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MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Received J""'-'*''-^ / f.^ <^

Accession No. ^-^/^

Given by /^,>t-<^^:C-*y- ^::i-.^>^ ^i2^^^
Place. ^^?^<<^C^^...,..^.^^. .

***Tlo book ot< pamphlet is to be femoved from the Liab-
opatopy inithoat the pepmission of the Tpustees.

Committee on T'ubtication

Barton W. Evermann

Chairman and Editor

C. Hart Merriam Frank Baker

F. W, Hodge Henry Gannet

PROCEEDINGS

OF run

Washington Academy of Sciences

Vol. VII

1905

WASHINGTON

June, 1905 -March, 1906

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Anthropological Society of Washington.
Biological Society of Washington.
Botanical Society of Washington.
Chemical Society of Washington.
Columbia Historical Society.
Entomological Society of Washington.
Geological Society of Washington.
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.
National Geographic Society.
Philosophical Society of Washington.
Society of American Foresters.

Washington Society of the Arch.<eological Institute of
America.

3^7^'

Pflt'3 OF

THt New Eha Phintino COMPAKT
Lancaster, Pa.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

The Relations of Some Carboniferous Faunas ; by George H.

Girty i

The Blood-vascular System of the Loricati, the Mail-cheeked

Fishes ; by William F. Allen 27

The Gymnotidae ; by Carl H. Eigenmann and David Perkins Ward 1 59
Declinations of Certain North Polar Stars Determined with the

Meridian Circle ; by Harriet W. Bigelow . . . . 1 89

The Cambrian Fauna of India ; by Charles D. Walcott

On Basic Substitutions in the Zeolites ; by F. W. Clarke .

Simultaneous Joints ; by George F. Becker

A Feature of May6n Volcano ; by George F. Becker ,

The Linear Force of Growing Crystals ; by George F. Becker

and Arthur L. Day

An Interesting Pseudosolid ; by George F. Becker and Arthur L

Day

The Vital Fabric of Descent ; by 0. F. Cook .

The Foliaceous and Fruticose Lichens of the Santa Cruz Fenin

sula, California; by Albert W. C. T. Herre .
Index ..........

251

257
267

277

2S3

2S9
301

325
397

ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

I. Blood-vascular System of Ophiodon elongatus^ the blue cod 138
II. Portions of same, continued 140

III. Portions of same, concluded, with detail of branchial arch

of Hydi'olagjis colliei 142

IV. Details of Blood-vascular System of viscera of Hexagrain-
mos decagram7nus^ ScorpcenicJithys mar7noratus^ Sebas-
todes aziriculatzis^and Sebastodes Jiavidus 144

V. Details of portions of Blood-vascular System of Anoplo-

poma ji7nbria 146

VI. Heart of Ophiodon elongatus 148

VII. Anterior portions of Sternarchiis brasilieitsis^ S. albi-
fro7is^ S. inacrolepis^ Sternarchella schotti^ and Ster?i-
archogzton tzattereri 1 80

VIII. Ste7-narchorhanzphus ta77iaiidzia and parts of S. 77zulle7'i

and Ster7zarchorhy7zchus mor7)iy7-zis 183

IX. Ster7za7-chorhyrzchzis czi7-vii-ostris^ S. oxyrJzyncJizis and

Steatoge7zys eleguTzs 1 84

X. Heads of RJza77zpJiic]ithys 77za7-77zoratziSy Hypopo7tzzis brev-

z7-ost7'z's^ Eige7Z77za7t7zia vz7-esce7zs and Gito7z fasczatzis... 186

XI. Heads of Eigerz77za7t7zia /zu77zboldtiz\ Gymnotzis carapzis^

G. ccqziilabiatus and G. obtzisiz-osti'is 188

XII. Diagrams Illustrating Simultaneous Joints 374

XIII. Mayon Volcano 3S0

XIV. Photograph of Pseudosolid 393

TEXT FIGURES

PAGE

1 . Heart of OphiodoTZ eloTtgatzis 40

2. Yits.rt oi Ophiodon clofzgaius 41

I . May6n Volcano 381

2a, »b. Driblet Cone 2S2

I. Apparatus for measuring force of growing crystals 2S5

1. Apparatus in construction of pseudosolid 391

2. Diagram of same 392

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICERS ELECTED JANUARY 18. 1906

President

Charles D. Walcott

Vice-Presidents

Frotti the A7ithropologlcal Society W. H. Holmes

Archccological Society John W. Foster

Biological Society F. H. Knowlton

Botanical Society J. N. Rose

Chemical Society F. W. Clarke

Cohimbia Historical Society A. R. Spokford

E7itomological Society Wm. II. Ashmead

Geological Society C. W. Hayes

Medical Society James D. Morgan

National Geographic Society Willis L. Moore

Philosophical Society Cleveland Abbe

Society of American Foresters Gifford Pinciiot

Secretary

reas

•urer

Frank Baker

Berna]

R. Green

Managers

Class of I go J

Class of igoS

Class of igog

Geo. M. Kober

L. O. Howard

A. Bauer

F. V. Coville

O. H. TiTTMANN

Hart Merriam

J. S. DiLLER

Barton W. Evermann

F. Marvin

Standing Committees— 1906

Conunittee on Meetings Cojnmittec on Publication

L. A. Bauer, Chairma7t Barton W. Evermann, Chairma^i

C. W. Hayes C. Hart Merriam

James D. Morgan F. W. Hodge

Frederick V. Coville ^rank Baker

E. B. Rosa Henry Gannett

L. J. Briggs

Committee on Finance
Theodore Gii.l, Chairjnan
Bernard R. Green
E. M. Gallaudet
c. e. munroe
George O. Smith

Committee on Building
W. H. Holmes, Chairtnan

GiFFORD PiNCHOT

Arnold Hague
G. L. Magruder
J. G. Hagen

Committee on Rules Committee on Functions

Wm. H. Ashmead, Chairman C. F. Marvin, Chair?nan

G. W. LiTTLEHALES F. W. ClARKE

J. H. Gore R. A. Harris

Com.mittee on Membership
Geo. M. Kober, Chairman
Willis L. Moore
H. G. Dyar
J. S. Diller
A. K. Fisher

Committee on Relations to Other
Organizations

Charles D. Walcott, Chairman
A. Graham Bell
J. N. Rose
F. W. True
C. L. Marlatt

Committee on Affiliation
O. H. Tittmann, Chairman
F. W. Clarke
Whitman Cross

EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 1905.

To THE Wasiiixgtox Academy of Sciences.

Mr. President and Members of the Academy : I have the honor
to present a brief statement of the operations of the Academy during
the period from January 19, 1905, to January 18, 1906.

During this time the Academy has held the following meetings :

January 19, 1905 — Annual meeting for the election of officers, etc.

February 16, 1905— Meeting to hear a discourse by Mr. Edward
S. Curtis, who gave an account of his work in photographing western
Indians, illustrated by lantern views.

March 9, 1905 — Meeting for the discussion of Modern Methods of
Historical Research and Teaching. At this meeting the following
papers were presented :

The work of the Carnegie Bureau of Historical Research, by Prof.
A. C. McLaughlin, Director.

Methods of Historical Research, by Prof. Charles M. Andrews, of
Bryn Mawr College.

The Necessity in America of the Study of the Early History of
Modern European Nations, by Prof. F. Keutgen, University of Jena,
pro te?n. Johns Hopkins University.

March 30, 1905 — Meeting to hear a paper by Prof. Frank Dawson
Adams, of McGill University, relating to his experiments designed to
illustrate the Flow of Rocks.

April 19, 1905 — Meeting in conjunction with the National Acad-
emy of Sciences to inspect the Bureau of Standards.

May 9, 1905 — Meeting in conjunction with the Anthropological
Society of Washington to hear the annual address of the President of
that Society, whose subject was ' ' The Story of the Anthropological
Society of Washington."

November 28, 1905 — Meeting to hear an address by Prof. Wilhelm
Ostwald, University of Leipzig, on The International Language.

December iS, 1905 — Meeting to hear an address by Prof. V.
Bjerknes, of the University of Stockholm, on The Application of the
Principles of Hydrodynamics and Thermodynamics to Weather Pre-
dictions. This was discussed by Prof. E. W. Brown, of Haverford
College, Messrs. R. S. Woodward and Cleveland Abbe,
i The Board of Managers of the Academy has meanwhile held nine
meetings for the transaction of business.

The Academy has suffered the following losses by death during the
year :

Washington Matthews died April 29, 1905.

George H. Eldridge died June 29, 1905.

R. B. Warder died July 23, 1905.

W. R. Harper died January 10, 1906.

Swan M. Burnett died January iS, 1906.

The statistics of membership at this date are as follows :

Pa tr Otis.

At date of last report 8

Elected during the year o 8

Resident meftibers.

At date of last report 157

Elected and qualified during the year 21

Transferred from non-resident list i 179

Deceased 4

Resigned 7

Dropped for non-payment of dues i 12 167

Non-7- csident members.

At date of last report , 159

Elected and qualified during the year 22 181

Deceased i

Resigned 6

Transferred to resident list i S 173

Counted twice i

Total membership January iS, 1906 347

Respectfully submitted,

Frank Baker,

Secretary.
January 18, 1906.

EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 1905.

To THE Washington Academy ok Sciences :

The Treasurer has the honor to submit the following annual report
of receipts, disbursements, and funds in his hands for the year from
January 16, 1905, to Decemlicr 31, 190s, when the account was chxsed
and balanced.

The receipts during the year were as follows :

Dues of resident members, 1S99 $ 10.00

Dues of resident members, 1900 10.00

Dues of resident members, 1901 10.00

Dues of resident members, 1902 10.00

Dues of resident members, 1903 ^S-OO

Dues of resident members, ^904 90.00

Dues of resident members, 1905 745'°C) $ S90.00

Dues of non-resident members, 1901 10.00

Dues of non-resident members, 1903 ^S-oo

Dues of non-resident members, 1904 45-io

Dues of non-resident members, 1905 Sio.io

Dues of non-resident members, 1906 10.00 90^20

Sales of publications 81.60

Interest on bank deposit and investments '^16.04

Refund from overpayment on disbursing voucher .30

From Estate of Dr. S. C. Busey :

3 year 4^^ first trust note $444.44

Cash 235.09 669.53

Cash returned by Committee on Meetings, balance not

used expenses meeting of Dec. 18, 1905 , 3*05

Total receipts $3,065.73

The amounts and objects of the expenditures were as follows :
Paid on account of expenses incurred in previous year, 1904 :

Secretary's office $ 19-70

Treasurer's office 12.35

Editor's office 500.00

Publishing Vol. VI. of Proceedings 93^. 43

Meetings i o. 00 $1 ,480. 3 7

Paid on account of expenses of the past year, 1905 :

Secretary's office $ 173.10

Treasurer's office 105.30

Meetings and Lectures 370.28

Joint Directory 3i9*3i

Publishing Vol. VII of the Proceedings. . . 1,193.75
Investment in two 5^, 3-year deed of trust

notes 3,500.00

Investment to balance receipt of note from

Estate of Dr. S. C. Busey 444-44 6,104.18

Total disbursements $7'5%-55

Statement of Account.

Balance from last annual statement $5,329.36

Receipts during the year 3,065.72

To be accounted for $8,395.08

Disbursements during the year 7,584.55

Cash balance on hand $ 8 10. 53

These funds are on deposit with the American Security and Trust
Company, drawing 2% interest.

The investment of $3,500.00 was made in two 3-year 5^ first
mortgage notes by Laura R. Green, on January 30, 1905. During
the year there were received from the Estate of Dr. S. C. Busey a
3-year 4"^^ first trust note for $444.44, and $225.09 in cash, being
the remainder of the bequest to the Academy.

The investments are as follows :

Cash on hand belonging to permanent fund y $ 195.09

809 shares stock of the Washington Sanitary Improve-
ment Co 8 ,090. 00

1 share stock of Colonial Fire Insurance Co 100.00

2 shares stock of the Scheutzen Park Land and Build-
ing Association, par value $100, actual value doubt-
ful, say $44.00 SS.oo

2 first trust notes of Laura R. Green, 3 years 5% in-
terest, for $2,000 and $1,500 3,500.00

I first trust note of Aurelius R. Shands, 3 years, 4^%

interest 444.44

$12^417-53
Respectfully submitted,

Bernard R. Green,

T^rcasurcr.
January 18, 1906.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 1-25. June 20, 1905.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS

FAUNAS.^

By George H. Girty.

However wide the deviation in practice, a description of the
admirable scientific method as being that in which evidence or
authority is adduced for each new or undemonstrated statement,
would probably meet with general acceptance ; yet departure
from this method is regarded as permissible in certain cases, and
scientific discussion does find a legitimate field in which the
presentation of evidence plays a subordinate part. It is believed
that the subject of the present paper presents such a field, yet my
own indisposition toward publications of this sort is such that
the manuscript has been withheld for many months, largely
through unwillingness to enter it. The fact that the following
pages are a presentation of problems for solution rather than a
statement of results, with its implicated claim to priority, will,
it is hoped, serve my excuse. A man with an arrow may hit a
mark which another laboriously has his hand upon, and it seems
as if far too much of that prized commodity, credit, were com-
monly awarded to priority of statement as against priority of
demonstration.

During the past 9 or 10 years collections of Carboniferous
invertebrate fossils have come under my observation in great
numbers, and from a very extensive area. Many facts relating
to the dispersion and relation of faunas have thus been ascer-
tained, or divined with greater or less certainty ; but the very
1 Published by permission of the Directors of the U. S. Geological Survey.

I
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

2 GIRTY

amount and variety of the evidence which passed before me,
together with the pressure of other work, has prevented the
making of final comparisons and the developing of evidence
in such detail that conclusions could be said to be proved to
myself, or that they could be presented for the conviction of
others.

Until this could be carried out I thought to refrain from pub-
lishing these observations ; but it has latterly seemed to me that
many of them are of sufficient interest and sufficiently well sub-
stantiated to make a statement desirable, even though my vie;ws
should subsequently need to be modified and though the presen-
tation of the evidence upon which they are based should prove to
be, as it clearly will, the work of years. It is partly on this
account, the necessity of choice between the early statement of
conclusions which are more or less tentative, and a delayed and
gradual presentation of better established ones, together with
the feeling that to formulate these views now might aid myself
as well as others in a more speedy arrival at the truth, by de-
termining what the objective really is, that the former course
has been chosen.

Several years ago I studied and described in detail the fauna
of the Madison limestone of Yellowstone National Park.^ This
fauna proves to be characteristic of the Lower Carboniferous of
the Western States, in nearly every one of which it occurs,
locally modified perhaps, but retaining the same general expres-
sion, from the Canadian to the Mexican boundar}' and as far
west as Nevada. In California the fauna of the Baird shale,
which has generally been called Lower Carboniferous, is entirely
different, and while it has not yet been found in Washington or
Oregon, it seems probable that the areas of those States shared
the same geological and biological history during this period.
The Mississippian faunas of the Mississippi valley seem never
to have found entrance into this region, or, if so, whatever
traces have not been lost are thus far undiscovered. On the
other hand, it is uncertain if the California fauna ever pene-
trated into the region eastward. One of its most striking feat-
ures is a large Productus resembling P. giganteus of the

' U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon. No. 32, 1899, pt. 2, chap. 12, sec. 2.

THE RELATION OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 3

English *' Mountain limestone." This species is not known
elsewhere in North America, unless a form identified by Meek
as Producttts latissimus prove to be the same. The latter was
found on Katlahwoke Creek, Montana, and is the only indica-
tion of the Baird fauna known to me east of the Pacific coast. ^
If it does mark this fauna, the latter will appear to have had a
wider distribution eastward than there is otherwise ground for
supposing. There is thus no very conclusive evidence for be-
lieving that the Bairdian fauna was contemporaneous with those
of the Mississippi Valley, rather than of later development, but
even if so the facies of the two are so different that the pro-
priety of extending to the California fauna the term Mississip-
pian may well be questioned.

The fauna of the Madison limestone, which has so wide a
distribution in the West, is, on the other hand, closely related
to the typical Mississippian faunas. In m}^ earlier work I cor-
related the Madison limestone with the Kinderhook, Burling-
ton, and Keokuk groups of the Mississippi Valley, and have
seen no reason since to change my views. Nevertheless, it
seems to be almost unquestionable that in some areas these
Western faunas, in their later developments, take on the aspect
characteristic of the St. Louis epoch. Nowhere in the West,
however, have any Kaskaskia faunas been discovered. One of
3 hypotheses seems necessary to explain this fact, which is no
less striking, even should local areas of Kaskaskia rocks sub-
sequently be discovered. Either no strata equivalent to the
Kaskaskia have ever been deposited in this region ; or, though
deposited, they have since been removed ; or else contempora-
neously formed sediments supported a fauna which was so
unlike the Kaskaskia that its equivalence has failed of recog-
nition. Of these 3 hypotheses it is probable that the second is
the correct one. Unmistakable evidence of unconformity be-
ween the Madison limestone (and its correlates) and the over-

' I have recently identified P. giganteus in Alaska, though somewhat doubt-
fully, and a small form apparently related, though more distantly, occurs in
Utah at a horizon above the Madison (Waverly) fauna. The latter occurrence
affords some slight ground for the hypothesis that the Bairdian fauna, while
quite different, may possibly be equivalent to the upper Mississippian faunas
which otherwise are not represented in the West.

Statement of Account.

Balance from last annual statement $5,329.36

Receipts during the year 3,065.72

To be accounted for $8,395.08

Disbursements during the year 7,584.55

Cash balance on hand $ 810.53

These funds are on deposit with the American Security and Trust
Company, drawing 2% interest.

The investment of $3,500.00 was made in two 3-year 5% first
mortgage notes by Laura R. Green, on January 30, 1905. During
the year there were received from the Estate of Dr. S. C. Busey a
3-year 4^% first trust note for $444.44, and $225.09 in cash, being
the remainder of the bequest to the Academy.

The investments are as follows :

Cash on hand belonging to permanent fund $ 195.09

809 shares stock of the Washington Sanitary Improve-
ment Co 8,090.00

1 share stock of Colonial Fire Insurance Co 100.00

2 shares stock of the Scheutzen Park Land and Build-
ing Association, par value $100, actual value doubt-
ful, say $44.00 88.00

2 first trust notes of Laura R. Green, 3 years 5^ in-
terest, for $2,000 and $1,500 3,500.00

I first trust note of Aurelius R. Shands, 3 years, 4^%

interest .' 444.44

$^2»4i7-53
Respectfully submitted,

Bernard R. Green,

Treasurer.
January 18, 1906.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 1-25. June 20, 1905,

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS

FAUN AS. 1

By George H. Girty.

1 Published by permission of the Directors of the U. S. Geological Survey.

I
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

2 GIRTY

Several years ago I studied and described in detail the fauna
of the Madison limestone of Yellowstone National Park.^ This
fauna proves to be characteristic of the Lower Carboniferous of
the Western States, in nearly every one of which it occurs,
locally modified perhaps, but retaining the same general expres-
sion, from the Canadian to the Mexican boundary and as far
west as Nevada. In California the fauna of the Baird shale,
which has generally been called Lower Carboniferous, is entirely
different, and while it has not yet been found in Washington or
Oregon, it seems probable that the areas of those States shared
the same geological and biological history during this period.
The Mississippian faunas of the Mississippi valley seem never
to have found entrance into this region, or, if so, whatev^er
traces have not been lost are thus far undiscovered. On the
other hand, it is uncertain if the California fauna ever pene-
trated into the region eastward. One of its most striking feat-
ures is a large Productus resembling P. gigantcus of the

'U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon. No. 32, 1899, pt. 2, chap. 12, sec. 2.

THE RELATION OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 3

English *' Mountain limestone." This species is not known
elsewhere in North America, unless a form identified by Meek
as Productus latissiiuus prove to be the same. The latter was
found on Katlahwoke Creek, Montana, and is the only indica-
tion of the Baird fauna known to me east of the Pacific coast.'
If it does mark this fauna, the latter will appear to have had a
wider distribution eastward than there is otherwise ground for
supposing. There is thus no very conclusive evidence for be-
lieving that the Bairdian fauna was contemporaneous with those
of the Mississippi Valley, rather than of later development, but
even if so the facies of the two are so different that the pro-
priety of extending to the California fauna the term Mississip-
pian may well be questioned.

The fauna of the Madison limestone, which has so wide a
distribution in the West, is, on the other hand, closely related
to the typical Mississippian faunas. In my earlier work I cor-
related the Madison limestone with the Kinderhook, Burling-
ton, and Keokuk groups of the Mississippi Valley, and have
seen no reason since to change my views. Nevertheless, it
seems to be almost unquestionable that in some areas these
Western faunas, in their later developments, take on the aspect
characteristic of the St. Louis epoch. Nowhere in the West,
however, have any Kaskaskia faunas been discovered. One of
3 hypotheses seems necessary to explain this fact, which is no
less striking, even should local areas of Kaskaskia rocks sub-
sequently be discovered. Either no strata equivalent to the
Kaskaskia have ever been deposited in this region ; or, though
deposited, they have since been removed ; or else contempora-
neously formed sediments supported a fauna which was so
unlike the Kaskaskia that its equivalence has failed of recog-
nition. Of these 3 hypotheses it is probable that the second is
the correct one. Unmistakable evidence of unconformity be-
ween the Madison limestone (and its correlates) and the over-

4 GIRTY

lying beds has been found in so many points in the West that a
period of erosion previous to the earliest Pennsylvanian sedi-
ments can be hypothetized for all this Western country, a gen-
eralization which is all the more safe from the widespread evi-
dence of a similar occurrence in the central and eastern United
States, and indeed in other parts of the world.

In some areas the Upper Carboniferous follows the Lower
without apparent unconformity and without marked lithologic
change, but still with a faunal break and the elision of Kas-
kaskia faunas. This is true of southern Arizona and perhaps
of the entire State, where the rocks of both epochs are lime-
stones formed, to all appearances, in an unbroken sequence ;
yet a faunal gap occurs, and even in this case, at least with the
present evidence, we must probably proceed on the h3'pothesis
that discontinuity, if not visible erosion, divided the 2 series of
sediments.

The fauna of the Madison limestone, and that of the various
formations which must be correlated with it in different parts of
the West, has been said to be equivalent to those of the Kin-
derhook and Osage groups. This affinity is, however, especi-
ally with the Chouteau, and with the Cuyahoga fauna of the
Waverly group, which can probably be correlated wath it.
This fact is justly remarked by Mr. Weller,^ and was not un-
recognized by me, although it seems, I failed to call attention
to it. The Madison faunas lack many of the striking features
of those of the Burlington and Keokuk, both the wealth of
crinoids and such robust types as S^irifcr grimes?', S. logani,
Schizo^hoi'ia swallowi, Athyris incrassata, etc. In fact, while
the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the Mississippi Valley form
a standard section for the United States, it seems probable that
they are really the expression of somewhat abnormal conditions.
The aggregation of crinoid life, which is perhaps unequaled
the world over, if not the result of unusual conditions would at
least create them for the associated fauna, and to this fact may
perhaps be largely attributed the characteristic facies of the
Burlington and Keokuk groups. That these conditions were
widely spread seems to be certain, and they extended to or oc-

' Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Trans., vol. ii, No. 9, 1901, p. 210.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS ^

curred independently in New Mexico, where, as is well-known,
crinoid beds usually assigned to the Burlington, with an associ-
ated fauna reminiscent of the Osage, are found. But this con-
dition appears not to have invaded other western portions of the
Mississippian sea, where I believe, under uniform conditions,
the Kinderhook faunas persisted through Burlington and Keokuk
time without feeling, save in a subordinate degree, the influences
which helped to differentiate the early Mississippian faunas of
the Mississippi Valley. The Mississippian beds of the West
are almost invariably purely calcareous, showing a uniformity
of condition, which finds its reflex and expression in the nearly
uniform fauna that persisted, with slight and very gradual varia-
tion, from bottom to top of the series.

In Ohio again, conditions were nearly uniform, and were at
least apparently unaffected by the profuse crinoid life, which,
whether as a partial expression or as a cause, helped to modify
Kinderhook life into its Burlington and Keokuk phases. Here
sedimentation comprised clay and mud, without any beds of lime
whatsoever. The Waverly rocks of Ohio are more varied, how-
ever, than the Madison limestone, being divided, as is well
known, into several formations, and the faunas too are appa-
rently more differentiated. Here also striking Burlington and
Keokuk features are not found, but the time of these 2 epochs
is probably represented by the upper part of the Waverly
group.

In spite of what Hall, Herrick, and others have written, I
am quite satisfied of the Carboniferous age of the Waverly
group as a whole. This statement requires, however, some
qualification. The Waverly section as given by Prosser^ con-
sists of the following formations, from below upward : Bedford
shale, Berea grit, Sunbury shale, Cuyahoga formation, Black-
hand formation, and Logan group. The Cuyahoga shale itself
is capable of subdivision, as will shortly appear. Of all these
strata the only faunas at all well known are those of the Logan,
Blackhand, and upper Cuyahoga formations. The lower Cuy-
ahoga is scantily fossiliferous ; the Sunbury shale contains
little besides Lingiila and Orbiciiloidea; the Berea grit is almost

ijour, Geol., vol. 9, No. 3, 1901, p. 215.

6 GIRTY

without fossils, except fishes, and the upper portion of the Bed-
ford is practically unfossiliferous. The lowest Bedford, how-
ever, often contains an abundant though somewhat limited
fauna, part of which has been illustrated by Herrick.^ It is the
middle and upper Cuyahoga faunas and those of the Black-
hand and Logan formations which should be correlated with
the Kinderhook, Burlington, and Keokuk groups of the Mis-
sissipi Valley. It is probable, however, that the Mississippian
is initiated with the Berea grit, because the Bedford fauna
comprises a well-detined group of species, quite distinct from
any of the Waverly or Mississippian faunas. The lower Cuy-
ahoga fauna, so far as it is known, is allied to that of the mid-
dle and upper portion. The supposed equivalent of the Berea
grit in northwesten Pennsylvania contains a fauna which is
without much question of a Mississippian type, and further-
more, both theoretically, and practically for mapping purposes,
the Berea grit is a satisfactory bed with which to initiate the
Carboniferous series.

From Ohio the Waverly group passes eastward into north-
western Pennsylvania. There, in his reports on Crawford and
Erie counties, I. C. White - has called the several members by
different names. The Blackhand conglomerate is his Shenango
sandstone, and apparently the Logan group is represented by his
Shenango shale. His Meadville shale, Sharpsville sandstone,
and Orangeville shale are, respectively, the upper, middle, and
lower portions of the Cuyahoga shale. In this region the Sun-
bury shale is either absent or merged with the lower Cuyahoga.
The Berea grit of Ohio is White's Cussewago sandstone,
together with probably the Cussewago flags and Corry sand-
stone.^

From Crawford and Erie counties the Corry sandstone can be
traced eastward to Warren, where it lies approximately 500 feet

' Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., Bull., vol. 4, iSSS, pi. 9.

2 Second Geol. Surv. Penn., Rept., Qj, 18S1.

'Many of these correlations have been pointed out by Stevenson (Geol. Soc.
Am., Bull., vol. 14, pp. 27 and 42) and also In- Wliite in his report on Crawford
and Erie counties, above referred to. The views expressed above arc based upon
my own field work, bv which the formations and faunas were traced from Penn-
sylvania over extensive areas in Ohio.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 7

above the top of the true Chemung. The intervening beds
seem, therefore, to represent a new time interval between the
Devonian and the Carboniferous, for which the name Bradford-
ian has been suggested.

The extent of the Bradfordian series, which includes beds
sometimes loosely termed " Upper Chemung," is not definitely
known, but the evidence thus far obtained indicates that the
Pocono and possibly part of the Catskill belong to it. If this is
true, and if the correlations summarized by Stevenson in the
report just cited, are in the main correct, this series plays an
important part in the geology of the Appalachian basin.
Therefore, in my view, which I hope shortly to support by a
complete presentation of evidence, the Pocono, if it actually
forms part of the Bradfordian series, instead of being equiva-
lent to the Waverly, as generally supposed, passes under it in
the vicinity of Warren, the real Waverly apparently not extend-
ing farther to the eastward. The Bradfordian series is fre-
quently exposed in Crawford and Erie counties, where it in-
cludes the Riceville shale and, doubtless, considerable thick-
nesses of the underlying beds. In Ohio it is tentatively assumed
to be represented by the Bedford and Cleveland shales, and
probably by the Erie. Its age is a matter of some diversity of
opinion, but I believe that its true relations are with the
Devonian.

In the Central States the Mississippian series is usually suc-
ceeded by a bed of sandstone or conglomerate, followed by the
Coal Measures, and in many cases preceded by an erosional
unconformity. This basal sandstone, often called the "Mill-
stone grit" or " Coal Measure conglomerate," has always been
classed with the Upper Carboniferous, and has been regarded
as ushering in the Upper Carboniferous or Pennsylvanian.
Comparatively seldom does it contain fossils of any kind, and
never, so far as I am aware, invertebrate fossils. On this
account, and because it is not in this area of very great thick-
ness, it has generally been given little consideration by inverte-
brate paleontologists, the arena of whose investigations has been
largely confined to these North Central States. Nevertheless,
this horizon is probably destined to form a very interesting field
for paleontologic research.

8 GIRTY

In Pennsylvania, between the Lower Carboniferous and the
Coal Measures, intervenes, as is well known, the Pottsville
series, a group especially noted for its sand and pebble beds,
but often containing as well a large quota of shales, fire clays,
and coals. The thickness attained by the Pottsville in the
Appalachian region is in some cases upwards of 6,000 feet.
The Pottsville series occupies a position in the section corre-
sponding to the " Millstone grit" of the Central States, and the
evidence of paleobotany, wherever obtained, shows that the
"Millstone grit " represents the Pottsville, sometimes one portion,
sometimes another, for the name has been applied not so much
to the same bed as to similar beds occupying the same position.
In the Appalachian region the Pottsville series is richly fossil-
iferous in the wa}'^ of fossil plants, but furnishes as a rule few
invertebrates. The invertebrate faunas are, except in a few
instances, peculiar and restricted, and clearly indicate unusual
environmental conditions. The most frequent fossil is Naiadites
elongatus Dawson, with which are associated bivalve crustaceans,
such as Estheria, Lcaia^ and Ostracods ; while more rarely
fragments of Prestwichia, or Limuloids, or fish scales and
plates are brought to view. An occasional Pectinoid, almost
always of the type of Aviculipecten whitci, together, not infre-
quentl}'', with Lingida and Orbiculoidca^ indicates that these
faunas cannot be considered as owing their peculiar facies to
strictly fresh- water conditions. Possibly the water was brackish,
or else the impurity produced by decaying vegetation and acid
products resulting therefrom exercised a prohibitive influence
upon oceanic life. In a few cases strictly marine faunas have
been found in the Appalachian Pottsville.

In Arkansas Branner^ and the geologists associated with him
worked out the following section, which has been somewhat
modified by later investigations, both as to terminology and
arrangement. Nevertheless, the form in which Branner pre-
sented it is better known and will sufllce for the present discus-
sion. The Carboniferous portion of the section contains the
following formations, in ascending order : Boone chert and

' Arkansas Geol. Suiv., Ann. Rcpt. for 18SS, vol. 4 (Wasliington County),
iSyi, p. 26.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 9

and cherty limestone, Wyman sandstone, Fayetteville shale,
Batesville sandstone, Marshall shale, Archimedes limestone,
Washington shale and sandstone, Pentremital limestone, coal-
bearing shale and Kessler limestone.

The coal-bearing shale contains a rich flora, which, though
the fact has generally escaped recognition by invertebrate pale-
ontologists, was identified several years ago by Mr. David
White as of latest middle or earliest " Upper Pottsville " age.
Nevertheless, the Boston group, that is, beds up to and includ-
ing the Kessler limestone, has otherwise, without exception so
far as I am aware, been assigned to the Lower Carboniferous. I
have recently studied with some care the upper faunas of this
section, and although my investigations are still incomplete,
feel safe in making the following statement, of which my report,
when published, will give the evidence in full.

The Kessler limestone is as a rule scantily fossiliferous, but
where a fauna has been obtained from it, it proves to be essen-
tially the same as that of the Petremital limestone. Thus these
2 limestones, carrying between them the coal-bearing shale with
its " Upper Pottsville " flora, are inseparable upon paleontologic
evidence. The line, whatever division is used, must pass above
the Kessler or below the Pentremital. The Kessler-Pentrem-
ital fauna is quite distinct from any standard Lower Carbon-
iferous fauna ; it is also markedly different from the fauna of
the Archimedes Hmestone. There is thus a distinct faunal
break between the Archimedes and Pentremital beds. The
Pentremital-Kessler fauna is itself one of great interest. Besides
many species which are new, it contains some showing Lower
Carboniferous affinities, such as Pcntremites, Sfiriferina trans-
versa, etc., and others which are distinctly Upper Carbonifer-
ous, e. g., Hustedia and Squamhlaria. Few paleontologists
will at first be willing to accept Pcntremttes as ranging above
the top of the sub-Carboniferous, but the evidence at hand
leaves no other conclusion tenable, unless one be prepared to
place the Pottsville beds in the Lower Carboniferous.

From what has already been said, the Pottsville, from its
faunal side, is of little interest in the vvay of correlation in the
Central and Eastern States. It will, however, probably establish

lO GIRTY

some interestinof relations between beds of the West and the
Southwest. The Pennsylvanian faunas of the West have often
a fades which is novel and perplexing to one familiar only with
the well-known Eastern ones ; and it is probable that the lowest
faunas of this region will in many cases prove to be of Pottsville
age. While I have not been able as yet to make the numerous
identifications and comparisons necessary to establish this as a
fact, the resemblances to the fauna of the Morrow formation
(Pentremital limestone, coal-bearing shale, and Kessler lime-
stone) are sufficiently numerous and striking to make this a very
promising hypothesis.

It will be remembered that C. D. Walcott described an inter-
esting fauna from the Eureka district,' in which there was found
a commingling of Upper and Lower Carboniferous types. This
is likely to prove of Pottsville age. The lowest Pennsylvanian
faunas of Colorado and of New Mexico, especially the latter,
also show similarities which appear to me highly significant.
The Bend and Millsap formations of Texas may likewise prove
to be Pottsville. In Indian Territory the Wapanucka limestone,
whose fauna I at one time described^ in a very limited and cur-
sory manner, is, I feel fairly well assured, to be closely corre-
lated with the Pentremital and Kessler beds.

The faunas of the middle and lower Pottsville are as yet un-
known, unless to this horizon belong the beds underlying the
Morrow formation in Arkansas and the Wapanucka limestone in
Indian Territory. The possibility involved is interesting, and
deserves investigation. The case may be stated as follows :
The faunas between the Boone and the Pentremital have always
been regarded as belonging in the upper Mississippian (Gene-
vieve), in which case the lower and middle Pottsville are unrep-
resented in this area. Now the stratigraphic and lithologic
break at the top of the Boone is as strong as, possibly stronger
than, that at the base of the Morrow formation. Furthermore,
while the faunas of the beds between the Boone and Kessler
show marked Mississippian affinities, they at the same time
possess much individuality. The resemblances to the Gene-

' U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon. S,.iSS4.

2U. S. Geol. Surv., 19th Ann. Rept., pt. 3, 1S99, pp. 543, 573.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS II

vieve are probably no greater than one would expect in the case
of an immediately succeeding series, while the differences are
rather more than one would expect in the same series at a point
relatively so near the typical Genevieve area. The supposed
dispersion also of the beds under consideration seems to afford
some support for the view advanced.

Beneath the Wapanucka limestone in Indian Territory lies
the Caney shale, a great mass of black shale, sometimes reach-
ing a thickness of 1,500 feet, which probably is, in a general
way, or partially, equivalent to the interval under consideration
— that between the Boone and the Kessler formations. This
interval, it will be remembered, also contains a good deal of
black shale, and underlies the Kessler limestone, which I cor-
relate with some confidence with the Wapanucka limestone,
though, as already remarked the final specific comparisons and
identifications have not yet been made. The Caney shale,
however, is, in its fullest development, much thicker than the
beds in Arkansas, and an opinion would at present be hazardous,
as to whether only a part of it represents them, or the entire
thickness is merely an expansion.

The fauna of the Caney shale consists largely of Goniatites,
which are both varied and abundant in certain localities, where
they help to form calcareous lentils. With the Goniatites occur
little besides, except at some points a small species of Posid-
oniella in great abundance. At the base of the Caney at one
locality a more varied though somewhat sparse and ill-preserved
fauna has been found. This fauna and the Goniatites, some
of which are of the crenislria and s^hcEricus types, are very
suggestive of the fauna of the Fayetteville shale and Spring
Creek limestone. The Caney rests sometimes upon lower
Helderberg rocks, sometimes upon those of Ordovician age ;
and Mr. Taff tells me that his field work of the present season
tends to demonstrate the presence over a considerable area of a
great thickness of sandstones and shales of Carboniferous and
probably Pennsylvanian age, beneath it.

In the White Pine district of Nevada the beds called *' Lower
Carboniferous " by Mr. Walcott, which are here suggested to
be of Pottsville age, are underlain by a black shale — the White

12 GIRTY

Pine shale — which he assigned to the " Upper Devonian." I
have long been of opinion, however, that the age of this bed is
not Devonian, but Carboniferous. The White Pine fauna,
however, is not without forms suggestive of the Devonian, to
which period it was also tentatively assigned by Meek. One
of the most striking of these is a Leiorhynchus resembling
L. quadricostaium. Prodtictiis hirsutiformis and a Posid-
onomya [Posidontella P) also lend it a Devonian aspect. A
Leiorhynchus like L. qjiadricostattwi, a Productus like P. hir-
sutiformis, similar Goniatites, and similar Posidoniellas are
found near the base of the Caney shale in Indian Territory,
and in the Spring Creek limestone and Fayetteville shale of
Arkansas. These facts, together with a similarity in lithologic
character and an identity in stratigraphic position, in point of
which each occurrence is immediately beneath beds supposed
to represent about the same horizon, while not sufficient to
demonstrate stratigraphic equivalence, for which a thorough
comparison of the entire faunas would be necessary, lend a
strong color of probability to it. The occurrence of the White
Pine shale corresponds to the Caney shale in that no beds of
Mississippian age underlie it. In Nevada, however, we have
a great thickness of Devonian, perhaps the most notable in-
stance of Devonian west of the Mississippi Valley, an equiva-
lent of which is lacking in Indian Territory.

Assuming the correctness of the correlation thus tentatively
adopted, the uniformity of distribution of the black-shale hori-
zon with the overl3nng sandstone and limestone is suggestive of
a close relation between them. On the other hand, at the base
of this horizon a great discordance appears to exist, measured
to some extent by the various ages of the beds upon which it
rests, now Mississippian, now Ordovician, and again upon De-
vonian strata. On the hypothesis that this black-shale interval
represents the early portion of the Pottsville series, this appar-
ent unconformity at its base would probably coincide with the
period of erosion, almost continental in extent, by which the
Mississippian period was brought to a close. On the other
hand, on the assumption that the black shale belongs in the
upper Mississippian, it would appear that an extensive and little

THE RELATIONS OF SOIME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS I3

suspected discordance separates the Genevieve from the Osage
groups, while the general unconformity preceding the Potts-
ville, which should intervene below the Morrow formation, is
relatively insignificant. The survey of the situation thus hastily
made, while inadequate to prove that the black-shale interval
constitutes the early portion of the Pottsville series, does seem
sufficiently to call in question the accepted disposition of these
beds, to entitle their correlation to appear among the interesting
Carboniferous problems of the United States.

