must have taken place during the post-Tertiary (Pleis-
tocene) Epoch. ‘‘ We have evidence,”’ he says (p. 472), ‘‘ that at the
beginning of that epoch, the Arctic Sea extended further south than it
does now in North-western Siberia, and that throughout the country
the climate was moister, though this only led to isolated and unim-
portant glaciation in the mountainous regions.”
After a careful study of the geological data collected on the
mainland and the New Siberian Islands, Tcherski finally concludes.
(p. 474) that the southward retreat of the North-Asiatic fauna was
continued, though very slowly, throughout the Pleistocene Epoch
without breaks or fluctuations, even during the time of the most
important glacial developments in Europe. At last the frosts gradually
penetrated the soil, and the former haunts of the large Ungulates
were then probably only visited during the summer migrations. In
exceptional cases the carcases of mammoths, musk oxen, and other
animals were preserved in the frozen soil of these northern latitudes
to the present day, and there, what are now Arctic species, had
undoubtedly lived together with those of southern origin.
Very similar views were held by Brandt, who was probably the
highest authority on the Siberian fauna. He was of opinion (12,
p. 249) that the northern half of Asia was inhabited already in Tertiary
times by the present fauna, with the addition of several species now
extinct, and that Europe and Asia subsequently underwent a change
of climate. In consequence of the increasing cold the vegetation
of Northern Asia suffered severely, and both plants and animals
migrated during the Glacial Period towards the south and west,
where they found more genial conditions.
Against these views of Tcherski and Brandt, it might be urged
that, as certainly the bone beds in the Liakoy Islands (New Siberian
Islands) rest upon a solid layer of ice of nearly seventy feet thick,
the Mammals must have migrated north after the amelioration of the
Arctic climate which prevailed there during the formation of this ice.
As a rule, however, these layers of ice contain seams of mud and sand,
and it has been suggested by Dr. Bunge, who visited the New Siberian.
Islands recently at the instance of the Imperial Academy of St.
Petersburg, that the ice has formed, and is still forming, in fissures
of the earth (15). To look upon these so-called glaciers as fossil
ice, and as haying survived from the Glacial Period to the present
day, is a view which, therefore, lacks confirmation.
During the earlier part of the Pleistocene Epoch in Siberia there
occurred a marine transgression in North-western Siberia, and to judge
452 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
from the numerous lacustrine and fluviatile deposits in the low grounds,
the country seems to have been studded with numerous lakes.
Prof. J. Geikie informs us (35a, p. 699) that the Hain-Hai or great Dry
Sea in Central Asia was, during Glacial times, a much better watered
region than it is now. We have also strong evidence that the Caspian,
towards the commencement of the Pleistocene Epoch, extended not
‘only considerably further north, but also further to the east, and was
indeed joined to the Sea of Aral. The slight extension of local
glaciers in the Siberian mountains, during those times, does not,
therefore, indicate a cold climate, but is the natural result of the
more humid conditions which prevailed in Siberia. Tcherski thinks
that there is no evidence to show that the Siberian rivers formerly
flowed in a different direction from that at present, as has been
supposed by Sir Henry Howorth (40d) to have been the case.
Eastern Siberia seems to have been more elevated than it is at
present, for the New Siberian Islands must have been joined to the
continent. A considerable area in the Behring Straits was also
raised above sea-level, so as to unite Asia and North America. By
means of this land-connexion, the red-deer, mammoth, grisly bear,
and other large Mammals migrated across to the New World; and, on
the other hand, Asia received the woodland caribou, and possibly also
the horse, in exchange. An enormous extension of the Siberian fauna
evidently occurred in later Pliocene times; but, nevertheless, there
is strong evidence for the assumption that no direct emigration to
Central Europe took place then. An indirect emigration, which will
be referred to more fully later on, did, however, occur to some extent.
A southern variety, Lepus europaeus mediterraneus, of the common
European hare inhabits the Mediterranean region ; and since it reached
the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and also Northern Africa, which
can be clearly demonstrated to have been separated from the mainland
of Europe at a comparatively early geological period, it must have
migrated from Asia much before its more northern relative. We
have a similar case in the bullfinch (Pyrrhula europea), with the
difference that it wandered a gobd deal further than the Mediterranean
hare. On its arrival, in the extreme western limit of the Mediterra-
nean, it turned north and invaded even the British Islands, and
spread also into Western Germany from France. But a larger form,
known as the Russian bullfinch (Pyrrhula major), emigrated from
Siberia at a later period, and occupied the greater part of Central and
Eastern Europe.
I mentioned already, on a previous occasion (76¢, p. 486-474),
ScHARFF— On the Origin of the European Fauna. 453
that this migration passed across a land-connexion which united Asia
Minor and Greece, but that the later Siberian one took a very dif-
ferent course, as we shall see presently.
Now, several naturalists, who have studied the problem of the
former Siberian emigration of Mammals, have felt that if the physical
geography of Eastern Europe in later Pliocene times had been what it
is at present, we should have some evidence in that region of a migra-
tion from Asia. But in the older strata no Siberian Mammals are to
be met with, and it has been suggested that nothing less than a very
formidable barrier could have prevented the Siberian fauna from in-
vading the neighbouring continent.
I think the distinguished Russian zoologist, Prof. Brandt, was the
first to draw attention to this circumstance. In referring to the
former occurrence of mammoths in Northern Siberia, he says (12,
yp. 86) :—“ The large extension of forests in the north may have taken
place at a time when an arm of the sea stretched from the Aralo-
Caspian to the Arctic Ocean, and conducted warm water to it from
Central Asia. The gradual disappearance of this connexion may have
induced a steady decrease of warmth in Northern Asia, so that ice and
frozen soils formed, which lowered the temperature still more. All
this may have happened at the time the Glacial Period commenced in
Europe. The large Mammals of Northern Asia migrated southward in
consequence of the deleterious influence of the cold on the vegetation
in the north. From there, they were now able to gradually proceed
west, as the arm of the sea, which formerly had prevented extension
of range in that direction, had disappeared.’ Prof. Boyd Dawkins
expressed himself in very similar language, a year later (22c), as
follows :—‘‘ Before the lowering of the temperature in Central Europe
the sea had already rolled through the low country of Russia, from
the Caspian to the White Sea and the Baltic, and formed a barrier to
western migration to the Arctic Mammals of Asia.”’
But the view of Professor Dawkins differs from that of Prof.
Brandt, and also from that of Mr. Koppen (53, p. 42), who likewise be-
leved ina connexion between the Caspian and the Arctic Ocean, in one
material point, in so far that he places his connexion to the west of
the Ural Mountains instead of to the east. Since Tcherski has shown
that Western Siberia is largely covered by freshwater deposits, the
assumption that the Aralo-Caspian had been in direct communication
with the Arctic Ocean, as recently as the Pliocene Epoch, can no
longer be maintained; but, as we shall see presently, there is some
evidence in favour of a European connexion between the two seas.
454 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Some of those who take for granted that huge glaciers overran
Northern and Central Europe in early Pleistocene times will be more
inclined perhaps to favour the view that, if there existed any barrier
shutting out the Siberian fauna from Europe, this took the form of a
glacier. This indeed is the opinion expressed by Bogdanoy, who in-
forms us (9, p. 26) that an immense glacier, covering the greater
part of the Ural Mountain, prevented the Siberian fauna from entering
Europe, while a northern fauna, including the reindeer, spread from
Scandinavia, as far south as the Pyrenees.
To judge from the mildnéss of climate in Siberia, during the Plio-
cene and even during the greater part of the Pleistocene Epoch, it is
extremely unlikely that Bogdanov’s theory could be correct. The
barrier, if there was one, must have been of a character not at variance
with the temperate climate, evidently prevailing in Northern Asia in
Pliocene times. As I mentioned before, there is not only evidence in
favour of such a barrier, but also that it was of an aqueous nature.
As the existence or non-existence of this barrier plays an important
role in the history of the Siberian migration, it is necessary for me to
dwell on this subject for some little time before following the final
entry of the fauna on European soil.
Professor Karpinski mentions (47, p. 183) that, during the first half
of the post-Tertiary (or Pleistocene) Epoch a large brackish inland sea
covered the south-eastern portion of Russia. This not only included
the whole of the Caspian and the Sea of Aral, which were connected
with one another, but it stretched far to the north of their present boun-
daries, as far indeed as the mouth of the Kama, in Northern Russia (see
map on opposite page). ‘This vast inland sea communicated probably
by asystem of lakes and channels, with the Northern Ocean. Professor
Karpinski’s last assumption is based on the occurrence in the Caspian
of some Arctic marine forms of life, but he does not consider that their
presence warrants the belief in a direct communication between it and
the Arctic Ocean. Unfortunately Professor Sars has not quite com-
pleted his investigations into the Crustacean fauna of the Caspian, but.
what has been known for many years of its general facies, has lead
many naturalists to conclude that a direct communication between the
inland sea and the ocean must have taken place in comparatively
recent times. As Professor Sars in the “‘ Crustacea Caspia”’ (758, p.
401) remarks, ‘‘ The Mysidae are generally regarded as being of true
marine origin, and of this family eight species are now known from
the Caspian, half of which also occurin the Black Sea.” Of the Order
Cumacea, which is exclusively marine, ten species are described in
Scuarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 455
Professor Sars’ work, but none of these or the Mysidae seem to range
beyond the Black Sea. It was formerly believed that Dlysis relicta
of the Arctic Ocean, inhabited the Caspian, but this does not appear
to be the case; however, the northern marine Isopod, Jdotea entomon
has been shown to exist in it. Moreover, a closely allied form of the
Arctic seal, viz. Phoca caspica, lives inthe Caspian, while the Caspian
herring (Clupea caspica) is related to the northern herring, and a
still more closely allied species, Clupea pontica, occurs in the Black
Sea.
EUROPEAN |;
RUSSIA|s
4.—Map of European Russia (after Karspinski). The faintly dotted parts
indicate the former extension of land-ice, the strongly dotted ones
represent the Aralo-Caspian and other post-Pliocene basins.
These latter species are certainly of northern origin, but of the
Crustacea mentioned by Professor Sars, we can only say that they have
certainly descended from marine ancestors. The probability, however,
is strongly in favour of their having entered the Caspian area from the
north, since it has been proved by Professor Suess (838, vol. i, p. 487)
that the Black Sea and Caspian were, until quite recent times, certainly
456 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
up to the post-Glacial Period, separated from the Mediterranean.
Whether the Caspian was even after that time connected with the
Mediterranean indirectly through the Black Sea appears somewhat.
problematical.
I think we have therefore grounds for the belief, from purely
faunistic reasons, that the Aralo-Caspian, which was probably joined
to the Black Sea, was actually connected with the Arctic Ocean,,.
or at least that part of it known as the White Sea, during the.
earlier part of the Pleistocene Epoch. Mr. Jamieson came to a
similar conclusion on metereological grounds (41). As heat and dry-
ness were much lessened during the Glacial Period, he thought there:
must have resulted a much smaller evaporation from such inland seas.
as the Black Sea and the Caspian. ‘The level would therefore have-
risen, until their surplus waters were discharged along the east flank
of the Ural Mountains into the Arctic Ocean. This view presupposes.
a cold climate over Central Russia, but as we have seen that the-
temperature must have been more equable and perhaps even milder -
than at present, the waters of the inland sea for this reason did not
overflow at all. On the contrary, the large Russian inland sea was.
merely a remnant of a still larger sea reaching west as far as Croatia,
during the early Pliocene Epoch. Evaporation in fact exceeded pre-.
cipitation, just as it does at present in the Mediterranean, with the
result that as soon as the junction between the southern and the
northern seas was effected, a steady current began to flow from the
latter to the former. ,
We are told by Professor Karpinski (47, p. 182), that at the time
when the Aralo-Caspian Sea extended north as far asthe Kama River,
huge glaciers descended from the Scandinavian Mountains across the
Russian plains similar to those now being formedin Greenland. Traces.
of this southward extension have been met with as far south as the
51st parallel of latitude. Professor Karpinski and the majority of
Continental geologists are of opinion that the boulder-clay or
‘¢ Geschiebe-Mergel,”’ covering not only Northern Russia, but a
large part of Germany, represents the ground-moraine of these
huge glaciers referred to. If they are contemporaneous, therefore,
with the above-mentioned Caspian deposits, it is perfectly clear that
the sea in which the latter were laid down could not have communi-
cated with the White Sea, nor does it seem to me possible how a
temperate climate could have existed in Siberia, whilst the whole of
Northern Europe was shrouded in a mantle ofice. It might be urged
that the Caspian deposits are not contemporaneous with the boulder-
ScHarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 457
clay. Mr. Sjogren (78), however, has shown that hitherto all the.
observations have pointed to the fact that the former do not overlie.
the boulder-clay, but occur side by side, a circumstance which cer-
tainly speaks for the contemporaneousness of the two formations.
We have to choose consequently between one of two alternatives—
either Northern Russia was covered by a mass of ice, and then Siberia
must haye been practically uninhabitable, or the climate of both
Kurope and Siberia were more temperate than they are now. In the
face of the numerous works which have been written im recent years
by Prof. J. Geikie, Prof. Penck, Mr. Falsan, Prof. Bonney, and many
other distinguished geologists, on the proofs of a cold and eyen Arctic
climate in Europe during the Glacial Period, it may seem futile to
doubt what is put forward as a well-established fact. But with
Tcherski I have been led to conclude, that Siberia had a compara-
tively mild climate in Pleistocene times. Northern Europe could
not—that being the case—have been glaciated in the manner above
described. Before following the migrations of the Siberianfauna to
Europe, I must therefore dwell for a little while on the origin of the
Continental boulder-clay.
What is now looked upon as such an established fact, was ex-
plained in quite a different manner fifty years ago. Murchison,
de Verneuil, and von Keyserling, who studied these identical Russian
boulder-clays, which are now regarded as ground moraines of huge
glaciers, came to the conclusion that they were laid down by the sea,
and as regards the origin of these clays the following is their verdict
(59, p. 586) :—‘‘ If, as we believe, it is impossible to imagine that
the detritus in question should have been carried across the Baltic
Sea, and from the level of that sea several hundred miles up the
streams, under any coneeivable terrestrial conditions, it follows from
these considerations alone that all theories to account for the move-
ment of such bodies over the dry surface of the earth are inadmissible.
The hypothesis of glaciers adyancing up-hill for the distance of 700-
800 miles involves, in fact, a physical absurdity.’ The present
champion of the theory of the marine origin of the boulder-clay in
Germany, Mr. Berendt has, ina lengthy essay, published about sixteen
years ago, given his reasons for still adhering to the old views (6).
A good many of the facts brought forward by this writer seem to
be equally well explained by either the terrestrial or the marine
theory ; but Prof. Penck (664) in an article, written in answer to
Mr. Berendt, certainly adduces several, which, I believe, have never
been satisfactorily elucidated by the marine mode of origin of the
458 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
poulder-clay, such as the occurrence of giant kettles, the absence of
marine shells over large tracts of country, &c.
According to Prof. J. Geikie (85a, p. 482), the boulder-clay which
has been traced overa vast area in Northern Europe, exactly resembles
in all important particulars the similar accumulations met with in the
British Islands. They resemble one another also in the occasional
occurrence of sea-shells, the frequent appearance of bedded deposits,
and the often inexplicable course taken by boulders from their source
of origin. It is well, therefore, to weigh the words recently uttered
by Prof. Bonney (10a, p. 280) before rushing to the conclusion that
this boulder-clay necessarily represents a ground moraine. ‘The
singular mixture,” he says, ‘‘and apparent crossing of the paths of
boulders, as already stated, are less difficult to explain on the hypo-
thesis of distribution by floating ice than on that of transport by land-
ice, because, in the former case, though the drift of winds and currents
would be generally in one direction, both might be varied at par-
ticular seasons. So far as concerns the distribution and thickness of
the glacial deposits, there is not much to choose between either hypo-
thesis; but on that of land-ice it is extremely difficult to explain the
intercalation of perfectly stratified sands and gravels and of boulder-
clay, as well as the not infrequent signs of bedding in the latter.”
The view of the marine origin of the British boulder-clay has been
most carefully worked out by Mr. Mellard Reade (71), whilst Mr.
Bulman (140) brought forward some additional objections to the ter-
restrial hypothesis. Sir Henry Howorth (40a) has gathered together
a surprising number of facts in favour of the marine theory, and has
embodied his wide knowledge of glacial geology in a work which is
quite a storehouse of information. With his conclusions, however, I
cannot agree. It seems to me that the distribution of the drift can
be explained without invoking a great diluvial catastrophe.
I think that I shall be able to advance some additional evidence in
favour of the view that the boulder-clay of Europe is a marine deposit,
and that Northern Russia and Germany were not covered by glaciers
during the Phocene or Pleistocene Epochs.
It has been urged by many writers, both on zoological and geo-
logical grounds, that at some time during the Pleistocene Epoch, or
perhaps even later, the White Sea and the Baltic were joined across
Northern Russia, and that then also the lowlands of Northern
Germany, and those of Sweden and Norway were partially flooded.
The zoological evidence alone, that such a junction has taken place,
within recent geological times, is very strong indeed.
ScHARFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 459
The Arctic seal (Phoca annellata), which, as we have learned, is
closely allied to the Caspian seal, is also found in the Gulf of Bothnia,
and in Onega and Ladoga lakes, but is quite absent from the remainder
of the Baltic and the west coast of Scandinavia. We have a similar
case of distribution in the four-horned sting-fish (Cottus guadricornis)
which inhabits the White Sea and then again the Baltic as far south
as Gothland, and also the lakes Wetter and Wener in Sweden, but
does not occur on the west coast of Scandinavia. Its principal food
consists in the isopod Ldotea entomon, which also inhabits the Caspian,
and is a typical marine form. It occurs im many of the Russian,
Finnish, and Swedish lakes, and also in the Baltic, but is absent from
the west coast of Scandinavia. Perhaps the best known form, with a
similar range, is the schizopod Mysis relicta. It is clearly a descen-
dant from the Arctic ysis oculata, of which it was formerly con-
sidered a mere variety. The amphipods, Gammaracanthus relictus and
Pontoporeia affinis, are two additional well-known Arctic Crustaceans,
whose European range differs but little from those above mentioned.
But there are others (see Dr. Norquist’s writings (64)).
Rudolph Leuckart first appled the name ‘‘ Reliktenseen”’ to such
lakes as the north Russian ones and the Swedish, containing marine
organisms, and supposed to have been flooded by, or to have been in
close connexion with the sea at some former period. Lovén, O. Peschel,
and others worked out his views more in detail, and strengthened his
position in regard to the Reliktenseen. More recently Dr. Norquist
(64) strongly defended these views, and so has Prof. Sars (75a,
p. 124), who remarks, when referring to Pontoporeia affinis, that ‘it
constitutes most probably a remnant of the ancient Arctic fauna,
existing off the coasts of Europe and North America during the Glacial
Period, a part of which still remains in the more isolated marine
basins, as the Baltic; whereas another part, by the subsequent rising
of the land, was left behind in some of the lakes, where the present
species, under certain circumstances, was enabled to adapt itself to
live in purely fresh water.”
While recognizing the claims of some of the Swedish lakes to be
looked upon as ‘‘ Reliktenseen,”’ Prof. Credner (19) denies altogether
that either the Onega or the Ladoga lakes can be regarded as belong-
ing to that class, or indeed that the Baltic ever had any connexion
with the White Sea. Moreover he does not believe that the occur-
rence of marine organisms in inland lakes can be adduced as a conyine-
ing proof of the marine origin of such lakes. His chief contention
against the relic theory is the fact that marine molluscs are entirely
B.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2K
460 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
absent from the relic lakes. Had Prof. Credner been acquainted with
Prof. Sollas’ ingenious explanation of the origin of freshwater faunas
(79), no doubt he would have greatly modified his views. Dr. Sollas
shows that all freshwater organisms in their early stages of develop-
ment are provided either with some process enabling them to attach
themselves to a foreign object, or that they pass this period within
the body of the parent. This is a provision of nature to prevent
freshwater organisms from being floated out to the sea, where they
would perish, until they have reached maturity, and can cope with
floods and currents. But the larve of marine mollusca are all free-
swimming. They are a prey to the slightest current, and have no
chance of settling down in freshwater lakes permanently, unless a
radical change were to take place in their mode of development.
To judge from the relic fauna in the North European lakes, we
may safely assume that the area occupied by the plains in the extreme
north of Russia and in Finland and Sweden was, in recent geological
times, occupied by the sea. But we have still to take into conside-
ration the views expressed by geologists on this subject from purely
geological evidence.
I have already mentioned, what Murchison, de Verneuil, and von
Keyserling’s opinions were on this point. In speaking of some Arctic
shell-beds, which underlie the boulder-clay on the coast-lands of the
Baltic, Prof. J. Geikie (35a, p. 442) remarks :—‘‘ It would seem, then,
that before the deposition of the lower boulder-clay of those regions,
the Baltic Sea had open communication with the German Ocean.
Some geologists have supposed that the Arctic fauna of the East
Prussian clay-beds may have immigrated from the north rather than
from the west. But{there is no direct evidence that the lands lying
between the Baltic and the White Sea were under water during the
formation of the shell-bed in question.” Prof. J. Geikie, however,
admits that at a later period the Baltic and White Sea were joined :—
‘The dissolution,” he says (p. 486), ‘‘ of the great Baltic glacier was
accompanied and followed by the depression of a considerable portion
of the Scandinavian peninsula. Communications thus obtained between
the North Sea and the Baltic by one or more straits across Central
Sweden, and there was likewise wide communication between the
Baltic and the White Sea, by way of Lakes Ladoga and Onega.”’
The assumption that the Arctic mollusca were admitted from the
Atlantic to the German Ocean before the deposition of the lower
boulder clay, and then found their way into the Baltic, is altogether
unwarranted, as I shall show later on. It is extremely probable that
ScuarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 461
Scotland was connected with Scandinavia till a much more recent
period (see p. 441). It is likely, therefore, that a marine transgression
from the White Sea took place at the time when the Aralo-Caspian
extended much further north than its present boundaries, that the
Arctic mollusca migrated from the Arctic Ocean direct to the Baltic,
where the pre- Glacial deposits exhibit a curious intermingling of the
ancient southern fauna with the newer immigrants from the north.
5.—Map showing land-connexion between Europe and Greenland in later
Pliocene times (marked white).! The shaded parts were covered
by the sea at that time.
Deposits containing Arctic marine molluseca were also discovered below
the boulder-clay near the shores of the White Sea, another proof of
the former extension of the Arctic Ocean in this direction.
I can only allude at present to an important feature in the physical
geography of Northern Europe, which will be dealt with more fully
* During deposition of lower continental boulder-clay, or, we might say, in
pre-Forest-bed times.
ZA ae 72
462 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(p. 473), viz., the former continuation of the Scandinavian coast-line
in a north-westerly direction to Spitsbergen and North Greenland
(see map, p. 461). The cold waters of the Arctic Ocean did not com-
municate at all with'the Atlantic at the time when the above-mentioned
changes occurred in Northern Europe, but they poured into the Baltic
and the German Ocean, which was then a closed bay, and brought
with them the characteristic fauna of the Arctic regions.
The Aralo-Caspian communicated with this large northern sea,
which had formed on the North European lowlands, and which we
may call the ‘‘ North European Ocean,’’ at a time immediately pre-
ceding the deposition of the upper boulder-clay. But the barrier which
prevented the Siberian fauna from entering Europe was the strait or
straits which connected the two seas. We can, therefore, accurately
fix the period of the beginning of the migration, for it must have
occurred as soon as this barrier disappeared; or, if we are able to
ascertain stratigraphically the first appearance of the Siberian immi-
grants in Central Europe, the disappearance of the barrier must have
immediately preceded that period.
Thanks to the researches of Prof. Nehring (620), who gives us a
vivid picture of Siberian life in Europe as reconstructed from his
discoveries of vast stores of fossil remains in Northern Germany, we
now know that the migration from Asia took place undoubtedly after
the deposition of the lower boulder-clay, or, as we might say, after
the first Glacial Period. Prof. Nehring (623, p. 223) seems inclined to
think that the migration occurred immediately after the deposition of
the lower boulder-clay, that is to say, during the Interglacial phase of
the Glacial Period. Prof. Penck agrees with him in so far as that he
regards the ‘‘ Loess” in which these remains are found as belonging
to the Interglacial Age (66¢, p. 15). However, we also know that
in England remains of Siberian Mammals occur from the Forest-bed
upward, whilst none are found in older strata. It seems safe to
conclude, therefore, that the Siberian migration took place after the
deposition of the'lower continental boulder-clay, and during or just
previous to the formation of the Forest-bed. But the latter has been
lately recognized as a pre-Glacial formation, and it certainly underlies
the English boulder-clay. How can we then reconcile these two
apparently so very contradictory conclusions—that a migration which
undoubtedly set out from the East arrived in Western Europe before
it reached Central Europe ?
I have shown in a previous Paper (76¢, p. 448) that such was
certainly the case with some Southern Asiatic Mammals, which entered
ScHARFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 463
Europe from Greece, and migrated along the Mediterranean coast to
Northern Africa at a time when a land-bridge still existed between
it and Southern Italy, and then recrossed again to Spain, where at
last they turned north to appear in Western Europe, without haying
crossed the central parts of the continent. Such, however, could not
possibly have been the course of migration of the Siberian Mammals,
since they are not found in Southern Europe or in North Africa.
Hence one of the two alternatives must be accepted, either some
radical mistake has been made in the previous arguments, or the
Forest-bed is an Interglacial deposit, and contemporaneous with the
** Loess ’’ formation in which the Siberian animals have been discovered
in Northern Germany. I believe in the latter hypothesis. If this
view should be correct, the whole of the British Pliocene strata or a
portion of them, must be of the same age as the lower continental
boulder-clay. The marine fauna which made its way west from the
Arctic Ocean across the North Russian plains, and reappeared again
on the Baltic coasts just before the deposition of the boulder-clay,
must have entered the German Ocean and left its traces behind in
the strata which formed on the east coast of England. And this is
precisely what occurred. ‘‘In the oldest member of the Pliocene
system,” remarks Prof. J. Geikie (35a, p. 329), ‘‘in the Coralline
Crag, the general facies of the fauna clearly indicates a warm, tempe-
rate climate, for all the living species are southern forms. In the
Reg Crag, however, northern forms begin to appear, and increase in
numbers as we pass upwards to the higher members, while at the same
time the extinct and southern forms gradually die out.”” If the view
that the Forest-bed represents an Interglacial deposit is correct, as
indeed has already been suggested by Professor Geikie (35a, p. 479),
the whole of the newer British Pliocene is synchronous with the
lower continental boulder-clay. I will not dwell on this subject any
longer, as it will be more fully dealt with later on, but in the succeed-
ing pages a good many facts in support of this theory will be brought
forward.
Let us once more return to Eastern Europe. It will be objected to
that, though there may be evidence of a marine trangression from
the Arctic Ocean before the lower boulder-clay was laid down, there
are such cogent reasons for believing in the terrestrial origin of the
latter, that the marine connexion between the Aralo-Caspian and the
White Sea which formed a barrier to the passage of the Siberian fauna
could no longer have existed. Foremost among the objections to the
theory of the marine origin of this boulder-clay is the absence of
464 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
marine shells in this deposit throughout almost the whole of Russia,
and the fact that the boulders from Scandinavia evidently travelled
steadily in a south-easterly direction for a considerable time.
The peculiar conditions of the physical geography of Northern Europe,
viz. the complete isolation of the cold Arctic from. the warm Atlantic
waters, must have produced an excessive precipitation on the Scandi-
navian mountains in the form of snow (see map, p. 461). Glaciers were
formed abundantly on these mountains, as the snowfall during the
winter months must have exceeded the amount of snow dissolved
during summer. On the west coast of Scandinavia they seem to have
hardly reached the sea, as was pointed out by Sir Henry Howorth (40a,
p- 709), but on the Swedish coast icebergs were detached from the
glaciers as soon as they reached sea-level. As the current at first
flowed from north-east to south-west, the icebergs travelled in that
direction, and many were stranded, as we know from the occurrence of
Scandinavian boulders in the British upper Pliocene deposits, on the
east coast of England. When the level of this North European Ocean
rose toa sufficient height to join, by means of several straits, the
Ponto-Caspian Sea, a current would naturally flow in that direction,
as I have already explained (p. 456). We have evidences of this
current in the so-called Glacial strie which are occasionally visible
on the underlying rock. Prof. Geikie tells us (35a, p. 474) that in
Finland, and the adjacent tracts of Russia, two systems of Glacial
strie are apparent. The strie of the older system run in parallel
directions, and extend far east and south-east of the terminal moraines,
the younger system crossing the other at various angles. Again
(p. 426), he remarks: ‘‘ At Riidersdorf (Berlin), there are two sets of
strie, one set trending towards south-east, the other and later series
being directed towards the west.’’ In speaking of the boulder-clay of
Northern Germany generally, he says (p. 463): ‘ There is usually a
well-marked distinction between the boulder-clays of the lower and
upper diluvium. The former are generally tougher and more abun-
dantly crowded with stones and bouiders—the colour of the clay
being often dark gray or grayish-blue. Moreover, the included
erratics have travelled in directions which do not correspond to
those followed by the stones and blocks in the upper boulder-
clay.”
A persistent current, however, carrying icebergs, laden with
detritus in an already turbid sea, would have the inevitable result of
preventing any tender marine organisms, such as mollusca, from
settling down in its track, and to this fact, I think, is due the absence
ScHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 465
in the Russian boulder-clay of organic remains, though the free-
swimming larve of Arctic mollusca must have been present in this
sea which deposited the boulder-clay.
Throughout the German boulder-clay we have evidence that small
colonies of molluscs were able, here and there, to find sufficiently
sheltered localities, where, perhaps, for a few generations they could
survive the discomforts arising from the turbidity of their new home.
Prof. Jentzsch (43) discovered in Kastern Prussia no fewer than
ninety such localities of shells; but in the majority of them he found
Arctic, North Sea, and freshwater mollusca, equally mixed. The
mean thickness of the boulder-clay is about 200 feet, and more than
half of this consists, according to this author, of stratified aqueous
strata. Prof. Jentzsch (p. 669) thinks that the occurrence of fresh-
water shells points to the existence of islands free from ice during the
diluvial period. From the point of view I have adopted, viz. that
the boulder-clay is a marine deposit, it seems to me that the occur-
rence of freshwater shells, along with marine forms, indicates changes
in the salinity of the North European Ocean. When the waters
became more brackish, many purely freshwater species would migrate
to the ocean from the coast ; and, as at the present day, Zellina balthica
and Cardium edule live side by side in the Baltic, with such fresh-
water forms as Zimnea lagotis, L. ovata, and Neritina fluviatilis, it is
not impossible to suppose that Valvata piscinalis, Paludina diluviana,
and Dreyssensia polymorpha, which were the principal species found by
Prof. Jentzsch, actually inhabited the ocean for some time during its
existence.
The occurrence of Dreyssensia polymorpha in the German boulder-
clay is particularly interesting. It suddenly makes its appearance in
the German lower boulder-clay, but then entirely disappears again,
and is not known from the subsequent more recent deposits.1. In the
1 This species is unable to exist in water containing more than a certain
percentage of salt. It does not even occur in the southern part of the Black Sea,
and, of course, is quite absent from the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the
German Ocean. It is now found in canals and slowly-flowing rivers in Northern
Continental Europe and in England. It is supposed to have suddenly appeared in
England in 1824, and though the late Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys (42) denied that there
was any foundation for such a supposition, it is still quoted in text-books as an
artificially introduced species. So deeply rooted, indeed, is that belief, that even
the recent discovery by Mr. Woodward (94, p. 842) of some specimens in a post-
Pleistocene deposit in London, fifteen feet below the surface, has not effected a
change, and conchologists persistently cling to the favourite hypothesis which
offers such a vast field for pleasant speculations. It is almost certain, however
466 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
lower boulder-clay, moreover, it becomes rarer as we go west, being
most abundant in Eastern Germany. When we take into consideration
that the original home of the genus Dreyssensia, and of its ancestor
Congeria, isthe Caspian (65), the natural inference from the fact of its
sudden appearance in Northern Germany alone seems to me sufficient
6.—Map showing the land-connexion between Europe and Greenland during
Interglacial times, and the manner in which a way was opened to
Europe from Asia by the recession of the sea. The light parts
represent the land at that time ; the shaded ones the sea.
to conclude that there must have existed some communication between
the North European and the Caspian Seas at the time when the boulder-
clay was deposited. As we have seen in the preceding pages, many
other facts point to the same conclusion. Again, its non-appearance in
the upper boulder-clay and the more recent deposits of Northern
that Dreyssensia polymorpha survived in Northern Europe in some isolated lakes ever
since the deposition of the lower boulder-clay, and only spread with such rapidity
in recent years owing to the introduction of canals. The larva being a free-swim-
ming one, the species cannot exist in rapidly-flowing rivers.
ScHarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 467
Europe shows, not ouly that it died out owing to the conditions in the
North European Ocean becoming unfavourable to its existence (no
doubt, owing to the sea growing more salt), but that the commu-
nication between the two seas ceased to exist, preventing further
migration.
We can show clearly then, as pointed out before, that a land
passage was opened up between the shores of the receding Northern
Sea and those of the Ponto-Caspian, enabling the Siberian fauna to.
enter Europe.
On the accompanying map 6 are shown the probable geographical
conditions of Europe at this time. The land-surface, which separated
the Ponto-Caspian from the North European Sea, formed the bridge,
by means of which the Siberian migrants crossed over to Europe.
Long before this event took place, it had been a land-surface, but the
sea, as we have learned, had broken through it in several places, thus
forming an impassable barrier to the Siberian fauna. As the Northern
Sea retired during Interglacial times, the bridge became passable again.
The origin of this land-surface has long been a source of many
elaborate geological speculations. It occupies a vast region in Southern
Russia between the Carpathian Mountains and the Ural, and has a
world-wide fame, being known as the Black Karth of Russia, or
‘«Tchornosjem.”” Murchison (59) believed it to be a marine silt,
derived from the black Jurassic shale of Northern Russia. More
recently, after a careful chemical analysis, Mr. Ruprecht (73) demon-
strated that this black earth had been produced chiefly by the
decomposition of tufts of grass, no roots of trees or of bushes having
been found init. We may assume, therefore, that this tract of land,
over which the Siberian fauna wandered, consisted of a vast prairie.
On their arrival in the more central parts of Europe, the Siberian
Mammals spread into Austria, Hungary, and Northern Italy, through-
out the greater part of Germany and France, and into England (see
map, p. 448). They scarcely touched any part of Southern Europe,
and their progress in France was apparently arrested by the Garonne,
as no typical Siberian forms are found fossil south of that river in the
Pyrenees or in Spain. Of course. more recently the Siberian survivors
in Europe have spread not only into Southern Italy and Spain, but
also throughout Great Britain and Scandinavia. But, as previously
stated (p. 448), none of them entered Ireland, and I have given this as
one of my reasons for the belief that this country became separated
from England about the time when the Forest-bed was laid down, and
has never been since joined to it.
468 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
It is evident that during the deposition of the Forest-bed, the
south of England was joined to France. But the two countries must
have been united for a considerable time previously, and this is quite
in accordance with the opinion expressed by geologists. Mr. Jukes-
Brown (46, p. 347) believes that in early Pliocene times there was an
Eastern Sea or German Ocean which spread over a portion of Southern
England, but that there is no proof of the existence of an English
Channel. Again (p. 350), he remarks: ‘‘It is tolerably certain that
in Miocene time the whole of England and of North-eastern France,
with the intervening channel area, was land.”’ In later Pliocene times,
the channel was still closed, according to a map (p. 358) which he
gives us of the geography of that period.
Quite recently, Mr. Dollfus, of Paris, who has made this subject
his special study, communicated a note to the British Association
(25, p. 690) agreeing in all essentials with the views expressed by
Mr. Jukes-Brown. England, he says, was always in direct continental
communication with France during Pliocene time; the English Channel
was not open at all.
As regards the Scandinavian peninsula, the total absence of
Mammalian remains in Pleistocene deposits indicates that this country
was not connected with the Continent during that period.
The presence, on the other hand, of Mammalian remains in more
recent deposits, chiefly in Southern Sweden, implies that toward the
end of the Glacial Period, a land passage must have existed between
North-western Germany and Sweden across Denmark. In referring
to the absence of fossil elephants and other large Mammals from the
Scandinavian Pleistocene strata, Prof. Pohlig (69, p. 314) expresses
the belief that Scandinavia must either have been hardly free from
ice during the whole of the Glacial Period, or, if free from ice during
Interglacial times, it could then only have had an imperfect connexion
with the Continent. That of these alternatives the former was not
the case will be proved in the next chapter, and if, as I believe, the
bulk of the fauna and flora survived the Glacial Period in the country
itself from pre-Glacial times, there is no necessity for supposing that
any connexion existed between the Continent and Scandinavia in
Interglacial times.
The Arctic Migration.
The animals belonging to the Siberian migration did not reach
Ireland, as I have shown in the last chapter, but the effects of a
migration which undoubtedly did, and which preceded from the north—
ScHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna, 469
either from Scandinavia or from the Arctic regions—must now be
considered. On p. 429, [have referred to the fact that both the fauna
and flora of Ireland included an Arctic element, and I may also
mention that these Arctic plants and animals are generally confined
to the northern and western parts of the island, as if some barrier had
prevented their migration along the east coast, or to the central plain,
or as if they had been exterminated there in more recent times.
Three of the Irish Mammals, one of which, the reindeer, is now
extinct, appear to me to have come direct from the north. Several
birds, among the most striking of which may be mentioned the grouse
(Lagopus scoticus), have formed part of that northern migration. All
the Salmonide have come to us from the north, whilst a still more
noteworthy example of a northern migrant is the stickleback ( Gaste-
rosteus aculeatus). The land-shells Helix lamellata and Vertigo
alpestris, the beetles Pelophila borealis, Dytiscus lapponicus, Blethisa
multipunctata, and the moth Crymodes exulis, all belong to the same
migration. No doubt these and the North American freshwater sponges
which have been recently discovered on the west coast by the Royal
Irish Academy Fauna and Flora Committee (37) have found their way
to Ireland along an old land connexion which formerly united that
country with the Arctic regions. In the latter may have originated
many of these forms, as well as the plants referred to on page 429, and
have migrated to both the Old and the New World. Ofcourse I have
selected only a few of the more prominent examples. As our know-
ledge of the geographical distribution of the species, which is as yet
in its infancy, increases, many other of these northern forms will no
doubt be discovered in Ireland.
If we cross over to Scotland, we find a very large increase ot
typically Arctic species of animals and plants, and as these are absent
from England, or confined to the northern counties, there can be no
question as to their having migrated direct from the north to Scot-
land by a former land passage. It may be urged that these Arctic
species have spread over the plain of Europe, have then entered Eng-
land from the south, and have subsequently been exterminated,
except in their most northern stations in the British Islands. But
whilst we have only very slender geological evidence that such might
have been the case; there is, I think, strong evidence for the belief
that, until comparatively recent times, Norway and Scotland were
joined (45, p. 1008), so that animals and plants had no need to
migrate by that enormously circuitous route by way of Denmark,
Holland, Belgium, and England, and across the many large rivers,
470 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
which would have impeded their journey. In Scandinavia, Arctic
animals and plants form a large proportion of the fauna and flora, and
as we proceed northward, southern forms become more and more
scarce. According to Mr. Peterson, no less than thirteen species of
Arctic Lepidoptera occur in Northern Europe and North America, but
are absent from Asia, and he assumes the probability of a direct land
connexion between the two countries by way of Greenland before
the Glacial Period, and a survival of these in Europe (67, p. 57).
My assumption that the Arctic element of the fauna and flora,
which undoubtedly exists in the British Islands, and which is now
confined more or less to the northern parts of Great Britain and Ire-
land, migrated by a direct route from Scandinavia, is not founded on
geological data alone, but has been suggested to me in a great measure
by the present range of the Arctic species. Let us take some examples.
I have referred to three specics of Mammals, viz. the hare (Lepus
variabilis), the stoat (Mustela erminea), and the reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus), which I suppose to have migrated to Ireland directly from
the north, or more correctly the north-east, and it is essential that I
should dwell on the history of each of these for a little, as their past
range is so much better known than any of the other members of the
Arctic migration which we have to deal with.
Lepus variabilis.—To those who are not acquainted with the fact,
I may mention that this hare is the only one inhabiting Ireland, and
that it lives in the plain as well as in the mountains. In Great
Britain it is confined to the mountains of Scotland, whilst the plain
is inhabited by the European hare (Lepus europeus), which, I have
shown, came originally from Siberia. JZ. variabilis is found on such
widely separated mountains as the Pyrenees, Alps, Tatra, Caucasus,
and the Akita and Mioko-san mountains in Japan, whilst quite absent
from the plains surrounding them. It is perfectly clear that at some
time or other it must have inhabited these plains, but it has since
disappeared from them, thus producing discontinuous distribution,
which, as I have already stated, is a proof of antiquity. Besides,
the vastness of the range alone indicates this, andits migration south-
ward must have taken place at a very remote period. On the
continent of Asia and North America it is confined to the northern
parts. In Northern Europe we find it in Scandinavia, and almost
everywhere inthe Arctic regions. Its home is therefore in the north ;
During the Glacial Period it is supposed to have been driven south,
and its occurrence in the Caucasus, the Alps, and the Pyrenees is
looked upon as a standing testimony to the extreme refrigeration of
Scuarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 471
the climate, for when the cold passed away, the plain is believed not
to have suited the hare any more, and it retired to the more congenial
atmosphere of the mountain tops. This view, first promulgated, I
think, by Edward Forbes, has been almost universally adopted (see
p. 449). Certainly, as Darwin has remarked (p. 21a, 581), it explains
the presence of Arctic forms on the Alps and other mountains in a most
satisfactory manner. Still, I venture to think the Glacial Period did
not play so important a role in the present distribution of the Arctic
hare. Weneed only look at Ireland and at Sweden. In both countries
this hare inhabits the plain as well as the mountains. Moreover, it
flourishes in the former country where there is hardly any snow, and
where the temperature in winter approaches that of Southern Europe.
It seems to me unlikely, therefore, that this hare should have left the
plain of Central Europe and France, on account of the passing away
of the cold, and we must seek for other causes to explain its peculiar
geographical range. ‘The European hare (Lepus europaeus) never
lived in Ireland, but it did inhabit Sweden, where it is now extinct.
Attempts have been made in both countries to introduce it, but
without success. On the other hand, we find it stated, in the
‘‘ Zoologia Danica” (97), that, in severe winters when the Sound
between Southern Sweden and Denmark becomes covered with ice,
the Arctic hare migrates across to the latter country. Nevertheless,
although this migration must have taken place on very numerous
occasions for centuries past, it has never been able to settle down in
the country, whilst the European hare thrives there. Both hares can
stand extremes of temperature perfectly well, but their range does
not overlap anywhere, and their distribution seems to me to indicate
that the two species will not live together. The European hare being
probably the stronger of the two, has driven the other out of the
European plain into the mountains, whilst in small colonies, as in
Ireland and Sweden, it may be overwhelmed by the superior numbers
of the enemy. Not the change of climate, but the sudden advent of
a {strong rival from the east probably confined the Arctic hare in
Central Kurope to regions where, owing to the superior adaptability
of its fur to changes. of colour, it still reigns supreme, as a survival
indeed, but not of an Arctic climate.
As I mentioned before, the Arctic hare is undoubtedly a very
ancient species and must have inhabited Europe before the European
hare made its appearance there. Had they arrived at the same time
from the east, there is no reason why both should not have reached
Ireland. The Arctic hare probably entered Asia from North America
472 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
across the old Behring Sea connexion. It could not have come from
Asia before the European hare, as I have clearly demonstrated (p. 453)
that a barrier kept back the Siberian fauna. The only way it could
have entered Europe is from the north, its original home. [I shall
bring forward evidence to show that Scandinavia and Spitsbergen,
were connected before and during the Glacial Period (see also page 462).
I believe that the Arctic hare migrated along that land to Scandinavia,
and then to Scotland and Ireland, which were at that time all united,
that is to say, in pre-Forest-bed times, when Scandinavia, as I have
mentioned, was not directly connected with continental Europe (see
map, p. 461). It then spread into England, where its remains were
found in the Mendip Hill Cave (not in any true Pleistocene deposits)
and subsequently to the Pyrenees and Alps.
Mustela erminea—The well-known fact that the stoat, like the
Arctic hare, generally changes its fur to white in winter, is suggestive
of a northern origin. Even in Ireland both species often become
partially white in the winter months, though there may be little
or no snow on the ground.
Its absence from the Mediterranean region and from Portugai and
Southern Spain proves, that it did not enter Europe from the south.
We have learnt (p. 447), that the stoat came with the weasel and pole-
cat from Siberia, and with them invaded England, after having
traversed the central plain of Europe, but, as I have stated before, I
consider it improbable that, of the Siberian immigrants, it almost alone
should have reached Ireland. Still the stoat undoubtedly did migrate to
Ireland. When we consider, however, that the Irish stoat is very dis-
tinct from the ordinary English and continental form, so much 0, that
Messrs. Thomas and Barrett-Hamilton have recently raised it to the
rank of a distinct species (86), the view that it belongs to a different
migration will perhaps be more readily accepted. The stoat is certainly
of northern origin, and it is one of the few Mammals which still
inhabits the Arctic regions. It has been observed in Grinnel Land,
Greenland and Spitsbergen, so that provided a land-passage existed
connecting the latter with Scandinavia, it could easily have entered
Europe direct from the north. It spread from the Arctic regions to
North America, and from there into Asia, being still found on the
islands of the Aleutian chain (36) which used to form the highway
between the two continents. A branch of the Asiatic stock even pene-
trated into Northern Africa (85), possibly by way of Greece and
Southern Italy, though not found in Southern Europe at present.
But this Algerian form is, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas mentioned to me,
ScHarFrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 473.
more closely related to the typical European than to the Irish stoat,
so that any near relationship between the African or the Asiatic forms
and the Irish is excluded.
Rangifer tarandus.—Two distinct races of the reindeer, viz. the
large Woodland and the smaller Barren-ground caribou, have long been
distinguished in North America. In the latter the antlers are more
rounded and slender than in the other race.
If we turn to the Old World we find that two very similar races
occur, but whilst both inhabit Europe, one only, viz. the Woodland
form, lives in Asia, and there is no record that the other existed there.
This startling fact suggests that the Barren-ground caribou has either
come to Europe from America by a different route from that of the
other race, or that it has originated in the Polar regions, and thence
spread to America and to Europe from its original home. But what-
ever view we adopt, the present geographical conditions could not have
prevailed when these migrations took place, and an extensive land
connexion between Northern Europe and the Polar regions must then
have existed. That such a connexion did actually exist, is proved
by the occurrence of the reindeer in Greenland, Melville and Disco
Islands, and Spitsbergen. However, if we had not this proof, the
mere knowledge of the distribution of the fossil remains of the rein-
deer in Europe would render it highly probable. In Ireland alone of
all the countries in the Old World do we find only the remains of the
Barren-ground reindeer. In Great Britain the two forms occur mixed.
The Scandinavian reindeer is also the Barren-ground form, but the
Lapland race is intermediate between the two. On the Continent the
Barren-ground reindeer is entirely confined to Western Kurope, and
it seems to occur there in older deposits, as a rule, than the other
race.
All this clearly points to a double migration of the reindeer to
Europe—an older one of the Barren-ground race from the north, and a
more recent one of the Woodland race from the east. The known
facts of the present and past distribution of the two races perfectly
agree with this view. The Barren-ground reindeer occurs in Green-
land and Spitsbergen; then, again, as we have seen, in Scandinavia.
It migrated along an old land-connexion to Scandinavia at a time
when that peninsula formed not a part of the Continent of Europe,
but an elongated isthmus which stretched south from Spitsbergen,
which latter again was joined to Greenland. The reindeer then
invaded Scotland and Ireland (see map, p. 461), and crossed over
into France, where it penetrated as far as the Pyrenees. It is, as
474 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Mr. Harlé has pointed out (38), the only Arctic Mammal of which
remains have been discovered in these mountains. It is even possible,
Mr. Harlé thinks, that some bones which he obtained in the province
of Gerona, in the extreme north-east of Spain, may be referable to the
reindeer. The important fact, as has already been referred to by
Lartet (55), is that these French reindeer remains belong to the |
Barren-ground race, whilst Gervais has shown (see Beyer, 7, p. 68)
that those from Northern France agree with the ones from the Central
European deposits, and belong to the Woodland form. Then, again,
Dr. Beyer informs us (7, p. 68) that, in one of the oldest Pleistocene
deposits of Germany, at Rixdorf, all the reindeer remains belong to
the Barren-ground race. All these remains of the Barren-ground
reindeer occur either in caves or in early Pleistocene deposits.
Indeed Struckmann (81, p. 764) quite recognizes that in Southern
Europe (Pyrenees) the reindeer is found, as a rule, in older strata
than in the more northerly localities.*
Struckmann (81, p. 766), and also Woldrich (98, p. 124), believed
that, as far as Europe is concerned, the reindeer entered it from Asia;
but Mr. Bogdanoy felt that a distinct northern migration, which even-
tually reached the Pyrenees, and among which was the reindeer, must
have originally issued from Scandinavia (9, p. 26). The latter view
harmonises with my own, in so far as that I agree with him that one
of the races entered Europe from the direction of Scandinavia; and
this is really the principal point at issue.
It is a well-known fact that reindeer are in the habit of travelling
considerable distances on ice; and it might be urged that it had
traversed the distance from Spitsbergen to Norway during the Glacial
Period, when the sea in these northern latitudes was supposed to have
been frozen over, or covered by a huge glacier. Extensive land-
connexions are assumed by some geologists to have existed in the
Arctic regions after the Glacial Period, by means of which the fauna
and flora are supposed to have migrated north again, after having
been driven south by the cold.?
1 He, no doubt, has the German deposits in view—not the British or Scandi-
nayian.
2 A natural sequence of my views is that there must have been a survival of a con-
siderable fauna and flora throughout the Arctic regions during the Glacial Period.
Even Prof. Nathorst admits (61a, p. 200) that a small portion of the pre-Glacial
flora might haye persisted through the Glacial Period, whilst Mr. Warming (90)
maintains that the main mass of the present flora survived in Greenland, and that
the remainder have been accidentally introduced by birds and winds. Few natural-
ists, however, are more intimately acquainted with the Arctic regions than Col.
ScuHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 475
It seems to me that such a supposition is entirely unwarranted
from the known habits of the reindeer and its powers of endurance.
The distance which it would require to traverse between Spitsbergen
and the most northern point of the Scandinavian peninsula is at least
700 miles, though Bear Island, which is about 250 miles south of the
former, might form a resting place. ‘To travel in search of food on
such exceedingly difficult ground as rough ice with crevasses for even
a couple of hundred miles would have been quite beyond its powers.
There are in Ireland a few American species of plants, and also
some Invertebrates which in Europe only occur in the west. They
are altogether absent from Eastern Europe and from Asia. It seems
to me probable that these have migrated during later Tertiary times,
either from North America by means of the former land-connexion
which I have referred to, or from the Arctic regions to both Europe
and America, and thus form part of the Arctic migration. In Ireland
these so-called American species are almost altogether confined to the
northern and western counties.
The first of these, a pretty white-flowering orchid (Spiranthes
romanzoviana), does not occur anywhere in Europe outside Ireland.
Until recently it had only been met with in a few isolated localities
on the west coast, but Mr. Praeger has since added another station in
the north of Ireland (Co. Armagh). The second is the narrow-leaved
Sisyrinchium anceps which is found in boggy and heathy places in the
counties of Galway and Kerry. It has not been met with anywhere
else in Europe. The next two, viz. the slender Naiad and the jointed
Eriocaulon are freshwater plants, and have a somewhat wider range
than the others. The Naiad (Navas flexilis) is found in Connemara, in
the west of Scotland, and in a few isolated localities in Northern
Feilden, and he is certainly in favour of a survival of part of the plants through
the Glacial Period, where they now live (29, p. 50). Mr. Geldart expressed
similar views in an interesting address, recently delivered to the Norfolk and
Norwich Naturalists’ Society.
The idea that everything within the Arctic Circle was covered by snow and ice
during the Glacial Period can no longer be maintained. Some, indeed, hold that
the climate in those regions was then much milder than it is now.
Col. Feilden remarks (30, p. 57): ‘It is suggestive that all the Glacial deposits
which I have met with in Arctic and Polar lands, with the exception of terminal
moraines now forming above sea-level, in areas so widely separated as Smith’s
Sound, Grinnell Land, Northern Greenland, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, and
Arctic Norway, should be glacio-marine beds. Throughout this broad expanse of
the Arctic regions I have come across no beds that could be satisfactorily assigned
to the direct action of land-ice.”’
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 21
476 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Continental Europe, whilst the Eriocaulon (Eriocaulon septangulare)
occurs on the north and west coasts of Ireland, and on some of the
islands off the west coast of Scotland.1 All these species of plants, as
I mentioned, are commonly distributed in North America.
Among animals no doubt a good many similar examples occur,
though probably few of such very restricted range. I have already
referred to the common stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), which is
found in Greenland, North America, and Europe, but is quite absent
from Asia, though an allied species inhabits Kamtchatka. The nine-
spined stickleback (Gasterosteus pungitius) is confined to Western
Europe and North America, whilst an allied species (G. sinensis) lives
in China, and has probably penetrated there from the New World
across the old Behring Straits land-connexion. Europe has many
land and freshwater mollusca in common with North America, also
many butterflies, moths and beetles, but the Asiatic distribution of the
insects generally is not sufficiently well known to permit us to
definitely assert their absence in Asia. The freshwater sponges of
Central and Northern Europe have been fairly well worked, and it
must be surprising to many to hear that we possess in Ireland three
North American species which have not hitherto been discovered
elsewhere in Europe or Asia. These three, viz. Ephydatia craterifor-
mis, Heteromeyenia Rydert, and Tubella pennsylvanica, were recently
described by Dr. Hanitsch (37, p. 125) in the ‘‘ Irish Naturalist.”
They all inhabit lakes on the west coast of Ireland.
The spider (Porrhomma myops), which was discovered by Mr.
Carpenter in Mitchelstown Cave in Ireland (16 ¢), is, as he remarks,
probably identical with a North American species, and in Europe is
confined to the west. I think all these instances of a close relation-
ship between the European—and chiefly Western European—and the
North American fauna and flora are to be explained by a former land-
connexion between these two continents in the manner described
on p. 462 (see map, p. 461).
Many eminent geologists have held that the Glacial Period was
produced by a rising of the land in the Arctic regions. Sir Charles
Lyell was an adherent to that theory. Professor Dana suggested that
an elevation of the Arctic land sufficient to exclude the Gulf Stream,
might have been the source of cold during the Glacial Period (20, p.
1 Two additional North American plants, viz. Juncus tenuis and Polygonum
sagittifolium, have recently been discovered in the west of Ireland by Dr. Scully,
and one (Sisyrinchium californicum) by Mr. Marshall on the coast of Wexford
(‘‘ Irish Nat.,’’ 1896).
ScuarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 477
540). He adds (p. 542): ‘‘ If the cause of the Glacial cold was con-
nected with the closing of the Arctic regions against the tropical
currents of the Atlantic, the North Atlantic Ocean would have
had greater warmth than now, and this would have produced unusual
evaporation, and hence unusual precipitation on its cold borders.”
Croll, on the other hand, in referring to this barrier of land, says:
‘‘T have never been able to find any evidence that any such barrier
did exist during the Glacial Period.”
In a Paper on the history of the vegetation of Greenland (61a, p.
185), Prof. Nathorst speaks of Spitsbergen as a northern continuation
of Europe—not only geographically, but also botanically and geologi-
cally. All the flowering plants of Spitsbergen, with the exception
of but three species, are also found in Northern Europe and Novaya
Zemlya. He is of opinion that Spitsbergen must have been partially
connected with Europe during the Glacial Period. On the other
hand, the occurrence of a number of American plants on the west
coast of Greenland seems to point to a former land-connexion between
the latter country and North America. Prof. Engler observes (26, p.
12) that, as Spitsbergen, Franz-Joseph’s Land, and Novaya Zemlya
lie on a sub-marine plateau which is less than 200 fathoms below sea-
level, and is probably continued northward, the insular position of
these islands might only be a temporary one. These islands might,
he says, haye formed a connexion between Greenland and Arctic
Europe, by means of which a migration of plants from North America
_ and Greenland to Northern Europe became possible. At any rate, he
continues, the reasons in favour of this Arctic connexion of America
with Europe are stronger than those of a connexion between Green-
land, Iceland, the Faroes and Great Britain. He thinks too
(p. 148) that many species of plants belonging to the Alpine flora of
Arctic Siberia seem to have travelled from Scandinavia va Greenland
and North America to Eastern Asia, and not direct from Scandinavia
to Siberia. Among Irish naturalists I may mention the late Dr.
Moore and Mr. A. G. More, who were both of opinion (58, p. xx.)
that the presence in the west of Ireland of several American plants in-
dicated a former land-connexion between Europe and North America.
The most important geological contribution which has been
published on this problem of a former northern land-connexion is
that by Professor Petterson (68). He tells us that, according to
recent surveys, a high sub-marine plateau, with a sharp fall of 1000
fathoms towards the Atlantic Ocean, rises from Northern Norway,
and continues as far as Spitsbergen. From this plateau arise several
ZL 2
478 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
islands, such as Bear Island, King Charles’ Land, and others, which
must be looked upon as the remains of a much larger mass of land.
The sea has broken through and diminished this land considerably in
the course of time, as is very evident in the case of Bear Island.
In referring to a number of shallow-water mollusca, common to
the coast of Greenland and Finmark, the late Prof. Forbes said
(336, p. 56) : “‘ that these littoral mollusks indicate, by their presence
on both sides of the Atlantic, some ancient continuity or contiguity of
coast-line, is what I firmly believe. The line of migration of most of
these shell-fish was most probably from west to east, from America
to Europe, during a different state of physical conditions from those
which now prevail on our side of the ocean.’”’ It was probable, there-
fore, that a current existed in the Arctic Ocean, from west to east,
and this offers an explanation for the very remarkable and sudden
appearance of no fewer than eighteen American species of mollusca in
the newer crags of the east coast of England. In the last chapter,
p. 461, I explained how the German Ocean was connected with the
White Sea across Northern Russia, at a period which certainly ante-
dated that of the Forest-bed; and that was, no doubt, the way in
which these mollusca above referred to, which had been brought to
the White Sea by the westerly current, reached the east coast of
Britain. Had they come straight across the Atlantic from America,
we should find some traces of them in such beds as those of St. Erth,
in Cornwall, which is probably of about the same age as the newer
crags. But Messrs. Kendall and Bell (49), who have studied these
deposits carefully, do not report the occurrence of any of these
American forms, while, from the absence of Arctic species, they are
led to think that the Arctic Ocean did not then open into the Atlantic.
They suppose that a land-communication must have existed between
Europe and America, so as to form a barrier of separation between the
Arctic and Atlantic Oceans.
I think it has been clearly shown that a former land-connexion
must have existed between Scandinavia and Greenland on the one
hand, and between Scandinavia aud the British Islands on the other,
and that it formed the highway for an extensive migration from the
north, and vice versa. Most naturalists, indeed, admit this, but many
deny that it could have been anything but post-Glacial. I believe
that the migration took place chiefly in later Pliocene times, 7.e.
during the deposition of the newer crags and of the lower continental
boulder-clay. The Arctic animals and plants certainly reached the
British Islands long before the Siberian immigrants. Throughout the
ScHarFrrF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 479
Glacial Period (inclusive of the period when the newer crags were
deposited) the White Sea remained connected with the Baltic and the
German Ocean, forming the great sea which I ventured to call the North
European Sea (p. 462). Long before the Arctic migration reached
the British Islands, another migration advanced from the south; first,
as I explained, from South-western Europe, and, as the climate became
colder, from Southern and Central Europe. Many of the animals and
plants which arrived with the latter straggled northward into Scandi-
navia, and even at the present moment they seek to extend their
range in a northerly direction. There is no evidence that their
progress was checked by the Arctic climate, which is supposed to have
prevailed during the Glacial Period; but this subject will be dealt
with more fully in the next chapter. As I have given a detailed
account of the nature of the southern migration in a paper recently
published in France (76c), it will be found sufficient to merely repeat
the salient features, and add a few instances of distribution not
previously recorded.
The Southern Migration.
I have already mentioned (p. 429) that the bulk of the Irish fauna
and flora belongs to this migration, and that we can divide its members
again roughly into those of South-western and those of Southern or
Central European origin. But, in reality, the origin of this migration
is an exceedingly complex one, and is all the more difficult to trace,
as migrations from the south to the north have apparently proceeded
uninterruptedly during many of the past geological epochs—certainly
during the whole of the Tertiary Era. Whilst most of the larger and
short-lived forms have died out again, some of the less conspicuous
Invertebrates are undoubtedly of very ancient origin, and have
witnessed vast changes in the fauna and flora surrounding them.
Many of these, though their general distribution indicates a southern
origin, baffle all attempts at solving the problem of the location
of their ancestral home. In some respects the southern migration
merges into the Siberian one; for there are a good many English species
of animals and plants which, though absent from Ireland, belong
certainly to the former. The dormouse (Museardinus avellanarius), for
instance, is probably of Central European origin; but it nevertheless
is absent from Ireland. Its general range, however, proves that it is
of very recent origin, and it has only spread from its original home,
which may be in the Alps, after Ireland was already disconnected
from Great Britain. It has never reached Scotland, Spain, Norway,
480 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Russia, Greece, or any of the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily,
where it is present, according to Doderlein (24). Then there are
forms which, though they have come to the British Islands from
Southern Europe, have probably not originated there, but in Central
or Southern Asia. Certain of these Asiatic species have joined what
I call this “‘ Southern Migration,” but subsequently they have invaded
Europe along with the Siberian migration. In most of these instances,
however, the members of the earlier southern migration belong to a
different variety from those of the later one, or exhibit such racial
characters, that naturalists are able to distinguish them from one
another, and thus differentiate between the two migrations. On p. 452,
I referred to two of such cases, viz. those of the European hare and
the bullfinch, and I shall mention others directly.
I have more than once drawn attention to the important role played
by the land mollusca in elucidating former changes of land and sea.
Yhe mollusca of islands are of great importance in studying geo-
graphical distribution. A knowledge of the molluscan fauna of such
islands as Ireland, Sardinia, and Corsica will help us to solve many of
the problems associated with their former continental connexions.
Especially is this the case with the slugs. As the sea forms an
impassable barrier to slugs, being deadly both to themselves and their
eggs, the occurrence of the same species on an island and the adjoin-
ing mainland, proves that these were formerly connected by land.
The chief centres of the creation of species in the Holarctic region
are all in southern latitudes, as Dr. Simroth has pointed out (77,
p- 20). One active creative-centre lay, according to this learned
malacologist, in South-western Europe, another in the Caucasus.
This agrees perfectly with the data which we possess of the geo-
graphical range of slugs. For instance, the genus Arion undoubtedly
originated in South-western Europe. Most of the species are still
confined to the Spanish peninsula, and if we proceed south, east, or
north, the number of species gradually decreases, and outside Europe
and Northern Africa the genus is quite unknown. If we suppose the
French west-coast to have been continued north as far as the Irish, an
Arion, proceeding to migrate from its original home in South-western
Europe, would have had about as far to go to Ireland as to Germany,
and, indeed, an equal number of species inhabit both countries. But
in the more distant Russia, Scandinavia, and Turkey the numbers of
species of Arion are much fewer.
Then we have the peculiar genus Geomalacus almost confined to
the Spanish peninsula, which genus, owing to its discontinuous distri-
ScHarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 481
bution, must be looked upon as an ancient one. There are about three or
four Portuguese species, one of which, Geomalacus maculosus, migrated
as far north as Ireland, and has survived there, though it appears tohave
become extinct in the intermediate tracts of country, which it, no doubt,
onceinhabited. Testacellaisanother typically Western European genus,
and it is of exceptional interest from a distributional point of view,
owing to its subterranean habits. There are about a dozen species, of
which three have reached Ireland, while none occur in Central or
Eastern Europe. The close relationship between the South-west
European molluscan fauna and that of Ireland is altogether very
striking, but, as I have had occasion to mention, there is no need of
invoking a direct former land-connexion between that country and
Spain, as has been done by the late Prof. E. Forbes, in his classic
memoir, in attempting to trace the origin of the Irish flora (33a), An
indirect connexion between Ireland, the west of England, and France,
which has so often been suggested, is sufficient to explain all the
minutie of distribution. In every group of Invertebrat«s, the Irish
fauna exhibits strong affinities with France and the Spanish peninsula,
certainly much more so than with Germany and Eastern Europe.
But in all these cases it might be urged (by those naturalists,
especially, who adhere to the view that everything is explainable by
accidental introduction) that Ireland, being within easy reach of the
Spanish or French coasts, many of these forms were either carried by
migratory birds or with floating wood, ete. I will instance, therefore,
a case which, I think, cannot possibly be attributed to any of these
agencies, viz. that of the blind woodlouse (Platyarthrus hoffmanseggit).
The genus of Platyarthrus is confined to Western Europe and
Northern Africa, and it has formed such a close alliance with ants,
that it never is found outside an ant’s nest. One species inhabits
Scotland, Ireland, the south of England, and Western Continental
Europe, and is always found in the nest of the common red ant. As
the nests of these ants are almost invariably under stones, and the
woodlouse itself is hidden in the subterranean burrows of its host, the
fact of the occurrence of this species in Ireland admits of but one
explanation, which is that it migrated to that country when the latter
still formed the northern part of France. As the migration of these
lowly animals progresses exceedingly slowly, this land-connexion
must have been one of very considerable duration. How long it
lasted, and especially during what geological epoch it existed, will be
considered later on. Meanwhile, we must return to the subject of
the southern migration.
482 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Among the birds, which have arrived in Ireland with the southern
migration, may be mentioned the Dipper (Cinclus aquaticus). It
inhabits the Pyrenees, France, the south-west of England and Wales,
Ireland, Scotland, and the outer Hebrides, and just enters the western
parts of Germany, Holland and Belgium. Unlike the animals con-
sidered above, it has not, however, originated in South-western Europe.
It has only migrated to Ireland from there, though a race known as
Cinclus melanogaster may have developed in South-Western Europe
and have spread north more recently, for, according to Dr. Bowdler
Sharpe, it is only found in the east of England. Beyond the British
Isles it is known from Scandinavia and even Northern Russia besides
the Spanish Peninsula. A second race (Cinclus albicollis) inhabits the
whole Mediterranean region, spreading north into Switzerland, and it
forms the link as it were between the true Dipper and the Asiatic
form, Cinclus cashmeriensis. The other species of Cinclus are divided
between Asia and America, but the genus is probably of Asiatic origin.
The path of migration from Asia into Europe across the Aegean Sea,
followed by the Dipper was, as I have mentioned (76¢, p. 458), the
regular route at that time. It remained indeed the only means of
communication between the two continents for a long while.
I was under the impression that these same conditions prevailed
during the whole Pliocene Epoch and only changed then; but Prof.
Charles Depéret is of opinion that the extensive land-connexion which
prevailed in the Mediterranean during the Miocene Epoch ceased to
exist in early Pliocene times. I have not ascertained the reasons for
his thinking that such had been the case, but I presume that he holds
the Sicilian Pliocene deposits to indicate that a submergence must have
occurred then. I would fain accept the verdict of such a high authority,
but as those deposits contain northern species of mollusca, which must
have reached the Mediterranean from the Atlantic, I venture to think
that their true age has still to be decided, after it is definitely known
when these mollusca entered the Atlantic.
The bullfinch (Pyrrhula europaea) has a distribution very similar
to that of the Dipper, but whereas the latter only took part in the
southern migration, a form of the other known as the Russian bullfinch
(Pyrrhula magor) joined also the Siberian migration. Such cases
occur again and again, and are most instructive. The ordinary bull-
finch inhabits the Mediterranean region and Western Europe. One
other species or race, as some prefer to call it, inhabits the Continent
of Europe and one the Azores, but all the other seven species are
Asiatic. We have here, therefore, another instance of a bird of
ScHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 483
undoubted Asiatic origin entering Europe in the south-east, then
travelling along the Mediterranean to South-western Europe, and
only then turning north along the shores of the Atlantic.
Among the Mammalia, I might mention the red deer (Cervus
elaphus) as a species which has probably reached Ireland from South-
western Europe. Not that I would place its centre of origin in
that part of the world, for it almost certainly originated in Asia,
but that geographical conditions at the time of its migrations to
Europe were such (as I have already indicated) that it had no
proper means of spreading over the central and northern portions
except from that particular region.
In tracing the present range of the red deer, we have to bear
in mind that there are a number of forms very closely allied to
Cervus elaphus, viz. C. canadensis, C.maral, C. corsicanus, C. barbarus,
C. cashmerianus, C. affinis, C. eustephanus, and C. xanthopygus. Sir
Victor Brooke (13) has already referred to the fact that the antlers of
C. eustephanus cannot be distinguished from those of C. canadensis. A
great similarity is said by Prof. Nehring (624) to exist between many of
the antlers found in European post-Glacial depositsand the recent antlers
of C. canadensis ; and he is inclined to refer them, along with the large
antlered Asiatic C. eustephanus, C. canthopyqus, etc., to the same species,
and with this view Prof. Woldrich agrees (93). Thenagain C. maral
is looked upon asa variety of C. canadensis, and identical with C.
eustephanus and C. xanthopygus, by Tcherski (88) ; and there can be no
doubt as to the specific identity with C. elaphus of C. corsicanus and
C. barbarus.
It seems altogether probable that all these forms are but races or
varieties of the red deer (C. elaphus). However, in the shape of the
antler, we can separate two groups, one with short and the other with
long and powerful ones. The former inhabits Northern Africa, the
Mediterranean islands, Ireland, and Western Europe generally, gradu-
ating towards the east into the larger form which occurs in Asia, North
America, the Crimea, and in the Caucasus, but is now practically
extinct in other parts of Europe.
Sir Victor Brooke indicated, in his interesting monograph of the
Cervidee (13), that their early ancestors spread probably from the
eastern Palearctic and the Indian regions westward into Europe, and
eastward to North America. Of the twenty-two species of Cervide
confined to the New World, no less than twenty-one belong to Sir
Victor Brooke’s division of the Telemetacarpi, C. canadensis being
the soleexception. This fact alone would point to the latter belonging
484 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
to a distinct and much more recent immigration into America,
which view is supported by its range in that continent, it being
confined to the Northern States.
The centre of distribution of the whole Cervus elaphus group lies in
Central Asia, a fact which had been before noticed by Koppen (53, p. 51),
who believed that the more accurate position of this centre was some-
where between the Altai and the Tian-Shan Mountains, just as we have
had two migrations from Asia of the bullfinch, so we have had the same
number of the red deer. The older one of the small-antlered race
passed into Greece and spread along the borders of the Mediterranean,
at the time when Corsica and Sardinia were still connected with
Sicily and Greece on the one hand, and with Tunis on the other.
Arrived in Spain, this small race probably spread north and east.
But it is only in the isolated regions, such as Ireland, that this
race has been still preserved, for owing to the advent of the large-
antlered form in Central Europe during the Interglacial Period,
which probably interbred with the older one, we have there a race
somewhat intermediate between the two.
I may mention that we have fossil evidence of the great antiquity
in Europe of the small race of the red deer. It was found associated
in Malta with the pigmy hippopotamus, and an extinct elephant
(18), and has been obtained in caves at Gibraltar (57a), in Spain (1c),
and Ireland (2). All the animals of the southern migration, which I
have referred to in the preceding pages, formed part of an exceedingly
ancient stream which issued forth from South-western Europe. As I
indicated, they did not all originate there, but the natives of that
region were joined by those of Central and Southern Asia, which had
wandered to South-western Europe, across ancient land-connexions,
by way of Greece, Sicily, and North-west Africa. That the fauna of
North-west Africa had come from Europe, and that the latter was not
stocked from Africa, has already been maintained by the great pale-
ontologist Riitimeyer (74, p. 42), and by Bourguignat (11).
Owing to the breaking up of old land-connexions across the Medi-
terranean, and to the disappearance of barriers in other places, the
Asiatic stream of the southern migration entered Central Europe by a
more direct route than before, and was now joined by animals of
Central European origin in its northern course. The south-western
animals and plants ceased to migrate north, possibly owing to a
refrigeration by slow degrees of the climate, and at the present
moment many of the members of that early migration, which reached
Ireland, have become extinct; most of the survivors, still holding
ScuarFr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 485
their ground in gradually decreasing numbers, discontinue to spread.
The older members of the southern migration are therefore in Ireland
more or less confined to the south-western counties. Not only are
they there in a climate more in accordance with their original habitat,
but what is of more importance, the struggle for existence is less
keen there, as comparatively few of the later immigrants from Southern
and Central Europe have penetrated to that part of Ireland. It must
be remembered that these changes went on very gradually step by
step. Though the number of the south-western species that migrated
north probably grew less as the more eastern forms increased, there
can be no doubt that some continued to advance north even after
Ireland was separated from England.
We come now to the consideration of the Central European branch
of the southern migration. This includes, as we have seen, chiefly
species of South and Central European origin, but others of Asiatic
origin joined in it. Thus the badger (eles tarus) belongs to the
last group. It is undoubtedly of Asiatic origin. Four allied species,
Meles leucurus, WM. chinensis, UM. canescens, and IL. anakuma, inhabit
Asia, whilst two, viz. IL polaki, and I. maraghanus ave known from
the Upper Miocene of Persia. That on entering Europe it has not
been able to make use of the ancient land-connexions above referred
to, is indicated by the fact of its absence from Sicily, Sardinia, and
Corsica, as well as from Northern Africa. On the other hand, Greece
was still united with Asia Minor at that time, for it is an inhabitant
of several of the islands in the Greek archipelago (27).
As examples of the first group might be quoted a number of land
mollusca, such as Helix rufescens and H. ericetorum. Most of the
nearest relations of the former are confined to Central Europe, and it
does not range to the south-west. The allies of H. ericetorum have a
wider distribution, and some even penetrate into Western Asia.
If, as I think, it may be taken as an established fact that the
south-western branch of the southern migration is the first, and the
Siberian migration the last, which reached the British Islands, Ive-
land must have become disconnected from England during the period
intervening between the two. It was, therefore, at the time while
the migration from Southern and Central Europe was in progress, that
the old land-connexion uniting the two countries was severed. That
migration, however, did not stop when the Siberian animals invaded
Europe. Again, we find the southern forms joining in with those of
totally different origin in their wanderings, just as the south-western
fauna and flora joined with the Central European. We still have,
486 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
confined to South-eastern England, many of the latest immigrants
from Central Europe, such as Helix pomatia, H. carthusiana,
HM. cantiana, Buliminus montanus, and others. A large number of
species of plants might be mentioned, and also animals from almost
all the groups of terrestrial Invertebrates, which apparently had only
reached England before it became disconnected from France, and
which are still more or less confined to the south-eastern parts of that
country. The majority of these are of Central or South-eastern
European origin.
Of the Invertebrates we have little or no paleontological proof of
the period of their migration to England. But with the Mammals it
is very different. We know that the vanguard of the Siberian migra-
tion reached England at the time when the Forest-bed was deposited
(see p. 462). Every geologist is acquainted also with the fact, of the
extraordinary mixture of Siberian and southern types of Mammals
contained in this bed, as well as in the succeeding Pleistocene ones,
and that it has been established beyond a doubt that they must have
then lived together, though their original homes often were situated
thousands of miles from one another.
“The occurrence,” says Mr. Lydekker (574, p. 3810), ‘‘ of the hip-
popotamus in association with the musk-ox, glutton, and walrus, pre-
sents us with another of the puzzles which almost break the heart of
the paleontologist.” With regard to the epoch of the English
caverns and brick-earths, which are by Mr. Lydekker included in the
Pleistocene Epoch along with the Forest-bed, he remarks (p. 300):
‘‘ The most remarkable feature connected with this fauna is the appa-
rently contradictory evidence which it affords as to the nature of the
climate then prevalent. The glutton, reindeer, Arctic fox, and musk-
ox are strongly indicative of a more or less Arctic climate ; many of
the voles (Arvicola), picas (Lagomys) and sousliks (Spermophilus),
together with the Saiga antelope, appear to point equally strongly to
the prevalence of a steppe-like condition, while the hippopotamus
and spotted hyaena seem as much in favour of a sub-tropical state of
things.” Prof. Dawkins (224, p. 118) thought that this anomaly
might be explained by the supposition that in the greater part of
Britain the winters were cold and the summers warm, as in the
middle of Asia and North America, where large tracts of land extend
from the Polar region towards the Equator, and offer no barrier to
the swinging to and fro of the animals. In the summer time the
southern species would pass northwards, and in the winter time the
northern would swing southwards, and thus occupy at different times
Scoarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 487
of the year the same tract of ground as is now the case with the elks
and reindeer. Since, however, as Mr. Lydekker tells us (p. 300), ‘‘ it
has now been ascertained that the remains of both tropical and Arctic
forms have been found lying side by side in the same bed, it is per-
fectly certain that such an explanation will not meet the exigencies of
the case.”
The land and freshwater mollusca known from the Forest-bed are
not Arctic, as one should have expected from the foregoing account of
the migrations. According to Mr. Clement Reid (72 a, p. 186), of the
fifty-nine species now determined, forty-eight are at present living at
Norfolk, six are extinct, two are Continental forms living in the same
latitude as Norfolk, and the other three are southern forms not now
living in Northern Europe. The flora also is not Arctic.
Looking at the fauna of Ireland as a whole, there seems no reason
to suppose that the whole of it could not have reached Ireland at or
just previous to the time when the Forest-bed was deposited in the
manner I have attempted to explain in the preceding pages. But
since there is very strong geological evidence to show that a Glacial
Period, accompanied by an immense sheet of ice which covered the
greater part of the British Islands, succeeded the Forest-bed Period, it
is perfectly clear that the present fanna could not have survived it in
the country.
Mr. Clement Reid believes that a large portion, probably most, of
the native British plants were exterminated during the Glacial Period,
to be reintroduced when the climate ameliorated (72¢, p. 182).
‘¢ With glacial conditions in Scotland and the hilly grounds of Eng-
land and Ireland,” remarks Prof. James Geikie, ‘neither temperate
flora nor fauna could have existed in our country” (35¢, p. 169).
According to Dr. Wallace, the fauna was destroyed during the Glacial
Period by a submergence (89, p. 338).
Whether the destruction of the fauna and flora was caused by ice
or water matters little. Almost all British geologists and zoologists
are agreed that the bulk of the Irish fauna and flora migrated to Ire-
land after the Glacial Period, because they are somehow or other con-
vinced that it must have been destroyed had it reached the country
before that period. I have mentioned before that I do not share these
views, and I have shown that the range of species within the British
Islands is incompatible with the notion of a repopulation after the
Glacial Period. ‘‘There are few points,’’ says Prof. J. Geikie (35,
p. 169), ‘‘ we can be more sure of than this, that since the close of
the Glacial Epoch—since the deposition of the clays with Arctic shells
488 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
and the Saxicava sands—there have been no great oscillations, but
only a gradual amelioration of climate. It is quite impossible to believe
that any warm period could have intervened between the last Arctic
and the present temperate conditions, without leaving some notable
evidence in the superficial deposits of Scotland, Scandinavia, and
North America.” In the same way, I think, there are few points we
can be more sure of than that the South-western European fauna and
flora in the British Islands is more ancient than the Siberian or the
Arctic. If Prof. James Geikie were right, it ought certainly to be
the other way round. But the evidence as to the climate in the
British Islands during the Glacial Period is so contradictory, the very
nature of that period is so complex, that few scientific subjects during
this century have raised more angry discussions, and none have pro-
duced a vaster amount of literature. That I should help to increase
the latter still more is to be regretted, especially as the subject is not
my own; but having been led by faunistic evidence to regard this
vexed problem from a side from which it has hitherto received but
little attention, I hope I may be excused for venturing to add my
own views to those already known.
The Glacial Period.
With regard to the climate of this period, the views of the various
authorities are not altogether in harmony. Those of Prof. James
Geikie and Mr. Clement Reid have already been stated. Somewhat
similar ones are held by Prof. Nehring and many other zoologists, by
Prof. Nathorst and many leading botanists, and also by Prof. Penck
and a number of geologists, but still there is a sufficiently wide disparity
between their views as to the temperature necessary to produce the
enormous increase of glaciers all over the Northern Hemisphere.
Prof. Bonney holds that a lowering of the temperature amounting to
18° Fahr., if only the other conditions remained either constant, or
became more favourable to the accumulation of snow and ice, would
suffice to give us back the Glacial Period (106, p. 373). On the other
hand, Prof. Neumayr was of opinion (63, p. 619) that the reduction
of temperature in Europe could not have been more than 6° C.,
which is considerably less than 18° Fahr. The very low snow-line in
the British Islands, he thought, proved that even then, under the
influence of the Gulf Stream, a comparatively mild climate existed,
and in fact that the climatic conditions between the various parts of
Europe were about the same as now (p. 619). By comparing the
ScuHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 489
snow-line during the Glacial Period with that of the present day,
Prof. Penck came to the conclusion that during the former, the
temperature of the Earth must have been 5° C. lower than it is
now (66a, p. 75), whilst Mr. Briickner does not allow that it was
more than 3-4 degrees lower. Prof. de Lapparent argues that the
decrease in temperature during the Glacial Period was probably caused
by an increase of humidity ; that humidity indeed was the great factor
of the Glacial phenomenon (54, p. 1391). Mr. Falsan believes that
the mean annual temperature in France ranged between six and
nine degrees C. in Glacial times (28, p. 230). As the latter estimate
of temperature is something approaching that of Scotland at the present
day, a luxuriant fauna and flora could perfectly well have lived in that
country under those thermal conditions. Indeed, Mr. Falsan admits
that an abundance of vegetation, such as herbs, bushes, and trees must
have flourished in close proximity even to the glaciers (p. 240). There
is no doubt that a mild climate is not incompatible with the existence
of glaciers. I need only refer to New Zealand, where a semi-tropical
vegetation exists in close proximity to glaciers. We are reminded
by Prof. Penck (66 d, p. 222) that wheat is cultivated close to the Aar
glacier in Switzerland, and that even in Norway fruit ripens on the
shores of Hardangerfjord, a couple of miles only from the inland ice.
But the most remarkable fact in connexion with this subject is that
pointed out by Darwin, viz., that in Tierra del Fuego glaciers descend
right down to the sea, whilst in the same country evergreen trees
flourish luxuriantly. Humming birds may be seen sucking the flowers,
and parrots feeding on the seeds of the ‘‘ Winter’s Bark”’ in lat.55° 5’,
that is to say, within two degrees of Tierra del Fuego (218, p. 176).
According to the same author the mean annual temperature of that
part of South America is 44° Fahr., whilst that of Dublin is 49°.
It is six degrees colder in Tierra del Fuego in winter than in Ireland,
and no less than nine and a half less hot in summer.
It has even been been argued by geologists that a large extension
of ice and snow is possible without any considerable change in the
present climatic conditions. Prof. Whitney remarks (92, p. 38)
“‘that the Glacial Period was a local phenemenon, during the occurrence
of which much the larger of the land-masses of the globe remained
climatologically entirely unaffected.”” But there are also adherents to
the view that a higher temperature, than obtains at present, reigned
during the Glacial Period. Thus the eminent French botanist, Henri
Lecoqg, maintained (56, p. 15) that the former greater extension of
glaciers in Europe was caused by a greater snowfall, and indirectly by
490 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
a more active evaporation of water, which must have been produced
by a warmer climate.
To judge from the above opinions, and taking an average estimate
between the extremists on either side, it seems quite conceivable that
the present Irish fauna and flora could have survived the Glacial
Period in Ireland, if we supposed that perhaps a few local glaciers
existed in that country at the time. Such a supposition, however, is
altogether denied by Irish and other geologists. Mr. Close believes
that practically the whole of the present surface of Ireland was covered
by ice—at any rate for some time—during the Glacial Period (17).
According to Mr. Kinahan, ‘it would appear that at one time there
was a general south-south-westward movement of a thick sheet of ice
across Ireland” (51a, p. 241). Prof. James Geikie informs us (354,
p- 415) that during the epoch of maximum glaciation all Ireland was
smothered in ice—only the tops of the higher mountains appearing
above the surface of the mer de glace as Nunatakker.
j That under such conditions no fauna or flora to speak of could
have outlived the Glacial Period in Ireland is obvious. As I think,
however, that I have brought forward weighty reasons in favour of
the present fauna and flora having survived that period in Ireland,
we have, in order to uphold my contention, either to suppose that a
sufficient former southward extension of land existed on which the
animals and plants accommodated themselves during the glacial con-
ditions which prevailed on more northerly parts of the island, or that
the views of the geologists as above expressed are erroneous.
li the whole island had been glaciated in the manner indicated,
the whole fauna and flora would have had to seek refuge in a supposed
southern extension of Ireland. Prof. E. Forbes (33a, p. 14), as I have
already mentioned, believed that the Lusitanian element in the Irish
flora must have survived the Glacial Period on such a now sunken
part of the island, and that afterwards, as more favourable conditions
set in, the remnants of it took possession of the south-western coun-
ties. It evidently never occurred to Prof. Forbes that the whole of
the present fauna and flora might be pre-Glacial, and could have been
driven to this submerged land to seek refuge from the ice. But if
such an emigration and immigration from and to the present land
surface of Ireland had taken place, we certainly should perceive clear
indications of it in the composition of the Irish fauna and flora.
There is one thing absolutely certain, however, and that is, that the
most ancient Lusitanian forms are more or less confined to the south-
west, the northern forms to the north and west, and the most eastern
ScHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 491
ones to the east and centre. They, indeed, still occupy the tracts
where they originally arrived in the country. Had all the animals
and plants reached the island from the south-west, where the sunken
land is supposed to have been situated, that part would probably be
the richest in species, whilst it is in reality much the poorest, and
nothing strikes a naturalist more forcibly than the absence there of a
large number of the commonest Irish species.
Let us take an example from the mollusca. Four species of Helix,
belonging to the subgenus Xerophila, inhabit Ireland, viz. Helix vir-
gata, H. intersecta, H. ericetorum, and H. barbara (acuta). They rarely
make an attempt to hide themselves, are — =
extremely conspicuous, and always occur | 2 i
in abundance wherever found. They
inhabit almost the whole of Ireland, but
are especially common round the coast.
For some years I have carefully collected
statistics as to their occurrence, and have
specially visited many parts of the coast,
and have invariably found one or more of
the four species; but the only strip of
coast-line in Ireland where they are com-
pletely absent is that between Valentia Eee Wes
Island and Baltimore—that is to say, all ee oe hata aoe Ma Xero-
along the Kenmare River and Bantry philous Helices is indicated
Bay—the very coast fwhere we should by dots.
expect them to occur plentifully if the theory of their survival on the
southern sunken land were correct. As they presumably entered
Ireland from the east, and then travelled both inland and along the
coast, it must be surmised that they have not yet been able to colonize
the extreme south-west.
That the whole Irish fauna and flora could have survived on a
now sunken southern extension of Ireland is, therefore, impossible.
They must have remained within the present boundaries of the island
during the Glacial Period, though it is probable that it did extend
somewhat more to the west, south, and north, then it does now, and
that those parts of the country stood at a relatively higher level to
the east; so that the Shannon and some other rivers, which now
drain into the Atlantic, emptied their waters into the Irish Sea
(see 76a).
The nature of the Pleistocene Mammalia of Eastern England is not
such as to findicate an Arctic climate in the British Islands. The
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2M
si
492 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
presence of northern forms is due, as we have seen, to an immigration
of Siberian animals; but, as they lived in company with southern
types, many of which required an abundance of green food, the
winter temperature in the British Islands may have been as high or
higher than it is now, though with a lower summer temperature, and
with a copious snow-fall in winter, glaciers were generated in the
mountainous regions, A number of land and freshwater shells are
quoted by Prof. J. Geikie (35a, p. 337), from the Arctic freshwater
bed on the coast of Norfolk, in evidence of a rigorous climate. These
are spoken of by him as high northern forms; but in this he is
mistaken. Every one of them are inhabitants of Ireland at present,
and all but one very common.
But if the fauna does not indicate Arctic conditions during the
Pleistocene Epoch in the British Islands, we are told that what is
known of the flora, at any rate, is such as to exclude the possibility
of its existing under anything but an Arctic climate. The same
Arctic freshwater bed just referred to contains, besides the shells,
some plant-remains, and these, according to Mr. C. Reid, imply a
lowering of the temperature by about 20°F. The plants of the Forest-
bed, Mr. Clement Reid tells us (72a, p. 186), are not Arctic. Though
the land and freshwater molluscan fauna remains much the same in
the later deposits, the plants alone, it appears, are quoted as indica-
tors of temperature. Prof. Nathorst has made the Pleistocene flora
the subject of his special study, and to his writings we must appeal
for information on this subject. It appears, from his interesting essay
on the distribution of the Arctic plants in Europe during the Glacial
Period (614), that all the localities but one, in which remains of such
vegetation have been discovered, lie either within the limits of the
maximum extension of what is known as the northern ice-sheet,
or within those of the Alpine glaciers. It is conceivable, therefore,
that the remains of the vegetation in question were carried down
from the mountains by glaciers, and deposited far from where they
originally flourished. Such a transportation from a distance is still
more easily conceived when we consider that, as has been suggested,
the limits of the maximum extension of the Scandinavian ice-sheet
merely represent the shores of a North European sea, and that the
plants, along with the boulders, have been left by stranded icebergs,
where we now findthem. The Arctic willow (Saliz polaris) and the
dwarf birch (Betula nana), which occur in the so-called Arctic fresh-
water beds of Norfolk, might have reached their destination from
Scandinavia in that manner, without influencing the British climate
ScuHarFF— On the Origin of the European Fauna. 493
very seriously. But itis more likely that these plants lived where
their remains are now found, especially since there can be no doubt at
all that some Arctic species grew formerly in the south of England.
The exception, above referred to by Prof. Nathorst—namely, of
a locality where deposits of Arctic plants occur not within the limits
of the former range of glaciers—is that of Bovey Tracey in Devon-
shire. Though the age of this deposit in not quite settled, it does
not matter very much. The fact remains, that Arctic plants did here
flourish some time or other within a recent geological epoch, and do not
doso now. Prof J. Geikie (35a, p. 398) remarks, ‘‘ during the climax
of Glacial cold, itis unlikely that Southern England had much, if any,
vegetation to boast of.” ‘‘ It is certain, however, that it was clothed
and peopled by an Arctic flora and fauna when the climatic condi-
tions were somewhat less severe, relics of that flora having been
detected at Bovey Tracey.”
The Arctic plants that have been discovered there comprise Betula
nana and B. alba, Salix cinera and Arctostaphylos uva-urst. Now three
of these four species are still natives in the British Islands and all are
forms which probably came to us with the Arctic migration which I
described. They travelled south with the reindeer and other Mam-
mals, and probably covered tracts of country from which, with the
increased strugele for existence later on, they have again been evicted
by stronger rivals. But a discovery of their remains does not neces-
sarily indicate that a great change of climate has taken place. Indeed
when we carefully examine the present range of Arctic plants in the
British Islands, a curious fact presents itself which no doubt has been
frequently noted by botanists, viz. that some of the most characteristi-
cally Arctic species and some which are often quoted by glacialists in
support of their theories of the former presence of an Arctic climate in
the British Islands—flourish at the present moment in very mild
situations. I need only remind those interested in the history of the
Glacial Period that the Mountain Avens (Dryas octopetala) abounds in
the west of Ireland (Co. Galway), down to sea level. Now it is well
known that the mean winter temperature of that part of Ireland
resembles that of Southern Europe, being no less than 12° F. above
freezing point. Alpine plants when cultivated in Irish gardens seem
as arule to thrive exceedingly well. It would be rash therefore to
argue, from the occurrence of Arctic or Alpine species of plants in any
deposit, that the locality must have passed through an Arctic climate.
Indeed Dr. Thiselton-Dyer has shown that for the most part Alpine
plants are intolerant of very low temperature (84, p. 581), and that
2M2
494 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
at Kew Gardens they are obliged to winter the collection in frames,
thus exposing them to a higher temperature than what at present
obtains in the British Islands. It seems to me probable, therefore,
that the extensive migrations of Alpine and Arctic plants, which un-
doubtedly took place in past ages, did occur long before the Glacial
Period, during a milder and more equable epoch, and that they have
since become adapted to live in countries where they receive sufficient
moisture during summer and are protected from severe frost in the
winter by a cover of snow.
I believe that neither the animals nor the plants which have
been discovered in British Pleistocene strata indicate the presence
of an Arctic climate in the British Islands during the so-called
‘‘Tce Age.” The theory of a general glaciation of these islands—
the south of England excepted—has, however, been so universally
accepted by geologists, that it has almost passed the stage of con-
troversy, and is more generally regarded as an established fact. I
am not sure whether even those who are in favour of the view
of the marine origin of the boulder-clay, disbelieve in a previous
general glaciation. Yet it is not long ago that the generally
accepted view was that all the phenomena now attributed to land-
ice had been produced by the action of floating icebergs. The
rock-scorings, ‘‘crag and tail,” boulder-clay, scratched stones and
drumlins were all believed to be due to the action of the sea
assisted by floating ice.
I will not, however, venture to discuss this extremely intricate
subject of land ice versus floating ice, and hope that geologists may
think fit to reconsider their final verdict in the light of the con-
clusions I arrived at from a study of the geographical distribution
of animals.
There is one factor of importance in connexion with this theory
of an ice-sheet, which may throw some light on the subject, and
that is, the configuration of Ireland during the Glacial Period. Mr.
Close remarks (17, p. 241): ‘‘ Some sufficient increase of relative
height tewards the west or W. 8S. W., with a corresponding extension
of the land in that direction, is required, if we are to account for
the general glaciation of Ireland by the movements of a univer-
sal ice-covering formed upon her own surface”; whilst Prof. Bonney
seems to think that the coast margin in the earlier part of the
Glacial Period may have roughly corresponded with the present
hundred-fathom line (10¢ p. 194). The land-connexion between
Scandinavia, Scotland, and Ireland formed, as we have seen, a
Scuarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 495
highway for the migration of the Arctic animals and plants. When the
lowlands of Ireland were covered by the sea, which event I presume
happened some time during the Glacial Period, a broad belt of land
probably remained separating the Atlantic from this westward
extension of the Irish Sea.
The boulder-clay which covers such vast tracts of country in
the British Islands and the Continent is now generally believed to
be the ground moraine of huge glaciers, but I am inclined to think
there is equally strong evidence in favour of its marine origin.
Shells of Mollusca and Foraminifera are very frequently present,
especially in Ireland, and a remarkable number of species have been
identified in that country by Messrs. Praeger and Wright (80),
though the specimens as a rule occur in a broken condition. When
we consider that the clay in which the shells lived has probably
been subjected to considerable movements, it is not surprising
that they should be in a fragmentary condition and that shore
forms should be often found mixed with those inhabiting deeper
water.
Before concluding these notes on the Glacial Period, I will give
a short sketch of what I think may have been the course of events
during that time.
It is probable that before the Glacial Period began, a warm current,
not necessarily theGulf Stream, supplied the Arctic Ocean with warmth.
The cessation of this current gave the first impetus to the formation
of ice near the North Pole, the Arctic Ocean being then a closed
basin. Two extensive transgressions of the Arctic Ocean now took
place, one inundating the plains of Arctic America, and the other
those of Northern Russia. The latter transgression covered a portion
of Northern Continental Europe, and joined the great inland sea, the
Ponto-Caspian, by some narrow channels, so that Asia became almost
isolated from Europe. The Siberian fauna was, therefore, unable to
migrate to Europe, but a number of Asiatic Mammals invaded North
America, which was accessible by means of a land-passage across
Behring Straits. Meanwhile, Arctic marine species found their way
to Northern Germany, and to the western portion of the newly-formed
North European Sea, now the German Ocean.
The first occurrence of Arctic forms of life in the newer Tertiary
deposits on the east coast of England, marks therefore the period
when this marine transgression took place, the German Ocean being,
ut that time, closed on all sides, except to the east. As Arctic marine
species make their first appearance in these English strata in the newer
496 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
crags, the latter are synchronous with the lower Continental boulder-
clay, in which these same species are first met with. This reasoning
might be found fault with, but I have clearly shown (p. 462) that the
vast immigration into Europe of Siberian Mammals took place after
the deposition of the lower Continental boulder-clay, during the so-
called Interglacial phase of the Glacial Period. Now, as the advance
guard of this migration reached England during the time when the
Forest-bed was laid down, the supposition of the contemporaneousness
of the newer crags with the lower Continental boulder-clay seems to
me correct. There is no reason to suppose that the interglacial era or
Forest-bed Period was characterised by a much milder climate than that
preceding it, but, as it was probably much drier, the glaciers which
had formed on the Alps and in Scandinavia, receded considerably.
The immediate result was a diminution in the amount of detritus
carried to the North European Sea by icebergs, so that more extensive
colonies of marine animals were able to establish themselves on the
sea floor than during the preceding stage of the Glacial Period. The
narrow straits, which had formed across the Tchernosjem district in
Central Russia, between the Northern Sea and the greatly enlarged
Caspian, ceased to exist in the Interglacial phase, owing to the
gradual withdrawal of the Arctic waters from Northern Europe. A
slight refrigeration of the Siberian climate was the consequence, and
the barrier which prevented egress to Europe being now removed, the
Northern Asiatic fauna swarmed across the plains of the newly-opened
continent.
During all this time, Scandinavia remained connected in the north
with Greenland, and in the south and west with Scotland and Ireland,
but it had no direct communication with the Continent, being separated
from it by the North European Sea. England and France were united
throughout the Glacial Period, but the connexion between the former
and Ireland broke down during, or shortly after, the deposition of the
Forest-bed, so that none of the Siberian migrants, which now poured
into England from the Continent, reached Ireland.
Extensive areas of Eastern Yorkshire, according to Prof. James
Geikie (35a, p. 854), are covered by boulder-clay, with intermediate
beds of gravel and sand. Two divisions, viz. a lower and upper clay,
are recognizable. The former contains many far-travelled erratics
and marine shells, and only a moderate amount of local chalk. But
in the purple or upper clay, erratics of home-origin are more con-
spicuous (p. 3864). Prof. Geikie explains these facts in the following
manner :—That the basement clay is the direct product of a great
ScHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 497
mer de glace, which crept in upon the land from the north-east, and
brought the erratics ; and that the ice-sheet, which formed over Great
Britain, was kept back for a long time by this superior mass, which
flowed outwards from the Scandinavian peninsula, but that, as the
North Sea ice-flow diminished in bulk, the British ice, which formed
the purple clay, was enabled to reach the coast-lands.
It seems to me that the theory of the marine origin of the boulder-
clay offers the following simpler explanation. After the Interglacial
phase of the Glacial Period had passed away, a renewed transgression
of the Arctic waters must have occurred, but the sea did not again
invade Central Russia. As Prof. J. Geikie has pointed out (35a,
p- 463), the erratics included in the upper boulder-clay of Northern
Continental Europe have travelled in a different direction from those
contained in the lower. A change of current, therefore, evidently
took place, owing to the fact that the Northern European Sea was not
now connected with the Ponto-Caspian basin.!
A large number of erratics would therefore be brought by Scandi-
navian icebergs stranding on the east coast of England, which was
gradually being submerged by the advancing marine transgression.
As the water rose, the local glaciers which had begun to form on the
mountains of the north of England and Scotland, cast off icebergs
which scattered detritus and boulders over the plain.
On p. 866, in speaking of the upper boulder-clay of Holderness,
Professor J. Geikie refers to the reappearance of the great mer de
glace in the North Sea. He infers its presence from the fact that
many of the erratics which occur in the clay have been brought down
from the high grounds of England to the sea coast, and thereafter
have travelled southwards. ‘‘ Obviously,” he says, ‘‘ the British ice
was unable to flow right out to sea; its progress in that direction was
barred, and its course determined by the presence of another Scandi-
navian ice sheet.’’