•There is also a chance that these beds may at the same time
represent both upper Mississippian and " Lower Pottsville," for
it can not as yet be demonstrated that part of the Pottsville is not
a nonmarine equivalent to the marine Genevieve, or a portion
of it; but from such facts as are known to me there seems little
likelihood for this to be the case.

If the interval under consideration does not represent the
earlier portion of the Pottsville series, but corresponds to the
later epochs of the Mississippian series, it is evident that terra-
queous conditions, expressed in sediments and faunas, were very
different in the northern and southern parts of the inland sea.
This period would then present a case somewhat analogous to
that of the middle portion of the Devonian, which is represented
by varied sediments and faunas in New York, but to the south
and west, according to some views, is replaced by a single
uniform bed of nearly barren black shale. The peculiar de-
velopment of the Arkansas faunas from the Boone to the
Morrow might be explained as modifications imposed upon the
typical Genevieve fauna by the proximity to and occasional
invasions of black-shale conditions. Upon this hypothesis, also,
an exception to the statement that Genevieve faunas are almost
entirely lacking in the west, would be furnished in the case of
the White Pine shale of Nevada, w^hich is here provisionally
and in a general way aligned wath the interval above the Boone
in Arkansas.

It is a matter of common knowledge that the Upper Carbonif-
erous faunas of the Western States differ to some extent from
those of the Mississippi Valley and the Appalachian region.
Part of this diversity, as already remarked, seems to be due to

14 GIRTY

the fact that the horizon of some of the beds corresponds to one
in the East whose fauna is for the most part scanty and is as
yet practically unknown (Pottsville). On the other hand, a
number of the Western faunas are quite distinct and altogether
unknown in the East. Reciprocally, the familiar upper Penn-
sylvanian faunas of Kansas and Nebraska have not been found
in a facies at all characteristic in the Western region.

Within the past 2 or 3 years I have given much preliminary
study to the faunas of the Trans-Pecos region of Texas and
New Mexico, where is found the longest section of Pennsyl-
vanian rocks in the West of which I have personal knowledge,
aggregating in all over 6,000 feet. The upper portion of this
section constitutes what I have called the Guadalupian series.
The upper division of the Guadalupian consists of the Capitan
limestone, some 1,800 feet thick, and the lower is the Dela-
ware Mountain sandstone, with a thickness somewhat greater.
Beneath the Guadalupian series occurs the Hueco formation, or
Hueconian, comprising upwards of 2,000 feet of limestone.
The faunas of these formations are quite different from those of
the Eastern States. Very few species can be definitely identi-
fied as common to both areas, and these are chiefly such as
enjoy a world-wide distribution. Through the West, however,
these faunas will probably prove to have extended widely.
Their general character is shown in some preliminary lists in a
report upon this region, by G. B. Richardson, recently issued as
a bulletin of the Texas Geological vSurvey.^ The Hueco forma-
tion, which is in the main a limestone, will perhaps prove to be
the same as the Aubrey formation of northern Arizona, which
consists of sandstone and limestone in alternation, and I am ten-
tatively correlating these formations with the Weber quartzite of
Utah. The Delaware division, comprising chiefly sandstones
in the Guadalupe Mountains, with a few calcareous beds, but
very variable in the character and proportions of its constituents,
can possibly be correlated with the Permian of Walcott's Grand
Canyon section and with the " Permo-Carboniferous " of the
Wasatch Mountains. However, if there is some doubt about
the correspondence of the Arizona beds, there is still more in

lUniv. Texas Min. Suiv.. Bull. No. 9, Nov. 1904, pp. 32 et seq.

THE RELATIONS. OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS I5

the case of those of Utah. In Utah an interesting fauna has
been found between the Weber quartzite and the " Permo-
Carboniferous," characterized by a striking S^rrifo'ina, unique
as to size among American representatives of the genus, namely
S^iriferina ^ulchra Meek. This species is accompanied by a
large Ortholetes^ a large Seminula, a Prodiictus resembling P.
ncvadensts, and other forms. This fauna ranges northward into
Idaho and westward into Nevada, but is as yet unknown in the
southern tier of States. The Capitan fauna is not definitely
known anywhere except in the immediate region where it was
originally found, and whatever the correlation of the beds of
the Utah section may prove to be, there is little prospect of any
of them being equivalent to the Capitan. At least their faunas,
so far as known, are entirely different.

The Weber quartzite is underlain by a heavy limestone forma-
tion (the Wasatch limestone), the lower part of which is of Mis-
sissippian age, the upper being reported as Pennsylvanian. A
similar limestone (the Redwall), likewise said to be Mississip-
pian below and Pennsylvanian above, lies beneath the Aubrey
group in northern Arizona. In southern Arizona a similar con-
dition obtains. The lower limestone, which is probably as young
as St. Louis in its upper portion but contains no Kaskaskia fauna,
is called the Escabrosa limestone,^ the upper one having re-
ceived the name of the Naco limestone. The lower part of the
Naco is provisionally correlated with the upper part of the Redwall
limestone, and will probably prove of Pottsville age. The scanty
fauna of the upper Naco appears to correlate it with the Hueco
limestone and with the Aubrey formation. So far as known no
equivalent of the Escabrosa and lower Naco limestones occurs
in the Trans-Pecos region, where even the Devonian found at
Bisbee is absent. Thus an unconformity is seen to have pre-
ceded the Hueconian beds, evidence of which is quite abundant
in the Trans-Pecos region itself.

The Carboniferous faunas of California, typically shown in
Shasta County, have appeared to stand apart from other West-
ern faunas. The lower fauna, or that of the Baird shale, is in
fact, so far as known, confined to the Pacific slope ; but a better

' U. S. Geol. Surv., Professional Paper 21, 1904, p. 42, by F. L. Ransome.

1 6 GIRTY

acquaintance with Western faunas now seems to indicate that
the associates of species found in the McCloud Hmestone and
the "McCloud shale" are much more widely spread. The
fauna of the McCloud limestone is characterized by the pres-
ence of Schzuagerina in abundance and by the large gastropod
Omphaloti'o chits whitneyi. The Oinfhaloti'ochus beds appar-
ently recur in Nevada, and probably are to be correlated with
the lower portion of the Hueco formation. At this horizon
Schwagcrina {?) is found in abundance, and a series of large
Trochoid shells which may prove to belong to the genus Oinphal-
otrochiis but not without a certain modification of the generic
diagnosis given by Meek. The " McCloud shale" may pro-
visionally be correlated with the upper Hueconian. A striking
faunal feature which these 2 horizons possess in common is a
very large and slender Fiisidina, probably F. elongata Shumard.
It cannot be said positively that the same species are associated
with these genera in every case, for the fossils have been ex-
amined at different times and in a preliminary way ; but I be-
lieve that the faunas of the Trans-Pecos region, with aspect more
or less modified, will be found to range through New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California. Less abundant evi-
dence is at hand with regard to Oregon, Washington, and Idaho,
but doubtless the same seas and the same faunas occupied those
areas as well as the western reaches of the British possessions,
for the Alaskan faunas are certainly related to those of California,
and also to those of the Trans-Pecos region.

No faunas have yet been obtained from Alaska which I feel
confident can be referred to the Lower Carboniferous.' The
typical Mississipian is certainly absent as far as evidence has
come to hand, and but one occurrence of a fauna definitely re-
lated to the Lower Carboniferous of California (Baird) has been
found. The Upper Carboniferous faunas present many novel
and striking features, but their relationship to the Upper Car-
boniferous of California is clear and unmistakable. Naturally
less close, though still distinctl}- traceable is a correspondence

'There has recently come into my liands a good collection from the Cape
Lis burne region which can safely' be called Lower Carboniferous. Its affinities
are more with the Spirifct- mosquciisis zone of Russia ^han with the typical
Mississippian.

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 1 7

to the Trans-Pecos faunas. Neither in California nor in Alaska
has the strongly characterized fauna of the Capitan limestone
been discovered. The Alaskan faunas and, as already stated,
those of the McCloud limestone and the " McCloud shale" can
probably be correlated with the Hueconian fauna, with which,
indeed, their athnities are chiefly shown. In Alaska, however,
there are indications of faunas lower than the Hueconian, though
not as yet of any higher.

The Upper Carboniferous faunas of the west were known to
the earlier writers in an extremely sporadic and incomplete
manner. In the last 20 years much more extensive and better
correlated material has been obtained, which seems on the one
hand to indicate a regularity of succession and an extent of dis-
tribution at first far from apparent, and on the other to empha-
size an unlikeness to the faunas of the Mississippi Valley, which
was always more or less obvious. The difference, which is
manifested chiefly in the younger Carboniferous faunas, seems
too great to be explicable under the hypothesis of merely local
conditions acting upon identical faunas in freely communicating
seas, and I am disposed to consider that the Western faunas may
have had immediate antecedents different from the Eastern,
and that they may have been prevented from intermingling
with them, either by some terrestrial barrier or by such marked
diversity of environment that neither assemblage of species
could exist in the habitat of the other. The resemblance to
eastern Pennsylvanian faunas seems to be manifested in the
West, especially by those having a low position in the secdon,
and they are often more or less closely allied with the Pottsville
faunas of Arkansas. Therefore it is likely that areal differ-
entiation took place after the beginning of Pennsylvanian time.
Probably it was at the close of the Pottsville.

In a recent paper on the Carboniferous faunas of Colorado '
2 facts seemed to develop, namely, that the faunas of that
State were of the usual Pennsylvanian type, and that the stratig-
raphy and lithology indicate disturbances and shore condi-
tions during Pennsylvanian time. This is suggested by the gen-
eral sandy and conglomeratic character of the Pennsylvanian

' U. S. Geol. Surv., Professional Paper 16, 1903.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

GIRTY

sediments, and by the occurrence in them of pebbles containing
Pennsylvanian fossils. On this account it is tentatively assumed
that the line of division between the Eastern and Western
provinces passes through western Texas, central or eastern
New Mexico, western Colorado, and so on upward, in a north-
western direction, following nearly the trend of the Rocky
Mountains. This matter, however, like that of the correlation
and dispersion of the Pacific faunas, is left open to revision as
new facts are added and as the mass of evidence now at hand
is subjected to critical comparison and analysis.

The continental sea in Mississippian time, however, proba-
bly spread as far west as Nevada, and had almost the same
limits during the Pottsville epoch, neither group of faunas, so
far as known, having penetrated to the Pacific coast. But it
would appear that during Pennsylvanian, and also probably
during Permian time, its western term was fixed much farther
east, its contracted limits favoring shallower depths and marginal
conditions upon its eastern shore suitable for the formation of
coal, and correspondingly unsuitable to marine life. To the
west, beyond the hypothetical barrier, material or intangible,
the unimpeded waters probably spread afar, and the faunas
which they supported have much in common with those of
Asia and eastern Europe.

The differences presented b}' these western faunas, when care-
fully compared with those of the Mississippi valley, are real and
important, and the explanation suggested above is that during
the later portions of Pennsylvanian time, they were developed
in different provinces. If this explanation be rejected it appar-
ently follows that the differences are due to geologic horizon
rather than to geographic position. It seems almost impossible
that the two series of faunas can be equivalent without belong-
ing to different provinces, and very improbable that the eastern
one overlies the western. On the hypothesis that they are co-
provincial, therefore, to the column of Pennsylvanian rocks
found in the Mississippi valley must be added a great series
whose development was western and the facies of whose fauna
is Asiatic. This series is not found east of the Rocky moun-
tains unless it proves to be represented by the more or less un-

TIIK RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS I9

fossiliferous " Red Beds" which rest upon the meso-continental
Pennsylvanian rocks, an eventuality for which I am not altogether
unprepared since the limited fauna prescribed by Mr. Beede from
the "Red Beds" of Oklahoma^ has a distinctly younger and
more Asiatic facies than any of the previously known Pennsyl-
vanian faunal groups of the Mississippi valley. In that event
the " Permian " of this region would be far older than the typi-
cal Russian Permian.

While the differences between our Western and Eastern
faunas have been more or less apparent to all, they have seldom
excited much comment, and, on the other hand, while compari-
son with the faunas of Europe and Asia has several times been
made, striking parallels have not been the result. Doubtless
incomplete and sometimes inexact acquaintance with the facts
has partially obscured the relations of these faunas to the able
investigators who have studied them, which large accessions
to our data regarding both areas in recent years have rendered
more and more conspicuous.

In the fall of 1900 I collected in the Guadalupe Mountains a
fauna incompletely described 50 years ago by Shumard, which
presents strong analogies with faunas called "Permian" de-
scribed from the Salt Range of India, from the Carnic Alps,
and from Sicily, and in a corresponding degree differs from
those of central and eastern North America.

A recent work by Tschernyschew," upon the Upper Carbonif-
erous of the Urals and Timan, illuminates the consideration of
the relations between the Carboniferous faunas of eastern
Europe and western America, and shows that the lower as well
as the higher faunas in the Trans-Pecos region are very analo-
gous to those beyond the sea, Tschernyschew recognizes 5
zones in the strata described by him, which have the following
succession, from below up : Spirifcr mosqiiensis zone, Spirifcr
inarcoiii zone, Omphalotrochiis xuhitneyi zone, Prodtictiis cora
zone, and Schivagerina zone. Omfhalotrochiis whitneyi is one
of the remarkable fossils of the McCloud limestone of the Cali-

1 Oklahoma Geol. Surv., Adv. Bull., ist Bien. Rept., 1902.
2 Die Obercarbonischen Brachiopoden des Ural und des Timan; Comite Geo-
logique, Mem., vol. 16, No. 2, 1902.

20 GIRTY

fornia Carboniferous section, which has stood for a long time
more or less solitary and unique among its kind in America,
because of the singularity of its faunas. Accordingly, Tscher-
nyschew correlates syntactically the Omphalotrochiis zone of
eastern Russia with the McCloud limestone of California. But
the genus Om^halotrochiis characterizes certain horizons over
wide areas in Nevada, and by reason of a somewhat similar
resemblance the Hueco formation of Western Texas may like-
wise be tentatively referred to the Om^halotrochus zone, for
one horizon abounds in Ouiphalotrochtis, several species of
which occur.

The fossils of the Hueco, Delaware Mountain, and Capitan
formations, as would be expected from their combined thick-
ness, represent a sequence of related faunas, rather than a
single uniform one. Whatever is here said about these faunas
is qualified by the fact, on the one hand, that they are 3'et, as
to detailed study, largely unworked, while, on the other, my
acquaintance with the Uralian series is only such as literature
affords. Nevertheless, I seem to see in the Texas faunas re-
semblances to the Sptri/er maf'coui, Oni^halotrocJuts zvhitneyi,
ProducUis cor a, and Schivagerma zones as their fossils are
represented by Tschernyschew. All three of the lower faunas
are probably represented by the Hueco formation, while the
fauna of the Capitan limestone is in some respects strikingl}^
similar to that of the Schzvagcrina zone. Sundry types which
seem to abound in the Russian beds, however, are thus far un-
known in Texas, while in some cases the association of species
is different, indicating that certain forms appeared later in one
area than in the other, or had a different range. A fauna
which I collected northeast of Hueco Tanks, on the brow of
the escarpment overlooking the valley, especially suggests the
S-pirifer marcoui zone. Omphalotrochtis also occurs at this
point, but it is much more abundant at a somewhat higher hori-
zon, where it is associated with a varied gastropod fauna. A
considerable thickness of rocks succeeds, with varying faunas
more or less closely related to those below, and it is safe to sa}^
that 3,000 feet of sediments are measured above these before
the top of the Capitan limestone is reached, the faunas of which

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 21

do not so strikingly resemble those of the Russian series as is
the case with the Hueco faunas. Prodtictus corn is conspicuous
by its absence, while if Schzvao-crina occurs at all in the Am-
erican section it is in the lower beds associated with Spirifer
viarconi and Omfhalotrochus. Indeed, a considerable portion
of the faunas of these lower horizons resembles that of the
Schzvagerina zone. On the other hand, the highest fauna of
all (that obtained near the middle of the Capitan limestone)
also resembles the Schwagerina fauna in the number and
variety of its Terebratuloids, Spiriferinas, and Spirifers of
the type of S. lyra Kut., S. iibctaims Dien., etc., of
which S. onexicamts is an American representative. There
are few Terebratuloids and Spiriferinas in the faunas of
the Hueco Mountains; they are quite different from those
of the Capitan limestone, and the Spirifers also are dif-
erent. The Product!, especially, of the Hueco faunas are
like those of the Schzuagerina zone. Thus, though the lower
faunas found in the Hueco Mountains are throughout quite
different from the upper ones found in the Guadalupe Moun-
tains, both have points of strong resemblance in a common
fauna, that of the Schzuagerina zone of eastern Russia. The
Russian faunas have peculiarities not found in any of those
of the Trans-Pecos region, and of these none is perhaps more
striking than the abundance and variety of the Spirifers (espe-
cially S. ufensis and S. sufracarhonicus, no representatives of
this type being known in Texas), Sfiriferella, Martinia and
Martiniopis. Seminula, whose abundance seems to be a dis-
tinctive feature of nearly all American Carboniferous faunas,
still occurs in numbers in the Trans-Pecos. All the upper beds
of the latter, 2,000 feet or more, are characterized by the pres-
ence at intervals, often in extraordinary abundance, of a large,
greatly elongated Fusulina, F. clongata Shum. And they are
marked by the frequent occurrence of large examples of those
singular brachiopod genera Leptodus and Richthofenia . These
types seem not to occur in the Russian faunas.

Tschernyschew finds that all the beds whose fauna he dis-
cusses, divided by him into zones, of which the highest is the
Schzuagerina zone, underlie the typical Permian of Russia. If

22 GIRTY

this is so, and if the resemblance of the Capitan fauna to that
of the Schwagerina zone warrants assigning the Capitan lime-
stone to that horizon, the entire Trans-Pecos Carboniferous sec-
tion would lie below the true Permian.

In a preliminary paper on the Capitan fauna,' relying upon its
resemblance to those of the Salt Range of India, of the Carnic
Alps, and especially of the region about Palermo, in Sicily, faunas
which have been called Permian by different authorities, I called
that from Texas also Permian, as indeed, its discoverer, Shu-
mard, had done ; and, in view of its entire difference from the
so-called Permian of the Mississippi Valley, and upon other
considerations, even regarded it as upper Permian. Several
circumstances leave me still of the opinion that this bed may
be Permian. Its fauna is strikingly like that described by
Gemmellaro from Sicily, which Tschernyschew ascribes to the
Artinsk stage of the true Permian. In some respects the re-
semblance of the Capitan fauna to that of the Schwagerina zone
is also striking, but, as already remarked, there is much in the
Schzvagerina horizon that is not found in the Capitan fauna,
and much which in western Texas is found only at a much lower
horizon. These facts, taken in conjunction with the circum-
stance that the thickness of the beds comprising all four of
Tschernyschew's zones (for his work as the title indicates ex-
cludes the fauna of the Spirifer mosquensis zone) is consider-
ably under i,ooo feet, while the Texan series is considerably
over 4,000 feet, certainly lend a color of probability to the
hypothesis that the higher beds in Texas may be younger than
the Schzvagerina zone. It seems probable indeed that all four
of Tschernyschew's horizons are represented in the Hueco for-
mation, where the different faunas are not as clearly distin-
guishable into separate entities as in Russia, the faunas of the
Delaware Mountain sandstone and the Capitan limestone being
derived from them, but modified by evolution of surviving spe-
cies, the elimination of some forms and the introduction of others
by rhig ration.

Another consideration is that Tschernyschew correlates the
Permo-Carboniferous of the Wasatch Range with the Artinsk,

'Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 14, 1902, p. 363.

TIID RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 23

while I am tentatively placing it at the horizon of the " Per-
mian " of the Grand Canyon section and of the Delaware sand-
stone of the Guadalupe Mountains. My evidence is not con-
clusive, but certainly no fauna at all like that of the Capitan is
known in Utah underlying the " Permo-Carboniferous," while
the Aubrey group, which occurs beneath the " Permian " of the
Grand Canyon, probably represents the upper part of the Hueco
formation, though it may be partially equivalent to the Delaware
Mountain formation.

On tlie whole, therefore, it seems to me rather more probable
that much if not all of the Capitan and Delaware formations is
younger than the Schivagerina zone. The explanations as to
the partial resemblance of the Capitan fauna to the Schivagerina
fauna called for by this hypothesis, are certainly no more diffi-
cult than in the opposite case. Even if these series of rocks
are admitted to be younger than the Schivagerina zone, how-
ever, it does not follow that they correspond to the true Permian,
rather than to a horizon not represented in the Russian section ;
but from the considerations set down above this would appear
to be the case.

In even so cursory and incomplete a comparison of the Amer-
ican with the Russian faunas, one feature of the latter is too
striking to be entirely neglected. American paleontologists
have come to look upon the genus Archimedes as diagnostic of
our Mississippian series, and to us it comes as an almost start-
ling anomaly that this type is well represented in the upper
Carboniferous of Russia. It seems, indeed, to be especially
characteristic of the highest beds (the Schivagerina zone), from
which Tschernyschew cites 4 species, one of them our own
Archimedes wortheni. No trace of this genus has been ob-
served in any of the Trans-Pecos faunas, yet its occurrence in
the Upper Carboniferous of this continent is not entirely un-
known, since White cited Archimedes associated with an Upper
Carboniferous fauna from the Uinta Mountains.' Four or 5
years ago I also collected the genus in abundance in the Bing-
ham mining district, Oquirrh Mountains, Utah, associated with
a fauna, which is certainly not one of those characteristic of the

iRept. Geol. Uinta Mountains, etc., 1S76, p. 80.

24 GIRTY

upper Mississippian, and which without much doubt belongs in
the Western Upper Carboniferous in the horizon of the Hue-
conian series (Weber quartzite). Furthermore, being called
upon nearly 2 j^ears ago to determine the boundary between the
Upper and Lower Carboniferous in northern Arkansas, a careful
faunal study led me, as already described, to draw the line at
the top of the Archimedes limestone. Thus the genus Pentre-
mites, which, equally with Archimedes, has been supposed to
be infallibly diagnostic of Mississippian time, is found to occur
in abundance in the Upper Carboniferous (Pentremital lime-
stone ; sparingly in the Kessler), and although Archimedes
practically dies out in this area with the Archimedes limestone,
a few fragments representing it occur in the beds above. It
appears, therefore, that even in the Mississippi Valley this strik-
ing genus ranges above the top of the Lower Carboniferous, and
while only a very scanty representation has thus far been found,
unless the Archimedes limestone proves to belong in the Potts-
ville rather than in the Mississippian, there is no reason to be-
lieve that it did not survive in abundance in other regions, as,
indeed, proves to be the case.

Tschernyschew also correlates the Russian section with that
of the Mississippi Valley. His correlation may be correct, but
the Pennsylvanian faunas of the latter area are so widely dif-
ferent from those of our Western States which the Russian
ones most closely resemble, that, in the opinion of one who has
some acquaintance with both types, a precise correlation is, in
our present knowledge, impossible. The beds placed in align-
ment by Tschernyschew contain faunas so widely dissiiT\ilar that
it seems an act of temerity to group them together. The evidence
for so doing consists in part of the occurrence of certain Ameri-
can species in the Russian faunas, but the identifications, if one
may judge by the tigures given, in some cases are questionable
and in others consist of such long-ranged types that in view of
the reall}' small percentage which these forms bear to the en-
tire fauna, the evidence appears of diminishing significance
the more critically it is examined.

I should not be understood, however, as expressing a belief
that these Western faunas do not in a general way, in part at

THE RELATIONS OF SOME CARBONIFEROUS FAUNAS 25

least, correspond to those of the Mississippi Valley, but person-
ally I know of no instance where a detailed correlation can con-
fidently be made. It is my hope and belief that these relations
can be determined with precision, and if it proves that the Rus-
sian investigator has had the clearness of vision to discern them
aright, all the greater should be his meed, because of the in-
tricacy which the question seems to present.

The opinion has been expressed that the Pennsylvanian faunas
of eastern and western United States may belong in different
provinces, and that they are probably to some extent equivalent.
The belief is tentatively held that the highest of our Western
horizons are considerably younger than the highest known in-
vertebrate horizons of the East, those of the Kansas section,
for instance, which are characteristic of the so-called Permian
of the Mississippi Valley. In spite of the able pens which have
traversed this subject, the correlation of these beds is still one
of the unsettled problems of the American Carboniferous. If
the Capitan fauna is Permian, then certainly that of Kansas is
not, for 2 Carboniferous faunas could scarcely have less in
common. While it is possible that the so-called Kansas Permian
is a provincial phase of the Guadalupian, this is yet to be demon-
strated, and it is questionable whether for 2 faunas so essentially
unlike, even if proved to have been contemporaneous, the same
name could with propriety be used. On the assumption that
the Kansas beds are Permian, so closely are they connected,
faunally and stratigraphically, with those below, the term
Permian must be reduced to denominate a difference not much
greater than that between the Burlington and Keokuk, or else
most of the Kansas section must be placed in the Permian, a
disposition against which there is much evidence. It seems
probable that the Kansas Permian represents a faunal develop-
ment in a distinct province from that of the West, the Western
faunas being co-provincial with the typical Permian sea. The
equivalence of the Kansas Permian is not to be determined upon
the basis of a community of a few slightly differentiated long-
lived types, but must be worked out by a consideration of the
fauna as a whole and the facies which it receives from the
presence of a series of equivalent but probably not equal species.

26 GIRTY

The Guadalupian faunas are not only widely different from
those of Pennsylvanian age in the Mississippi Valley, but they
appear to have a distinctly younger facies, biologically con-
sidered. So far as the significance of the somewhat hastily
reviewed evidence has been grasped, it seems to assign the
Kansas faunas to about the horizon of the Hueco formation,
placing the entire Guadalupian series, or at all events the
Capitan, as a younger evolution, whether the 2 faunas were
developed in distinct provinces or in the same.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol, VII, pp. 37-157. Plates I-VI. June 20, 1905.

THE BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LOR-
ICATI, THE MAIL-CHEEKED FISHES.

By William F. Allen.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Section I. — Introductory 28

I. Introduction 2S

II. Technique 30

1. Injecting Masses 30

2. Apparatus 31

3. Mode of Procedure 31

III. Historical Review 33

Section II. — Text 36

IV. General Survey of the Blood Vessels in Ophiodon 36

V. Heart 38

VI. Peripiieral Distribution of the Arteries 43

1. Branchial Arteries 43

2. Arteries Arising from the Ventral Ends of the Efferent

Branchial Arteries 46

3. Carotid Arteries 51

4. Opercular and Dorsal Branchial Muscle Arteries 62

5. Siibclavian Arteries 63

6. Coeliaco-Mesenteric Artery 65

7. Dorsal Aorta 73

VII. Peripheral Distribution of the Veins 78

1. Jugular Veins 7^

2. Vessels Emptying Directly into the Jugular or into the Head

Kidney ' 87

3. Inferior Jugular Veins 91

4. Ventral Veins 93

5. Subclavian Veins 94

6 Hepatic Portal System 96

7. Renal Portal System 106

VIII. Vascular Sj'stem in Anoplopoma 113

IX. General Considerations and Summary 120

X. Brief Synonymy of the Blood Vessels 125

XI. Bibliography 132

XII. Explanation of the Plates 138

XIII. Reference Letters and Abbreviations Used in the Figures . . . 149

(^7)

28 ALLEN

SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY.

I. INTRODUCTION.

The blood-vascular system of fishes is no new subject. It
has been carefully worked out for many groups. We have the
memoirs of Miiller on Myxine, T. J. Parker on Afustehis,
Hyrtl on the roaches, McKenzie on A??ietur?is, Vogt on
Sahno, Emery on F^ierasfej', Cuvier and Valenciennes on
Pei'ca, and the general account found in Stannius' Anatom}-.
The object of this paper is to give a fairly complete account of
the vascular system of Ophiodon elongattis (blue cod) ; and to
make some comparisons with other members of the suborder
LORICATI, the mailed-cheeked fishes. In a later paper I
hope to go more into detail with the peripheral endings of the
vessels in the organs of the viscera and those of special sense,
as well as to take up the lymphatics.

This group of fishes is distinguished by the extension of the
third suborbital bone across the cheek as a sta}' to or toward
the preopercle. In view of the wide variation in this group,
Dr. Gill says (45)' that it is not a natural division. He, how-
ever, divides this suborder into 8 different families, placing the
Scorpgenidae (the rock fishes), as the most generalized, on
account of their resemblance in form to the Serranidte and
SparidcC ; and the Cottidas (the sculpins) are placed as the most
specialized. Between these extremes come the family Hexa-
grammidae, placed nearer the Scorpjenidae than the Cottidae.
There are, however, many points of resemblance to the Cottidce
to be found in their osteology, visceral organs, nervous and
vascular systems.

The subfamilies Ucxagravwiince , Ophi'odontincr, Zaniolcpi-
dince, and OxylcbiincB, given by Jordan and Evermann (45, p.
1864), are very strongly marked. Ofhiodon and probably
Zamolcpis are about as closely related to Scorpccnichthys^ a
sculpin, as they are to Hcxagrammos^ and should be regarded
as types of distinct families.

The following species of fishes were studied.

' All figures in brackets refer to bibliography at the end of the paper.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 29

Family Scorp/Enid^.

Sebastodes jlavidus Ayres, yellow-tail rockcod ; S. inelanops
Girard ; S. mystimis J. & G., black fish; S. auriculattis
Girard, brown rockcod; S. carnaitts J. & G., flesh-colored
rockcod, and S. nebtilosus Ayres, yellow-spotted rockcod.

Family Anoplopomatid^.

Anoplopoma fimbria Pallas, black cod.

Family Hexagrammid^.

Hexagrammos decagrammus Pallas, sea trout and Ophtodon
elongatiis Girard, blue cod.

Family Cottid^e.

ScorpcBuichtkys v.iarmoratus Ayres, cabezon ; Calyctlepidoitis
spinosiis Ayres, and Enophrys bison Girard.

For detailed work, Ophiodon clongatus was taken as a type.
The reason for choosing Ophiodon was partly because of its
position between the 2 extremes of the suborder, but espe-
cially on account of its size (sometimes reaching a weight of
70 lbs.), and the ease with which it can be injected. Every
effort has been made toward accuracy. Several specimens of
each species compared have been studied, in order to eliminate
the error that might come from variation in different individuals
of the same species. Notwithstanding, omissions, if not errors,
have probably crept in. The drawings, rude as they may be,
were all made from a single dissection, with the exception of
PI. I, fig. I, which is a combination of several dissections.

The material for this paper was collected by Chinese fisher-
men at Monterey Bay, Cal. The work was done at Stanford
University and at the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, and under
the direction of Prof. C. H. Gilbert, to whom I am indebted
for many favors and the facilities for research. Also I am
under the greatest obligations to Prof. G. C. Price, of Stanford
University, for a room at the Hopkins Laboratory ; and to Mr.
J. C. Brown of the University of Minnesota, for many favors.

30 ALLEN

II. TECHNIQUE.

I. Injecting Masses.

Nearly every injecting mass and color has been tried, but the
most satisfactory, as well as the cheapest, proved to be a gelatin
mass, colored with Berlin blue or carmine, and Hoyer's lead
chromate yellow gelatin mass ; or, for tracing out fine vessels
and histological work, a saturated aqueous solution of Berlin
blue may be used.

Berlin blue can be purchased in the form of a dried precipi-
tate and this dissolved in water, but a more satisfactory solution
is obtained by following the directions of Mayer (54, p. 310).
A solution of 10 c.c. of tincture of perchloride of iron, or a
saturated solution of ferric trichloride, in 500 c.c. of water is
added to a solution of 20 grams of yellow prussiate of potash in
500 c.c. of water. This mixture is allowed to stand for 12
hours. The yellow fluid at the surface is then poured off, the
remainder filtered and the filtrate washed with distilled water
until the washings come through dark blue. Enough water is
then added to completely dissolve the precipitate. This should
make about a liter of concentrated solution of Berlin blue.

If a gelatin solution is desired, use from 10 to 20 parts of the
Berlin blue solution to one of the gelatin. I usually take 25
grams of gelatin to 100 c.c. of water; heat in the same water
bath with 200 or 300 c.c. of the Berlin blue solution. When
the gelatin solution is melted, add to it, slowly, the Berlin blue
solution ; the mixture is then heated until the precipitate, which
is usually formed, disappears. Then filter through a flannel.
If the mass is to be* kept some time, add a little chloral hydrate.
For fish vessels it is best to inject the mass as cool as possible.

Hoyer's Yellow Lead Chromate Gelatin Jl/ass (see Lee's
Vade-Mecum, p. 304) is a ver}' simple mass to make. Prepare
2 bottles of stock solution ; in one, make a saturated aqua
solution of potassium bichromate, and in the other a saturated
solution of lead acetate. Then soak up 25 grams of gelatin in
100 c.c. of water; heat to melting point in a water bath; add
100 c.c. of the potassium bichromate solution. Afterward heat
nearly to the boiling point; add 100 c.c. of the lead acetate
solution, and filter throujih a flannel. It is best to make this

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 3 1

mass shortl}'' before using. This mass has a beautiful yellow
color, having a ver}^ fine precipitate, which easily passes
through the fine capillary net-works of the gills, pseudobranchice,
and retia mirabilia of the eye.

A carviinc sohition is prepared by mixing some carmine with
water; enough ammonia is added to dissolve the carmine, giv-
ing it a dark brown color. The mass is then neutralized with
acetic acid, and when neutral it will change to a bright red
color. If desired to keep for some time, add chloral hydrate.
Like the Berlin blue solution it can be injected as it is ; or it
can be mixed with a gelatin mass in the same proportions.

2. Affaraius.
The apparatus consisted of a number of glass cannulas of
various sizes, fastened to short, but stout rubber tubes ; a 4-oz.
rubber syringe, and a i^ oz. rubber syringe. The latter,
when connected with a rubber tube and a small glass cannula
makes the best kind of a hypodermic syringe.

3 . Mode of Procedure.
When the arteries and veins are to be injected with different
colors, it is best to inject the venous system first. This can
generally be accomplished from the hefatic vein (PI. I, fig. i,
Hep. v.). A ligature is placed under the vein and tied loosely ;
a slit is made in the anterior portion of the liver, and a large
cannula attached to a rubber tube is forced cephalad in the vein
into the sinus venosus. The blood was sucked into the tube,
and then blown out; this process was repeated, until the sinus
and other vessels were cleared of blood, and the cannula was
again inserted into the vein and ligatured. Then the syringe
was filled with the yellow injecting mass, but before connecting
with the rubber tube, all the air possible should be sucked out
of the tube, sinus, and other vessels. With a slow steady stroke
the mass is forced into the sinus venosus ; from thence through
the heart to the gills ; through the precava to the jugular and
cardinal veins, and usually it would pass through the other
hepatic vein and the venous capillaries of the liver, thus filling
the portal system. If this fails, the portals can ^easily be in-
jected from the posterior mesenteric vein (PI. I, fig. i ; P.Mes.-

32 ALLEN

V.) ; or, if this vessel is absent, from one of the intestinal veins.
If desirable to fill the caudal, neural, and hcemal veins, a sepa-
rate injection of the caudal vein (fig. i, Cau.V.) is usually re-
quired. The entire arterial system can be filled from one of
\.h.Q gastric arteries (fig. i, L.Gas.A.), but an easier and more
satisfactory way, especially if the fish has no air-bladder, is to
make 2 injections of the dorsal aorta at a point marked X (fig.
i), shortly before it penetrates the kidney and posterior to the
origin of the coeliaco-mesenteric and subclavian arteries. A
cannula the proper size, having a rubber tube attached, was
slipped cephalad into the vessel and ligatured. If the aorta is
small, the rubber tube and cannula can be used as a blow pipe
to help open it up. The syringe is then filled with the Berlin
blue injecting mass ; as much air as possible is sucked out of
the tube and vessels before connecting the tube with the syringe ;
with a slow, steady movement, the mass is forced cephalad into
the aorta, from whence it passes into the carotids, efferent bran-
chial vessels, coeliaco-mesenteric and subclavian arteries, and
finally in like manner, from the same place, the aorta is in-
jected caudad, which fills the vessels of the kidney, reproduc-
tive organs, body wall, and tail.

In tracing out the small peripheral vessels of the head, fins,
and viscera, I have found it very satisfactory to inject alone
the head, fins and viscera of a 15 to a 40 pound fish. The
head is severed dorsally several inches behind the skull, includ-
ing the pectoral and ventral fins, being careful not to cut or
injure any of the visceral organs. A ventral slit is then made
through the entire ventral wall to the vent ; the intestine is cut
at the rectum, and the entire viscera pulled out with the head.
In this manner the fish is cleaned, spoiling very little if any of
the flesh, after which the 2 cut ends of the cardinals (PI. I, fig.
I, L. & R.Car.V.), and the posterior end of the ventral artery
(PI. II, fig. 12, Ven.A.), if cut, were ligatured. Two injec-
tions, as described in the previous paragraph, were made ; one
from the hepatic vein, and the other cephalad from the cut end
of the dorsal aorta.

In most cases it is best to make the dissections while the
material is fresh. As a preserving fluid I find nothing better
than formalin : it does not extract colors as does alcohol, and

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 33

its action toward gelatin is favorable, hardening it considerably.
The coats of the eye are fixed in perfect shape, and such deli-
cate organs as the kidneys are quickly hardened, so that one
can cut cross-sections with a knife, which is a great help in
tracing out the renal-portal system.

If a histological injection is required, slit the siims venosus
and wash out the blood vessels, cephalad, from the dorsal aorta ;
then inject with an aqua or thin gelatin Berlin blue mass, or
wath Hoyer's yellow chromate mass, freshly prepared. The
mass is allowed to set and the injected organs are thrown in
toto into jVUiller's fluid, or better still, cut up into small pieces
and thrown into any well known fixing fluid that will not extract
the colors. Injected material thus fixed can be kept some
months in alcohol, but it is best to imbed as soon as possible.

If the bile vessels are to be injected, it can be accomplished
by slitting the ductus choledochns, near its exit into the intestine
or pyloric c^ca. A hypodermic syringe filled with the Berlin
blue mass is inserted into the duct, toward the gall-bladder, fill-
ing first the bladder, then the hepatic ducts, and finally, if suc-
cessful, the gall-capillaries.

III. HISTORICAL REVIEW.

To Duverney (13),* in 1699, 62 years after the discovery of
the blood-vascular system by Harvey, and 38 years after the
discovery of the capillaries by Malpighi, belongs the honor of
first explaining the structure of the fish heart ; and 2 years later
(14) he described and figured the circulation in and about the
gills of the carp ; he erred, however, in finding but one branchial
vessel in a branchial arch. Monroe (48) in 1787, was the first
to describe correctly the circulation in the gills. He injected
the ventral aorta and examined the gill-filaments under a micro-
scope ; he also noticed the efferent branchial vessels, uniting to
form the carotids, cceliaco-mesenteric, dorsal aorta, and the sub-
clavians, and observed the coronary and other vessels coming
from the ventral ends of the efferent branchial vessels ; as well
as the jugular, portal, and renal-portal systems. According to
Miiller (50), Albers (i) in 1806, was the first to notice the cho-
roid gland of the eye, and observed that the vessels in the cho-

* All figures in brackets refer to bibliography at the end of the paper.

34 ALLEN

roid coat arose from this plexus. The first vokime of Cuvier
and Valenciennes' great work on fishes (ii) issued in 1828, con-
tains a short general description of the circulation of Pe7'ca, with
2 excellent plates, which show practically all the vessels, in-
cluding the afferent and efferent pseudobranchial arteries, and
10 years later, Jones (41) carefully described and figured the
retia mirabilia of the eye.