An interesting observation which might lead one to a similar con-
clusion was made by Mr. Kendall, from a study of the erratics in the
north of England (96, p 155). It would appear from this, that a portion
cf the Solway glacier was pushed over the watershed into the valley
of the I'yne, that is to say, from the west coast of England to the
east coast. ‘‘ The fate,” he says, ‘‘ of those elements of the Solway
glacier which reached the sea is not left entirely to conjecture.”
1 This again is of great importance in establishing the contemporaneousness of
the upper Continental boulder-clay with the whole of the British clays.
498 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘The striated surfaces near the coast of Northumberland indicate a
coastwise flow of ice from the northward, probably from the Firth
of Forth—and the glaciers coming out from the Tyne and Tees were
deflected to the southward.”
These facts, read by the light of the marine theory, would imply
that there was a current from north to south along the east coast of
England. But, as 1 have repeatedly stated, the north of Scotland
stood at a higher level then, and was connected with Scandinavia ;
and the south of England also was considerably elevated and joined
to France. The advancing marine transgression from the east invaded
therefore, first the low-lying parts of England, viz. the midland counties,
so that a current in that direction was established from all portions of
the east coast. Icebergs coming from the Scottish coast would natu-
rally travel along the present coast line to those parts of the lowlands
upon which the sea had encroached, and there, perhaps, press up into:
some of the valleys. Later on, the whole of the lowlands of the mid-
land and northern counties of England were submerged, and the
waters of the North Sea joined those of the Irish Sea, and even
flooded the plain of Central Ireland.1. A communication, moreover, was:
now established between this westward extension, formed by the North
European Sea (see map on opposite page) andthe Atlantic Ocean, by way
of the Severn valley, and the Irish Channel. At the entrance into these
two straits, the sea must have risen for a time to a very considerable
height, as evidenced by the occurrence of marine shells with sands.
and gravels, on the Three Rock Mountain in Ireland (1300 feet) ; on
Moél Tryfan, in Wales (1350 feet) ; and at Macclesfield, in Cheshire-
(1200 feet). That an iceberg which originated from the Solway
glacier should cross the watershed, and flow in an eastward direction
and then southward, which would be the explanation of the pheno-
menon observed by Mr. Kendall, is no doubt curious, but though I
think there must have been one main current from the north-east to:
the south-west, a number of minor ones may have existed round the
archipelago of islands which marked the site of Northern England at
this period. At any rate the case referred to must be looked upon as
1 We have an excellent zoological proof of the former direct communication of
the Baltic with the Irish Sea, which latter I suppose extended over the plains of
Ireland, in the marine relic fauna of some of the Irish lakes. I drew attention
(p. 459) to the occurrence of the Arctic marine crustacean Mysis relicta, in some of
the Swedish lakes, as a proof of the former submergence of the country. This
interesting crustacean has not yet been discovered in England, but it occurs again
in Lough Neagh in Ireland, thus showing the former continuity of the sea which
covered Sweden and that which covered Ireland.
Scuarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 499
an isolated one. Professor J. Geikie (35a, p. 377) tells us that an
ice-sheet traversed North Lancashire and the adjacent parts of York-
shire and Westmoreland, the general trend of which was towards,the
south or south-south-east, and that from this might justly be inferred.
h
8.—Map of the British Islands} during the latter? part of the Glacial Period,
showing approximately the ancient land now covered by sea (lightly
shaded). {The darkly-shaded parts represent the extension of the
sea at that time, and the white parts land.
that some barrier existed in the Irish Sea, by which the English ice
was prevented from following the slope of the ground, which is
towards the south-west.
Here again, I think, the marine theory would explain in a more
satisfactory manner than the terrestrial one, the fact of the erratics
500 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
being carried in a direction contrary to the natural flow of a glacier,
if we remember that probably a strong current existed from the more
or less closed North European Sea to the open Atlantic. The occur-
rence in almost all the English boulder-clays of marine shells tells
strongly in favour of the view that these clays are of marine origin.
Moreover, they are found to contain Arctic species, and these are
mixed with southern forms as we approach the lands adjoining the
Atlantic, where an almost purely Mediterranean fauna had hitherto
existed. Arctic forms of life now found their way, not only into
the Atlantic, but by the newly opened Straits of Gibraltar they
entered the Mediterranean, and are preserved to us in some remark-
able deposits in Sicily.
We have evidence from the St. Erth beds, to which I have already
had occasion to refer (p. 478), that whilst northern forms made their
appearance on the east coast of England, the fauna on the west coast
remained a purely southern one. This fact induced Messrs. Kendall
and Bell (49) to advance the hypothesis that not only were the
Straits of Dover closed, but that a land barrier was thrown across the
Atlantic from the north of Scotland to Greenland, while the St. Erth
beds were laid down.
That the southern marine fauna was once continuous from the
west coast of Ireland to the west coast of France, soon becomes appa-
rent to any one who takes the trouble of studying, especially the
littoral animals. It is a well known fact that many shore forms
which occur along the west coast of Portugal and France reappear
again on the south-west coast of England, and on the south and west
coast of Ireland: thus clearly indicating the former continuity of
range now broken by the English and Irish Channels.?
On the Irish side of the Channel, near Wexford, almost opposite
St. Erth, there is a deposit in many respects similar to the one just
referred to. These Wexford shelly sands and gravels contain, as Mr.
Bell (5, p. 623) remarks, ‘‘a number of forms of Pliocene Age, and
others of a northern type, the relative proportions suggesting that the
northern fauna was gradually superseding the decaying southern one.”
In the low level drift deposits in the Isle of Man, Mr. Kendall has
found (48, p. 17), ‘‘ besides some Boreal forms, many species charac-
‘The following species may be quoted as examples :—Strongylocentrotus
lividus, Achaeus cranchii, Inachus leptochirus, Gonoplax angulata, Thia assidua,
Acpophilus Bonnairei, Blennius galerita, and Lepodogaster Decandollii.
I am indebted to Mr. Nichols for the following additional ones :—Donaz politus
and Amphidesma castaneum.
Scuarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 501
teristic of warmer waters and a notable percentage of extinct species
‘of mollusca.”” It seems probable, therefore, to judge from these de-
posits, that, after the St. Erth beds were laid down on the coast of
Cornwall, the sea gradually crept up the Irish Channel from the
south, and with it the southern fauna; but that shortly after it had
taken possession of the Irish Sea, the advent from another direction
of a distinctly northern one, checked all further progress of the
southern species, and exterminated a number of them. No one, how-
ever, has made a more thorough study of the fauna contained in the
recent deposits in the north-east of Ireland than Mr. Praeger, and his
views on this subject are therefore of value in elucidating the history
‘of the Irish Sea. In the gravels of Ballyrudder, Co. Antrim, which
underlie the boulder-clay, he obtained fifteen species of mollusca of a
distinctly Arctic character (70a, p.521). In speaking of the boulder-
clay of the north-east of Ireland generally, he remarks (704, p. 51):
““ Somewhat warmer seas existed during the boulder-clay period, in-
hhabited by a fauna still distinctly northern, but containing a few
‘southern forms, along with a diminishing number of Arctic species.”
“*A long period, represented by the Eskers, brick clays, and submerged
peat, must have intervened before the depositions of the next bed of
the series.’ ‘A slight submergence allowed the deposition of
the Lower estuarine clay with its rather southern fauna.” Then
‘followed a further submergence, during which the southern element
-attained its maximum, and finally came, according to Mr. Praeger,
elevation of land and a distinct return of the fauna towards its
northern character.
Mr. Praeger does not offer any explanation of the causes which
have produced these very remarkable changes, which he has traced
with such skill through the various deposits from the Ballyrudder
:gravels underneath the boulder-clay to the most recent surface beds.
The distinctly southern element in the Ballyrudder fauna is
exceedingly small, amounting only to three per cent. It is very unlikely
that it came into the district at the same time as the northern. It is
much more probable that it must be looked upon as a mere remnant of
-an older southern fauna, since it has been shown that such a fauna
undoubtedly existed in pre-Glacial times in the Atlantic. According
to the conclusions I arrived at from a study of the terrestrial fauna of
Ireland, this southern element in the Irish sea was admitted by the
breaking down of the southern connexion—the connexion between
Wicklow and Wales. When the sea with its Arctic fauna invaded
England from the east, and finally joined the Irish Sea, the southern
p- 427
p- 432
P
502 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
forms were probably toa great extent exterminated, but, as soon as the
eastern current diminished in strength, the southern species would
seek to return to their old quarters. Finally, when the old land-
connexion between Scotland and Scandinavia broke down, the waters
of the North-European Sea found an outlet in that direction, and
brought Arctic species directly into the North Atlantic. When at last
Scotland and Ireland became separated, a northern fauna would once
more supplant the southern one in the Irish Sea. Thus, I think, Mr.
Praeger’s conclusions as to the changes in the marine fauna of the
north-east of Ireland agree in the main points with those which I
arrived at from an independent inquiry into the origin of the terres-
trial fauna of that island.
From the careful study of terrestrial faunas, indeed, has been
gained not only the knowledge of the changes of climate which have
passed over the world, but, in the main those geographical revolutions
which have been produced in North Europe in recent geological times.
To put our knowledge of the origin of the European fauna on a firmer
basis has been my object in this memoir, and, although much work
still remains to be done in clearing up obscure points in its history, I
hope that I have clearly indicated the manner in which future research
should be conducted.
I trust also that I have succeeded in strengthening the old Lyellian
theory on the origin of the Glacial Period which has received such
strong support from no less an authority than Lord Kelvin (87). |
Summary.
In this paper I have endeavoured to show how the present fauna
of Europe originated. For that purpose it was found advisable to
commence the inquiry by the study of the past and present fauna of
an island. The British Islands, and in particular Ireland, seemed to
me most suitable for that object.
The fauna of Ireland as well as the flora is found to consist mainly
of two elements, one of which came from the north and the other from.
the south. In the fauna of Great Britain the same two elements.
occur, but there is, in addition, athird—an eastern one—chiefly confined
to the eastern counties. The southern element contains animals which
came originally from South-western, and others which migrated to the
British Islands from the South and Central Europe. ‘The former are
confined to the south-western counties of England and Ireland, whilst.
the latter are chiefly found in the south-west of England, Wales,
ScHarFF—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 003
Treland, and the west of Scotland. The northern element chiefly
occurs in Scotland, the north of England, and the north and west of
Treland.
Though it may be admitted that a small percentage of the British p. 433
fauna reached the British Islands by occasional means of dispersal, the
bulk of it migrated on land. A land-connexion must therefore have
existed formerly between Great Britain and Ireland, and the Continent
of Europe.
The late Edward Forbes bclicved that the Lusitanian or south- p. 444
western element in the Irish flora (it was not known at the time that
there was also a similar fauna) came to Ireland in Miocene times and
survived the Glacial Period on a now sunken land which lay to the
south-west of that island. Almost all other authorities are convinced
that both flora and fauna were entirely exterminated in Ireland during
the Pleistocene Epoch, and that what exists there now, migrated to it
after the Glacial Period.
A short statement of the general conclusions arrived at with regard p. 444
to the geographical changes in Europe during later Tertiary times,
and the chief migrations of animals now follows, so as to facilitate
the comprehension of the principal arguments advanced in favour of
the view that there were two distinct invasions of northern species,
and that the Irish fauna is altogether pre-Glacial.
To judge from the range of the South-western European plants p, 445
and animals in Ireland, it is evident, as Forbes suggested, that they
came long before the other southern species or the northern ones.
Last of all came the eastern or Siberian migrants. These never reached
Treland, but as we have such abundant evidence of the time of their
arrival in Europe, the history of their migration is of great importance,
since it furnishes us with a clue to the date of earlier migrations.
We have geological evidence that a vast migration proceeded from p. 445
Siberia, and entered Europe between the Caspian and the Ural Moun-
tains. A largenumber of Mammals came with this Siberian invasion,
and no fewer than twenty-nine species reached England, ten of which
still inhabit Great Britain. There is no evidence that any of them
ever lived in Ireland.
In the succeeding pages I have endeayoured to ascertain the causes p. 450
of that migration and its geological date. Both Tcherski and Brandt,
the two highest authorities, are of opinion that the present Siberian
fauna lived in the country already in pre-Glacial times, and that, with
the addition of some now extinct forms, such as the Mammoth, it
flourished as far north as the New Siberian Islands. Since the advent
504 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. i
of the Glacial Period, the fauna is supposed to have very gradually
retreated from these high northern latitudes, which are now almost.
uninhabitable.
p.451 | Against these views it has been urged that, to some extent, the
Mammalian bones and carcases found in the New Siberian Islands, rest
on a solid layer of ice, and that as thisice was probably formed during -
the Glacial Period, the migrations must have taken place in post-Glacial
times. This presupposes an extraordinary amelioration of climate
in Siberia, the effects of which certainly would have been felt in
Europe, but of which we have no evidence.
p-452 There is geological evidence that a marine transgression took place
in Northern Russia in early Pleistocene times, and that at the same
time the united waters of the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral covered.
a large tract of the central parts of that country. It is supposed by
some naturalists (and in favour of this view I have collected some
additional facts) that the White Sea and this large inland sea were
connected right across Russia, thus forming a barrier by means of
which the Siberian fauna was prevented from migrating to Europe.
It is also suggested that the whole of the Continental boulder-clay is a
marine deposit, and that its maximum southward extension approxi-
mately marks the shores ofa North European Ocean.
p-465 Insupport of this view are quoted a number of Caspian species
which must have come from the Arctic Ocean, and the fact of the
occurrence of Dreyssensia polymorpha, in the lower and not in the upper
Continental boulder-clay, thus proving that a migration took place in
both directions.
p.466 As all the deposits in Continental Europe, containing remains of
Siberian Mammals, are of a later age than the lower boulder-clay,
it seemed to me that the connexion between the Aralo-Caspian
and the White Sea must have ceased to exist during and after the
Interglacial phase of the Glacial Period, which would also explain
the absence of Dreyssensia in the more recent beds. The Siberian
fauna probably began to pour into Europe immediately after the
deposition of the lower Continental boulder-clay. But since the first.
Siberian Mammals made their appearance in England, during the
deposition of the Forest-bed, the British newer Pliocene beds must be
contemporaneous with this boulder-clay. Further proof of this will
be mentioned later on.
p. 468 Some further evidence is now given in favour of the marine origin
of the boulder-clay, and the causes of the absence of marine shells in the
Russian deposits are explained.
ScHarrr—On the Origin of the European Fauna. 505
We have geological proofs that the Siberian fauna migrated to p. 469
Europe on a tract of country, known as the “ Tchernosjem ” or black
earth of Russia, and that this originated from the decay of grass which
grew there during long ages. This fauna then invaded Central
Europe and Great Britain. In France its further progress was
arrested by the River Garonne. England and France must there-
fore have been connected; whilst the absence of deposits contain-
ing Siberian Mammals from Scandinavia proved that it was sepa-
rated from the Continent.
The Northern or Arctic element in the Irish fauna must have p. 469
come directly from the north. It is more or less confined to the
northern and western parts of Ireland, and forms a large proportion of
the fauna of Scotland and Scandinavia. It suggests that a land-
connexion between the latter and the British Islands must have existed.
The present and past range of the Arctic hare, the reindeer, and the
stoat are discussed in detail to show that such a connexion actually
united the two countries. Reference is also made to the North Ameri-
can species occurring in Ireland which belong to the same migra-
tion.
‘I'he evidences in favour of a former land-connexion between Scandi- p. 479
navia and Greenland va Spitsbergen are now reviewed.
It is suggested that the American Marine Mollusca which have p. 479
been discovered in late Tertiary deposits of the east coast of England
reached that coast, not from the Atlantic, but from the Arctic Ocean
by means of the sea which extended from the White Sea to the
German Ocean.
The migration of terrestrial animals and plants from this ancient p- 479
northern land southward took place chiefly during the deposition of
the newer English crags, and of the Continental lower boulder-clay,
that is to say, before the Siberian migrants set foot on British soil.
The southern migration to the British Islands commenced earlier p- 479
than either the Arctic or the Siberian. Numerous instances are quoted
to prove that the southern fauna is composed of species of south-
western and of southern and Central European as well as of Asiatic
origin.
In connexion with the origin of the Red Deer, the nature of the p. 479
geographical changes which the Mediterranean basin has undergone
during later Tertiary times are now discussed.
In the next pages I have endeavoured to show that Ireland was p. 488
separated from England at the time while the migration from Southern
and Central Europe was in progress. The contradictory evidence from
p. 488
p- 502
506 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
fossil sources as to the climate prevailing at that time in the British
Islands are there now discussed.
The origin and nature of the Glacial Period is so intimately
connected with these faunistic problems, that it has been thought
advisable to devote a short chapter to this important era in the life of
the direct ancestors of our animals. The prevailing opinions as to
temperature and general atmospheric conditions during the period are
reviewed in connexion with the questions as to the possibility of
a survival of the terrestrial fauna and flora chiefly in the British Islands.
The British Pleistocene fauna does not indicate the prevalence of
Arctic conditions—neither does the flora.
This fact certainly supports the view formerly held by geologists
that the phenomena in Northern Europe, now attributed to land-ice,
have been produced by sea with floating icebergs, under conditions
somewhat comparable to those at present obtaining in Tierra del Fuego.
A succinct statement of my views on the Glacial Period and the geo-
graphical features of Europe at the time—as derived from a study of
the European fauna and of its origin—concludes this memoir.
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”
JU
ON THE HOMOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF PLANES, SPHERES,
AND SPACE, AND ON THE SYSTEMS OF LINES JOIN-
ING CORRESPONDING POINTS. By CHARLES JASPER
JOLY, M.A., F.T.C.D. |
[Read January 11, 1897.]
1. Iz O04 =a, OB = £, and OC = yy are three given vectors
whose terms 4 B and C form a triangle; if a, 6, and ¢ are three
given scalars, and w, y, and z three scalar variables, the vector
aax+bBy + cys
QP =a @Q=
ax + by + cz
terminates at a point P in the plane of the triangle 4 BC.
The variables x, y, and 2 are called by Hamilton the Anharmonie
Coordinates of P, and he uses the equation
(P) = (#, y, 8), oF 2) = (xyz),
in order to express that P is determined by 2, y, and x. (#ys) he
calls the symbol of P.
The symbols of 4, B, and C are
(4) = (100), (B) = (010), (@) = (001),
and ABC is called the unit-triangle. The point U, whose,vector is
aa + 6B + cy
OU =v=
at+b+e
and whose symbol is (UV) = (111), is called the unit point. The
arbitrary scalars a, 6, and ¢ are introduced in order that UV may occupy
an arbitrary position in the plane 4 BC.
The coordinates are called anharmonie because the anharmonics of
the pencils A-BUCP, B-CUAP and C.AUBP are
a
B.(CUAP) = = (0. AUBP) ="
(A. BUCP) ="
3
R.I.A. PROC., SER. I1I., VOL. IV. 20
516 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Since in Hamilton’s treatment of these coordinates, the origin is
taken in the plane and coinciding with the point J, instead of being
arbitrary, it may not be superfluous to remark that, if the lines
AU and AP meet BC in YU, and P,,
BU AOR:
A.BUCP) = (BU,CP,) = ————
( ) ( 1 1) 0,0. P.B
OB SEPYAUR bBy + cys
bake by + cz }
¥ bB + cy bBy + cys’
TT ORE Pig aay
7 4,
and this reduces at once to zp
g
2. The two planes which are swept out by the extremities of the
variable vectors
cane eeys and OP’ = a’ = rel Mana Te
US == pia ee
ax + by + cz ae+ by + ez
may be said to be anharmonically partitioned or divided.1_ The point
P in one has the same anharmonic relations to its unit-point U and to
its unit-triangle ABC, as the corresponding point P’ in the other has
to its unit-point U’ and to its unit-triangle A’B’C’; or, in general,
corresponding points are projective.
8. The system of lines joining corresponding points on the two
homographically divided lines
OP — 70) acne + bBy and OP’ = a! ys “ala + b'B'y
ax + by du+vy?
generate a ruled hyperboloid, the vector expression for which is
ua+vea' s(aar+ bBy) + t(a’a'z + 'B'y)
eS SS Sa
U+o 8(az + by) + t(a'a + Dy)
Analogy suggests the consideration of the system of lines PP’ joining
corresponding points not on homographically divided lines, but on
homographically divided planes.
1 See Clifford’s paper on “‘ The General Theory of Anharmonics.’’ Collected
works, p. 110.
Joty—Homographic Divisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space. 517
The vector to a point on one of these lines may be written in
the forms
UT + veo!
eee ban ay
s(aaxv + bBy + cyz) + t(a'o’x + b'Bly + c'y’s)
s(ax + by + c8) + t(a'a + b'y + cz)
_ «(saat ta’) + y(sbB + tb'B’) + 2(sey + te'y’)
a(satta’) + y(sh+th') + a(set+te) ~
It is evident that these lines do not generate a surface ; they belong
to a congruency whose properties will be investigated later on.
4. Some preliminary calculations may be completed by considering
the regulus of lines joining corresponding points on homographically
divided lines before dealing with the congruency of lines lately re-
ferred to; and the results will be useful in pointing out analogies in
the more general discussion.
If @ and a” are the vectors to any two points on a line, the line is
determined by the auxiliary vectors’
o=@-@® and +t = Vaa’.
In fact o-!t = —c-1Vao = @—cSao ! is the vector perpendicular
from the origin on the line, and p = o-!7 + ¢o is an expression for
the vector to any point on the line.
Quoting from Art. 3, the vectors to two corresponding points P
and P’ on homographically divided lines, are given by
wa(a—a)+yb(a-B)=0, «xa'(a'-a')+ yb'(a'- B’) = 0.
Operating on both of these by V(@-2’), the equivalent forms in
o and 7 are found to be
xa(r+ Vac) + yb(r+VBo) = 0, wa'(r+ Va'o) + yb'(7 + ‘VB'c) = 0.
ees 8 and oe
a+a’ b+ 0!
S(a—-fB)7r+SaBo = 0, S(a’'-f')7+ So'fP’co = 0 and
S (a — B")7 + Sa” B"o = 0.
= B", it is easy to show that
1 The constitutents of these vectors are what Pliicker has called the “ six
coordinates’’ of the line.
74.40) 2
518 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
From these
- 7 S(a-f)(o’— B’)(a"— 8") = V(a'—- B')(a"— B") SaBo
+ V(a'’— 8B”) (a— B) Sa’ B’o + Via—B)(a'— B’) Sa” B"o.
Thus 7 is given as a linear vector function of o or t = ¢o suppose,
and the condition Sto = 0, constrains o to be parallel to an edge of
the cone Spdp = 0. :
5. When P and P’ are corresponding points on homographically
divided planes,
ra(a—a)+ yb(a—B)+sce(a-y) = 0,
and ra! (w' — a’) + yb’ (a — B’) + c'(a’-y’) = 0,
lead as in the last article to the equivalent forms
xa(t+ Vac) + yb(r+ VBo) + 2¢e(7+ Vyo) = 0,
and za’ (r+ Valo) + yb' (7+ ‘VB'c) + 2¢'(7 + Vy'c) = 0.
From the second of these,
Gye
= We V (r+ Vi'c) (7+ Vy’c) : da! V (r+ ‘Vy/c) (1 + Va'o)
: ab’ V (71 + Valo) (7+ Vic).
But V(r+VP'c) (7+ Vy'c) = —VrV (f'-y)o+ V-Vp'cVy'o
= —0(87(f'— 7) + SB’7'c);
so the set of ratios is equivalent to the simpler set
Ziyss
= b'e'(Sr(P’-y') + SB’yc) : ea’! (Sr(7/- a’) + Sy'a'c)
: avb'(Sr(a’ + B’) — Sa'B’c).
Substituting in the first equation,
ab'd(r+Vac)( Sr (B’-y') + SB’yc) + be'a' (r+ VBo)( Sr (y/— 0’) + Sy/a'c)
+ ca’'b' (7 + Vyo)(Sr(a'- B’) + Sa'f'c) = 0.
Again, if the ratios x: y: z had been found from the first and sub-
stituted in the second equation, the result would have been
a'be(r + Va'c)(Sr(B—y)+ SByo) + Wea(r+V P’o)(Srt(y—-a) + Syac)
+ ¢ab(r+ Vy'c)(Sr(a-f) + SaBo) = 0.
Jotyv—Homographic Divisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space. 519
These equations, though apparently different, will now be shown
to be equivalent, and either of them may be taken as the equation
of the congruency of lines joining corresponding points of the homo-
graphically divided planes.
6. If p and p’ are any two points on a line of the congruency,
and if o = p’— pp, then will 7 = Vp'p = Vop.
The first equation of the congruency now takes the form,
{Vo (p-a)8o (p-B')(p-y) + Fo(p- B)So(p-y)(p-«'
+ 5Vo(p - y)So(p-2')(p-B’) = 0,
as may be verified by elementary transformations.
lf
go 8 (p—a') (p- B") (p= 7’) = G(p-a) So(p-B’) (py)
+ 5 (-B)Se(p-7')(p- 2")
+ 5(p-y) Sa(p—a!)(p- 8’)
defines a linear vector function ¢, the first equation of the con-
gruency may be written in the simple form
Voodoo = 0.
Now $(p-a’)=“(p-a), o(p-B')=5(e-B)> $(p-¥') = 5(0-¥)
whence it is not difficult to verify that the inverse function #7} is
defined by
$10 8 (p-a) (p- 8) (p- 7) = (p- a") Sap - B) (p- 9)
+= (p- B") Se (p-y)(p—)
+ £(p-7/) Se(p-a)(p-B)
and, accordingly, that the second equation of the congruency may be
reduced to the form
Yogic = Ue
This new form is of course equivalent to Vo¢o = 0, since either
expresses that o is parallel to an axis of d—a linear vector function
varying with p.
520 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
7. The order of the congruency is now determined to be three.
For, as p is the vector to an arbitrary point, and as o (=p’—p) is
parallel to a line of the congruency through that point, the three axes
of ¢ are parallel to the lines through the assumed point.
8. In order to determine the class of the congruency, or the
number of lines which le in an assumed plane Sdp = 1, it is only
necessary to express that two corresponding points P and P’ lie in
the plane. Referring to the first equations of Art. 5, if Sta =1 and
Sida’ = 1, then
za (Sra-—1) + yb(SAB-1) + se(SrAy-1) = 0,
and aa (Sra! —1) + yb’ (SAB'—1) + ze’(SAy’-1) = 0.
Taking the vector expression for the line PP’ in terms of 2, y, and z,
which is given in Art. 3, the equation of the sengle line of the con-
gruency which lies in the plane is found on elimination of , y, and
to be given by the determinant,
sa(p—a)+ta'(p—a') sb(p—f)+ tb'(p—f’) se(p—y) + te'(p—y’)
a(Sda-1) b(SAB-1) e(Sy-1) = 0,
a! (Sha! -1) b'( SAB! -1) (SA! -1)
As this is the equation of a single definite line, the class of the
congruency is unity.
Of course when the plane is not arbitrary, more than one line
may lie init. For instance, if the plane is one of the divided planes,
so that SAXa = SAB = SAy = 1, the determinant vanishes identically,
and no longer determines a definite line. Indeed, this plane contains
an infinite number of lines joining points in it to the corresponding
points on the other plane which lie on their common intersection.
9. By the general relations connecting the order and class of a
congruency with those of its focal surface, the focal surface of the
congruency under discussion is seen to be a developable of the fourth
degree. This appears also on consideration of the reciprocal con-
gruency which is of the first order and the third class, and whose
lines are, therefore, chords of a twisted cubic.!
The equation of the focal surface may, however, be obtained with-
out difficulty. It is necessary to calculate, in the first instance, the
1 Salmon, “‘ Three Dimensions,’’ Art. 457.
Joty—Homographic Divisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space. 521
invariants of the function # of Art. 6. Remembering that ¢(p—-a’)
a ; :
= a —a), &c., the invariants are
a } ,
Spee o=c) nae) 3 8 (p—2)(p—B’)(p-7')
My, = —
S(p—a’)(p—f’)(p—-y') S(p—a’)(p—B')(p-y’)
be ;
ieee oa _ tap Oe
: S(p—a')(p—B')(p-y) S (p—a') (p— 8’) (p—y')
and
abe
! ! 0 Wa S(p— = =a
my, = SP(0=#) b(p= BY S(p- 7) _ @Ve (p—a)(p—8)(p-y)
S(p—a')(p=B))(p—7) Si(a—a!)\(@a (eae
where g®— m,9?+ mg — m3; = 0 is the cubic determining the roots
of d.
10. On reduction this cubic takes the form
abo S pV (By + ya+ af) - Say]
—g (Sp da'beV (By+ya' +a’B) — Sa'bceSo'By]
+g SpXabld V (B'y' + y/a+ af!) - Xab'e' Sap’y']
— g° alld [SpV (B'y + 7a! + aff’) - Sa‘p’y'] = 0.
This, being linear in p, may be regarded as the equation of a plane
involving a variable parameter g rationally in the third degree.
Now, if two roots of the cubic of a linear vector function are
equal, two of the axes of the function will in general coincide.' So
then, if the discriminant of the cubic here written is equated to
zero, it will determine by its vanishing those points p through which
pass two coincident lines of the congruency. In other words, the
developable enveloped by the variable plane is the focal surface of
the congruency.
11. Again, regarding s and ¢ as constant in the equation of a
line of the congruency given in Art. 3, it is obvious that the plane
determined by varying w, y, and z is homographically divided with the
two given planes. Eliminating 2, y, and 2, the result
S[as(p—a) +a't(p—a’) \[ bs(p — 8) +8't(p — B’) JL es(p —y) + e't(p ~y') ] = 0,
involves the ratio s:¢ in the third degree, and agrees with the
1 Transactions, R.I.A., vol. xxx., p. 600.
522 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
equation of the plane found in the last article to envelope the focal
surface. This corresponds to a property of the hyperboloid—yviz.,
its double generation. If in its equation, as given in Art. 3, s and ¢
are supposed to be constant, the equation is to be interpreted as that
of a generator of the second system, and the locus of these second
generators is of course the hyperboloid.
Through a given point three of these planes pass, and it is easy
to see, as in Art. 8, that each of them contains an infinite number of
lines of the congruency.!. It would appear from this that their three
lines of intersection are the lines of the congruency which pass
through the given point.
12. Just as a plane was divided anharmonically, space may be
divided anharmonically. Take a pyramid, 4 BCD, and let the
vectors to its vertices be a, 8, y, and 6 respectively. The vector
raa+ ybB+ sey +wdd
Ue =a =
is ra + yb +2e+ wd
is capable of representing any point in space. The plane through
C, D, and P meets the edge AB in the point el cede yop
za + yb
through the unit point U, which is represented by the vector
The plane
aa+ bB+ey+dd
ee eae ;
: . da+ bp ;
and the edge CD meets AB in Ea i The anharmonic of the
pencil of planes joining AB to C, U, D, and P, is equal to =; or
(AB .CUDP) = =. Similar results hold for planes through the
remaining edges.
Now, if two different unit pyramids are taken and two arbitrary
unit points, the lines joining P and P’, corresponding points in the
anharmonic divisions, belong to a complex.
Suppose
gaa + y)'B' +2¢y + wd
ca +yb' +2 +wd'
ei
r]
! These lines enyelop a conic since, reciprocally, the chords of a twisted cubic
which pass through a fixed point on it lie on a quadric cone.
Joryv—Homographic Dwisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space. 528
then using the auxiliary vectors o and 7, which have been defined
in the 4th Article,
xa(r + Vac) + yb(r + VBo) + 2¢(7 + Vyo) + wd(7r+ Vdc) = 0,
and «a'(r+Va'c) + yb'(r+VB'c) + 80'(41 + Vy'o) + wd'(r+VO'c) = 0.
Operating on these by SA and Sy, and eliminating z, y, 2, and w, the
determinant of the fourth order
| aSA(r7+Vac) bSdA(r+VBo) eSd(r+Vyc) dSd(r+ Vic)
HZSuG avae\ESuGaaey eSuG a rye a Scene)
1 aSd(r+Va'c) W'Sd(7+VB'c) CSA(t+ Vy'c) d'Sd(7+ VO'c)
| PSECRIES) MSRM ITED) OREM) dues Tae)
is the resultant.
13. Expanding this by minors from the first and second rows, since
Sd (7 + Vac) Su (r+ VBo) — SX(7r+ Vac) Sp (7 + VBo)
= SVPApV (7+ Vac) V (r+ VBo) = — SdApo (Sr (a- 8) + Soa)
by Art. 5, it is evident that the factor (SdAyo)* is extraneous. This
being discarded, the result is
bea'd' (St(B—y) + ScBy) (Sr(a’—8') + Soa'd’)
+ cab'd' (St (y-a) + Soya) (Sr(B'—8') + Sof'3’)
+ abd'd' (St (a—B) + Soa) (St(y'— 8!) + Soy’s’)
+ b'c'ad (Sr (B’-y') + Scf'y’) (St(a—8) + Soad)
+ da’bd (St (y' — a!) + Soy'a’) (St(B-8) + SoS)
+ dB'cd (Sr (a! — B’) + Sca!B') (St(y—8) + Soy) = 0.
The form of this equation shows that the complex is of the second
order and of the second class, for « and + both enter in the second
degree. As in Art. 6, putting + = Vop, the equation in o which
results, is that of a quadric cone containing the lines which pass
through p. If SAp = 1 and Sup = 1 determine a line of the
complex, it is easy to see that co = VAp and tr = A-p; 80 if A is
given and pw variable the result of substituting these values in the
equation of the complex is a quadratic in p, and represents therefore
a curve of the second class in the arbitrary plane SXp=1. This
curve is the conic enveloped by the lines in that plane.
524 Proceedings of the Royal frish Academy.
14. If a, B, y, and 6 are unit vectors, the equation
p = U(«caa+ybB +2zcy)
is that of a sphere anharmonically divided. The unit triangle is
ABC and the unit point is 8 = U(aa+bB+cy). The sphere may
be considered to be divided by the projection on it from its centre of
any one of the planes
_ t4a+ybB + sey
pal + ym + an
where /, m, and z are arbitrary. If however /=m =n =1, the unit
point on the plane is the mean point of the unit triangle in it. Soin
order to divide a sphere anharmonically with respect to a given unit
triangle (a, 8, y) and a given unit point (6), it is only necessary to
resolve 6 along a, f, and y, to draw a plane through the points thus
determined on these lines, and to construct in this plane a net haying
for unit triangle the points on these lines and for unit point the mean
point of the triangle.
15. The quaternary coordinates! for a plane, x, y, z, and w, where
raa+ybB+zcy+wds
ca + yb’ +2c' + wd
?
and 0 = aa + bB + cy + dB,
and 0O=a+WV+e¢+d,
may also be used for a sphere. The vectors being still unit,
p = U(t4aa+ybB+2zcy + wds),
with the condition
aa +bB+ey+ dé = 0,
is a symmetrical form which expresses that the sphere is anharmoni-
cally divided with respect to the four points represented by a, B, y,
and 6, or by the symbols
(1000), (0100), (0010), and (0001).
1 A particular case of the Quinary coordinates for space. See ‘‘ Elements
of Quaternions,’’ Art. 70.
Joty—Homographic Divisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space. 525
The homographic plane
rta+ ybB + sey +wdd
= “ty +2 - 3w
is divided with reference to the three points represented by aa, df,
and cy, and their mean point — 4do.
As regards the ‘‘ equation of congruence” (‘‘ Elements,”’ Art. 71),
it is sufficient to remark that (@yzw) and (tv+s, ty+s, ts+s, tw+s8)
represent the same point on the surface of the sphere if ¢ is positive,
but opposite points if ¢ is negative. The symbol (1111) denotes no
definite point because the versor of a null vector is wholly arbitrary.
16. As Hamilton does not seem to have given the types of points
of ‘‘Third construction”’ for a plane net, it may be useful to give
them here. The points of first construction derived from the four
points P, = (1000) are P, = (1100) and the lines constructing
them are A, = [1, — 1, 0,0]. The lines of second construction are -
[tt le | ands thes pompssarewe7 — (lo) lOO)
These points P, lie by threes on A;,, = [111 —38] and connect
with P, by As,2 = [011-2]. The intersections of A;,, and A,
determine the type P;,, = (8100); those of As,2 and Aj, the type
P3,2 = (2100); As,2 and A, give P;,; = (8210); A;,, and As3,2
give P3,, = (— 8, 2, 1, 0), and the lines A;,. mutually intersect in
P;,5 = (4210) in addition to the old points.
[ 526 ]
LY.
HUMAN LOCOMOTION: VARIATION OF VELOCITY WHEN
WALKING. By RALPH CUSACK.
(Pirate V1.)
(COMMUNICATED BY G. FITZGERALD, D.SC., F.T.C-D.)
(Read Aprit 26, 1897.)
One remarkable provision of nature often overlooked is the ease and
smoothness with which man walks, especially when it is con-
sidered that the impulse forward is received only about once in
the second. Dr. Joly first called my attention to these facts and
pointed out that when a man was seen walking across a Venetian
blind, which shut off his up and down motion, his walk appeared
to be very uniform. Observe a boy walking on stilts, his motion
always appears jerky, his legs are kept quite stiff, and the elasticity
of the muscles of his legs and feet cannot come into play, which
they do when he is walking naturally along the ground.
The following experiments will show to some extent the degree
of uniformity with which an ordinary man walks and how the
uniformity varies with circumstances in the same individual :—
The greatest difficulty in obtaining the variation of velocity of a
man walking is to record the velocity without the individual being
conscious of it. If the individual knows that he is walking for a
certain purpose, the velocities recorded are not that of the uncon-
scious mechanical walk, but that of the voluntary. Thus the question
arises, in what way do these two walks differ, if they differ at all?
That they differ, and that the mechanical walk is more uniform than
the voluntary appears obvious, inasmuch as all our mechanical move-
ments are more regular than our voluntary movements. As an
example, when the number of respirations of an individual are being
measured, so long as the person’s attention is distracted from the
apparatus, the record of his breathing is uniform, but if his attention
is called to the fact that his respirations are being recorded, the
Cusack—Human Locomotion. 527
breathing becomes irregular. Also when asleep the respirations are
very regular. It is therefore to be expected that the mechanical
walk, that is, the walk when the thoughts of the walker are distracted
from the action of his walking, will be more uniform than the walk of
which the walker is conscious.
The apparatus first devised for recording the velocity at short
intervals of a man walking was as follows :—A drum such as is used
for recording the vibrations of a tuning-fork was procured; such a
drum is usually driven by a small motor, but in the present case to
the driving axle I attached a boxwood cylinder about two inches in
diameter, removing the ordinary driving wheel. On this cylinder
was wound about 380 yards of light, non-elastic string. Ordinary
white tea-twine answered the purpose very well. The end of this
string was attached to a light belt round the walker’s waist, and when
the walker walked away from the apparatus he unwound the string
from the cylinder, thus driving the drum. Round the drum was
attached the ordinary smoked paper, and on this a tuning-fork recorded
its vibrations. The tuning-fork used gave nineteen vibrations per
second. Now the velocity at which the drum was driven varied,
according to the rate at which the string was unwound, that is to
say, the velocity at which the man walked. If the velocity of the
man was uniform during each step the length of the waves recorded
on the drum would all be equal. This I found was not the case, but
the change in velocity was so small that the variation in the length
of the waves could only be perceived with difficulty. The above
apparatus was found unsuitable, inasmuch as the drum jerked when
the motion was irregular, also the motion of the drum was difficult to
control.
The following modification was made and was found more con-
venient, as the recording apparatus could be placed in a room away
from where the man was walking, communication being made by
wires and an electric current.
The boxwood cylinder was replaced by the original driving pulley,
and the drum was driven by an electric motor.
The motion of the drum was now quite uniform, and its velocity
easily controlled. The tuning-fork vibrations on the drum new merely
sound to mark time, and were of course quite regular. To record
the velocity of the walker the following instrument was made. A box-
wood cylinder about 6 inches long and 3 inches in diameter was
turned on a steel mandrel, which mandrel afterwards served as the
axle. To one end of the cylinder was attached a commutator, with
528 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ten divisions, so that ten contacts were made with the brush every
revolution of the cylinder. The intervals of these makes and breaks
were equal. This cylinder rotated between two screws with conical
points, and by varying the pressure on the coned surfaces, as was
required, the effects of the inertia of the cylinder could be easily got
rid of. A brush in contact with the commutator made the electrical
connections as the cylinder revolved.
Round the cylinder a string was wound which was attached to
the walker, and was unwound by him when walking away from the
apparatus. An electro-magnet, in circuit with the commutator,
recorded the velocity of the cylinder by attracting a soft iron armature
controlled by a spring. When the circuit was closed the armature, or
rather a lever projecting from the armature, was so arranged that it
made a stroke on the smoked paper. When the current was open the
armature being pulled back by the spring, a blank was left. This
little instrument worked rather like a Morse instrument, and the
recording was also similar to that of a Morse instrument, as may be
seen in the diagram (fig. 2, p. 532). J£now a man walked uniformly
the number of strokes between each wave-length would be equal.
By the use of this apparatus the velocity could be obtained during
a single step about 40 times, if the length of the strokes were measured.
This I found difficult and unnecessay, and it was sufficient to take
the velocity at the end of each wave-length, and plot it to obtain the
curves. This was done by simply counting the number of strokes in
each wave-length and plotting this number to scale. From the begin-
ning of one scratch to the beginning of the next is counted as one
‘ stroke.”
The steps of the walker were recorded on the drum by another
electro-magnet in circuit with the instrument shown in figure 1.
Fie. 1.
This instrument was fastened by straps under the instep up against
the heel of the boot and consisted of a piece of fibre cut so as to fit
the curved part of the boot under the instep and next the heel. To
Cusack— Human Locomotion. 529
this was attached a brass plate which held a movable button; this
button could be regulated’so as to project beyond the heel any desired
amount, according as the walker’s heel was high or low. When the
heel came to the ground this button was pressed up and made contact
with a platinum point, thus closing the circuit through the electro-
magnet. When the heel was again lifted the button was returned to
its original place by means of a spring. The wires were brought up
the outer side of the leg in a rubber tube to the middle of the back,
where a twin wire was attached and drawn after the man as he
walked. The twin wire was very light, and was practically no im-
pediment to the walker.
Some experiments were made to ascertain if two points similarly
situated on each foot ever rested on the ground at the same time
when one is walking. For this purpose two strips of tin-foil about
four yards long and a foot wide, were laid on the ground, a quarter
of an inch apart, side by side. To the sole of each boot was fastened
a little button, the size of a brass pin’s head; these buttons were con-
nected by a wire brought up the legs, and could be attached to any
part of the sole. Now the strips were so arranged that when the
walker stood still, one foot on each strip, he closed a circuit through
an electro-magnet, which made a mark on the drum. By shifting
the buttons I found that no two similarly situated parts of the foot
were ever on the ground at the same time. Though the toes of one
foot and heel of the other were on the ground together for less than
zo of a step, if the man was walking slowly, but for a shorter time if
the walking was fast.
An experiment was also made to show that the flexibility of the
sole of the foot greatly helped the pedestrian. When a heavy pair of
shooting boots with nails were used by the walker his motion was
much more irregular than when he had light flexible boots on his
feet. This I found to be the case with every individual I tried.
The three curves shown (Plate VI.) are perhaps the best examples
I obtained of typical walks. The curve A shows the variation in
velocity of the most uniform walker I experimented on, and curious
to say, seeing him walking, one would imagine that his motion
would be very irregular. Curve C is the most non-uniform velocity
recorded, yet the amount of variation was always the same, and a
curve obtained for the variation of one step of the right foot would be
similar to that obtained for every other, though that of the right foot-
step and that of the left footstep never were quite the same. It was
found that no matter how non-uniform the walking was that the curves
530 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
went on repeating over and over again. I plotted curves for many
yards of walking and found this to be always the case.
The third curve B may be taken as representing the average
variation of velocity, and I here give some of the ordinates by which
the curve was obtained. From these can be clearly seen the way in
which the vibrations for the steps repeat themselves. The length of
the ordinates are given in tenths of an inch, and are obtained by
counting the number of ‘‘ strokes” in each wave-length. As men-
tioned previously a ‘‘ stroke”? is taken to be the distance from the
beginning of one dot to the beginning of the next. Each “‘ stroke”
is given on the curve the value of one-tenth of an inch, and a wave-
length the one-half of aninch. The velocity is plotted vertically and
the time horizontally in the Plate. Half an inch represents the one-
nineteenth of a second. The fourth curve on the Plate shows varia-
tions from mean.
It will be observed that the walker whose velocity is here recorded
walked more uniformly with his right foot than with his left. This
fact is even more marked in other cases than in the particular case
here mentioned.
Ordinates in
woe D ppt | partis Dies
an inch. 3 | an inch. fl
0-00 E = : — | 71°50 5 ‘“ : 4°25
6°00 3 - 6-00 | 76°50 : : 2 5°00
0D ee 6-00 | ee , i . aes
= gig | ais ( left comes to sick
18-06 : ws si 6:00 | 93°25 6-00
200 cui oma» - 2 Of - aos ( eteand 6-00
97-50 . . «. 450 | 104-25 5-00
31°50 : : . 4:00 | 108-75 4°50
25°25 ; ; ‘ we | 142-75 4-00
40°25 3 - : 500 .} Aliis 5°00
46°25 . . . 600 | 122-75 5-00
Pa pright heel comes) , ,. 128-50 b ; a | 9 Sages
=f ci (to ground oi 134-50 ( right comes to) 6-00
57°75 5°75 140-00 ground . j 5°50
62°75 3°00 145-00 , 2 = 5°00
67°25 4°50 149°50 E a 4°50
Now the left heel was put on the ground between 6-00 and 12-00,
so here the left step begins. The right step begins at about 52-00.
Cusack—Human Locomotion. 531
I have substracted the ordinates, so that it can be clearly seen
how they repeat themselves for each alternate step. Between 31°50
and 35:25 it will be noticed that the velocity was lower than it ought
to have been; this presumably was due to the walker having slipped,
or more likely to a fault in the apparatus, such as a slight jerk.
I noticed that the same thing happened in several cases, and it is
more likely due to the apparatus than to the walker. It will also
be seen that the variation for the two feet is not the same. By
glancing at the curves it will be seen that the velocity is at a maxi-
mum shortly after the heel is placed on the ground, and diminishes
then until the other heel has nearly reached the ground. The velocity
decreases more rapidly than it increases, especially in the case of
the curve B, where it will be seen that velocity increases very
slowly almost from the time the heel of one foot is removed from
the ground until the heel of the other foot is about half-way over
its course—there the velocity is at a maximum. It then suddenly
falls off for about two-ninths of a step, the heel being raised from
the ground about half through this period of decrease, that is to say,
about one-ninth of a step from the time when the velocity has a
maximum. Thus it will be seen that in the case of the curve B the
velocity was increasing during seven-ninths of a step and diminishing
during two-ninths. It will be seen that in both the other curves
shown, the time of increase is only slightly greater than that of decrease.
The velocity, as will be seen from the curves, varies very uni-
formly, the least variation obtained was 12°5 per cent. from the mean,
while the greatest variation was over 26 per cent. from the mean.
These were extreme cases, and out of 27 individuals whose velocity
was recorded 23 varied from 16 to 18 per cent.
The following are the variations from the mean of each individual
whose walk was recorded :—
12°5 16°2 17°9
14:7 16°3 17-9
15°2 16°6 18-0
15°'8 16°7 18:0
16:0 17:2 beso
16:0 7-6 18°7
161 17°6 19:9
16:1 Mele 22°6
16°1 a7-9 26°2
All of these individuals had 8 and some 12 records taken of their
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Iv. zP
532 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
walks, each of which was nearly
similar to the previous one, the
difference in no case amounting to
more than one or two per cent.
when they were walking under simi-
lar circumstances. But if a walker
had on heavy boots or even a heavy
overcoat, his velocity was greatly
altered, and in some cases this
alteration amounted to nearly 30
per cent. This latter, in cases
where walkers were provided with
heavy fishing-boots. An overcoat
or other light weight on the back
altered the velocity in no case to
a greater extent than 5 per cent.
No heayy weight on the back was
tried.
It will be seen that on an average
when a man is walking under or-
dinary circumstances his velocity
varies only about 17 per cent.
from the mean. That is, he will
be walking about one-third faster
for some portion of his step than
another. It must be remembered
that this is the case when men are
walking under circumstances that
can hardly be called natural, for
their brains are certainly to some
extent occupied by the idea that
they are walking for an experiment.
Nowt here is reason to believe that
men would and do walk more uni-
formly when walking, suppose, in
the street in conversation with a
friend, than they would in the ex-
periments here recorded.
The method here employed is
perhaps somewhat better than that
in use by Marey, which is mentioned
/
fé
\
a
Hck
>
ee
I]
Se &
SOS
|
PPR LLP LSS
is
ENT ne CN
Cusack—Human Locomotion. 533
by him in the ‘‘Machine Animale”? in a chapter entitled the
‘Marche de l’Homme.”
Marey had a man walking round in a circle 6 metres in diameter,
and pushing a beam in front of him. Now it will be seen that when
a man walks round a circle his inside foot will not have so much
ground to cover as his outside foot, and also that he will have to
turn through a considerable angle at each step. A man would
walk round this circle in about 25 steps, so he would be really walk-
ing a polygon with 25 sides and would thus have to turn through an
angle of 14° each step. These facts I think would account for the
fact that Marey appears to get much greater variations than were got
in my experiments, though indeed from the very meagre account
given, it would be difficult to say accurately what results he got. But
one great difference easily perceived is that he gets the velocity
greatest at the commencement of each step, and gradually diminishing
until the end of the step, whereas from these experiments it would
appear as if the velocity only reached its maximum a short time after
the step is commenced, and reaches a minimum before the step is half
completed.
A reproduction of a paper off the chromograph isshown (fig. 2, p. 532).