About this time marked the beginning of the classical writings
of Hyrtl, Miiller, Vogt, and Stannius. Between the years 1838
and 1872, Hyrtl published at least 7 different papers on the cir-
culation of fishes, but unfortunately I have had access to only a
few of them. Miiller (50) tells us that in the first one (30) the
author made a microscopical examination of the gill-filaments,
and showed that they contained no lymphatic vessels, as had
been claimed by some previous investigators. He also explained
correctly the course of the blood from the hyoidean artery to the
pseudobranchi£e, and from thence to the eye. With Hecht, he
noticed the pseudobranchial artery coming from the circulus
cephalicus. In 1852, Hyrtl (32) described with considerable
detail the arterial S3'stem of Lefisosteits, and 6 years later the
arterial system of the roaches (34). One of the best general
works on the circulation of fishes is to be found in part IV of
Miiller's famous work on Myxinoiden (50), consisting of 130
pages and 5 plates. He takes up almost the entire circulator}-
system of cyclostomes, selachians, and several teleosts in a com-
parative way, going into great detail over the blood suppl}^ of
the pseudobranchiae, choroid gland, and air-bladder. Vogt's
splendid monograph on the Anatomy and Embryology of the
Salmon was published in 1845, but unfortunately I could get
access only to the plates, of which several were devoted to the
adult, and many others to the development of the circulatory
system in the embryo. In Stannius' Handbuch der Anatomie
der Wirbelthiere (74), there is a brief, but perhaps the best, gen-
eral description of the circulation in the several groups of fishes ;
there are, however, no plates. The author does not go into
quite as much detail regarding the blood supply of the pseudo-
branchia, eye, and air-bladder as Miiller, but goes into more
detail concerning the larger trunks and the vascular supply for
the visceral organs.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 35

During the last half century quite a number of important
papers have appeared on the circulation of different species of
fishes, or confined to the circulation of various organs, and a
few are devoted to the embryology and physiology of the blood
vessels. First under this head might be mentioned the first vol-
ume of Owen (58), which was issued in 1866. The author
gives a very good comparative description of the circulation in
several groups of lishes. Ten years later Stohr (75), described
the number and arrangement of valves in the conus arteriosus
of selachians and ganoids. In 1880, Emery (24) put out his
monograph on the genus Fierasfcr. This volume contains a
short, but accurate account of the circulatory system and 2
most excellent colored plates ; the first one consists of a figure
of the entire arterial system, a similar figure of the venous sys-
tem, and several figures showing the blood supply in the kid-
neys ; while the other plate is devoted to the blood vessels in
the organs. The same year T. J. Parker published a paper, to
which I have not had access, on the venous system of the skate.
Raja nasuta (59). In 1884, McKenzie published a most excel-
lent paper on the catfish, Ameiurits catits (52). He gives one
figure showing the union of the efferent branchial arteries to
form the carotids, dorsal aorta, etc., and finds the pseudo-
branchiae, though only rudimentary, located on the main inter-
nal carotid artery, and not on a branch of the external carotid
or hyoidean artery as is the case with bony fishes in general. In
Marshall and Hurst's Zoology (53), there is one figure and a
very good description of the circulation of the dogfish, Scyl-
Ihmi canicula. By far the best account that we have of the cir-
culation of selachians is found in T. J. Parkers memoir on
Mustelus (60), which was published in 1S86. It contains 47
pages and 4 most excellent colored plates. The author gives a
brief synonymy of the blood vessels, and his methods of inves-
tigation. Unfortunately I did not gain access to this valuable
paper, until my own work was nearly completed. Mayer (55),
in 1888, gives a detailed account of the circulation in the fins
of selachians, with 2 colored plates. The author gives the
technique employed and favors an aqua solution of Berlin blue
for an injection mass. The so-called peripheral lymphatic ves-
sels described by Hyrtl, Miiller, and Stannius, he considers as

36 ALLEX

veins. An excellent account of the embryolog}' of the heart
and blood vessels was given by Hoffman (39) in 1S93. In
Vogt and Yung's Anatomic, vol. 2, there is found a brief, but
excellent account of the circulatory system of the perch, with 2
colored plates. T. J. Parker (61) in his Zootomy, 1895, gives
the general outline of the circulation in the skate. Raja nasuta^
with 2 figures, and also a similar description and one figure on
the circulation of the cod, Gadus morrhtia. In the first few
pages of Allis' paper on Ainia (3), there is a detailed account
of the circulation in the head region, illustrated by several
beautiful colored plates. To Jordan and Evermann (45) in
1898, we are indebted for a systematic arrangement of the fishes
and fish-like vertebrates of North America. In 1900, Allis (4)
published a complete account of the development of the pseudo-
branchial circulation in Ainia, and lastly, Briinning (10) in the
same year was the first to work out in any detail the physiology
of the blood vascular system of fishes. To this list might be
added the general comparative anatomies of Gegenbour (26 and
27) and Wiedersheim (86 and 87).

SECTION II. TEXT.

IV. GENERAL SURVEY OF THE BLOOD VESSELS IN OPHIODON.

Since the blood of a fish passes around in a circle, it matters
but little where we begin. A simple glance at PI. I, fig. i, will
give an idea of the general course of the blood. The entire
venous blood is poured into the simis vcnosus (Pis. I and II,
figs. I and 12; Sin.Ven.), through 6 large sinus-like vessels.
From the rear come the hepatic veins (Pis. I and II, figs, i and
12 ; Hep. v.), which through the' capillaries of the liver receive
the portal veins (PI. I, figs, i, 6, and 11 ; L. and R.Por.V.),
bringing the venous blood from the viscera ; and the ventral
veins (PI. I, fig. 12 ; L. and R.Ven.V.) conveying the blood
from the ventral or pelvic fins and the body walls. From either
side, the sinus venosus receives 2 large lateral trunks. The
posterior ones or subclavian si)iiiscs (PI. II, iig. 12 ; Sub.S.)
are the smaller, containing venous blood from the outer or
abductor muscles of the pectoral fins ; and the anterior or larger
ones are the precaval veins or ductus cuvieri (P\. II, lig. 12;
Proc.V.), which receive the venous blood from the rest of the

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 37

body. Close to the sinus venosus the right pi"eca\'a receives
the inferior jugidar vein (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; I.J.V.),
returnino; the venous blood from the branchial muscles and
the pharynx. Passing dorsad around the oesophagus, each
precava arises at the ventral surface of the head kidney from 2
large trunks ; the cephalic vessels or jugular veins (Pis. I and
II, figs. I, 5, and 12 ; R. and L.J.V.) convey the venous
blood from the face, nose, eyes, brain, and dorsal branchial
muscles and their arches ; and the caudal vessels or cardinal
veins (PI. I, figs, i and 5 ; R. and L.Car.V.) vary greatly in
length and in size. The short left cardinal returns blood only
from the left head kidney ; while the large right cardinal arises
in the posterior end of the kidney and through the renal veins
(PL I, figs. I and 10; A. and E. Ren. V.) receives blood from
the caudal vein (PL I, figs, i and 10 ; Cau.V.) coming from
the tail in addition to collecting blood from the thoracic walls,
reproductive organs, and viscera.

From the sinus venosus, the blood passes into the auricle or
atrium (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; Aur.), through the ven-
tricle (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; Ven.) into the bulbus
arteriosus (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; B.Art.), from whence
it is forced through the ventral aorta or branchial artery (Pis.
I and II, figs. I and 12 : V.Ao.) into 4 pairs of afferent
branchial arteries (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12; A. Br. A.),
(the third and fourth pairs, however, arise as one trunk, but
soon divide), which run in the posterior grooves of their corre-
sponding arches. These vessels exhaust themselves in numer-
ous afferent filament arteries "(PL I, fig. 2; A.Fil.A.), which
pass along the inner edge of each branchial filament and which
are collected on the opposite or outer side by the efferent filament
arteries (PL I, fig. 2 ; E.Fil.A.), after having passed through
a fine capillary network, where the blood is purified by the
oxygen held, physically, in the water. These efferent filament
arteries, containing pure arterial blood reunite, forming the
efferent branchial arteries (?\s. I and II, figs, i, 5, and 12;
E.Br. A.), which run parallel, but cephalad to the afferent
branchial arteries. From the ventral ends of these efferent
vessels are given off the hyoidean artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i
and 12; Hyo.A.) for the hyoid arch and tongue, and which

38 ALLEN

anastomoses with the facialis-mandibularis branch of the exter-
nal carotid forming the mandibular artery ; the -pharynx artery
(PL II, fig. 12 ; Phar.A.) for the ventral branchial muscles,
from which the coronary artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ;
Cor. A.) arises ; the ventral artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ;
Ven.A.) for the ventral or pelvic fins and the ventral body
walls ; and several smaller arteries, which will be described in
detail further on. Dors ally the efferent vessels send off anteri-
orly the common carotid arteries (fig. i ; C.Car.A.), which
supply the face, orbit, nose, and brain ; and posteriorly the
efferent branchial vessels unite in forming the coeliaco-mcsen-
teric artery (PL I, figs, i and 5 ; Cce.Mes.A.) for the viscera;
the subclavian arteries (figs, i and 5 ; Sub. A.) for the pectoral
fins; and the dorsal aorta (figs, i and 5, D.Ao.) for the body
walls, tail, kidney, and reproductive organs. The union of
these efferent branchial vessels to form the internal carotids
anteriorly and the dorsal aorta posteriori}"", forms what is known
as the circidiis ccpJialicus.

V. Heart.

This organ, which is inclosed in the triangular cardiac space,
lies in the ventro-median line directly cephalad of the pectoral
arch. The pharnyx forms the roof of this cavity, the thick sterno-
hyoideus muscle the floor, and together with the pharyngo-clav-
icularis internus muscles it makes up the lateral walls ; while
the aponeurotic membrane forms the posterior wall that sep-
arates the cardiac cavity from the visceral cavity. This cham-
ber is lined with the pericardium, which, like the peritoneum,
consists of a parietal and visceral layer ; the former lines the
cavity and the latter loosely envelops the heart, being attached
anteriorly to the ventral aorta in the region of the first afferent
branchial vessels and posteriorly to the dorsal and ventral wall
of the precava. The space between the parietal and visceral
layers is known as the outer pericardial cavity or pericardial
lymphatic sinus, for it is in direct communication with the lym-
phatics ; while the space between the heart and the visceral layer
is known as the inner pericardial or pericardial cavity proper.
No connections were noticed between these 2 cavities.

As in the other vertebrates tlie heart is the center of activity ,

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 39

however, it contains only venous blood. The heart proper con-
sists of 2 chambers : a dorsal one, the auricle, and a smaller
ventral one, the ventricle. The entering blood comes into the
auricle posteriorly, from the thin-walled sinus venosus, from
whence it is forced ventrad into the ventricle and then out an-
teriorly into the elastic bulbus arteriosus.

Sitius Venosus (Pis. I, II, and VI, figs, i, 12 and 39 ; S. Ven.
and Sin. Ven.). — When inflated the dimensions of this thin-
walled sinus are about equal. In a 40 lb. Ophiodon this cham-
ber measured 38 mm. ^ in length from the entrance of one
precaval vein to the other, 32 mm in breadth from the sinu-
auricular valves to the entrance of the hepatic veins, and 28
mm. in height at the center. The large sinus-like vessels
emptying into this sinus have their inner edges reflected inward
in the form of flaps, which tend partly to close the openings in
case of a reverse current. In a like manner the walls of a sinus
venosus, after having united with the outer connective tissue
layer of the auricle, are reflected inward to form the sinii-aiiric-
ular valves (PL VI, fig. 39; S.A.V.). Some fishes are said to
have a dorsal and a ventral flap, but in Ophiodon they have
become fused, forming a continuous circular flap, which de-
creases the size of the sinu-auricular opening by at least one-
half.

Auricle (Text-figs, i and 2 ; Pis. I, II, and VI, figs, i, 12, 39
and 40 ; Aur.). — This triangular, saddle-shaped reservoir, con-
vex above and concave below, is much larger than the ventricle,
when inflated. It extends over three-fourths of the ventricle ; its
anterior apex extends cephalad over the bulbus arteriosus some
little distance, and posteriorly the auricle ends in 2 lateral horns.
In this specimen the auricle measured 34 mm. in length, from
its apex to the sinu-auricular valves, and if the posterior horns
were included, the length would have been increased by at
least 10 mm. The greatest width is in the neighborhood of the
posterior horns, where it is 40 mm., and the greatest height
amounted to something like 22 mm. The walls of this cham-
ber consist of 2 layers, an outer coat of connective tissue

'AH measurements pertaining to the heart were taken from 340 Ih. Ophi-
odon's heart, which had previously been injected with a gelatin mass and hard-
ened in formalin.

ALLEN

(Text-figs. I and 2, and PI. VI, fig. 39 ; C.T.) and an inner coat
composed of muscle bands, the trahecidcE carncB (PL VI, fig.
39; T.C.A.). These muscle bands run in every direction, but
mostly dorso-ventrad, and between these bands there are large
blood cavities, which increase in size toward the central cavity,

Fig. I.

the muscular layer becoming more and more compact toward
the surface. The central cavity occupies a large portion of the
auricle and is continued into the posterior lobes. Penetrating
the floor of the auricle, a little caudad of the center, is the anri-
culo-ventricular opcnino- (PL VI, fig. 39: AA'.O.), through

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI

which, by the contraction of the trabecuhe of the auricle, the
blood from the auricle is forced into the ventricle. In order to
prevent a back-flow of blood, this passage can be entirely closed
by 2 auriculo-ventriadar valves (PI. VI, iigs. 39 and 40; and
Text-fig. I ; A.V.V.), respectively anterior and posterior in
position and which when closed appear like 2 inverted cups from
the auricle side, having their inner edges free. These valves
are formed by the union and a thickening of the outer layer of
connective tissue from the auricle and the ventricle.

Ventricle (Text-figs, i and 2 ; Pis. I, II, and VI, figs, i, 12,
39 and 40; Ven.). — The ventricle, which is 42 mm. long by

Ven.

B.Art.

Fig. 2.

27 mm. wide in this specimen, is shaped something like a 4-
sided pyramid. Beginning bluntly, it gradually increases in
width and then rapidly tapers down into a posterior apex. The
ventricle has one more laver than the auricle. Outside is the

42 ALLEN

connective tissue layer (Text-figs, i and 2, and PL VI, fig. 3^,
C.T.), which is continuous with the corresponding layer of the
auricle and where such union takes place, the layer becomes
much thicker (see Text-fig. i). The trabeculce carnce of the
ventricle (PL VI, fig. 40; T.C.V.) resemble the trabeculse of
the auricle close to the outer connective tissue layer, the blood
cavities being very small. In addition to the 2 layers of the
auricle, the ventricle has a thick musctilar layer (PL VI, fig.
40 ; M.L.) between the trabeculas carnge and the outer connec-
tive tissue layer, containing no blood spaces. The central cav-
ity of the ventricle (PL VI, figs. 39 and 40 ; C.C.V.), which
runs close to dorsal wall, is much smaller than the central cav-
ity of the auricle. The anterior end of this cavity is continuous
with the posterior end of the bulbus arteriosus, which represents
the well developed conns arteriosus (PL VI, fig. 40 ; C. Art.) of
the Elasmobranchs and Ganoids. The entrance into the conus
arteriosus is guarded by 2 semi-lunar valves (Text-fig. 2 and
PL VI, fig. 40; S.V.), dextrad and sinistrad in position and
having their inner margins free. These valves are similar to
the auriculo-ventricular valves, except that each valve has 2
cephalic processes, which continue along the dorsal and ventral
walls of the bulbus arteriosus. A reverse current, caused by a
retraction of the elastic walls of the bulbus, would entirely close
these valves, allowing no blood to return to the ventricle.

Bulbus Arteriosus (Pis. I, II and VI, figs. 1,12 and 40, and
Text-fig. 2 ; B. Art.). — After leaving the ventricle the bulbus
rapidly increases in diameter and then gradually tapers down
into the ventral aorta or branchial artery (Pis. I. and II, figs.
I and 12 ; V.Ao.), which gives off the paired afferent branch-
ial vessels to the gills. The walls of the bulbus are quite thick
and the internal layers are thrown into longitudinal ridges or
folds (PL VI, fig. 40 ; L.F.). The bulbus is richly supplied
with blood vessels, which will be described later on.

Microscopical Structure of the Heart (Text-figs, i and 2). —
A transverse section through one of the auriculo-ventricular
valves (Text-fig. i) shows us that the outer connective tissue
layer is greatly thickened in the dorsal portion of the auricle and
at the union with the same layer of the ventricle. As in other
vertebrates the muscle fibers are striated and run in all direc-

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 43

tions, but for the most part they can be grouped under the head
of longitudinal muscle fibers (Text-fig. i, L.M.) and transverse
muscle -fibers (Text-fig. 2, T.M.). At various places the muscle
fibers penetrate the connective tissue layer and very often fibers
from the auricle would pass entirely through this layer into the
ventricle. The auriculo-ventricular valves are merely a por-
tion of the combined outer connective tissue layer, having their
inner margins free, but having their outer edges securely bound
down by muscle fibers. About the only difference in structure
between the auricle and the ventricle, aside from the relative
sizes of their central cavities, is the difference in the density of
their muscle fibers. In the ventricle the blood cavities are very
small, while in the auricle they are of considerable size, but
growing smaller peripherally, and in the ventricle these cavities
give place entirely to muscle fibers, peripherally. Cephalad in
the ventricle the connective tissue gradually increases about
the central cavity, marking the beginning of the conus arterio-
sus. In 2 places folds of connective tissue pass entirely through
the central cavity or conus as it is at this place. They are the
semi-lunar valves (Text-fig. 2, S.V.). In places can be seen
traces of elastic muscle fibers (Text-fig. 2, E.M.F.) and round
endothelium cells (Text-fig. 2, End.). While it is not the pur-
pose of this paper to demonstrate the presence or absence of a
layer of endothelium lining the central cavity of the heart, it
may be said, however, that my sections did not show anything
that I could positively identify as endothelium, until the origin
of the conus was reached : nevertheless a silver impregnation
would have doubtless revealed its presence. The walls of the
bulbus are formed from 3 coats. The external coat, tunica ex-
terna or adventitia presents no peculiarities ; it is composed of
longitudinal bundles of connective tissue, in which run the main
nutrient vessels. Next comes the tunica media or middle coat,
which is very thick and forms the longitudinal folds shown in
fig. 40, which decrease in height as you go toward the ventral
aorta. This tunic is constructed out of circular muscle fibers,
in which run many white elastic fibers. The internal coat or
tunica interna, which is made up of a longitudinal network, is
bounded internally by a layer of large round endothelial cells.

44 ALLEN

VI. PERIPHERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES.

I. Branchial Arteries.

As has already been stated in the paragraph on the general
survey of the blood vessels, the afferent branchial arteries (Pis.
I and II, figs. I and 12 ; A. Br. A.) are paired vessels, which
convey the venous blood from the ventral aorta or branchial
artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; V.Ao.) to the branchial
filaments.^ They arise as 3 paired trunks from the ventral
aorta. The most cephalic pair supply the filaments of the first
branchial arches ; the second pair the filaments of the second
branchial arches ; and the third pair soon divide, thfe anterior
forks supplying the third pair of branchial arches and the pos-
terior forks, the last or fourth pair of branchial arches." All of
these vessels, which very closely resemble one another, run in
the grooves of their respective arches and graduall}^ exhaust
themselves bv giving off numerous afferent filament arteries
throughout their entire dorsal course.

The Afferent Branchial Filament Vessels (PI. I, fig. 2 ;
A.Fil.A.) of 2 adjacent filaments arise as paired vessels, and
running in a caudal direction along the inner or h5'pothenuse
margins of their respective filaments, gradually exhaust them-
selves in numerous afferent jilanient cross-vessels, which are
only about 60 /i apart. Proximally these vessels attain a con-
siderable length, but gradually decrease in length distalh'.
Each cross-vessel terminates in a dorsal and a ventral vessel,
from which the fflament capillary netzvorh (P\. I, fig. 2; Fil.
Net.) arises. This network lies in a dorso-ventral plane in-

' A gill or holohranch is composed of a double row of fil.ituents or 2 hcmi-
bratichs attached to the concave or posterior side of eacli branchial ai-ch. These
filaments have the form of right-angled triangles, attached b\- their short sides
to the arches and the hvpothenuse sides of each pair face one anotlicr. Each
pair of filaments is not separated hy a cartilaginous rod as is the case with the
Elasmobranchs, but they usually overlap one another to some extent at their
bases.

2 This appears to be the normal arrangement among the Teleosts ; while in
the skate one trunk may supply several branchial arches, and in the ratfish
{Hydrolagus), I have observed that the ventral aorta gives off a pair of vessels
for each pair of branchial arches.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEI^I OF THE LORICATI 45

closed in a vascular plate' and is separated from the current of
water passing between the gills by a thin membrane. By
osmosis the carbon dioxide from the blood is exchanged for the
oxygen held in the pores of the water. In a like manner the
pure blood is collected into a pair of dorso-ventral vessels,
which unite, forming a short efferent filament cross-vessel.
These vessels in turn form the efferent branchial filament arter-
ies (PI. I, fig. 2 ; E.Fil.A.), which run cephalad along the
outer margins of the filaments and which in turn empty into
and form a common trunk, running in the posterior groove of
each branchial arch, namely, the efferent branchial artery.

These efferent branchial arteries (Pis. I and II, figs, i, 2,
5, and 12 ; E.Br. A.) very closely resemble one another. They
run parallel, but cephalad to the afferent branchial vessels ; be-
ginning ventrally they increase in size dorsally. For the most
part the efferent filament arteries are poured directly into the
main efferent branchial trunks, but dorsad and ventrad they
empty into a branch of that vessel. The ventral branch takes
its origin from paired vessels, which lie immediately caudad and
to either side of the large efferent branchial trunk. They re-
ceive first the most ventral pair of efferent filament arteries ;
then in theit dorsal course take up in succession from either
side the several following efferent filament arteries, and after
having received 20 or 30 such vessels, unite, forming a short
trunk, which empties into the main efferent branchial trunk
from the rear. In like manner the dorsal branch arises as a
paired vessel and returns the blood from several of the most
dorsal fiaments. There is also a gradual variation in the point
where the various efferent branchial arteries leave their respec-
tive branchial arches. The first or most anterior efferent
vessel follows along the posterior edge of the cerato- and epi-
branchials some little distance beyond the dorsal-cephalic bend ;
while the fourth or posterior efferent branchial vessel leaves
the cerato-branchial a little below the dorsal-cephalic bend ; and
the efferent branchial vessels of the second and third branchial
arches come in midway between these extremes, forming a
regular series of intergradations. Ventrally the first, second

1 Each branchial filament is divided up into numerous parallel vascular
plates or lamellse, which lie in dorso-ventral planes.

46 ALLEN

and third efferent branchial arteries on one side anastomose
with the corresponding trunks of the opposite side. From
either side of the ventral point of union of the first pair of effer-
ent vessels, a large hyoidean ariery (figs, i and 12, Hyo.A.) is
given off to the hyoid arch and mandibular region. The ven-
tral points of union of the second and third pairs of efferent
branchial arteries mark the source of the ventral artery (Pis.
I and II, figs. I and 12 ; Ven.A.) ; and \\\^ -pharynx artery (PI.
II, fig. 12 ; Phar.A.) may arise form either of the third efferent
branchial arteries. From the dorso-cephalic surface of the first
pair of efferent branchial vessels, the 2 common carotid arter-
ies (^\. I, figs. I and 5 ; C.Car.A.) are given off cephalad ; con-
tinuing dorso-caudad, the first efferent trunk unites with the
second to form \^% first or anterior epibranchial artery (PI. I,
fig. 5 ; Epbr.A.(i)), and in like manner the third and fourth
efferent branchial vessels unite to form the second or -posterior
ep ihr an chtal artery (PI. I, fig. 5 ; Epbr.A.,2,). The epibranch-
ial vessels on one side unite with the corresponding trunks on
the opposite side, forming a common chamber (PL I, fig. 5 ;
C.C.), which lies in a median line ventrad of the basi-occipital.
This chamber is the source of several large trunks ; the dorsal
aorta (PI. I, figs, i and 5 ; D.Ao.) arising from the left posterior
dorsal corner; the cceliaco-mesenteric (PI. I, figs, i and 5 ; Cce.
Mes.A.) below and to the right; and the common subclavian
trunk (PL I, fig 5) lies above the aorta and the coeliaco-mesen-
teric artery. In one case the subclavians were seen to arise
separately. The left one had its origin in the same place as
the common subclavian trunk, and the right one came from the
cceliaco-mesenteric artery.

2. Arteries Arising From the Ventral Ends 0/ the Efferent
Branchial Arteries.
First under this head might be mentioned the 2 little hyo hyoid-
CMS inferior arteries (PL II, fig. 12 ; Hys.A.), which arise from
the cephalic surface of the first efferent branchial arteries just
before they unite ventrally. These vessels run cephalad a short
distance and then spread out laterad over the dorsal surface of
their respective muscles.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LQRICATI 47

Hyoidcan Arteries (Pis. I and II, ligs. i and 12; Ilyo.A.).
— A short distance above the source of the inferior hyo hyoideus
arteries, 2 large hyoidean arteries are given off to the hyoid
arch and the adjacent region. After reaching the hyoid arch
from the inside, a little behind the hypohyals, the main trunk
runs along the dorsal surface of the cerato- and epi-hyals ;
making a dorsal bend in front of the interhj-al it crosses under
the preopercular, and after passing through a foramen, which
is formed by the symplectic, hyomandibular, preopercle, and
quadrate, anastomoses with the faclalis-mandibidaris artery
(PL I, fig. I ; F.Man. A.). In the embryo the hyoidean artery
probably furnished the entire blood for the pseudobranchia ; the
current of blood in the facial-mandibular artery was dorsad
toward the carotids. Also in the adult it would be possible for
the blood from the h3^oidean artery to flow dorsad in the facial-
mandibular artery as well as ventrad, however, since the facial-
mandibular is a much larger artery than the hyoidean, it is not
probable that much of the blood from the hyoidean artery runs
counter to the current of the facial-mandibular artery. It also
might be possible at times for the blood in the hyoidean artery
to flow ventrad, that is toward the efferent branchial artery.
From Miiller's (50), Stannius' (74), and Emery's (24) descrip-
tions, one would infer that the h3^oidean arter}^ in most bony
fishes supplied the pseudobranchia, but in Ophiodon the blood
supply for the pseudobranchia, which will be considered later,
comes from a branch of the external carotid artery.

The first branch to be given off from the hyoidean artery is the
lingual artery (PI. II, fig. 12 ; Lin. A.). This vessel leaves the
hyoidean arter}^ close to the efferent branchial artery, shortly be-
fore the hyoidean arter}- reaches the hyoid arch, and each lingual
artery runs cephalad along the ventral surface of the glossohyal.
Immediately after the hyoidean artery reaches the hyoid arch it
gives off the geniohyoidcus artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ;
Ghs.A.) to the geniohyoideus muscle. One of these arteries is
much longer than the other ; sometimes it is the right and again it
is the left. In the specimen from which fig. 12 was drawn, the
right artery was the longer ; it passed entirely around to the outer
ventral surface of the ceratohyal and then curved cephalad, pass-

48 ^ ALLEN

ing obliquely along the ventral surface of the right geniohyoideus
muscle and above the right hyohyoideus inferior muscle. When
the median line between the 2 geniohyoideus muscles is reached
this vessel bifurcates, one branch running along the ventral sur-
face of each geniohyoideus muscle. Both of these forks supply
also the intermandibularis muscle. The short geniohyoideus
artery, vi'hich is the left one in this specimen, supplies only the
posterior part of the left geniohyoideus muscle. The largest of
the branches of the hyoidean artery is the hyoid arch artery
proper, which has been designated as the hranchiostegal artery
(Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; Br.O.A.). This vessel is given
off a little cephalad of the interhyal and runs along the outer
ventral edge of the epi- and cerato-hyals. In the region of
each hranchiostegal ray an artery is given off ventrad to supply
the hyohyoideus superior muscles. In Scor^cBnichthys one
hranchiostegal artery does not supply all of the superior hyoi-
deus muscles. Three or 4 such vessels pass over the outer
surface of the epi- and cerato-hyals and supply from i to 3
hyohyoideus superior muscles ; the last one evidently corre-
sponds to the single hranchiostegal artery of Ophiodon.

What might be called the thyroid artery (PL II, fig. 12 ;
Thyr.A.) arises either from the second right or the second left
efferent branchial arter3^ In Fig. 12 it arises from the second
right efferent artery, flows cephalad under the ventral aorta
and anastomoses with the first efferent branchial artery. Along
its short course 2 or 3 small branches could be traced to the
thyroid gland, one of them supplying also the second left
obliquus ventralis muscle.

Pharynx Artery (PI. II, fig. 12; Phar.A.). — This vessel
may have its source from the third left or the third right efferent
branchial artery. In the specimen from which fig. 12 was
drawn it arose, caudad, from the third right efferent branchial
vessel and, passing obliquely over the ventral aorta it bifurcates
in the region of the combined afferent trunk of the third and
fourth branchial arches. The smaller rigJit pharynx artery
(PI. I, fig. 12; R. Phar.A.) supplies the right side of the
pharynx, the transversus ventralis muscle, and the right phar-
yngo-clavicularis externus and internus muscles : while the

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI

larger leftfharynx artery (PL II, fig. 12; L.Phar.A.) sup-
plies the pharynx and similar muscles on the left side. Soon
after the left pharynx artery leaves the main stem it gives
off the large coronary artery (Pis. I and II, figs i and 12 ; Cor.-
A.) for the heart. For some little distance this vessel runs
along the dorsal surface of the ventral aorta and then divides
into a dorsal and a ventral trunk. The dorsal coronary artery
(PL II, fig. 12 ; D.Cor.A.) continues along the dorsal surface of
the ventral aorta and bulbus arteriosus to the heart as the prin-
cipal vessel. Usually this vessel bifurcates in the region of the
conus arteriosus, one branch penetrating directly into the mus-
cular layer of the ventricle, while the other is a superficial vessel,
distributing itself over the dorsal surface of the ventricle ; or
sometimes both may be superficial vessels. It is probable that
these vessels also supply the auricle, although I have never
been able to trace them further than the ventricle. Each of
these vessels gives off a small artery, which encircles the bul-
bus and anastomoses on the ventral side with the ventral coro-
nary artery, and from this circular artery several small vessels
are given off to the bulbus and the ventricle. The ventral
coronary artery (PL II, fig. 12 ; V.Cor.A.), which is much
smaller than the dorsal vessel, also runs caudad in the outer
coat of the ventral aorta, but it supplies only the ventral walls
of the ventral aorta and the bulbus. None of its branches
reaches the ventricle. In Scorj^cenichthys the pharynx arteries
arise as separate arteries from the second pair of efferent
branchial arteries, and the coronary artery comes from the left
pharynx artery, close to its point of origin from the efferent
branchial vessel.

The Ventral Artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12 ; Ven.A.)
is the largest of any of the vessels arising from the ventral
ends of the efferent branchial arteries. In Opkiodon this ves-
sel has its origin from the ventral union of the second and third
pairs of efferent branchial arteries. This does not appear to
be the common arrangement among other bony fishes ; in Hex-
agranimos, ScorpcBnichthys , and Sebastodcs the ventral artery
has its source from the second pair of efferent branchial vessels.
Continuing caudad along the ventral surface of the pericardial

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

50 ALLEN

cavity a little to the right of the median line, the ventral artery
gives off numerous branches to the sternohyoideus muscle. In
the specimen from which fig. 12 was drawn, a vessel was
noticed branching off to the left, passing horizontally under
the ventricle, and terminating on the left precaval vein in the
neighborhood of the left subclavian sinus. Directly caudad of
this vessel and a little cephalad to the crossing of the sinus
venosus, the ventral artery sends off a pair of vessels to the
ventral muscles of the pectoral fin. Each of these hy^obranch-
ial arteries (PL II, figs. 12 and 14; Hypobr.A.) runs a short
distance caudad between the sternohyoideus and the pectoral
profundus adductor muscle, and then curves slightly dorsad,
passing between the inner surface of the coracoid and the pec-
toral profundus adductor muscle, giving off at least two branches
to the inner surface of the muscle ; then curving slightly ven-
trad, penetrates the basal canal of the pectoral rays,^ and
anastomoses in this canal with the internal subclavian artery
(2) (PI. II, fig. 14; I. Sub.A.(,)), but before entering this canal
the hypobranchial gives off a dorsal branch which passes be-
tween the pectoral profundus muscle and the brachial ossicles,
supplying the inner surface of the muscle. Continuing caudad,
the ventral artery passes under the sinus venosus between the
pelvic bones, giving off arteries to the body wall, the ventral
or pelvic fin muscles, and the ventral rays. The first con-
stant artery of any size to be given off from the ventral arter}'
after it reaches the ventral fin musculature is one which comes
out ventrad in a median line to the outer surface of the pro-
tractor muscle of the pelvic arch, where it divides at nearly
right angles, one branch supplying the left, the other the right
protractor muscle of the pelvic fins and the very large abductor
muscle of the ventral spine (fig. 12 ; Ab.V.S.). At various
intervals, usually alternating with the veins, the ventral inter-
costal arteries (^\. II, fig. 12 ; V.Intc.A.) are given off between
ever}' alternate pair of myotomes, and they anastomose with the
corresponding dorsal intercostal arteries. The ventral artery

•Each pectoral fin ray consists of 2 separate halves, which are concave inside
and convex outside, and where their bases overlap the brachial ossicles in their
attachment to the shouldcr-t,nrdlc, there is formed a rather large canal at the
base of the pectoral fin.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 5 1

also sends off several branches to the other abductor and ad-
ductor muscles, and shortly before the pelvic bones become
united posteriorly, the ventral artery makes a short dorsal bend
and bifurcates at right angles, one branch going to the basal
canal of the right ventral fin rays and the other to the left.
Each terminal branch of the ventral artery exhausts itself by
giving off a branch to the core of each ray ; proximally this
vessel runs in the center of the cavit}^ but soon divides, one
branch continuing caudad along the right side of the cavity,
the other the left. Usually from the left branch of the ventral
artery, but often from the right, a median vessel is given off
caudad, which passes along the ventro-median line between the
2 great lateral muscles and exhausts itself in numerous inter-
costal arteries.

This series of complicated vessels arising from the ventral
ends of the efferent branchial arteries and anastomosing with a
trunk of the subclavian artery may be comparable to the ves-
sels described by Miiller (pp. 36 and 37) as epigastrische Arte-
rien, and the ventral arter}- or ramus epigastricus decendens of
Miiller may be analogous to the mammaria interna of mammals.

3. Carotid Arte^'ics.

The short common carotid arteries (PL I, figs, i and 5 ;
C.Car.A.) arise from the* dorsal-cephalic corner of the first
efferent branchial arteries, and passing cephalad a short dis-
tance, about I cm., divide into the large external and internal
trunks.

{ci). External Carotid or Carotis Posterior Artery (Pis. I
and II, figs. I, 5 and 15; E.Car.A.). — This vessel at once
makes a dorsal-cephalic curve, passing through a foramen
formed by a lateral process of the prootic, in company with, but
directly below the jugular vein. Leaving this canal with the
infraorbitalis or truncus buccalis-maxillo mandibularis and
just ventrad and caudad of the external jugular vein, the exter-
nal carotid passes over the dorsal edge of the hyomandibular,
along the posterior border of the orbit, and then runs ventro-
caudad beneath the levator muscle of the palatine arch and the
adductor mandibular muscles. It passes along the inner side of

52 ALLEN

the metapterygoid, and after receiving the hyoidean artery
comes to the outer surface through a foramen between the sym-
plectic, hyomandibuhir, preopercular, and quadrate bones.
This combined vessel, which may be designated as the mandib-
ttlar artery (PI. i, fig. i ; Man. A), makes a sharp cephalic
bend, passing over the outer surface of the quadrate bone and
then curving inward around it to the inner surface of the man-
dible, where it terminates in 2 branches, which supply the ad-
ductor mandibulge muscles. The main branch runs alonfj the
inner dorsal surface of the bone, while the smaller branch sup-
plies the ventral portion of the muscles.

Along its ventro-cephalic course the external carotid sends
off many branches in the facial region and receives one. The
first vessel to be given off is the sclerotic-iris artery (PI. II,
fig. 15 ; Scl.Ir.A.). This rather small vessel arises from the
dorsal surface of the carotid immediately after it leaves the
canal formed by the prootic process. Close to its source the
sclerotic-iris artery gives off caudad the most anterior cranial
cavity artery (P\. II and III, figs. 15 and 24; C.C.A.), which
penetrates the skull through the middle and the largest of the
prootic foramina, along the dorsal surface of the roots of the
V nerve, and follows up the anterior surface of facialis portion
of the ramus lateralis accessorius to supply the adipose tissue
in the anterior portion of the cranial cavity. The main trunk,
however, continues cephalad a short distance along the outer
surface of the prootic dorsad of the gasserian ganglion, and
here divides, one branch, the sclerotic artery (PI. II, fig. 15 ;
Scl.A.) continues cephalad, but laterad to the truncus supra-
orbitalis or ramus ophthalmicus and the orbito-nasal vein.
When the orbit is reached, instead of curving inward around
the eye with the nerve and vein, it continues in a straight line
over the dorsal surface of the eyeball in company with the
sclerotic branch of the truncus supra-orbitalis and the sclerotic
vein, to supply the adipose tissue surrounding the dorsal surface
of the sclerotic coat. The other branch is the iris artery (Pis.
II and III, figs. 13, 15 and 19; Ir.A.), which enters the skull
through a foramen bounded by the dorsal process of the jiara-
sphenoid, the alisphenoid, and the prootic. Together with the

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 53

ciliary nerve and internal jugular vein it passes cephalad out
of the skull through the large olfactory-optic foramen, then
curving laterad in company with the ramus ciliaris longus and
the iris vein it crosses under the orbito-nasal vein and the trun-
cus supra-orbitalis, passing between the superior and external
rectus muscles, gives off a branch to the latter (PI. II, figs. 13
and 15 ; Ex.R.A.). Then running laterad across the posterior
dorsal surface of the eyeball it penetrates the sclerotic coat in
its median line, and continuing laterad in the silver layer of the
choroid until the iris is reached, where, with the ramus ciliaris
longus, it bifurcates into 2 ventral vessels, which supply at
least the dorsal half of the iris. The normal arrangement of
the iris vessels is first the iris vein, then the ramus ciliaris lon-
gus, and finally the iris arter}'-, but in several cases I have
observed the artery curving cephalad and passing between the
nerve and the vein.

The second vessel is given off a little below the sclerotic-iris
artery ; and after making a rather sharp caudal curve terminates
in the levator arcus palatini muscle. The next vessel is the
facialis-maxillaris artery (PL I, fig. i ; F.Max. A.) which arises
cephalad from the external carotid in the region of the orbit,
and passes obliquely over the external jugular vein and the ramus
mandibularis or the ramus maxillaris inferior, where it gives off
a large ventral branch, \.hQ facial artery (PI. I, fig. i ; F.A.),
for the adductor mandibul^e muscles. This branch runs along
the lateral surface of the deeper portion of the adductor mandi-
bulas, giving off numerous branches to the adductor muscles,
but does not follow the nerve to the mandible. The main por-
tion of the facialis-maxillaris artery proceeds along the floor of
the orbit in the adductor arcus palatini muscle, to which it gives
off numerous branches, and when the level of the nasal sac is
reached it receives a much larger artery from the orbito-nasal
artery (Pis. I and III, figs, i and 17 ; O.N. A.), which is a
branch of the internal carotid artery.^ This combined vessel
continues in a cephalic direction, supplying the region directly

1 McKenzie (52, p. 427) mentions the crossing of the branches of the ex-
ternal and internal carotids in the neighborhood of the nasal sac, in Avieiurtis
but nowhere have I met with the statement of their union.

54 ALLEN

behind the maxilla, and sends one branch ventro-caudad along
the outer ventral surface of the adductor mandibul^e muscle.

As the external carotid artery passes behind the metaptery-
goid it gives off the large -psetidobranchlal or afferent pseudo-
branchial artery (PL I, fig. i ; Ps.A.) caudad to the pseudo-
branchia. Passing behind the hyomandibular, the pseudo-
branchial artery gives off a good-sized vessel dorsad for the
levator muscle of the palatine arch, and shortly before the pseu-
dobranchia is reached the pseudobranchial artery bifurcates
into a short dorsal branch and a longer ventral branch. These
vessels are analogous to the afferent branchial arteries of the
branchial arches. Like them they give off the nutrient pseudo-
branchial arteries, from which the nutrient filament arteries
arise for the pseudobranchial filaments (not shown in fig. 3.),
and at regular intervals an afferent pseudobranchial filament
artery (PI. I, fig. 3 ; A.Ps.Fil.A.) is given off to the outer
margin of the filament, which is the side that lies closest to the
hyomandibular bone. As is the case in the branchial filament
this artery exhausts itself in numerous afferent cross-vessels,
which by dividing form the vessels from which the -pseudo-
branchial filament network arises. These cross-vessels are much
shorter than the corresponding branchial vessels and are about
80 /A apart, this being 20 \i more that the distance between 2
branchial filament cross-vessels. The longest septum of a
pseudobranchial filament and the inclosed capillary network is
much longer than the corresponding branchial septum, but the
network itself is much coarser. In alike manner the capillary
networks become collected into short cross-vessels on the inner
side of the filament, which unite in forming the efferent pseudo-
branchial filament vessels (^\. I, figs. 3 and 4; E.Ps.Fil.A).
These vessels terminate in, and form a short dorsal, and a longer
ventral artery, which lie immediately cephalad of the corres-
ponding afferent vessels, and are analogous to an efferent bran-
chial artery.' They unite in forming the important ophthalmic

' The pseudobranch is a hemibranch or half-gill. Although its capillary net-
work is a trifle coarser than the network of a branchial filament and its afferent
vessel comes from the external carotid arterj', still it has much in common with
a branchial filament. The septa containing the pseudobranchial capillaries are
exposed to the same current of water that bathes the gills, and it is natural to

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 55

or efferent ^seiidohranchial artery (Pis. I, II and III, figs. 1,5,
15, 19 and 20; Oph.A.), which supplies onl}- the choroid coat
of the eye.- This vessel pursues a dorso-cephalic course, pas-
sing along the outer posterior edge of the levator arcus palatini
muscle to the parasphenoid bone ; it then runs parallel to the
parasphenoid for a short distance, and when the anterior surface
of the dorsal parasphenoid process is reached, sends off a
branch inward in front of this process to anastomose with the
corresponding artery from the opposite side. Here the main
stem bends dorsad nearly encircling the orbito-nasal arter}'^, and
passing between the inferior and internal rectus muscles in
company with the ramus ciliaris brevis and the ophthalmic vein
it follows along the posterior surface of the optic nerve, but be-
fore penetrating the sclerotic coat the artery makes a dorsal
curve around the ciliaris brevis and the ophthalmic vein, and
pierces the eyeball a little dorso-caudad of the optic nerve.
After passing through the silver layer of the choroid it bifur-
cates in the vascular layer of the choroid into an anterior
choroid artery (PI. Ill, figs. 20 and 21 ; Chor.A.^j)) and a
^\ior\.itx posterior choroid artery (PL III, figs. 20 and 21 : Chor.
A. ^2))' These 2 vessels have somewhat the shape of a horse-
shoe, having its curved end dorsad and its open end ventrad.
Radiating from the outer surface of this horseshoe-shaped vessel
are numerous short vessels, which soon break up into smaller
vessels, and these in turn break up into minute parallel capil-
laries, forming the arterial retia mirabilia (PI. Ill, figs. 19,
20 and 21 ; A.Ret.M.) of the so-called choroid gland or vaso-
ganglion, which has already been accurately described by Jones
(41), Miiller (50), Stannius (74) and Emery (24). Distally these
capillaries reunite, forming the choroid arteries proper (PI. Ill,
figs. 20 and 21 ; Chor. A.), which supply the choroid with
arterial blood. A section through the choroid and retina (PI.
Ill, fig. 21) shows us that the choroid vessels are arranged in

suppose that the arterial blood which passes through these filaments receives
additional oxygen from the water.

2 1 have made several separate injections of the ophthalmic artery, cephalad,
after it leaves the pseudobranchia to see if it had any connection with the other
arteries, especially the orbitonasal artery with which it comes in such close con-
tact ; but no connection whatever was found.

56 ALLEN

2 layers ; an outer layer of large arteries and veins, and an
inner layer of capillaries. The capillar}?- layer is separated
from the retina only by the thin pigment layer of the choroid.

A little dorsad to the point of union of the hyoidean artery
with the external carotid, the latter sends off, caudad, a smaller
■postci'io}' hyoidean artery (PI. I, fig. i ; P.Hyo.A.). Close to
its point of origin this vessel gives off a dorsal branch, which
runs in front of the preopercular and directly behind the ramus
mandibularis VII, supphnng the inner side of the deeper
adductor mandibular muscle. Passing ventro-caudad through
the same foramen as the h3^oidean artery it runs parallel with
it. In its course along the inner side of the preopercular it
passes along the dorsal surface of the interhyal a little below
the hyoidean vein ; then curving around the ventral edge of the
epihyal it comes to lie above the vein, finally terminating in
several vessels to the hyohyoideus superior muscle in the region
of the last branchiostegal ray.

{J)) Internal Carotid or Carotis Anterior Artery (PI. I, figs.
I and 5; I. Car. A.). — This vessel after leaving the common
carotid bends inward, passes ventrad across the jugular vein to
penetrate the internal carotid foramen (a foramen formed by the
dorsal process of the parasphenoid, the parasphenoid, and the
prootic bones) into the eye-muscle canal. Here it divides into
a cephalic and a horizontal trunk. The former is the orbito-
nasal artery, and the latter unites in the median line, above the
parasphenoid, with the corresponding trunk from the opposite
side, the combined trunk being the encephalic or brain artery.

The ence'piialic or brain artery (Pis. I, II and III, figs, i,
5, 15, 23 and 25 ; Enc.A.) proceeds dorsad between the
external recti muscles and penetrating the floor of the brain
case directl}'- cephalad of the hypophysis, and exhausts itself in
4 branches, which are given off at right angles to one another.
The cephalic one may be designated as the anterior cerebral
artery, the lateral ones as the right and left posterior cerebral
arteries, and the small posterior one as the infundibular artery.

Soon after leaving the main stem the anterior cerebral artery
(PI. Ill, figs. 23 and 25; A.Cer.A.) divides ; the 2 branches
running parallel for a short distance in a sort of zig-zag course

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 57

along the ventral surface of the left optic nerve, and shortly
before the olfactory lobes are reached they bear off laterad
around the optic nerves, but, before leaving them, each vessel
gives off a branch, which continues along the ventral surface
of the nerve to the eye. This is the of tic or retina artery (PL
III, figs. 22, 23, and 25 ; Opt. A.), which gives off branches to
the nerve and finally penetrates the eye-ball a little cephalad of
the nerve. Once inside the retina it continues along the retina
fissure (see fig. 22), giving off branches to either side and
especially to a whitish gland-like body situated on the side of
the fissure close to the falciform process. The main portion of
the artery, however, breaks up on the falciform process, the
campanula Halleri, and even extends over on the lens. It is
also probable that the retina receives nourishment from the
choroid arteries, which are separated from the retina only by
the thin pigment layer of the choroid. The main anterior cere-
bral artery after curving around the optic nerve divides into an
anterior and a posterior portion. Close to the point of bifurca-
tion the anterior branch sends forward a small vessel, which
runs along the ventral surface of the olfactory nerve, but the
main trunk passes inward and anastomoses with its fellow in
the median line. This point of union marks the source of 2
vessels, a smaller dorsal one designated as the most anterior
cranial cavity artery (PI. Ill, fig. 23 ; C.C.A.), coming up
between the olfactory lobes to supply the adipose tissue in the
anterior region of the cranial cavity and a larger caudal vessel,
which runs in a median line between the optic nerves and the
cerebral hemispheres, giving off several branches to the latter
through the median fissure. The posterior branch of the
anterior cerebral artery is a superficial vessel ; it follows caudad
along the ventro-lateral surface of the cerebrum, passing between
it and the optic nerves, and giving off superficial branches to
the ventral surface of the cerebrum and the anterior surface of
the mesencephal. Sometimes the right, but more often the left
artery continues dorsad with the epiphysis as the second cranial
cavity artery (PI. Ill, fig. 23 ; C.'C.'A/).

i:\i^ posterior cerebral arteries (PI. Ill, figs. 23 and 25 ; P.-
Cer.A.) come off from the encephalic artery at right angles to

58 ALLEN

the anterior cerebral artery ; they run ventro-laterad across the
optic nerves, the cerebral hemispheres, the III and IV nerves.
Shortly after crossing the IV nerve each vessel makes a sharp
curve at nearly right angles ; then passing caudad between the
IV nerve and the roots of the V and VII, parallel with, but
inside of the corresponding vein, they give off several super
ficial branches to the mesencephal (optic lobes) and hypoaria
(inferior lobes). The outer layer of the former contains a mass
of blood vessels. Close to the posterior end of the hypoaria
each posterior cerebral artery bends inward with the III nerve
and the corresponding vein, between the mesencephal, hypoaria
and crura cerebri, and when the saccus vasculosus is reached
this vessel divides into an anterior and a posterior branch. The
anterior branch unites with the corresponding vessel from the
opposite side in the median line above the anterior part of the
saccus vasculosus to form the mesencephalic artery (PI. Ill, fig.
25 ; Me. A.), which passes cephalad a short distance in the
crura; then turning dorsad, penetrates the floor of the mesen-
cephal directly in front of the valvula cerebelli (volvula of
other authors), and here sends out a lateral branch along the
dorsal surface of each torus semicircularis. In like manner
the posterior forks of the posterior cerebral arteries unite in the
median line above the posterior end of 'the saccus vasculosus,
and the vessel thus formed continues caudad along the ventral
surface of the oblongata as the myclonal or oblongata artery
(PI. Ill, figs. 23 and 25 ; My. A.). Along its short course
several branches are given off to the oblongata and one to the
auditory region. The first vessel for the oblongata is given off
near the source of the myelonal artery and passes up through
the crura to the metacoele (IV ventricle), where it branches out
caudad in the dorsal part of the crura. The second branch
comes up through the ventral fissure of the oblongata in the
neighborhood of the facialis lobe and breaks up similarly to the
first branch. The third branch, which is much larger, is the
anditory artery (PI. Ill, figs. 23, 23^^', 24 and 25 ; Aud.A.).
Its course is obliquely laterad across the oblongata, but before
coming out from under the roots of the VII nerve, sends up a
dorsal branch, the third craiiial cavity artery (PI. Ill, figs. 23

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 59

and 23a; C."C."A."), which passes between the ventral later-
alis and the motor roots of the VII nerve to the roof of the
skull, supplying the adipose tissue surrounding the brain and
the semicircular canals. Emerging from beneath the motor
root of the VII nerve, the auditory artery divides into an ante-
rior and a posterior auditory artery. The antcrioi' atiditury
artery (PI. Ill, figs. 23^ and 25 ; A.Aud.A.) follows along
the anterior surface of the ramulus acusticus ampullae ante-
rioris ; passing beneath the anterior ampulla to which it gives
off a branch, it continues on to the external ampulla and its
semicircular canal. The -posterior auditory artery (PI. Ill,
figs. 23, 23^ and 25 ; P.Aud.A.), which at first passes caudad
under the ramulus acusticus ampulljE anterioris and the ramulus
acusticus sacculi, comes up through the center of the latter and
passes along in front of the ramulus acusticus ampullae poste-
rioris, to supply the posterior ampulla, its semicircular canal,
and the utriculus. The myelonal artery terminates in 2 forks
on the ventral surface of the my el, in the region of the first
spinal nerves. These branches usually anastomose with a
branch of the first neural or vertebral arteries, which having
their oricrin from the subclavians make them analogous to the
anastomosis of the basilar and vertebral arteries of mammals,
of which a more detailed description will be given under the
subclavian arteries. At the point where the posterior cerebral
artery bends to penetrate the mesencephalon it gives off, caudad,
the cerebellum artery (PI. Ill, figs. 23 and 24; Cer.A.). This
vessel continues parallel, but above the IV nerve, ventrad to
the optic lobes, and laterad to the crus. In its caudal course
it gradually rises higher on the crus, until in the region of the
posterior end of the optic lobes it gets to lie between the optic
lobes and the valvula cerebelli. A little behind the origin of
the IV nerve and the posterior end of the optic lobes this vessel
penetrates the dorso-lateral wall of the valvula cerebelli at the
point where the molecular layer of the valvula unites with the
corresponding layer of the cerebellum. Its course is then
caudad a little to one side of the median line, gradually ex-
hausting itself in the granular layer of the cerebellum.

The fourth and smallest vessel to be given off from the en-

6o ALLEN

cephalic artery is the infiindibtilar artci'y (PI. Ill, fig. 25 ; Inf.-
A.). This vessel, which is given off caudad to the hypoph^'sis
and infundibulum, sometimes arises from either of the pos-
terior cerebral arteries close to their origin from the encephalic
artery.

Orbito-nasal Arteries (Pis. I, II and III, figs, i, 5, 13, 17
and 18; O.N. A.). — These vessels which are the cephalic
branches of the internal carotid arteries, pass forward along
the dorso-lateral surface of the parasphenoid. While still within
the eye-muscle canal each orbito-nasal artery runs below the
recti muscles, giving off several small branches to the superior,
inferior, and internal recti muscles. Shortl}' after reaching
the orbit, what I ha\'e designated as the rccttis artery (PI. II,
fig. 13 ; Rec.A.) arises between the internal and the inferior
recti muscles, giving off at first a small branch to the outer
surface of the internal rectus muscle ; then dividing, one branch
continues caudad between the external and internal recti mus-
cles ; while the other branch curves laterad a short distance
and in turn bifurcates, one branch going dorsad to the superior
rectus muscle, and the other to the inferior rectus muscle. The
main orbito-nasal trunk, continuing cephalad, passes behind
the internal rectus muscle to which it sends several vessels ;
and in the anterior part of the orbit passes between, but lat-
erad to the oblique muscles, giving off a dorsal branch to
the superior oblique muscle, and in the specimen from which
fig* ^3 ^'^^s drawn, 2 ventral branches for the inferior ob-
lique muscle. As has already been mentioned, the blood
supply for the external rectus muscle comes largely from the
iris artery, which is a branch of the external carotid artery.
Together with the orbito-nasal vein and the olfactory nerve,
the orbito-nasal artery passes out of the orbit through the olfac-
tory foramen in the prefrontal bone. In passing through this
foramen and cephalad of it, the vein lies mesad of the nerve,
and the artery lies ventrad to bolli vein and nerve. Soon after
leaving the orbit the orbito-nasal artery gives off at least 2
dorso-cephalic vessels, the nasal sac arteries (PI. Ill, figs. 17
and 18 ; N.S. A.^^). These small vessels at first pass behind and
above the olfactory nerve to supply the dorsal radial fihiments

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 6l

of the nasal sac. They penetrate the base of the filaments
with branches of the olfactory nerve, and running through the
inner connective tissue layer send off branches into the secon-
dary or branching filaments. The main orbito-nasal trunk
after passing behind the nasal sac with the corresponding vein
and the olfactory nerve divides into a cephalic and a ventral
branch. The smaller cephalic branch, crossing behind the or-
bito-nasal vein, proceeds above it, and becomes the maxilla
artery (Pis. I and III, figs, i, 17 and 18; Max.A.(,)). This
artery in turn also breaks up into 2 vessels ; a dorsal one, which
penetrates the premaxilla ; and a ventral one, which runs along
the posterior surface of the premaxilla. The larger ventral
branch is ihQ posterior maxilla artery (Pis. I and III, figs, i, 17
and 18 ; Max. A.(2)) ; at the ventral edge of the nasal sac it sends
a branch inward to the palatine arch ; and directly below this
branch at least 2 ventral nasal sac arteries (PI. Ill, fig. 17;.
N.S.A.(.)) are given off dorsad, which supply the ventral fila-
ments in a like manner to dorsal nasal sac arteries. Then an-
astomosing with the much smaller facialis-maxillaris artery it
runs along and breaks up on the outer surface of the adductor
mandibul^e muscle, immediately behind the maxilla.

(c) Summary of the Carotids. — Parker has well said (60, P.
653), that : " The application of the name ' carotid ' to the ce-
phalic arteries of fishes must of course be taken to imply nothing
more than a general correspondence with the similarly named
vessels in the higher Vertebrata." For example, his anterior
carotid (internal carotid) in Mustelus (60, fig. 6), and the similar
artery in Hydrolagtis, Chimajra(Pl. Ill, fig. 26; I. Car. A.), are
almost analogous to the ophthalmic artery of Ophiodon (PI. I,
figs. I and 5 ; Oph. A) provided that it anastomosed with the orbito-
nasal artery with which it comes in such close contact. In the
same connection, Parker proposes to substitute the names ante-
rior and posterior carotids for the internal and external carot-
ids. This substitution may seem advisable in the Selachians,
where the carotids at first occupy a distinctly anterior and pos-
terior position ; but in the case of the Teleosts that I have exam-
ined the vessel which has been designated as the internal car-
otid has a distinctly profundus course, and the external carotid

62 ALLEN

a superficial one. Even though the cephalic portion of the
internal carotid crosses the tract of the external carotid and a
branch of one anastomoses with a branch of the other, still, in
the main, the internal carotid supplies the region of the internal
carotids of the Mammalia. It certainly extends no farther
cephalad than the exteral carotids. For these reasons, in
Op/u'odon, it seems advisable to retain the names internal and
external.

4. Operaila?' and Do?-sal B?-anchial Muscle Arteries.

These vessels are 2 ver}- constant arteries, which arise from
the dorsal part of the second efferent branchial arter3\

Of the 2, the opercular artery (PI. I, fig. i ; Op. A.) is the
most dorsal and cephalic vessel. It arises from the anterior
surface of the second efferent branchial artery near its point of
union with the first efferent branchial artery ; its course is first
cephalad for a short distance, passing over the second obliquus
dorsalis muscle, to which it gives a branch ; then curving dor-
sad, sends off a cephalic branch, which supplies the first inter-
nal branchial levator muscle (Levatores arcuum branchialium in-
tern! of Vetter) and the first obliquus dorsalis muscle ; and a little
farther up, a third arter}' is given off to the 4 outer branchial
levator muscles (Levatores arcuum branchialium externi of
Vetter). Then continuing dorsad, laterad to the first efferent
branchial artery and jugular vein, it sends off a caudal branch
to the levator operculi muscle of Vetter, and when the level of
the opercular is reached, terminates by running ventrad along
the inner surface of this bone.

The vessel, which is designated as the dorsal branchial mus-
cle artery (PI. I, fig. i ; Br.M.A.), but which supplies fewer
branchial muscles than the one designated as the opercular
artery, arises from the posterior surface of the second efferent
branchial artery directly below the opercular artery. Its course
is caudad, passing behind the second internal branchial levator
muscle, and over the third and fourth obliqui dorsales muscles,
it sends off a branch to each. Then after crossing over the
fourth efferent branchial artery it curves ventrad, supplying the
occipito-clavicuhiris muscle, the pharynx, and the dorsal part of
the pharyngo-clavicularis internus muscle.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 63

5. Subclavian Arteries.

The subclavian arteries (Pis. I and II, figs, i, 5, 14 and 16;
Sub. A.), usually,' have their origin in a single trunk from the
common chamber (fig. 5, C.C.). This common stibclavian
trunk (PL I, fig. 5) arises above and between the dorsal
aorta and the cceliaco-mesenteric artery. For a short dis-
tance it runs parallel to the aorta and the cceliaco-mesenteric
artery, and then branches at nearly right angles ; the right
subclavian passing obliquely above the cceliaco-mesenteric
arter}', the right dorsal branchial retractor muscle, and the
right head kidney to the right pectoral fin ; while the left sub-
clavian passes between the aorta and the cceliaco-mesenteric
artery, above the left dorsal branchial retractor muscle and left
head kidney to the left pectoral fin.

After crossing the head kidney the course of each subclavian
is ventrad, passing with the combined trunk of the first and
second spinal nerves across the outer surface of the head kidney
and cardinal vein to the inner surface of the pectoral fin. In
the region of the dorso-lateral edge of the head kidney the sub-
clavian gives off the first neural artery (Pis. I and II, figs, i
and 16 ; Neu. A.^,), which is somewhat analogous to the verte-
bral artery in mammals. This vessel runs obliquely dorsad in
front of the combined trunk of the first and second spinal
nerves, and then passes over the second and first epibranchial
arteries, but behind the thymus gland. When the atlas is
reached it gives off t\\Q first spinal or myelon artery (PI. II,
fig. 16; Sp.'A.'), which enters a foramen in the exoccipital
and usually anastomoses with the myelonal artery. The main
stem, however, continues dorsad, terminating in a cephalic,
and a dorsal branch. The cephalic branch supplies the
trapezius muscle and sends a branch ventrad, which probably
supplies the th^^mus gland. This small vessel I have been
able to trace to the thymus, but never have seen it penetrate the
gland. Strange to say the arterial supply for the thymus is
more difficult to trace than the venous S3^stem. The dorsal
branch of the first neural artery is destined to supply the super-
ficial, the levator, and the depressor muscles of the first dorsal

^ For exception see page 45.

64 ALLEN

spine ; and in the specimen from which fig. 16 was drawn, the
levator muscle of the second dorsal spine, as well as sending up
a branch behind the first dorsal spine.

After giving off the first neural artery the subclavian might
be designated as the brachial artery as in mammals, but it
seems hardly advisable to press such homologies. Emerging
from the head kidney the subclavian passes ventrad along the
inner anterior surface of the pectoral superficial adductor mus-
cle ; and when the pectoral profundus adductor muscle is
reached, a branch is given off to the superficial muscle ; then
bifurcating, forms what I have designated as the external and
internal subclavians.^ The internal subclavian artery (PI. II,
fig. 14; I. Sub. A.) for a short distance continues along the
inner cephalic edge of the superficial adductor muscle ; then
divides into a sii^e7'jicial internal subclavian artery (PI. II, fig.
14; I. Sub. A. (1,), which after giving off a few branches to the
superficial adductor muscle continues obliquely ventrad along
the inner surface of the profundus adductor muscle ; and a ■pro-
fundus internal subclavian artery (PL II, fig. 14; I. Sub. A. (2,),
which immediately penetrates both superficial and profundus
adductor muscles and runs obliquely ventrad between the pro-
fundus muscle and the scapula, giving off several branches to
the former. In the neighborhood of the most dorsal pectoral
ray this vessel divides into a brachial ossicle artery and a pec-
toral fin artery. The brachial ossicle artery crosses these bones
in its ventral course just back of the pectoral rays, and ex-
hausts itself by giving off vessels to the distal part of the pro-
fundus muscle and by sending off branches between the ossi-
cles to the profundus muscle on the outside of the shoulder-
girdle. While the pectoral fin artery penetrates the basal canal
(see note, page 50) between the first, or most dorsal, and the
second rays, and continuing ventrad in this canal anastomoses
with the hypobranchial artery. Throughout its entire course
it gives off a branch to the central canal of each ray, which
soon divides, one branch continuing along the dorsal side of the
cavity and the other along the ventral side. The external sub-
clavian arte?y (P\. II, fig. 14; E. Sub. A.) immediately passes

'Perhaps external and internal pectoral arteries would be better names.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 65

through the scapula foramen with the external subclavian vein
and a branch of the first and second spinal nerves, and then
runs obliquely ventrad between the superficial and profundus
abductor muscles, giving off several branches to each.

6. Cceliaco-Afcsciilcric Artery.

The CLvliaco-mcscnteric artery (PL I, figs, i and 5 ; Coe-
Mes.A.), which is destined to supply the entire viscera
with the exception of the kidney, urinary-bladder, and repro-
ductive organs, is in itself a rather short vessel. With the
subclavian it has its source in the common chamber (PL I,
fig. 5 ; C.C.) beneath and to the right of the aorta and sub-
clavians. It pursues a ventro-caudal course, and passing
between the inner side of the right fork of the kidney and the
right dorsal branchial retractor muscle enters the thoracic
cavity, where it soon divides into the coeliac and mesenteric
trunks.

{a) Coeliac Artery (PL I, figs, i, 6 and 11 ; Coe.A.). — This
large vessel for a short distance, runs parallel, but cephalad to
the mesenteric artery, then curving around under the stomach,
supplies the liver, ventral part of the stomach, pyloric ca^ca,
and a part of the posterior end of the intestine.

The first branch to be given off from the coeliac is the left
hematic artery (PL I, figs. 6 and 11; L.Hep.A.). It leaves
the coeliac under the stomach and breaks up into as many
branches as there are terminal branches of the left portal vein.
These branches are somewhat irregular, but the first and most
cephalic one accompanies terminal branch {a) of the left portal
vein. Usually this branch is the source of the posterior g'all-
bladder arte?'y (P\. I, fig. 11; P.G.Bl.A.), which runs along
the dorsal surface of the gall-bladder and anastomoses with the
anterior gall-bladder artery, which is a branch of the right
hepatic artery (a branch of the mesenteric artery). Both gall-
bladder arteries break up into a minute capillary system on the
surface of the gall-bladder. A minor posterior gall-bladder
artery is often given off to the ventral surface of the gall-
bladder (see fig. 11). The second branch of the left hepatic
artery accompanies terminal branch (3) of the left portal vein

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

66 ALLEN

and the remaining branches follow terminal branches (c), {d)
and {e). Ordinarily i or 2 branches from the last mentioned
arteries follow along in the gastro-hepatic omentum to supply
the ventral portion of the stomach. All of the branches of the
left hepatic artery follow their corresponding venous trunks to
their terminal endings in the substance of the liver. The left
hepatic artery furnishes the principal arterial supply for the
liver, but in some specimens an additional ^posterior or minor
left hefatic artery (PI. I, fig. 11 ; L.Hep.A.^)) arises from the
coeliac a little farther caudad than the main left hepatic arter}-
and anastomoses with the posterior branches of the left hepatic
vessel. Beside the left hepatic vessels there is also the right
hepatic artery for the small right lobe of the liver, which will
be described further on under the mesenteric artery.

Continuing caudad, parallel, but to the right of the left
portal vein, the coeliac artery divides directly in front of the
pylorus into a right and left pyloric casca artery. One of
these forks (usually the right) is always considerably longer
than the other. The right -pyloric cceca artery^ PL I, figs, i and
6; R.Cge.A.) passes at least two-thirds around the pylorus, in-
side of the pyloric caeca vein a little above the cceca, and in its
course gives off at least 3 branches to the ca^ca. Within the
caica the larger vessels run in the muscular coats and break up
into a capillary network in the connective tissue layer of the
crypts as in the intestine. One branch of the right pyloric
caica artery is sent off to the pylorus and 2 rather large pos-
terior gastric arteries are given off to the posterior or cardiac
portion of the stomach. From the right posterior gastric ar-
tery (fig. I ; R. P. Gas. A.) one or more branches run along in
the peritoneal fold over the cceca to anastomose with the intes-
tinal branch of the mesenteric artery. The left pyloric cceca
arter}'-, which is usually much smaller than the right, pursues
a similar course on the left side of the pylorus, giving off 2 or
3 branches to the cceca and one to the pylorus. When this is
the smaller of the 2 ca3ca arteries, no branches are given off
from it to the posterior end of the stomach, however, only in
about one case in 10 is the left pyloric ca^ca artery larger than
the right.

BLOOD-\'ASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 67

Qiiite an important vessel arises from the right side of the
coeliac artery shortly before it separates to form the pyloric caica
arteries, or sometimes it may arise from the right pyloric caica
artery; it is the vessel designated as /w/t-sZ/V/^/ «r/(?ry(2) (PI- I,
figs. I, 6 and ii; Int.A.;,^), which strikes the intestine about
mid-way between the pylorus and the rectum. For a short
distance it runs along, inclosed in adipose tissue, just dorsad of
the intestine, and crossing over to the ventral side of the intes-
tine, exchanges places with intestinal artery^). This vessel is
distinctly a posterior intestinal artery and usually extends to
the rectum. Throughout its entire course it sends off branches
to the muscular walls of the intestine, which break up into a
capillary network in the connective tissue layer of the crypts.
In the region of the liver several small branches from the coe-
liac are given off to the anterior part of the intestine.

{b) Mesenteric Artery (PL I, fig. i ; Mes.A.). — This vessel
is destined to supply the spleen, the greater part of the stomach,
and intestine. Soon after leaving the coeliaco-mesenteric trunk
the mesenteric artery gives off \\\.^ left gastric artery (PI. I, figs.
I and 6 ; L.Gas.A.) to the left and ventral side of the stomach.
This vessel, which lies above the corresponding vein and left
gastric ramus of the vagus nerve, crosses the stomach at right
angles, then passing along the left side of the stomach, gives
off branches to either side, which soon penetrate the muscular
walls and break up into a capillary network in the connective
tissue layer of the crypts. The main mesenteric trunk after
following the stomach for a short distance bifurcates into the
right gastric, and intestinal artery^,. The right gastric artery
(fig. I ; R.Gas.A.), which is considerably larger than the left,
continues between the right gastric ramus of the vagus nerve
and the right gastric vein to the posterior or cardiac portion of
the stomach, giving off branches from either side to the mus-
cular walls of the stomach. Close to its origin it sends off a
branch to the right (see fig. i), which crosses the coeliac artery
and the right portal vein to a gland-like body (G. fig. i) situ-
ated at the junction of the right gastric and the intestinal veins
(in structure this gland is very much like the suprarenal bodies).
The Intestinal artery^""^ (PI. I, figs, i and 6; Int.A.(ij) pur-

68 ALLEN

sues a general caudal direction. Close to its origin this vessel
gives off the right hefatic artery (PI. I, fig. ii ; R.Hep.-
A.), which supplies the smaller right lobe of the liver. This
branch runs along by the side of the right portal vein and
midway between its source and the right lobe of the liver sends
off the anterior gall-hladder artery (PI. I, fig. ii ; A.G.Bl.A.).,
which breaks up on the anterior surface of the gall-bladder, and
as has already been mentioned under the head of the posterior
gall-bladder artery, the 2 gall-bladder arteries anastomose on
the surface of the bladder. ' A little farther caudad, the anterior
intestinal or duodenum artery (fig. i ; A. Int. A.), is given off
from the iptestinal artery to the anterior loop of the intestine.
The main intestinal trunk then sends off the rather large splenic
artery (PL I, figs, i and 6; Spl.A.), which penetrates the
anterior surface of the spleen, together with, but dorsad of the
splenic vein. Once inside the spleen, it runs entirely through
the organ, branching out in the shape of a fan. The intestinal
artery, curving around the dorsal surface of the spleen runs
along in adipose tissue, parallel with, but closer to the intestine
than the corresponding intestinal vein. This artery varies
greatly in length. Usually, however, it continues to the rectum,
receiving anastomotic branches from the right posterior gastric
artery, and curving around to the opposite or dorsal side of the
intestine, anastomoses with \.\iQ posterior mesenteric artery (fig.
I ; P.Mes.A.). In several specimens, however, the intestinal
artery did not continue much farther caudad than the spleen,
and the posterior part of the intestine usually supplied by this
vessel received its supply from the right posterior gastric artery
and the posterior mesenteric artery. As in the stomach and
caeca, the larger vessels run in the longitudinal and circular
muscular coats and break up into a network of capillaries in
the connective tissue coat.

(c) Comparisons with OtJier Genera 0/ the Suborder. — In
different genera, it is within the viscera where most of the vari-
ation in the blood vessels occur. This is perhaps in a large
measure due to the variation in the shape and location of the
various organs and to the presence or absence of certain of them.
Of the 3 fishes figured in plate IV, probably the arterial

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF TIIK LORICATI 69

supply for the viscera of Sco7'fcBnichthys is most like Op/iwdon,
and Scbastodcs most like the ordinary Acanthopterygian fishes.

The origin of the co^liaco-mesenteric trunk is the same for all
4 genera studied, but as regards the branching of the coeliac
and especially the mesenteric, there is considerable variation.

Cccliac Artc7'y. — In Hcxag7-aminos the coeliac branches off
from the cosliaco-mesenteric trunk much further caudad than is
the case with the other 3 genera ; in fact, the coeliac and the
left gastric are given off together. In all 4 genera the coeliac
terminates by dividing into the 2 pyloric casca arteries, but in
Ophiodon only does a pyloric ca^ca artery supply the posterior
part of the stomach. In Scbastodcs the left hepatic arteries
(PI. IV, fig. 32 : L.Hep.A.) arise in a similar manner to
the corresponding vessels of Ophiodon, except that the pos-
terior left hepatic artery is much larger than in Ophiodon ; while
in ScorpcBnichtJiys and Hexagrammos, strange' to say, the left
hepatic arises from the right gastric, but in Hexagramnws it
comes into such close contact with the coeliac that at first one
might be led to believe it arose from the coeliac or at least anas-
tomosed with it. In Hexagrammos only does the intestinal
arter3',o) arise from the coeliac as in Ophiodon ; in Scorpcenich-
thys and Scbastodcs it is a branch from intestinal artery^i^.

Mesenteric Artery. — The right and left gastric arteries
respectively are essentially the same in all 4 genera. How-
ever, since there are so many variations in the branching of the
right gastric, the distribution of intestinal artery^i), and the addi-
tional air-bladder and anterior spermatic arteries in Sebastodes^
it seems advisable to describe in detail the distribution of the
mesenteric artery for each of the above genera.

Mesenteric Artery in Scorpcenichthys (PI. IV, fig. 29 ; a fork
of Coe. Mes.A.). — After giving off the left gastric artery, the
mesenteric artery separates into the right gastric artery (fig.
29, R.Gas. A.) and the intestinal artery(i)(fig. 29 ; Int. A.^d). The
former gives off the left hepatic artery (figs. 29 and 30: L.-
Hep.A.) and the latter follows along the stomach for a short
distance, giving off a small branch to a small gland-like body,
marked 0-, and the splenic artery (PI. IV, fig. 29; Spl.A.), but
before entering the spleen this vessel sends off a posterior gas-

yO ALLEN

trie artery (PL IV, fig. 29; P. Gas. A.), which supplies the
ventral posterior or cardiac portion of the stomach. The main
intestinal trunk crosses the caeca and after passing under the
first arm of the ileum sends off intestinal artery ^^^ (PI* IV, fig. 29 ;
Int A. 2), which supplies the posterior part of the intestine ; while
the main intestinal trunk continues caudad, supplying both arms
of the ileum. Except from the different points of origin, the
left hematic artery (PI. IV, figs. 29 and 30 ; L.Hep.A.) coming
from the right gastric artery, and the right hepatic artery (PI.
IV, figs. 29 and 30; R. Hep. A.) from the left gastric arter}^,
the peripheral distribution of the 2 hepatic arteries is practically
the same as in Ophiodon. Perhaps it should be mentioned that
there is but one left hepatic artery in Scorpanichthys.

Mesenteric Artery in Hexagrammos (PI. IV, fig. 27 ; Mes.-
A.). — As has already been stated, the lejt gastric arteiy (PI.
IV, fig. 27 ; L. Gas. A.), which is much shorter than in the other
3 genera, is given off almost directly opposite the coeliac arter}^
This would make it appear as though the coeliaco-mesenteric
trunk separated into 3 branches, namely, the coeliac, mesenteric
and left gastric arteries. The mesenteric artery runs along the
stomach for a short distance and divides into the characteristic
right gastric and intestinal arteries. As in Ophiodon the right
gastric artery (PI. IV, fig. 27 : R.Gas.A.) follows along the
right and upper side of the stomach, but it has, however, ex-
changed positions with the right gastric vein. In this respect
it also differs from Scorpcenichthys and Sebastodcs. Close to
its source it gives off the left hepatic artery (PI. IV, figs. 27
and 28; L.Hep.A.), which comes into very close contact with
the coeliac artery and breaks up into 3 branches, which pene-
trate the liver with terminal branches «, b, and c of the left
portal vein. The branch following terminal branch a anasto-
moses with the right hepatic artery in a similar manner to the
anastomosing of this branch of the left portal with the right
portal vein. As in Scorpcenichthys there is but one left hepatic
artery. The Intestinal artery ^^^{p\. IV, fig. 27 ; Int. A.,,,) soon
after leaving the mesenteric artery sends off the right hepatic
artery (PI. IV, fig. 27 ; R.Hep.A.), which at first runs along the
surface of the gall-bladder as the gall-bladder artery, and pene-

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 7 1

trating the liver with the right portal vein, anastomoses with the
most anterior branch of the left hepatic arter3^ By this anasto-
mosis the conditions are somewhat analogous to Ophiodon;
where the posterior gall-bladder artery, which arises from the
most anterior branch of the left hepatic artery, anastomoses on
the surface of the gall-bladder with the anterior gall-bladder
artery, which is a branch from the right hepatic artery. The in-
testinal artery(jj then crosses above the anterior or duodenum
portion of the intestine and intestinal vein,,), gives off several
branches to the intestine and then continuing caudad with the
intestinal vein^), between the arms of the iliac loop, extends past
the loop to supply the rectum. When near the end of the loop
the splenic artery (PI. IV, fig. 27 ; Spl.A.) is given off to the
spleen, which, strange to say, is located on the posterior end of
the intestine close to the rectum. However, before entering
the spleen, the splenic artery sends off a branch to the posterior
end of the intestine.