The wavy line is that marked by the tuning-fork, each of the waves
representing the nineteenth of a second. The little strokes are made
by the electric magnet in circuit with the commutator of the cylinder,
which if the individual walked uniformly would be equal in length,
and each wave would have the same number of strokes init. The
other line with an occasional ‘‘shake’’ in it, is that made by the
pedometer. When the line after a ‘‘shake”’ is higher than before
the ‘‘shake’’—during the time the line is higher, the heel of the
foot to which the pedometer was attached was on the ground (in the
present case the left foot) ;—when the heel was raised, there is another
‘“‘shake,’”’ and the line returns to its old position, the left heel being
off the ground. These papers were dipped into a weak solution of
shellac to preserve the smoking on them, which otherwise might be
rubbed off.
ZEZ
[ 534 |
XV.
THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE ON PHOS-
PHORESCENT SUBSTANCES. By R. §. CUSACK.
(Pirate VII.)
[COMMUNICATED BY GEO. F. FITZGERALD, D.SC. |
[Read Apriz 26, 1897.]
CuemicaL compounds that possess the property of storing up light-
energy when exposed to certain ethereal vibrations are generally
known as phosphorescent substances. Such phosphorescence must not
be confused with phosphorescence in the animal kingdom, which is due
to combustion.
Of the many minerals that possess the property of, as it were,
bottling up light, one of the most remarkable is fluorspar; it was
while making experiments on crystals of fluorspar with the object of
expelling the light from the crystal without cracking the latter that
the quantity of light-energy which it was possible for a phospho-
rescent substance to store up seemed to me to depend on the tempe-
rature at which the substance was exposed to the source of light.
And also that the amount of light that it was possible for a body to
hold was dependent on the temperature.
Before entering into these latter experiments I have to give an
account of the experiments which led to them, and which were made
with the object of ascertaining if possible whether fluorspar or any
other phosphorescent substance increased in volume when “‘ charged”
with light-energy. It was at the suggestion of Dr. Joly that I first
started the investigation, as he thought it possible that a substance,
when it had stored up light-energy, would increase in volume. The
difficulties to be overcome were numerous, but especially that arising
from change in temperature, and as was afterwards found the heat of the
finger at a distance of nearly ten centimetres produced considerable
effect on the apparatus. The apparatus first devised was a flat glass
bottle with a capillary tube ground into the stopper. Into this bottle
the broken up fragments of a fluorspar crystal were put, and the
Cusack— Temperature—Phosphorescent Substances. 535
bottle was then filled with water. Now when the stopper was put in,
the water rose in the capillary tube to a certain height. The bottle
and its contents were then illuminated by the light from the spark
caused by the rapid discharging of a Leyden jar connected with the
terminals of an induction coil. If the water rose in the capillary
tube, as I found it did, either something must have expanded, or
the bottle contracted; the expansion, however, was observed whether
a phosphorescent substance was in the bottle or not, and I sub-
sequently found that the expansion was due solely to heat. This
apparatus was therefore abandoned, and the following, ‘‘ Newton’s
Ring” apparatus, adopted instead :—
This instrument consists of three brass pillars parallel to each
other, secured into a heavy metal base. On each of these pillars is
cut a screw of forty threads to the inch, reaching over the upper six
inches of the pillars which are eight inches high. A flat ring of brass,
with three holes cut in it for the pillars to pass through, is supported
by nuts which run on the screws; this ring can thus be placed at
any height on the pillars that is necessary. A convex mirror and a
lens suitable for producing interference rings by reflection are con-
tained in a circular brass box, which box fits into the centre of the
ring. The whole lens apparatus can thus be raised or lowered as is
necessary without disturbing the lens; also dust is not so liable to
get between the lens and mirror. The lens is stationary, being
cemented to the case, and the mirror is supported on the top ofa
screw, by means of which it can be adjusted so as to get the rings in
a suitable position. Through this screw passes a steel rod, on the
upper end of which the mirror when adjusted rests, the lower end
resting on the crystal, or other substance under observation. The
whole apparatus is then surrounded by a cardboard cylinder, and by
adjusting a slit in this cylinder a beam of light can be arranged so as
to strike the substance under observation only. The light used was that
from the spark of a Leyden jar as previously mentioned. When a
erystal of fluorspar was taken, and as much as possible of the light it
contained driven out without cracking the crystal, it was adjusted,
sitting on the bed-plate and having the steel rod resting on the upper
edge of a face; the whole length, therefore, of one face of the erystal
was between the bed-plate and the rod which supported the mirror.
The apparatus, when adjusted, was so delicate that the heat of the
fingers when adjusting expanded the supports, which were allowed
to cool before an experiment was attempted. Sodium light was
used to illuminate the rings, and when the cross wires of the
536 Proceedings of the Royal Ivish Academy.
telescope used for reading was adjusted, a movement of the eighth of
a wave-length of sodium light could be easily read. Now witha
pillar of fluorspar over three inehcs long no movement of the ring
was observed; that is to say, the crystal did not expand the one four
hundred and fifty thousandth of its length. I also tried pillars of
calcium sulphide without any result.
It was while making the foregoing experiments that I observed
that a piece of fluorspar when heated for asecond time gave out light,
though when the first heating had ceased no light was being given
out.
It was found when the matter was looked into that at the second
heating the temperature was higher than it had been in the first.
The following are accounts of the experiments made :—
A crystal of fluorspar was broken up into pieces about the size of
a nut; some of these pieces were taken and heated in a sand bath for
four hours, the temperature being kept as nearly as possible at 300° C.
The spar glowed for about four hours, after which time the glow
ceased. The crucible was then allowed to cool till next day. Now
when these pieces of spar were heated again they did not glow till the
temperature was raised above the temperature of 300° C.; to which
they had been raised when first heated. The glow off the spar when
heated for the second time was easily observed, though rather faint.
When the spar was heated for the second time it was raised to about
500° C., and glowed for nearly an hour. These temperatures were
obtained by observing when certain minerals, whose melting points
were known, fused. The temperature could be kept fairly constant,
as the experiments were conducted in a room without draughts, heat
being supplied by a Bunsen burner with the flame kept to a certain
height, also a large quantity of sand was used in the crucible. By
making further experiments at other temperatures I found that
fluorspar always contained some light until it was heated to a tem-
perature of about 500° C.; at which temperature all the light was
expelled. Fluorspar raised to this temperature, allowed to cool,
and again heated, omitted no light, no matter to what temperature
it was subsequently raised.
It was found that fluorspar might be kept at any temperature up
to about 500° C. for a long time without losing all its light. In fact
I kept some pieces of spar for two days at about 300° C., yet these
pieces glowed when afterwards raised in temperature.
I now exposed some fluorspars at 300° C. to the sparks from a
Leyden jar coupled with the poles of an induction coil, and found that
Cusack— Temperature—Phosphorescent Substances. 537
at 300° C. the spar did not phosphoresce as brilliantly as at normal,
and that when heated to about 500° C. it did not phosphoresce at all.
Fluorspar was abandoned at this point as it was found difficult to
deal with, inasmuch as when powdered it would not phosphoresce as
well as when in pieces, and the pieces were difficult to handle. Instead
I tried, along with other salts, a calcium sulphide which phosphoresces
violet, and with which it was much easier to work.
Before leaving the subject of the fluorspar, I may say that several
specimens of artificial fluorspar which I succeeded in making in the
dark did not phosphoresce when the temperature was raised. A
gelatinous precipitate of fluorspar was obtained in the dark. This
precipitate was then taken and boiled in water for many hours, until
it had assumed a partially crystalline form; it was then carefully
dried, and, when dry, heated to about 300° C. No phosphorescence
was observed. The above operations were all carried on in the dark,
but even when carried on, as they subsequently were in full daylight,
no glow was observed when the calcium fluoride was heated.
To see whether the artificial calcium fluoride would phosphoresce
at all, I exposed some of it to the Leyden jar spark, and found that
it phosphoresced with considerable brilliancy, though not nearly so
brilliantly as the natural fluoride. The operation of precipitating the
fluoride was then carried on in the light of the Leyden jar sparks,
and the digesting of the gelatinous fluoride thus obtained was carried
on in the dark. The calcium fluoride obtained thus did not glow
when the temperature was raised. It must be remembered, however,
that the gelatinous compound might not retain light when raised to the
boiling point of water ; certainly the gelatinous fluoride phosphoresces
when exposed to the sparks at ordinary temperature, but the glow
dies more rapidly than in the case of the crystalline, neither is it
brilliant.
The whole operation for obtaining the semi-crystalline calcium
fluoride was now carried out under the Leyden jar sparks, or rather
I should say as much as possible of it, for the induction coil could
not conveniently be kept working all the time the gelatinous precipa-
tate was being digested, and was only worked at intervals. The
fluoride thus obtained phosphoresced as would be expected when the
temperature was raised. Now although these experiments tend to
show that fluorspar has to be exposed to light before it phosphoresces,
it would be very surprising to find that a piece of spar taken from the
bottom of a mine where it could never have been exposed to light
failed to phosphoresce when heated. This is an experiment I hope
538 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
.
before long to have the opportunity of carrying out, and I am quite
prepared to find that the fluorspar does phosphoresce when heated.
It is possible, of course, that the crystallization may be the cause ;
suppose that, when crystallizing, the fluorspar gave out light which
it bottled up for itself as it gave it out. Certainly fluorspar absorbs
light comparatively slowly when exposed to sunlight, but especially
when exposed under glass. I have never succeeded in getting fluor-
spar to glow when exposed under glass to the sunlight, unless
heated, nor indeed to the sun with no glass interposed, though I
have been told it does.
Phosphorescing sulphides are, as has been previously said, easier to
deal with than fluorspar, and they store up light-energy in just the
same way. Accordingly all the curves of brightness shown are for
different sulphides. ;
The principal difficulty experienced in obtaining these curves was
to obtain a suitable photometer, none of the ordinary arrangements
being found convenient. The instrument I used is made out of a cigar
box, and has up to this been found satisfactory. The lid of the cigar
box was removed, and a piece of stout cardboard made to fit in its
place. In this cardboard a round hole, 1 cm. in diameter, was cut,
and underneath the hole is fixed a little 8-volt lamp. When this
lamp is in circuit with the storage cells the light shines through the
hole in the cardboard. On this hole, to diminish the intensity of the
light that is emitted by the lamp, little sheets of paper cut to a suit-
able size are laid and pressed together by a glass weight. All the
sheets are cut from the same sheet of tracing-paper and are very
uniform in thickness and colour. A slip of coloured glass can be in-
terposed between the hole and the slips of paper when necessary, so
that the difference in colour of the substance under observation and
the light emitted by the lamp may not increase the difficulties of
comparing the two intensities. To get a numerical measure of the
intensity we may assume roughly that as the number of sheets of
paper interposed increase in arithmetical progression the light that
comes through decreases by geometrical progression.
If the fraction of light that comes through one paper be P, then
the light that comes through ~ papers is, roughly, P”;
YB = WP”,
log ; = n log P.
Now when it is only required to compare the brilliancy of bodies
Cusack— Temperature—Phosphorescent Substances. 539
when phosphorescing at different temperatures, recollecting that P is
less than unity so that log P is negative ;
Le«, Antilogn. :
When it is required to find the actual amount of light emitted by
a body it is necessary to find either the value of J, or P, J, being the
intensity of the light emitted by the lamp through the 1 em. hole
when no paper is interposed.
For an example let us suppose that at + 15° C. the light of the
photometer lamp had to be redueed by putting on seven papers until
the maximum brightness of the phosphorescing substance was equal
to it. By always starting work from normal, the lamp can easily be
got the same brightness by comparing it with the brightness of the
substance phosphorescing at 15° C.
To find a measure of the relative brightness of a substance phos-
phorescing at + 15° and + 100°; if at + 100° 18 papers had to be
interposed in addition to the 7 at + 15° before the brightness was
reduced to the brightness of the phosphorescing body, it is necessary
to find the antilog of 7 and 20, and the reciprocals of these antilogs
will be a measure of the relative brightness of + 15° and + 100°
respectively. These may of course be plotted to any convenient
scale.
With regard to the manner in which the bodies under observation
were heated and cooled, I may observe that CO, alone and in conjunc-
tion with sulphuric ether were the only cooling agents used; with
these the temperatures of — 40° and — 80° were obtained. The tem-
peratures between normal and + 100° were obtained by immersing
the body contained in a nickel basin about one inch and a quarter
deep and an inch wide at the top, in heated water. A thermometer
dipped into the water, and when the brightness of the photometer
was, by trial, got equal to that of the body phosphorescing its maxi-
mum, the thermometer was read. A large volume of water was used
and the vessel was surrounded with several layers of felt, so the tem-
perature kept fairly constant; but at all events the error arising from
misreading in temperature would only have been trifling when com-
pared with those due to the photometer reading.
Considerable difficulty arose in getting a suitable means of raising
the temperature above 100°. Mercury was at first tried, but the
vapour got over everything, and besides being injurious to breathe
was injurious to the instruments. Glycerine was also tried without
success, as also were several other organic compounds. Finally fusible
540 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
alloys were tried and were found very suitable; an alloy consisting of
3 parts of bismuth, 3 parts of lead, and 1 part of tin was used.
This latter alloy was melted in a nickel vessel; in this a smaller
nickel vessel containing the substance for observation was immersed
and covered up with a piece of cardboard in which there was a hole
the same size as that in the photometer. Through this hole the light
from the sparks fell on the substance and the light emitted by the
latter reaches the eye. A thermometer is also immersed in the melted
alloy. To read this thermometer in the dark a small glow lamp is so
arranged as to throw a beam of light along the stem, and can be
moved so as to illuminate any part of the column of mercury that may
be necessary.
When a phosphorescing substance has been heated and cooled ever
so often, so long as it has not been decomposed, the maximum inten-
sity of the light emitted at the same temperature is the same, although
the time which the substance takes to reach its maximum brightness
may vary somewhat; only two exceptions to this have as yet been
observed, and it is doubtful whether these are true exceptions or not,
inasmuch as the physical structure of the substance may have altered.
The fluorides of barium and strontium, after being heated for the
first time to a temperature of about 700° C., phosphoresce more bril-
liantly than before being heated. But if they are heated again ever
so often, they do not appear to phosphoresce more brilliantly than
they did after the first heating. Of many other substances examined
the only difference observed after being heated was that they
reached their maximum brightness sooner than they did before they
were heated. The difference in time was however only a second or
two. Ihave failed to observe any difference in the structure of the
barium or strontium fluorides under a microscope before and after
heating; but if we suppose that the crystals increase in size when
heated, it is obvious that the substance would phosphoresce more
brilliantly when the crystals were larger. As the crystals were very
minute, not distinguishable under the microscope, it is quite possible
for them to increase in size without the increase being observed, as
the crystals are massed together very closely.
On Plate VII. are shown six curves, three of which were plotted
from the calculated antilogs, and three others, which have broader lines
were plotted from these antilog curves, and are reciprocal to them.
These latter three give some idea of the manner in which the intensity
of the light from the phosphorescing substances vary. It will be seen
that a specimen of strontium sulphide (c) has ceased to phosphoresce
Cusack— Temperature—Phosphorescent Substances. 541
before the calcium sulphide (a) had reached its maximum; also that
calcium sulphide seems to have a larger range of temperature over
which it phosphoresces than strontium sulphide. The specimen of
barium sulphide (8) has not reached its maximum at — 80°, when the
other two substances have greatly diminished in brightness.
The following are the results of experiments from which the
curves (A) for calcium sulphide were plotted :—
Mea arate), wens
+ 283° 13:0 86 73°6
230° 9-0 “60 39°8
194° 6:8 453 28-4
139° 6°3 “49 26°4
96° 7-0 46 29°3
49° 75 “50 1:6
+ 16° 8-0 53 34-0
~ 40° 10-0 66 46-4
— 80° 11°3 753 56°7
The number of papers was divided by 15 to make the curve
plottable, and the antilogs there given have been multiplied by 10
for the same reason. From the antilogs given here a curve was
plotted, and from this curve once obtained, the reciprocal curve was
afterwards plotted ; this was done in the case of each substance.
The great difficulty in making observations is working the
photometer, and on account of the errors arising from this source
these curves are only approximate. Ihave tested them in several
ways. Thus when a curve is drawn, by making an observation and
seeing if it agrees with the curve, we have an excellent test, and I
have found the observation falls usually a trifle too low. A difference
of one paper interposed makes a very considerable difference in the
plotted curve, and itis very hard to judge to less than one paper.
With reference to the curves, a is that for calcium sulphide; 8 for
barium sulphide, and ¢ for strontium sulphide ; the corresponding small
letters indicate the antilog curves from which the intensity curves were
plotted.
ieee
XVI.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ‘‘CROMLECHS” IN THE COUNTY
OF CLARE. Br THOMAS JOHNSON WESTROPP, M.A.
(Prates VITI., IX., ann X.)
[Read May 24, 1897.]
Tue great group of Cromlechs' in the county of Clare lies (with the
exception of scarcely half a dozen examples) within an extensive
district, 40 miles long by 10 wide, running in a south-easterly direc-
tion, from the sea coast to the eastern border. The Cromlechs are not
only numerous in the hills (as might be expected), but also in the
level country of Magh Adhair, probably the longest cultivated and
inhabited plain in the county. Some 115 exist or are known to have
recently existed.
The oldest traditions preserve no record of any territorial division
corresponding to this long strip of country. When the Dalcassians
burst into the present county of Clare” in the last half of the fourth
century, they are said to have found the lands occupied by various
Firbolgic tributaries of the kings of Connaught.
First, the people of Tradraighe or Tradree, who held a nearly
square district in the angle formed by the Fergus and Shannon,
bounded to the north and east by the “‘ Gissagh ” (Rine), which flows
past the friary of Quin, and the “‘ Owen na Cearnaigh,’ which washes
the walls of Bunratty Castle. This, as first subdued, seems to have
formed the mensal land of the princes of Thomond, down, perhaps, to
Donchad Cairbrech O’Brien, after whose death in 1242 it was held at
intervals by English grantees, De Musegros and the three De Clares.
Its mensal character may explain the strenuous endeavours of Brian
Boru to recover it from the Danes; also its grant to De Musegros
1 I use this variant and controverted term to cover all the varities of primitive
stone structures confused under that title on our maps, and under the term Labba
Diarmada by the peasantry.
2 Not known as ‘‘Thomond”’ till after their conquest. The older ‘‘ Thomond”’
was probably eastern Limerick and northern Tipperary.
Westrope— Distribution of Cromlechs in Co. Clare. 543
by the English Government, and that by King Brian Roe O’Brien to
Thomas de Clare in 1276. Its importance is farther marked by the
enormous triple stone forts at Moghane and Langough.!
Secondly, the inhabitants of Magh Adhair, once extending from
the Fergus nearly to Tulla, possessing the great forts of Cahercalla
and Cahershaughnessy, the mound of Inauguration, and some 30
cromlechs.
Thirdly, an ill-defined district, extending along the eastern and
northern borders, including Slieve Bernagh, Slieve Aughty, the parish
of Inchicronan, and the greater part of the baronies of Inchiquin and
Islands ; of its earlier occupants nothing certain is known, only vague
legends about the Tuatha De Danaan. Most of it was held by the
Daleassians (the Hybloid, Hycaisin and Kinel Fermaic), when its
history commences. On its Galway border lay Lughid (Ath na
Luchaid) the farthest limit of the Dalcassian Kingdom, and doubtless
the site of some disastrous battle, as suggested by the curious ‘‘ pro-
hibition ” laid on the King of Connaught: ‘‘In a speckled cloak let
him not go to the Heath of Luchaid in Dal Chais.?”’ It contains
some 20 cromlechs.
Fourthly, the mountainous tract of the Corcomroes, said to have been
held by the Firbolgs of Irgus, Dael, and Ennach,? but was possessed
in historic times by the offshoots of Clan Rory—the O’Conors and
O’Loughlins. It contains some 40 cromlechs and several hundred
stone forts, including the great cahers of Ballykinvarga and Caher-
commane.
Lastly, the angle formed by the sea and the Shannon, Corcovaskin,
first held by the Martini (a large Firbolg tribe, who also appear
round Emly in the ninth century), and then by the race of Cairbre
bhascaoin, whence its later name was derived. It only possesses one
cromlech, that of Kiltumper.
Most of the existing structures are small box-like cists tapering
and often sloping towards the east, the cairns and mounds in which
at any rate many were embedded being now nearly removed. A
few long graves of several chambers occur at intervals over all the
district, and a few small ‘‘demi dolmens”’ round Tulla. An interest-
ing type of stone enclosure is found at Clooney and Dooneen, north of
Quin.
1 See Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 1893, p. 281; 1896,
p-. 146.
2 «* Book of Rights,” p. 21.
3 Dindseanchas (‘‘ Revue Celtique,’’ 1894, p. 479).
544 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Two lists have already been published by Miss Stokes, The first in
‘‘Harly Christian Architecture of Ireland” (1878), p. 146. Cragbally-
connell (Burren, No. 11); Coolamore (Burren, No. 38); Knockalassa
(Inchiquin, No. 19); Kiltumper (Clonderlaw, No. 1); Bally cum marga
(Corcomroe, No. 3); Caher mac crusheen (Corcomroe, No. 1); Kil-
naboy; Commons North (Inchiquin, No. 4); Knocknaglaise (perhaps
No.1); Teeshagh (ditto, No. 3), and Shallee. In this list the last was
a cairn, and no cromlech has existed at Kilnaboy since at any rate 1839.
The second is in ‘‘ Revue Archéologique,” 1882, pp. 19-21.
Inchiquin, Shallee, Inaghbridge, Kilfenora (Baile cinn marga), Kilna-
bow (Ballyganner, Burren 27, Reabacan, Giant’s Grave, Coteen,
Know na glaise, Leaba na glaise), Oughtmama. There are actually
none at Inchiquin, Inaghbridge, Kilnaboy, and Oughtmama. Leaba na
glaise is the ‘‘Teeshagh”’ of list No. 1. Neither list names one out
of over sixty examples east of the Fergus.
I cannot hope that my own list will prove complete, for many
more cromlechs doubtless exist in cairns, in lonely thickets and among
almost impassable crags; but, as it is founded on local examination,
undertaken in some instances for the Ordnance Survey (and thus also
in return gaining much information from that body), I hope to record
accurately the main lines of distribution and the principal groups. I
only describe a few good examples of the leading types of these
monuments.
1. Bartyeanner (sheet 9, Ordnance Survey, 6 inches to 1 mile).
These townlands contain an interesting group of remains, lying about
three miles N. W. of Kilfenora on a deserted craggy plateau. Starting
from the hamlet of Noughaval, which possesses a venerable church,
parts of which are as old as the tenth century, we pass the fine stone
fort of Cahercuttine, with an interesting gateway and stairs, com-
manding a glimpse of Liscannor bay and castle through a gap in the
hills ; close beside it lie two broken dolmens, a cairn, and one of those
puzzling structures like a miniature caher, 24 feet in diameter, enclos-
ing a small souterrain. Four other stone ‘‘ forts” lie along the ridge
inline. Turning eastward from Cahernaspekee,! we meet two more,
one enclosing a slab hut, and finally reach the objects of our search.
The first consists of three compartments, but the ‘‘eastern”’ is nearly
defaced. Its ‘‘southern’’ side lies N. N. E. and 8. 8. W.; the ‘‘ western”
room measures 8 feet x 6 feet, its entrance is flanked by pillars 5 feet
1 It is also in line with the great forts of Ballykinvarga and Doon. This linear
arrangement also occurs in Scotland (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scotland, 1890-9], p. 208).
Westroprp—Distribution of Cromlechs in Co. Clare. 545
high, the roof slabs have split and fallen, but when perfect the pillars
overtopped them by at least a foot. The central chamber is 5 feet
6 in. long by 6 feet, and has similar pillars to its northern door ; they
are 6 feet high, and rose 2 feet above the roof, forming a trilithon, of
which the lintel has fallen. There was an outer facing of slabs, the
spaces between these and the sides having been packed with small
stones and clay. (Plate X., fig. 1).
Eastward lies the fort Caheraneden with a ‘“‘fosleac”’ or slab
hut, whence a straight road, made by removing the top layers of
the crags, runs south to the second, a fallen cromlech, the north
and top slabs are each about 9 feet 8 by 6 feet 8. A third
stands inside a nameless caher with its west end embedded in
the rampart; it tapers from 7 feet at the west to 4 feet east, and
consists of three side slabs, the southern 13 feet 8 inches long; the
top has been broken into five fragments, probably by fire. A fourth
(very perfect) stands in the wreckage of a cairn. It is a small cist of
four stones, the east end being open. The south side lies W. N. W.
and E.S. E.; the N. and S. sides measure respectively 11 feet 5 inches.
and 12 feet 7 inches, while the top slab is 138 feet long and 7 feet 8
inches broad, it has two channels in its upper surface, probably
waterworn. A fifth, of exceptional size, crowns the hill (above
Ballyganner castle in its surrounding caher) and forms a very conspi-
cuous landmark, its top slab has numerous little basins a few inches
across, possibly like the ‘‘marmites du diable”’ in the dolmens of
Brittany, once used for offerings of butter, &c., to the spirits residing
in the cist, and the ‘“‘ elf mills’ described by Dr. Montelius as occur-
ring in the top slabs of Swedish cists. The south side measures
18 feet 6 inches long by 7 feet 8 inches; its north is 17 feet 4 inches
long; it tapers eastward from 9 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 2 inches, The
top slab when perfect must have measured 11 feet by 20 feet.
Approon! (sheet 18 in Moyree Commons).—A singular monument
of five stones, apparently a chamber, 6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, with
parallel sides, lying east and west. (Plate IX., fig. 4). Within it
two large blocks are set (the western askew), dividing it into two
cells, the north-west triangular, the eastern of a lozenge shape, about
6 feet by 3 feet. The northern ‘insertion’ is 9 feet 8 inches high,
1 Addroon, Corbehagh, Tyredagh, and Caherloghan cromlechs are not marked on
the six-inch Ordnance Survey. Mr. Borlase’s ‘‘ Dolmens of Ireland”’ contains a
view of Knockeen dolmen, county of Waterford (p. 61). Addroon, when perfect,
must have closely resembled this monument.
546 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.
the other only 3 feet; the sides are most unequal in height, being,
north, 6 feet 4 inches; south, 5 feet; and east 13 inches. A large
slab is so balanced on the south side that its inner end presses
upwards against the north “insertion.” _
CorpenacH (sheet 19), on the hills near Dromandoora. I notice
it to correct the very inaccurate sketch of a curious rock-carving near
it,! which appeared in our Proceedings. This is cut on a naturally-
polished surface of the native rock, and is a curious arrangement of
two frets, the lower ends curved, the upper forming spirals, the outer
edge cut straight into the rock, and the bands slightly rounded. A cross
and ‘‘I.H.S.” have been rudely cut below it
in recent years. South from this, on the native
rock near the brow of the hill, the outline of a
foot has been incised ; it points southward.
‘'he lower cromlech is very perfect; a cham-
ber 8 feet 2 inches wide, tapering eastward
from 6 feet 5 inches to 3 feet 3 inches; the
sides project 3 feet farther east, where they
are 1 foot 8 inches apart. It is formed of 7
blocks of purple conglomerate (2 each in the
sides and the west end, and one to the east),
and a top slab, sloping eastward, 11 feet long,
and from 8 feet 2 inches to 2 feet 2 inches
wide. These remains will be marked on the
new survey maps, as I called the attention of
Captain Sloggett, n.z., to their existence.
Crooner (sheet 34).—Two “‘ giant’s graves”
in the demesne of Mr. Hall. The eastern had
two, if not three rings greatly defaced, the
largest block being 12 feet 6 inches by 8 feet
by 2 feet. The western consists of an oblong enclosure (30 feet N.
and §., 11 feet E. and W.), its longer sides lying N.N.W. and E.S.E.,
and the angles cut off. It is formed by double rows of slabs, the
interspace packed with field stones; it stands on a low mound near a
stream. (Plate X., fig. 2.)
TyrepacH (sheet 27).—A ‘‘long cromlech” of five compartments.
Its north side lies N.N.E. and §.S.W. It tapers from 7 feet 6 inches
to 6 feet 6 inches in 20 feet. It lies in a little valley bounded on the
east by low cliffs. The western end overhangs a small stream; both
1 Proc. R.I.A., vol. x., p. 441.
Westropep—Distribution of Cromlechs in Co. Clare. 547
ends and the roof slabs have fallen. It was probably covered with
earth.! In Tyredagh demesne a large cromlech of the usual type stands
in the farmyard, a small earth ring in the garden, and a pillar stone
9 feet by 5 feet near the gate ; they are preserved by the Gore family.
CanErtocHan (sheet 34).—A group of three small ‘‘demi-dolmens”
near Moymore Bridge. Each consists of a slab, its east end supported
by another stone. The top slabs measure respectively 6 feet by 6 feet
8 inches by 12 inches, 7 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 2 inches by 18 inches,
and 2 feet 3 inches by 4 feet by 12 inches.? The side of another cist
is preserved in a modern wall. A fifth, consisting of a ruined cairn
and cist, stands in a grove of bushes west of the large ‘‘ demi
dolmen ’’; while the top slab of a large dolmen remains in the southern
fields of the townland. It has been set up on edge by the farmer who
removed the other stones.
Bastn Sronzs.—A few examples of these interesting objects occur
near prehistoric sepnlchres in the county of Clare. (1) Near Cappagh-
kennedy cromlech lies a small limestone slab, 18 inches by 12 inches,
in which appears five little cups, about 2 inches in diameter. Three are
complete, and ground smooth ; two have been commenced, and picked
with some pointed instrument. (2) Near the mound of Magh Adhair,
one already described in our Proceedings.? (Plate IX., fig. 3.) (3) A
revnd basin, 12 inches in diameter, in a block of yellow sandstone
lying in a grove in Kiltanon demesne, near the only remaining block
of a large cromlech, at which unbaptized children were buried till
about forty years ago. (Plate IX., fig. 2.) (4) A round basin (10
inches diameter) in the east end block of the cromlech in Newgrove
demesne. (Plate IX., fig. 1.)
List or ‘‘ CRomLecHs”’ In THE County oF CLARE.
(Arranged under baronies, and numbered as on Plate VIII.)
Burren.—Ballycahill, 5. Ballyganner North, 23, 24, 25. Bally-
ganner South, 26, 27. Ballymihil, 9. Ballyvaughan, 1. Berneens,
1 Since the date of this Paper, Mr. Borlase has published my plan of the
Tyredagh dolmen (‘‘ Dolmens of Ireland,’’ vol. i., pp. 87, 88). He has, I think,
made a slight error in concluding that the sides of the west ‘‘ giant’s grave,’’ at
Clooney, ‘‘ meet in a point ’’ to the north (p. 82). The north, like the south end,
was nearly straight and is in perfect preservation.
* In the Dindsenchas (“ Revue Celtique,’’ 1894, p. 286), mention is made of a
small grave of two stones, 3’ x 34’.
3 Proc. R.I.A., Series III., vol. iv., p. 56.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. z2@
548 ~~ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
6, 7, 8 (three in line: the first is possibly in the adjoining townland
of Ballyallaban). Cappaghkennedy, 17 (with basin stone). Carran,
29 (cist in a cairn near the church; funerals still go roundit). Coole-
amore, 3, 4. Craghballyconoal, 11, 12. Deerpark of Lemeneagh, 28.
Fanygalvan, 18,19, 20 (three in line). Faunaroosca, 2. Mohera-
moylan, 16. Noughaval, 21, 22. Poulaphuca, 10. Poulnabrone,
14, 15 (there is said to have been a second, but I am very doubtful).
Rannagh Kast, 13. Total, 28 or 29.
Corcomror.—Ballykinvarga, 3. Cahermaccrusheen, 1. Cahermi-
nane, 2 (the ‘‘ Kiltennan” or ‘‘ Ballykinvarga,” in the Burren list of
Mr. Borlase. Cloneen, 4 (near border of Ballyganner South). Total, 4.
Incuiquin.—Addroon, 17 (in Moyree Commons). Ballycasheen,
14 (a ‘long cromlech,” the ‘ Ballykissheen” of Hely Dutton’s list.
Commons North, 4, 5 (the ‘‘Cotteen’’ of Dutton). Dromore, 18
(others are said vaguely to exist in the thickets). Gortlecka (or Ash-
field), 15,16. Kmockalassa, 19 (a very regular cist on Mount Callan).
Leanna, 6, 7, 8 (probably the ‘‘ Reabachan” of Dutton, if he does not
mean Parknabinnia). Parknabinnia, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 (three not
marked on 1839 survey). Slevenaglasha, 3 (near Teeskagh, probably
“ Tullyglashin” of Dutton). Tullycommane, 1, 2. Total, 18 or 19.
Istanps.—Carnelly, 1 (a very doubtful example ; it has undergone
a rebuilding).
CronpERLAW.—Killtumper, or Tumpevr’s grave, 1.
Bunrarty Uprrer.—Ballyhickey (at Hazelwood), 9. Ballyma-
cloon, 18. Ballymaconna (at Kilraghtis), 3. Ballyogan, 4. Cahera-
phueca, 1. Caherloghan, 12 to 17 (a group of four small semi-dolmens,
included in Moymore in my former list, followed by Mr. Borlase, is in
this townland). Clooney, 10 &11. Dooneen, 7 (same type as No. 10).
Kilvoydan, 2. Knappogue, 19. Moananoe, 8. Rylane, 5, 6 (5 is a
“long cromlech’’). Total, 19.
Bunratty Lowrr.—Ballinphunta (at Croaghane Church), 5.
Ballysheenbeg, 4. Brickhill, 6. Dromullan, 2 (two remain). Kil-
cornan, 1 (has a large incised cross on top slab). Knockalappa, 3.
Total, 7.
Turra Uprrrr.—Altoir Ultach, 19. Cappabaun, 28. Corbehagh
or Dromandoora, 21, 22 (mear rock markings). Corracloon, 20.
Kiltanon, 12 (with basin stone). Maryfort, or Lismehane, 17. Mil-
town, or Ballymullen, 4 to 11 (five destroyed between 1840 and 1892).
Moymore, 13 to 16. Newgrove or Ballyslattery, 3 (with basin stone).
Roslara, 18. Tyredagh Upper, 1 (long cromlech). Tyredagh Lower, 2,
Tobergrania, near Altoirultach (now a holy well). Total, 23.
Wesrroprp—Distribution of Cromlechs in Co. Clare. 549
Turia Lowrr.—Ardnataggle, 13 (‘‘long cromlech”’). Ardskeagh, 5.
Ballykelly (above Kilseily church), 10. Bealkelly Purdon, 2. Clog-
hoolia, 11. Cloonyconrymore, 6, 7 (6 is a ‘‘long cromlech’”’).
Drummin, 4. Elmhill, 1. Formoylemore, 8. Kuillokennedy, 3.
Knockshanvo (or Knockaphunta), 9. Lackareaghmore, 12. Total, 13.
A large ‘‘table stone’ is said to exist near the river in the fields
south of O’Callaghan’s mills.
Nore ADDED IN PREss.
Mr. W. Borlase, in ‘‘ Dolmens of Ireland,” vol. 1., pp. 65-102,
gives illustrations and plans of the following in the county of Clare :—
Burren.—Berneens, Ballyganner South, Ballykinvarga (Caher-
minane), Deerpark Cappaghkennedy.
Corcomror.—Cloneen.
Iycuieuin.—Tullycommane, Slievenaglasha, Leana (two), Com-
mons North, Parknabinnia, Ballycasheen, Knockalassa.
Bunratty Upprr.—Caheraphuca, Caherloghan, Rylane (two),
Knopogue.
Bunratry Lowrr.—Ballinphunta.
Turia Uprer.—Tyredagh Upper and Lower, Newgrove, Miltown,
Moymore (three recte Caherloghan, on whose border they lie),
Rosslara, Maryfort, Dromandoora.
Turta Lowrr.—Ballykelly, Formoylemore, Cloonyconrymore.
Mr. Borlase, in his list of dolmens, records for—
BurRREN, . : s 23 | Bunrarry Lower : 7
CorcoMROE, : : 2 | Turia Upper, ‘ ‘ 21
IncHIQUIN, j : U », LOWER, . ; 12
Bunratty Upper, ; 13 | CronDERLAW, 3 ; 1
2Q2
[ 550 ]
UE
DISCOVERY OF HUMAN AND OTHER REMAINS, WITH
MATERIALS SIMILAR TO THOSE OF A CRANNOGE,
HIGH ABOVE THE PRESENT VALLEY OF THE
BLACKWATER BETWEEN LISMORE CASTLE AND
CATHEDRAL. By R. J. USSHER.
[COMMUNICATED BY E. P. WRIGHT, M.D. |
[Read Aprit 26, 1897.]
Iy the autumn of 1891, for the purpose of draining the town of
Lismore, a deep trench was cut along the road leading from the court-
house to the bridge. My examination of this cutting resulted in the
following notes, made at the time, with slight modifications :—In the
cutting is a layer of peat which extends north and south of the turn-
stiles leading to the cathedral.
In this and in the adjoining rubble I saw several oak piles, taper-
ing to a long point, driven at intervals of several feet.
I also picked up among the rubbish thrown out of the trench, as
well as out of the matrix of peat 7m sctu, many bones of ox, pig, goat
or sheep, as well as of red deer. Of the latter I found portions of
skulls and antlers, and saw portions of antlers and tines of antlers cut
off with a saw with one clean cut.
I picked up among the débris thrown out of the trench a bone
object which I believe to have been used as a marrow scoop, similar
to those I have often found in raths. One of the tines of the red
deer in the possession of Mr. L. M. Fitzgerald had the surface worn
smooth.
November 6th, 1891.—At a depth of 3 feet 6 inches in the cutting
a little way to the south of the wicket-gate and turnstiles two human
skeletons were discovered, of which I obtained the crania and
several other portions of the skeletons. I took out of the matrix in
the trench a humerus, os innominatum and femur. The skeletons lay
together without any cist of stones or wood, in dark earth beneath a
layer of peat or rushes, timber, and stones mixed with peat. I pre-
served a mass of material like rushes or other stems, and a slab of
Ussuer—Human and other Remains, Lismore. ool
timber that I took out from over the skeletons. The stakes that had
been driven into the peaty stratum were imbedded vertically in it.
From the surface of the road, earth with stones extended toa
depth of two feet. The peaty stratum and dark earth containing the
skeletons extended eighteen inches deeper, tc the bottom of the trench
at least.
Near the wickets a great assemblage of bones of oxen had been dug
out. These consisted largely of lower jaws and the long bones. I
selected a forehead and horns of the ancient flat type, also broken
erania of horse, pig, and goat, and a portion of a skull bearing on it
the bos of the antler of a red deer. I was given a tine of an antler of
the latter by one of the workmen.
These are the species of animals whose remains commonly occur
near all raths and crannoges in Ireland, in all at least that I have
examined in the counties of Waterford and Cork.
There were some large pieces of oak (?) timber in the cutting. I
heard of a piece of metal found in the cutting, but thrown away.
Mr. Stokes, the contractor who executed the works, said that oyster-
shells had been found in it.
Near the entrance of the Castle avenue I saw a quantity of the
burned stones and black earth, that indicate an ancient cooking place,
thrown out of the trench.
Near this some human remains that I did not see had been found
at no great depth.
We have in this find the usual indications of an Irish camp or
settlement ; but if the layer of rushes and peat, with pointed oak
piles driven in vertically, are to be taken as remains of a crannoge,
great changes must have taken pluce in the configuration of the
district: a crannoge could only have existed in a lake basin, but at
the present day the ground slopes down rapidly from the site of the
discovery to the deep Blackwater valley some sixty feet below. Con-
sequently if a lake had formerly existed (as the peat indicates) the
present river-valley could not have been excavated, and must have
been a thing of subsequent formation from natural causes.
It would be well to have the spot examined in detail by a qualified
geologist.
Loe
XVIII.
ON SOME HUMAN REMAINS RECENTLY DISCOVERED
NEAR LISMORE. By D. J. CUNNINGHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,
anp C. R. BROWNE, M.D.
[Read Aprit 26, 1897.]
THE remains described in this Paper were, some time ago, dug up
during the progress of some drainage works at Lismore, in what
appeared to have been a crannoge, and were forwarded to the Anthro-
pological Laboratory, Trinity College, by the discoverer, Mr. R. J.
Ussher, who has described the nature of the sepulture and the cir-
cumstances of the find in the previous Paper. The bones which
are of a reddish-brown colour from the nature of the soil in which
they have lain, and brittle from loss of animal matter, present many
points of interest. They appear to have belonged to two indi-
viduals; one a female of small stature and about middle age, the other
a young man somewhat above the middle height and of considerable
muscular development.
The remains submitted to us for examination consist of a cranium,
a mutilated calvarium, an inferior maxilla, right scapula and humerus,
two radii, two ulne, a complete pelvis, a much mutilated os innomi-
natum, three lumbar vertebra, and two left femora.
The bones belonging to each subject are as follows:—No. 1 (the
female). Cranium, right scapula, right humerus, part of the left
os innominatum, the left femur. No. 2. Part of the cranial vault,
consisting of os frontis, and both parietals with a small epactal, the
mandible, bones of both forearms, the pelvis (the sacrum a good deal
broken), the left femur and the first three lumber vertebre.
No. 1. Cranium.—This is well shapen and of a high type, and
evidently that of a female of middle age. It is moderately brachy-
cephalic (index 80-8), and of small size, its cubic capacity being only
1295 cubic centimetres. The forehead is broad and upright, the
frontal eminences fairly well marked, and the vertex flattened. The
glabella and superciliary ridges are well developed for a female, and
the mastoid processes are small. The sutures are complex (No. 4
Broca), but to a large extent obliterated, the spheno-parietal sutures
CunnincHam & Browne—Human Remains, Lismore. 553
being entirely closed, and the sagittal obliterated from the lambda
to the obelion.
The face is broad, with oblong megaseme orbits set somewhat far
apart; the nose is platyrhine. All the teeth were present at time of
death, with the exception of the second molar on the right side, which
had been gone for some time, as the socket was absorbed. They are
sound, but very much worn on the crowns, as is usually the case in the
teeth of ancient Irish crania. This attrition may be attributed to the
tough and gritty nature of the food.
The cranium is in good condition, though brittle, and has only one
mutilation, a triangular depressed fracture, 40 mm. long by 29 mm.
wide at the base above, and somewhat encroaching on the upper border
of the right orbit. This fracture appears to have been caused by some
injury inflicted in the course of excavation.
When examined, the cranium was found to contain a globular
pellet, 5 or 6 centimetres in diameter, which proved to be portion of
the cerebellum, covered by a thick coating of a black, oily-looking
earth, which was with difficulty removed from the cheese-like brain
substance.
It was found necessary to divide this pellet into four parts in
order to allow of its removal from the cranial cavity through the
foramen magnum; and, on examination of the cut surfaces, it was
evident that the portion of brain preserved was part of the cerebellum.
The folia and fissures were easily distinguishable. The four parts of
the pellet were hardened in alcohol, embedded in celloidin, and cut.
They cut with extreme ease, and sections of almost any degree of
thinness could be obtained, but the result was in a measure unsatis-
factory. The fissures and folia could still be made out in the sections,
but not so clearly as in the mass. By no method of staining could
any details of minute structure be detected. The constituent parts were
broken up into an indistinguishable mass.
Scapula.—This bone is very light and fragile: the coracoid process
has been broken off: the supra-scapular notch is large. The measure-
ments and indices are :—
Length, . ‘ ‘ : 3 : , 152 mm.
Breadth, ‘ : : ' F F Sie
Breadth index, ‘ ; : ; : 63°8 ,,
Infra-spinous length, : ; : : 1109.55,
5 index, ; ; : : stele) 5:
The humerus is rather slender, and has slight muscular markings.
It is not perforated. Its length is 317 mm.
004 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Os innominatum.—The left os innominatum, sole remnant of the
pelvis of this skeleton, is so extensively broken that there is not enough
of it left to give definite points for measurement.
Femur.—The left femur measures 428mm. in length, and is
remarkable for the prismatic shape of its shaft, which is so marked as
to justify this specimen being classed as an example of pilaster femur.
The neck of the bone is set at nearly a right angle to the shaft.
Conclusions.—Judging from the shapes and markings of the
cranium and other bones, this subject would seem to have been a
female of from 45 to 50 years of age. In the absence of both segments
of either the uppor or lower limb, the stature had to be calculated
from the lengths of the femur and of the humerus. Taking the length
of the femur to be 27:4 per cent. of the stature, as given in
M. Topinard’s Tables, the stature would be 1:562m., or about
5ft.14imn. If the stature is calculated from the length of the
humerus, nearly the same result is obtained, viz. 1°575 m., or
5 ft. 2 in.
No. 2. Cranium.—There is not enough of the brain-case of this
subject left to afford the actual cranial indices; but judging from
what remains the cranium would seem to have been brachycephalic,
like that of No. 1, but probably to a greater extent. The bones of
this specimen are very thin and light, and the sutures, which are very
complicated, indicate by their entire freedom from any trace of oblite-
ration that the cranium was that of a young person.
Mandible.—This is noticeable for its great inter-condyloid width
as compared with its length. It was fractured across a little to the
left of the symphysis in the process of exhumation. The teeth are
rather worn on the crowns, with the exception of the third molar on
each side. These were both intact, and well developed, and had not
been long erupted, as they bear no marks of wear.
Bones of the forearms.—The bones of the forearms differ very
slightly from each other in size and characters. Both forearms are
pretty long, with fairly strong muscular markings and epiphyseal
lines not fully joined. adiz.—The right radius measures 263 mm.
in its greatest length, or 250 mm. between its articular surfaces; the
left 261 mm. in its maximum length, or 249 mm. from articular sur-
face to articular surface. Ulne.—The same slight difference existed
between the ulnx; the right measuring 284 mm. in length, or 280
between articular surfaces; the left 282 mm., and 278 mm. between
the same points. It is a matter for regret that a humerus of this
CunnincHam & BrownE—Human Remains, Lismore. 555
skeleton was not found along with the bones of the forearm, as from
these the radio-humeral index could have been obtained.
The pelvis is almost entire, though very light and brittle, the
only injury it has sustained being the loss of the lower part of the
sacrum. The ilia are non-translucent, and but slightly expanded.
The Y-shaped junction of the three primary portions is quite visible
in both ossa innominata (especially in the left where it is very
evident), and the epiphyses are marked off by clear boundary lines
from the rest of the bones. The junctions of the parts of the sacrum
are not fully closed.
The measurements of this pelvis, when set up, are—
m.m.
ae ae Breadth index, 76:7.
Breadth at anterior superior spines, 247
. posterior _,, *3 (both spines broken).
> ischial tuberosities, . 138
Cotyloid height, : : > 68
», breadth, ; : oN
Caan nee ; Obturator index, 63-5.
ane diameter of cavity, . 138 Peliopniieea7s-o!
onjugate his a . 106
Right oblique diameter, . 5 US
Left oblique HF : 5 | Me
Internar intertuberal, : eon
Depth of symphysis, i os od!
A pelvic cavity, F 5 OS
The above given measurements were all taken by Sir William
Turner’s method. The pelvis, from its shape and dimensions, appears
to be that of a young male somewhat above the middle stature.
Lumbar vertebre.—Only three vertebre—the first, second, and
third lumbar—were received, but these fortunately were in good con-
dition. They belonged to a young person, as is shown by the non-
obliteration of the epiphyseal lines. The measurements of these
bones are—
1st lumbar vertebra :-—
Anterior height, . : : . . 26mm.
Posterior ,, : : : oy el ve.
Vertebral index, . : : : 5 ililee?
556 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
2nd lumbar :—
Anterior height, . : : : . 29 mm.
Posterior ,, , é 3 : 0, oles
Vertebral index, . : : : . 106:0
3rd lumbar :—
Anterior height, . : ‘ , 2/129 mime
Posterior ,, F : : : ONT One
Vertebral index, . : ‘ : - 93°1
The composed vertebral index obtained from these three vertebrae
is therefore 106°1.
The relation which these figures bear to those of the average
European, and especially to the modern Irish spine, is a very close
one, as may be seen from the following figures. (Vide No. 2 of the
Royal Irish Academy ‘‘ Cunningham Memocirs.’’)
Average index of the first three lumbar vertebre :—
43 Irish males, . : : . 102°2 (maximum 114)
22 Irish females, . ; ; =. OS25
76 ‘* Europeans,” . , F s 10125
17 Australians, . : : . 110°6
11 Negros, . é . ; oe 110:2
The sudden fall of the vertebral index of the third lumbar vertebra,
as compared with the first and second, is fairly common in Europeans,
but has not been observed in Australian or Tasmanian spines. It was
noted once in ten Negro males, and three times in nine Andaman females.
Femur.—The femur is large and strong; its shaft is prismatic on
cross-section, the linea aspera being so developed as to constitute the
condition known as ‘‘ pilaster femur.” A trochanter tertius is pre-
sent, and the insertion of the glutens maximus is marked by a deep,
roughened impression. The neck of the bone is set very obliquely to
the shaft. The length of the bone is 477 mm.
Conclusions.—The bones of this subject are those of a powerfully
built young man, of between twenty and thirty years of age, and of
a stature, as calculated from the length of the femur and of the bones
of the forearms, of about 1778 mm., or 5 feet 10 inches.
The skeletons have many characters in common; the crania are
in both cases brachycephalic and of the same type, and both femora
belong to the class of pilaster femur.
The points telling most in favour of the antiquity of the speci-
mens, besides the nature of the sepulture and surroundings in which
they were found and the friability of the bones, are the two femora,
CunnincHAM & BrowNnE—Human Remains, Lismore. 557
being of the pilaster type so rare in modern specimens, and the
grinding away of the crowns of the teeth, a character commonly
found in ancient Irish teeth.
The preservation of the brain-matter be the action of peat is not
unprecedented, as there are several instances on record in which brain-
matter has been so preserved in crania.
Measurements of Cranium.
Sex, : : : : Be 8
Age, : : j . Adult.