Mesenteric Artery in Sebastodes (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; Mes. A.).
— In this genus, which is supposed to be less specialized than
the above genera, several new features are introduced, among
them, a vessel for the air-bladder and 2 for the reproductive
organs. After giving off the left gastric artery (PI. IV, fig.
31 ; L.Gas.A.), which is the principal artery for the stomach,
the mesenteric artery bifurcates into its 2 characteristic divisions,
namely, the right gastric, and intestinal artery(j). The right
gastric artery (fig. 31 ; R.Gas.A.) in Sebastodes is much shorter
than in the other 3 genera and gives off several important
trunks. The first important branch is the right anterior sper-
matic artery (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; R.Sper.A.). Together with the
corresponding vein this vessel passes caudad under the air-blad-
der vessels to supply the right ovary or testis with a large part
of its arterial blood, and anastomoses above with the spermatic
artery proper (fig. 31 ; Sper.A.). The second vessel to be
given off from the right gastric is the small right hepatic ar-
tery (PL IV, fig. 31 ; R.Hep.x\.). This vessel penetrates the
right lobe of the liver with the right portal vein, and often sends
off a branch to a gland-like body situated near the right portal
vein. Usually the right hepatic artery gives off the anterior

72 ALLEN

gall-bladder artery (PI. IV, fig. 34; A.G.Bl.A.). In case
such a branch is given off it usually supplies the above men-
tioned gland (see fig. 34; G.) The third branch of the right
gastric is the air-bladder retia mirabilia or anterior air-bladder
artery (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; A.Bl. A.) ; it crosses above intestinal
arterY(,j and the right anterior spermatic vessels, just in front of
the right mesenteric and the anterior air-bladder veins. Pene-
trating the thick ventral muscular walls of the air-bladder it
breaks up internally into small branches, which in turn break
up into minute parallel arterial capillaries, that become contin-
uous distad with parallel venous capillaries, and which are
afterward collected into small veins that empty into the air-
bladder retia mirabilia vein. This sort of a horseshoe-shaped
mass of capillaries on the floor of the air-bladder is known as
the retia mirabilia or vaso-ganglion of the air-bladder ; it is a
vaso-ganglion of the bipolar type. This broad expanse of
capillaries affords a good opportunit}' for the exchange of gases
from the blood to the bladder and conversely. The fourth and
last branch to be given off from the right gastric artery is the
left anterior sfe^-matic artery (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; L.Sper.A.).
This vessel pursues a similar course to the right anterior sper-
matic artery, following parallel with the corresponding vein it
helps supply the left ovary or testis and anastomoses poste-
riorly with the spermatic arter}^ proper. /;;/c5//7/rt'/rt'r/'dr;'j(j) (PI.
IV, fig. 31 ; Int. A.,) pursues a general caudal course, passing
under or rather to the right of all the above mentioned arteries.
When in the neighborhood of the spleen it divides ; the pos-
terior fork, which is designated as the continuation of the main
intestinal artery^j), passes caudad to supply the posterior end of
the intestine ; while the anterior fork soon divides into the
splenic artery and what I have designated as intestinal artery^g).
Intestinal artery ^..^ (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; Int. A. 2) is so named be-
cause it runs parallel with a vein, which has the same terminus
as intestinal vein ^2^ of Ofhiodon^ but it is hardl}^ probable that
this artery is homologous with intestinal artery(2) of Ophiodon.
This artery separates into an anterior branch, which supplies
the anterior part of the intestine or duodenum and a posterior
branch, which supplies the iliac part of the intestine. In some

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 73

specimens where there was no anterior gall-bladder artery, as
is shown in iig. 33, there is a fiostcrior oall-bladdcr artery
(fig. 33 ; P.G.Bl.A.) arising from the intestinal arter^'^,), which
in addition to supplying the gall-bladder is continued caudad to
supply a portion of the ileum. The splenic artery (PL IV, fig.
31 ; Spl.A.) penetrates the spleen with the splenic vein, but
before entering it, gives off 2. posterior gastric artery (PI. IV,
fig. 31 ; P. Gas. A.), which passes beneath the spleen to the
ventro-posterior end of the stomach ; and like the posterior
gastric artery of Ophiodon, which, however, has a different
origin, coming from the right pyloric cseca arter}^ it sends off
a branch to the posterior portion of the intestine.

7. Dorsal Aorta.

This vessel (PI. I, figs, i, 5, and 10 D.Ao.), which is the
largest artery in a fish, arises as the most dorsal trunk from
the common chamber (PI. I, fig. 5 ; C.C.) and continues
caudad in a median line directly below the vertebral column
to the last caudal vertebra. At first the dorsal aorta runs
between the 2 anterior lobes of the kidney, above and be-
tween the dorsal branchial retractor muscles, and when the
posterior unpaired part of the kidney is reached, runs along in
its dorsal groove. After leaving the kidney and the body
cavity, the aorta is known as the caudal artery (PI. I, figs, i,
7, 8, 9 and 10 ; Cau.A.). It penetrates the hasmal canal of the
first caudal vertebra with the caudal vein and continues in the
hsemal canal above the vein until the last caudal vertebra is
reached, where at about the middle of the last centrum it
separates into a right and a left caudal artery. The le/t cau-
dal artery (PI. I, fig. 8; L. Cau.A.) is much the shorter;
it sends a branch upward in front of the urostyle, which sup-
plies both profundus and superficial muscles. The much
larger right caudal artery (PI. I, figs, i and 8; R. Cau.A.)
following along the outer margin of the last centrum and after
giving off a branch in front of the urostyle similar to the left
caudal artery, continues caudad in a median line between the 2
hypural bones, parallel with the longitudinal haemal lymphatic
vessel, giving off branches from both sides to the profundus

74 ALLEN

muscle of the caudal fin. When the caudal fin is reached this
artery bifurcates into a dorsal and a ventral vessel, which run
dorsad or ventrad in the basal canal of the caudal rays, directly
in front of the corresponding lymphatic and venous vessels.
The central canal of each ray receives a branch, which at first
runs in the center of the cavity and then divides, the 2 forks
continuing caudad along the dorsal and ventral sides of the
canal.

Throughout its entire course the dorsal aorta gives off
branches to the great lateral muscles, the spinal cord, and the
rays of the unpaired fins ; beside supplying the kidney, repro-
ductive organs and the rectum.

(a) Arteries Supplying the Great Lateral Muscle^ Cord^
etc. — Perhaps the most typical place first to take up these ves-
sels is in the region of the caudal vertebras. In fig. i such a
region is shown just posterior to the kidney. The common
arrangement consists of a dorsal or neural artery and a ventral
or haemal arter}?-, which usually supply the region covered by
2 myotomes ; sometimes, however, one of these arteries may
supply 3 or even 4 myotomes.

The dorsal or neural arteries (PL I, fig. i ; Neu.A.) in this
region arise from the dorsal side of the caudal artery. Emerg-
ing from the anterior surface of the haemal arch each neural
artery curves around the anterior end of either the right or left
side of the centrum. Here a branch, the median lateral artery
(fig. I ; M.Lat.A.) is given off to the great lateral muscle. A
second branch, the spinal ox niyelon artery, penetrates the spinal
foramen. The neural artery then curves around in front of
the neural spine and continues dorsad between the spine and
the neural lymphatic vessel. Near the end of the spine the
dorsal lateral artery (fig. i ; D.Lat.A.) is given off to the great
lateral muscle. Then passing cephalad the neural artery sup-
plies the levator and depressor muscles of this and the preced-
ing dorsal rays, as well as supplying the superficial muscles
and sending up a branch behind this and the preceding dorsal
rays. This description will hold for all the neural arteries
from the head to the tail, except that the most cephalic one
arises from a different source (see under Subclavian artery),

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 75

and the second and third neural arteries (fig. 5 ; Neu.A.2„„j3)
supply the dorsal branchial retractor muscles and the anterior
forks of the kidney in addition to the musculature already
described.

HcBmal Arteries (fig. i ; Hae.A.).— These vessels arise from
the ventral side of the caudal artery, a little behind the corre-
sponding neural arteries, and crossing over the caudal vein run
ventrad between the haemal spines and the haemal lymphatic
vessels. Near the end of the spines they give off the ventral
lateral arteries (fig. i ; V.Lat.A.) for the great lateral muscle,
then curving cephalad, break up among the superficial and
profundus anal ray muscles in like manner to the neural arteries
in the dorsal fin musculature. The homologous intercostal
arteries of the visceral body wall have their origin in a common
vessel, which supplies also the kidney and often the reproduc-
tive organs.

{b) Renal and Spermatic Arteries. — As has just been stated,
the renal and spermatic arteries as well as the intercostals often
have their source in one and the same artery, which is prob-
ably homologous with the haemal arteries of the caudal region.
For convenience we will speak of these common trunks in the
region of the anterior part of the kidney as the intercostal ar-
teries and in the region of the posterior part of the kidney,
where the main branch goes to the reproductive organs, as the
spermatic arteries.

Intercostal Arteries (fig. i ; Intc.A.). — These vessels arise
from the ventral side of the aorta, in the region of each alternate
vertebra, and passing across the lateral surface of either side
of the kidney, they give off several renal arteries (fig. i ; Ren.
A.) for the kidney ; but the main trunks or intercostal arteries
proper continue ventrad between 2 myotomes and anastomose
with branches from the ventral artery, the so-called ventral in-
tercostal arteries.

Spermatic Arteries (PI. I, figs, i and 10; Sper.A.).— In
both male and female there are at least 3 spermatic arteries,
which always cross the left side of the kidney, giving off
several renal arteries and one intercostal artery before leaving
the kidney for the reproductive organs. These arteries increase

*]6 ALLEN

in size as these organs increase in size toward the breedincj
season, which is in January at Monterey Bay. In the female
these vessels branch before reaching the ovaries and these
branches spread out over the outer and inner surfaces of the
ovaries ; while in the male these branches penetrate directly
into the testes. No common spermatic artery is formed in
either male or female bv the anastomosis of these branches, to
pass between and parallel with the reproductive organs, as is
the case with the veins. The anterior spermatic artery (PL I,
figs. I and lo ; Sper.A.j) arises from the ventral surface of the
aorta and passing obliquely ventrad across the left side of the
kidne}', gives off i or 2 renal arteries for the kidney and an
intercostal artery, which passes ventrad between the 2 adjacent
myotomes ; the main spermatic trunk also continues ventrad
to break up on the anterior surface of the ovaries or to pene-
trate the testes. The secotid spermatic artery (PI. I, figs, i and
10 ; Sper. A.,) is given off from the aorta, about the distance
of 2 vertebrge from the first spermatic arter}', and in like manner
sends off renal and intercostal arteries for the kidney and bod}'-
wall ; while the main trunk supplies the middle portion of the
ovaries or testes. The third or posterior spermatic artery (PI.
I, figs. I and 10; Sper.A.3) is much the largest; in addition to
supplj'ing the ordinary renal and intercostal arteries, it gives off
from I to 3 sziprarenal arteries (PL I, figs, i and 10 ; Sr.A.)
for that gland. In fig. i the third spermatic arterj'' passed in
front of the gland and only one artery was observed to enter
the gland ; w^hile in fig. 10 the main arter}^ passed behind the
gland and at least 3 arteries were seen to penetrate it. In the
specimen from which fig. i was drawn the posterior mesenteric
artery (fig. i ; P.Mes.A.) arises from the last spermatic arterj',
passing behind the posterior mesenteric vein, it continues ven-
trad with it between the ovaries to supply the rectum and anas-
tomoses with intestinal artery^) ; while in the specimen from
which fig. 10 was drawn the posterior mesenteric artery was
given off much further dorsad and at first entered the kidney as
a renal artery ; then passing ventrad between the testes with the
corresponding vein, supplied the rectum, but did not anastomose
with intestinal artery^, ; while in still other specimens the pos-

BL001)-VASCULy\R SYST1'>M OF THE LORICATI 77

terior mesenteric artery was not observed ; possibly, however, it
was not injected. The posterior spermatic proper breaks up
into numerous branches, which run along the posterior surface
of the ovaries or penetrate the testes. The most posterior branch
of the third spermatic artery is destined to supply the common
oviduct or spermduct and sends off the anterior urinary
bladder artery to the bladder. The posterior urinary bladder
artery (PI. I, figs, i and lo ; Ur.B.A.) or the urinary bladder
artery proper arises from the aorta directly behind the kidney,
and in the specimen from which fig. lo was drawn, a renal
artery was given off to the kidney. In addition to supplying
the urinary bladder this vessel usually sends off a branch to the
great lateral muscle. It is probably a modified haemal artery,
(c) Comparisons of Hexagr amnios ^ Scorpcenichthys and Sebas-
todcs. — In these 3 different genera there is not nearly as much
variation in the distribution of the dorsal aorta as there is in the
distribution of the cardinal veins. Hcxagrammos is identical
with Ophiodon. In ScorpivnicJithys there are only 2 spermatic
arteries, but what has been designated as the urinary bladder
artery (PI. IV, fig. 29 ; Ur.Bl.A.) arises much farther cephalad
than the corresponding vessel in Ophiodon, and may in part be
homologous to the posterior spermatic artery of Ophiodon^
except that it does not supply the reproductive organs ; running
along the dorso-caudal surface of the kidney it passes between
the suprarenal bodies and sends off a branch to each of them.
(It will be noticed that the suprarenal glands are located much
further 'dorsad on the kidney than they are in Ophiodon.).
Then passing ventrad the urinary bladder artery passes behind
the posterior mesenteric vein to supply the posterior part of the
urinary bladder, and usually it is continued still farther ventrad
to supply the rectum. In Sebastodes several changes are intro-
duced, which are caused by the presence of the air-bladder and
anterior spermatic arteries. Where the anterior spermatic artery
is given off in Ophiodon^ Hexagrammos and Scoi'pcBuichthys a
similar vessel arises from the aorta in Sebastodes; this vessel,
however, is destined to supply the air-bladder and is designated
as the posterior air-bladder artery (PL IV, fig. 31 ; P.A.Bl.A.).
In passing over the left side of the kidney it gives off several

78 ALLEN

renal arteries and finally breaks up on the posterior end of the
air-bladder. The single sperinatic artery (PL IV, fig. 31 ; Sper.-
A.), which performs part of the function of the urinary bladder
artery of Op/iiodon is given off from the aorta immediateh' in
front of the point where the caudal vein penetrates the kidney.
Near its source it sends off an intercostal arter}' (see fig. 31).
It then follows along the posterior margin of the kidney, to the
right of the caudal vein, and passing between the suprarenal
bodies,^ supplies each with a branch. The spermatic artery
then continues ventrad between the kidney and the reproduc-
tive organs, gives off caudad the tirinary bladder artery (fig.
31, Ur.Bl.A.), which is the only artery observed for the bladder.
When the genital organs are reached, the spermatic artery
anastomoses with the 2 anterior spermatic arteries already de-
scribed under the head of the mesenteric artery.

VII. PERIPHERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEINS.

The veins in general follow their corresponding arterial
trunks, but not so closely as they do the nerves. There is
much less literature on the veins than on the arteries. In Se-
lachians where it is so much more difficult to inject the veins
this is not strange, but with the Teleosts no more difi^iculty is
experienced in injecting the veins. Generally the whole venous
system can be satisfactorily injected from one point. (See
under paragraph on technique).

I. Jugular Veins.
These large sinus-like vessels (Pis. I and II, figs. 1,5, 15
and 16; J. v.), which are much longer than the corresponding
common carotid arteries, arise in front of the prootic process
from 3 principal trunks (see fig. 15). The external jugulars,
coming from the facial region ; the internal jugulars, coming
from the eye, eye-muscles, and brain ; and the orbito-nasal
vein. Each jugular immediately enters the foramen formed
by the prootic process and in its course through this foramen it
is a rather small vessel lying directly above the external carotid

'The suprarenal l)odies are situated further caudad on the kidney than in
Op/it'odon.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 79

artery, but upon emerging from this foramen rapidly increases
in caliber. Then continuing caudad it passes over the efferent
branchial arteries, and when the head kidney is reached follows
along its ventral surface and terminates by anastomosing with
the corresponding cardinal vein to form the great precaval
trunk. Throughout its short course it receives numerous
branches from the dorsal branchial muscles and the head kidney,
which will be described in detail after considering the 3 princi-
pal trunks which go to make up the jugular vein.

{a) External Jugular Veins {^\^. I and II, figs, i, 5 and 15 ;
Ex.J.V.). — Of the 3 vessels which unite to form the jugular
vein this is the largest. It also arises from 3 rather large
trunks, the largest of which is the facialis-mandilmlaris vein
(Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12; F.Man.V.). This vessel has
its source in the anterior part of the lower jaw^ from the genio-
hyoideus vein (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12; Ghs.V.), which
runs along the ventral surface of that muscle just outside of the
corresponding artery, which is a branch of the left hyoidean
artery. The facialis-mandibularis vein at first passes along
the inner side of the dentary bone, receiving numerous branches
from the mandibular portion of the adductor mandibulse muscle.
Shortly before leaving the articular bone it receives a large
secondary mandibular vein, coming from the ventral side of
the muscle, and a posterior branch coming from the inner side
of the quadrate bone. The facialis-mandibularis vein then
makes a dorsal bend ; leaving the corresponding artery it fol-
lows up behind the ramus mandibularis V, or ramus maxillaris
inferior of other authors, between the superficial and profundus
portions of the adductor mandibular muscle, receiving several
rather large branches from each. At the level of the levator
arcus palatini muscle it receives, from the rear, the h3'oidean
vein.

Hyoidean Veins (Pis. I and II, figs, i and 12; Hyo.V.) —
These vessels have their origin in the hyohyoideus superior
muscles. Each vein runs along in that muscle some little dis-
tance ventrad of the hyoidean arter}', which follows along on
the surface of the arch. The vein receives a branch from the
region of each branchiostegal ray and when the end of the arch

8o ALLEN

is reached it curves cephalad, following along the interhyal,
but above the minor hyoidean artery and the ramus h3^oideus.
When the preopercular is reached the course of this vein is
dorsad behind the ramus hyoideus and when a little past the
middle of the preopercular, it passes with the nerve to the outer
surface of the hyomandibular through a foramen between the
hyomandibular and the preopercular. Here it receives a ven-
tral branch from the posterior part of the adductor mandibul^e
muscle, which follows along the outer surface of the preoper-
cular. The main stem then leaves the hyoidean ramus and
continues obliquely cephalad a little ventrad of the levator
arcus palatini and between the superficial and profundus por-
tions of adductor mandibulas, to unite with the facialis-man-
dibularis vein. The combined trunk proceeds dorsad for
a short distance between the ramus mandibularis V and the
facial artery to the floor of the orbit ; where it receives the
facialis-maxillaris vein.

Facialis-maxillaris Veins (Pis. I and III, figs, i, 17, and 18;
F.Max. v.). — Each of these vessels has its origin from a dorsal
and a cephalic branch. The larger dorsal branch arises as an
anastomotic vein from the orbito-nasal vein (see fig. 18) ; pass-
ing beneath the nasal sac some little distance cephalad of the
corresponding artery it receives at the level of the ventral surface
of the nasal sac a rather large vein coming from the region of
the palatine arch ; and then continuing ventrad a short distance
the main stem passes under the maxilla artery and unites with
the maxilla vein. The viaxilla vein (Pis. I and III, figs, i and
17 ; Max.V.) has its source in a superficial and a profundus
branch from the premaxilla, which unite in the region of the
vomer. In its caudal course it receives several branches from
the anterior part of the adductor mandibulas muscle. After
uniting with the dorsal branch from the region of the nasal sac
the facialis-maxillaris vein proper crosses over the small facialis-
maxillaris artery, and continuing caudad between the ramus
maxillaris V or ramus maxillaris superior and the facialis-
maxillaris artery in the adductor arcus palatini from which it
receives several branches, it unites witii the combined trunk of
the mandibular and hyoidean veins in the posterior part of the
orbit to form the external jugular trunk.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 8 1

The facialis-maxillaris vein is much larger than the corre-
sponding artery. It returns most of the venous blood from the
region of the maxilla ; while it is the orbito-nasal artery, which
furnishes this region with most of its arterial supply.

The external jugular vein (Pis. I and II, figs, i, 5 and 15 ;
Ex.J.V.) is in itself a rather short trunk. It follows along in
front of the truncus infra-orbitalis or truncus buccalis-maxillo
mandibularis and the external carotid artery in the posterior
part of the orbit ; passing over the hyomandibular bone it unites
with the orbito-nasal and internal jugular veins in front of the
prootic process.

(3) Internal Jugular Veins (Pis. I and II, figs, i, 13 and 15 ;
In.J.V.). — What has been designated as the internal jugulars
return the venous blood from the eye, recti muscles, and the
brain. Each of these trunks might be said to have its source
from the rectus, ophthalmic, and iris veins (see fig. 15) and at
this point of union it also receives or sends off a large sinus-like
vessel,^ which extends caudo-mesad in the eye-muscle canal and
anastomoses in the median line with a corresponding sinus-like
vessel from the opposite internal jugular vein. This horse-shoe
shaped sinus incloses the encephalic artery and receives a pos-
terior branch from each of the external recti muscles. The
main internal jugular vein becomes greatly reduced in caliber
in passing through what might be called the internal jugular
foramen (a foramen between the alisphenoid, prootic, and para-
sphenoid process, through which pass the internal jugular, the
iris artery, and the ciliary nerve). Emerging from this foramen
the internal jugular receives the encephalic vein, coming through
the cranium through the small encephalic vein foramen (the
most cephalic of the 3 foramina in the prootic, through which
the encephalic vein and ciliary nerve pass). In front of the
prootic process the internal jugular unites with the external
jugular at an angle of about 75°. Coming in between these 2
trunks is the orbito-nasal vein, which might almost be said to
unite with the internal jugular before it joins the external
jugular.

'This connecting sinus may be the same as the cross vessel connecting the
two Bulbi ophthalmic! described by Hyrtl (31, p. 236).
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

82 ALLEN

Rectus Vein (PL II, figs. 13 and 15; Rec.V.). — This ves-
sel arises from a ventral branch coming from the inferior rectus
muscle and a cephalic branch coming from the superior and
internal recti muscles. Its course is then dorsad between the
optic nerve and the superior rectus muscle, and it unites with the
ophthalmic and iris veins to form the internal jugular trunk.
The vein from the external rectus muscle empties into the iris
vein and will be described more fully in connection with that
vessel.

Ophthalmic Veins (Pis. I and II, figs, i, 5, 13, 15 and 19;
Oph.V.). — Each of these veins carries off the venous blood,
which has become collected in the choroid sinus. This sinus
(PI. Ill, fig. 19 ; Chor.S.) is horse-shoe shaped, the anterior arm
being much longer than the posterior one. It lies between the
silver layer of the choroid and the similar shaped choroid ar-
tery, and occupying a large part of the space between the optic
nerve and the choroid gland, drains the entire choroid coat and
also the ventral portion of the iris. The venous blood from the
dorsal part of the iris is returned by the iris vein proper, w^hich
will be described later on. The capillaries in the choroid may
reach the choroid sinus in either of 2 ways. They may become
collected into the choroid veins (PI. Ill, fig. 21 ; Chor. V.), which
break up into a fine rete mirabile of venous capillaries which
run parallel with the arterial rete mirabile capillaries, and
these in turn become collected entad into larger venous vessels
that empty into the choroid sinus ; or they ma}' reach the cho-
roid sinus directly by what I have designated as the dorsal
choroid vein or the 2 ventral choroid veins (PI. Ill, fig. 19 ;
D.Chor.V. and V.Chor.V.), which empty into the anterior and
posterior horns respectively. The vein returning the venous
blood from the ventral portion of the iris is designated as the
ventral or minor iris vein (PI. Ill, fig. 19; Ir.V.^j)). This
vessel passes obliquely dorsad in the vascular layer of the
choroid, directl}' cephalad of the ramus ciliaris brevis, and
empties into the inner side of the anterior horn of the choroid
sinus. No similar arter}' was observed and it is probable that
the arterial supply for the ventral part of the iris comes from
the ventral choroid arteries rather than from the iris arter}-.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 83

The ophthalmic vcm proper (Pis. I, II and III, figs, i, 5, 13,
15 and 19; Oph.V.) arises as a sinus-like vessel from the dor-
sal region of the anterior horn of the choroid sinus, but grad-
ually tapers down into its caudal course, and when immediately
ventrad of the optic nerve receives a much smaller branch from
the posterior horn. Curving around to the posterior side of the
optic nerve it penetrates the silver layer of the choroid and the
sclerotic coat. Once outside of the eyeball the ophthalmic vein
pursues an oblique dorsal course, and, passing between the su-
perior and external recti muscles it unites with the rectus and iris
veins to form the internal jugular.

Iris or Ophthalmic Minor Veins (PL II and III, figs. 13,
15 and 19 ; Ir.V.). — A single iris vein arises from the capillar-
ies in the dorsal part of the iris. Together with the ramus cil-
iaris longus and the iris artery it passes ventrad a short distance,
between the silvery and vascular layers of the choroid (see fig.
19), and then penetrates the silvery layer and the sclerotic coat.
After running along the posterior dorsal surface of the eyeball
it passes between the superior and external recti muscles, but
laterad to the ophthalmic vein. In its caudal course it receives
a branch from the external rectus muscle, and finally terminates
by uniting with the rectus and ophthalmic veins to form the
internal jugular.

Optic or Retina Vein (PI. Ill, figs. 19 and 20; Opt.V.). —
In the specimen from which figs. 19 and 20 were drawn I
noticed a small vein penetrating the sclerotic coat just ventrad
of the optic artery. Its connection with the larger vessels had
been destroyed before the vein was noticed, and internally the
vein was not injected. Several specimens were injected espe-
cially to demonstrate this vessel, but in every case this vein
failed to become injected. It is probable, however, that this
vein follows the course of the optic artery, returning the venous
blood from the lens, falciform process, and the retina, and very
likely empties into the ophthalmic vein.

As has already been stated in the first paragraph under {p)
the internal jugulars are connected with one another by a sinus-
like vessel, which crosses the eye-muscle canal. Leaving the
eye-muscle canal with the ciliary nerve and the iris artery.

84 ALLEN

through what was designated as the internal jugular foramen,
the internal jugular receives the encephalic vein shortly before
uniting with the external jugular and orbito-nasal veins to form
the jugular trunk.

Encephalic Veins (Pis. I, II, and III, figs, i, 15, 23, 24, and
25; Enc.V.). — Each of these veins has its origin from 2
branches, an anterior and a posterior cerebral vein. The for-
mer returns the venous blood from the cerebrum, anterior sur-
face of the optic lobes, optic and olfactory nerves ; while the
latter comes from the cerebellum, optic lobe, hypoaria, infundi-
bulum, and the auditory region.

Antcrio?' Cerebral Vein (PI. Ill, figs. 23 to 25 ; A.Cer.V.).

— Cephalad, this vein arises from a small vessel running caudad
along the ventro-lateral surface of the olfactory nerve, and re-
ceives a branch from the olfactory lobe and one from the optic
nerve. About midway between the olfactory and the optic
lobes it unites with a much larofer vein from the cerebrum. This
vessel arises from the inner parts of the cerebrum, and, passing
laterad between the cerebrum and the optic nerve, considerably
caudad of the corresponding artery, it unites with the small
cephalic vein just described. The combined vessel continues
caudad a short distance and when opposite the optic lobes re-
ceives 2 or more branches coming from the anterior part of the
hypoaria, i'nfundibulum, hypophysis, and the anterior surface
of the optic lobes. Then curving obliquely cephalad, the ante-
rior cerebral vein proper crosses the III and IV nerves and the
posterior cerebral artery to unite with the posterior cerebral
vein in forming the encephalic trunk.

Posterior Cerebral Vein (PI. Ill, figs. 23 to 25 ; P.Cer.V.).

— This vein has its source from 3 principal branches, namely:
the mesencephalic, cerebellum and auditory veins, the 2 latter
vessels uniting between the hypoaria and the optic lobes, im-
mediately before the mesencephalic vessel is received. The
auditory vein (PI. Ill, figs. 23, 23^ and 25 ; Aud.V.) arises
from branches coming from the utriculus, anterior and external
ampullae. The vein from the posterior ampulla empties into a
branch of the posterior encephalic vein, and will be described
under that vessel. Continuing cephalad for a short distance

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 85

the auditory vein anastomoses with the ccrebclhtm vein (PI. Ill,
figs. 23 and 25 ; Cer.V.), which arises in and leaves the cere-
bellum with the cerebellum artery, but below it. In its ventral
course it receives a superficial branch from the posterior surface
of the optic lobe, and, after uniting with the auditory vein, the
combined trunk continues cephalad a short distance between
the optic lobe and the hypoaria and ventrad of the posterior
cerebral artery before receiving the mesencephalic vein (See
fig' 23). The mesencephalic vein (PI. Ill, figs. 23 to 25 ; Me.
V.) arises from the floor of the mesencephalon (optic lobe) and
penetrating ventrad through the crus, passes out between the
optic lobe and the hypoaria, in front of the III nerve and
mesencephalic artery, then crossing below the nerve and artery
it unites with the common vessel formed by the anastomoses of
the auditory and cerebellum veins to form \\\q. posterior cerebral
vein (figs. 23 to 25 ; P. Cer.V.). The course of this vein is
cephalad, directly below the posterior cerebral artery, between
the optic lobe and hypoaria, and between the trigemino-facial
complex and the IV nerve. Uniting with the anterior cerebral
vein midway between the cerebrum and the optic lobe it forms
the encephalic vein (Pis. I, II and III, figs, i, 15, 23 and 25 ;
Enc.V.), which shortly leaves the IV nerve to follow trigemino-
facial complex, and when the facialis portion of the ramus
lateralis accessorius is given off the cranial cavity vein is re-
ceived. This vein (PI. Ill, fig. 24; C.C.V.) follows along the
anterior surface of this nerve and anastomoses caudad with a
branch of the posterior encephalic vein, which follows along
the posterior surface of the vagus portion of the ramus lateralis
accessorius. Hence the venous blood from the adipose tissue
of the cranial cavity may reach the jugular vein through the
encephalic, or the posterior encephalic vein, or through both.
Then leaving the trigemino-facial complex, along the inner
surface of the ciliary nerve, the encephalic vein penetrates with
it through the most anterior foramen in the prootic, and here
empties into the internal jugular just before it unites with the
orbitonasal and external jugular in forming the main jugular
vein.

{c) Orhito-nasal Veins (Pis. I, II and III; figs, i, 5, 13, 15,

86 ALLEX

17 and 18; O.N. v.). — Each of these veins has its origin
directly behind the maxilla, and, following caudad along the
ventral side of the corresponding artery, passes behind the
nasal sac, where it receives 2 veins coming from the nasal sac.
The smallest and most cephalic one is designated as the
anterior nasal sac vein (PL III, figs. 17 and 18; N.S.V.^)). In
the specimen from which figs. 17 and 18 were drawn this
vessel arose from 6 anterior radial veins (see fig. 17). Each of
these radial veins runs along the outer or distal edges of the
secondary filaments of one of the primar}^ filaments, and from
each of these secondary filaments there comes a branch, which
receives the capillaries from the inner connective tissue layer
of that secondary filament and from that portion of the primary
or radial filament. These radial filament veins unite with one
another at their bases and finally terminate in the anterior nasal
sac vein, which empties into the main orbito-nasal trunk. In
like manner the larger -posterior nasal sac vein (PL III, figs.
17 and 18; N.S.V.(2)) arises from 8 posterior radial veins,
which take their origin from the secondary filament veins from
their respective radial or primar}^ filament. The 2 nasal sac
veins are usually distinctly separated as shown in fig. 17, but
in a few cases I have noticed that they were connected by a
longitudinal vein, thus forming a continuous lateral vein into
which all the radial veins were emptied, and from which the 2
nasal sac veins had their source. Between these 2 nasal sac
veins, the orbito-nasal vein anastomoses with a branch of the
facialis-maxillaris vein (see fig. 18). After leaving the nasal
sac, the orbito-nasal vein pursues a general caudal course,
parallel with, but dorsad of, the orbito-nasal artery and mesad
of the olfactory nerve, and enters the orbit through the olfactory
foramen in the prefrontal. Once inside the orbit it leaves the
olfactory nerve and the orbito-nasal arter}' to pursue, with the
truncus supra-orbitalis or ramus ophthalmicus superficialis and
profundus, a sort of dorso-caudal course through the orbit.
Passing behind the superior oblique muscle it receives the
inferior oblique vein (PL II, fig. 13 ; Inf.O.V.), coming up
from the outside of that muscle, and the superior oblique vein
(fig. 13 : Sup. O.V.), coming down from the inside of that

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 87

muscle. Then continuing caudad, behind the superior rectus
muscle and mesad of the truncus supra-orbitalis, it arrives in the
posterior dorsal corner of the orbit, where it receives the scle-
rotic vein (PL II, Hg. 15 ; Scl.V.). This vessel, which arises
from the adipose tissue in the region of the anterior part of the
eyeball, runs obliquely caudad across it, mesad of the corre-
sponding nerve and artery. After receiving this branch, the
main orbito-nasal vein crosses above the ophthalmic and iris
vessels, and following around the eyeball for a short distance,
finally comes in between and unites with the external and
internal jugulars to form the great jugular vein.

The remarks made under the summary of the carotids apply
with equal force to the external and internal jugular veins.
These are simply arbitrary names given to the 2 largest veins
of the head region, which go to make up the common jugular
trunk.

2. Vessels Empying Directly into the Jugular or into the

Head Kidney.

a. Veins Emptying into the Kidney, —These veins include
the posterior encephalic and the first and second neural veins.
They do not empty at once into the jugulars, but penetrate the
dorsal surface of the head kidney, break up into smaller ves-
sels, which become reunited forming the renal veins, and these
empty into the jugular vein.

Posterior Encefhalic Veins (Pis. II and III, figs. 16, 23 to
25; P.Enc.V.). — These veins may be said to concur in part
with the first neural or vertebral artery. Each of these veins
arises from a superficial capillary network from the dorsal sur-
face of the optic lobes; passing caudad over the cerebel-
lum it receives a superficial branch from it and several from
the adipose tissue surrounding the brain and the semi-circular
canals ; and usually anastomoses with the cranial cavity vein
(see fig. 24), which empties into the encephalic vein. After
passing over the cerebellum the posterior encephalic vein
bends ventrad, following along behind the vagus portion of the
ramus lateralis accessorius to its origin from the dorsal root of
the vagus, and when the level of the oblongata is reached,

88 ALLEN

sends off, or receives, a cross vessel from the corresponding
vein on the opposite side. This cross vessel receives a branch,
coming caudad along the dorsal surface of the oblongata.
Whether it returns any of the venous blood from the cerebellum
I was unable to determine. In the neighborhood of the origin
of the vagus portion of the ramus lateralis accessorius from the
dorsal root of the vagus, the posterior encephalic vein re-
ceives an anterior branch or oblongata vein (PI. Ill, fig. 24 ;
Obi. v.), which has its source from the side of the oblongata
directly behind the roots of trigemino-facial complex, and
shortly receives a branch from the posterior ampulla, then run-
ning along the side of the oblongata, passes beneath the IX and
X nerves and finally terminates by emptying into the posterior
encephalic vein. Following along the dorsal root of the vagus
nerve the posterior encephalic vein leaves the brain case
through the vagus foramen in the exoccipital, but before leav-
ing the skull the large myelonal vein is received from the rear.
This vessel (PL III, figs. 23 to 25 ; My.V.) arises on the dorsal
surface of the myel as far back as the 9th pair of spinal nerves.
After running along on the dorsal surface of the myel for a
short distance it separates into a right and a left myelonal vein.
Each of these vessels runs along the lateral surface of the myel,
passing between the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal
nerves, finally terminating by emptying into the posterior en-
cephalic vein. Along its cephalic course the myelonal vein
receives numerous vessels from the myel, and sends across
dorsal connecting branches, which unite with the correspond-
ing vein on the opposite side. Although the myelonal vein
empties into the posterior encephalic vein, still, not all of its
blood reaches the jugular through that vessel, but some of it is
carried off by the first 3 spinal veins (Pis. II and III, figs.
16 and 24 ; Sp.V.). These vessels pass out with each alter-
nate pair of spinal nerves, and emptying into the neural veins,
which in the case of these anterior veins penetrate the dorsal sur-
face of the head kidney, and here break up into ver}^ small
veins, which again become collected into vessels that empty
into the jugular vein. The posterior encephalic vein is simply
a modified spinal vein, which after leaving the skull through

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 89

the vagus foramen, follows along behind the nerve and receiv-
ing the much smaller neural vein, penetrates the anterior dorsal
corner of the head kidney (see fig. i6). Within the head kid-
ney the posterior encephalic or the most anterior neural vein
breaks up into very small veins, which again become collected
and empty into the jugular vein.

(/;) Veins Emptying Directly into the Jugulars. — Under this
head belong the opercular and the 3 dorsal branchial muscle
veins. The latter in addition to draining the branchial muscles
receive also the dorsal nutrient branchial veins from the bran-
chial arches. In Ophiodon these veins are always present,
but vary considerably in their distribution. Perhaps the most
common arrangement is shown in fig. i.

Opercular Veins (fig. i; Op. V.). — These veins arise on
the inner side of the operculars ; running dorsad behind the
corresponding arteries, they curve ventrad, after leaving the
dorsal edge of the operculars, and after receiving a branch from
the levator operculi muscles of Vetter, empty into the jugulars
a little behind the first dorsal branchial muscle veins.

Dorsal Branchial Muscle Veins (fig. i ; Br.M.V, only the
second vein being lettered). — In the specimen from which fig.
I was drawn, the first of these vessels had its source in, and
received its principal supply from, the first dorsal nutrient
branchial vein (fig. i ; D.N.Br.V.). This vessel arises a little
below the dorsal bend, and is at first the most anterior of the 3
vessels in the dorsal part of the first branchial arch. In the
arch it receives a 7iutrient filament vein (fig. 2 ; N.Fil.V.),
coming from the inner margin of each filament. When the
dorsal bend of the arch is reached, the first dorsal nutrient
branchial vein crosses over and continues dorsad behind the
first efferent branchial artery. Then following along the outer
surface of the first obliquus dorsalis muscle from which it receives
a branch, it penetrates with the IX nerve through the first levator
arc. branch, internus muscle, and again crossing over the first
efferent branchial artery shortly after the carotid is given off,
finally empties into the ventral side of the jugular a little
cephalad of the opercular vein. The second dorsal branchial
muscle vein, in this specimen, takes its source from the union

90 ALLEN

of the second and third dorsal nutrient branchial veins. The
combined vessel thus formed passes dorsad behind the second
levator arc. branch, internus muscle, and after receiving a
branch from it and another from the second obliquus dorsalis
muscle, terminates in the jugular. In this specimen the third
and last dorsal branchial muscle vein arose from 2 branches.
The most cephalic one is a dorsal nutrient branchial vein from
the last branchial arch, and the other has its source from the
pharyngo-clavicularis externus, pharynx, and the occipito-
clavicularis muscle. The dorsal branchial vessel thus formed
passes in a dorso-cephalic direction above the corresponding
artery. After crossing the last efferent branchial artery it
receives a good-sized branch coming from the last 2 internal
branchial levator muscles, and then empties into the jugular
directly behind the second dorsal branchial vein, but before
emptying into the jugular it receives the thymus vein from the
rear. This vein (fig. i ; not lettered) runs cephalad along the
ventral margin of the gland, receives several branches from it,
and shortly before reaching the anterior end of the thymus,
curves ventrad ; crossing over the posterior encephalic and
jugular veins, finally terminates in the third dorsal branchial
muscle vein shortly before the latter empties into the jugular.
In another specimen from the one figured, the dorsal nutrient
vein from the second branchial arch joined the first dorsal bran-
chial muscle vein immediately after it had pierced the first
levator arc. branch, internus muscle. The second dorsal
branchial muscle vein took its origin from the third dorsal
nutrient branchial vein and received branches from the third
obliquus dorsalis muscle and the second levator arc. branch,
internus muscle ; while the third and last dorsal branchial
muscle vein had its source from the fourth nutrient branchial
vein and a branch coming from the fourth obliquus dorsalis
muscle. The thymus vein emptied into the posterior encephalic
vein, and the vein from the phar3mgo-clavicularis externus,
pharynx, and the occipito-clavicularis muscle, which is usually
the source of the last dorsal branchial muscle vein, crossed the
jugular and posterior encephalic veins and terminated in the
thymus vein.

ULOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEIM OF THE LORICATI 9I

3. hifcrior Jugidar Veins.

These vessels return the venous blood from the ventral mus-
culature of the head, heart, and ventral portion of the branchial
arches and correspond in the main to the pharynx artery. The
inferior jugular vein, however, does not become a paired vessel
until near its termination in the precaval vein.

The inferior jugular vein may be said to arise from a small
vein coming from the ventral surface of the tongue, the lingual
vein (PL II, fig. 12 ; Lin. V.). This vein continuing caudad
as the inferior jugular vein, passes in a median line above and
between the h3^ohyoideus superior muscles, after which it re-
ceives 3 pairs of veins, the first pair coming from the outer
posterior surface of the geniohyoideus muscles, the second from
the inner surface of the hyohyoideus superior muscles (PI. II,
fig. 12; Hys.V.), and the third pair are the ventral nuti'ient
branchial veins from the first branchial arch. The latter ves-
sels (PI. II, fig. 12 ; N.Br.V.) drain the ventral half of the first
pair of arches. Each of them arises as a paired vessel in front
of the first efferent branchial artery. The nutrient filament
veins (PI. I, fig. 2 ; N.Fil.V.) from one side empty into one of
these branches and those from the opposite side into the other
branch.^ Further caudad these two branches unite forming a
single nutrient branchial vein into which a few of the most
ventral nutrient filament veins from both sides are poured. In
front of this nutrient branchial vein, running along the cephalic
margin of the arch, is another vein, which sends caudad cross-
vessels that empty into the main ventral nutrient branchial vein.
Continuing ventrad, cephalad of the efferent branchial trunk,
the first ventral nutrient branchial vein empties into the inferior
jugular vein. After collecting these veins the inferior jugular
passes caudad, above the thyroid gland and the ventral aorta ;
receiving branches from the gland, other ventral nutrient branch-
ial veins, and several small veins coming from the obliqui ven-
trales muscles. Emerging from the last pair of afferent bran-
chial arteries the inferior jugular continues caudad, passing

' It is of interest to note that the nutrient filament veins comefrom the inner
margins of their filaments ; while the nutrient filament' arteries are distributed
to the outer margins.

92 ALLEN

between the ventral aorta and the transversus ventralis muscle,
and when the posterior edge of this muscle is reached, which
is about midway between the last pair of afferent branchial
arteries and the ventricle, the inferior jugular bifurcates into a
very large 7-ight and a much smaller left htferio?' Jugular vein
(PI. II, fig. 12 ; R and L.I.J.V.). The course of each of these
veins is then obliquely caudad, running along the ventral side
of the pharynx close to the pharyngo-clavicularis internus mus-
cle. They terminate by emptying into their respective pre-
caval veins. Throughout their course they receive branches
from the pharynx, the phayngo-clavicularis' internus and ex-
ternus muscles, and shortly before dividing, the inferior jugular
received branches from the pharyngo-hyoideus and transversus
ventralis muscles, and the coronary vein.

The coronary vein (PI. II, fig. 12; Cor.V.) arises from a
dorsal and a ventral branch, which run parallel with their
respective arteries. The dorsal vessel collects the venous blood
from the anterior part of the ventricle and the bulbus arteri-
osus ; while the ventral branch drains only the bulbus. About
midway between the ventricle and the first pair of afferent
branchial arteries these 2 branches unite on the left side of the
ventral aorta in forming the main coronary vein, which finally
empties into the inferior jugular shortly after it emerges from
the last pair of afferent branchial arteries.

Beside this coronary vein, which drains the ventral aorta,
bulbus, and anterior part of the ventricle there is another sys-
tem of coronary veins, which terminate by emptying directly
into the auricle. The outer layer of the ventricle is a mass of
capillaries, which become collected on the ventral side into 4
or 5 veins that pass around to the dorsal side where some of
them anastomose, forming 2 or 3 vessels, which penetrate the
auricle close to the auriculo-ventricular valve. In one speci-
men several small veins were noticed to arise on, and penetrate
the dorsal surface of the auricle.

In Sebastodes melanops^ beside the large right and the smaller
left inferior jugular veins, 2 other veins, laterad to these, were
observed. They arose from the pharyngo-clavicularis internus
and externus muscles, and passed caudad to empty into their
respective precaval veins.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATl 93

4. Ventral Veins.

These veins correspond to, and drain the region supplied by
the posterior part of the ventral artery: namely, the ventral or
pelvic fins, their muscles, and the ventral portion of the myotomes
forming the thoracic walls. Considerable variation is shown in
these veins, since they may arise as 2 rather large veins of equal
size or one small vein and one large one, but the most common
arrangement for Ophiodon is that shown in fig. 12.

The vessel designated as the right ventral vein (PI. II, fig.
12; R.Ven.V.) is a deeper vessel than the ventral artery, and
terminates in the left hepatic sinus. This vein may be said to
have its source from 2 branches, a I'ight and a left ventral fin
vein (PI. II, fig. 12; R. and L.Ven.F.V.), which have their
origin in the right or left ventral fin ray canal. In these canals
the veins run behind the arteries, and receive a branch from
the center of each ray. Leaving the canal of the last rays each
of these veins crosses above the corresponding ventral ray
artery, and passes cephalad, for some little distance, between
the ventral or pelvic superficial adductor muscle and the ventral
myotomes. Then after uniting with its fellow, the combined
trunk continues cephalad as the right ventral vein or the main
ventral vein. Along its course this vein and its 2 branches re-
ceive numerous vessels. Soon after leaving the ventral fin
canal, the left ventral fin vein receives a posterior ventral vein,
which runs parallel with the corresponding artery. This branch
receives several ventral intercostal veins (PI. II, fig. 12 ; V.-
Intc.V.) from either side. In addition to receiving a ventral
intercostal vein from the septum between each alternate pair of
myotomes, each ventral fin vein receives several branches from
the superficial and profundus adductor muscles, and at least 2
branches, coming up between the pelvic bones from the super-
ficial and profundus abductor muscles. The right ventral vein
itself also receives at least 2 ventral intercostal veins from the
right side. In the specimen from which fig. 12 was drawn the
left ventral vein (L.Ven.V.) was a very short vessel, arising
from several ventral intercostal veins from the left side, but in
other specimens the left ventral vein was as large as the right,
and the vessel designated as the left ventral fin vein (fig. 12;

ALLEN

L.Ven.F.V.) instead of uniting with the right ventral fin vein
to form the right ventral vein, forms the principal venous sup-
ply for the left ventral vein.

In Hexagrammos and Scorpcetit'chtys the ventral veins are
essentially the same as the last case described under Ophi'odon ;
namely, the 2 ventral veins are of equal size, receiving their
venous supply from the right and left sides respectively. In
Scor;pcBnichthys, however, the right and left ventral fin veins do
not leave the ventral fin ray canal with the artery from the last
ray, as is the case with Ophiodoii and Hexagrammos^ but may
leave the canal between any 2 rays, usually, between different
rays in the 2 different fins. In Sebastodes these 2 veins are of
equal size, but another condition is introduced. The 2 ventral
fin veins leave the ventral fin canal with their respective
arteries, anastomose, and the common trunk thus formed passes
cephalad parallel with the ventral artery, between the two pelvic
bones, and usually empties into the left ventral vein.

5. Subclavian Veins.

In Ophiodon there are 3 subclavian veins, returning the
venous blood from the region of the pectoral arch. Two of
these, coming from the outer or abductor muscles, unite in
forming the subclavian sinus which empties into the sinus veno-
sus in front of the precava, while the third one coming from
the rays and the inner or adductor muscles, pierces the anterior
fork of the kidney. This vessel does not empty directly into
the cardinal trunk, but first breaks up into smaller vessels,
which reach the cardinal through the renal veins.

Internal Subclavian or Subclavian VcinSf^^^ (PI. II, fig. 14;
Sub.V.^,)). — The vessel thus designated, in the main, cor-
responds with the internal subclavian artery. It receives its
supply in part from the pectoral rays, and in part from the ad-
ductor muscles, situated on the inner side of the pectoral arch.
This vessel has its origin from a dorsal and a ventral pectoral
fin vein, which unite in the pectoral ray canal, thus forming a
continuous vessel, which runs along behind the corresponding
pectoral fin artery. Within this canal it receives a small vein
returning the venous blood from each ray. In no 2 specimens

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF TilE LORICATI 95

did these 2 veins leave the pectoral fin canal in the same places ;
in fact, they were not the same in the 2 different fins of
the same fish. In the fin from which fig. 14 was drawn the
dorsal branch left between the seventh and eighth rays, count-
ing dorso-ventrad, and the ventral branch left in the neighbor-
hood of the fourteenth ra)'. Each of these branches proceeded
dorsad, for some little distance, along the inner surface of the
superficial pectoral adductor muscle, and each branch received
numerous smaller branches from the superficial and profundus
adductor muscles. Uniting on the level with the scapula fora-
men they form the internal subclavian trunk, which continues
dorsad behind the subclavian artery. Shortly before the kidney
is reached it curves caudad, and passing between the first few
spinal nerves and the superficial adductor muscle, pierces the
ventral surface of the corresponding fork of the kidney. Once
within the kidney the internal subclavian rapidly decreases in
caliber, by sending off branches that break up into capillaries,
which finally reach the cardinal through the renal veins.

The vein desijinated as the external subclavian or subclavian
vein!^2) (PI- II> fig* 14 5 Sub.V.(.,)) has its origin from the super-
ficial and profundus pectoral abductor muscles, on the outer
surface of the pectoral arch. Coming through the scapula
foramen, cephalad of the external subclavian artery, it re-
ceives a branch from the profundus adductor muscle, and then
runs for a short distance below and behind the precaval vein,
where it receives the vein designated as the subclavian vein,^^)
(PI. II, fig. 14; Sub.V.(3)). This vein takes its source from 2
branches, one coming from the ventro-cephalic portion of the
profundus abductor muscle, and the other from the similar part
of the profundus adductor muscle. The former penetrates the
coracoid foramen, and unites with the latter in forming the main
subclavian vein,^), which passes dorsad along the inner surface
of the profundus adductor muscle. Leaving this muscle,
subclavian vein^g^ unites with the external subclavian vein to
form the subclavian sinus (PI. II, fig. 12 ; Sub.S.), which
empties into the sinus venosus directly behind the precaval vein,
but before uniting with the external subclavian, it receives a
vessel formed from a branch from the clavicle and the slcrno-
hyoideus vein (PI. II, figs. 12 and 14; Ster.V.).

96 1^ ALLEN

In Hexagrammos and Scbastodes the subclavians are essen-
tially the same as in Ophiodon, except that no vessel corre-
sponding to subclavian vein(3) was observed. In ScorpcBuich-
thys there were at least 3 internal subclavian veins (PL IV, fig.
30; Sub.V.(j-,); all of which broke up in the anterior fork of
the kidney. The external subclavian vein in Scorpcenichthys
(PI. IV, fig. 30; Sub.V.(^-)) instead of emptying into the sinus
venosus, breaks up in the anterior fork of the kidney, cephalad
of the internal subclavians.

6. Hepatic Portal System.

This system of veins returns most of the venous blood from
the stomach, spleen, casca and intestine. Some of the blood,
however, from the posterior part of the stomach and intestine,
reaches the right cardinal through the posterior mesenteric vein.
This vein anastomoses with the portal system in at least two
places. In Ophiodon there are 2 distinct portal veins, which
terminate in the right and left lobes of the liver. The right
portal returns the blood from the right side of the stomach,
spleen, and a portion of the intestine ; while the left portal
drains the ca;ca, ventral portion of the stomach, and a portion
of the intestine. In Ophiodon these 2 systems remain quite
well separated ; nevertheless, their branches anastomose in
several places in the region of the posterior end of the stomach,
but within the liver none of their branches unite. Each of the
portals breaks up into capillaries in its respective lobe, which
reunite in forming the right and left hepatic veins, and these
vessels unite in a sinus before emptying into the sinus venosus.

(«) Right Portal Vein (PL I, figs, i and 2; R.Por.V.).—
In Ophiodon the right portal trunk is in itself a ver}' short ves-
sel, having its source from 2 principal trunks, one of them being
the right gastric vein, coming from the stomach, and the other
branch a vein formed by the union of the splenic and intestinal
vein^i). The right gastric vein (fig. i, R.Gas.V.) has its origin
in the posterior or cardiac portion of the stomach, where it
anastomoses with branch Z of the posterior mesenteric vein (fig.
I, P.Mes.V.) and the posterior gastric vein, which is a branch
of the left portal. The course of the right gastric vein is

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 97

cephalad, below the right gastric artery and the right gastric
ramus of the vafrus. Throufjhout its course it receives numerous
branches from the muscular coats of the stomach. Leaving
the anterior part of the stomach it crosses above the corre-
sponding artery and nerve, and the coeliac artery, and when
about midway between the stomach and the caudal tip of the
right lobe of the liver, directly behind a gland-like body marked
G. it unites with intestinal vein ^y^. This vein (PL I, figs, i and
6 : Int.V.(,)) usually arises in the region of the rectum by anas-
tomosing with branch Y of the posterior mesenteric vein (see
fig. i). In its cephalic course in the adipose tissue surrounding
the intestine, lying below the corresponding artery, it ordinarily
sends off from one to 3 branches, w^hich empty into the right
C£eca vein or its posterior gastric branch. In the specimen
from which fig. i was drawn 3 such vessels were given off.
The 2 posterior ones emptied into the right posterior gastric
vein and the anterior one into the right casca vein. Through-
out its entire course intestinal vein^i-, receives numerous branches
from the intestine and when the spleen is reached, which is in
the neighborhood of the anterior or duodenum portion of the
intestine, it receives a large vein from that organ. The splenic
vein (PL I, figs, i and 6; Spl.V.) arises in the center of the
spleen from a fan-like system of vessels, which unite in a com-
mon stem, that leaves the anterior part of the spleen with the
splenic artery and soon empties into intestinal vein^j). Im-
mediately after receiving the splenic vein, intestinal vein^i),
usually, sends off or receives a connecting vein (PL I, figs, i
and 6; C'.V'.), which unites with the anterior intestinal or
duodenum vein, a branch of the left portal. In another speci-
men this vein was seen to arise from the splenic instead of the
intestinal vein. Intestinal vein(i) terminates by uniting with the
right gastric vein, in the neighborhood of the right lobe of the
liver, to form the main right portal trunk. As has already
been stated this vessel (PL I, figs, i and 11 ; R.Por.V.) is
in itself a very short trunk, which penetrates the apex of the
right lobe of the liver, and exhausts itself in that gland by
breaking up into numerous interlobular veins (fig. 11, I. Lob.
v.), which finally terminate in numerous venous capillaries.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

98 ALLEN

Shortly before entering the liver, however, the right portal re-
ceives a vein from a gland-like body, marked G in tig. i, and
the anterior gall-bladder vein. The latter vessel (fig. 11, A.
G.Bl.V.) arises from the anterior part of the bladder, and like
the corresponding artery, anastomoses with the posterior gall-
bladder vein.

In some cases, as was also noted with the corresponding
artery, intestinal vein^_, does not always have its origin in the
rectum and anastomose with the posterior mesenteric vein and
the vessels emptying into the right cseca. vein ; but sometimes
arises much further cephalad, and the part of the intestine
usually drained by this vessel was poured into the posterior
mesenteric vein and the veins emptying into the right cseca
vein,

(d) Left Portal Vein (PL I, figs, i, 6 and 11 ; L.Por.V.). —
This is somewhat the larger of the two portals. In Ofhiodon
it has its source, principally, from the right and left pyloric
casca veins and intestinal vein(2)- Of the 2 pyloric ccBca veins^
the right (PL I, figs, i and 6; R.Cae.V.) is the larger. Beside
receiving 3 or 4 large branches coming from the c^eca it receives
a right, and a left -posterior gastric vein (PL I, figs, i and 6 ;
R, and L.P.Gas.V.). The right vessel comes from the right
and ventral side of the posterior or cardiac portion of the
stomach, where its branches anastomose with those of the right
gastric vein and branch Z of the posterior mesenteric vein. In
the specimen from which figures i and 6 were drawn the right
posterior gastric vein received 2 branches from intestinal vein^)
and the right pyloric caica vein received a third one. In those
specimens in which these vessels unite with both intestinal
vein^,^ and the right pyloric caeca vein or its posterior gastric
branch it would be possible for the blood to flow in either direc-
tion, but it is probable that the least resistance is toward the
pyloric Ciiica vein. Shortly before the right pyloric cteca vein
unites with the left in front of the pylorus, it receives a small
vein from the pylorus. Usually the left pyloric cceca vein (see
PL I, figs. I and 6), is much the smaller. It receives about 2
branches from the cseca and one or 2 small ones from the
pylorus. Both of the pyloric ca?ca veins run outside of their

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 99

corresponding arteries and unite in forming the left portal trunk
directly in front of the point of bifurcation of the coeliac artery.
Near its origin from the union of the two pyloric caica veins
the left portal, or occasionally it is the right pyloric casca vein,
receives intestinal vein^^^y This vein (PI. I, figs, i, 6 and ii ;
Int.V.(„)) usually has its source from the ventral side of the
intestine close to the rectum. Its course is cephalad in the
adipose tissue below the intestine. Before going very far, how-
ever, it crosses to the upper side of the intestine, changing
places with intestinal vein(j). Then proceeding cephalad above
the artery until the duodenum is reached, it crosses over the
intestine, intestinal artery^j^ intestinal vein^^ the anterior part
of the duodenum, the coeliac artery, and empties into the left
portal close to its origin from the two pyloric caeca veins. Con-
tinuing cephalad for a short distance between the stomach and
liver and to the left of the coeliac artery, the left portal receives
the anterior intestinal or chtodenuni vein (PI. I, figs, i and
II ; A. Int. v.), which returns the blood from the anterior loop.
The course of this vessel is at first directly behind the corre-
sponding artery ; then after passing under intestinal artery(j) and
intestinal vein^j^ it ordinarily gives off or receives the connecting
vein (figs, i and 6; C.'V.'), a small vein which usuall}'- anas-
tomoses with intestinal vein^j^ a branch of the right portal.
Then after passing over the anterior arm of the duodenum from
which it receives a branch, it crosses the coeliac artery, and after
following along behind the hepatic artery for a short distance
terminates in the left portal. The left portal enters the dorsal
surface of the liver through 5 large radicals or terminal branches
designated by the letters a to e (figs. 6 and 11). These vessels
immediately penetrate the large left lobe of the liver and break
up into the interlobular veins (fig. 11 ; I.Lob.V.), which, in
turn, break up into venous capillaries. Usually several veins
from the ventral surface of the stomach, designated as ventral
gastric veins (fig. 6 ; V.Gas.V.), empty into some of these radi-
cals, and some of the ventral gastric veins often penetrate the
dorsal surface of the liver and break up into venous capillaries
without emptying directly into the portal system. The -posterior
gall-bladder vein (fig. 11; P.G.Bl.V.), which arises on the

lOO ALLEN

posterior dorsal surface of the bladder and anastomoses with
the anterior gall-badder vein, empties into radical a of the left
portal. This radical may also receive a similar, but smaller
vein from the ventral surface of the bladder.

An interesting vessel in Ophiodon is the left gastric vein
(PI. I, figs. I and 6; L.Gas.V.), since it is not connected with
the portal system but terminates directly in the precava. This
vein has its origin in 2 branches from the left side of the
stomach, on either side of the left gastric artery. The ventral
branch is usually the larger ; arising from the extreme posterior
end of the stomach, its branches anastomose with those of
branch Z of the posterior mesenteric vein. When the anterior
portion of the stomach is reached the smaller left gastric branch
crosses over the left gastric artery and joins the main stem of
the left gastric, and the combined vessel passes forward above
the left gastric ramus of the vagus and empties into the precava.
Still another small gastric vein arises from the anterior dorsal
surface of the stomach and terminates in the precava, above
the main left gastric vein.

As in other vertebrates the intestinal, gastric, and caeca veins
arise from capillaries in the connective tissue layer of the crypts
and the larger branches run in the muscular layers. Within
the liver the terminal branches or radicals of the two portals
exhaust themselves in the intej'lobular veins (fig. 11, T.Lob.V.),
which break up into venous capillaries, that reunite in forming
the central or intralobtilar veins, from which the siihlobular
veins (fig. 11, S.Lob.V.) have their origin. The latter vessels
are the radicals, which by uniting, form the 2 /lepatic veins
(fig. IT, R. and L.Hep.V.); which come from the right and
left lobes respectively, and terminate in a Jicpatic sinus that
enters the sinus venosus from the rear. In the liver the main
trunks of the hepatic system lie beneath those of the portal
system.

As in the arteries, most of the variation of the veins in this
group occurs in the viscera. Nevertheless, all of the species
examined had a distinct right and left portal, which break up
in the right and left lobes respectively. In Sehastodcs both
portals terminate in a common portal. In HcxagraDinios the

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI lOI

right portal anastomoses with radical a of the left portal. In
Scorf<^nichthys this union sometimes occurs, but with Ophi-
odon it has never been observed. However, both OpJiiodon and
Scoj-pcEuichthys have a connecting vein that interlinks these 2
systems in the region of the spleen.

{c) Right Portal in Hex agr amnios^ ScorpcBiiichthys and Se-
bastodes. — In Hexagrammos^ as with Opkiodon, this vessel
(PI. IV, fig. 27 ; R.Por.V.) has its origin from an intestinal, and
a gastric vein. The I'ight gastric vein (PI. IV, fig. 27 ; R.-
Gas.V.) is essentially the same as in Ophiodon, except that
there is no posterior mesenteric vein for it to anastomose with
on the apex of the stomach, and it runs on the opposite side of
the artery from what it does in the other 3 genera. The vessel
designated as intestinal vcin^^-^ (PI. IV, fig. 27 ; Int.V.(ij) is the
principal intestinal vein. It arises in the region of the rectum,
but soon crosses over to follow along the posterior arm of the
ileum from which it receives several branches before receiving
the splenic vein^ (fig. 27; Spl.V.), and another good-sized
branch which drains the region supplied by intestinal artery (2).
Passing cephalad, parallel with, but below the corresponding
artery it crosses over intestinal vein(o), the anterior part of the
intestine, the coeliac artery, radical a of the left portal, and
when the stomach is reached unites with the right gastric vein
to form the right portal {^g. 27, R.Por.V.), This vessel im-
mediately passes under intestinal artery^,), between the coeliac
and right hepatic arteries, along the posterior surface of the
gall-bladder, but behind the right hepatic arter3^ Here it re-
ceives a few small branches from the bladder and terminates
in 2 or 3 small branches in the right lobe of the liver, and also
anastomoses with radical a of the left portal.

In Scorpcenichthys the right for tali^X. IV, fig. 29 ; R.Por.V.)
has its source entirely from the right gastric and the splenic
veins. All of the intestinal veins empty into the left portal.
The right gastric vein (fig. 29, R.Gas.V.) is practically the
same as in Ophiodon; arising in the cardiac end of the stomach,

1 In Hexagrammos the spleen is located much further caudad than is the case
with any of the other genera studied. Its position is much nearer the vent than
the stomach.

102 ALLEN

it anastomoses with branch Z of the posterior mesenteric, and
the posterior gastric veins. The sflenic vein (fig. 29, Spl. V.)
leaves the anterior surface of the spleen, which is located
directly above the pylorus, and passes forward to unite with
the right gastric vein in forming the right portal, but immediately
after leaving the spleen it receives the poste7-ior gastric vein
(fig. 29, P. Gas. v.), which in Ophiodon emptied into the right
cgeca vein, a branch of the left portal. The right portal, itself,
is almost identical with the same vessel in Ophiodon ; it receives
a small vein from a gland-like body marked G, and shortly
before entering the right lobe of the liver receives the anterior
gall-bladder vein which does not anastomose with the posterior
gall-bladder vein as in Ophiodon. Usually the right portal
breaks up in the small right lobe of the liver without anasto-
mosing with terminal branch a of the left portal.

Beside the ordinary branches which go to make up the right
portal in Ophiodon, there is an additional one in Sebastodcs,
namely, the anterior air-bladder or air-bladder retia mirabilia
vein (PI. IV, fig. 31 ; A.Bl.V.). This vessel arises from the
retia mirabilia venous capillaries, which are continuous with,
and run parallel to, the corresponding arterial retia mirabilia
capillaries. These venous capillaries unite in forming larger
vessels that terminate in the main anterior air-bladder vein,
which pierces the ventral wall of the bladder and empties into
the right gastric vein. The latter vessel, as in Hexagrammos,
has its origin in the posterior end of the stomach without hav-
ing any posterior mesenteric vein with which to anastomose.
Shortly after receiving the anterior air-bladder vein the right
gastric receives the vessel designated as intestinal vein(i). This
vessel (fig. 31, Int. V.(i)) arises in the rectum and drains the
posterior portion of the intestine. In its cephalic course, par-
allel with the corresponding artery, it follows along the poste-
rior border of the spleen ; in Sebastodcs favidtis (fig. 33) it was
seen to unite with the splenic vein as in Ophiodon, while in
Sebastodcs auriculatus both vessels emptied separately into the
right gastric vein. . Shortly before joining the right gastric, or
splenic vein as it is in ►S'. JJavidus, intestinal vein^,) usually re-
ceives a posterior gall-bladder vein (figs. 31 and 33, P.G.Bl.V.)

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI IO3

and an anterior intestinal vein. Soon after leaving the spleen,
in front of the corresponding artery, the splenic vein (fig. 31,
Spl.V.) receives the posterior gastric vein (fig. 31, P.Gas.V.)
from the rear. This vessel arises from the ventral surface of the
stomach immediately behind the pylorus, and receives a small
branch coming from the ventral surface of the posterior end of
the intestine. After receiving this branch the posterior gastric
vein passes between the spleen and the ceeca and joins the splenic
vein. The splenic v^ein in Sebastodes auriciilatus after crossing
intestinal vein^^), and intestinal artery(2) unites with the right gas-
tric component, directly below intestinal vein(,), to form the main
right portal. Shortly before entering the liver the right portal
receives a small branch coming from a gland-like body marked
G (figs. 33 and 34), anastomoses with the common portal trunk
(which will be fully described under the head of the left portal),
and in its course in the right lobe of the liver receives the ante-
rior gall-bladder v€v!\. This vessel (figs. 33 and 34, A.G.Bl.V.)
is ahvays present, and sometimes returns the entire blood from
the gall-bladder. Its course is to the right and above the
ductus choledochus.

id) Left portal vein in Hexagrammos, Scorpanichthys ^ and
Sebastodes, — In Hexagrammos the two pyloric caeca veins are
essentially the same as in Ophiodoti^ except that neither of them
receives a posterior gastric vein from the cardiac end of the
stomach. 'Close to its origin from the two pyloric ca^ca veins
the left portal (PI. IV, figs. 27 and 28 ; L.Por.V.) receives a
branch from the anterior arm of the ileum, designated as intes-
tinal vein(^o) (fig. 27, Int.V.(2)), but which perhaps corresponds
to an elongated anterior intestinal or duodenum vein. On the
dorsal surface of the liver the left portal breaks up into 3 radi-
cals (figs. 27 and 28, «, b and c). Radical a is prolonged to
anastomose with the right portal, and soon after leaving the
main stem receives a very large ventral gastric vein (fig. 28,
V.Gas.V.), w^hich may to some extent take the place of the
absent left gastric vein.

In ScopcBnichthys the left portal (PI. IV, figs. 29 and 30;
L.Por.V.) receives both of the intestinal veins. The pyloric
caeca veins are essentially the same as in Ophiodon, except that

I04 ALLEN

the pyloric branch of the left one extends backward on the car-
diac portion of the stomach as a sort of posterior gastric vein, and
anastomoses with branches of the posterior mesenteric vein ;
while the posterior gastric vein proper empties into the splenic
vein instead of the right cajca vein as in Ophiodon. Intestinal
vein^^s^ (fig- 29, Int.V.i-i^) arises from the posterior end of the
iliac loop ; the most dorsal of its branches anastomoses with
branch Z of the posterior mesenteric vein, and it receives a*
branch coming from the region of the rectum. In its cephalic
course, intestinal vein^j^ passes between the two arms of the
ileum, and receives a branch from the posterior part of the in-
testine designated as intestinal vein^^^ (fig. 29, Int.V.(2))> and the
anterior intestinal or dtiodemun vein (fig. 29, A.Int.V.). The
combined intestinal trunk thus formed passes under the anterior
arm of the duodenum and joins the left portal close to its origin
from the 2 pyloric caeca veins, but before emptying into the
left portal it receives or sends off a connecting vein (fig. 29,
C'.V.) that unites with the splenic vein. After reaching the
great left lobe of the liver the left portal immediately gives off
to each side numerous terminal branches or radicals, which
break up into the interlobular veins. As in Ophiodon, except
in a very few cases, radical a of left portal does not anastomose
with the right portal; it, however, receives the posterior gall-
bladder vein (fig. 30. P.G.Bl.V.), and also a very large ventral
gastric vein (fig. 30, V.Gas.V.), which anastomoses anteriorly
with the left gastric vein and posteriorl}?^ with a branch of the
posterior mesenteric vein.

As in Ophiodon there is a left gastric vein (fig. 30, L.Gas.-
V.) emptying directly into the precava and two smaller left
gastric veins ; one of which empties into the precava and the
other into the left fork of the kidney ; while the main left gastric
vein anastomoses with branches of the ventral gastric vein,
which has branches that anastomose with branches of the pos-
terior mesenteric vein.

The left portal in Sebastodcs (PI. IV, figs. 30 and 31 ; L.-
Por.V.) is a rather insignificant vessel, having its source from
a vessel designated as intestinal vein^o, and the right pyloric
creca vein. Intestinal vein^j) (fig. 31, Int.V.^,)) returns the

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI IO5

blood from the ileum ; passing beneath intestinal vesselS(,) and
the splenic vessels, it crosses under the anterior part of the
spleen, where it joins a common trunk formed by the union of
the right pyloric C£eca vein and a very large j[)ylorns vein (fig.
32, Pyl.V.). The common trunk thus formed is the left portal,
but instead of breaking up into numerous radicals it empties
with the left pyloric cceca vein (tig. 32, L.Cae.V.) and the
ventral gastric vein (fig. 32, V.Gas.V.) into the common fortal
vein (fig. 32, C.P.V.). By anastomosing with the common
portal, the right portal might also be said to empty into the com-
mon portal.

Stmimary of the Portals. — As in the case with the corre-
sponding arteries, intestinal veins^ (,„,, ,) are arbitrary names given
to the two principal intestinal veins. Considerable variation
occurs in these two veins in the same species, but in O^hiodon
the vessel designated as intestinal vein(2) arises in the posterior
part of the intestine, and in its cephalic course along the ventral
side of the intestine receives the splenic vein, and joining the
right gastric vein forms the right portal. The corresponding
vein in Hexagr aminos pursues a similar course ; while in Scopce-
nichthys the two intestinal veins unite and empty into the left
portal ; and in Sebastodcs intestinal vein^i^ drains only the pos-
terior part of the intestine, and may unite with the splenic vein,
or each of these vessels may empty separately into the right
gastric vein to form the right portal. In every case the right
portal breaks up in the right lobe of the liver. The vessel
designated as intestinal vein(2) in Ophiodon arises from the
ventral posterior end of the intestine and terminates in the left
portal. In Hexagranmios this vessel might possibly correspond
to an elongated duodenum artery ; while in Scorpcenichthys if
this vessel is represented at all, it unites with intestinal vein^)
and the combined trunk empties into the left portal ; and in
Schastodes this is the principal intestinal trunk, arising from the
iliac loop it unites with the right pyloric casca vein to form the
left portal trunk. All the genera but Hexagrammos have a
posterior gastric vein ; in Ophiodon it terminates in the right
pyloric caeca vein ; while in ScorfcB7iichthys and Sebastodcs it
empties into the splenic vein, a branch of the right portal.

I06 ALLEN

Ophiodon and Scor^(2nichthys have a left gastric vein, which
empties into the precava ; while in Sehastodes and Hexagram-
mos the ventral gastric veins are greatl}' enlarged, and evi-
dently to some extent take the place of this vessel, nevertheless
in ScorpcBuic/ithys the ventral gastric is a good sized vessel and
anastomoses with the right gastric vein. In Ophtodon and
ScorpcBuichlhys there is a grand anastomosis in the cardiac
portion of the stomach of the branches of the right gastric, left
gastric, ventral gastric, posterior gastric and posterior mesen-
teric veins. Usually the right and left pyloric casca veins unite
to form the left portal, but in Sebastodes the right pyloric caeca
vein joins intestinal vein^^) to form the left portal, and the left
pyloric caeca vein empties into the common portal trunk. Ophi-
odon and Scorpcenichthys have a connecting vein in the region
of the spleen that links the 2 portal systems ; in Ophiodon it
usually connects intestinal vein^j^ with the anterior intestinal or
duodenum vein ; while in ScorpcBuichthys it connects the splenic
and common intestinal veins. Within the liver the 2 portals are
usually distinctly separated in Ophiodon and in Scorpcenichthys ;
while in Hex agr amnios radical a of the left portal anastomoses
with the right portal ; and in Sebastodes both portals together
with the ventral gastric and left pyloric caeca veins unite in
forming a common portal trunk, which gives off numerous
radicals that break up into the interlobular veins.

7. Renal Poi-tal System.
Like the hepatic portal system the renal portal system con-
sists of two principal venous trunks, which are connected by a
system of venous capillaries within the kidney. One of these
trunks, the caudal vein, arises in the region of the tail and pur-
sues a cephalic course in the hasmal canal, immediately below
the caudal artery, receiving the neural veins from above and
the haemal veins from below. Piercing the dorsal surface of the
kidney it bifurcates into a right and left renal portal vein ; each
of these sends off numerous afferent renal veins that after
breaking up into capillaries reunite in numerous efferent renal
veins, which terminate in, and form, the right cardinal vein.
This trunk starts in the posterior end of the kidney, passing

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI IO7

cephalad through the center of this organ ; it follows the right
fork of the kidney and unites with the right jugular to form the
right precava. Throughout its course it receives numerous
branches, which will be described in detail later on. There is
also a smaller left cardinal for the left lobe of the kidney,
which will also be considered under a separate head.

(a) Caudal Vein (PI. I, figs, i, 7, 8, 9 and 10; Cau.V.).—
This trunk has its origin in the region of the last vertebra from
a right and left branch ; both of which have a more superficial
course than the corresponding arteries. The rig/it caudal
vein (fig. 7, R. Cau.V.) is much the shorter; it arises from
the region of the tail and passes cephalad between the super-
ficial and profundus muscles, and when the last vertebra is
reached, curves inward, and after receiving a dorsal branch
joins the larger left caudal vein. The latter vessel (figs, i and
7 ; L. Cau.V.) has its origin from a dorsal and a ventral branch
in the caudal fin ray canal. These branches lie immediately
behind the corresponding lymphatic and arterial vessels. They
receive a branch from the central canal of each ray, coming
from the fin membrane and the fin ray muscles. Uniting be-
tween the two hypural bones the dorsal and ventral branches
form the left caudal vein (figs, i and 7, L. Cau.V.), which
passes cephalad between the superficial and profundus caudal
fin muscles, receiving branches from each. In the region of
the last vertebra it receives a dorsal branch and curves inward
to unite with the right caudal vein, but before joining the left
caudal vein to form the main caudal vein, each of the caudal
veins appears to receive a vessel from the caudal lymphatic
sinus. The course of the caudal vein is cephalad in the haemal
canal, immediately below^ the caudal artery; and in its course
to the kidney receives a dorsal branch from in front of each
alternate neural spine, and a ventral branch from in front of
each alternate haemal spine.

Each neural vein (fig. i; Neu.V.) has its origin from a

. cephalic and a caudal branch ; the latter returns the venous

blood from superficial and profundus levator and depressor

muscles of that ray ; while the former returns the blood from

the corresponding muscles of the preceding ray, and each

I08 ALLEN

branch receives a vessel coming from behind the ray. These
2 branches unite at about the level of the apex of the neural
spine, forming the neural vein proper. At this point the neural
vein receives the dorsal lateral vein (fig. i ; D.Lat.V.), return-
ing the blood from the dorsal region of the 2 neighboring myo-
tomes, and immediately after receiving this branch the neural
vein passes obliqueh' ventrad between the neural lymphatic
vessel and the neural spine. Then curving forward and out-
ward it crosses the neural canal, the centrum, the dorsal aorta,
and empties into the caudal vein. In crossing the vertebral
column it receives a spinal vein, coming through the spinal
foramen from the myel, and the median lateral vein (fig. i ;
M.Lat.V.), returning the blood from the central region of the 2
adjacent myotomes. The harnal veins pursue a similar course
from the ventral side of the body. Each of these vessels (fig.
I ; Hee.V.) has its source from the superficial and profundus
levator and depressor muscles of 2 successive anal rays. In
the region of the apex of the hsemal spine it receives the ven-
tral lateral vein (fig. i ; V.Lat.V.), coming from the ventral
portion of the two adjacent m3'otomes. Then passing obliquely
dorsad between the haemal lymphatic vessel and the haemal
spine it empties into the caudal vein. This is the normal
arrangement of a neural or a haemal vein ; occasionally, how-
ever, a neural or a haemal vein may drain the region of 3 or
even 4 myotomes, and a neural vein may cross either side of
the vertebral column. Usually between the first and second
caudal vertebrge the caudal vein receives the urinary bladder
vein (figs, i and 10; Ur.B.V.), coming from the posterior sur-
face of the bladder. Very often, however, as is shown in fig.
10, this vein does not empty into the caudal vein, but penetrates
the posterior ventral end of the kidney and reaches the cardinal
through the renal veins.

After passing through the htemal canal of the first caudal
vertebra the caudal vein curves ventrad and pierces the dorsal
surface of the kidne}' and becomes tlie renal portal vein.

Shortly after the caudal vein, or renal portal as it really is,
penetrates the kidney it receives a rather large trunk designated
as tlie posterior mesenteric vein (PI. I, figs, i and 10; P.-

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI IO9

Mes.V.). This vessel arises from 2 good sized branches
designated as Y and Z (see fig. i). Branch Z which is strictly
a gastric vein, takes its origin from several branches coming
from the posterior or cardiac end of the stomach ; one of which
anastomoses with the right gastric vein ; and 2 other branches
anastomose with branches of the left gastric and posterior gas-
tric veins. The course of branch Z is dorso-caudad ; passing to
the left of the intestine and its vessels, it unites with branch Y
directly below the reproductive organs. Branch Y, which is
distinctly an intestinal vein, drains the posterior end of the
intestine, and usually anastomoses with intestinal vein^,); pass-
ing caudad it joins branch Z in forming the main posterior gas-
tric stem, which passes between the reproductive organs, with-
out receiving any branches, penetrates the posterior ventral
surface of the kidney, and passing to the left of the right
cardinal empties into the renal portal vein. It would be possible
for the blood in the posterior mesenteric to flow in either direc-
tion, but it is probable that the least resistance is toward the
kidney.

After receiving the posterior mesenteric vein the caudal or
renal portal vein bifurcates into a right and a left renal portal
vein or vena renalis advehens (figs, i and 10; Ren.P.V.).
These trunks run cephalad for some little distance through the
dorso-lateral part of the kidney, and gradually decrease in
caliber by giving off numerous ventral branches, the afferent
renal veins or venae renales advehentes (figs, i and 10,
A. Ren. v.). These vessels break up into rather coarse venous
capillaries near the lateral surface of the kidney, and become
collected ventrad and mesad by the small efferent renal veins
or venae renales revehentes (figs, i and 10 ; E.Ren.V.). A
cross section through an injected kidney hardened in formalin
shows us that these vessels, many of which are visible from the
ventral side of the kidney, empty into the right cardinal from
every direction.

(3) The right cardinal vein (PI. I, figs, i, 5 and 10;
R.Car.V.), which is the principal cardinal has its source
mainly from the efferent renal veins ; it arises in the extreme
caudal end of the kidney, below the caudal vein, and passes

no ALLEN

cephalad through the center of the kidney until the kidney
forks, when it follows the right fork. In the region of the last
branchial arch it unites with the right jugular in forming the
7-ight -precava (Pis. I and II, figs. 5 and 12 ; Prec.V.) or the
diicUis Cuvierii as it is often called, which encircles the right
side of the oesophagus and empties into the sinus venosus in
front of the subclavian sinus.

[c) Other Vessels Emptying into the Kidney. — Beside the
posterior mesenteric and caudal veins there are several other
vessels, which penetrate the kidney and reach the right cardinal
in one way or another.