Glabello-occipital fener : eo Ae e Uae
Ophryo-occipital length, . : : . 175
Maximum breadth, . 5 : : . 148
Minimum frontal breadth, . : : eo
Bi-stephanic breadth, . : ; : . 118
Bi-asteric breadth, : : ‘ : 5 UG
Basio-bregmatic height, : ; : 7129
Frontal longitudinal are, . 5 : = NIG
Parietal longitudinal are, . ; : aeelt20)
Occipital longitudinal are, . 6 : 5 Lie
Nasio-opisthial are, . F : 4 ooo
Foramen magnum length, . : : oe
Basio-nasial length, . : : : s OY
Total sagittal circumference : : . 485
Auriculo-nasial radius, ; ’ : 5 Ol
Auriculo-bregmatic radius, . ; ‘ s ING
Auriculo-bregmatic arc, ; : é . 805
Horizontal circumference, . : 3 s HOY
Cubic capacity, ; : : : eel295
Facial.
Nasio-alveolar length, : : : ee o2
Bi-zygomatic breadth, : . ’ i L26
Bi-dacryc breadth, . ; : : oe 24
Basio-alveolar length, : : é , 8
Auriculo-alveolar length, . 5 : x 28
Bi-malar breadth, : : ‘ , » ads
Nasal length, . : : ‘ : . 48
Nasal breadth, . ; 5 j : S28
Orbital breadth, . : ; : : . 40
Orbital height, : : : ul
Palato- aiagellen lence : : : So wees’
Palato-maxillary ranch, : : : nog
558 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Indices.
Cephalic, : : - . ; seas0'S
Altitudinal, : : : ; ; swab 2e9
Auriculo-vertical, : . , ; . | Gass
Fronto-zygomatic, d : : ; eSorm
Gnathic, “ ; : : ; : © 95
Auriculo-gnathic, - : ; : . 104°3
Upper facial, : : : ; - 49:2
Nasal, : : ; ‘ : : . 98°3
Orbital, . : : : : ; ies
Palatal, : : ; : : : The)
[ 559 ]
XIX.
REPORT ON A PREHISTORIC BURIAL NEAR NEWCASTLE,
COUNTY OF WICKLOW. By GEO. COFFEY, C. BROWNE,
M.D., anv T. J. WESTROPP, M.A.
[Read Junz 14, 1897.]
Mr. R. J. Moss having kindly reported to the Secretary of the Royal
Trish Academy on the 24th May, 1897, that a chamber containing human
remains had been discovered near Newcastle, in the county of Wicklow,
we at his request visited the locality on the day following. The re-
HrGeele
mains were found on the farm of Mr. S. J. Sutton in the southern
townland of Blackditch, parish of Killiskey, about a mile and a
quarter south-east of the village of Newcastle. (Ordnance Map, Sheet
19.) The circumstances of the discovery were as follows :— While
breaking up a grass-field the plough struck against what was thought
560 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
to be a rock, about six inches below the surface of the field. On
clearing the stone it proved to be a large granite block forming
the cap-stone of a cist, the stones of which are of unusually large
dimensions (see fig. 1).
The structure is formed of four blocks of schist, the interior measur-
ing 5 feet long, the north stone being 7in. longer. The cist was 2 feet
4 inches wide, except at the west end where the irregularity of the
south block made a narrow recess 8 inches wider. Its height is on
the average 2 feet high, and its floor was paved with small flagstones
which had been removed before our visit. The covering stone isa
block of even-grained granite of irregular shape rising into a roof-like
ridge lying almost due east and west, while the axis of the chamber
lies E.S.E. and W.N.W. The east end has been removed; it varied
in width from 1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet 4 inches, and was (like the
uncovered ends of the sides) 7 inches or 8 inches thick and 2 feet
high (fig. 2).
ae
z ~ oe
Pe . wot
——— ~ wr
e
S\
oe eee as
2 ee a) Te
my eee SS
12” be) 1 2 3 4 FEET
Fic. 2.
Before we visited the site, Mr. Sutton had caused the excavations to
be filled in, having first collected the bones of the skeleton in a sack,
which he placed in the chamber. He kindly reopened it for our
inspection. A very intelligent labourer, who had taken part in the
original excavation of the chamber, described to us the position of the
body whenfound. We have no reason to doubt but that his description
is substantially correct. The body he states lay on its right side,
with the head to the west, the legs contracted, the feet being in the
north-east corner. No certain information could be obtained as to the
position of the hands, except that they were away from the head, and
Corrry, Brown, & Wesrropp—Prehistoric Burial, Wicklow. 561
some distance apart from each other. The head is stated to have lain
partly on its back.
The grave was not carefully searched when opened. Subsequently
some boys entered the chamber, and are said to have found an urn.
The urn was unfortunately broken in pieces, either through careless
handling or intentionally, and the fragments dispersed. Two pieces
were recovered by Mr. Sutton and shown to us. They are of th
usual ‘‘food vessel” type so frequently associated with this class of
interment.
The skeleton is said to have been entire at the time of its dis-
covery, but the skull and most of the long bones were much damaged
and broken, and the spongy bones were reduced to powder by rough
handling before we arrived. All the bones are very fragile and brittle
from loss of animal matter and very much weathered, those of the
right side, on which the body is said have lain, much more so than
those of the left; in fact from damp they are much reduced in size.
The bones recovered and kindly given us by Mr. Sutton were, the
calvarium, much broken (the skull had been entire at the time of the
find, but had suffered from rough handling), the inferior maxilla,
fractured across a little to the right of the symphysis. Both clavicles,
upper third and head of right humerus, lower two-thirds of left
humerus, both ulnae (the right greatly weathered), the left radius,
lower part of right radius, two cervical and two lumbar vertebrae,
part of right acetabulum, right femur, upper two-thirds of left femur,
head and upper half of teft tibiae, lower ends of both tibiae, left os
calcis and astragalus.
The calvarium was in fragments at the time it came into our
hands, but has been set up for measurement; it is much weathered
and broken, most of the base and the right temporal bone being gone.
It is of considerable size, and well shapen. Viewed in norma verticalis
it is a broad oval in outline; in norma lateralis the forehead is seen to
be upright. The glabella and superciliary ridges are of fair size, the
mastoid process is large and laterally bulged, as noticed in the crania
found in the tumulus at Old Connaught, Bray, in 1893.
The sutures are fairly complex and contain two ossa wormiana, in
the lambdoid suture, one just at the lambda and the other just above
the right asterion. The metopic suture is open. The sagittal suture
is obliterated for about 50 mm. at the obelion. Though the right
temporal bone is missing, yet as the maximum breadth is evidently
parietal the cephalic index is obtainable, the skull was mesaticephalic
with an index of 79°4.
562 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The characters of this calvarium indicate that it belonged to a
male of about 40 years of age.
The inferior maxilla is fractured across to the Sun of the sym-
physis, the right side is much weathered and reduced in size by the
damp. All the teeth were present at the time of death, the sockets
being unabsorbed, but only three remain im situ; these are much
worn away on the crowns, as is usually the case with the teeth in
ancient Irish crania. The mental process is very well marked.
But little can be said with respect to the other bones; they possess
no special characters and are much weathered, but are stout and
evidently belonged to a man above the middle height. The left
humerus is not perforated. The left ulna and radius are entire; the
ulna measures 286 mm. in extreme length, 255 mm. between articular
surfaces ; the left radius measures 273 mm.
The femora have the head set into the shaft at a very obtuse
angle; they are much weathered and the left is broken. The right
femur measures 498 mm.
The upper part of the shaft of the left tibia is very narrow and
flattened from before and backwards, but the specimen is so weathered
that it is difficult to say whethor this is due to decay or to the presence
of the condition known as platychnemia.
The bones seem to be those of a man of about 40 years of age and
of above the middle stature, the height as calculated from the femur
(taken as 27'4m. of the stature) being 1817 mm. or 5 feet 113
inches.
Cranial Measurements.
Glabello-occipital length, JSS
Ophryo-occipital length, ; LUBA
Maximum breadth, : : . 150
Bi-stephanic width, : : , Ga
Bi-asteric width, . : , me LG
Frontal longitudinal arc, : . 142
Parietal longitudinal are, ; ae 5:
Occipital i are, : Bey Bs
Nasio-opisthial are, y f . 9388
Spheno-parietal suture, . ’ , eL
Cephalic Index, . ; . . 79°4
[ 863 J
XX.
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CALP SHALE OF THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD OF DUBLIN. By PROFESSOR J. P.
O'REILLY, C.E., Royal College of Science, Dublin.
(Prate XI.)
[Read Aprit 12, 1897.]
Tue beds of the Carboniferous formation which show themselves in
the many quarries which have from time to time been opened up and
worked in the vicinity of Dublin, are marked by the Geological
Survey as belonging to the meddle or *‘ Calp Limestone” series. This term
or designation is found for the first time in Kirwan’s ‘“‘ Mineralogy,”
2nd edition, vol. i. (1794), wherein at p. 233, under the heading of
‘« Basalts,”” he mentions ‘‘ Calp”’ or black quarry stone of Dublin: and
having given some of the characteristics such as the density = 2°646 to
2-7, and its fusibility at 130° of the pyrometer of Wedgewood, he
states that:—‘‘ It seems to be the calcareous trap of Lasius Hartz,
170; at least this agrees with its colour, sp. gr., and in containing
calcareous matter.”” The next mention that is found of the term is in
‘¢ Griffith’s Report on the Leinster Coal Fields.” In the Introduction
(p. iv), he says:—‘‘ Slate clay, either black, grey, or reddish grey, is
another supposed indication of Coal and is certainly common in all
coal countries, but not peculiar to them. This rock is frequently
found alternating with Limestone and particularly with that species
called ‘Calp’ which occurs in the neighbourhood of Dublin.”
He also adds at p. viii of Introduction :—“‘ Slate clay is some-
times so compact that it resembles jasper. In the Kilkenny coal dis-
trict, instances frequently occur of its passing, by insensible gradations,
from soft clay slate into a siliceous slate rock resembling Lydian
stone. This gradation is frequently visible in this district, near the
junction of the limestone with the rocks of the Coal formation.”
In Jukes’ ‘‘ Manual of Geology,” 1857, p. 446, when describing the
Carboniferous formation in ‘ Clare, Limerick, Tipperary, Kilkenny,”
R.I.A. PROC. SER. III. VOL. Iv. 2B
564 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
&c., he assigns to the ‘‘Calp”’ or middle limestone a thickness of 1400 to:
1000 feet, and says of it :—‘‘ The ‘Calp’ consists of black limestones,
sometimes very earthy, interstratified with black shales, so that they
become in some places more important than the limestones. The
limestones of this group are usually unfit for burning into lime. Chert
beds and nodules are very abundant in the ‘Calp.’”’
In the second edition of this work (Jukes’ and Geikie’s ‘‘ Manual of
Geology,” 1872), it is stated, at p. 589 :—‘‘ The Carboniferous lime-
stone of the south of Ireland is perhaps one of the largest aggregates
of beds of limestone to be seen anywhere in the world. In some
places it contains beds of black shale, and becomes earthy in its middle
portion, and sometimes the whole of it, except the lower part, puts on
this shaly and earthy character. This middle earthy and shaly
part has been called ‘Calp’ from a local term signifying ‘ black shale.’
Black chert is often developed in the limestone, rows of nodules and
seams of it appearing in great abundance, sometimes in one part and
sometimes in another.”
It is stated at p. 595:—‘*The great Carboniferous limestone
series of Ireland contains evidence that here and there, at various
intervals during its formation, minor volcanic vents were active in
different parts of the sea bottom. In the county Limerick masses of
trap 1200 to 1300 feet thick, with well marked ashy interlacings lie
amongst the limestones.”
In the Explanation to Sheets 102 and 112 of the Geological Survey
(1878), p. 7, it is stated :—‘* Hitherto these black shales and the beds
between them and those assigned to the lower limestone have been
mapped and spoken of as ‘Calp’ both by Sir Richard Griffith and in the
Index Map of the county of Dublin published by the Geological Survey
in 1851. ‘Calp’ seems to be a local provincial term for ‘ black earthy
stone’ or shale, and in that lithological sense it is perfectly applicable
to all these upper beds, so much so, that it is impossible to separate
the dark earthy limestones which overlie the lower limestone into
two groups of beds, differing either in lithological or paleontological
characters.”’
Page 25. In all the Dublin district, however, the beds are sup-
posed to belong to the upper dark ‘‘Calp” division of the limestone
series, including some more purely calcareous and fossiliferous beds
stretching east and west near Crumlin. ;
It will thus be seen that the term ‘‘Calp ” originally applied by
Kirwan to a rock which he classed with the traps, has subsequently
been applied to the black shales which so largely constitute the middle
O’Rritty— On the Constitution of Calp Shale. 565
part of the Carboniferous limestone in Ireland. It is not, however,
clearly explained in what particular locality or province the term
‘Calp” originated, or was applied, to these particular rocks; nor can
it at present be stated to what language the word properly belongs,
and what is its true and proper signification.
Tt is remarkable that Kirwan should have taken into consideration
the colour of the shale as it usually presents itself either in the quarry
or in buildings as a stone. This character struck me, since having
observed that there is nearly always present iron pyrites in minute
crystals, I remarked the continuous decay and exfoliation of the
stones where exposed to the atmosphere, though without any appear-
ance of oxydation so far as the iron is concerned. I was consequently
led to examine more attentively the constitution of the shale, and
taking at haphazard the first specimen that came to my hand, I treated
it with HCl with a view to determining the nature of the insoluble
residue. This I found to be abundant, flocculent, and of a dark brownish
colour. The density of this part was low and not immediately ex-
plainable as characterising a purely sedimentary rock. Having con-
tinued to separate this insoluble portion of the shale, I had enough to
enable me to have a complete analysis made of it by Mr. Wm. L.
Warren, F.c.s., and obtained from him the following as his Report
Percentage.
SiO gee, aisee Se, fo ee ei AIG DSO
Fe.0s, . : : ; d : ‘ 4:87
iHeO.) 4 A - : ‘ 5 0:06
AOS: ; : E : : . 15:05
CaOs ay. ‘ : : ; ‘ r 9:95
MeO : : , ‘ ‘ ‘ 3°25
MnO : ‘ : : : : 0-12
CuOl : : , ; : : trace
Na,O> = : : : : : i 3°01
KO 5 : : : - : 0-40
8, : ; . : : : : 1:06
Chemically combined moisture, . ; 0°36
100:14
It is evident that in this analysis the sulphur is to be counted as
iron pyrites, while some of the lime may be accounted for by the incom-
plete removal of that constituent of the rock by the action of the HCl.
2R2
566 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Allowing for these it will be observed that the composition corresponds
roughly with that of a ‘‘ pumice” or obsidian. In order to determine
how far this estimate might be correct, two specimens of calp were
taken from Finglas quarry; the one a relatively pure limestone (No.
74), the other a calp shale (No. 75). Both were pulverized and
treated with HCl until the lime was removed as far as possible. The
residues were then submitted to Mr. Warren who sent in the following
Reports of the analyses :—
(No. 74). (No. 75).
Percentage. Percentage.
si0., . : - 78°66, ; : 75°02
Ht Pog ee hh ines Bh WON, SY Dy
Fe,0s, . : . a : ; _
BEG | Oe ae ent) Os 4-19
MnO, . : - — - : trace
Cath, Saar? er: are’ Sree 1°14
Meier Ogg. NE 1:72
Nea 0°32, sayin 1:01
K,0; . d : trace, E : 0°26
P.0;, - : : trace, = 4 —_
, : : - 3°21, ‘ : 4:02
ee OA. 3 oe 0°11
organic matter,
100°29 100°04
Nos. 74, 75.—“ Received in the form of a black, ground powder,
containing small quantities of pyrites, which have been calculated,
as shown in the above analyses.”
‘* Both samples were carefully examined for rare metals of the I.,
II., I1I. and 1V. groups, but only the very minutest trace of TiO,
was found in No. 75.”
Parts of these same residues were treated with nitric acid in order
to completely remove the pyrites present, which owing to the fineness
of its state of division could not be perfectly separated by panning.
The densities of these final residues thus freed from pyrites were
found to be :—
No. 74 (calp limestone residue) D = 27124.
No. 75 (calp shale residue) D = 2:074.
These densities are characteristic of pumices, while the composi-
O’Ruttity— On the Constitution of Calp Shale. 567
tions above given correspond fairly with the analyses of well-determined
pumices, as shown in the following analyses :—
Pumice from Lipari, Obsidian from Telkibanya,
Klaproth. by Erdmann.
(Gregg and Letsom.) (Gregg and Letsom.)
Percentage. Percentage.
SOc ae : - 77°50, j : 74:80
AE Om . : 17°50, : : 12°40
Fe,0s, . : ; 1°75, 5 . 2:03
FeO, . i : — : ; —
MnO, . 2 ; —_ : ? 1:31
C20. ae ; : — ; . 1:96
MgO, . : : — : 5 0:90
Na,O, . . ; — ; : —
ike Omer ‘ : — 4 B 6°40
1EHO . : — : : —
8, : : . — é : —
Moisture and 3-00, sy
organic matter,
99°75 99°80
Taking the compositions as determined and above mentioned, in
connexion with the low densities found, and also with the hardness of
the residues which scratched glass after the manner of pumice, it
may be allowed that the sum of these characters is sufficient to de-
termine these calp residues as being pumices in part.
In order to substantiate this view thin sections of the rocks were
made and examined.
Taking the Finglas calp as an example (see Pl. XI., fig. 1), this
under a power of 40 and by ordinary transmitted light showed a light
brownish or sepia-coloured ground mass, or matrix, finely granular
in places, and presenting porphyritically dispersed therein granules
and fragments of what appeared to be fragments of shells or spicules ;
with these occur iron pyrites replacing more or less completely the
matter of the fragments of shells or spicules. Under polarized light
and crossed nicols the fragments showed the presence of lime car-
bonate, sometimes recognizable by its cleavages.
In most cases the alteration of the fossils had reached the point of
the complete replacement of the original body, so that the organic
structure is either completely obliterated or very imperfectly shown.
Under a power of 80, some of these forms are, however, recognizable,
568 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
and in the case of the foraminiferous structure shown in the drawing
it might be a portion of a radiolarian (see Pl. XI., fig. 2). As, how-
ever, the characters shown by the thin section under polarized light
did not satisfactorily show what might be the nature of the brown
granular matrix, a section was prepared and submitted to the action
of dilute hydrochloric acid. The carbonates of iron and lime were
thus removed, and there remained unacted upon a brown, largely re-
ticulated, residual part, which under crossed nicols behaved as an
isotropical body, while here and there chips or small flakes of double
refracting colourless minerals showed themselves, some with the weak
refrangibility of the microlites characteristic of most natural glasses,
and some large and more markedly refracting presented the characters
of a sanadine or nepheline. This brown residue appeared to be quite
black by transmitted light, but by ordinary diffused light showed a
brown colour and a granular structure, presenting the appearance,
as a whole, of a dark brown soft sugar. From this test the inference
is drawn that the brown matter in question is mainly composed of
particles of pumice enclosing fragments of spicules, radiolarians, and
other such marine forms.
Considering the frequence of the volcanic outbursts during
the Carboniferous period, and the proved existence already referred
to of eruptive rocks in the formation, it would be quite in con-
formity therewith to find proofs of the ejection of pumice as a
part of the volcanic activity of the period. And presuming that
the shale beds represent deep-sea deposits formed relatively far from
land, it might be expected that they would show the presence of
pumice when carefully examined. This association of pumice with
deep-sea deposits is one of the facts markedly brought out by the
soundings of the ‘‘ Challenger’ expedition. As to the presence of
the fossil remains with the pumice that is easily accounted for, if con-
sideration be taken of the fact that pumice not only floats at the
surface of water, but that as a result of a volcanic eruption immense
extents of ocean surface may be covered with a thick bed of it. One
of the many notable instances of this came under my notice imme-
diately after the eruption of Krakatoa. A gentleman residing in
Dublin, and connected with a large firm of importers in the city,
received from a captain of a ship which arrived from Eastern waters,
and which had been in the neighbourhood of the celebrated eruption,
specimens of the mass of pumice with which the surface of the sea had
been covered in consequence of that eruption, and I was able to get
from him the following details relative thereto, giving also the ex-
O’ Re1tty— On the Constitution of Calp Shale. 569
perience of another captain as well as his own during and subsequent
to the Krakatoa eruption :—
‘‘ Ship ‘ Venezuela’ was at Samarang on the 27th August
(1883): there was intense rain in the evening; pumice was
first observed in lat. 6° 43’S., and long. E. 104° 1’. The
vessel sailed through about 200 miles of it. The barometer
was very high in the morning and very low in the evening.
There was dust floating lke a scum, about 9 inches thick,
on the water and pieces of pumice floating here and there
in it,
‘Ship ‘Mei Nepoti.’—On the 26th of August was in
Batavia. The captain on going on board in the evening
noticed the sky to be very black, as if a squall about to
come on; heard explosions from 12 o’clock until 4 o’clock
next morning (27th). On the 27th the dust fell from 12
o’clock noon until 3 o'clock p.m. After 4 o’clock a.m. heard
no more reports. At 8 oclock a.m. of the 27th all the ships
in the roads spun once or twice round their anchors. There
was darkness from 8 o’clock a.m. till 1 o’clock p.m. on the
27th; then noticed the tide to rise three times, at 14 0’clock,
3 oclock, and 8 o’clock p.m. of the same day, and the red
pumice (of which a specimen contributed by the captain)
was picked up on the 28th October in long. 97° 20’ E., and
latoulise 2005
These notes furnish evidence not merely of the vast amount of
pumice ejected on that occasion, but of the existence of a scum of fine
pumice dust (such as might be represented by the matrix of the
section referred to), 9 inches thick and of vast extent. Such a scum
would, before becoming completely waterlogged and sinking to the
bottom of the ocean, become inhabited by minute marine organisms,
such as small sponges and radiolarians, and in sinking would carry them
down and become deposited on the bottom of the sea as these calp
shales were. Taking into consideration the vast thickness of this
formation in Ireland and assuming that in general the calp shales are
largely composed of fragments of pumice as in the particular case
under consideration, may it not be inferred that they measure more or
less completely the volcanic activity of the periods to which they have
been referred, and in this manner add to the data furnished by the
trap rocks which have been fully described by the authors mentioned
as characteristic of the Carboniferous formation in Ireland.
ee One
AXE
STUDIES IN IRISH CRANIOLOGY: III. A NEOLITHIC
CIST BURIAL AT OLDBRIDGE, COUNTY OF MEATH.
By ALFRED C. HADDON, M.A., D.Sc.
(Prate XII.)
[Read January 25, 1897.]
A year ago I had the pleasure of examining, in company with Mr.
G. Coffey, a cist in the property of Lt.-Col. J. Coddington, J.P., at
Oldbridge, Drogheda, county Meath.
The cist was accidentally discovered on December 20, 1889, in
removing some stones which interfered with the ploughing of the
field in which it occurs. It is situated on the top of a hill locally
called ‘“‘The Mountain,” and Colonel Coddington has very wisely
erected a wooden shed around the monument in order to preserve it.
He has also affixed to the door of the shed a metal plate on which is
stamped a record of the find.
The cist is built up of four slabs of stone resting on the ground
which supported a large covering slab. The cavity measures some
8 feet 2 inches (970 mm.) in length; 1 foot 9 inches (535 mm.) in
breadth, and 1 foot 6 inches (460 mm.) in depth. The long axis is
orientated about N.E. by E. The stones are of local origin; the
covering-stone is a greenish flag, and is pitted on its original
under-surface with four depressions which are rather like cup-
markings.
In the south-west corner there were found the cranium, which I
am about to describe, and close to it an urn containing some burnt
ashes. In the centre of the cist were heaped six large bones with
fragments of smaller ones on the top. Marks of fire were observed
on the sides of the cist, and on the under side of the covering
slab. The cranium and urn are now in the possession of Colonel
Coddington.
Mr. Coffey has kindly assisted me in drawing up the following
Happon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 571
short description of the urn, and I am indebted to him for the photo-
graph of it :—
The urn is of the type usually called ‘‘ food-vessel”’ (fig. 1). Its
dimensions are 43 inches (115 mm.) high, 5? inches (146 mm.) in
diameter at the rim, 6 inches (150 mm.) in greatest diameter, and
2% inches (54 mm.) in diameter at the foot. ‘The ornamentation con-
sists of horizontal bands of zigzag and herringbone patterns and
bands marked with horizontal lines. The patterns are formed by
serial repetitions of impressions made by two kinds of stamp, the
zigzags were evidently produced by a small, semi-circular stamp,
reversed alternately above and below ; the herringbone pattern and
horizontal lines were impressed by a small toothed stamp. In detail,
of the decoration the reader is referred to the illustration (fig. 1).
The underside of the small base is decorated with a star having five
broad rays, the field is marked with rudely scored oblique lines.
Mr. Coffey informs me that the ornamentation and basal decoration
of this urn are very characteristic of the low globular urns most fre-
quently found with incinerated interments, but the shape of the urn
is, perhaps, transitional between these and those food-vessels which
have a well-developed foot. Sufficient data have not, however, yet
been collected for a systematic arrangement of Irish urns.
572 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
DEscrkIPLrion OF THE Humsan Rematns.
At the time of my visit there were only a few fragments of the
skeleton in the cist, and with the exception of portions of a right
femur, these were too broken to be of the slightest value.
The femur is incomplete, and in three pieces, but there is sufficient
of it left to prove that it belonged to a powerful man: the shaft
is decidely curved, and the muscular impressions are prominent. It is
impossible to measure the femur, but by comparing it with other
femora one may put down the man as probably being about 5 feet
10 inches (1780 mm.) in height. The mean height of the Neolithic
dolichocephals was probably about 5 feet 4 inches (1625 mm.), while
that of recent Irishmen is 5 feet 74 inches (1713 mm.).
Colonel Coddington had previously abstracted the cranium which
he had then lent to Dr. Frazer to examine, and he authorised the
latter to lend it to me to measure and photograph. I take this
opportunity of thanking Colonel Coddington for this permission, and
for other kindnesses shown towards me.
The cranium is that of an old male, of which the whole face is
absent, as well as the squamosal, temporal, and base on the right
side ; the left zygomatic arch is broken.
The glabella and supra-ciliary ridges are very prominent (No. 4,
Broca), and the external orbital processes are stout. The ophryon is
flat and depressed, the frontal eminences are moderately well marked.
The forehead is broad, and would probably appear somewhat receding
in the norma lateralis were it not for a median keel. This sagittal
frontal keel becomes very broad on the upper part of the frontal,
where it attains a maximum breadth of about 27 mm., the broad
portion narrows rather rapidly into the sagittal frontal keel about
65mm. from the bregma. The temporal portion of the frontals has
vertical sides, that is, the frontals are ill-filled laterally. The
temporal crest is well marked. The parietal region has a low vault ;
there is a slight sagittal keel which, however, does not extend
anteriorly to the bregma, which is flat, and it also disappears at the
level of the parietal eminences. The latter are fairly prominent, and
at this region the sides of the cranium are fairly vertical. The distance
from one side to the other at the stephanion is 114 mm. in the direct
line, and 129 mm. along the curve; the central point of the parietal
eminences are distant from one another 119mm. in the direct line,
and 133 mm. along the curve. The occipital squame is somewhat
Happon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 573
protuberant, but the bone is here much corroded ; the superior curved
lines are very strong, but there is no external occipital crest. The
nuchal region of the occipital is rather flat, but with a pair of lateral
swellings ; the inferior curved lines extend to the base of the mastoids,
both of the latter are broken, but, judging from the base of the one
on the right side, these were of large size.
The sutures are very simple; the sagittal is entirely, and the lamb-
doidal almost totally obliterated. The coronal, which has a complica-
tion corresponding to No. 2 of the Broca scale, is beginning to be
obliterated, especially about the bregma. Both pterions are in H;
that on the right side appears to be 14 mm. in width. There are no
wormian bones.
Norma verticalis.— Oval, irregular at occipital protuberance and at
glabella, due probably to a slight posthumous distortion, apparently
the result of the skull lying on its left side. It belongs to the ovoides
group of Sergi,! but the sides in front of the parietal eminence are
straighter than in the typical examples of that group.
Norma lateralis.—Prominent glabella; above the ophryon the low
even curve of the cranial vault is continued to the lambda; it is very
slightly flattened at the bregma and obelion; there is a slight occipital
protuberance about the lambda; then the contour is vertical to the
inion where it suddenly recedes. On the whole the form is nearest to
Sergi’s isobathyplatycephalus (or isobathys siculus), and agrees very
-closely with the figure he gives of a Neolithic Sicilian skull, although
the forehead is not so full and rounded as in the latter.
Norma occipitalis—A. low pentagon with a somewhat rounded
roof.
The tollowing are all the measurements I was able to make :—
Glabello-occip. length, 196 ; glabello-inial length, 188; ophryo-occip.
length, 191; maximum (parietal) breadth, 144; maximum frontal
breadth, 125; bi-stephanial breadth, 125; maximum frontal breadth,
105; basio-bregmatic height, 1389 ; frontal sagittal arc, 140; parietal
sagittal arc, 124(?); occipital sagittal are, 123 (?) ; nasio-opisthial
arc, 887; foramen magnum length, 34°5; basio-nasial length, 110;
total sagittal circumference, 532; auriculo-nasial radius, 104 (?);
auriculo-bregmatic radius, 125(?); auriculo-parietal radius, 125 (?)
horizontal circumference, 540.
The length-breadth index is 73°5 (the ophryo-occip. index being
75°4); the length-height index is 70-9, and the breadth-height index,
1 « Origine e Diffusione della Stirpe Mediterranea,’’ p. 133, fig. 25.
574 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
96°5; taking the auriculo-radial measurements the length-height
index is 63°8, and the breadth-height index is 86; but the two
latter indices are only to be regarded as approximate, owing to the
difficulty of getting accurate radial measurements. The cranium is
therefore dolichocephalic and tapeinocephalic.
I have taken measurements, descriptions, and photographs of a
considerable number of ancient and medieval Irish crania, but many
more skulls will be required to be studied before it will be possible to
speak with any degree of certainty on Irish craniology. In the mean-
time I venture to publish this find as it has some interest, and will
compare this cranium with one or two of the skulls that have passed
through my hands.
The classical prehistoric Irish crania are the Phenix Park
specimens found in cists in Phenix Park, Dublin, a little over halfa
century ago. Two of these are in the Academy’s Collection in the
Science and Art Museum, and I take this opportunity of thanking the
Council of the Academy for permission to measure the skulls in that
collection, the more important indices of these crania will be found in
the following table. Casts of these skulls are in the Grattan Collection
now in the Museum of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society... It will be observed that they form a fairly continuous
series, to which I have added a skull, collected by the late Mr. Bell in
the county Tyrone, which carries the series a step further. This skull
is also represented by a cast in the Grattan Collection. Unfortunately,
| have not had access to the original specimen of this skull, or of
Pheenix Park No. 3, but as the indices I calculated from measurements
made on the casts of the Phenix Park crania agreed very closely with
those made on the skulls themselves, we may safely regard the indices
of these two crania as correct. The detailed measurements of all these
crania will be given in the memoir on Irish Craniology which I am
preparing.
Puexrx Park Canis.
A.—Kistvaen in Tumulus of Knock-Maraidhe, Pheniz Park, Dublin.
No. 1.—Cranium of an adult male. The glabella and supra-ciliary
ridges are very prominent ; there is a slight sagittal keel immediately
above the ophryon, which disappears between the fairly prominent
frontal eminences. The vertex is somewhat flattened; there is a
1 Cf. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. (3), u., 1893, p. 760.
Hapvpon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 575
very slight anterior sagittal keel, but between the prominent
parietal eminences there is a sagittal groove; the cranial walls
are flat. There is a slight bulging of the occipital squame; the
occipital muscular impressions are strong. The mastoids are large.
The coronal and sagittal sutures are nearly obliterated; the lamb-
doid is complex. There are no wormian bones. The pterion is in
H (right, 16°5 mm. ; left, 16 mm.).
The cheek-bones are not specially prominent ; the nose is prominent,
and the nasal bones are well formed and not constricted ; the apertura
pyriformis has slight pre-nasal fosse ; the palate is large and broad.
Norma verticalis—The cranium may be placed in the sphenoides
stenometropus group of Sergi; that is, the biparietal enlargement is
far back, and there is a gradual and sensible reduction in width
anteriorly ; the sides of the cranium are flattened; the occipital is
rounded ; the skull is slightly phenozygous. Norma lateralis—In a
side view, the cranium appears long and depressed, with a slight
occipital bulging ; it appears to me to be intermediate between Sergi’s
platycephalus and ellipsoides depressus. Norma occipitalis—The
sides and base are flat, and together form a transversely-elongated
oblong with a fairly well-rounded top.
The cranium is dolichocephalic, tapeinocephalic, very orthognathic,
very leptoprosopic, very leptorhine, very microseme, especially in the
right orbit; the naso-malar index is prosopic; and the palate is
brachyuranic.
No. 2.—Cranium of an adult male.—The glabella and supra-ciliary
ridges are more prominent than in the preceding skull; there is a
sagittal keel which extends from the glabella to the anterior third of
the parietals; the frontal eminences are moderately prominent ; there
is a slight depression at the obelion between the prominent parietal
eminences ; the sides of the skull are ill-filled. The cranium is flattened
posteriorly about the lambda, but there is a slight occipital bulging;
the inion and the muscular impressions are prominent. The mastoids
are large; the sagittal suture is largely obliterated, the sutures are
complex. Pterion in H (right, 13 mm., left, 14 mm.); no wormian
bones.
The face is fairly broad, with wide and fairly prominent cheek
bones, and a strong concave nose, the nasal bones are not pinched, the
apertura pyriformis has slight prenasal fosse, the palate is horse-
shoe shaped.
Norma verticalis.—This is an elongated, somewhat oval cranium,
but enlarged in the region of the parietal eminences, and may be
576 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
placed amongst Sergi’ssphenoides. The skull is slightly phenozygous.
Norma lateralis.—Very similar to the last, but less depressed. Norma
occipitalis.—Is distinctly pentagonal.
The cranium is mesaticephalic, metriocephalic, orthognathic, barely
leptoprosopic, mesorhine, very microseme, prosopic and brachy-uranic.
These skulls were carefully described, and the circumstances of
the find narrated by Barnard Davis, and Thurnam in “ Crania Britan-
nica” (11. 1857, No. 22 4 ands). The circumstances of the find were
compiled from the report of the excavation published in the Proceed-
ings of the Royal Irish Academy, 1838, voi. i., pp. 187, 196, and
from the account given by Sir William Wilde in the ‘“ Catalogue of
the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,” 1857, p. 180. Sir W.
Wilde had previously made some observations on the two skulls found
in this kistvaen, in his ‘‘ Lecture on the Ethnology of the Ancient
Irish”’ (1844, p. 11), reprinted as Chap. IX. of his ‘‘ The Beauties of
the Boyne and Blackwater” (1849), p. 212. Dr. Pritchard has also
described these skulls (‘‘ Researches,” 1841, vol. iii., p. 200).
In this kistvaen ‘‘ two perfect male human skeletons were found,
and also the tops of the femora of another, and a single bone of an
animal, supposed to be that of a dog. The heads of the skeletons
rested to the north, and, as the enclosure is not of sufficient extent to
have permitted the bodies to lie at full length, they must have been
bent at the vertebre or at the lower joints.’’ (Proceedings, Royal
Irish Academy, I. p. 189).
B.—Cist 1x THE Poanrx Par, Dustr.
No. 3. Cranium of an adult male-—The glabella and supra-ciliary
ridges are very strong, the ophryon is depressed, low, somewhat
narrow, retreating forehead ; the side walls of the frontal are ill-filled.
There is a slight anterior sagittal keel ; the obelion is flat or somewhat
depressed; the parietal eminences are prominent, but anteriorly the
sides of the cranium are ill-filled. There is a slight occipital protube-
rance; the muscular impressions are not well marked ; mastoids large ;
the squamosals are rather prominent. The prominent cheek-bones give
the face a broader appearance than it has; the teeth project, and there
is a subnasal prognathism. The powerful lower jaw has a very promi-
nent chin. The cranium is somewhat high in the mid-parietal region;
the posterior parietal region is decidedly vertical; the skull is pheenozy-
gous.
The cranium is mesaticephalic, akrocephalic, orthognathic, probably
leptoprosopic, very leptorhine, very microseme, and mesopic.
Happon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 577
Norma verticalis—This skull most nearly resembles Sergi’s sphe-
noides rotundus, that is, it is wider than the more typical sphenoides,
and has the elevations rounded off, especially in the occipital part,
which is globular; it is phenozygous.
Norma lateralis—In the side view the skull agrees with Sergi’s
sphenoides latus,! except that in the Irish specimen the forehead is
more retreating and the superciliary arches more prominent.
The following taken from the ‘‘Crania Britannica” (m1. 1865,
No. 55) is the only record I can discover of this find :—‘‘ About the
year 1840 a small cist was opened at a depth of 4 feet in the Phoenix
Park, not far from the two cromlechs previously discovered there. It
was of a domed shape, and constructed of small stones, closed at the
top with a larger one. It contained a skeleton, the major part of
which was placed at the bottom of the cist, with the long bones crossed
and the calvarium at the top, the lower jaw upon it. This skull was
presented to the Museum of Trinity College by the late Dr. Robert
Ball.”
Awncrent Cranium From County Tyrone.
In the Grattan Collection there is a cast of a cranium, which is
labelled ‘‘No. 2.—Kistvaen, county Tyrone, Mr. Bell’s Collection.”
Unfortunately there is no further information about this interesting
specimen, which evidently belongs to a well-marked racial type.
The original was apparently perfect, except for a fracture, with an
average breadth of about 60 mm., which extends from the right squa-
mosal obliquely over the vertex to the left frontal. The glabella and
supra-ciliary ridges are prominent, the forehead is high and broad, the.
frontal eminences are well developed, and the frontal region of the
cranium is well filled both dorsally and laterally. The high curve
of the frontal, as seen in the norma lateralis, is carried evenly
backwards to the middle of the sagittal suture, the anterior portion
of which appears to form a slight median keel; between the prominent
parietal eminences there is a sagittal groove, and the obelion is flattened.
The lateral parietal regions are well filled. There is a slight bulging
of the occipital squame. The squamosals are swollen; the mastoids
appear to be moderately large. The face has prominent cheek-bones,
and appears broad, but it is really leptoprosopic. The index 57 may,
however, be somewhat too high, as the bizygomatic breadth could
not be actually measured ; and I estimated it at 130, with a note that
1«¢The Varieties of the Human Species’”’ (English translation published by
the Smithsonian Institution, p. 34, fig. 11).
5078 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
it might somewhat exceed that figure. The skull was probably
phenozygous. The palate is large and elongated.
Altogether it is a powerful, round-headed cranium, with a strongly-
marked face, and belonged to an adult male.
Norma verticalis.—The nearest form to this skull that I can find
in Sergi’s essay on ‘‘The Varieties of the Human Species” is his
platycephalus bogdanovii. It has some resemblance to the Auvergnat
type. It is phenozygous.
Norma lateralis.—The side view is very similar to that of the last
skull, but the forehead is a little fuller and more vertical; the vertex
is more arched, and the posterior parietal region less flattened.
Norma occipitalis.—The sides and top are well rounded.
This cranium is brachycephalic, akrocephalic, probably orthog-
nathic, leptoprosopic, markedly leptorhine, very microseme, mesopic,
but bordering on prosopic, and very dolichuranic.
While it is probable that these groups are correct, it must be
remembered that as the measurements of this and the preceding skull
were made upon casts, none of the figures can be accepted as being
perfectly accurate.
Indices. + ole as A Ped se
a la |e es
Length -breadth, , - | 73°5 | 71°6 | 76°8 | 78:0 | 83°56 | 71:4 | 76-3
»» height, . ; - | 70°9 | 68°3 | 75-4 | 84-1 | — | 68°8 | 70°5
i ,, (auricular), | 63°8 | 63-4 | 67-2 | 67-0 | 721) — | —
Breadth-height, . : - | 96°5 | 94:6 | 98-2 | 107-7) — | 96:4] 92:9
33 5° (auricular), | 86°0 | 88°4 | 87°6 | 85:9 | 86-3] — _
Nasal, q 2 é : — 42°1 50 39°27) 45:3 | 45:6 | 47-6
Orbital (right), . : -| — 19:5 | 78 68:2 | 75°0 | 80 83°6
fo Ga) eee : -| — | 87) — — | 795) — _
Alveolar, . : : oe 94°2 | 96:6 | 92:0} — —_ 94:1
oc (auricular), . | — | 105-1 | 108-2 | 107-4] 103-3} — —
Naso-malar, 2 . - | — | I11°9| 112-9} 109-5] 109-6] — —
Upper facial, (KoritMANN), | — | 59°4| 502] — | 570] — 50°2
| op », (VIRCHOW), . — | 85:4 | 77:2 | 73°38 | 74:7 — —
ee ee eS
Happvon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 579
The following Table gives this series in a form more easy for com-
parison :—
Oldbridge, dolicho. | tapeino. [tere — — — —
Phoenix Pk. 1, es - | orthog. | leptoprosop.| leptorhine | microseme| prosopic
» 9) 2, | mesati. | metrio. 9 5p mesorhine i HA
Suto eP akro. “ 3 leptorhine 7 mesopic
Tyrone, brachy. ” ” | » ” ”
Homme Mort 3" | dolicho. | tapeino. | orthog leptorhine | microseme —
Guanche 3 mesati. Pa 3 leptoprosop. 56 - —
The following are the indices adopted :—‘‘ Length-breadth”’ of
Broca; in order to equate this to the index of the ‘‘ Frankfurt
Agreement” it is necessary to add °5 to the indices given, or, to be
more exact, to add ‘6 to the dolichocephals and °7 to the- extreme
brachycephals (cf. Otto Ammon: ‘‘ L’Anthropologie,” vi. 1896,
p. 682). The length-height is the glabello-occipital length (Broca),
and the basio-bregmatic height; the height of auricular index is
obtained by a modification of the Busk-craniometer, which measures
the radius from the centre of the external auditory meatus to the
greatest parietal height. The nasal, orbital, alveolar, and naso-malar
measurements are those adopted by Flower; the auriculo-alveolar
index corresponds to that of Flower, but it is taken from the ear-hole
instead of from the basion. The upper facial indices are those of
Kollmann and Virchow respectively. The palatal index is that of
Turner.
In comparing the Oldbridge cranium with Pheenix Park No. 1,
the following points of resemblance and difference may be noted.
Norma verticalis.—Both are of an elongated oval form; but the
sides are flatter in No. 1, and the supra-ciliary ridges are more
prominent in O. B. and the occipital bulging is larger. No. 1 is
phenozygous; O. B. was apparently only very slightly so.
Norma lateralis.—The length of both is striking (194-196 mm.),
but No. 1 appears flatter above. In O.B. the cranial walls are better
filled, and there is a greater swelling in the roof in the parietal region ;
and also the parietal squame is more prominent; the supra-ciliary
ridges and the parietal eminences are more prominent; the frontal
R.I.A. PROC., SER. Ill., VOL. IV. 28
580 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
keel gives a fictitious height to the contour of the forehead when the
cranium is viewed laterally.
Norma frontalis—The forehead is narrower in No. 1, and the
frontal eminences are closer together; the great size of the supra-
ciliary ridges, and the prominence of the frontal eminences in both,
result in a characteristic large depressed ophryon. Although the
lower parts of the sides of the cranium in O. B. are flat, the regions
just below the temporal crest are slightly swollen. In No. 1 the
sides are flatter and parallel up to the crest. The sagittal keel is also
much more prominent in O. B. than in No. 1,
The norma verticalis of these two crania is shown in Pl. XII,
figs. 7, 8; beside them I have placed a cast of another skull, which is
also in the Grattan Collection, No. 5. It is described as ‘+ Very
ancient Irish, from a Railway-cutting.”” I have not been able to find
any further information respecting it. I carefully measured the cast,
and have drawn up the following indices, which must be regarded as
approximate only. The maximum length was 196, and I had to
estimate the breadth, which I put down as 150; this makes the index
as 76. Collignon argues that a length of over 190 in the living head
is characteristic of dolichocephaly, and so we may describe this skull
as dolichocephalic; it is also tapeinocephalic (length-height 71, breadth-
height 93°3), orthognathic (96), leptoprosopic, Virchow (82), leptorhine
(44), and microseme (79). It is obvious that both the contour of the
norma verticalis and the indices prove this cranium to belong to the
same race as the Knockmaraidhe skull No. 1, whatever its age may
happen to be.
From the foregoing descriptions and comparisons there is no doubt
that these crania belong to the same people or race; and, from their
similarity to one another and to other ancient skulls which I have
studied, they may be regarded as very typical examples of that race
as it occurred in Ireland.
When we travel further afield we find that these crania agree
essentially with the Long Barrow race of Ancient Britain and with
the Neolithic Dolichocephals of Western and South-Western Europe.
The remains found in certain French caves present this type in its
purity; as, for example, Les Baumes-Chaudes in the commune of
Saint Georges de Lévejac, and L’Homme Mort in the commune of
Saint Pierre de Tripiés, both in Lozére, South France. Broca
described thirty-five crania from the former cave, having length-
breadth indices ranging from 64°3 to 76:1, with a mean index of 72.
He also studied nineteen crania from the latter cave; of these seven-
Happon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 581
teen had indices ranging from 68°2 to 76°7, with a mean index of
72°6, but the mean index of the male crania is 71:4; the remaining
two crania had indices of 78°5 and 78°8, the total index being 73:2.
Philippe Salmon has recently (‘‘ Ethnologie préhistorique : Dénombre-
ment et types des Cranes Néolithiques de la Gaule”’ in Revue mensuelle
de l’Ecole d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1895) published in a convenient
form an enumeration of the length-breadth indices and the biblio-
graphy of all the Neolithic crania of France and its borders ; and the
reader is referred to this valuable Paper for further evidence respect-
ing the distribution of these indigenous dolichocephals or ‘‘ Type de
Baumes-Chaudes,”’ as he prefers to style it.
The Baumes-Chaudes tribe belonged to what is now generally
called the Mediterranean Race, of which the Guanches! of the Canary
Islands are, perhaps, the purest living representatives. I have
tabulated some mean indices of these two representatives of the race,
and it will be seen that they compare very closely with the two Irish
crania under discussion.
The Co. Tyrone cranium is as well-marked a cranium as the other
two, but clearly belonging to a very different race.
Intermediate between this and the two first are the Phoenix Park
No. 2 and No.3 crania. These appear to belong to a mixedrace. The
former, howeyer, is probably a modification of the dolichocephalic
group, and might be classed among them, while the latter seems to
belong to the brachycephalic group. The glabello-occipital length of
the former is 183 and of the latter 182 mm., while that from the
Tyrone kistvaen is only 176 mm. M. Salmon has drawn attention to
a similar mixture of types in France, and he has traced the racial
movements that these facts indicate. Of the 688 indices that he has
enumerated the preponderating indices are 73 and 74. The dolicho-
cephals mount up to 57°7 per cent.: (it must be remembered that he
classes all skulls up to 77 as dolichocephals, instead of the more usual
limit of 75): the mesaticephals are 21:1 per cent.; and the brachy-
cephals 21:2 per cent. The fact that 53 skulls have an index of 78
denotes an already pronounced mixture. The number of indices of 70
and 80 are equal (29, 30). Indices are exceptional or rare from 63 to
68 and from 85 to 97. The proportion of the two original races is
as 397 is to 146; the mixed race (145) are equal in number to the
brachycephals (146).
1 (Qf. an important paper, by F.C. Shrubsall, on ‘‘Crania from Teneriffe,’’
Proc. Camb. Philosoph. Soc., 1x. 1895, p. 154.
582 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
An analogous immigration of brachycephals has been proved for
Ancient Britain. It is generally supposed that this people introduced
bronze weapons and the ‘‘ Celtic’ language into our islands.
Sir William Wilde long ago pointed out (‘‘ Ethnology of the
Ancient Irish,’”’ 1844) that ‘‘ among the true Irish of our time distinct
traces of the long-headed, dark-haired, black-visaged, swarthy
aborigines, or Gothic Firbolgs, and also (for they are very numerous)
the oval or globular-headed, fair-haired, light-coloured, blue or grey-
eyed Celte or Tuatha de Danaan. But the present Irish race is very
mixed. ... Finally, we may add that there can now be little doubt
that the same early race [the long-headed] inhabited, long before the
date of written history, Ireland and Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark,
and the north-west of Europe generally, together with the ancient
Etruria, and perhaps to central parts of Germany also; at least one
or two specimens of ancient crania which we examined at Halle and
Berlin lead to these conclusions. We have had an opportunity of
examining some skulls of the Guanches or ancient people of the
Canary Archipelago, found by M. Berthelot in Teneriffe, and they pre-
sented precisely similar characters.”” These conclusions were arrived
at by this acute observer solely by an inspection of the skulls, and the
only measurements since published on the Phcenix Park crania (which
formed the basis of Wilde’s comparisons) are the very few in the
‘‘Crania Britannica.’”’ Till now there has been no means of verifying
this hypothesis by means of modern craniological methods. Wilde
had not in his time the means of discriminating between the North
European dolichocephals (Teutonic or Row-Grave type), and the South
European dolichocephals.
Dr. Garson who isa well-known authority on the ancient ethnology
of the British Islands, says :—‘‘Osteological remains of the Neolithic
people are distributed all over Britain, from the south of England to
the extreme north of Scotland. They are most numerous in the south-
west of England, especially in Wilts and Gloucestershire, the part of
the country occupied by the Drobuni, or Silures, at the beginning of
the historic period. They have been found in considerable numbers
in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Stafford. Huxley and Wilson have
described the same race from horned cairns in Caithness, and from
other places in Scotland. I have described them from Wiltshire,
Yorkshire, Middlesex, and from Orkney.
There is some doubt of their having been found yet at an early
period in Ireland, as Professor Macalister informs me that he has not
recognised them in Ireland, where there are no long barrows. Sir
Hapvpon—WNeolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. 583
William Wilde, on the other hand, recognised Neolithic skulls from
Somersetshire as identical with certain Irish skulls. Any skulls from
Ireland I have seen, which have shown characters similar to the
Neolithic skulls from England, are of later date, but Huxley describes
them from chambered tombs, peat mosses, and river deposits of Ireland.