First under this head might be mentioned the sper^natic veins.
In the female (fig. i) numerous branches arise from the lateral
surfaces of the ovaries and unite in a longitudinal vessel, that
has its origin from the anterior surface of the urinary bladder
and the oviduct. From this longitudinal vessel at least two
spermatic veins (fig. i ; Sper.V.) have their origin ; passing dor-
sad they terminate in one way or another in the kidney : they
may empty directly into the right cardinal, or the renal portal
vein, or they may reach the right cardinal through the efferent
renal veins. In the male (see fig. 10) there is no longitudinal
trunk, and the spermatic veins arise directly from numerous
branches coming from the inner surface of the testes. In this
specimen the most anterior spermatic vein emptied into an affer-
ent renal vein, the second one broke up into capillaries, and the
last 2 joined the posterior mesenteric vein within the kidney.
The neiirals as in the caudal region drain the region of 2 m3'o-
tomes, passing ventrad between the neural h^nphatic vessel and
the neural spine, they penetrate the dorsal wall of the kidney, but
instead of emptying directly into the right cardinal, break up
into capillaries that reunite in the efferent renal veins. The
intercostal veins (fig. i ; Intc.V.) corresponding to the haemal
veins of the caudal region, arise from 2 myotomes of the thor-
acic walls ; passing dorsad behind the intercostal lymphatic
vessel they penetrate the ventro-lateral edge of the kidney,
break up into capillaries, and reach the right cardinal through
the efferent renal veins. In the cephalic part of the thoracic
wall they anastomose ventrally with the ventral intercostal

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI III

veins. Usually, there are 2 suprarenal veins (fig. 10, Sr.V^.),
which pass inward and join the right cardinal.

{il) The left cardinal vein (figs, i and 5 ; L.Car.V.) is a very
short and unimportant vessel ; having its source entirely from
the anterior end of the left fork of the kidney. The blood from
the posterior part of this fork reaches the heart through the
right cardinal. The left cardinal unites with the left jugular in
forming the left precava, which passes around the left side of
the oesophagus and terminates in the sinus venosus.

{e) Renal Portal System in Scorpcenicht/iys, Hexagraninws
and Sebastodes. — In each of these genera the renal portal sys-
tem is in the main substantially the same. Some minor varia-
tions are noted in the 3 following paragraphs.

The renal portal system in Scorpienichikys is essentially the
same as in Ophiodon. The caudal vein after passing through
the haemal canal of the first caudal vertebra penetrates the
dorsal surface of the kidney, and breaks up into two renal por-
tal veins. As in Ophiodon di posterior mesenteric vein (fig. 29,
P.Mes.V.) is also present, which arises from a gastric and an
intestinal branch, and after passing over the urinar}' bladder
from which it receives a branch, penetrates the posterior apex of
the kidney, terminating in the renal portal ; but the distance
it has to go cephalad in the kidney is much greater than in
Ophiodon, and numerous branches are given off, which reach
the cardinal through the efferent renal veins ; so that the pos-
terior mesentric vein is much reduced in caliber upon joining
the renal portal. It is of interest to note in this connection that
in Enophrys and Calycilepidotus, 2 genera of the family Cot-
tidae, no such vessel as the posterior mesenteric was noticed.
As regards the spermatic veins, they are also of especial in-
terest, coming in midway between Ophiodon and the peculiar
arrangement found in Sebastodes. In the female there is a
right and ?i left sperynatic vein (fig. 29, R. and L.Sper.V), each
of which receives numerous branches coming from the lateral
surfaces of their respective ovaries. From each of these longi-
tudinal veins there arise a cephalic and a caudal vessel ; both
of which unite with corresponding vessels from the opposite side
to form the spermatic veins proper (fig. 29; Sper.V.j ^^j,)' ^"^

112 ALLEN

each of these veins empties directly into the right cardinal, which
in Scorfmnichthys runs along the ventral surface of the kidney.
In both male and female the right and left spermatic veins are
continued some little distance cephalad of the reproductive
organs, and empty into their respective cardinal veins, a little
behind the point of union of the cardinals with the jugulars to
form the precava.

The caudal vein (fig. 27 ; Cau.V.) in Hexagramnios after
passing through the first caudal vertebra gives off an anterior
and a -posterior renal portal vein (fig. 27 ; Ren.P.V.) The
former is the principal renal portal vein ; it continues cephalad
along the dorsal surface of the kidney, and breaks up into
numerous afferent renal veins. In one specimen this vein
appeared to empty directly into the right cardinal vein. The
smaller posterior renal portal breaks up in the caudal end of the
kidney. One of its branches receives the vein designated as
the urinary bladder vein (fig. 27 ; U.Bl.V), which may to some
extent be analogous to the posterior mesenteric vein of Ophio-
don and Scorpcenichthys ; it has its source from a meshwork of
small veins on the rectum, which anastomose with branches of
intestinal vein^j^ ; passing across and along the dorsal surface
of the bladder from which it receives several branches, it pierces
the ventro-caudal end of the kidney, and gives off several
branches in the kidney before uniting with a branch of the
renal portal. The right cardinal (fig. 27 ; R.Car.V.) as in the
other genera arises in the extreme posterior end of the kidney,
and passing cephalad close to the ventral wall, unites with the
right jugular in the right fork of the kidney to form the right
precava. The veins from the caudal region of the ovaries
empty into a longitudinal vessel that passes between the ovaries ;
farther forward this vein bifurcates, one branch running along
the dorsal surface of the left ovary and the other along the
right ; both of them receiving numerous branches from the lat-
eral surfaces of their respective ovaries. From the right longi-
tudinal spermatic vein there arise an anterior and a posterior
branch, both of which unite with the corresponding branches
from the left longitudinal spermatic vein in forming the main
anterior and posterior spermatic veins (fig. 27, Sper.V.^,) ,^,„,
fo)) which empty directly into the right cardinal.

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI II3

All species of Scbastodcs examined had a distinct renal por-
tal system, which in the main resembled Ofhiodon; however,
the renal portal veins extend much further cephalad, there is
always one or more posterior air-bladder veins emptying into
the renal portal system, and there is no posterior mesenteric
vein. The kidne}^ itself differs considerably in shape from that
of the other genera ; while it usually occupies a large portion
of the dorsal part of the short thoracic cavity, still a large por-
tion of the organ is crowded cephalad into the two forks. The
caudal vein (PL IV, fig. 31 ; Cau.V.) after piercing the pos-
terior dorsal side of the kidney continues cephalad along the
dorsal surface of the kidney for some little distance as a renal
^07-tal vein and not until the kidney forks does this vein sepa-
rate into the renal portal veins (fig. 31, Ren.P.V.). These
veins continue cephalad in their respective lobes until near the
point of union of the cardinals with the jugulars, giving off
numerous afferent renal veins, and the renal portal itself re-
ceives the following vessels. First, the spermatic vein (fig. 31 ;
Sper.V.), which is formed from the posterior union of the right
and left spermatic veins. In its dorsal course about midway
between the reproductive organs and the kidney it receives the
urinary bladder vein (fig. 31 ; Ur.Bl.V.), and immediately be-
fore emptying into the renal portal, a small suprarenal vein.
Shortly after receiving the spermatic, the caudal or renal por-
tal receives a rather large posterior air-bladder vein (fig. 31 ;
P.A.Bl.V.), which arises from a regular network of vessels on
the posterior end of the air-bladder. In the specimen from
which fig. 31 was drawn, two smaller posterior air-bladder
veins were also noticed ; one of which terminated in the renal
portal vein, and the other in the right cardinal. Usually, how-
ever, there is but one posterior air-bladder vein, and it may
empty into either the right cardinal or the renal portal vein.
The right cardinal is almost identical to the similar vessel of
the other genera, and a description of it is unnecessary.

VIII. VASCULAR SYSTEM IN AXOPLOPOMA.

Three specimens of this species were brought in by Chinese
fishermen when this paper was about finished. All were in-

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

114 ALLEN

jected, but only one satisfactorily, the other specimens having
been badly torn by the hooks. Upon dissection several interest-
ing variations were noticed, and it seemed desirable to include a
representative of the family Ano^lo^omatidcB in this paper.

Carotid Ar/cries. — In Anoplopoma there are no common
carotids ; both carotids arise separately from the dorso-cephalic
corner of the first efferent branchial artery. The internal
carotid (fig. 35 ; I. Car. A.), which is given off first, presents no
peculiarities. While the external carotid (fig. 35 ; E.Car.A.)
is a much smaller vessel than in the other genera, and simply
supplies the facial region without anastomosing with the hyoi-
dean artery to form the mandibular artery ; it immediately gives
off the vessel designated as the -pseudobranchial or afferent
■pseiidobranchial artery (fig. 35 ; Ps.A.), which is as large as
the external carotid, and which might be said to arise with the
external carotid from the first efferent branchial artery. The
course of the pseudobranchial artery is ventrad behind the hyo-
mandibular, exhausting itself by giving off numerous afferent
pseudobranchial filament arteries. Near its distal end the
pseudobranchial artery receives the dorsal branch of the hyoi-
dean artery, and it is probable that the hyoidean arter}^ furn-
ishes the pseudobranch, especiall}^ the ventral part of it, with
some of its blood supply, but most of it evidently comes from
the pseudobranchial artery, which is much larger at its source
from the external carotid than at the point of anastomosis with
the hyoidean arter3^ This arrangement somewhat resembles
the pseudobranchial supply in Gadus, according to IMliller (50)
and Parker (61), but differs from it considerably. In Gadus the
afferent pseudobranchial artery is a branch of the h3'oidean
artery, and the dorsal continuation of the main stem, which is
much reduced in caliber, anastomoses with the internal carotid
of the circulus cephalicus.

Hyoidean Arteries (fig. 35 ; Ilyo. A.). — One of the most strik-
ing differences in the circulator}^ system of Anoploponia is in
connection with this vessel. As in Ophiodon each hyoidean
artery has its origin from the ventral ends of the first efferent
l:)ranchial arter}-. Passing along the dorsal surface of the liyoid
arch it gives off the characteristic branch to tlie branchiostegal

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI II5

rays and then follows along in front of the interhyal, but when
the preopercle is reached, instead of passing through a foramen
formed by the symplectic, hyomandibular, and preopercular
and anastomosing with the facialis-mandibularis artery to form
the mandibular artery as in Ophiodon, it bifurcates; the ventral
branch passes through the above mentioned foramen to become
the uiandihular artery (tig. 35, Man.A.) ; while the dorsal
branch passes along the inner surface of the preopercle, gives
off a rather large opercular artery, and terminates in the
pseudobranchial artery.

Jugular Veins (tig. 35, J.V.). — The jugulars and their
branches are practically the same as in Ophiodon.

The first pair of efibranchial arteries (figs. 35 and 36 ; Epbr.
A.(i)) unite in forming the dorsal aorta, and the second pair,
the coeliaco-mesentric ; there is an opening into the aorta from
the coeliaco-mesenteric artery, corresponding to the common
chamber of Ophiodon, but the subclavians arise separately from
the dorsal aorta, opposite the opening into the cceliaco-mesen-
teric.

Subclavian arteries. — Each subclavian (fig. 36, Sub. A.)
after leaving the head kidney passes to the inner musculature
of the corresponding pectoral fin. Here it separates into the
subclavian artery proper, which is essentially the same as in
Ophiodon, and a hypobranchial artery. This vessel (fig. 36;
Hypobr.A.) passes ventrad a short distance, gives off a large
branch, designated as \\iQ posterior ventral artery {^g. 36;
Ven.A.(i^) which passes ventro-caudad, supplying the ventral fin
musculature and terminates in the right and left ventral fin
arteries. The main stem of the hypobranchial passes cephalad
and ventrad, and together with the corresponding vessel from
the opposite side anastomoses with the anterior ventral artery.
On the left side the hypobranchial artery has no posterior ventral
branch. The hypobranchial artery in Anoplopoma may not be
homologous with the similar named vessel in Ophiodon, which
is really a branch of the ventral artery and anastomoses with a
branch of the subclavian.

Only one subclavian venous trunk (fig. 36 ; Sub.V.(2^) was
noticed. It arose from an external and an internal branch.

Il6 ALLEN

The outer subclavian vein penetrated the scapula with the cor-
responding artery and joined the internal subclavian vein in
formincr the common subclavian trunk, which terminates in its
respective horn of the kidney.

The vessel designated as the anterior ventral artery (fig. 36 ;
Ven.A.) arises from the ventral union of the second right and
left efferent branchial arteries ; principally, however, from the
second left efferent branchial artery. After passing over the
combined trunk of the third and fourth afferent branchial ves-
sels it gives off the pharynx artery. This vessel (fig. 36 ;
Phar.A.) supplies the phar3'nx region, and soon sends off the
coronary artery {^g. 36; Cor. A), which passes along the dorsal
side of the ventral aorta to the heart. In all other genera studied
the pharynx artery arose directly from the second or the third
efferent branchial arteries. The anterior ventral artery evi-
dently corresponds to the ventral artery of the other species ;
except that it extends only to the origin of the pelvic arch. In
addition to giving off the phar3-nx artery it sends off branches
to the sterno-hyoideus muscle and anastomoses with the 2 hypo-
branchial arteries. It would be possible, however, in Anoplo-
-ponia for blood in the anterior ventral artery to reach the ventral
fins by passing through the right hypobranchial artery into the
posterior ventral artery. By the separation of the right hypo-
branchial from the subclavian we would have in the anterior
ventral, right hypobranchial, and posterior ventral arteries an
irregular shaped vessel corresponding somewhat to the ventral
artery of the other genera.

As in Scbastodes, there is in addition to the main inferior jugu-
lar and left branch, a right inferior jugular, which drains the
ventral branchial muscles from the right side and empties into
the right precava.

Civli'aco-incsenicn'e Artery. — This trunk {'C\\i,. 37 ; Cce.Mes.-
A.) upon reaching the oesophagus separates into the coeliac and
mesenteric arteries respectively. The mesenteric artery soon
divides into intestinal artery^) and a short stem from which the
rigiit and le_ft g'astric arteries have their source. The latter
vessel (figs. 37 and 38; L.Gas.A.) makes a cephalic curve
across the oesophagus and continues on the left side of the

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI II7

stomach to the apex; while the former (tig. 37; R.Gas.A.)
crosses the corresponding vein and continues parallel with it
along the right and dorsal side of the stomach to the apex. From
the right gastric \\\^ posterior gaU-hladdcr artery is given off to
supply the posterior two thirds of the bladder, and a small branch
is also given off to a gland-like body marked G. Intestinal
arterVd, (fig. 37 ; Int.A.^j^) crosses over the right portal and con-
tinues caudad to the right of intestinal vein(,). Directly in front
of the spleen this artery divides into a dorsal and a ventral ves-
sel. The dorsal artery (fig. 37, Int.A.(|„,) passes to the right
of the spleen, gives off the splenic artery (fig. 37 ; Spl.A.) to
the spleen, and crossing the intestinal vessels^,) continues caudad
along the posterior horn of the iliac loop ; giving off numerous
branches to the anterior horn and the posterior end of the in-
testine, and finally terminates on the dorsal side of the rectum.
The ventral branch (fig. 37 ; Int.A.^,,,)) passes ventrad and to
the left of the spleen. Opposite the spleen it sends off the
■posterior gastric artery (fig. 37 ; P. Gas, A.), which crosses the
cajca behind the corresponding vein, and supplies the posterior
or cardiac end of the stomach. The main ventral intestinal
vessel continues along the lower side of the posterior end of
the intestine and terminates on the ventral side of the rectum.

Immediately after leaving the main trunk the celiac artery
(fig- 37 ; Coe.A.) gives off the right hepatic artery (figs. 37
and 38; R.Hep.A.), which after crossing the cceliac and right
portal sends off branches along the radicals of the right portal
to the right lobe of the liver, and also gives off the anterior
gall-bladder artery^ which supplies the anterior third of the
bladder, and does not anastomose with the posterior gall-
bladder artery. Passing beneath intestinal vesselS(i) the coeliac
artery gives off a rather large leji hepatic artery (figs. 37 and
38; L.Hep.A.), which follows along in front of the left portal,
giving off numerous branches to the left lobe of the liver, which
penetrate the liver with the large radicals of the common por-
tal ; while none of the branches of the left hepatic anastomose
with similar branches of the right hepatic, several of them send
up branches that supply the ventral portion of the stomach.
Shortly after the branching off of the left hepatic from the

Il8 ALLEN

coeliac, intestinal artery^,) is given off to the right (fig. 37 ;
Int. A. (2)); passing caudad to the right of the corresponding
vein it crosses under the ventral branches of intestinal vesselS(i),
the spleen, and the dorsal brandies of intestinal vessels, and
continuing caudad between the anterior and posterior horns of
the iliac loop, supplies both of them. The cceliac artery proper
separates into the right and left ^yloi'ic ccuca arteries. The
former (fig. 37 ; R.Ca^.A.) passes around the pylorus on p^'loric
cajcum^T), and bifurcates into a dorsal and a ventral branch :
the ventral branch gives off a large branch which crosses under
this caecum, and continues caudad between cascum^j) and
csecum(2), giving off branches to each. The left pyloric cceca
artery (fig. 37 ; L.Ca^.A.) passes to the left of the pylorus be-
tween c^ecum^^) and cjecum^-,), giving off branches to each.

Portal System. — As in Schastodcs the 2 portals unite in
forming a common portal, that breaks up into numerous
radicals.

The right portal (fig. 37 ; R.Por.V.) has its origin from the
right gastric, and intestinal vein(,). Intestinal vein ^^^^ (fig. 37 ;
Int. v., J,) arises from a dorsal and a ventral branch. The former
(fig. 37 ; Int.V.(j^)) arises from the dorsal side of the rectum,
and runs cephalad, parallel to the corresponding artery, but
below it; receiving branches from the posterior end of the
intestine and anterior horn of the iliac loop, it crosses intestinal
vessels (2) and passes above and to the right of the spleen from
which it receives the splenic vein {^\'-^. 37 ; Spl.V.). Directly
in front of the spleen the dorsal intestinal vein receives the
ventral intestinal branch (fig. 37 ; Int.V.^j,,)), which arises from
the lower side of the rectum and passes forward along the ven-
tral side of the corresponding artery. Curving around tlie ven-
tral and left side of the spleen it receives two branches ; the first
one, which is the posterior gastric vein (fig. 37 ; P.Gas.V.)
arises from the cardiac end of the stomach, and runs along in
front of the posterior gastric artery ; while the anterior vessel
has its source from two branches, one coming from between
pyloric ca'ca^,,,^^,, ,2)» '^^cl the other from ca'cum .,,. After
receiving these branches the ventral intestinal branch crosses
over intestinal vessels ^j)* '^"d in front of the spleen unites with

BLOOD-VASCUI.AR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATl II9

the dorsal intestinal branch to form main intestinal vein ^^^^
which shortly joins the rig/it gastric vein (tig. 37 ; R.Gas.V.)
to form the rig/it fortal. This trunk (fig. 37 ; R.Por.V.)
passes under intestinal artery^^^, and when the right lobe of the
liver is reached, sends off a branch to it, and anastomoses with
the left portal to form the common portal. The branch to the
right lobe of the liver receives the gall-bladder vein (fig. 37 ;
G.Bl.V.), which drains the entire bladder, and receives a
branch from a gland-like body marked G.

The Icjt fortal vein (fig. 37 ; L.Por.V.) has its origin from
intestinal vein^,) and two pyloric cteca veins. Intestinal vein ^^.^
(fig. 37 ; Int.V.(2)) arising from the iliac loop passes cephalad
below the corresponding artery, and after crossing under the
dorsal branch of intestinal vein^,), the spleen, and the ventral
branch of intestinal vein^) it receives a vessel coming from the
dorsal surface of pyloric caecum (3), designated as the right
pyloric aecavein (fig. 37 ; R.Cte.V.), and later the left pyloric
ccsca vein (fig. 37 ; L.C^e.V.), which arises from between the
fourth and fifth pyloric cseca. The left portal thus formed
curves around on the dorsal surface of the liver and anastomos-
ing with the right portal forms the common portal trnnk (fig.
38 ; C.Por.V.), which gives off several terminal branches or
radicals to the liver. Into this common portal is poured a rather
large ventral gastric vein (fig. 38; V.Gas.V.), which may to
some extent take the place of the absent left gastric vein found
in Ophiodon.

The dorsal aorta presents no peculiarities, except that there
are a great number of spermatic arteries (fig. 37 ; Sper.A.),
usually 9 or 10.

Renal Portal System. — In the kidney there is a complete
renal portal system. The caudal vein (fig. 37 ; Cau.V.) runs
along the left dorsal surface of the kidney as the renal portal
vein, giving off large afferent renal veins (fig. 37 ; A.Ren.V.)
to each side ; while the much smaller efferent renal veins (fig.
37 ; E.Ren.V.) return the blood to the right cardinal. This
trunk receives, directly, 9 or 10 spermatic veins (fig. 37 ;
Sper.V.) from the reproductive organs. The intercostal veins
(fig. 37 ; Intc.V.), however, do not empty directly into the
cardinal, but reach it through the efferent renal veins.

I20 ALLEN

From the previous description it would seem that the vascular
system of Anoplopotna exhibits many points of resemblance to
the more generalized Teleosts. The external carotid, hyoidean,
subclavian, hypobranchial, and coronary trunks appear to have
a more primitive arrangement than is even shown in Scbastodcs.

IX. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND SUMMARY.

Since it is almost impossible to determine whether certain
variations in the blood vessels are primitive or secondary it is
not the intention of this paper to draw any conclusions as re-
gards the classification of this group on the basis of the circu-
latory system, until after the anatomy of the other S3'stems has
been worked up. Still it is thought, although perhaps not
practicable, that the vascular system might be used in the class-
ification of families and genera, but could not be used in the
discrimination of species. In the genus Sebastodes a great
number of species w^ere studied, both generalized and special-
ized, but no more variation was noticed in different species than
could be found among individuals of the same species.

Several interestino: anastomoses were noticed in both the
arterial and venous systems. In Ophiodon we have in the re-
gion of the nasal sac a union of a branch of the internal carotid
with one of the external carotid. The hyoidean artery anas-
tomoses with the main stem of the external carotid to form the
mandibular artery. A branch of the ventral artery joined one
of the subclavian in the pectoral fin canal. The anterior spinal
artery, a branch of the subclavian, united in the neural canal
with the myelonal artery, a branch of the internal carotid.
Two gall-bladder arteries unite on the surface of tlie bladder.
Usually the posterior mesenteric artery communicates with in-
testinal artery(,), and there are connecting arteries between the
right pyloric ca3ca artery and intestinal artery(,,. In Scbastodcs
the two anterior spermatic arteries unite with the posterior or
spermatic artery projier. In Hexagrammos tlie two hepatic
arteries anastomose. In Anoploponia the h3'oidean arteries
anastomose with the pseudobranchial arteries, and the hypo-
branchial arteries unite with the anterior ventral arter}'. Among
the veins in Ophiodon there is an anastomosis under the nasal

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 121

sac of a branch of the internal ju<jular with one of the external
jugular. A sinus-like vessel connects the two internal jugulars
in the eye-muscle canal. A small vein connects the posterior
encephalic veins directly behind the cerebellum. The ventral
intercostal veins anastomose dorsally with the main intercostal
veins. The c^H-bladder veins unite on the surface of the blad-
der, and there are connecting vessels between the right pyloric
c^ca vein and intestinal vein^^. There is always some communi-
cation between the two portals : either they terminate in a com-
mon portal as is the case with Scbastodcs and Anoploponia, or
terminal branch (a) of the left portal unites with the right portal
as in Hcxagrammos^ or else there is a connecting vein in the
neighborhood of the spleen as in Ophiodon and ScorfcBnichthys.
If a posterior mesenteric vein is present as in Ophiodou and
ScoTpxBuichthys there is a grand anastomosis on the posterior
or cardiac end of the stomach of branch Z of the posterior
mesenteric with the right, left, and posterior gastric veins ; and
branch Yof the posterior mesenteric, usually, anastomoses with
intestinal vein^,). The anterior spermatic veins in Sebastodes
unite with the posterior or spermatic vein proper, and in Scor-
■pcBuichthys the left gastric vein anastomoses with the ventral
gastric vein.

In all the specimens studied there was the so-called choroid
gland in the eye, a double vaso-ganglion or retia mirabilia, and
a double retia mirabilia is also present in the air-bladder of
Sebastodes.

The arrangement of the vascular and the blood vessels in the
pseudobranchial filaments is essentially the same as in the
branchial filaments, and it seems reasonable to suppose that the
arterial blood for the eye receives additional oxygen in its course
through the pseudobranchial capillaries.

Sttmmary of the Arteries. — The carotids in all species
studied, but Aiioplopoina, rise from a common trunk, which
soon separates into the external and internal carotids. In
Anoflofoma each of the carotids rises directly from the first
efferent branchial artery. In every case the internal carotid
divides into the orbito-nasal and encephalic arteries. In all the
genera but Anoplopoma the main stem of the external carotid

122 ALLEN

unites with the hyoidean artery to form the mandibular artery,
but in this genus the hyoidean artery branches in the region of
the preopercle. The ventral fork passes through a foramen in
front of the preopercle to become the mandibular artery ; while
the dorsal fork passes along the inner surface of the hyomandib-
ular and anastomoses with the pseudobranchial artery. Usu-
ally the pseudobranchiaU artery has its origin from the main
stem of the external carotid (facialis-mandibularis) in the facial
region, but with Anoplo^o7na the pseudobranchial artery rises
from the external carotid close to its origin from the first effer-
ent branchial artery ; in fact it might be said to rise with the
external carotid from the first efferent branchial artery, being
fully as large as the carotid. An ophthalmic or efferent pseudo-
branchial artery always rises from the efferent pseudobranchial
arteries, which supplies only the choroid coat of the eye. In
Ofhiodon the ventral artery rises from the ventral union of the
second and third pairs of efferent branchial arteries ; while in
the other genera it comes from the union of the second efferent
vessels. This artery in Anoplo^onia is a short vessel barely
reaching the pelvic bones ; the suppl}?- for the ventral fin region
comes from the subclavian. In all the genera but Anoplofoma^
the pharynx artery, from which the coronary rises, has its
source directly from one of the second or third efferent bran-
chial arteries, but in this genus it rises from the ventral artery.
There is always a distinct circulus cephalicus formed by the
union of the encephalic, internal carotid, common carotid, first
efferent branchial, and the first epibranchial arteries. Both
pairs of epibranchials terminate in a common chamber from
which the dorsal aorta, coeliaco-mesenteric, and subclavians
have their origin ; in some cases, however, this chamber is
simply an opening between the aorta and the coeliaco-mesen-
teric. The dorsal aorta is essentially the same in all the gen-
era ; passing caudad beneath the vertebral column it gives off
the renal and spermatic arteries to the kidney and the reproduc-
tive organs, the neural, hremal, and intercostal arteries to the
body wall, and finally terminates in the caudal lin. The sub-
clavian arteries are practically the same in all the forms studied ;
they may arise from a single trunk or separately as was de-

BLOOD- VASCILAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 23

scribed under Ophiodon, or they may arise from the dorsal
aorta as in Auoplopoma. In the case of Auoploponia a rather
large hypobranchial artery is given off, which anastomoses with
the anterior ventral artery, and the right hypobranchial sends
off the posterior ventral artery for the ventral fin region. The
cceliac artery always supplies the pyloric caeca. With Ophio-
doiiy Scbaslodcs, and Anoplopoma it is the source of the left hepa-
tic artery, and in Ophiodon, Hcxagrammos^ and Anoplopoma
it gives off intestinal artery,2). From the mesenteric artery, in-
testinal artery(i), the splenic and 2 gastric arteries have their
origin. In Hexagi'mnmos and Scorfcenichthys the right gastric
is the source of the left hepatic artery, and in Scbastodcs it is
the source of the right spermatic and the anterior air-bladder
arteries, the left spermatic artery coming from the left gastric
artery. In ScorpcBuichthys the entire intestinal supply comes
from the mesenteric artery.

Swnmary of the Veins. — The jugular and its branches are
essentially the same in all the species studied, receiving the
mandibular, hyoidean, maxillary, orbito-nasal, ophthalmic, eye-
muscle, and encephalic veins. In addition to the main inferior
jugular and the left fork there are additional veins from the
pharynx region in Sebastodes, Scorpcenichthys, and Anoplopoma^
which empty into the precava. Considerable variation is shown
in the subclavian veins. There is always an external and an
internal subclavian, and in Scorpcenichthys there are several
internal subclavians. Ordinarily the internal subclavian breaks
up in the corresponding fork of the kidney, and the external
subclavian empties into the precava, but in Scoj'pcenichthys the
external subclavian also breaks up in the kidney, while in
Anoplopoma the external subclavian appears to penetrate the
scapula foramen with the corresponding artery, uniting with the
internal vein to form a common trunk, which breaks up in the
kidney. Usually there are 2 ventral veins of equal size, but
in Ophiodon one of them is often much the larger, draining the
entire ventral fin region. There is always a distinct renal portal
system. The caudal vein arises in the tail and passing forward
in the haemal canal below the aorta, receives the neural and
haemal veins, and upon entering the kidney, usually, bifurcates

124

ALLEN

into the renal portal veins. With Sehastodes these veins extend
much further cephalad than in the other genera, and in Ophio-
don and Sco7'pcenichthys the caudal vein receives the posterior
mesenteric vein immediately after entering the kidney. It is of
interest to note in connection with the posterior mesenteric vein,
that in 2 other genera of the Cottoids, namely, Calycilc^idotus
and Enofhrys, this vessel was absent. The right cardinal
always arises in the caudal end of the kidney and drains the
entire kidney, while the left cardinal drains only a .portion of
the left lobe of the kidney. The intercostal and the anterior
neural veins break up in the kidney. The spermatic veins vary
greatly in size, number, and position ; with the female they
arise from numerous branches, passing along the lateral surfaces
of the ovaries ; while in the male these branches come from the
inside of the testes, and the spermatic veins terminate in the
right cardinal or the renal portal veins. The cardinals and
jugulars always unite on the ventral surface of their respective
lobe of the kidney to form the precava, which pass around the
oesophagus and terminate in the sinus venosus. There is always
a distinctive hepatic portal system, which takes its origin from
a right and a left portal vein. Usually the left portal vein has
its source from 2 pyloric caeca veins, an intestinal, and a few
ventral gastric veins. In ScorpcBnichlhys it receives the entire
intestinal supply. The right portal ordinarily arises from a
right gastric, an intestinal, and a splenic vein; in Scorpcp-
nichthys no intestinal vein is received ; while in Sebasiodes the
right gastric branch receives the additional anterior air-bladder
vein. In Ophiodon, always, and in ScorpcBuichthys, usually,
the 2 portals have no connection within the liver ; while with
Hexagrammos a branch of the left portal anastomoses with the
right portal ; and in Sebasiodes and Anoplopoma the 2 portals
and several minor vessels empt}^ into and form a common portal.
As in other vertebrates the portals break up into venous capil-
laries within the liver, and become collected by 2 hepatic
veins, which unite in a hepatic sinus before emptying into the
sinus venosus. An interesting vein in Ophiodon and Scorpcp-
nichthys is the left gastric vein, which arises from the left side
of the stomach and empties directly into the precava. With the

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 25

Other genera this region is drained by enlarged ventral gastric
veins, that empty into the left portal.

X. BRIEF SYNONYMY OF THE BLOOD VESSELS.

1. Afferent branchial artery, A. Br. A. Branches of the
branchial artery, Monroe; Rameau (3), C. & V. Kiemenar-
terien, Hyrd, Miiller, and Stannius ; Arterie branchiali,
Emery; Arteria branchiales, McKenzie ; Afferent branchial
arteries, Parker ; Kiemenarterien, V. & Y. ^

2. Afferent jilament arteries, A.Fil.A. Une branche {n) a
chacun de ces feuillets, C. «& V. Ast der Kiemenarterie, Miil-
ler; Desc. by Stannius; {c) fig. 318, Owen; Branches of the
afferent artery, Parker; Desc. V. & Y.

3. Afferent renal veins or Advehcni renal veins, A.Ren.V.
Ven£e renalis advehens, Stannius ; Vena aveente renale, Emery ;
Vena renalis advehens, McKenzie; Afferent renal veins,
Parker.

4. Air-bladder retia mirahilia artery or Anterior air-blad-
der artery, A.Bl.A. Desc. Stannius ; Branch of coeliac to air-
bladder, Owen; Desc. and fig. Emery; Desc. McKenzie;
Artery to rete mirabile, Parker; Arterie der Schwimmblase,

V. & Y.

5. Air-bladder retia mirab ilia vein ox Anterior air-bladder
vein, A.Bl.V. Desc. Stannius ; fig. Emery ; Vessels from rete
mirabile, Parker ; Schwimmblasenvene, V. & Y.

6. Auricle, Aur. Oreillete, C. & V. Vorkammer, Miiller,
Stannius, and V. «& Y. Auricle, Owen and Parker; Atrio,
Emery; Atrium, McKenzie.

7. Bidbiis arteriosus, B.Art. Bulbe (7), C. & V. Bulbo
aortico, Emery; Bulbus arteriosus, Hyrtl, Miiller, Stannius,
Owen, McKenzie, Parker, and V. & Y.

8. Caudal artery, Cau.A. Caudal aorta, Hyrtl; Arteria
caudalis, Miiller, Stannius, and McKenzie; Caudal artery,
Parker ; Bauchaorta, V. & Y.

9. Caudal vein, Cau.V. Veins from the tail, Monroe ; Vena
caudalis, Hyrtl. Miiller, and Stannius ; Vena cardinalis, Owen ;

1 Abbreviations C. & V. stand for Cuvier and Valenciennes, V. & Y. for Vogt
and Yung, and Desc. for described.

126 ALLEN

Vena codale, Emery ; Vena caudalis, McKenzie ; Caudal
vein, Parker.

10. Civliac artery^ Coe.A. An artery like unto our coeliac,
IMonroe ; Arteria coeliaca, Hyrtl and Stannius ; Coeliac,
Owen; A. Mesentertca inferiore Emery (?); Cceliac artery,
Parker.

11. Coeliaco-incscnteric <7;Vr;'_y, Coe.Mes.A. Arteria co^liaco-
mesenterica, Hyrtl, Stannius, and McKenzie ; Arteria cceliaca,
Emery (?); La grande artere aux visceres (tt), C. & V. Coe-
liaco-mesenteric artery, Owen ; Cosliaco-mesenteric artery,
Parker : Baucharterie, V. & Y.

12. Common carotid arteries^ C.Car.A. Les arteres de la tete
(5), C. & V. Carotis communis, Stannius ; Kopfarterien, \ . &
Y. Common carotid arteries, Parker.

13. Coronary artery^ Cor. A. Coronary artery, Monroe;
Fig. C. & V. Kranzarterie, Hyrtl and Miiller ; Coronary
artery, McKenzie and Parker.

14. Coronary veins, Cor.V. Coronary veins, Monroe and
Parker.

15. Dorsal aorta, D.Ao. Trunk of descending aorta, Mon-
roe; Aorte, C & V. Aorta, Hyrtl, Miiller, Owen, Emer}-,
V. & Y. Aorta decendens, McKenzie ; Dorsal aorta, Parker.

16. Efferent branchial arteries, E.Br. A. Branchial veins,
Monroe ; La grande vcine de la branchie (/), C. & \''. Kiemen-
venen, Hyrtl, Miiller, Stannius, and V. & Y. Vene branch-
iali, Emery ; Venai Branchiales, McKenzie ; Efferent branchial
arteries, Parker.

17. Efferent Jilamcnt arteries, E.Fil.A. Une veine branch-
iale ijf), C. & V. Ast der Kiemenvene, Miiller; Desc. Stan-
nius; (d) fig. 318, Owen; Desc. McKenzie and \\ cS: Y.
Branches of the efferent arteries, Parker.

18. Efferent renal veins or Rcvehent renal veins, E.Ren.V.
V^enae renales revehentes, Stannius ; \'^ena reveente, Emery.

19. Encephalic artery or Braiji artery, Enc.A. Zweige
zum Hirn, Miiller; Hirnarterie, Stannius; Encephalic arteries
(3), McKenzie, Cerebral artery, Parker ; Hirnarterie, Y . &: Y.

20. Encephalic vein, Enc.V. Desc. by Stannius; Desc. and
ilg. by Emery; Anterior cerel)ral \ein, Parker.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 27

21. Efibranchial arteries, Epbr.A. (/-«), C. & V. Aorten-
wurzeln, Hyrtl ; Venre branchiales communes, Miiller ; Epi-
branchial arteries, Parker.

22. External carotid arteries or -posterior carotid arteries,
E.Car.A. Arteries sent to jaws, Monroe (?); Carotis externa,
Hyrtl and McKenzie ; Carotis posterior, Miiller and Stannius ;
Carotids, Owen ; Carotide posteriore, Emery ; Posterior carot-
ids, Parker ; Gesichtsarterie and Arteria facialis, V. & Y.

23. External jugtdar or facial veins, Ex.J.V. Desc. by Stan-
nius ; Anterior facial veins, Parker ; Gesichtsvene or Vena
facialis, V. &. Y.

24. Hcemal arteries, Hae.A. Hcemal arteries, Owen and
McKenzie ; Fig. C. & V. and V. & Y.

25. HcBmal veins, Hae.V. Hsemal veins, Owen and Mc-
Kenzie ; Fig. C. & V. and V. & Y.

26. Hepatic sinus, Hep.S. and Hepatic veins, Hep.V. Venae
cava Hepaticae, Monroe ; Les venes du foie, C. & V. Leber-
vene, Miiller and Stannius ; Hepatic vein, Owen and McKen-
zie; Hepatic veins and sinus, Parker; Lebervene, V. & Y.

27. Hyoidean artery, \iyo.K. Fig. C.&V. Arteria hyoideo-
opercularis, Miiller; Arteria hyoidea, Stannius; Hyo-opercular
artery, Owen ; Arteria, ioidea, Emery ; Hyoidean artery, Parker.

28. Hyoidean vein, Hyo.V. Vena ioidea, Emery; Hyoi-
dean sinus, Parker (?).

29. Hypobranchial artery, Hypobr. A. Fig. by Monroe ;
Desc. by McKenzie ; Hypobranchial artery, Parker.

30. Inferior j'ugtclar vein, I. J. V. External jugular vein,
Monroe ; Vena jugularis inferior, Miiller, Stannius, and Mc-
Kenzie ; Inferior jugular vein, Parker.

31. Inner iris vein, I.Ir.V. Die innere Vene der Iris, Miiller.

32. Intercostal arteries, Intc.A. Arteri^e intercostales,
Hyrtl, Miiller and Stannius ; Intercostals, Owen and McKen-
zie ; Intervertebral asste V. & Y.

33. Intercostal veins, Intc.V. Ven^e intercostales, Miiller
and McKenzie ; Intercostal veins, Parker.

34. Internal carotid artery, I. Car, A. Retrograde artery
(r), Monroe (?); Carotis anterior, Miiller and Stannius; Car-
otis interna, Hyrtl and McKenzie ; Carotide anteriore, Emery ;
Anterior carotid arterv, Parker; Einen tieferenStamm, V. & Y.

128 ALLEN

35. Internal jugular veins, InJ.V. Vena jugularis interna,
Muller.

36. Jntcrnal subclavian arteries, l.Suh. A.. Arteria branch-
ialis, Stannius ; Branchial artery, Parker.

37. Intestinal artery (i), Int. A. (i). Arteriee intestinales
mesenterica, Stannius ; Posterior mesenteric arter}?-, Owen ;
Mesenterica superiore, Emery (?); Mesenteric artery, jMcKen-
zie ; Dorsal intestinal artery, Parker (?): Duodenalarterie, V.
& Y. (?)