I think we may conclude, as regards Ireland, that although it is
doubtful whether the Neolithic people were there at as early a date
as in Britain, they were certainly there later.’’ (Lecture delivered at
the Royal Institution, ‘‘ Nature,” vol. 11., Nov. 15, p. 67; Nov. 22,
p. 90, 1894.)
Thanks to the researches of Sergi, and of several French anthro-
pologists, we now know a good deal about the Mediterranean race.
The indices I have given demonstrate that it extended into Ireland in
Neolithic times, and the head forms of the three first skulls mentioned
in this paper are common among Mediterranean people. Sergi says
that the ovoides (Oldbridge) is found from Egypt to the Iberian
peninsula, and that it occurred very frequently in French Neolithic
interments (Solutré, Laugerie-Basse, Grenelle, 1’ Homme- Mort, etc.),
and equally frequently in the long barrows of England. The sphenoides
stenometropus (Phcenix Park, No. 1) is very common in the Mediter-
ranean, and the same applies to the more typical sphenoides (Phoenix
Park, No. 2). These Irish crania are also orthognathic, a feature
which they share with the Long-barrow people of Britain; this also
is very characteristic of the skulls from the Cayerne de l’Homme Mort,
and the existing Spanish Basques; the Guanches and the Corsicans
are also extremely orthognathous. Similarly these same people are
equally leptorhine (cf. table on p. 579), but, according to Shrubsall, the
mean female Guanche nasal index is 41°5, the index of the Spanish
Basques is 44-7. The important orbital index tells the same tale, the
index of the Spanish Basques is the lowest of any living European
people, but it is lower in the skulls of the Caverne de l’Homme Mort,
and of the Guanche mummies. Therefore, not only do these three
Irish crania belong to the Mediterranean race, but to the Iberian group
or division of that race.
Among other problems of Irish ethnology to be solved by cranio-
logical study is the question whether we had representatives of the
short, swarthy, black-haired, brachycephalic race of Central Europe
(the ‘‘Celte”’ of Julius Cesar, and Broca, the ‘‘ Auvergnats”’ or
‘‘Ligurians’’! of some authors, or the ‘‘Type de Grenelle” of P.
1 Sergi and some other anthropologists regard the ancient Ligurians as belonging
to the dolichocephalic Mediterranean race.
584 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Salmon) ; as well as the tall fair, brachycephalic race that may have
come from Denmark (the ‘‘ Celts’ of some authors, the ‘‘ Turanian ”’
of Thurnam and Rolleston, or the ‘‘ Round Barrow Race’ of all
authors).
Personally, 1 am inclined to think that the Neolithic brachycephals
of Central Europe did come over to the British Islands, and that
traces of them are still to be seen, perhaps more frequently in Ireland
than in Great Britain. If this be so, it is probably they came asa
mixed people, that mixture of brachycephals and southern dolicho-
cephals which Broca called ‘‘ Celts,’’ for it must be remembered that
he regarded the Celte of Cesar as a mixed people, but mainly brachy-
cephals. The Neolithic brachycephalic immigrants into Western
Europe almost certainly came from Eastern Europe, and possibly
originally from Asia; it is also probable that they were primitively of
the same stock as the Lapps and Finns, or rather one constituent of
the latter people. It may be that the short, dark, brachycephalic
element in the British Islands was largely due to the northern brachy-
cephals who came direct from Scandinavia in the Neolithic period,
or both northern and southern brachycephals may have contributed
their respective shares.
It is possible that the Round Barrow race had comparatively little
to say to Irish ethnology.
PosTScRIPT ADDED IN THE PRESS.
Since this paper was read a learned and voluminous work has
been published, entitled ‘‘ The Dolmens of Ireland, their Distribution,
Structural Characteristics and Affinities in other Countries; together
with the Folk-lore attaching to them, supplemented by considerations
on the Anthropology, Ethnology, and Traditions of the Irish Race,”
by William Copeland Borlase. In the third volume Mr. Borlase deals
very fully with Irish craniology, and he connects the Knockmaraidhe
dolichocephal with the Long Barrow men of Britain, and with the
Cayerne de l’Homme Mort in France. The mesaticephalic skull from
the same tumulus is due to an admixture with this type of a brachy-
cephalic type (p. 978). The measurements and descriptions I have
given above, together with the evidence so laboriously collected by
Mr. Borlase conclusively prove the existence of the Baumes-Chaudes
or l’Homme-Mort raee in Ireland in very early times.
Hapvpon—Weolithic Cist Burial at Oldbridge, Co. Meath.
Fic.
Fie.
Fic.
Fia.
Fig.
Fie.
Fie.
Fria.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.
1.—Oldbridge Cranium, norma verticalis.
2. . 5 », lateralis (left side).
3. om ie 4 » (xight side).
4, 3 53 ,, trontalis,
5. - ‘ », occipitalis.
585
6.—Cast of ancient Irish skull. Railway Cutting (Grattan
Collection, No. 5).
7.—Oldbridge Cranium.
8.—Cast of Phoenix Park Cranium, No. 1.
[ 586 ]
XXII.
ON STONE MARKINGS (SHIP- FIGURE) RECENTLY
DISCOVERED AT DOWTH, IN THE COUNTY OF
MEATH. By GEORGE COFFEY.
[Read June 28, 1897.]
THE carvings on the stones in the chambers of the tumulus at Dowth
are rude and shallow, and may be better described as markings than
carvings. They are such as could be produced by repeated blows of a
rude pick, or a sharp pointed stone. In dry weather, when the
surfaces of the stones present an earthy appearance, it is in many cases
difficult to detect them, and at all times a side-light is necessary to
bring them out. In wet weather the markings show more clearly on
the moistened surfaces of the stones. I have found also that the eye
soon becomes exhausted in looking for these markings, and that on
repeated visits a fresh eye detects markings which had previously
escaped notice.
In the autumn of 1896 I visited Dowth, in company with Mr. C.
H. Oldham. In the inner chamber off the circular chamber discovered
by Sir Thomas Deane in 1885, Mr. Oldham called my attention to some
markings on the upper surface of the lintel stone above the entrance
to this chamber. On examination I was pleased to find that they
included a typical example of the ship-figure so frequently found on
rock-surfaces in Sweden.
In my Paper on the Tumuli of New Grange, Dowth, and Knowth,
I have illustrated several examples of ship figures from the Swedish
rocks (Zrans. &. I. A., vol. xxx., p. 34). These I compared with
somewhat similar figures on stones in a tumulvs at Lockmariaker, in
Brittany, and with a figure in the chamber at New Grange. From a
comparison of the forms I argued that the most probable explanation
of the latter was that it was a rude representation of a ship. My
argument has been adopted by M. Adrian de Mortillet to explain
similar figures on dolmens in Brittany, but he is of opinion that the
Corrry—On Stone Markings (Ship-figure) at Dowth. 587
part of the figure which I conjectured to be a sail, represents a
guerite such as appears on the triremes in the bas-reliefs of Trojan’s
column.?
The interest of the present discovery lies in the fact that we have
no longer to argue from general resemblances, but have now an
example which may be said to be identical with those in Sweden.
The under surface of the lintel stone on which this figure occurs
is just 6 feet above the floor of the chamber. The upper surface
slopes back like a desk, and it is on this surface that the markings are
found. The rubbing which I exhibit (from which the accompanying
Ms
Ww
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i bi of
“yf irate LLB Wj VY)
* Ud,
YL
f G gy :
hes
g Gi
Z
2 2g me ,
Z GY, wif) 3 tj,
2 2 Cail _, GE eititllD”
ZG jaa in [iis GY Zi We
Y Gal ( Ville % =
y | mlm \ mitt Wl | ie Z 7
4% qqummme | Ween Ap, F
<—
oo
Uj;
: lo¥
Be
a ZB Za
WIAA Wis. Gb
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Uy
illustration, reduced to one-third, has been drawn) shows that three or
four ships have been cut on this stone. There are numerous natural
markings on the stone, and the artificial cuttings are in places very in-
distinct. It is not possible therefore to make out with certainty all the
figures. Fortunately the principal boat is well marked. The cutting of
this figure, as also some of the others, has been done with a pick of some
sort in the manner whichis characteristic of most of the cuttings in the
chambers at Dowth and New Grange. The haphazard way in which the
ships are placed on the stone, without order or uniformity of position, is
characteristic of rock-markings in general, and in this respect does not
depart from the Swedish examples. The fact that the stone is above
convenient reach from the ground, as also that some of the markings
1 Revue Mensuelle de V Ecole d’ Antropologie, 1894, p. 285.
R.1.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IV. 2
588 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
are close under the roofing stones of the chamber, seems to prove that
the markings were executed before the stone was placed in position.
In Sweden, ship-figures of this class are ascribed to the Bronze Age.
It is possible, however, that in some instances they belong to a later
period.
I take this opportunity to mention a few other markings which
escaped my notice when writing on the tumuli of New Grange and
Dowth. In New Grange—on the side surface of stone 12, right-hand
side of the passage facing the eleventh stone on same side—are a
number of triangular cuttings arranged in a sort of pattern of quar-
tered squares, the alternate triangles of which are cut out. In the
chamber, stone fig. 38 in my Paper, has some triangles cut on the under
surface near the projecting edge of the stone. At Dowth, I mentioned
but one inscribed stone in the circular chamber. In addition, stone
number 4 from the entrance to the inner chamber, left side, has a
large continuous chevron cut on it; and the left jamb of the entrance
to the inner chamber has a cup and circle inscribed on it, and above
this figure a rude marking of indeterminate form.
Be yane 7Bept 18; 189
: ; d june
Ree [ 589 ]
XXII.
ON THE ORIENTATION OF SOME CROMLECHS IN THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD OF DUBLIN. (PartI.) By PROFESSOR
J. P. O'REILLY, Royal College of Science, Dublin. (Ptarzs
XII. tro XVII.)
[Read June 22, 1896.]
Ty a Paper ‘‘ On the orientation of certain dolmens recently discovered
in Catalonia,” ! I pointed out that these grouped themselves according
to three or four principal directions, mainly, N.W. and 8.E. This
evidence of distinct orientation led me to presume that the cromlechs
of more Western Europe would not only show distinct orientation, but
might also allow of the classification of these monuments, and the
formation of groups according to their observed directions, it being
presumable that the same motive guides the builders in giving a like
disposition as regards the cardinal points of the compass, to these
monuments, in Western as in Eastern Europe.
I was therefore led to examine the cromlechs existing in the
neighbourhood of Dublin from this point of view, and now submit
the following remarks and drawings relative thereto as the results of
my examination.
The cromlechs visited and here planned are those of Shanganagh,
Brennanstown or Glen Druid and Howth.
These have already been described by Henry O’ Neill, in an article
published in the Transactions of the Kilkenny Archeological Society,
vol. il., 1852-8, p. 40, ‘‘On the Rock Monuments of the Co. Dublin,”
and also by Wakeman, in his ‘‘ Handbook of Irish Antiquities,” 2nd
edition, 1891. Both these authors have given drawings or sketches
of the monuments, but no plans. Their remarks will be cited in each
particular case.
SHaneanaGH Cromiecu (Pl. XIII, figs. 1, 2).
The first examined by me was that of Shanganagh, which may be
reached in or about one-quarter hour’s walk from Ballybrack Railway
1 Proc. R. I. A., 3rd Ser., vol. 3, p. 573.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL.’ Iy. z2U
590 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Station, and is situated in a field quite close to the Bray Road, about
300 yards to the west of Loughlinstown River. The following details
are from O’Neill (doc. cit. p. 41) :—‘‘ It is within half a mile of the
sea-shore. The field on which it lies is almost level; there is no
trench or other artificial arrangement in connexion with it. There
are only four supporting stones, two on each side; one of these has
been broken in the middle, and the opposite one has fallen in; but the
roof rock rests on the side of the fallen one and the top of the fragment
on the opposite side, so as to be retained in its present inclined posi-
tion.” ‘‘The chamber les east and west, and is 6 or 7 feet long by
2 feet 6 inches wide, and was probably 5 feet high. The floor is of
clay, and at the level of the surrounding surface. The monument is
of granite.” Wakeman (Joc. cit. p. 68) describes it as ‘‘a very fine
specimen of what may be styled, as regards size, a cromleac of the
second class. It is supported upon four stones, and presents no appear-
ance of having been enveloped in a mound of any description. The
chamber would seem to extend east and west. There is neither name
nor legend in connexion with the monument. The situation is close
to the sea.”
I was unable to recognize the break in the stone mentioned by
O’ Neill, who evidently wrote under the impression that the cap-stone
was originally placed horizontally, and was then ‘‘five feet high,”
that is, lay horizontally on the supporting stones at 5 fect above the
surface of the ground. This interpretation does not seem to be borne
out by the examination of the monument. There are four stones
(Pl. XIII., fig. 2). On three of these the cap rests; that is, on the north-
west stone, the south-east, and the south-west one. The north-east
stone is not in contact with the cap, and leans against the adjacent south-
east stone ; its eastern face making with the adjacent face of the south-
east pillar stone an angle of 60°, as indicated in the plan. The cap-
stone lies fairly evenly in the north and south direction, on its supports,
dipping, however, slightly to the north, owing probably to the want of
support of the north-east stone. It slopes, or inclines to the west, at
an angle of 23° with the horizon (taken on the under face), and I could
see no indication to justify the supposition that it ever occupied the
horizontal position suggested by O’Neill. It isto be noted that a hole
of about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and 5 or 6 inches in
depth, has been drilled in the upper surface of the stone on the north
side. Similar holes are found in the Ancient Inscribed Stone, Killiney,
described by Wakeman (/oc. cit. p. 49). The orientation of the chamber
is practically east and west, that of the east side of the south-east stone
O’Re1tty—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 591
being north 1° 46’ west, or say a degree and a-half from the true north
and south. Even supposing that the stone had been originally oriented
true north and south, the lapse of time, with all its attendant accidents
and the corrosive action of the atmosphere, would reasonably account for
the actual slight difference at present shown, the roughness of the stone
surface not allowing a closer approximation of direction than a degree
at best. It is remarkable that the western extremities of the north-
west and south-west stones lie also in a line nearly due north and south,
the difference therefrom being 1° 46’ west ; how far this was originally
intended can only be conjectured at present. Looking at the eastern
end of the cromlech, as shown in the elevation (Plate XIII., fig. 1), it
will be remarked that the south-east stone bearing the north and south
face is on the left-hand side of the observer. This arrangement also
presents itself in the cromlech of Brennanstown. It may not be out of
place to further note that both the one and the other are situated in the
vicinity of streams.
Guirn Druin Cromiece.
(lates sexe Nye eae Vee evel):
The Brennanstown or Glen Druid cromlech is situated in a small
secluded valley or glen, situated about 500 yards to the east of Carrick-
mines Railway-station, which is overlooked by a square tower forming
a notable landmark from many points in the vicinity, and shown in
Wakeman’s sketch (loc. cit. p. 70). The monument lies at the head of
the Glen to the west, and close beside a stream which seems to have
been the principal agent in carving out from the granite the Glen, of
which the direction in this point is nearly east and west, and presumably
corresponds to a main line or lines of jointing. O’Neill, after giving
the dimensions, states:—‘‘ The direction is east and west, the floor
clay, and considerably lower than the surface of the field. There are
several large stones lying about, and tolerably decided indications of
some of them having been arranged to form two parallel lines of
approach to the lower end of the monument.” Wakeman calls it ‘‘a
very perfect cromleac,” describes it summarily, and says, ‘‘ A number
of detached stones lying about this very perfect example would indicate
that it was originally accompanied by a circle of pillar-stones.”’
The section and elevations on Plates XIV., XV., and XVI. will
enable a more complete and accurate estimate to be made of this very re-
markable monument. The stones are all of granite, which is the rock of
the Glen. They are in an excellent state of preservation, and have not
seemingly suffered any serious derangement. It will be seen from the
2U2
~
wy
592 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
plan (fig. 1) that the orientation of the chamber is very perfect. The
difference from true bearings not being more than 13°, or quite within
the degree of accuracy of measurement, which the present states of the
surfaces of the stones can allow, no matter what the care taken. The
orientation east and west is true only for the northern side of the
chamber, while the southern side presents quite a different direction,
that of about 36° north of east, and south of west, while the two end
stones closing in the west and east sides of the chamber are nearly
parallel in direction, but do not lie in the north and south plane. The
t ett pe:
Fic. 1.—Glen Druid.
south-east stone is broken in two, and the halves have undergone a
slight derangement of position. The chamber was therefore originally
composed of six stones and the cap; of these four still support the
latter, while the two end stones are not in contact with it.
This is shown by the western elevation of the monument (Pl. XIV.)
and the interior view looking west (Pl. XV.), as also by the west and
east section (Pl. XVI.). The space between the central western stone
and the under surface of the cap is about 18 centimetres (= 72 inches),
and must have originally so existed. Moreover, this central stone-
O’Rrtnty—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 598
is gabled or mitred on its upper end, and thus bears a rough resem-
blance to an ordinary type of modern tombstone. The eastern end
stone only reaches the level of the ground, and, as stated and shown
by the section and plan, is not in contact with the cap. Outside
the monument and at the eastern end of it, appear, on the surface
of the ground, other stones, as marked in the plan, which show
a rectangular arrangement, and seem to point to the existence of a
sort of porch or other building; or, as O’Neill puts it, showing
“‘indications of some of them having been arranged to form two
parallel lines of approach to the lower end of the monument.”’ This
matter seems worthy of further investigation and comparison with
monuments of a similar nature elsewhere, assuming of course that
these stones are coeval with the cromlech. At the north-east end
of the chamber, there is a large stone, marked J. in the plan, lying
in contact with the eastern end of the northern stone. What its
signification may be, I do not venture to suggest, but call attention
to the direction of its northern face, which is east 24°-25° north, and
west 24°—-25° south ; that is practically the amount of the southern decli-
nation of the Sun at the winter solstice. Moreover, it will be seen by
the plan, that this is also approximatively the direction of the southern
wall of the chamber. There is thus suggested a possible connexion
between the direction of these stones and their utilization for the observa-
tion of the setting of the Sun at the winter solstice. In order that such
observation should be possible, it were necessary that the arrangement
of the chamber would not merely allow of it, but should in some way
favour it. Now it can be seen that, owing to the manner in which the
stones forming the western end of the chamber are disposed, the sky-
line of the neighbouring western extremity of the Glen is visible from
under the rim of a lower face of the cap as shown by the interior
elevation of the western end of the chamber (the actual growth of
timber obstructing the view on the south side). May not therefore
the central mitred stone of this western end have served as an index
to mark the position of the sun at the time of the winter solstice, for
an observer looking from the eastern end of the chamber and sitting
on, or at the level of the low stone which there closes it in. This was
possible when the whole sky-line of the ridge was yet free from timber
growth, what remains of it free showing this sufficiently. The diree-
tion of the Sun in the winter solstice is marked on the plan, and points
to the feasibility of the suggested observation and its connexion with the
central western mitred stone. There are other peculiarities connected
with the stones of the southern wall of the chamber which seem
594 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
worthy of attention. Thus, it may be observed from the elevation of
the north side of the cromlech, that the stones of this southern wall
form at their junction or overlap a U-shaped void or opening with
rounded surfaces; these are smooth and, as it were, water-worn; this
result might possibly arise from a very simple and natural cause, that
is, the habit of the cattle grazing about rubbing their dewlaps on these
surfaces, the height of the opening and its size allowing of their doing
so; nevertheless, the fact that these smooth surfaces are not con-
tinuous horizontally, but extend downwards on the faces of the stones
beyond the parts of these accessible to the cattle, tends to show that
originally these surfaces were smooth. Lastly, on the inside of the
south-western supporting stone (C), and at a height of about 1 m. from
the floor, there may be recognized, on careful examination by the
hand, small patches of the surface perfectly smooth and, as it were,
ground fine. One spot in particular struck me much, as it shows a
cross-section of a mica crystal perfectly smooth, and such as to imply
water grinding, say with fine sand, on a hard, smooth surface, the
result being therefore quite distinct from any possible result of
weathering. These patches I look on as the remains of a polished
glaciated surface, and am led to conclude that the stone in its original
state was a glacial boulder, highly ground and polished on one face at
least, probably having been found in the neighbouring stream, and
was used by the builders of the cromlech prceisely on account of
its highly polished surface, to which some particular signification was.
attached. If my observations and conclusions are correct, some very
interesting points of view would thus be opened up both as to the
choice of the material used in these monuments, and as to their age,
since the lapse of time necessary to allow of the removal by atmo-
spheric action of the polished surface has been in some way proportional
to their age. There is also thus raised the question, were not the
other stones of the chamber polished boulders, including the cap
itself? This wouldbe at least probable. The cap is undoubtedly a glacial
boulder, and may have been more or less polished on its under surface.
As to the other stones, no trace apparently remains of any former smooth
surface. However, the northern stone (F) presents a character which
merits attention; it is its relative thinness and extent. Stones of granite
which have undergone very great pressures by superimposed matter,
and were subjected at the same time to motion in a given direction,
as also to low temperature with water present would undergo, at least
in the portions near the contact surface, molecular derangements such
that subsequent relief of the pressures and low temperatures would
O’Rettity—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 595
give rise to a tendency to expansion and a subsequent scaling off of
flat flakes, leaving behind a rough, slightly undulated surface, such as
is presented by this northern stone.
From this point of view 1 am inclined to think that it may have
been a glaciated plate of granite, smooth at least on one side, and used
on that account. In close proximity to these smooth patches on this
south-western stone occurs an incision about 10 c.m. long, by
13 c.m. broad, and 4c.m. deep, which may have been done by hand,
but which might really be likewise the result of contact with a hard
angle of a rock under glacial or erosive action, but it is difficult to deter-
mine to which cause it may have been due.
The cap is a very remarkable mass of granite in size, and presents
an inclination to the horizon of about 14°. The under surface is singu-
larly even and very slightly arched. The cap is shown in horizontal
projection on the plan, and also in the western and northern eleva-
tions in the Plates. What is of very great interest is the channel
cut across the upper face in the form of a bow, as shown on the plan,
and bearing two sets of incisions—one on the north side, the other on
the south. These part from the channel, and extend about 6 to 10 cm.
up the slope of the face or towards the western end of the stone. Both
the channel and the incisions have suffered from atmospheric action,
and have therefore lost somewhat of their original sharpness of outline ;
nevertheless, they are still perfectly distinct, and the intervals between
the incisions have been measured as carefully as the state of the
surfaces allows. They are as follows :—
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
South side, . 142, RE ORO BERR) 9
North side, . 221-5, 162°5, 91:5, 159°5, 127°5
The measures marked on the plan are c.m., and are only
approximative. There are twelve incisions in all. One on the south
side is, however, so elementary or effaced as to be doubtful. The
intervals are given not merely as belonging to the plan, but also
because they may represent some unit of measurement. I do not
attempt to speculate on their use further than to suggest that, if there
be admitted evidence of the utilization of the monument for solar
observations, these incisions may really have had the same object,
and might have been in connexion with a gnomon of which the place
would have been at some point to the east; possibly among the stones
shown on that side of the chamber in the plen.
596 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Howrn CromMiecu.
(Plate XVII.)
The last cromlech examined was that of Howth Demesne, which,
probably on account of its having been more accessible than those
already described, has suffered demolition to an extent which is prac-
tically complete. Its plan, therefore, can only present the relative
positions of the stones which formerly supported the cap in their
actual state. The extent of the derangement they have undergone
can only be guessed at; however, the three stones forming the south-
east extremity are nearly in their original positions, and these furnish
some very interesting points of comparison as regards the Brennans-
town cromlech. Of the Howth one, O’Neill says :—‘ An attentive
examination of this monument has convinced me that this enormous
mass (the cap stone) constituted the roof of a chamber lying east by
north, the chamber being about 12 feet long by 4 feet wide, the floor
of clay, the walls of other great stones, three at each side and one at
each end—eight in all. The roof rock, though very irregular on its
upper surface, is tolerably level beneath, and was so situated as to
have the upper surface horizontal, or nearly so, thus constituting a
level ceiling to the chamber; but, owing to the great thickness and
consequent weight at one end, the supporting stones have given way,
and, in slipping, the roof rock has been caught by a part of the
stone on which its present higher portion rests. The supporting
stones from which it has slipped are still standing undisturbed, and
are seen on the left hand side in the accompanying sketch. They are
about 7 feet high, so that the original height of the monument must
have been 12 or 18 feet. The longer direction of the chamber is east
by north; its floor is a little below the natural level of the soil.
There are several rocky fragments lying around, which, in one part,
form a sort of rude intrenchment of the monument; but whether
artificial or the result of accident I could not decide. The monument
is of quartz rock” (doc. cit. p. 41).
Wakeman says :—‘‘ This fine monument is situated near the base
of an inland cliff within the grounds of Howth Castle, and at a distance
of about three-quarters of a mile from the seashore. It consists at
present of ten blocks of quartz, of which the table or covering stone,
the largest, measures from north to south 18, and from east to west
193 feet, the extreme thickness being 8 feet. The weight of this
mass has been computed at ninety tons. Such an enormous pressure
O’Reitryv—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 597
appears to have caused the supporters, more or less, to give way ;
they all incline eastward, and the table would seem to have slipped
}
a $F
Bie. 2.
in that direction, in its course breaking one of the pillars in two.
It did not come to the ground, however, having been arrested in
its descent by the undisturbed stump of the fractured stone, upon
598 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
which, in an inclined position, it now reposes at its lowest end. The
supporters are about 63 feet in height; so that, as Beranger, who
visited and described the remains about one hundred years ago, states :—
‘This, one of the grandest mausoleums, must have made a noble
figure standing, as the tallest man might stand and walk under it at
ease. ‘The work on the interior would seem to have constituted an
irregular chamber, tending east and west; but much disturbance of
the stones has occurred.” ‘‘These stones were formerly called Fin
Mac Coul’s Quoits”’ (doc. cit. p. 64).
The divergence of views shown by these authors, as regards the
direction of the chamber, justifies the making of a correct plan
(see fig. 2, p. 597). I only noticed seven stones and the cap. Of
these the three south-eastern ones are erect, and practically in their
original positions; the most north-easterly (B) of these three, which
was one of the props of the cap stone, has remained in contact with
it, but has been dragged considerably from its original upright posi-
tion. The other stones (F, G, H, J) have been more or less completely
overturned, those to the north now lying nearly flat on the ground.
There can, therefore, be only a presumption as to the exact positions
they occupied when originally upright; and, accordingly, I have
indicated their presumed original positions, taking for granted that,
in their motion on being overturned, they yielded along their longest
dimension as axis; but some of them may have undergone a twist at
the same time owing to the greater or less depths of their buried
extremities and the positions of the points of bearing of the cap.
One of the stones has been broken clean across, and seemingly indi-
cates thus the direction of the thrust, that is practically north by east.
Comparing now the stones of the south-eastern end still upright, and
shown in the elevation of that extremity of the monument (Pl. XVII.)
(which was evidently the highest) with the similar stones of the
Brennanstown cromlech, it will be at once observed that the same
relation of these stones, one to the other, exists; that is, between two
taller supporting stones, is found a third stone not so tall, and three-
fore not having been in contact with the cap stone by a certain
interval ; moreover, this central stone is mitred and closely applied
to the supporting stone on the left hand.
There is evidently here an intentionally similar arrangement
to that shown by the Brennanstown cromlech; this becomes all the
more evident when the material of the stones is considered, which at
Howth is quartzite from the neighbouring cliff, full of quartz veins,
and therefore an extremely hard rock most difficult, in any way, to
O’Rettty— On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 599:
fashion into shape. That the middle stone was roughly fashioned
seems to me quite evident. As in the case of the Brennanstown
monument, these two stones (the left-hand one and the mitred) are
closely approximated. If therefore it be assumed that in this latter
case the mitred stone was intended to help in an astronomical observa-
tion it should follow by analogy that in the Howth monument some
such object was sought. As a matter of fact it is found that on
standing on the inside or chamber side of the mitred stone, and looking
over it towards the quartzite cliff (‘‘ Much Hill’’), the sky-line of this
stands out clearly, and the view of the sky in that direction is open.
This peculiar relation, one to the other, of these three end stones seems
to connect these two monuments; but was that of Howth intended in
this respect for solar or stellar observation? This question is to some
extent answered by pointing out that the left-hand stone (D) or most
south-westerly has a direction east 27°45’ south, and west 27° 45’ north,
or roughly is in the direction of the summer setting Sun at the period
of solstice. It is quite true that the present value of the declination
is only 28° 27’, but it is recorded by Bailly, in his ‘‘ Histoire de
VP Astronomie,’’ that higher values were used amongst the ancients.
At present owing to the dismantled state of the monument this appli-
cation of it is not at all evident, but when the supporting stones were
all upright and in their original positions, the rays of the setting Sun
at the period of the summer solstice, could traverse the chamber and
pass out between the mitred stone and the adjacent south-western
pillar, it being borne in mind that the monument stands at a level so.
as to dominate the horizon to the west, and not taking into account
the present tree growth which of course now interrupts theclear view
in that direction. Judging from the nature of the contact now existing
between what I may call the middle-stone on the south-west side of the
chamber (J.), and the under surface of the cap, I am inclined to believe
that this stone has been twisted in its fall towards the north, and that
originally it stood in about the same direction as the south-western
pillar-stone, and did not obstruct the passage of any light coming from
the north-western end of the chamber, as its presumed position would
apparently indicate.
In any case it will not be forcing the data presented by the plan
to say that the original direction of the chamber was about west
26°-27° south, and east 26°-27°. Lastly, there is a singular similarity
in the relations of the left-hand stones of the Shanganagh and Howth
cromlechs with the adjacent stones in that they make at their con-
tact nearly equal horizontal angles, that is, about 55° to 60°.
[ 600 ]
XXTV.
ON THE ORIENTATION OF SOME CROMLECHS IN THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD OF DUBLIN. (Parr II.) By PRO-
FESSOR J. P. O'REILLY, Royal College of Science, Dublin.
(Prates XVIII. to XX.)
[Read Novemper 30, 1896.]
In the previous Paper I point out that the Cromlechs of Glen
Druid, Shanganagh, and Howth showed distinct evidence of orien-
tation, and that in the case of the first-mentioned, the arrangement of
the stones forming the north, south, and west walls of the chamber,
seemed to admit of the opinion that the monument had served for the
observation of the summer solstice. Encouraged by these results, I
was led to examine and make plans and sections of the other crom-
leachs which exist in the neighbourhood of Dublin; and during the
summer months just past was practically able to complete this work.
I have now to submit the plans of the Cromlechs of Mount Venus,
Larch Hill, and Shankill, with a description of two of the stones forming
part of the group known as ‘‘ Druid’s Chair,”’ Killiney, as they seemed
to me to bear on the general question of the orientation of this class
of monument.
Movunr Venus CroMLECH.
(Pl. XVIII.)
A sketch of the Mount Venus cromlech is given in Plate XVIII.
It is mentioned by O’Neill (‘‘ Trans. Kilkenny Archeological Soc.,”
vol. ii., 1852-3, p. 42). Having given the dimensions vf the prin-
cipal stones, he states:—‘‘The floor is of clay, and a fovt below
the surface level, to which height its sides are faced with small
stones without mortar.” These facings no longer exist. The sup-
porting pillar, according to O’ Neill, must have been higher, ‘as it is
evidently broken at the top.” This seems to be an error, as all the
similar pillar-stones of the other cromlechs observed, are pointed, and
O’Reitty—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 601
seem to have been purposely so selected or fashioned, as to present
that form. He estimates the probable weight of the covering stone
at about seventy tons, and discusses the probable original form of
the monument, and gives a restoration of it in accordance with
his views. As to the stones mentioned by him as lying about, and
still existing, and which he suggests may have formed part of the
monument, such as he supposes it to have been, I have shown them on
Fie. 1.—Mount Venus.
the plan (fig. 1), and call attention to their forms, which are remarkable
in many respects. The largest stone to the west is really a very fine
monolith (D), having an approximate weight of about seven tons, and
an extreme length of 4m. 40. The edges of its western end have evi-
dently been fashioned by hammering or chipping so as to give to this
extremity a pointed or mitred form, as in the case of certain of the
pillar-stones of Glen Druid and Howth cromlechs. The most easterly
602 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
stone (E), relatively small in size, presents the same fashioned and
mitred extremity. The stone situated between these two (F), though
still smaller in size, presents characteristics which render it very inte-
resting. Its edges are relatively sharp, and the stone is so disposed
that one of the faces, the northern one, gives a due east and west
direction within a degree of error. Its form presents the further
singularity, and is such, that an edge on the upper surface furnishes a
direction, as shown on the plan, looking to the winter solstice, that is
west 23° 28’ south. This direction would, in the east, give the rising
of the summer sun at the solstice. Now it is interesting to remark
that the position of the cromlech is at such a height above the sea
level, and the slope towards the sea such, as to afford a clear view on
the horizon of Dublin Bay, a condition favourable to an exact obser-
vation of this nature.
It may be suggested that the eastern and western stones already
mentioned were formerly set up where they now are, so as to give
with the face or edge of this remarkable stone, east and west: points of
bearing that is to mark out more distinctly the required directions.
Considering the weight of the larger of these stones (7 tons), I certainly
have doubts as to their having ever formed supports for the cap stone
The orientation of the bed of the cromlech is roughly north-west and
south-east.
Druip’s Cuare, KiIniiney.
As bearing on the orientation of the stone just described, I submit
a plan of two of the stones forming the group known as the “‘ Druid’s
Chair,” Killiney. One of these, the most westerly of the set, pre-
sents on its southern face two deep circular incisions which have
suggested that they were made with a view of obtaining two mill-
stones from this rock. Its upper edge or face is partly fashioned
into two circular surfaces, so that the north-eastern side of the rock
presents the outline shown in the accompanying elevation. Between
this rock and the ‘‘ Druid’s Chair” les a single stone somewhat dis-
posed as that just described for the Mount Venus cromlech, and so
markedly oriented east and west. At the Druid’s Chair the stone in
question has a face practically due north and south (north, 0° 35’
west). There exists thus a due north and south line of direction, and
it was to be presumed that means had been secured of determining an
east and west line of direction. Now, as a matter of fact, a line drawn
from the southern corner of this stone to the south-western corner of
the mill-stone rock, gives a due east and west direction.
O’Reitty—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 603
It would seem therefore that, independently of the direction of
the principal parts of these monuments, a means of orientation was
attained by the builders or users of them by fixing single stones,
either due east and west or north and south, and placing these in
relation to other parts of the monument, so that a corresponding north
and south or east and west line of direction was determined. As in
some way agreeing with this view is the fact that the east and west
line determined as mentioned and indicated in the plan is that of the
entrance to the present enclosure of the monument, which was
formerly surrounded, according to tradition, by a ring of stones with
an entrance way, which in all probability, if not certainly, is that
still existing.
SHANKILL CROMLECH.
(PE XX figs 162.)
The Shankill cromlech is situated in a field to the south of
Carriggollaghan, near where the old road from the quarries attains
its highest level. It differs from all the others about Dublin in being
built of smaller stones, which have evidently been taken from the
neighbouring quartzite beds of Carriggollaghan. Five stones remain
in situ, four of them forming the walls of the chamber, and the fifth
forming the covering stones, as shown in the accompanying plan and
elevation (Plate XIX.). In this case the orientation is practically due
east and west, and the position of the monument such that the chamber
would receive the rays of the rising sun at equinox, and would allow of
the observation of its period. It may have been intended also to allow
of the observation of the solstices ; but, as the monument is evidently
incomplete, it is unnecessary to examine it from this point of view,
although the fact that the diagonals of the chamber in its present
state make, with the east-west direction of the sides, angles which
approximate to 238° 28’ (as would be required for that purpose) is
very suggestive. The situation of the cromlech is very commanding,
and the view embraces a large extent of horizon.
Larca Hitt CromMuLecu.
(PEC, figs: 1 & 2.)
The Larch Hill cromlech is situated in a field lying to the west
of and beiow the level of the old road, which, parting from White-
church bridge, leads up to Kilmashogue mountain and along its side.
———
604 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.
It is so enclosed by trees that it is screened from the observation of
the passer-by, and would thus escape notice. It consists of a principal
upright stone (D)—a very remarkable monolith; of a side stone (C),
evidently the northern wall of the former chamber; and of a certain
number of other stones, the two principal of which (A, B) represent
the covering stone and what was, probably, a south wall stone of the
former chamber. Both of those stones are no longer in their normal
positions, and present themselves one overlying the other, as shown in
we - 3
Fic. 2.—Larch Hill.
the plan and in the elevation (Pl. XX.). There are eight stones out-
lying, and so disposed as to allow of their being referred to the four
cardinal points. The east side of the upright pillar stone (D) is practi-
cally north and south (N. 2° 15’ W) ; while the western edge of the most
eastern stone (M) is still nearer due north and south (N. 0° 45’ E.).
The upper edge or arras of the most northern stone (L) is due east
and west, while the south-west edges of the covering stone and the
stone underneath it (B), and the edge of a stone (J) which projects
eastward from underneath the covering stone at the level of the
O’ Rettty—On the Orientation of Some Cromlechs. 605
ground, all lie in the direction of the summer solstice—that is, nearly
N. 66° 82’ W. It may therefore be said that the direction of the
chamber was intended to be in this direction. Within a few feet of
the cromlech a spring, which evidently issues from a joint in the
granite, runs for a short distance and disappears in the ground again.
The fact is worth citing, as other of the cromleachs examined were
situated near streams, as notably in the case of Mount Druid.
The results presented by the examination of the six cromlechs,
of which plans and sections have been submitted, seems to justify the
opinion that due orientation was a condition observed by the builders
of these monuments, and that thus they are connected with the ancient
temples and structures similarly characterised. They merit, therefore,
careful observation and recording, as involving characteristics which
may assist in the ultimate determination of the period to which they
belong, and the race or races to whom they owe their origin.
R.1.A. PROC., SER. TI., VOL. IV. 2x
[ 606 J
XXYV.
REPORT ON THE MUSCI AND HEPATICH OF THE
COUNTY CAVAN. By DAVID M‘ARDLE. (Prares XXI.,
XXII.)
(COMMUNICATED BY FREDERICK WILLIAM MOORE.)
[Read January 10, 1898.]
Herewirs I beg to submit to the Royal Irish Academy, on behalf of
their [rish Flora and Fauna Committee, the result of a botanical
excursion to the county Cavan, which extended from the 7th to the
11th October, 18953.
The first day was spent on Slieve Glah, a small mountain on the
N.E. side of the town, from which it is about four miles distant. I¢
gradually elevates to 1057 feet. I also dredged the adjacent lakes.
The most conspicuous plant on the mountain was Lycopodium cla-
vatum, which grows in some quantity near the summit, trailing over
the bare peat, to which it was fixed by remarkably strong flagelli-
form roots. Though this plant is included in district 10 of the “‘ Cybele
Hibernica,” there is no locality named for the county Cavan. Some
interesting mosses and liverworts were also collected. The season
for flowering plants was over, but I gathered Achillea Ptarmica,
which grows sparingly on the mountain with Crepis virens and Hie-
racium pilosella; and Polygonum persicaria, by the roadside, as I
ascended, still continued in bloom. Some good collecting was done
on the shores and in the plantations about Lough Cultra. The water-
plants were mostly decayed, and the dredge only brought their
remains and Juncus supinus which was floating in the lough. In
bogholes near the town, Pofamogeton pusillus was plentiful. This is
an addition to district 10 in the ‘‘ Cybele Hibernica.”
I spent a day collecting about the shores and woods of Lough
Oughter; one of a chain of lakes which occupy a considerable portion
of the centre of the county. It isa very picturesque district, and
only wants mountains to complete the beauty of the scenery. The
lakes slope gradually from the shore, margined with Phragmitis
communis and Equisetum palustre; and on the eastern side, backed
M‘ArpLte—On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 607
up with stately specimens of the white spruce, Adbzes alba, of huge
dimensions, several species of oak, Pyrus Aucuparia, Chestnuts, and
enormous specimens of Beech. These were in full foliage, which was
coloured with the charming tints of autumn. The most interesting
find amongst flowering plants was Sagina nodosa, which grows
sparingly by the margins of the lakes, and has not been previously
reported from the county Cavan. The most successful day’s collect-
ing was done along the banks of the Analee river. From Ballyhaise
bridge I followed its course for a considerable distance, and from its
banks crossed into the oak wood, where I gathered, in some quantity,
Scapania aspera, which grows plentifully amongst the limestone rocks,
and is an addition to the list of Irish Hepatic. The collection made
in the Farnham demesne was also interesting, on account of the occur-
rence there of the curious Metzgeria conjugata in a fertile state. The
plant is unique amongst all the other speeies in the genus, in having
a moncecious inflorescence, which character is well shown in Plate
XXII., so excellently delineated by Mr. Allen.
The total number collected is of Musci forty-one species, and of
Hepatice thirty-nine. The occurrence of Radula voluta and Riccardia
palmata so far northward is remarkable.
My best thanks are due to M. B. Slater, Esq., of Malton, Yori-
shire, whom I consulted on critical species, and to W. N. Allen, Esq.,
for the drawings of the two plates. It would have been impossible
for me to be able to furnish these extended lists were it not for the
kindness of the late W. Humphreys, Esq., J.e., of Ballyhaise House,
who freely granted me permission to collect in his demesne.
MUSCI.
Sub-Order I.—SpHacnacEe®.
1. Sphagnum acutifolium, Ehrh. Slieve Glah.
Sphagnum acutifolium, Ehrh., var. rubellum, Wils. Slieve Glah.
2. Sphagnum cuspidatum, Ehrh., var. plumosum, Nees. Wet places,
Sheve Glah; often found floating.
3. Sphagnum papillosum, Lindb. Killakeen, sparingly.
I1.—PotytTRicHacEZz®.
4. Catharinea undulata, Web. et Mohr. Slieve Glah.
5. Polytrichum aloides, Hedwig, = Pogonatum aloides, P. Beauv.
Peaty banks, Killakeen.
2x
608 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
ow >I
11.
12.
18.
19.
20.
21.
II1.—Dicesnacez.
. Ceratodon purpureus, Bridel. Bank on the shores of Lough Cultra,
plentiful, Slieve Glah.
. Dicranella heteromalla, Schimp. Killakeen, common.
. Dicranella varia, Schimp. Peaty banks, Killakeen.
. Dicranum majus, Turner. Ballyhaise woods, common.
. Dicranum scoparium, Hedwig. Ballyhaise woods.
IV.—FissMENTACER.
Fisstdens tazifolius, Hedwig. Killakeen, plentiful.
V.—Gepnnacez.
Racomitrium fasciculare, Bridel. Killakeen woods, sparingly.
V1I.—Torrvnscez.
. Pottia truncata, Br. et Sch. Ditch banks, Killakeen.
. Tortula convoluta, Hedwig. Farnham demesne.
. Tortula muralis, Turner (Hedwig). On walls, Killakeen, Bally-
haise bridge, very common.
. Tortula levipila, Schwegr.- On the trunks of trees, Farnham
demesne, common.
. Barbula rubella, Mitt. = Didymodon rubellus, Schimp. Farnham
demesne.
VII.—OnrrnorricHscem.
Zygodon viridissimus, Brown. On the trunks of trees, Farnham
demesne, fertile.
Ulota crispa, Bridel = Orthotrichum crispum, Hedwig. Sp. Muse.
p- 162. On the branches of trees and shrubs, forming little
yellow-green soft cushions. Slieve Glah, shores of Lough
Cultra, Farnham demesne, Killakeen woods.
Ulota phyllantha, Bridel = Orthotrichum phyllanthum, Br. & Sch.,
Bryol. Europ., vol. 3, Monogr., p. 30, t.223. On rocks, Slieve
Glah. On trees, Ballyhaise woods, shores of Lough Cultra,
common.
VIll.—Beyacez.
Bryum capillare, Hedwig. On walls, Farnham demesne, Killa-
keen, Ballyhaise bridge.
22
23.
24.
25.
26.
M‘Arpite—On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 609
1X .—FontinaLacez.
Fontinalis antipyretica, Linn. On stones, Analee river, at Bally-
haise Bridge.
X.—CRYPHACER.
Cryphea heteromalla, Bridel. On trees, Farnham demesne.
X1.—NECKERACE.
Neckera crispa, Dill. Killakeen woods.
XI1.—LeEsKracez.
Thuidium tamariscinum, B. & 8S. Killakeen woods.
XII1.—Hypnacez.
Homalothecium sericeum, Linn., Bryol. Kurop., vol. v., Monogr.,
p- 8, t. 456. On stones, Slieve Glah. On the trunks of trees
and on decayed wood, Farnham, Killakeen, Ballyhaise.
. Brachythecium rutabulum, Linn. On old wood, Farnham demesne,
bank on the shores of Lough Cultra, common.
. Brachythecium populeum, Hedwig, Sp. Musc., t. 70, fig. 1-6. Killa-
keen, common.
. Brachythecium rivulare, Br. & Sch. Margin of a lake at Killa-
keen, sparingly.
. Eurynchium myosuroides, Schimp. On the trunks of trees, Bally-
haise, shores of Lough Cultra.
. HLurynchium prelongum, Schimp. Farnham demesne.
. Hurynchium striatum, Schimp. In damp places, Ballyhaise
woods.
. Eehynchostegium rusciforme, B. & S. = Hurynchium ruseciforme,
Milde. In large tufts, Farnham demesne.
. Plagiothecium undulatum, Linn. Damp, shady places, Ballyhaise
woods, very fine.
. Plagiothecium sylvaticum, Linn. Killakeen woods, shores of Lough
Cultra.
. Plagiothecium Borrerianum, Spruce = Hypnum elegans, Hook.
Damp bank, Farnham demesne.
. Plagiothecium denticulatum. Br. & Sch. Killakeen.
. Amblystegium serpens, L., Dill. On decayed wood, Ballyhaise
and Killakeen.
610
39.
40.
41.
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Amblystegium riparium, Linn. On wet banks, side of a drain,
Farnham demesne.
Hypnum cupressiforme, Linn. On trees, walls, and rocks, Killa-
keen, Ballyhaise, Slieve Glah.
Hypnum cupressiforme, L., var. filiforme, Br. Kur. On the trunks
of trees, Slieve Glah, Killakeen, Ballyhaise woods, very fine
and abundant.
Hypnum resupinatum, Wils., Eng. Bot., t. 1664. Ballyhaise
woods. (Good authorities consider this to be a var. of H. cupres-
siforme. )
Hepatice.
. Lunularia cruciata, Linn. (Dumort) = LZ. vulgaris, Micheli, noy.
gen. 4, t. 4. Darchantia cruciata, Linn., Sp. Pl., 1604, Car-
rington and Pearson, Exicc. Fase. 2, n. 148. Ditch bank,
Farnham demesne, near Cavan.
Frullania dilatata, Linn. (Dumort), Hook, Brit. Jung., tab. 3.
On the trunks of trees, Killakeen, Farnham, Ballyhaise woods,
Slieve Glah (on rocks).
. Frullania tamarisei, Linn., Sp. Pl., ed. 2, p. 11384, Hook, Brit.
Jung., tab. 6. On the trunks of trees, Ballyhaise woods, Killa-
keen, near the summit of Sleve Glah (on rocks).
Frullania germana, Taylor in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. 2, p. 43,
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 450. On the trunks of trees and
decayed wood, Ballyhaise, Killakeen, Farnham woods, Slieve
Glah, sparingly.
. Lejeunea minutissima, Smith = Leeunea inconspicua, Raddi, in
Alt. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 34, t. 5, fig. 2. On the trunks of trees
about Farnham amongst Metzgeria, very fine epiphytic on
Frullania, and at Killakeen on Hypnum cupressiforme, var. filt-
forme. This was the only Lejeunea collected by me in the
Co. Cavan. Plants very minute, creeping, irregularly branched.
Leaves distant, subrotund, complicate almost the whole length,
concave, turgid, sub-papillose. lLobule a little narrower than
the lobe. Bracts of the perianth twice as long as the leaves,
broadly oblong, slightly complicate, very shortly bilobed, pos-
tical lobe twice narrower. Perianth exserted, turbinate, pyri-
form or compressed, decidedly 5 carinate, papillose, keels with
asingle row of pellucid cells. Androcia on short, robust
branches of from three to five pair of altered leaves or amenta,
a little smaller than the normal leaves, monandrous. This is
10.
MAL
M‘ArpLE— On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 611
the true plant, which authors have had considerable difficulty
in separating from Taylor’s Leyewnea ulicina, which Dr. Spruce,
in his exhaustive work on the Hepatice of the Amazon and
Andees, puts into a different subgenus Microlejeunia. He
places Lejeunea minutissima, Smith, and L. microscopica, Taylor,
into his subgenus Cololejeunia: they are nearly allied, but quite
distinct, Z. microscopica having pareecious inflorescence, while
L. minutissima is monecious. Both plants are without foliola
or stipules. Leeunea inconspicua, Raddi, cannot rank as a
species in the Irish list. It is the same as L. minutissima, Smith,
Leeunea ulicina, Taylor, is very distinct from the other two
minute plants; it is dicecious, and has distinct foliola or sti-
pules. The figures of Leyeunea minutissima in English Botany,
t. 1633, is correct. The excellent figure in Sir William
Hooker’s British Jungermania, tab. 52, under L. minutissima,
is not that species, but Lejeunea ulicina, Taylor.
. Radula complanata, Linn. Dum., Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 81. On
the trunks of trees, Killakeen, Farnham demesne, shores of
Lough Cultra.
Radula complanata, L. var. minor, Hook. Slieve Glah, Killakeen
wocds, in perfect condition, differing only in smaller size, more
convex and darker-coloured leaves.
. Radula voluta, Taylor., Carrington in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., viz.,
p. 455. Radula xalapensis, Lindberg and Moore in Irish
Hepatice. On trees by the shore of Lough Cultra, very rare,
not previously found northwards.
. Porella platyphylia, L., Lindberg, Hook., Brit. Jung., tab. 40,
fig. 1 = Madotheca platyphylla, Dumort, Comm. Bot., p. 111.
On damp rocks, Killakeen woods.
. Cephaloxia divaricata, Smith (Dumort), Eng. Bot., t. 719.
Spruce in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 3, p. 207. Sleve Glah,
sparingly.
Cephalozia Lammersiana, Huben, Hepat. Germ. 185. Jungermania
bicuspidata, English Botany, t. 2239. Damp, boggy places,
Ballyhaise woods, Slieve Glah.
Cephalozia bicuspidata, Linn., Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 11, et. supp.,
t. 4. On decayed wood, shores of Lough Cultra, Slieve Glah.
Cephalozia bicuspidata, var. setulosa, Spruce, Killakeen. A
curious dwarf of reddish-coloured form occurs near the summit
of Slieve Glah.
612 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
12. Cephalozia catenulata, Huben, Hepat. Germ. 169. Jungermania
catenulata, Carrington, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 7, p. 449,
t. 11, fig. 2, vera. On decayed wood, shores of Lough Cultra,
Slieve Glah, Ballyhaise, amongst Diplophyllum.
13. Lophocolea bidentata, Linn. (Dumort), Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 30.
On decayed wood shores of Lough Cultra, Slieve Glah, oak
wood, at Ballyhaise.
14. Lophocolea heterophylla, Schrad, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 31. Car-
rington and Pearson Exsicc, No 36. Parecious. The Anthe-
ridea may be found in the axils of the perigonial leaves, just
beneath the perianth ; by this character and the various shaped
leaves, it is abundantly distinct from L. bidentata and L. cuspi-
data, which both have their male flowers in amente. On
decayed wood, shores of Lough Cultra, fertile.
15. Saccogyna viticulosa, Dumort, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 60. On
damp ground, Ballyhaise woods.
16. Scapania nemorosa, Dumort, Eng. Bot., t.607. Carrington and
Pearson, Exsice. 92. On damp ground, Ballyhaise woods.
17. Scapania aspera, Muller & Bernet (Plate XXI.); Henri Bernet,
Catalogue Hep. du Sud-Ouest de la Suisse et de la Haute-
Savoie, 1888. Pearson, in Journal of Botany vol. 30, p. 3538,
plate 329, 1893.
Dicecious, loosely depresso-ceespitose, of a reddish or olive brown
colour. Stems tallish, simple or slightly branched, firm, blackish,
recurved at the apex, denudate at the base, radiculose, rootlets few,
whitish. Leaves transversely inserted, somewhat smaller and distant
below, contiguous, or imbricate above, subsecund, unequally bilobed,
margin ciliate-dentate; postical lobe more distinctly ciliate, about
twenty-five cilia around the margin; antical lobe, with five to ten or
more, distant teeth, about half the size of the postical, convex, oval-
triangular, rotundate, or rarely abruptly subacute, appressed to the
stem, postical lobe, oval-oblong, rotundate, or rarely abruptly
subacute, reflexed ; texture somewhat firm, epidermis verruculose,
several minute papille on each cell; cells small, to rather minute,
subquadrate, walls thick, angles thickened, no trigones. Bracts
rather larger than the upper leaves, lobes more equal, antical
lobe rotundate. Perianth projecting half beyond the bracts,
obovate, compressed mouth, wide truncate, spinose ciliate. Male
stems more slender, perigonial bracts enclosing leafy paraphyses
along with the antheridia. Sometimes gemmiparous. Hab. On
M‘ArpLE—On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 613
limestone rocks. Ballyhaise wood, plentiful (fertile). Thisis, so far,
the only known Irish locality for the plant which is an addition to
the list of Liverworts. It is also found in England and Wales, and
on the Continent, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and,
possibly it may lurk in Irish Herbaria, under the name of S. nemo-
rosa, and, more probably, of S. equiloba. Mr. W. H. Pearson, in his
excellent article on the plant, in Journal of Botany, above quoted,
writes :—‘‘ Although strikingly different in habit from S. equiloba
(Schweer). I am not prepared to say, with the founder of the
species, that it has nothing in common with it; the perianth has
usually a wider mouth, but the margin is exactly the same; and,
although the antical lobe is proportionately smaller and more rotun-
date at the apex, yet, in S. equiloba, the lobes are not nearly so equal
as the name would imply; the most remarkable characters of dis-
tinction are found in the antical lobes, which, in S. aspera, are more
or less rotundate at the apex, which character becomes more notice-
able in the bracts; whereas, in S. equiloba they are more oblong and
sub-quadrate, the apex is more acute and becomes more accentuated in
the antical lobe of the bract ; the postical lobes are also more oblong,
and acuminate; the postical lobes of both the leaves and bracts are
strongly recurved. S. @guiloba is a smaller plant, with a neater
habit, generally of a dark olive-green colour, leaves regularly
inserted, and almost equal in size along the whole stem, margin not
so ciliate; teeth smaller and fewer, sometimes subentire, texture more
opaque.”
18. Scapania curta, Dumort. Jungermania nemorosa, var. 6 denudata,
Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 21; Carrington, British Hepatice,
pt. 4, p. 86, pl. 7, fig. 23. On damp ground, between rocks,
Slieve Glah, rare (very scarce).
19. Diplophyllum albicans, Linn. (Dumort), Hook. Brit. Jung., tab.
23; Eng. Bot. 2240. Damp banks, Ballyhaise wood, Slieve
Glah.
20. Plagiochila asplenioides, Linn.(Dumort), Eng. Bot., t. 1061 ; Hook.,
Brit., Jung., tab. 18. On damp ground, plentiful, very fine in
the oak wood, Ballyhaise and Killakeen.
21. Plagiochila spinulosa, Dicks (Dumort), Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 14.
Damp bank, Ballyhaise wood.
22. Jungermania (Apolozia) pumila, Withering (Dumort), Hook.
Brit. Jung. t. 17; Carrington and Pearson, Exs. No. 102.
On wet rocks, Ballyhaise wood, very scarce.
614 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
23. Jungermania (Lophozia) barbata, Schreber, Hook. Brit. Jung.,
t. 70; Eng. Bot., t. 2547. Damp bank, amongst Diplo-
phyllum, on Slieve Glah, very scarce.
24. Jungermania (Lophozia) ventricosa, Dicks, Hook. Brit. Jung., t.
28 ; Carr and Pearson, Exs. No. 171. Damp bank, Slieve
Glah, scarce.
25. Jungermania (Lophozia) alpestris, Schl. ; Junger. alpestris, Schleich.
Exs., cent. 2, n. 59, Nees., Europ. Leberm, 2, p. 104,
G. L. et N. Syn. Hepat., p. 113. Damp bank, Slieve Glah,
sparingly.
Dicecious, stem strong, creeping, or erect from the upper half,
simple or devaricately branched near the apex, clothed on the under
side with white rootlets, which is often violet-coloured for its whole
length. Leaves in two rows, vertical, increasing in size from the
base upwards, sub-quadrate, two-lobed, rarely three-lobed, segments
of various depths, acute or obtuse, often widely and obtusely notched
at the apex, sinus shallow, in some leaves scarcely perceptible.
Perichetial leaves three or four times acutely divided ; stipules, none.
Perianth obovate or obovate oblong, terminal or lateral. Antheridia
remarkably large, placed singly at the base of each leaf, which is
closely imbricated and saccate at the base, patent at the apex, re-
curved, of a pale violet colour.
This interesting plant was first reported from Kinnordy! (Co.
Kerry ?), where it was collected by Dr. Taylor many years ago. I
cannot find any record of its reappearance in Ireland, till I rediscovered
it on Benbulbin, Co. Sligo, in 1881, when collecting plants there with
Mr. F. W. Moore, a.u.s. I was in some difficulty as to what to refer
it to, as the specimens bore no perianth, and I sent a portion of what I
gathered to Mr. M. B, Slater, r.1.s., of Yorkshire, an excellent autho-
rity on liverworts, who preserved my specimen to be further examined,
in the hope of my being able to find it in some other locality, and in
more perfect condition, which I was fortunate enough to do a few
years later, gathering ample material in the Co. Wicklow, in good
condition. Jungermania excisa, Dicks, Hook., Brit. Jung. Supp., t. 2,
collected near Dublin by Dr. Taylor, probably also belongs to Junger-
mania alpestris. Referring to it, Dr. D. Moore states in his excellent
paper on the Irish Hepatice :—*‘ This plant has not turned up among
the widely extended gatherings made by me in many parts of Ireland,
1 Dr. Carrington, ‘‘ Gleanings among the Irish Cryptograms,’’ Trans. Bot. Soc.
Edin. vol. yim. p. 379.
M‘ArpLte—On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 615
nor have I seen Irish specimens of it” (Proc. R.I.A., 2nd Ser.,
vol. 1., Science, p, 652). The ventricose group of Jungermania are
difficult to identify without a series of specimens in good condition.
The descriptions given in synopsis by authors are often too brief, and
suggest slight differences when the plants are distinct enough.
26. Jungermania (Gymnocolea) inflata, Huds., Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 38;
Carrington and Pearson’s Exsice., No. 28-29. Moist bank near
the summit of Slieve Glah.
27. Nardia emarginata, Ehrhart (B. Gr.), Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 27.
Wet rocks, Ballyhaise wood, Farnham demesne.
Nardia emarginata, var. minor. On stones near the summit of
Sheve Glah.
28. Nardia scalaris, Schrad., Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 61; Carrington,
Brit. Hepat., p. 28. Moist bank, Sheve Glah, shore of Lough
Cultra.
29. Nardia hyalina, Lyell, Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 63; Carrington, Brit.
Hepat., p. 35, pl. 11, fig. 36. Damp bank near the summit of
Slieve Glah.
30. Nardia obovata, Nees, Gottsche et Rabenhorst, Hepaticee Europea,
No. 266, with excellent figure and description by Dr. Gottsche;
Carrington, Brit. Hepat., p. 82, pl. 11, fig. 35. Moist bank
amongst stones, Sheve Glah. A well-marked plant, easily
separated from the two species, 28 and 29, by the purple rootlets
and the involucral bracts, two pairs which are larger than the
leaves, the two upper opposite, and connate for more than half
their length.
31. Nardia crenulata, Smith (Lindberg), Eng. Bot., t. 1463; Hook.,
Brit. Jung., t. 37. Aplozia crenulata, Hep. Europ., p. 57.
Damp banks, Slieve Glah, sparingly.
32. Nardia gracillina, Smith (Lindberg), Sm. Eng. Bot., 2238.
Aplozia gracillima, Dumort, Hepat. Europ., p. 57. On damp
ground, Killakeen, Slieve Glah, on the shores of Lough Cultra.
33. Blasia pusilla, Linn. Jungermania Blasia, Hook., Brit. Jung.,
t. 82-84. Side of a drain, Killakeen.
84. Pellia epiphylla, Linn., Sp. pl. 1, ed. 2, p. 1185, Hook., Brit.
Jung., t.47. On a damp bank, Farnham demesne, Killakeen,
shores of Lough Cultra.
35. Metzgeria furcata, Linn. (Dumort), Hook., Brit. Jung., t. 55, 56.
Dicecious, fronds linear, flat, dichotomously forked, smooth
on the upper surface, margin and costa beneath subpilose ;
fruit rising from the mid-rib or nerve on the under side,
616 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
calyptra setulose, forming dense patches closely pressed to the
surface, of a pale green colour. On the trunks of trees, Farn-
ham demesne, Ballyhaise woods, Killakeen, Slieve Glah.
Metzgeria furcata, var. B fruticulosa, Dicks, Lindberg. Monogr.
Metzgeria = Jungermania fruticulosa, Eng. Bot., vol. 35, tab.
2514. J. furcata, var. B eruginosa, Hook., Brit. Jung., in textu
ad tab. 55 et 56.
Growing on the bark of trees in compact, crisped tufts, not un-
like some of the larger alge ; fronds dilated near the apex,
sharply forked, with the margins shallow and closely recurved,
giving the ramuli the appearance of being reduced to the nerve.
The colour is a striking verdigris green or blue-green, especially
brilliant near the apex of the frond, which is erect or ascend-
ing, bearing copious gemme at the apex. Farnham demesne,
plentiful; oak wood, at Ballyhaise.
36. Metzgeria conjugata, Dill. (Pl. XXII.); Lindberg’s Monogr.
Metzgeria.
Autcecious ; fronds robust, not much elongated, more or less dicho-
tomous, irregularly pinnated or decomposite, linear, narrower
in some parts than in others, in tranverse section semilunar,
hairs longish, singly, often in pairs, on margin and divergent.
The paucity of hairs and more horny substance of the fronds
with copious innovations, and the autcecious or moncecious in-
florescence abundantly distinguish this species from IL. furcata,
which is dicecious, and all other known species of this singular
genus. On the trunks of trees, Farnham demesne, Ballyhaise
woods, shores of Lough Cultra on Frullania.
37. Riccardia multifida, Dill. (Linn.), Eng. Bot., t. 186; Hook. Brit.
Jung., t. 45. On damp ground, Killakeen.
38. Riccardia sinuata, Dicks = Jung. pinnatifida, Nees in Mart. FI.
Brus., p. 827. Aneura pinnatifida, Dumort. In moist shady
places, Killakeen (sparingly).
39. Riccardia palmata, Hedwig (Lindberg); Jungermania palmata,
Hedwig, Theor. Gen., ed. i., p. 87, tab. 18, figs. 93-95, et tab.
19, figs. 96-98 ; Cook, Handbook Brit. Hepat., pl. 7, fig. 91;
Carrington & Pearson’s Exsicc., No. 204.
Dicecious ; fronds short, rather crowded, free at the apex, palmately
cut, segments linear, and frequently tapering to a point or
slightly emarginate ; involucral bracts small; calyptra small and
densely verrucose. On decayed wood, shores of Lough Cultra.
This is the only northern station for the plant known to me.
M‘Arpite—On the Musci and Hepatice of the Co. Cavan. 617
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXI. ann XXII.
Pratt X XI.
Scapania aspera, Mill.
. Plant, twice natural size.
. Portion of a branch with perianth, ventral aspect. x 10.
. The same dorsal aspect. x 10.
. Perianth and involucral bracts. x 15.
. Young shoot, bearing gemme buds at apex. x 10.
Pp lcatm el GF
. Involucral bract. x 16.
. Cells and margin of leaf. x 275.
no =
oOornrm ae oo
Prate XXII.
Metzgeria conjugata, Dill., Lindberg.
. Plant, natural size.
. The same, x 10, showing moneecious character.
. The normal branching habit of the plant.
. Proliferous budding frequently seen in Metzgeria, x 10.
. The setulose calyptra or perianth. x 20.
. The same, with elevated capsule and inyolucre, which
encloses the antheridia. x 20.
7. Involucre, which encloses the antheridia. x 120.
8. Valve of the capsule and persistent elaters (one spired).
x 120.
9. Portion of thallus or frond showing marginal hairs. x 120.
Oa ap CF WH eH
Fi6l Bina]
XXVI.
ON THE EFFECTS OF STIMULATIVE AND ANASTHETIC
GASES ON TRANSPIRATION. (PRELIMINARY NOTE.)
Bry HENRY H. DIXON, D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of
Botany, Trinity College, Dublin.
(COMMUNICATED BY E. P. WRIGHT, M.D.)
[Read January 10, 1898.]
Ir has been pointed out! that experimental data do not allow us to:
decide whether the energy which raises the sap in tall trees during
transpiration is directly derived from the inflow of heat at the evapo-
rating surfaces in the leaves, or whether the energy is, at least in
part, derived from the potential energy stored in the form of various
oxidisable substances in the leaf. In other words, whether transpira-
tion is a purely physical process, or whether it is complicated by
phenomena which biologists describe as vital processes.
This investigation is an attempt to elucidate this point. It was
hoped that, by observing the effects of stimulative and anesthetic
gases on transpiration, we might obtain a clue as to the nature of the
process. Thus, if it was noted that a gas like oxygen, which stimu-
lates the vital actions of protoplasm, caused the rate of transpiration
to increase markedly, this observation would tend to show that tran-
spiration might with probability be referred to vital action. Again, if
the action of anesthetics tended to retard transpiration, we would have
in this fact additional evidence pointing in the same direction; whereas;
if these gases were without special effects on the process, other than
their simple physical properties would exert on evaporatian we might
conclude that so far transpiration was similar to evaporation.
The: direct effects of the stimulating and anestheticising gases are,
however, complicated by other attending phenomena; so that the
results, so far as I have been able to proceed, are neither easily
obtained nor are they of unequivocal interpretation.
The method of experiment was as follows:—The rate of transpi-
ration of a branch enclosed in a large receiver, and supplied with a
1 «Report of a Discussion on the Ascent of Water in Trees,’’ Ann. Bot.,
Dec. 1896, and ‘“‘On the Physics of the Transpiration Current, p. 34.
Dixon— On the Effects of Gases on Transpiration. 619
constant current of dried air, was observed. This rate was then com-
pared with the rate of transpiration, when a similar current of some
other dried gas, or dried air, carrying with it some anestheticising
vapour, was passed through the receiver.
The rate of transpiration was estimated, either by the motion of an
index moving in a capillary tube sealed hermetically to the cut end of
the branch, or by directly weighing the amount of water transpired.
In the latter case, which was found to be the more satisfactory, the
branch, inserted through a caoutchouc cork into a test-tube containing
water, was hung from one arm of a balance. The arrangement is
shown in the figure. In this figure 0 is a ‘ tower’ containing calcium
Fig. 1.
chloride, aud ¢ is a sulphuric acid bulb for drying the gas supplied.
Before passing through the drying materials, the gas entering at ¢ is
led into an inverted flask d, which is provided, in addition to the
tubes of entry and exit, with a U-tube, f, filled with oil. The supply
of gas is adjusted until the oil in the longer arm of the tube f is
brought to a certain level. By this means the pressure, and con-
sequently the flow, of gas through the apparatus can be adjusted and
compared. When vapours are to be supplied, the liquid from which
the vapour is derived is placed in a sulphuric acid bulb, like that in the
figure, but inserted in the train between the air supply and the flask d.
The first experiments made were with the index method of esti-
mating the rate of transpiration. A modification of the apparatus, as
figured, which is readily understood, was then used. The branch,
sealed hermetically to a capillary tube containing the index, was then
inserted from below into the receiver..
With thesearrangements there soon appeared to be a marked differ-
ence in the rate of transpiration in oxygen and COQ,. Thus, to quote
620 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
the mean of a number of observations with a branch of Cytisus Labur-
num in CO,. the index moved 1 em. in 38”; with the same branch in
oxygen it moved 1 cm. in 28”.
When the rate of transpiration in air was compared with that in
oxygen, it was found that when a branch was surrounded with the
latter gas, transpiration was slightly more rapid. The index for the
branch in air moved lem. in 86”; for the same branch in oxygen it
moved lem. in 33”.
If, while a current of air was passing through the receiver, a piece
of cotton wool soaked in chloroform was introduced, a much more
marked differenee in the rate of transpiration became apparent in a
short time. Thus the index was traversing 10cm. in 50°8” when
chloroform was introduced ; at the end of 30 minutes it took 516” to
traverse the same distance. The chloroform was then removed, and
the air current maintained for 60 minutes. At the end of this time
the index moved 10cm. in 120.” This result is the mean of a number
of experiments made with a small branch of Acer macrophyllum.
With another branch in air the motion of the index was 10cm. in
127”. Whensurrounded with chloroform vapour for 45 minutes the
index took 642” to traverse the same distance.
A similar diminution in the rate of transpiration is observed when
the branch is surrounded by ether vapour. Thus, with a branch of
Acer macrophyllum in air, the index moved 10cm. in 205”; with the
same in ether vapour it moved 10cm. in 265”.
These experiments indicate a large difference in the rate of tran-
spiration in the rate of different gases. The figures given here will
serve only as examples of the results of such experiments, for,
although they were the means of a number of observations, these
latter are made so precarious by a number of circumstances, that they
can only be taken as indicating a difference, and not as giving a
measure of it. The sticking of the index in the capillary tube, and
the opening of the receiver to introduce the anesthetics, bring in
errors, which render the method unsuited to exact observation.
In order to eliminate these sources of inexactness I had recourse
to the arrangements shown in the figure. The results obtained by
this method are displayed in the following tables. The difficulties of
keeping the flow of gas exactly constant through the apparatus, and
other experimental errors, lead to variations between the individual
observations often amounting to 10 per cent.; but by multiplying these
1 It is to be observed the rate of flow of the different gases will be different,
even if the pressure be the same.
Dixon—On the Effects of Gases on Transpiration. 621
observations it is hoped that, at least, an approximation to the actual
alteration in the rate of transpiration has been obtained. The numbers
here given are the means of a large number of observations. In each
case, the branches experimented on were from a tree of Syringa
vulgaris, except in the last set of experiments, where effect of ether
vapour was observed. In these last, branches of Cytisus laburnum
were used.
TaszeE I.
Be tves ON 231 Medium. Temperature. Amount ee ired
Oxygen, . : : 18-2° “140 grs.
20
Air, : . c 18°2° "103 grs.
COz, 3 3 : 15:°8° "108 grs.
15 e
Air, 15°7° "118 grs.
a Chloroform, . ° 20°5 077 grs.
ANE, : 4 : 20°8 "116 grs.
Ether, . : : 1@)Pil "237 grs.
10
INTE, ° : : 19-0 283 grs.
If the amount transpired in air be taken as 100, the amounts
transpired in the other gases are as follows. This may be said to
denote to the specific transpiration for these gases :—
Taste II.
: Specifi
Medium. Tian spication®
Oxygen, ° : : 135°8
Kins VT ee ale 9) 100-0
CO, . : : : 87°3
Ether, . : d ; 82:3
Chloroform, ; : 66°4
The first source of error effecting these experiments, and one
R.I.A. PROC., SER, III., VOL. IV. 2a
622 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
which it seems hard to eliminate, arises from the fact that the effects
of the different gases may be more or less rapid. Thus it is very
certain that the light gases (¢.e. those with small molecules) will
diffuse into the intercellular spaces more quickly than the heavy gases,
and so come into contact with evaporating cells more quickly.
Besides this, it seems probable that the poisoning and anesthetic
effects of one may be more rapid than those of another. The
observations, on which the numbers given above are based, were
commenced in each case after the branch had been surrounded by the
gas for five minutes, and were discontinued before any lethal could be
observed in the leaves; for such, if arising, would cause the osmotic
pressures obtaining in the leaf-cells to become diminished, by ren-
dering the protoplasmic membranes permeable. These effects were
usually visible within 45 minutes after starting the experiment. It
is possible that the denser vapour could not, within this time, diffuse
into all the intercellular spaces of the leaves.
An error arising from this possibility is most unsatisfactory,
as it seems extremely difficult to make proper allowance for it.
It seems impossible, at present, to decide how soon the surrounding
gas will come into contact with the evaporating cells, and,
also, when the anestheticising or stimulating action will cease,
and the lethal effects will begin, if, indeed, there is any sharp
line of distinction.
Next we come to an error which can, in some degree, be elimi-
nated.
It is known that the rate of diffusion of a gas will be influenced
by the nature of the gas occupying the space into which it is diffusing
Thus water-vapour will diffuse more slowly into CO, gas than into
oxygen. This difference depends on the relative sizes of the molecules
of the gases into which the water-vapour has to diffuse. For the
same pressure and temperature, there will be the same number of
molecules of these gases in the surrounding space; but if their sizes
are different, it is plain that the water-molecules will less readily
diffuse inte the space occupied by the gas composed of the larger
molecules.
In order to form some idea of this effect, I suspended a shallow
dish containing water in the receiver, previously occupied by the
transpiring branch; and in connexion with the train of apparatus
previous.y described, successive weighings gave approximately the
loss of water by evaporation from this dish. During the experiment
a stream of gas dried, as before described, was kept up through the
Drxon—On the Effects of Gases on Transpiration. 623
apparatus. The rate of evaporation, when this current was composed
of air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and largely of ether and chloroform, was
observed, and is recorded in the following table. The evaporating
surface in each case was 41 sq. cms. :—
Taste ITI.
Medium. Temperature. pisses in
Oxygen, - é =| 14°7 098 grs.
AN, ‘ : : 14°7 094 grs.
Ether, . : : : 15°6 074 grs.
FAT : é : 15°4 "092 prs.
Chloroform, . : : 18°7 ‘O77 grs.
Owens isthe GOLA 18-3 132 prs.
COs are : « : 15:2 "096 grs.
ite, : : - | 1571 "108 grs.
From this table it results, if we denote the loss of weight of a
vessel of water in air as 100, the loss in the other gases will be as
follows :-—
Taste LV.
Specifi
Medium. Hivapeualion.
Oxygen, . : : 104
SANIT Wake : : : 100
COn cia ren 89
Ether, . : : . 81
Chloroform, : : 59
75 Go?
624 Proceedings of the Royal lrish Academy.
The following table combines Table II. with Table IV. for the
sake of comparison :—
Taste V.
‘ | Specik Specifi
Mediu ines, eat
Oxycen 135°8 104
Rar an Ss Ne 100-0 100
COz, . . . . 87°3 89
Biter) wae te te heel 82°3 81
| Chloroform, . A “ 66°4 Wi)
From this table it would appear that the rate of transpiration is
diminished when the leayes are surrounded by CO,, ether vapour, or
chloroform, much in the same degree as the rate of evaporation would
be diminished by the presence of these gases. In the case of oxygen,
however, the rate of transpiration is increased much more than the
rate of evaporation would be from a liquid surface.
It must be understood that these numbers only apply to the first
effects of CO., ether, and chloroform ; for when these gases begin to
exercise a killing action on the cells, the rate of transpiration is very
markedly diminished, presumably owing to the reduction of the osmotic
pressure in the cells.
The experiments both on transpiration and evaporation are exposed
to two common errors—e¢.g. a certain amount of gas will be dissolved
in each case by the liquid present, and this will reduce the loss of
weight, and so diminish the rate in both cases. Again, this solution
of the gas in the liquid may alter the surface tension, and so modify
the rate of loss.
With regard to oxygen, the case is different. The increase in the
percentage of this gas increases the rate of transpiration much more
than that of evaporation. But, unfortunately, this does not decide
the problem as to whether transpiration is facilitated by a vital action
in the evaporating cells, or whether the upward current is simply due
to the inflow of heat at their evaporating surfaces. Oxygen may
increase the rate of transpiration by liberating heat in the evaporating
cells by the oxidation of combustible materials there: The increase in
the rate of exhalation of water from aleaf surrounded with oxygen would
Dixon— On the Effects of Gases on Transpiration. 625
in that case be due to a rise in temperature, and to an increased facility
to diffusion at the seat of evaporation ; and the more complex processes
of vital action taking place in the protoplasm need not be appealed to.
These two causes would then be responsible for the fact that the rate
of transpiration is about 30 per cent. greater in oxygen than in air
But, again, it may be that vital processes giving rise to puniping
actions (to which I have already alluded as possibly occurring in the
leaf-cells) may be made more vigorous by the greater quantities of
oxygen available for respiration—that, in fact, these actions, in com-
mon with vital processes generally, are quickened when respiration is
more vigorous.
With the other gases there is practically no difference between the
specific transpiration and specific evaporation. The logical conclusion
from this seems to be that these gases were without effect on the vita
actions of the leaf-cells, so far as transpiration is concerned, during the
experiment.
Thus the problem as to how far pumping actions, taking place m
the leaf-cells at the expense of the stored energy of organic compounds,
accelerate transpiration is not yet decided; but I think it will appear
that the evidence of the foregoing experiments, although by no means
decided, favours the view that such actions largely control the elimi-
nation of water from the transpiring cells. Other evidence in favour
of this view I have cited in my paper on the Physics of the Transpira-
tion Current.!
However this question is ultimately decided, I think the subject
matter of this research is not without its bearing on plant physiology.
It is a matter of frequent observation that many plants which are
natives of arid regions, secrete a relatively large amount of ethereal
oils. It has been urged? that the vapours of these ethereal oils form
a screen which arrests the heat radiations, and thus the leaves of the
plant are kept cooler than they otherwise would be. It might, how-
ever, be said against this theory that such an absorptive screen in
contact with the leaves (and it would evidently be most effective at
the surface of the leaves) would rather tend to raise their temperature.
Be that as it may, it seems that the property of vapours in checking
evaporation, emphasised by this research, afford a simpler explana-
tion of the function of these oily secretions. When the vapour of
the ethereal oils is liberated from the leaf-tissues, it will surround the
1 <¢ Notes from the Botanical School, T. C. D.’’ No. 2, p. 88, 1897.
2 «The Origin of Plant Structures,’’ George Henslow, p. 82.
626 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
leaves, and fill the intercellular spaces. In these positions we might
expect that the vapour will exert a retarding action on transpiration
and evaporation, in accordance with the experiments quoted above. I
have only been able to make a few experiments on the matter as yet,
but these indicate the surmise given hereis correct. I found that the
vapour given off from chopped-up leaves of Artemisia Absinthiumreduced
the rate of transpiration very considerably. Thus, if we denote the rate
of transpiration of a branch of Syringa vulgaris, in a current of dry air,
as 100, this rate will be reduced to about 87 if we allow the air-
current to pass over chopped leaves of this Artemisia, and so carry some
of the yapour given off by these leaves round the transpiring branch.
The air is, of course, dried after passing over the leaves. In a
similar manner I found that the same vapour reduced the rate of
transpiration of a branch of Cytisus Laburnum, from 100 to 98.
In these experiments the temperature lay between 16° and 17° C.
At higher temperatures, it is possible that the effects would be
more marked.
r 627 J
XXVITI.
TRANSPIRATION INTO A SATURATED ATMOSPHERE.
By HENRY H. DIXON, D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor
of Botany, Trinity College, Dublin.
(COMMUNICATED BY E. P, WRIGHT, M.D.)
[Read Janvary 10, 1898.]
Many observations and considerations! have led me to suspect that
the tension transmitted in the water-containing capillaries of tran-
spiring plants, is not simply referable to evaporation taking place at
the liquid surface in the imbibed membranes of the leaf-cells. And
it seemed probable that pumping actions proceeding in these cells
(analogous to the pumping actions of root-cells manifested during the
‘bleeding’? of plants) may be directly responsible for the elevation
of the transpiration current.’
If this be true, the elevation of water in the capillaries during the
transpiration of living plants is effected by a ‘‘ vital” process, and in
this respect resembles the raising of water in plants by root-pressure,
and the transference of water in ccenocytic fungi. Of course the
water of the transpiration-current must be drawn. up by the leaf-cells,
and so the process differs from the other examples, in which the water
is pushed up by the living cells.
In thus ascribing the lifting of water to a ‘‘ vital” and not a
‘“physical ” process going on in the transpiring cells, it must not be
thought that any ultraphysical phenomena are presupposed. To
guard against such a misapprehension, it may be well to state that,
by ‘‘vital’’ processes are here meant, processes which cannot be
accounted for by the immediate energy-relations of the organism to
the external world, but those in which energy previously stored by
the organism, ¢.g., as oxidisable materials, is utilized, and which only
take place during the life of the organism.
1“ Report of a Discussion on the Ascent of Water in Trees,” Ann. of Botany,
December, 1896, p. 651.
2«On the Physics of the Transpiration Current,’ Notes from the Botanical
School, T. C. D., No. 2, 1897, p. 88.
628 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Under normal circumstances transpiration is effected under con-
ditions favourable to evaporation. The transpiring surfaces are at
such a temperature that the vapour-pressure in the surrounding space
is less than at the surface of the transpiring cells. To maintain this
temperature, the leaves of the plant are free to receive light and heat
radiations, and heat may be conducted into them, as evaporation |
tends to lower their temperature below that of their surroundings.
This inflow of energy from the external world must, under ordinary
circumstances, be taking place during transpiration. In addition to
these sources of energy, the cells of the leaves may do work at the
expense of the potential energy of the store materials they possess.
This stored energy, which is, of course, ultimately derived from the
radiant energy entering the plant, is the only remaining source of
energy available for the leaves.
If, when the radiated energy is cut off, and the conditions are
such that water tends to condense on the leaves from the surrounding
space, the cells of the leaves still continue to draw up water in the
capillaries, then the work done must be at the expense of the stored
energy ; and, if this work is no longer continued, when the leaves are
killed, we may fairly ascribe it to vital actions pumping or drawing
up water from the conduits of the plant.
It may be pointed out here that this energy could only be made
available when the store materials can obtain the requisite oxygen from
the plant’s surroundings, or from its own substance. And so, in common
with other vital actions, it would cease when oxygen is not available.
Supposing, then, we find that the upward motion of the transpira-
tion current continues when radiated energy is cut off, and when the
leaves are surrounded by a space saturated with water vapour, we are
driven to conclude that the traction exerted on the ascending water is
exerted by a vital action, and we can no longer assume that simple
physical processes, exactly corresponding to the actual inflow of
energy, at the moment, can account for the elevation of water
in such acase. On the other hand, the converse will be true if no
elevation of water occurs in the plant when it is submitted to the
conditions described.
To put this matter to an experimental test, the following arrange-
ments are made:—A small branch about 380 ems. long is cut and
set in water in a cool, dark cupboard. From this it is transferred,
still standing in water, under a glass receiver. The internal walls
of the receiver are kept wet. After remaining one hour under the
receiver, and still screened from light, it is assumed that any reduced
Drxon— Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere. 629
gas pressure existing in the water conduits has become equalized
to that of the atmosphere, and that, consequently, the external
pressure exerted at the base of the branch has ceased to move the
water upwards. An open beaker, containing water at 100°C., is now
introduced under the receiver, and the branch is transferred from the
water to a watery solution of eosin. A wooden screen is set to cut
off the direct radiation of the beaker from the branch. These arrange-
ments are made in a dull light, and, when complete, the whole is
set in total darkness.
As soon as the beaker containing the hot water is introduced under
the receiver, the space included will immediately be filled with cloud
and water vapour. Water is freely deposited on the walls of the
receiver and on the surfaces of the leaves of the plant. The space is
completely saturated, and remains so, as it continues to fall in tem-
perature, owing to the gradual cooling of the whole; and, as the
water is always at a higher temperature than the leaves, a constant
distillation goes on from the beaker to theleaves. ‘The arrangements
are shown in figure 1.
When these arrangements have been made the apparatus is left
for one hour. At the end of this time, it will be found that the eosin
solution has been drawn up very markedly into the plant, thus
showing that the elevation of the water in the conduits may be
effected by vital action. For in this experiment the immediate
energy relations of the plant to its surroundings cannot account for
the rise. I have performed this experiment, with the same result,
with Chrysanthemum sinense, C. lacustre, Myrtus communis, Eucalyptus,
globulus, Escallonia macrantha.
630 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
As we would expect, it was found that, when dead leaves and
branches were set in this saturated chamber, no rise of the eosin was
observed, although simultaneously eosin was drawn up into living
specimens placed side by side with the dead ones. The dead branches,
which I used, had been killed by chloroform vapour, or by immersion
for some minutes in water at 90° C.
In these experiments when the coloured fluid was drawn up only
into the capillaries of the stem, the pumping action raising it may
have been discharged either by the cells bordering the conduits in the
stem, or by those in a similar position in the leaves. But when the
veins of the leaves become injected, it is evident, since no cells inter-
rupt the continuity of the water-conducting capillaries, that the cells
exerting the traction in the fluid must be situated in the leaves.
This fact may be more directly demonstrated by experiments in
which the ascent of watery eosin in a branch stripped of its leaves is
compared with that in a similar branch provided with leaves, when
both are placed in the saturated chamber. It will be found—I have
performed the experiment with Chrysanthemum sinense, Escallonia
macrantha, Cheiranthus Chetri—that the leafy branch will draw up
the eosin rapidly, while under similar circumstances the colouring
matter will rise but slightly—a few cms. per hour—in the branch
deprived of its leaves. The rise observed may be easily explained by
the supposition that, in the green parts of the young branches and
the buds, the cells probably act like those of the leaves, and draw up
water by a pumping action; or, again, the action of the cells border-
ing the capillaries of the stem—wood-parenchyma and medullary rays
—may be responsible for the elevation observed. In any case the
rise is but slight, 3-5 cms. in the stripped branches, compared with
20-30 ems. in the leafy branches during the same time.
That the elevating force is chiefly located in the leaves may also
be shown by the fact that large leaves detached from the stem are
capable of quickly injecting the finest veins at their apex when set
upright in watery eosin in the saturated chamber. For this purpose
I used the leaves of Lucalyptus globulus, and found that their apical
veins were injected often after standing only 30 min. in eosin, and
surrounded with a saturated atmosphere. The eosin, to do this, had
risen 20 cms. in the leaf above the level of the solution in which the
leaf stood. In this case it is evident that the cells of the leaf must
have been solely responsible for the observed elevation.
But the directed pumping actions which cause the elevation of the
coloured fluid in these cases, although mostly confined to the leaf, do
Drxon— Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere. 631
not appear to be restricted to any special cells forming water-glands
on the surface of the leaf. It seems most probable that most or all of
the cells bordering on the vascular capillaries, both in leaf and stem,
are able to exert a tractional force on the water in the conduits, and
are able to expel water, when thus drawn in, on their outer surfaces.
It may be, however, that the cells of the water-glands of plants are
more highly specialized for this function, and hence the exudation of
drops on leaves of plants in moist atmosphere takes place over these
glands or hydathodes, as Haberlandt prefers to call them.
The following observation shows that the elevation of the water
is not solely due to the functioning of these water-glands, even in
plants possessed with these structures. The leaves of Hscallonia ma-
erantha, Chrysanthemum sinense, and Chrysanthemum lacustre have water
stomata on the margin of the leaf; but if these glands are removed by
cutting away the whole margin with a scissors, it will be found that
water will be drawn up into these leaves through the stem almost
as quickly as into the leaves of a branch which are left intact.
Another observation which shows that the traction is exerted by
cells of the leaf, which are not visibly differentiated, may be made
on Cheiranthus Cheirt. The leaves of this plant, so far as I can make
out, have no specialized water-glands. However the extreme apex
often withers away in the older leaves, as if some substance had been
exuded there from the leaf. In case this tip be the seat of a water-
gland, it is removed from all the leaves of a branch which is set in
the saturated chamber. After a suitable time it will be found that
the coloured fluid has risen into all the veins of the leaves, and it
will be seen in the ultimate blind terminations of the vascular bundles.
In Chetranthus Cheirt these terminations are surrounded by cells un-
differentiated from the other cells of the mesophyll of the leaf. The
coloured fluid must have been drawn into the terminal portions of the
veins by these cells, and not by any specialized water-glands. We
may conclude that the similar cells along the conduits have the same
function.
Of course it is quite possible that the cells forming the water-
secreting tissue of the water-glands have this pumping power more
highly developed than that possessed by the cells situated all along
the conduits. Hence, in Gardiner’s! experiments, the expulsion of
water occurred in noticeable quantities only over the water-glands.
He found that drops of water are exuded from the water-glands of
1 Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., vol. v. 1884.
632 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Impatiens, Fuchsia, Limoniastrum, and Polypodium, if cut branches of
these plants are set in water in a moist place. His results have been
confirmed by Haberlandt! and Nestler,? though curiously enough the
last-named author attributes the dropping to a filtration of water
through the water-gland due to the pressure from behind. Haber-
landt and Pfeffer,* however, are agreed that the expulsion of the
water is due to the vital activity of the cells of the gland. In the
experiments alluded to there seems no probability of any pressure exist-
ing in the water in the conduits tending to expel water from them.
It was usually found at the end of all the experiments conducted
in the saturated chamber that the surfaces of the leaves had a copious
deposit of water upon them, and so it seemed probable that water was
actually extruded from the cells of the leaf even after water had begun
to condense on them from the surroundings.
The actual presence of free liquid on the surface of the leaves
apparently did not markedly diminish the rate of rise of the coloured
fluid in the branch, and so, if the branch was immersed in water before
commencing the experiment, it was found that the eosin mounted not-
withstanding into the dripping leaves.
In these cases, the pumping cells, being surrounded by water, must
possess a directed action, drawing the water in on one side from a
liquid supply, and expelling it on the other into free liquid.
This directed action may be more strikingly demonstrated by the
following experiment :—A branch is fixed water-tight into the lower
narrow opening of a glass receiver, so that its upper part and leaves
project into the receiver, while its base extends beyond the cork in
the neck, and is supplied with a solution of eosin (see fig. 2). If the
receiver be filled with water, so that the leaves of the branch are
completely submerged, it will be found that, notwithstanding the
presence of the water in contact with the leaves, and the hydrostatic
pressure due to its depth, the eosin will mount rapidly into the
branch.
In some of my experiments the pressure of the water was sufficient
to drive liquid back into the intercellular spaces of the leaves of the
branch. So that it appears that the pumping action can raise water
against a considerable external hydrostatic pressure.
1 Sitzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenschaft in Wien. Bd. ciii.
2 Ibid., Ba. cv.
3 Pflanzenphysiol. Bd. i. 174, and Haberlandt, Jahrb. fiir wissenschaftliche
Botanik, 1897.
Dixon—Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere. 633
In carrying out this experiment, of course, care must be taken that
the gas-pressure in the branch has become equalized with that of the
atmosphere. With this precaution, however, the result seems con-
clusive, 2.e. that pumping actions, and not evaporation cause the rise
of the eosin into it.
It will be found that, if the water in the receiver is warm
(25°-80° C.), and if the apparatus is placed in a strong light, the
Iie. WY
ascent of the eosin will be rapid; if, on the other hand, the water is
cold (below 12°C.) and the light is not strong, the eosin will rise
but slowly in the branch. If the apparatus is placed in darkness, the
eosin will rise but little or not at all.
It seems probable that the increased rate is, in part, due to the
quickening of the vital processes due to the rise in temperature when
the water surrounding the leaves is warm.
634 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The stimulating action of the light is indirect, and probably is
effective by the increased supply of oxygen set free by assimilation.
The rising of the eosin is most vigorous when bubbles of oxygen are
being rapidly evolved at the surface of the leaves. This observation,
then, constitutes another proof that the raising action is due to a
vital process, and ceases when the supply of oxygen is cut off. In
this respect the action resembles other vital phenomena, such as
growth, irritability, &e. The fact that a small rise does take place
in the dark is explained by the presence of oxygen in the water, and
also of that derived by intra-molecular respiration.
The combination of this oxygen will of course lead to a minute
rise in temperature which will favour a distillation of water from the
leaves. This effect, however, would probably be so small that it
could not account for the rapid rise of water in plants in a saturated
space as has been described in this note.
From what has been here detailed, I think we may with great
confidence assert that the elevation of the sap, when plants are
situated in saturated spaces, is effected by directed actions taking
place in the living cells of the leaves, and to some extent perhaps in
those of the stem. Simple osmotic and evaporative forces cannot be
effective in raising the water in the conduits under these circum-
stances. With regard to the elevation of water, when the leaves are
surrounded by an unsaturated atmosphere, we cannot as yet be
dogmatic. But the fact that, when the leaves of plants are killed,
they dry up and are unable to furnish themselves with sufficient water
from an unlimited supply at the base of their stem, argues that
surface tension and evaporation forces at their surfaces are in them-
selves inadequate. And when we couple with this the observations
on the directed vital actions taking place in the leaf-cells when they
are surrounded with a saturated atmosphere, I think we may, with
great probability, assume that these directed vital actions are
responsible to a great extent for raising of water in plants even in
unsaturated spaces. In any case the present experiments show that
these directed vital actions are capable of replacing and supplement-
ing the more simple physical actions, ¢.g. evaporation and osmosis.
These conclusions are in no way at variance with Strasburger’s
famous experiments on dead trees.! In them, the water, in a tensile
state, was raised by evaporation taking place at the water-surface in
the permeable cell-walls.
1 Ueber den Bau und Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen.
Dixon—Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere. 635
It might appear that, in ascribing the elevation of the sap to the
vital activity of the cells adjoining the upper terminations of the
vascular bundles of plants, we do away with the necessity of assuming
that the water of the transpiration current is in a tensile state. This,
however, would be a grave error. It is evident that the effects
referred to in this paper, constitute a source of tensile elevation only.
All observations, experimental and structural, demonstrate the fact
that the water of the transpiation current is drawn, and not pressed,
through the capillaries forming the water conduits of plants.
The advantage of a periodic pressure in the sap, such asis observed
during bleeding, has been pointed out already.
CoNncLUSIONS.
1. The elevation of the water of the transpiration current, when
the leaves are surrounded with a saturated atmosphere, is effected by
pumping actions proceeding in the living cells of the leaves.
2. The observations on the drying back of branches furnished with
dead leaves renders it highly probable that these vital pumping actions
are partially or wholly responsible for the elevation of water even in
an unsaturated atmosphere.
3. These pumping actions are capable of raising the water against
an external hydrostatic pressure.
4. In common with other vital actions, they are accelerated by a
moderately high temperature, and are dependent on the supply of
oxygen.
5. The cells adjoining the terminal portions of the water conduits
appear to possess this activity, and, in plants provided with water-
glands, the pumping actions are not limited to the secreting tissues of
these glands.
1 Ascent of Sap., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxxxvi., p. 572.
[ 636 ]
XXVIII.
REMARKS SUPPLEMENTARY TO DR. JOYCEH’S PAPER ON
THE OCCURRENCE OF THE NUMBER TWO IN IRISH
PROPER NAMES. By REY. T. OLDEN, D.D.
: [Read DecemBer 10, 1897.]
Ir was noticed by Dr. O’ Donovan that the word da, two, entered into
the composition of many local names, and he gave instances in his
Supplement to O’Reilly’s Dictionary. I had found many more, and
was about to bring the subject under the notice of the Academy when
I found that Dr. Joyce had read a paper on it in 1868, which was
published in our Proceedings (vol. x., p. 164), I therefore postponed
my intention until I had read his essay. I was much interested in it,
and particularly in his statement that he was unable to find anything
in Irish literature to explain the custom, adding, ‘I leave to others
the task of doing so.”
Accepting this as an invitation to a further discussion of the
subject, I now venture to offer some observations which may throw
light on it.
The names compounded with da are both local and personal
Thus we have Ath da én, ‘‘Ford of two birds,’”’ which one is apt to
think must refer to some local legend. But on further inquiry it is
found that two birds are mentioned in so many other places that this
explanation will not do. Thus we have Fortress of two birds, Ridge
of two birds, Hill of two birds, and so on. Evidently, therefore, we
must look for some other explanation. And the difficulty of account-
ing for it becomes greater when we find other animals, such as dogs,
boars, horses, cranes, and rayens, appearing in twos, and, in fact, quite
a zoological collection might be formed with this peculiarity.
Then there are, as I have said, personal names, such as Colla-da-
crich, Colla of the two countries, a famous warrior of the fourth
century. Dr. Joyce had collected 122 instances of these names of
both the classes mentioned, and when those I had noted are added,
the total is about 226. This large number makes the existence of
these names the more striking, and it cannot fail to awaken a desire
for information about them.
OLtpEen— The Number Two in Irish Proper Names. 637
The first question is, how far back can we trace this custom. Dr.
Joyce says we find it in the earliest MSS., but I think we can trace it
back farther than any existing manuscript. In the fifth century, as
is well known, a colony from Ireland settled in Argyleshire, and it
occurred to me that if the custom existed in Ireland at that time the
emigrants would probably have taken it with them, and we should
find similar names there at the present day. To ascertain whether
this was so or not, I wrote to Mr. Donald Mackinnon, Professor of
Gaelic in the University of Edinburgh. In his reply he says, “dd,
two, is quite common in place-names in the Scottish Highlands,” and
he mentioned a few names that occurred to him offhand. These are
Acha(dh)-dd-dalaich in Colonsay, Acha(dh)-dad-Domhnuill in Ross-
shire, Dun dd laimhe in Inverness-shire, Dun-da-ramh in Argyleshire.
He most kindly offered to supply me with a list of such names, but I
did not think it right to give him the trouble, as all I wanted was
the fact of their occurrence.
But can we trace the custom still further back ? Ithink we can,
for we may argue in this way, if the immigrants to Scotland in the
fifth century took it with them to that country, it was possible that
the original settlers in Ireland in the remote past may have brought
it with them from the Continent of Europe, and if so that such names
might still be found abroad.
It is generally allowed that the branch of the Celtic race which
settled in Ireland were the earliest of the Aryan peoples who appeared
in Europe, and for this reason it is that the names of many of the
permanent features of the landscape throughout Europe are of Gaelic
origin, having been imposed by them.
All local names recognised as Celtic abroad are given in the
‘* Alt-Celtischer Sprachschatz”’ of Alfred Holder; and on consulting
this I found one which seemed to throw light on the subject. The
word Condate, the penultimate being long, appears to have our word
dd as part of its composition, and this derives confirmation from the
fact that the name occurs twenty-seven times in medieval documents
in France, and always with the meaning of a ‘‘ confluence of two
rivers.” M. Arbois de Jubainyille, however, proposes a derivation
for it of a different kind. He regards it as equivalent to the Greek
cvvOeors, and composed of the particle con and *datis, originally tdotis
or *dhotis, Greek ors, originally +Oerus, the root being dhe, ‘ to place or
lay.’ I have not been able to find that cvv@eors is ever applied to a
confluence of rivers; but apart from this the proposed derivation is
highly conjectural, and requires many assumptions, while it fails to
R.I.A. PROC., SER, IlI., VOL. Iv. 22
638 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
account for the essential feature of the name, which is the union of
two rivers. The name in course of time became abbreviated, and
appears now as Condé, and in German territory as Conz.
Tf these observations are well founded the employment of da in
place-names had its origin in a remote period. The earliest Celtic
inhabitants must have given those names to the places referred to on
their first arrival in Gaul; and as the Celte are found occupying their
present positions at the dawn of history, the names must have been
bestowed in prehistoric times. An attempt has lately been made to
estimate the period of their arrival. In the second volume of Mr.
Alfred Nutt’s work on the ‘‘ Voyage of Bran,” which has just been
published, he says :—‘‘ About 1000-800 8.c. began in all probability
the migration of the Celtic Aryans.” Taking the lowest of these
figures, 800, this would assign an antiquity of between two and three
thousand years to those names.
This preference for the number two appears also, as I have men-
tioned, in other ways, as, ¢.g., in the case of travelled Irishmen, who
were termed ‘men of two countries,’ no matter how many strange
lands they may have visited. It appears in the tale of ‘‘ The Two
Sorrows of the Kingdom of Heaven,” and in the list of ‘ pairs’ of saints
in the Book of Leinster. The practice seems to have continued down
to modern times, and names have even been altered so as to introduce
the number two. Thus Downpatrick, originally Dun-leth-glaise,
‘The fort beside the river,’ became afterwards Dun-dd-leth-glas, inter-
preted by Jocelyn, ‘ The fort of the two broken fetters.’ So also we
have Zir-glas, ‘The land of streams,’ afterwards changed to Jir-da-
glas, ‘ Land of two streams.’
There still remains the inquiry as to the origin of this usage.
Why had the Celt such a predilection for the numbertwo? When
the Romans spoke of the junction of the Rhine and the Moselle, they
simply called it confluentes (Coblentz), but the Celtic inhabitant would
call it conddte, ‘ the meeting place of two rivers.’ What is the reason
of the difference? Im considering this question we have to bear in
mind the immensely remote period at which the Celts arrived in Gaul
and we may conclude with certainty that they were in a very low
state of culture. Professor Boyd Dawkins considers them to have
been in that condition known as ‘the stone age.’ What this implies
may be gathered from what is known of the native races of Australia,
for instance. According to Mr. Tyler, the New Hollanders have no
names for numbers beyond two, nor have the aborigines of Victoria.
In connexion with this fact, the existence of the dual number is of
OLtpen—The Number Two in Irish Proper Names. 639
great interest. It preceded the plural, and it continued to survive
with the plural for a long time; so that many languages had singular,
‘dual, and plural—Semitic languages, as the Egyptian, Arabic, and
Hebrew; and Aryan, as Sanscrit, Greek, and Gothic, as well as Old
Irish. The existence of the dual can only be accounted for by its
being a survival from that early period when no number beyond two
was known. According to Dr. Wilson in his work on prehistoric man,
‘‘it preserves to us a memorial of that stage of thought when all
beyond two was an idea of infinite number.’ Hence, he adds, the
tendency of higher intellectual culture has been to discard it as in-
convenient and unprofitable, and only to distinguish singular and
plural. The earliest use af the dual was to express things which
occur naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears, the hands; or artificially
in pairs, as the horses of a chariot. When things are thought of in
pairs they are regarded as a unity, and in the classical languages they
may be followed by a verb in the singular. It is in this way that a
pair is regarded in Ireland at the present day, and this explains the
habit of speaking of one foot as half a foot, or a cow with one horn as
a cow with half a horn. These are the idioms in the Ivish language,
the pair being regarded as a whole.
If we apply these observations to the class of names we are dis-
cussing, I think we can understand how they came into existence.
Thus, to take the instance, of snamh da én, that is, ‘the swimming-
place of two birds.’ The place was probably frequented by flocks of
aquatic birds, and naturally would derive its name from that fact ; but
‘our primeval ancestors had no way of expressing a number beyond
unity except by the word two. Hence they called the spot the
‘swimming-place of two birds,’ which, translated into modern language,
meant ‘ the place where flocks of waterfowl congregate.’ So Droma-
haire, or Drum-dd-ethiar, ‘the ridge of two demons,’ means ‘the
haunted ridge’ ; for the country people, far from limiting demons to
two, are of opinion that the whole atmosphere is swarming with them.
These considerations apply to personal names also; and it may be that
such names as Dubh-da-crich, ‘ Black haired [man] of two countries,’
may be a reminiscence of that earlier black haired race which occupied
these countries before the light haired Celt.
As a conquered race they were in a humble position, and it was
unfashionable, therefore, to have dark hair as it is amongst the
peasantry at the present day.
The Irish people, it thus appears, retained down almost to
modern times a custom which had its origin in the remotest
222
640 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
antiquity. Elsewhere it died out, under the influence of hostile:
invasion and social changes; but the Irish dwelling in their island
home, apart from the intellectual life of Europe, and cherishing the
traditions of the past, handed on from age to age the immemorial
eustom of their race.
List oF tHE Names CoLLECTED BY ME.
Those given by Dr. Joyce will be found in his paper above referred’
to. The abbreviations used are as follows :—
AFM. Annals of the Four Masters.
M.D. Martyrology of Donegal.
S.G. Silva Gadelica.
M.G. Martyrology of Gorman.
Trip. Tripartite Life of St. Patrick. (Stokes.)
R.D. Rennes Dinnsenchus. ‘ Revue Celtique.”
F. Finn and the Phantoms. ‘‘ Revue Celtique.”
Abhainn da loilgheach, ‘ River of two milch cows.’ AFM.
Abhainn (’eise, ‘ River of two persons.’ S. G. 1. 169.
Abhainn da sailech, ‘ River of two sallows.’ M. D. 181.
Achad da ed, ‘ Plain of two yews.’ AFM.
Ath da laarg, ‘ Ford of two forks.’ Tripartite.
Ath dah ferta, ‘ Ford of two graves.’ Chron. Scotorum.
Ath da chorr, ‘ Ford of two cranes.’
Ath da én, ‘ Ford of two birds.’ Tripartite.
Bruiden dha derga. Tripartite.
Belaeh da liach, ‘ Way of two sorrows.’
Belach da liace, ‘ Way of two flagstones.’ 8S. G.
Belach da bend, ‘ Pass of two peaks.’ Rennes Dinnsenchus, p. 324.
Cluain da dhamh, ‘ Two stag lawn.’ S. G.
Cluain da rath, ‘ Lawn of two forts.’ AFM.
Cluain da thore, ‘ Lawn of two boars.’ AFM.
Cluain da acra, ‘ Lawn of two acres.’ M. G.
Cluain da fhiach, ‘Lawn of two ravens.’ M. G.
Cluain dé loch, ‘ Lawn of two lakes.’
Cluain da andobair. M. D.
Cluain da tharbh, ‘ Lawn of two bulls.’ AFM.
Cluain da chaillech, ‘ Lawn of two nuns.’ S. G.
Cell da les, ‘ Church of two forts.’ M. G.
Cell da righ, ‘ Church of two kings.’ Wilde’s ‘‘ Lough Corrib, 125.’”
OLtpen—The Number Two in Irish Proper Names. 641
Da charn, ‘Two cairns.’ Trip.
Da bhac, ‘Two round hills.’ AFM.
Din leth-glaise, ‘ Fort by the side of the stream.’ ‘Trip.
Dan da-lethglas, ‘ Fort of two broken fetters.’ M. D.
Dun da én, ‘Fort of two birds.’ Reeves’ ‘‘ Ant.,’”’ 300.
Dun da bheann, ‘ Fort of two peaks.’ Reeves’ “‘ Ant.,” 342.
Din da locha, ‘Fort of two lakes.’ Cath din na-n-gedh. (Jn cmel
Bretan.)
Dun da radhare, ‘ Fort of two views.’ Smith, Hist. Cork, 1. 190.
Druim dah dart, ‘ Ridge of two heifers.’ M. D.
Druim da litir. M. D.
Druim da én, ‘ Ridge of two birds.’ S. G.
Druim dah mhaigh, ‘ Ridge of two plains. AFM,
Druim da léis, ‘ Ridge of two sheds.’ 8S. G.
Druim da thrén, ‘Ridge of two strong ones.’ S. G.
Druim dén = da-én, ‘ Between two waters.’ Rennes Dinns., 328.
Daire da dhos, ‘Oak wood of two bushes.’ 8. G.
Da charn, ‘Two heaps.’ Trip.
Da chich Danann, ‘Two paps of Danann.’ Leabhar na gCeart, 75.
Dealbhna tire da locha, ‘ Delvin of land of two lakes.’ M. G.
Druim da eithiar, ‘ Ridge of two demons.’ AFM.
‘Glenn da locha, ‘Glendalough.’ AFM.
‘Glenn da loch. Goidilica.
Glenn da dhuille, ‘ Glen of two leaves.’ AFM.
‘Gias dé cholptha, ‘Stream of two shin-bones.’ M. G.
‘Grellach da phil, ‘ Miry place of two horses.’ Trip.
Inis da dhromm, ‘ Island of two ridges.’
Inis da dhromand, ‘ Island of two backs or round hills.’ Cogadh Gael
re Gaill.
Inis eter da dabull. Tigernach.
Lathrach da arad, ‘ Place of two charioteers.’ Trip.
Lis da lon, ‘ Fort of two blackbirds.’ AFM.
Loch dé dhamh, ‘ Lake of two stags.’ Tigernach, 169.
Loch dé lig. Windisch, Worterbuch.
Loch d4 airbreach. Windisch, Worterbuch.
Loch da ghédh, ‘ Lake of two geese.’
Loch da én, ‘ Lake of two birds.’ S. G.
Loch da chonn, ‘ Lake of two dogs.’ S. G.
Loch da ela, ‘ Lake of two swans.’
Loch da ghabar, ‘ Lake of two goats.’
Loch da eigeas (eces), ‘ Lake of two poets.’ Tigernach 3rd, 152.
642 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Magh da chairneach, ‘ Plain of two priests. AFM.
Magh da chlaoine, ‘ Plain of two-sins.’ AFM.
Magh da chonn, ‘ Plain of two dogs.’ AFM.
Magh da ghabhul, ‘ Plain of two forks.’ AFM.
Magh da ghabhor, ‘ Plain of two goats.’ AFM.
Magh eter da glas, ‘ Plain between two streams.’ AFM.
Magh dah gés, ‘ Plain of two tabus.’ Windisch.
Magh da ed, ‘ Plan of two yew trees.’ Finn.
Oilean da chruinne, ‘ Island of two round hills.’
Oilean da bherrach, ‘ Island of two heifers.’ Tigern., 246.
Ros da charn, ‘ Wood of two heaps.’ AFM.
Ros da chorr, ‘ Wood of two cranes.’
Rinn da bhare, ‘ Point of two ships.’ S. G.
Shabh da chon, ‘Mountain of two hounds.’ AFM.
Sliabh da én, ‘ Mountain of two birds.’ AFM.
Snamh da én, ‘Swimming-place of two birds.’ Trip.
Tir da ghlass, ‘ Land of two streams.’ AFM,
Tir ghlass, Trip., 206.
Tuaim da bhodhar, ‘ Tomb of two deaf men.’ HFM.
Tuaim da ghualann, ‘ Tomb of two shoulders.’ HFM.
Tir da chraebh, ‘ Land of two trees.’ M. D.
Tir da locha, ‘ Land of two lakes.’ S. G.
Traigh da bhan, ‘Strand of two women.’
Tulach da each, * Hill of two horses.’
Tulach da roth, ‘ Hill of two wheels.’
Tuath dé mhuighe, ‘ Land of two plains.’
(Personal appellations.)
Colla da chrich, ‘ Colla of two countries.’
Dubh da bhoirenn, ‘ Dark man of two rocks.’ S&S. G.
Dubh da chrich, ‘ Dark man of two countries.’ Tigern., 241..
Dubh da dhét, ‘ Dark man of two teeth.’
Dubh da dhoss, ‘ Dark man of two bushes.’ Tigern., 246.
Dubh da lacha, ‘ Dark man of two ducks.’ Tigern, 246.
Dubh da leithi, ‘ Dark man of two portions.’ 496.
Dubh da tuath, ‘ Dark man of two territories.’
Dubh da inbher, ‘ Dark man of two estuaries.’
Fer da liach, ‘Man of two sorrows.’
Fer da chrich, ‘Man of two countries.’ 396.
Fer da loch, ‘ Man of two lakes.’
OutpEn— The Number Two in Irish Proper Names. 648
Fer da leithi, ‘ Man of two territories.’
Mac da cherda, ‘Son of two arts.’
Mac da thé, *Son of two mutes.’ Trip.
Mae da chreach, ‘ Son of two plunders.’ Finn.
In Enos.
Two pot House. Parish of Buttevant.
Two pot House. Castlelyons.
Two mile-river Bridge.
Two mile Bridge.
Two mile Borris.
Two mile Ditch.
Two rock Mountain.
Nove ADDED IN THE PRESS.
The frequent occurrence of the appellation dubh, black, attached
to the names of prominent ecclesiastics and others, suggests the
probability that they were members of the black-haired race which
preceded the Celts in Ireland, and were believed to be intellectually
superior to them.
As regards the final syllable of Con-da-ti, it would appear to be a
primitive river name, which, according to Holder’s ‘‘ Sprachshatz,”’ is
att in Old Slavonic and ét7 in Lithuanian. It occurs in the name of
the Itis which falls into the Sound of Sleat, Ptolemy’s trios, etrios
(genitive), cf. Loch Htive ; in the Itta, now the Epte, which joins the
Seine at Givernay; and in Ptolemy’s Apy-‘ra, the Bannin Ulster,
also the river Tees.
[ 644 ]
XXIX.
ON THE ROUND TOWER OF CHAMBLES, NEAR FIRMINY, |
DISTRICT OF ST. ETIENNE (LOIRE). By PROFESSOR
J. P. O'REILLY, Royal College of Science, Dublin.
[Read January 24, 1898.]
Havine become interested in the examination of some details of
construction presented by the round towers of Ireland, I was led
to seek for information bearing on the matter, inthe authors who
have most authoritatively treated the question of their structure and
origin, more particularly in the works of Petrie, O’Brien, and
O’Neill. The study of them led me to regret that their works had
not been preceded by a complete and detailed description of all that
remains of these very interesting monuments. Petrie, towards the
end of his memoir, promised to undertake and have published such a
description ; but nothing has been done to fulfil this promise up to
the present. To any one taking an interest in the question, and
wishing to push investigation to definite limits, this want is very
distinctly a hindrance, so serious, indeed, as to bar all further prose-
cution of the study. No effective comparison of the details of the
construction of the different towers is possible without the aid of
such a complete description of them, and all safe conclusions as to
their origin and object must to a large extent be based on such a com-
parison. At present photographs are procurable of many of the
towers; but no complete collection of such photographs has yet been
published. Did it exist, and were it accessible to the public, those
taking an interest in the question, would have means of investigation
furnished them sufficient to form a basis for sound and accurate study.
It must be borne in mind that O’Neill has called in question the
correctness of certain of Petrie’s drawings, and that these, however
excellent the artistic work may be, are not always drawn to scale.
In working out his conclusions as to the origin and object of the
round towers, Petrie makes mention! of the curious reference in
1 Trans. R. I. Acad., vol. xx., p. 376.
O’Rettty—On the Round Tower of Chambles. 645
Mabillon’s ‘‘ Iter Germanicum”’ to a pharus or beacon tower at the
Trish monastery of St. Columbanus at Luxovium, now Luxeuil, in
Burgundy, and which, he says, seems to give some support to the
conclusion—‘‘ I have thus hypothetically advocated that they (the
towers) may very probably have also been occasionally used as beacons
and watch towers.”
Evidently had he known of the existence of any other such towers
on the continent of Europe, or elsewhere, he would have been led to
consider them, and examine the bearing that their details of construc-
tion and their history, might present on the views he was advancing
as regards the Irish round towers. 4 priorz, it might have been
presumed, that some such towers did or even do exist, since, from
whatever point of view they may be considered, the presumption
would be that they were the work of a foreign people, that is of some
one of the colonies or peoples which, tradition tells us, arrived in
Ireland at various remote periods of the history of this country.
Having these ideas in mind, but not keeping them directly in
view, I attended the Annual Congress of the French Association for the
Advancement of Science, which was held, in the first half of August,
at St. Etienne, in the Department of the Loire, in no way expecting,
or even thinking, that anything would present itself cognate with the
question.
As is usually the custom on such occasions, the committee of
reception not only published a full description of the district, from
every point of view, but there was also prepared a small handbook,
with illustrations, indicating summarily the various localities of
interest accessible to excursionists. One of these at once struck
me as presenting the outline of a round tower, such as frequently
occur ;in this country. ‘To my inquiries for further details as to
the nature of the building, I could get no satisfactory reply, and
consequently I determined on assuring myself whether there was any
justification for my reading of the sketch or not. The point indi-
cated, Chambles, is easily accessible from Firminy, which is a mining
centre, and in connexion with St. Etienne by a steam tramway, as
mentioned in the guide-book; but not wishing to wait for hours at
the railway station of Firminy, I took a trap, and had the advantage
of seeing the country and having a view of Chambles, which I would
not have enjoyed from the railway.
The village is very old, though, singularly enough, it is not
mentioned in the remarkably compendious Geographical Dictionary of
Vivien de St. Martin, recently published, nor in the supplement to that
646 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
work, still in course of publication. It is situated about 44 miles, north-
west by north, from Firminy, on one of the spurs of the hills of granite
and mica-schist, through which the Loire has in this locality cut its
valley, and which render its course so winding and so picturesque. It
overlooks the river from a height of about 300 to 400 feet, commanding
in one direction a view up the valley of the river towards the south,
and in the other an extended view over the Forez plain. The tower
in question is situated at the western end of the spur, where it joins
the hill, and within about 100 yards of the main road. It stands
quite detached from any building, on a platform surrounded by a low
wall on the north and north-west sides, and in the immediate vicinity
of the village church, but at a level of some few feet higher than this.
O’Re1tty— On the Round Tower of Chambles. 647
This church is approached from the lower level of the narrow streets
forming the village by a broad flight of about twenty steps, and is a low,
building, without much indications of style, and having a rather flat,
tiled roof. The tower stands at the north-west corner of, and at about
8 to 10 feet from, the nearest point of the church, but, as remarked,
it stands quite alone. I was able to take the circumference of the
tower at the base, or rather level of the ground, and to estimate the
heights and widths of the different parts of the structure sufficiently
for a general description, and while awaiting more accurate measure-
ments which I have reason to hope will be made available. While
engaged in examining the tower, the Curé happened to be in the
church, and kindly brought me the key of the lower door, explaining
to me at the same time, quite spontaneously, that this door was not
part of the tower as it originally stood, and was relatively recent, as is
indicated by its structure, its dimensions, and the state of the surround-
ing masonry. What at once struck me was the situation of the
original doorway, at about 15 feet above the lintel of the lower door,
its trapezoidal and narrow form, contracting from the bottom to the
top, and the shape of the lintel so like in outline certain of the doors
of the round towers figured by Petrie and others. This door looks
about south-east ; at the same level, and on the western side, a half
turret projects from the side, the bottom part of which is formed of
two stones cut away on the line of junction so as to leave a sort of
V-shaped void, by which, therefore, communication could be had with
the ground. The top part was battlemented, the principal part of
the battlements still remaining as indicated by the sketch. The roof
was flat, or practically so, and the rain was drawn off by gargoilles,
two of which are shown. These details occur in certain of the Irish
round towers, notably at that of Kells.
What further struck me as remarkable are the square holes which
extend at intervals of about 6 to 7 feet more or less regularly from
top to bottom, and which have about 8 to 10 inches in section; that
is about the height of the coursesof masonry. These holes are thorough
so far as ascertained. The masonry is in courses of dressed granite,
having a variable height of about 8 to 10 inches. The mortar has, in
the lower courses at least, a thickness of nearly 1 inch in places. So
old is the building that both the granite stones and the mortar have
been much eaten away, so much so that the stones appear quite
rounded, and that to an extent difficult to render in a sketch. There
are two small windows or loop holes at about the level of the lintel of
the original door, and looking east and west, but not figured on the
648 Proceedings of the Royal Irisn Academy.
drawing. The view from the top of the tower must be very extended
and commanding. In the interior I was able to note that the lower
part is vaulted at the level of the threshold of the original door, and
that a communication exists between this lower part and the upper
portion through a square hole. I was also able to note that the roof
of the tower is also apparently vaulted. There is a somewhat similar
tower at about a half-a-mile distance in the direction of the Forez
plain, but I had only a view of the summit as it projected above the
outline of a neighbouring hill.
On my return to St. Etienne I sought out any further information
obtainable regarding this tower, and have to thank Monsieur Jos. de
Freminville, Archiviste Départmental de la Loire, and Monsieur
Noél Thiollier, Archiviste Palezographe (the author of the little
excursion guide book) who very kindly placed at my service the infor-
mation immediately accessible relative to the tower. This is known
in the country as the ‘‘ Tour noire de Chambles.” I was shown the
paragraph concerning the village in the remarkable work in 2 vols.,
folio, by Mr. Felix Thiollier, ‘‘Le Forez Pittoresque et Monumental,”
which contained about as much as is known relative to the place and
its monuments, but which does not furnish much detail of any con-
sequence as regards the tower. On calling the attention of these
gentlemen to the points of resemblance, which the tower presents with
those of Ireland, and in particular as regards the position and form of
the door, they seemed struck by my observation, and at my sugges-
tion, agreed that it would be desirable to have the building measured
in its various details and described. For these details we must wait
before any final judgment is come to as to the exact designation of the
monument, but from what is contained in the present brief notice, it
can be recognized that the building presents certain characteristics and
details of structure, which connect it with the round towers of this
country, and that consequently it may serve as a term of comparison
for their more perfect study. Messrs. de Freminville and Thiollier
remarked that a more careful search in the country would probably
bring to light the existence of other towers of this sort, and thu-
furnish further terms of comparison from the Continent, and more pars
ticularly from the valley of the Loire, which formerly was the high
way by which merchandise and traffic passed from the Mediterranean
to these islands. These gentlemen further informed me that Chambles
was the site of a Celtic Oppidum, and that remains had been found
there attesting this. The general aspect of the village, and the manner
in which the church and tower are surrounded partly by a wall and
O’Re1tty—On the Round Tower of Chambles. 649
partly by a narrow roadway, deeply cut in the rock, point certainly to
great antiquity, and render it well worthy of a very careful study by
archeologists. The following are the principal dimensions so far as
could be ascertained :—
ft. in.
Circumference at base, - - - 58 0
Diameter (exterior), - - - 18 6
Thickness of wall at ground, - - 4 10
Diameter (interior), = - - - 8 10
Height of original door from ground, - 22 0
Height of door from sill to lintel, - 8 0
Width at sill, - - - 2 Se
Width at lintel, = - - 2 0
Total height of tower, - - - 49 0
In consequence of some remarks of mine when in conversation
with the gentlemen above mentioned as to the age attributed to the
round towers of Ireland, and the possibility that this tower might
have a corresponding age, which remarks were more or less correctly
expressed and understood, and so reached the ears of Monsieur L’ Abbé
J. Prajoux, of St. Paul en Cornillon (Loire) who was interested as an
antiquary in the question of the age of the Tower of Chambles, I
received from him a letter asking me to be good enough to acquaint
him with the reasons I had for assigning the eighth century as that of
the building of this tower, and informing me that in the opinion of the
archeologists of the Department of the Loire it is estimated as being
of the eleventh or twelfth century, and that it belonged to a mélitary
system of defence connected with the wars of the Archbishops of
Lyons with the Counts of Forez. I replied, explaining that I did not
pretend to judge the question of its age in any way. I stated the age
or ages usually assigned to the round towers of Ireland, and men-
tioned the great interest presented by a structure haying so many
points of resemblance with these monuments whose history and uses it
might assist in more clearly elucidating than had been possible up to
the present.
Nore aDDED IN PREss.
Since the communication of my Paper to the Royal Irish Academy,
I have received from the Abbé J. Prajoux referred to therein,
a copy of his recent publication, ‘‘ Notes et Documents sur
Chambles,” Lyon & St. Etienne, 1897, forming part of a series
650 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘Etudes historiques sur le Forez,’’? and containing much valuable
and interesting historical matter on Chambles.
At p. 8, Section IV., it is stated :—
‘« Les fortifications de Chambles furent construites dans le courant du
xi’ siécle. Elles étaient formées de plusieurs parties distinctes. Au
centre se trouvaient le chateau seigneurial et l’églse: il reste encore
de cette partie la haute tour cylindrique qui domine le village, les
bases de lV’abside ainsi que les restes des murs qui entourent ces
constructions.”
The following description of the tower is given at p. 29:—
‘Le donjon est actuellement la partie la plus ancienne et la plus
intéressante des ruines de Chambles. C’est une haute tour cylindrique
qui a 18 metres de circonférence; sa hauteur égale sa circonférence.
Elle est construite en pierres du pays et parait remonter au xI° ou au
xur® siécle, comme la plupart des chateaux fortifiés de notre région.
A dix ou douze métres du sol se trouve une étroite porte carrée,
réguliérement percée, et juste suffisante pour donner passage 2 une
seule personne. Elle était ainsi placée pour qu’on ne pit y pénétrer
sans la volonté de ceux qui s’étaient réfugiés dans la petite chambre
voutée a laquelle elle donne accés. De cette chambre, une ouverture
carrée, pratiquée au milieu de vote, conduit a la terrasse supérieure ;
au-dessous, une autre ouverture également carrée et faite dans le
pavage, solidement assemblé, permet de descendre dans une picce
inférieure placée a la hauteur du sol; c’était autrefois le seul accés
possible. On y arrive aujourd’hui par une ouverture pratiquée en
forme de porte dans l’épaisseur de la magonnerie; mais ce passage n’a
été ouvert que dans les premiéres années de ce siécle.
A peu prés a la hauteur de la porte, se trouve, en saillie sur le
mur, mais soutenu par un encorbellement, un petit avant-corps demi-
circulaire et peu élevé, qui pouvait servir de poste d’ observation.
Les murs de cette antique construction, de laquelle on avait exclu
le bois pour qu’ils fussent a l’épreuve du feu, ont un métre quarante
centimétres d’épaisseur. En l’absence de documents authentiques, il
est difficile de dire aujourd’hui l’age de cet édifice. Les archéologues
Vattribuent 4 cette époque qui va du viii’ au x1r° siécle. Espérons
que l’archéologie et l’histoire nous donneront bientét la solution de ce
probléme !
ew Golan
XXX.
REPORT ON THE EXCAVATION OF TOPPED MOUNTAIN
CAIRN. By THOMAS PLUNKETT ann GEORGE COFFEY.
[Read 24th January, 1898.]
Toprrep mountain is situated about five miles east of Enniskillen, Co.
Fermanagh (Ordnance Map, sheet 23).’ It is a dome-shaped hill,
somewhat isolated from its neighbours, and rises to a height of 909 feet
above the sea-level. The summit commands a wide-reaching view of
the surrounding country. On the west side the upper and lower lakes
of Lough Erne are extended at the spectator’s feet. The cairn which
crowns the summit of the hill is symmetrically formed in the shape of
a truncated cone. It measures about 90 feet in diameter at the base, and
50 feet at the top, and averages about 12 feet in height. It is locally
called ‘the moat.’’ At the centre of the flat top was, as is frequently
the case in such cairns, a small depression about 6 feet in diameter by
2 feet deep. The cairn has been a favourite station for bonfires, and
whether the depression has been made by treasure-seekers or by the
bonfire-makers, or is an original feature, it would be impossible to say.
In a cairn excavated by Mr. Plunkett the previous year on Belmore
mountain, a similar depression, locally called ‘“‘the Eagle’s Nest,”
appeared in his opinion to have been artificially lined with stones.
The excavation of the cairn was begun on the 30th June, and con-
tinued, with the exception of two days, to July 10th. Eight labouring
men were employed on the first day, and ten to eleven men on the
subsequent days. In the first instance a face was cleared at the east
side, which was carried round to the south side as the work progressed,
The excavation was pushed in well past the centre ; in fact the entire
body of the cairn was excavated to the ground level with the excep-
tion of the outer slope of the mound on the north-west side, which
it was thought undesirable to disturb, so as to preserve the outline of
the mound as a feature in the landscape. In plan, fig. 1, the dotted
line shows the extent of the excavation.
The cairn proved to be formed chiefly of slaty stones with a
1 See Paper by W. F. Wakeman, Jour. R. Hist. Arch. Assoc. Ireland, 4th
Series, Vol. 3, p. 529.—Ep.
652 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
considerable admixture of clay. It was very damp in most parts,
there being little drainage from the peaty under-soil.
‘Within a couple of hours from beginning work the cap-stone of a
cist was reached at a point about 5° north of east, and about 10 feet in
from the margin of the cairn. The grave lay north and south (4 on
plan). The cap-stone was carefully slid off, and the contents of the
grave exposed. The cist of this grave was not, as is usually the case,
formed of large stones. The cairn showed at the back, above the cist,
Fre. 1.—Plan and elevation of Cairn.
some appearance of facing, and the interment presented the appear-
ance of a secondary burial inserted in the cairn subsequent to the
erection of the latter. The cap-stone rested at the back on the stones
of the body of the cairn, and was, as it were, let into the cairn some
2 feet. The supports at the outer side were rudely built up of the
average stones of the cairn. The bottom was flagged with small
flag-stones, and at the outer side a number of small flag-stones were
set on end so as to form a sort of lining to the grave.
The stones supporting the cap-stone were built up outside the
lining stones. Thus, when opened, the grave had the appearance of
Piunkett & CorrEY—Topped Mountain Cairn. 653
being sunk about a foot, and lined inside the bearing stones on the
outer side. (See accompanying plan.)
S¢ NEY 17 Lipp.
=
iE. Al
YH) AK WI Za S
Plan of Grave.
The finside measurements of the cist were:—Length, 4 feet;
breadth at middle, 2 feet 6 inches; height, 2 feet. Cap-stone, 5 feet
by 3 feet 6 inches by 1 foot. At the south end a smaller cap-stone was
placed where the large stone did not quite cover
the cist. The bottom was covered with clay, and
was very damp. This rendered the examination
of the contents of the grave somewhat difficult.
At the south end were the much decayed
fragments of a skull. About the middle were a
few fragments of long bones. At the right
side of the skull lay the bronze dagger (fig. 2),
the point to the south. In the same place was
found a small band of gold (fig. 3). It appears
to be half of a band of that metal that was
probably round the handle of the dagger.
Though careful search was made, no further
fragment of this gold band was found. At
the left side of where the body would have
lain (c on plan of grave), were the fragments of
a richly-decorated
sages «urn of the‘: food-
maar vessel’? type (fig.
f 4). Ithad suffered
Breen ze): Fie. 3 (full size). greatly from damp,
but the upper part, bottom, and portions of the sides were recovered,
and have been put together with sufficient completeness to show the
form and decoration.
R.I.A. PROC. SER. III., VOL. 1v. 34
654 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
At the north end of the grave lay two thin flag-stones, one over
the other, the largest about 18 inches in longest dimensions. On
lifting these, a heap of cremated bones, reduced to small fragments,
was discovered on the clayey bottom of the grave. An examination
disclosed portions of upper and lower human jaws and fragments
of a cranium. This establishes the fact that the cremated remains
were not portion of the body represented by the skull at thesouth end.
i
THKKK KORY
ORI) NY)
v
SOOM
<<
Fic. 4.—Unm, partly restored: height, 14-2 cm. ; diameter at mouth, 15°5 cm.;
at base, 7°5 cm.
The dagger can be associated with certainty with the unburnt
interment. The fact that the burnt bones were not enclosed in an
urn, but apparently deposited without any special care, when con-
trasted with the rich decoration of the food-vessel, leads to the
conclusion that the urn is also to be associated with the unburnt
interment.
PrunKkett & CorrEy— Topped Mountain Cairn. 655
Urns of the type of the present one have usually been found in
Ireland with cremated interments, and it is just possible that the
bones were enclosed in a larger urn, which, as the large urns are
generally imperfectly baked, has completely perished. No indications
of such an urn were noticed in the clay on which the bones rested.
The two flag-stones which lay on the top of the bones may, however,
have been originally set up against each other to protect the inter-
ment, and have fallen afterwards. The positions of the objects found
are marked on the plan of the grave.
Thirty feet south of the cist, on the same circumference, was
found a deposit of burnt bones, protected by two small flags placed
A-wise : marked 8 on plan of Cairn.
The following day (July 1st), the excavation was continued behind
the cist, when a large stone such as might be used for the side support
of the cist was uncovered at about 4 feet behind it. Traces of char-
coal were found here, and a well-worked flint scraper, also a flint
flake, but nothing in the nature of an interment. Charcoal was also
found at the south end of the excavation, and then a large patch of
charcoal and unctuous clay at the centre of the excavation. A second
worked flint scraper was found about this spot. The segment excavated
was worked in to about 15 feet from the centre of the cairn, during
which traces of charcoal were found at intervals showing fragments of
burnt sticks, but no traces of bones of any kind.
July 2nd.—A fresh excavation was made at the south side, and
worked to meet the first excavation. The face cleared was thus
extended from about 10 feet north of the east point round to the
south side of the cairn. Traces of charcoal were again found at
intervals, and a flint flake at the south end of the excavation at a
depth of 10 feet from the top of the cairn.
July 3rd.—At the south-east, 10 feet from the centre, and at a
depth of 6 feet, accompanied by traces of fire, were found a fragment
of burnt bone and a flint chip. The centre was reached on this day.
The construction here was curious ; the stones at each side were more
or less on end, leaning inwards in this form—\. This construction
suggested that it might have been intended to relieve the weight on a
chamber below. But on clearing the face to the ground level, no
chamber was discovered, and the apparent construction at the centre
was probably caused by the sliding down of the small flag-stones at
the sides as the cairn was being heaped up.
July 4th.—Excavations continued without results. Ason previous
and subsequent days patches of charcoal and burnt clay were found
342
656 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
at intervals at depths of from about 4 feet down to the bottom of the
cairn.
July 6th.—The face of the excavation was cleared along the
central line to a depth of 16 feet at the centre. At the south end a
number of large stones were disclosed, placed on end, with two cross
stones, the whole arranged as on plan(c). Between the two innermost
upright stones a small flag-stone was placed on which remains of
burning, charcoal and burnt clay, were found. Similar evidence of
burning was found in the central cist-like enclosure, but no certain
evidence of any interment. No covering stones were found in con-
nexion with this structure.
July 8th turned out wet, and work was stopped.
July 9th.—The excavation was continued past the centre. Ata
distance of 8 feet past the central line, and a depth of 10 fect
from the top of the cairn, burnt matter and charcoal was found on a
flag-stone, protected by a couple of upright flags. In this spot a few
minute particles of burnt bones were found, and a few small frag-
ments of pottery. A few particles of burnt bones were also found at
some distance east of this spot; also a few particles of pottery.
The fragments of bones in these cases were quite soft, resembling
small pieces of lime in the wet clay, but in a few instances they could
be identified as burnt bones by the characteristically cracked surfaces
of the fragments. The pieces of pottery were soft and soap-like.
They did not show any traces of ornament, and resembled more the
plain sort of pottery found in the sand-hills of the north of Ireland
than sepulchral pottery, but the fragments were too small to speak of
positively.
July 10th.—The excavation of the cairn, as far as was considered
desirable, was concluded on this day. At the south side, about 4
feet in from the slope, a deposit of burnt bones and a stone celt were
found (p). Mr. Plunkett, who alone was present at this find, thus
describes it:—The burnt bones lay on a small flag-stone, with
charcoal matter, as in former cases. If protecting stones had been
placed around the deposit, they had apparently been crushed down by
the weight of the overlying stones, as no indication of such was
seen, Among the bones and matter adhering to the flag was found a
small stone celt. It is somewhat flat and thin in make, in perfect
condition, the edge quite sharp (fig. 5). Thestoneis an amygdaloidal
porphyrite.
Bonfires have frequently been lighted on the top of the cairn; and
it is possible that some of the charcoal found in the cairn has been
Prunxetr & CorrEY—Topped Mountain Cairn. 657
carried down through the stones, and stratified by rain-water. This
might account for some of the upper patches of charcoal, but not the
lower, and especially the larger spots. The latter are, no doubt,
burial, or associated with burial. It may be inferred from the fact
that the particles of burnt bones and pottery found, in at least two
cases, were reduced by wet to little more than traces; that, in some of
the other cases, the bones and pottery have been completely washed
Fic. 5.—Stone Celt (4).
away. In the case of the deposit of bones marked a on plan, the part
of the cairn in which they were placed was comparatively dry, which
would account for their better preservation. It is somewhat per-
plexing, considering the importance of the mound, that, with the
Fig. 6.— Cranium (Front). Fig. 7.—Cranium (Profile).
exception of this instance and those mentioned on the 6th and 8th
July, nothing in the nature of a cist, or protecting stones, were
found.
608 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Dr. C. R. Browne has examined the human remains found in the
grave first-mentioned. He writes that the cranium is evidently that
of an adult male, but it is unfortunately too fragmentary to admit of
any measurements of value being obtained. Some idea of its type may
be had from the annexed copy of a photograph, which, when more
work has been accomplished in Irish Craniology, may enable it to be
classified.
It must be mentioned that the profile view (fig. 7) appears some-
what flatter than whatit actually was, owing to the fact that the parietal
fragment of the left parietal bone is not perfect to the median line,
but falls short thereof by about a centimeter and ahalf. This will be
seen in fig. 6 from a photograph of the norma facialis.
[ 659 ]
XXXII.
ON A CAIRN EXCAVATED BY THOMAS PLUNKETT, M.R.1.A.,
ON BELMORE MOUNTAIN, CO. FERMANAGH. By
GEORGE COFFEY.
[Read January 24, 1898.]
Durine a visit to Mr. Plunkett, at Enniskillen, in July, 1897 (when
the cairn on Topped Mountain was excavated) he very generously
placed in my hands, for presentation to the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy, the important collection of objects obtained from a cairn on
Belmore Mountain, which I have the honour to exhibit at this meeting.
The following particulars of the excavation of the cairn were taken
down by me from Mr. Plunkett, and are given in his words :—
‘“‘The cairn is situated on an eastern spur of Belmore Mountain
overlooking the valley of the Erne, in the townland of Moylehid or
Fic. 1.—Section of Cairn.
Moyleid! {(Ordnance Sheet 26). It was not recognised to be an
artificial mound by the people of the district, or even by antiquaries.
It resembled some of the natural bosses of cherty limestone, overgrown
with peat, which occur on that part of the mountain. A circular
1Mul-leitheid. See Joyce, ‘‘ Irish Names of Places ’’ (Sec. Ser.), p. 394.
660 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
depression in the centre of the mound, locally called the “ Eagle’s.
Nest,” was the only name attached to the cairn. The cairn was about
40 feet in diameter and 10 feet high.
‘‘ Having obtained permission from Mr. Leslie and Mr. Lennon,
the owners of the land, I proceeded to excavate the cairn in November,
1894. Four men were employed, and the work of excavation occupied.
four days. ‘The ground at the eastern side of the cairn fell rapidly,
Fie. 2,
which facilitated the excavation at that side, the stones, as cleared
out, being rolled down the slope of the ground.
‘« Following up the opening at the east point, at about 6 feet from
the margin and 2 feet above the surface of the ground, a rude cist was
found, consisting of three small flag-stones, two of which were placed
A-wise and rested on the third, which formed the bottom. In this
cist were found the unburnt remains of a child, consisting of the skull
and some of the long bones. Along with the bones of the child were
Correy—Cairn Excavated on Belmore Mountain. 661
the bones of a bird, about the size of a plover. The latter crumbled
when exposed to the air, and the species was not determined.
‘A few feet farther in, large limestone flags, much weathered, were
reached. These formed the right arm of a cruciform passage and
chamber grave of typical form. It was then found more convenient
to make a new opening along the axis of the passage and follow up
AL, .
\
Fie. 3.—Boars’ Tusks.
the compartments of the passage and the chambersin succession. The
bearing of the passage was approximately south-east (see fig. 1).
When three feet of the talus was removed on this new line of excava-
tion, the passage was reached. It is worthy of remark that no
covering stones were found on the passage, or on the head and side
chambers, with the exception of the left-hand chamber.
662 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
‘The first compartment in the passage measured 2 feet 10 inches
long by 2 feet 4 inches wide. The two first stones were turned in,
half closing the entrance (see fig. 2). The stone at the back is a sort
of division or sill stone about 1 foot high. The other compartments
in which the passage is divided, were more or less similar to the first;
their dimensions are shown on the plan. The side stones and chamber
stones range from 2 to 3 feet in height. The contents of the passage
and head and right arm chambers consisted of a mass of burnt bones,
on the top of which the stones of the cairn had been apparently filled
in without any constructional arrangement. The burnt bones were
taken out in shovel-fulls, spread out and allowed to dry, then searched.
The beads and pendants here figured (fig. 6) were picked out from among
the burnt bones, so spread out, but it is not possible to say whether
they came from any particular compartment or chamber.
<Z
S z ZZ 7, 7, 7 ZZ Z, Z Z Z Z Ls Le
EFL
ta" BB
Fic. 4.—Urn: height, 9°75cm.; diameter at mouth, 12cm. ; at bottom, 10 cm.
‘« As the excavation proceeded, to the right of the second compart-
ment of the passage, a small cavity was found in the face of the cutting
at a height of about 4 feet from the ground level. A small flag
formed the bottom of this cavity, and the contents were protected by
a few large stones. In this rude cist were found the unburnt remains
of a second child, and with them portion of a rib bone, apparently of
an ox.
‘‘The left arm chamber was covered bya slab. This arm proved to
have two stories, a second chamber being built over the tlag covering
CorrEy—Cairn Excavated on Belmore Mountain. 663
the lower one. The lower chamber contained a human skull placed
on its base, and some other human bones, unburnt, but apparently not
a whole skeleton. Along with the human bones were bones of deer,
pig, rabbit, and some bird. Also several remarkably large boars’
tusks (see fig. 3), and a few sea shells.
‘The upper chamber contained an urn (figure 4), and burnt bones.
No burnt bones were, however, found in the urn. No beads, flints, or
other objects were found with this interment. The urn has lost the
bottom, but it was little deeper than shown, as the beginning of the
turn of the bottom can be seen at one place on the inside.
“‘ Outside the lef tarm in the outer angle, between it and the head
chamber, a rude secondary chamber was
found, constructed as a lean-to, formed by
a slab leaning towards the side stones of the
left arm chamber, and closed at the top by a
smaller stone (see plan). In this chamber
were found a second human skull placed,
like the first, on its base, and human bones,
also animal bones similar to those with the previous skull, including
some large tusks of the boar.
‘‘The chambers at the head of the passage and at the right-hand
side, as already mentioned, contains nothing but burnt bones. Just as
the head chamber was uncovered the stones fell down from the face of
the cutting, and disclosed a well-formed cist in the face of the cutting
near the top of the mound (see section, fig. 1). Its dimensions were
2 feet 4 inches long by 1 foot 8 inches at the wider end (the east),
and 1 foot at the narrower end. It lay east and west. The cist
contained burnt bones, and in the right hand corner at the east end
was found a richly decorated bowl-shaped urn (fig. 5). No burnt
bones were found in the urn, but in the bottom of the vessel was a
greasy, black, pasty substance.
‘Tt is interesting to note that the excavation showed that the peat
had grown over the cairn to a depth of five feet at one side, and was
of a dark compact appearance. Underneath the peat that covers the
mountain, limestone boulders abound, but the peat on the knoll where
the cairn is placed is not deeper than on the cairn itself, from which it
may be inferred that the peat has been formed since the cairn was
erected.”
Unfortunately on the day the skulls were discovered, Mr. Plunkett
took a severe chill and had to leave the mountain. The skulls
were left behind, and when some days afterwards he returned only
664 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
fragments could be found. One lower jaw and a portion of another
lower jaw only have been preserved.
The animal bones and shells preserved by Mr. Plunkett have been
submitted to Dr. Scharff. He has identified the following :—lIrish
hare (portion of pelvis, two vertebre, one femur, and several incom-
plete bones) ; goat (horn cores); piece of ulna of a large bird, species
et at
Toisas
Fic. 5.—Urn: height, 9°5em.; diam. at mouth, 11°25cm. ;
: at base 6°25 cm.
not determined ; shells, Pecten maximus (fragment), Pectunculus glyci-
meris (several).
The boars’ tusks are of exceptional size, and are probably the
largest as yet recorded from Ireland. There are five complete, or
nearly complete, tusks (three right, two left), and five fragments.
Correyv—Cuairn Excavated ou Belmore Mountain. 665
The latter belonged to at least four separate tusks (two right, two
left). The dimensions are as follows :—
Length on outside of curve. Width at base.
1 Right, ; . 21 cm. c : 2°5 cm.
2h Mane : ; 20°25 cm. . : 2°1 cm.
3 Left, 3 é 14:25) em. : 2°3 cm.
As : a a - C Hall (Gia
5 Right, oF : : Me
Fragments :—
1 Right, : ‘ — : : 2°5 cm.
2 Left, ; 2 — : : 2:3 cm.
3 Right, : 4 —- : P 2:1 cm.
4 Left, : : — 9
The fifth is the point of a large tusk and may be the point of No. 1,
with which it agrees in colour and texture. The first four tusks are
illustrated at half linear size, fig. 3. The two lower, Nos. 3 and 4,
as also No. 5 not figured, have lost portions of the root end: they were
originally about the size of the complete tusks, Nos. 1 and 2.
Fic. 6.—Beads and Pendants (three-fourths of full size).
The beads and pendants are of considerable interest. There are
three beads, one of which, the first, fig. 6, is a small carnelian pebble.
666 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
It is rubbed down in places so as to bring it to a rudely globular
shape. The hole is widely splayed. The remaining beads and pen-
dants—with one exception, the last, a tooth—are of soft silicious stone
apparently allied to serpentine. One of the beads has been much
altered by fire. The pendants are seven in number. The largest is
plain, but well formed and highly polished. A smaller, also plain, is
more curved in outline. Three have an incised line or nicking cut
round the lower part. Two of these have suffered much from burn-
ing. One, plain, is triangular. The remaining one appears to be the
tooth of an animal worked and pierced. The species has not been
determined.
The beads and pendants are very similar to those obtained from
the Loughcrew cairns.
In type, the cairn and chambers on Belmore mountain are like-
wise similar to several of those on the Loughcrew hills, with the
exception that there was no curb of large stones around the base of
the cairn on Belmore mountain. The absence of covering stones for
the passage, and with one exception the chambers at Belmore moun-
tain, has been noticed. The absence of covering stones has been also
observed in the smaller cairns at Loughcrew
About 150 yards below the cairn are the remains of a circular lis
or fort formed of loose stones. It is marked on the Ordnance sheet.
The cairn would appear to have been associated with this station or
settlement.
[ 667 ]
XXXIT.
AMENDMENT TO “THE TWELFTH AND CONCLUDING
MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF SCREWS”: TRANS.
R.LA., Vol. xxxt., pp. 145-196. By SIR ROBERT BALL,
LL.D., F.R.S., Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry
at Cambridge.
[Reap April 25th, 1898.]
I wap occasion to set down, on page 172 of the above-mentioned Paper,
a construction for the three double points of two plane homographic
systems. It is no doubt true that the three double points possess the
property there stated, but the converse does not generally hold, as
I had incautiously supposed. The construction given is therefore
unsound.
A correct construction for the double points of two homographic
systems of points in the same plane is as follows :—
Let O and O’ be a pair of corresponding points. Then each ray
through O will have, as its correspondent, a ray through O’. The
locus of the intersection of these rays will be a conic S. This conic
S must pass through the three double points, and also through O
and 0’.
Draw the conic S’, which is the locus of the points in the second
system corresponding to the points on S, regarded as in the first
system. Then since O lies on S, we must have O’ on S’. But 8S’
must also pass through the three double points. 0’ is one of the four
intersections of S and S’, and the three others are the sought double
points. Thus the double points are constructed.
On the same page (Joc. cit.) I also set down a construction for the
four double points of two homographic systems in space. Here again
the process is not generally applicable. I replace it by a correct
construction, as follows :—
Let O and O’ be two corresponding rays. Then any plane through
O will have, as its correspondent, a plane through O’. It is easily seen
that these planes intersect on a ray which has for its locus a quadric
668 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
surface S, of which O and O’ are also generators. This quadric must
pass through the four double points.
Let S’ be the quadric surface which contains all the points in the
second system corresponding to the points of S regarded as the first
system. Then O’ will lie on S’, and the rest of the intersection of S
and S’ will be a twisted cubic C, which passes through the four double
points.
Take any point P on C, and draw any plane through P. Then
every ray of the first system of the pencil through P in this plane
will have as its correspondent in the second system the ray in some
other plane pencil Z. One, at least, of the rays in the pencil Z will
cut the cubic C. Call this ray X’, and draw its correspondent X in
the first system passing through P.
We thus haye a pair of corresponding rays X and X’, each of
which intersects the twisted cubic C.
Draw pairs of corresponding planes through X and X’. The locus
of their intersection will be a quadric 8”, which also contains the
four double points.
S” and C, being of the second and the third order respectively, will
intersect in six points. Two of these are on X and X’, and are thus
distinguished. The four remaining intersections will be the required
double points, and thus the problem has been solved.
Proc. R.I. Ac. Ser IIL. Vol IV. Plate I.
Fig.1.
Section across west end of the Kimegsar, at Holywood, Co. Down.
Stratified Gravels
&tolZ feet. :
S.E.
« or a
Reclaimed Land can ene Ss
at about high pear ay:
water inark.
Estuarine Clay.
Fig. 2.
Section on the shore at Kilroot, Co. Antrim.
Raised Beach 1-6!
wy,
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Tr ap Dyke
Boulder Clay: 4-1"
Existing
Fig. 3.
Section across portion of the Curran, Larne.
la feet above H.W.M.
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: Bri cas ahaa : ; Present
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8 feet.
Length of Section, 600 feet.
Geo West & Sons lith.et trap
Proc. B.I.Ac. Ser IIL. Vol IV. Plate Il.
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Proc. RI. Ac. Ser. Ill. Vol. IV. Plate III.
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Proc. R.I Acad SerlIl. Vol.1V. Plate X.
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Proc. R.I. Acap. Ser. III. Vout. IV.
PLATE
XII.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Proc. R.I.Acad. Ser. III. Vol. IV. Plate XIII,
Plan
Sha anagh Cromleach
a ( Dublin
J Magnetic Varcalen for locali
¢ and dake estimated al 20°16
Scale Sta rhe
Dubir 31 Mach 1996 Bis
WM. STRAIN & SONS, BELFAST
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Proc. R.I.Acad. Ser. III. Vol. IV.
WM. STRAIN & SONS BELFAST
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WM. STRAIN & SONS, BELFAST
MOUNT VENUS.
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Proc. R.[.Acad. Ser. III. Vol. IV. Plate XIX.
WM. STRAIN & SONS, BELFAST
SHANKILL.
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