38. Intestinal artery (2), Int. A. (2). Fig. C. & V. Arter-
ial intestinales cceliaco, Stannius ; Ventral intestinal artery, Par-
ker (?); Darmarterie, V. & Y. (?).

39. Intestinal vein (i), Int.V. (i). Darmvene, Muller; Desc.
Stannius ; Fig. Emery ; Mesenteric vein, McKenzie ; Dorsal
intestinal vein, Parker (?); Darmvene, V. & Y. (?).

40. Intestinal vein (2), Int.V. (2). Ventral intestinal vein,
Parker (?).

41. Iris artery or Ophthalmic minor artery, Ir.A. Arteria
ophthalmica minor, Muller; Desc. Stannius.

42. Iris vein or Ophthalmic minor vein, Ir.V. Die aussere
Vene der Iris, Muller; Die Vene der Iris, Stannius.

43. Jugular vein, J.V. Internal jugular vein, Monroe ; Les
veines de la tete (w), C. & V. ; Vena jugularis superior, Miil-
ler ; Vena vertebralis anterior, Stannius ; Vena jugularis, Owen ;
Vena giugulare, Emery ; Anterior cardinals, McKenzie ; Jugu-
lar vein, Parker ; Jugularvene, V. & Y.

44. Lateral arteries, Lat.A. Arteria lateralis, Stannius ;
Lateral arteries, McKenzie.

45. Lateral veins, Lat.V. Lateral veins, McKenzie.

46. Left cardinal vein, L.Car.V. Abdominal or vena cava,
Monroe ; Les veines des reins (^), C. & V. ; Vertebralvene,
Muller; Vena vertebralis posterior, Stannius; Vena cardinalis,
Owen ; Vena cardinale, Emery ; Left cardinal vein, McKen-
zie and Parker ; Linke cardinalvene, V. & Y.

47. Left gastric artery, L.Gas.A. Fig. C. & V. and V. &
Y. Anterior gastric artery, Parker (?).

48. Left gastric vein, L.Gas.V. Anterior gastric vein, Par-
ker (?).

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 29

49. Left hcfatic artery, L.Hep.A. Small artery resembling
the hepatic artery, Monroe; Desc. by C. «& V. and Miiller ;
Arteriae hepatica?, Hyrtl and Stannius ; Hepatic artery, McKen-
zie ; Left hepatic artery, Parker ; Leberarterie, V. & Y.

50. Mesenteric artery^ Mes.A. An artery resembling our
superior mesenteric artery, Monroe ; Arteria mesenterica anter-
ior, Hyrtl and Stannius; Arteria celiaca, Emery (?); Mesen-
teric artery, Parker; Baucharterie, V. & Y. (?).

51. My elonal artery, '^ly.K. Myelonal artery, Parker.

52. Myelonal vein, My.V. Not vena neuralis of Owen;
Myelonal vein, Parker.

53. I^eural arteries, '^Q.u.K. Arteria spinales, Hyrtl ; Neu-
ral arteries, McKenzie ; Spinal arteries, Parker.

54. Neural veins, Neu.V. Neural veins, Owen and Mc-
Kenzie ; Spinal veins, Parker.

55. Nutrient branchial arteries, l^.^Y.K. Nutrient branch-
ial arteries, Parker.

56. NtUrient branchial veins, N.Br. A. Venae nutritiae der
Kiemenbogen, Miiller; Venge nutritive, Stannius and Owen;
Nutrient branchial veins, Parker.

57. Nutrient filament arteries, l^.YW.K. Bronchialarterien,
Muller ; Arteria bronchialis, Stannius ; Arteriae nutritias, Owen.

58. Nutrient filament veins, l^i.'FW.Y . Bronchialvenen, Miil-
ler; Vena bronchiales, Stannius.

59. Ophthahnic artery or Efi'erent -pscudobranchial artery,
Oph.A. Arteria ophthalmica magna, Muller and Stannius ;
Ophthalmic artery, Owen; Desc. and Fig., Emery ; Ophthal-
mica magna, McKenzie ; Ophthalmic artery, Parker ; Efferent
pscudobranchial artery, Allis.

60. Ophthalmic vein, Oph.V. Vena ophthalmica magna,
Miiller and Stannius ; Desc. and Fig. Emery.

61. Optic or Retina artery. Opt. A. Die Gefasse der Retina
und der Hallenschen Gefasse, Miiller ; Arteria ottalmica,
Emery (?); Optic artery, Allis.

62. Orbito-nasal artery, O.N. A. Zweige zu den Augen-
muskeln und zur Nase, Miiller; Arteria etmoidale, Emery;
Augenarterie, V. & Y.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

130 ALLEN

63. Oj-bito-nasal vcm, O.N.V. Vena etmoidale, Emery:
Orbital sinus, Parker.

64. Phai-ynx artery^ Phar.A. Pericardial arter}^, Parker (?).
6"^. Poster i 07' air-bladdei- artery^ P.A.Bl.A. Vena vescicale

posteriore, Emery.

66. Posterior' cncefJialic vein, P.Enc.V. Desc. by Emery;
Posterior cerebral vein, Parker.

67. Poste7'ior or left foi'tal vein, L.Por.V. La veine porte
(/), C & V. Pfortaderstamm, Muller and Stannius ; Portal trunk,
Owen ; Portal vein, McKenzie ; Hepatic portal and Portal vein,
Parker ; Pfortader, V. & Y.

68. Precaval vein or Ductus cuvieri, Prec.V. Desc. and
figured by Monroe ; Trunci transversi, Stannius ; Precaval
vein, Owen ; Tronco di Cuvier, Emery ; Ductus cuvieri, Mc-
Kenzie ; Precaval vein, Parker ; Ductus cuvieri, V. & Y.

69. Pscudohranchial arteiy or Afferent fscudobranchial 07--
tery, Ps.A. Part of Arteria hyoideo-opercularis, Muller; Part
of Arteria hyoidea, Stannius; Part of Hyo-opercular, Owen;
Part of Arteria ioidea, Emery ; Pseudobranchial artery, Parker :
Afferent pseudobranchial artery, Allis.

70. Pyloric ccpca arteries, 'K.Q^e^.K. Fig. C. & V. Desc.
by Stannius, Parker, and V. & Y.

71. Pyloric c<Bca veins, '^.Qds^N . Fig. C. & V. Desc. by
Stannius and V. & Y.

72. Re7ial Arteries, Ren. A. Arteria renales, McKenzie;
Renal arteries, Parker ; Nieren arterienzweige, V. & Y.

73. Renal -portal vein, Ren.P.V. Vena renalis advehens,
Stannius ; Veine porte renale, Jourdain ; Vena aveente renale,
Emery ; Vena renalis advehens, McKenzie ; Renal portal vein,
Parker.

74. Right cardinal vein, R.Car.V. Vena vertebralis pos-
terior dextra, Stannius ; Vena3 cardinales, Owen ; ^^ena car-
dinale, Emery; Right cardinal vein, McKenzie and Parker;
Rechte cardinalvene, V. & Y.

75. Right gastric artery, R.Gas.A. Desc. Muller, Stan-
nius, and McKenzie ; Gastric artery, Owen ; Fig. and Desc.
Emery; Dorsal gastric artery, Parker (?); Magenarterie,
V. cS: Y.

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI I3I

76. Rio-/it gastric vein, R.Gas.V. Desc. Stannius ; Fig.
Emery; Gastric vein, McKenzie ; Anterior lieno-gastric vein,
Parker (?) ; Desc. and Fig. V. & Y.

77. Right hepatic artery, R.Hep.A. Einen fur jeden
Leberlappen, Muller; Arteriee hepatica^ Stannius, Right
hepatic artery, Parker; Leberarterie, V. «& Y.

78. Sinus venostis, Sin.Ven. Sinus veineux, C. &. V.
Sinus venosus, Stannius, Hyrtl, Owen, McKenzie, and
Parker; Sinus communis, Muller; Venensinus, V. & Y.

79. Spermatic artery, S^QY.K. Fig. C. & V. Genitalarterie,
Muller and V. & Y. Desc. Stannius ; Fig. Emery and C. & V.
Genital artery, McKenzie ; Spermatic artery, Parker.

80. Spermatic vein, Sper.V. Les veines des organes de la
generation {ip), C. & V. Genitalvenen, Muller and V. & Y.
Desc. Stannius ; Fig. Emery ; Genital veins, McKenzie ;
Spermatic veins, Parker.

81. Splenic artery, Spl.A. Fig. C. & V. and Emery;
Desc. Stannius and Owen ; Splenic artery, McKenzie and
Parker ; Desc. and Fig. by V. & Y.

82. Splenic vein, Spl.V. Fig. C. & V. and Emery; Desc.
Stannius; Vein from spleen, Owen; Splenic vein, McKenzie
and Parker; Desc. and Fig. V. & Y.

83. Subclavian artery, Sub. A. Subclavian artery, Monroe,
Owen, McKenzie, and Parker ; Arteria subclavia, Muller,
Hyrtl, and Stannius ; Arterie ascellari, Emery ; Schulter-
arterie, V. & Y.

84. Subclavian veins (i), (2), and (3), Sub.V. (i) to (3).
Subclavian vein, Monroe and Parker; Vena subclavia, Stan-
nius ; Includes the branchial vein of Stannius and Parker ;
Schultervene, V. & Y.

85. Thyroid artery, Thyr.A. Thyroid artery, McKenzie.

86. Urinary bladder artery and vein, Ur.B.A. and Ur.B.V.
Fig. C. & V. and V. & Y.

87. Ventral aorta or Branchial artery, \ .ko. Branchial
artery, Monroe and Owen ; L'artere branchiale (s), C. & V.
Arteria branchialis, Muller; Kiemenarterienstamm, Stannius;
Cardiac aorta, Huxley ; Truncus arteriosus, McKenzie ; Tronco
dell'aorta, Emery ; Gemeinsame Kiemenarterie, V. & Y.

132 ALLEN

88. Ventral artery ^N&n.K. Ramus epigastricus decendens,
Miiller (?); Arteria epigastrica, Stannius ; Fig. C. & V.
Artery supplying the pelvic fins, Parker.

89. Ventral intercostal arteries^ V.Intc.A. Fig. C. & V.
Arteriee intercostales ventrales, Miiller.

90. Ventral intercostal veins, V.Intc.V. Fig. C. & V.
Vena intercostales ventrales, Miiller.

91. Ventral veins, Ven.V. May be homologous to the epi-
gastric veins of Miiller and Stannius.

92. Ventricle, Ven. Ventricule, C. & V. Herzkammer,
Miiller, Stannius, and V. & Y. Ventricolo, Emery; Ventricle,
Owen, McKenzie, and Parker.

XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Albers.

1806 Title not known. Getting, gel. Anz., 1S06.

2. Agassiz et Vogt.

1845 Anatomic des Salmones. Memoires de la Societe des Science naturelles
de Neuchatel, 1S45.

3. Allis, E. P.

1897 Cranial Muscles and Cranial and First Spinal Nerves in Amia calva.

< Journ. of Morph., Vol. 12, 1S97.

4. Allis, E. P.

1900 Pscudobranchial Circulation in Amia calva. •< Zool. Jahrb., Oct.,
1900.

5. Bau, K. E.

1834 Ueber das Gefasssystem der Braunfische. <^ Abhandhn. "der Berl.
Akad., 1834.

6. Bonsdorf, E. J.

1851 Portven Systemct hos Gadus Lota. Helsingf., 1851.

7. Boas, J. E. V.

1880 Ueber Hertz und Arterienbogen bei Ceratodus und Protopterus

< Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 6, 18S0.

8. Boas, J. E. V.

1887 Ueber die Arterienbogen der Wirbelthiere. <^ Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 13,
1887.

g. Bietrix, E.
1895 Etude de quelques faits relatifs a la morphologic gdndrale du sjsteme
circulatoire. Paris, 1895, Abstr. in Zool. Jahrb.

10. Briinnings, W.

1900 Zur Physiologic des Krcislaufe der Fische. Archiv f. Phy., 1900.

11. Cuvier et Valenciennes.

1828 llistoire Naturelle des Poissons. Paris. Vol. i, Pis. 7 and 8, 1S2S.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 33

12. Cunningham, J. T.

i8go A Treatise 011 the Common Sole. Plymouth, 1S90.

13. Duverney, M.

1699 Structure du Coeur des Poissons. Hist, de I'Acad. des Sci. de Paris,
1699. Also reprint in Artedi Bibliotheca Ichthjologica, 1788.

14. Duverney, G. J.

1701 Mem. sur la circulation du Sang des Poissons. Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris,
1 701. Also reprint in Artedi Bibliotheca Ichthjologica, 1788.

15. Dollinger, J.

181 1 Ueber den eigentlichen Bau des Fishherzens. Annal. d. Welter.
Gesellsch. f. d. ges. Naturkunde, 181 1.

16. Dollinger, J.

1831 Ueber die Vertheilung des Blutes in den Kiemen der Fische. Aus den
Abhandljn. d. Konigl. Bayer Akad. der Wissensch., 1831.

17. Demme, R.

i860 Gefiisssystem von Acipenser rethenus. Wien., 1S60.

18. Denissenko, G.

1880 Mittheilung iiber die Gefiisse der Netzhaut der Fishe. Arch. f. Mik.
Anat., 1880.

ig. Dean, B.

1895 Fishes, Living and Fossil. Columbia University Biol., Ser. 3, 1S95.

20. Dohrn, A.

Various papers in Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, Bd. 6, 10, 11 and 15.

21. Eichwald.

1819 De Selachis Aristotelis. Vilnse, 1819.

22. Eschricht, D. F.

1857 Ueber die Wundernetze an den Leber des Thunfisches. Aus den Ab-
handlyn. der Berlin Akad., 1857.

23. Milne Edwards, H.

1859 Legons sur la Physiologie et I'Anatomie. Paris, 1859.

24. Emery, C.

1880 Fierasfer. Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Roma, 1880.

25. Fohmann, V.

1827 Das Saugadersystem der Wirbelthiere. Heidelberg'^u. Leipzig, 1827.

26. Gegenbaur, C.

1866 Zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Herzens. Jen. Zeitsch. t. Naturw.,
Bd. 2, 1866.

27. Gegenbaur, C.

1870 Grundzuge der vergleichenden Anatomie. Leipzig, 1870. Eng. Trans.
F.J. Bell, London, 187S.

28. Gegenbaur, C.

1891 Ueber, den Conus x\rteriosus der Fische. Morph. Jahrb., Oct. 1891.

29. Hall, M.

1831 Critical and Experimental Essayson the Circulation of the Blood in
Minute Capillary Vessels of Batrachia and Fishes. London, 183 1.

134 ALLEN

30. Hyrtl, J.

1838 Ueber das Gefiisssystem der Fische. Med. Jahrb. d. osterr. Staates,
Bd. 15, 1838.

31. Hyrtl, J.

1843 Ueber die Caudal und Kopf-Sinuse der Fische, und das damit zusam-
menhangende Seitengef ass- System. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., p. 224,
1S43.

32. Hyrtl, J.

1852 Ueber das Arterien-System dcs Lepidosteus. Wirklichem mitgliede
der Kais. Akademie der Wissenshaften, Bd. 8, 1S52.

33. Hyrtl, J.

1853 Anatomic von Saccobranchus Singio. Wirkl. mitg. d. Kais. Akad. d.
Wissensch., Bd. 9, 1853.

34. Hyrtl, J.

1858 Das arterielle Gefass-System der Rochen. Denk. Akad. Wien., Bd. 15,
1858.

35. Hyrtl, J.

1869 Ueber die Blutgefasse der ausseren Kiemendeckelkieme von Polypterus
Lapradei. Wirkl. mitg. d. Kais. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1S69.

36. Hewson, W.

1869 Lymphatic System of Fish. Phil. Trans., Vol. 59, 1S69.

37. Hyrtl, J.

1871 Die Kopfarterien der Haifische. Denk. Akad. Wien, Bd. 32, 1871.

38. Hochstetter, F.

1887 Beitriige zur vergleichenden Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Venensystems der Amphibien und Fische. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 13,
18S7.

39. Hoffman, C. K.

1893 Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Herzens und der Blutgefasse bei den
Selachiern. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 19 und 20, 1893.

40. Hopkins, G. S.

1893 LNinphatics and Enteric Epithelium of Amia calva. Wilder Qiiarter
Centuary Book, Ithaca, 1S93.

41. Jones, W.

1838 Title not known. London Med. Gazette, p. 650, Jan., 1S3S.

42. Jourdain, S.

1859 Rcclierches sur la Veine Porte Renale. Ann. dcs Sci. Nat., Tome 12,

1859.

43. Jones, T. W.

1868 The Caudal Heart of the Eel a Lymphatic Heart. Phil. Trans., 1S68.

44. Jordan and Gilbert.

1883 Synopsis of Fishes of North America. Bull. 16, U. S. Nat. Mus.,
1S83.

45. Jordan and Evermann.

1898 Fishes of Norlli and Middle America, Vol. 2. Bull. .^7, U. S. Nat.
Mus., 189S.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 35

46. Kasem-Beck und Dogiel.

1882 Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Structur und der Function des Ilerzens der
Knochenfische. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., 1882.

47. Lankester, E. R,

1879 Hearts of Ceratodus, Protopterus, and Chimiera. Trans. Zool. Soc.
London, Vol. 11, 1S79.

48. Monroe, A.

1787 Vergleichung des Baues und der Physiologic der Fische. Leipzig,

17S7.

49 . Monroe, A.

1788 A Description of the Heart and Circulation of Blood in Fishes. Artedi
Bibliotheca Ichthvologica, p. 1S4, 1788.

50. Miiller, J.

1839 Ueber das Gefiisssystem der Fische. Abhandl. d. Berlin Akad., 1839.
Also vol. 4, Vergleichende Anatomic der Myxinoiden. Berlin, 1841.

51. Maurer, F.

1883 Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Pseudobranchie der Knochenfische.
Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 9, 1883.

52. McKenzie, T.

1884 Blood Vascular System of Amiurus Catus. Proc of the Canadian Inst.,
18S4.

53. Marshall and Hurst.

1886 Practical Zoology. New York and London, 1SS6.

54. Mayer, P.

1887 Ueber die Entwickelung des Herzens und der grossen Gefassstamme
bei den Selachiern. Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel., Bd. 7, 1887.

55. Mayer, P.

1888 Ueber Eigenthiimlickeiten in den Kreislaufsorganen. Mitth. Zool. Stat.

Neapel., Bd. 8, 1SS8.

56. Maurer, F.

1888 Die Kiemen und ihre Gefasse bei Anuren und Teleostieren. Morph.
Jahrb., Bd. 14, 1S8S.

57. Miiller, F. W.

1897 Ueber Entwickelung und MorphologischcBedeutung der Pseudobranchie
und ihre Umgebung bei Lepidosteus Osseus. Arch. f. Mik. Anat.
Vol. 49, 1S97.

58. Owen, R.

1866 Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates. London, Vol. i, 1S66.

59. Parker, T. J.

1880 On the Venous System of the Skate, Raja Nasuta. Trans, of the N.
Zealand Inst., Vol. 13, 1880.

60. Parker, T. J.

i885 Blood Vessels of Mustelus Antarticus. Phil. Trans, of the Roy. Soc.
London, p. 6S5, 1886.

61. Parker, T. J.

1895 Zootomy. London, 1895.

136 ALLEN

62. Parker and Haswell.

1897 Text Book of Zoology. London, Vol. 2, 1897.

63. Parker and Davis.

1899 Blood Vessels of the Heart of Carcharias, Raja, and Amia. Proc. of the
Boston Soc. of Nat. His., Vol. 29, 1899.

64. Quekett, J.

1844 On the Arrangement of the Blood Vessels in the Air-Bladder of Fishes.
Trans, of Micro. Soc. of London, Vol. i, 1844.

65. Quekett, J.

1852 Capillaries in the Gills of Fishes. Trans.. of Micro. Soc. of London,
Vol. 2, 1852. Also Vol. 3, 1847.

66. Rathke, M. H.

1826 Ueber die Herzkammer der Fische. Arch. f. Anat. u Phjs., p. 152,
1S26.

67. Rathke, M. H.

1826 Ueber die Leber, und das Pfortadersystem der Fische. Arch. f. Anat.
u. Phys., 1826.

68. Robin, C.

1867 Sur les vaisseux lymphatiques des Poissons. Arch. gen. de med.. Par-
tie anatomique, 1845. Also Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., Bd. 4, 1867.

69. Rattone et Mondino.

1889 Sur la Circulation du Sang dans le Foie. Arch. Ital. de Bio., Vol. I2,
1889.

70. Rose, C.

1890 Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomic des Herzens der Wirbelthire.
Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 16, 1890.

71. Raffaele, F.

1892 Ricerche sullo sviluppo del sistema vascolare nei Selacei. Mitth. Zool.
Stat. Neapel., 1892.

72. Ridewood, W. G.

1899 On the Relaltions of the Efferent Branchial Blood-vessels to the Cir-
culus Cephalicus in Teleostean Fishes. Proc. London Zool. Soc, 1899.

73. Schina, A. B. M.

1836 Anatomico fisiologica comparativa del sistema vasale. Torino, Vol. 2,
1836.

74. Stannius, H.

1854 Handbuch der Anatomic der Wirbelthiere. Bd. i, 1854.

75. Stohr, M. P.

1876 Ueber den Klappenapparat im Conus Arteriosus der Selachier und
Ganoiden. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 2, 1876.

76. Sappey, P. C.

1880 ICtudes sur I'Appareil mucipareet sur le Systeme lymphatique des Pois-
sons. Paris, 1880.

77. Spencer, W. B.

1892 Contributions to our Knowledge of Ceratodus. Macleary Memorial
Vol. Sydney, Part i, 1S92.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 37

78. Shonlein et Willem.

1895 Observations sur la circulation du sang chez quelqiie Poissons. Bull.
Sci. France Belg., Tome 26, 1S95.

79. Tiedermann, F.

1809 Anatomic des Fishherzens. Landshut, 1809.

80. Treviranus, G. R.

1839 Beobachtungen aus der Zootomie und Physiologic. Bremen, 1839.

81. Trois, E. F.

1878 Contribuzione alio studio del sistema linfatico dei Teoleostei. Extr.
degli Atti del R. Istituto Veneto, pp. 1-55. 1878-81.

82. Thesen, J.

i8g6 Etude zur la biologic du occur des Poissons osseux. Arch. Zool.
Exper., Tome 4, 1896.

83. Vogt, C.

1842 Embryologie des Salmones. Neuchatel, i8z|2.

84. Virchow, H.

1890 Ueber die Spitzlochkieme von Acipenser und ihre Verbindung mit den
Kopfgefasscn. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., 1890.

85. Vogt und Yung.

1894 Lehrbuch der praktischen vergleichenden Anatomic, Bd. 2, 1894.

86. Wiedersheim, R.

1886 Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomic der Wirbelthiere. Jena, 1886.

87. Wiedersheim, R.

1893 Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomic der Wirbelthiere. Jena, 1893.
Translation by W. N. Parker, London, 1897.

88. Ziegler, H. E.

1877 Die enstehung des Blutes bei Knochenfischembryonen. Arch. f. mik.
Anat., Bd. 30, 1877.

XII. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

All figures were drawn from actual dissections. Fig. i was compiled from
the dissections of three or four specimens, the others from a single specimen.

The arteries are colored red and the veins blue. A vessel drawn in dotted
lines signifies that it passes in or behind a bone, muscle, or organ.

PLATE I.
Ophiodon elo7igatiis ; Blue cod.

Fig. I. Represents a general lateral view of the vascular system. The hyoid
vessels are cut and the arch moved caudad from its natural position to
show the deeper branchial vessels, and a considerable part of the caudal
portion of the body between the vent and the caudal fin is left out.

2. Dorsal view of an injected gill or branchial filament. Meshes of the
capillary network are diagrammatic and are greatly enlarged. Injected
with Hoyer's chrome jellow gelatin mass. Natural size.

3. Dorsal view of a pseudobranchial filament. Efferent vessels in yellow.
Its network is also greatly enlarged. Injected as Fig. 2. Natural size.

4. Lateral view of a portion of the efferent pseudobranchial filament
artery. Injected as Fig. 2. Leitz 3. Oc. i. X/4-

5. Represents a ventral view of the union of the efferent branchial ar-
teries to form the main arterial trunks, and also the large veinous
trunks emptying into the precaval veins. Only the left dorsal branchial
retractor muscle is indicated. A 15 lb. Opkt'odon, X ^•

6. A portion of the viscera from the left and dorsal side. Opposite side
of the stomach shown from Fig. i. 40 lb. Ophiodon, y^%.

7. Origin of the caudal vein from the ventral side, showing its relations
with the lymphatic system. 15 lb. Ophiodou, X^-

8. Deeper dissection of Fig. 7. showing the ending of the caudal artery.

9. Anterior view of a caudal vertebra, showing the caudal trunks in sec-
tion. 15 lb. OpJiiodon, 'X}i.

10. General lateral view of the blood supply to the kidney, testes, and uri-
nary-bladder of a 15 lb. Ophiodcii, X/^-

11. Dorsal dissection of the liver to show the main trunks. Portal system
in blue and hepatic sj'stem drawn in outline. 20 lb. Op/tiodon, X/^-

PLATE 1

PROC^ WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. VII

LCau.V.

L.Mat L.V.
RX.-A

ONA oph

PLATE II.

Ophiodon elongatus ; Blue cod.

Fig. 12. Rei)resents a general ventral view of the head region, including the
ventral or pelvic fins. Hyoid arch and genio-hyoideus muscle entirely
removed from the left side. Pectorals also not shown. 40 lb. Ophio-
don, XVz-

13. Eye muscles from the left side. 15 lb. Opkiodou, X %•

14. Shows the blood supply to the inner surface of the right pectoral fin.
40 lb. OpJiiodo7i, Xyz-

115. Represents a doral dissection at the level of the floor of the brain case.

To show the blood supply for the eye, eye muscles, and brain. Floor

of the brain case removed, and the trigeminal-facialis trunks are shown

on the right side. 20 lb. Ophiodon, X>2-
16. General lateral view in the region of the left head kidney. To show

the blood supply for the posterior part of the brain and the cord.

(140)

PKOC wash. ACAO. SCI., vol VI

PLATE 1[

PLATE III.

Ophiodoti elongatus ; Blue cod.

Hydrolagiis colliei; Chimsera (Fig. 26).

Fig. 17. Represents the blood supply to and from the nasal sac, as seen from
the right side. Anterior part of the eye shown in outline. 40 lb.
Op/iiodoii, X 2.

18. Same as 17. Nasal sac in outline, to show the veins leaving the inner
side of the sac.

19. Dissection of the right eye from the inside. The sclerotic coat and
silver layer of the choroid are removed to show the large choroid sinus,
the double rete mirabile or choroid gland, [and the iris vein, all of
which run in the vascular layer of the choroid coat. 20 lb. Offtiodoii,
natural size.

20. Same eye, but deeper dissection to show the choroid artery and its rete
mirabile.

21. Frontal section through the retina and choroid coats, showing the
choroid artery, the choroid sinus, and the retina artery in section.
20 lb. Op/iiodo7i, natural size.

22. Shows an inside view of the right eye. A sagittal incision was made
nearly through an injected eye and the three coats were folded to the
right. The entire course of the retina arterj' from its entrance with
the optic nerve until it ends on the lens is distinctly shown. 15 lb.
Ophiodon, X Vz ■

23. General lateral view of the blood supply to and from the brain. 15 lb.
Ophiodoii, natural size.

23^. Blood vessels to and from the auditory organs. 30 lb. Ophiodon ^
natural size.

24. General dorsal view of the vascular supply of the same brain as Fig.
23. Cranial nerves and anterior encephalic veins shown only on the
right side.

25. Same brain as above from the ventral side. Cranial nerves not shown
on the right side.

, 26. General lateral view of the main branchial vessels of Hydrolagus
colliei, Chimsera. Inserted to show the wide variation in the carotid
arteries, y^yi-

PHOC, kVASH ACAD, SCl., VOL. Vil.
I

N. S.V.J
•■ N. S.V.I

P.EncU Mr.V.

RLat A¥ yWR

L>r. H.

Car. 23a PLATE Hr

Op"-. : ■ ' ,f^„ -rar PEncV.

ACerA jj PCerVMV. ' j^^^

EncV RCerA CerA.

" ■ EocA. A.CerV. Mr.A.

T^ T3 j-y CCA

Efil Y.m.R Obl.V,

A.CerA.

D.Chor.V. Cil.L

A.Ret.M-
V.Rel.M

- Oph-V
Cil B.
OphA.

% Cii, N 25

V =^^vi;^ iAuJA TV •^p'^i

PAull' l*VV.

Opt A tncA n^^ ni^A PEncV

ACerA RCerA Tib. Sac Vas

AudV
Inf. A

A.EncJ

PEncA.

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Opt-'- \ "^

...^ Orb A

\
^ ! ECarA

D.Ao.
Ep BrA,

^^^ "^ Cob Mes

( f\ ^'^''*

F.Max -A

\ li

>f / P E.Br A.

PLATE IV.

Uexagrammos decagrainmus ; Sea trout (Figs. 27 and 28).
Scorpcenichthys niarmoraUis ; Cabezon (Figs. 29 and 30).
Sebastodes atiriculatus ; Rock cod (Figs. 31 and 34).
Sebastodes Jlavidus ; Rock cod (Figs. 32 and 33).

Fig. 27. Represents a general lateral view of the viscera of a 12 in. Hexagram-
mos. The organs are greatly spread out, in order to better display
their blood vessels. X^-
2S. Same specimen as above, showing the opposite or left side of the
stomach.

29. General lateral view of the viscera of a 15 in. Scorpatnichihys. The
organs are well spread out to show their blood supply and the liver is
not figured. X ^•

30. Same specimen as above, showing the left or opposite side of the
stomach, and including the liver and the inner surface of the left
pectoral fin. Hepatic system shown in dotted lines.

31. Represents a general lateral view of the viscera of a 12 in. Sebastodes
aiiriculaius. Body tilted to show the ventral surface of the kidney,
and all the organs spread out so as to best reveal their blood vessels.
Notice the spermatic vem emptying directly into the left precaval vein.

32. A portion of the viscera, showing the blood supply for the left side of
the stomach (opposite side from Fig. 31), and the liver of a 10 in-
Sebastodes Jlavidus. This species, though one of the most generalized
of the genus, has a system of blood vessels identical with 5. auyicula-
iiis, which is one of the most specialized. X %•

33. Shows the blood supply to the gall-bladder and to a gland-like body.
Sebastodes flavidiis, XK-

34. Shows a variation in the vascular s^'stem to the gall-bladder. Sebas.
todes atiriculatus, X z^-

(144)

PROC. WASH ACAO SCI.. VOL VII

Sc
Se
Se

Fig.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

PLATE V.
Anoplopoma Jimbria ; Black cod.

Fig. 31;. Represents general lateral view of the principal trunks in the head re-
. gion of Anoplopoma, X y^-

36. Shows general ventral view of the head region, including the pectoral
and ventral fins of Anoplopoma. Ventral musculature and oesophagus
removed to show the heart and union of the epibranchial arteries to
form the dorsal aorta, coeliaco-mesenteric, and subclavian arteries.

37. View of the viscera of Anoplopoma from the left and dorsal side. X Yz-

38. A portion of the viscera of Anoplopoma from the left and ventral side.

(146)

PLATE V.

PROC WASH ACAD SCI.. VOL. VH.

R Porv LGasA vGasV

E«JVlC«rA E,C«>A EBrA.! tf.Br.Ai. DA

ONV \EncA;

PLATE VI.

Heart of OpJiiodon eloiigattis.

Fig. 39 is from a photograph of the posterior half of a large OpJiiodojCs heart,
looking inward and caudad. This heart had previously been injected
with a gelatin mass and hardened in formalin, and the cut was made
directly between the anterior and posterior auriculo-ventricular valves.

40. As above, is a photograph of the ventral side of a large Ophiodotis
heart. A portion of the ventral wall of the ventricle had been removed
to the depth of the central cavity to show the semi-lunar and auriculo-
ventricular valves. X 2.
Abbreviatio7is used. — Aur., Auricle. A.V.O., Auriculo-ventricular opening.
A.V.V., Auriculo-ventricular valves. B.Art., Bulbus arteriosus. C.Art., Conus
arteriosus. C.C.V., Central cavity of the ventricle. C.T., Connective tissue.
L.F., Longitudinal folds or ridges. M.L., Muscular layer. S.A.O., Sinu-auric-
ularopening. S. A. V. , Sinu-auricular valves. S.V., Semi-lunar valves. S.Ven.,
Sinus venosus. T.C.A., Trabecule carnse auricle. T.C.V., Trabecula; carnie
ventricle. V.Ao., Ventral aorta. Ven., Ventricle.

Text-fig. \. — Represents a transverse section through the auricle and ven-
tricle of Ophiodon elongattis. This section was made through one of the auric-
ulo-ventricular valves. Camera lucida. Leitz No. 2 obj. with lower lens
removed.

Textfig. 2. — Camera drawing of transverse section through the region of
the conus arteriosus. Same obj. as above.

Abbreviations used. — Aur., Auricle. A.V.V., Auriculo-ventricular valve.
C.T., Connective tissue. E.M.F., Elastic muscle fibers. End., Endothelium.
L.M., Longitudinal muscle fibers. S.V., Semi-lunar valves. T.^L, Transverse
muscle fibers. Ven., Ventricle.

(148)

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate VI.

S.Ven

Ven.

A.V.V.

c.v.

T. C.V. ;

M"^

■% ^

v./

\o.

Art.

B.Art

y^n. /^ur.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI I49

XIII. REFERENCE LETTERS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE

FIGURES.

The letter D or V prefixed to an abbreviation indicates dorsal or ventral ; R
or L, right or left ; A or P, anterior or posterior ; Ex or In, external or internal.
A series of similar named vessels is numbered from cephalad to caudad.

A. A. Anterior ampulla.

A.Aud.A. Anterior auditory artery.

a to e. Terminal branches or radicals of the left portal.

A.Bl. Air-bladder.

A.Bl.A. Anterior air-bladder or retia mirabilia artery.

A.Bl.V. Anterior air-bladder or retia mirabilia vein.

A. Br. A. Afferent branchial arteries.

Ab.V.S. Abductor muscle of ventral spine.

A.Cer.A. Anterior cerebral artery.

A.Cer.V. Anterior cerebral vein.

Ad.Hym.' Adductor hyomandibularis.

Ad.M.M. Adductor mandibulse muscles.

Ad. Pal. A. Adductor palatine arch. M. adductor arcus palatini.

A.Fil.A. Afferent filament arteries.

A.G.Bl.A. Anterior gall-bladder artery.

A.G.Bl.V. Anterior gall-bladder vein.

A. Int. A. Anterior intestinal artery.

A.Int.V. Anterior intestinal vein.

A.Ps.Fil.A. Afferent pseudobranchial filament artery.

A.R. Anal fin rays.

A.Ren.V. Afferent or advehent renal veins.

A.Ret.M. Arterial retia mirabilia of choroid gland.

Aud.A. Auditory artery.

Aud.C. Auditory capsule.

Aud.V. Auditory vein.

Aur. Auricle.

B.Art. Bulbus arteriosus.

Br. A. Branchial arches.

Br.M.A. Dorsal branchial muscle arteries.

Br.O.A. Branchiostegal arteries.

Br.R, Branchiostegal rays.

Cae. Pyloric caeca.

Csefi) to (5) Five pyloric caeca of Anoplofoma.

Camp.H. Campanula Halleri.

Cau.A. Caudal artery.

Cau.V. Caudal vein.

CCA. 1

C''.C.A'. /- Cranial cavity arteries.

Q".Q,".K". J

C.Car.A. Common carotid artery.

ccv.
c.c.v.

Cen. Centrum

> Cranial cavity veins.

150 ALLEN

Cer. Cerebellum.

Cer.A. Cerebellum artery-

Cer.H. Cerebral lobes or hemispheres.

Chor. Choroid coat of the eye.

Chor.A Choroid arteries.

Chor.A.(i) Superior choroid artery.

Chor.A. (2) Inferior choroid artery.

Chor.S. Choroid sinus.

Chor.V. Choroid veins.

Cil.B. Ramus ciliaris breyis.

Cil.L. Ramus ciliaris longus.

Cil.N. Ciliary nerve.

C.L.Sin. Caudal lymphatic sinus.

Cce.A. Coeliac artery.

Coe.Mes.A. Cceliaco-mesenteric artery.

Con. Art. Conus arteriosus.

Cor. A. Coronary artery.

Cor.V. Coronary vein.

C.P.V. Common portal vein. Sebastodes and Anoflopoma only.

C.R. Caudal fin rays.

Cran. Cranial wall.

Q./V .' Connecting vein. OpJiiodon and ScorpanicJithys only.

C.Ver. Caudal vertebra.

D.Ao. Dorsal aorta.

D.Br.R.M. Dorsal branchial retractor muscle. Retractor arc. branch

dorsalis of Vetter.

D. Chor.V. Dorsal choroid vein.

Di.Op.M. Dilator opercular muscle.

D.Lat.A. Dorsal lateral arteries.

D.Lat.V. Dorsal lateral veins.

D. & L.M.P.R. Depressor and levator muscles of the pectoral rays.

D.L.V. Dorsal lymphatic vessel.

D.M.A.R. Depressor muscle, anal ray.

D.M.D.R. Depressor muscle, dorsal ray.

D.O.M. Dorsal oblique muscles of the branchial arches (3). Obliqui

dorsales of Vetter.

D.R. Dorsal fin rays.

D.S. Dorsal spines.

E.A. External ampulla.

E.Br. A. Efferent branchial arteries.

E.Br.L. External branchial levator muscles (4). Levatores arch, branch

extern i of Vetter.

E.Car.A. External carotid artery.

E.Fil.A. Efferent filament arteries.

Enc.A. Encephalic artery.

Enc.V. Encephalic vein.

Epbr.A. Epibranchial arteries.

Epi. Epiphysis.

E.Ps.Fil.A. Efferent pseudobranchial filament arteries.

BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI I5I

E.Ren. A. Efferent renal or revehent renal veins.

E.Sub.A. External subclavian artery.

Eth. Ethmoid.

Ex.J.V. External jugular vein.

Ex.R.A. External rectus artery.

Ex.R.M. External rectus muscle.

Ex.R.V. External rectus vein.

F.A. Facial artery.

Fal.P. Falciform process.

Fil.Net. Branchial filament network.

F.Man. A. Facialis-mandihularis artery.

F.Man.V. Facialis-mandibularis vein.

F.Max. A. Facialis-maxillaris artery.

F.Max.V. Facialis-maxillaris vein.

G. Gland.

G.B. Gall-bladder.

Ghs.A. Geniohyoideus artery.

Ghs.M. Geniohyoideus muscle.

Ghs.V. Geniohyoideus vein.

Gl.H. Glossohyal.

H. Hypophysis.

Hje.A. Hiemal arteries.

Hae.L.V. Haemal lymphatic vessels.

Hse.V. Haemal veins.

Hep.S. Hepatic sinus.

Hep.V. Hepatic vein.

H.Kid. Head kidney.

H.S. Haemal spine.

H.S.C. Horizontal or external semicircular canal.

Hyo.A. Hyoidean artery.

Hyoid. Hyoid arch.

Hyo.V. Hyoidean vein.

Hyp. Hypural bone.

Hypobr.A. Hypobranchial artery.

Hys.A. Hyohyoideus inferior artery.

Hys.M. Hyohyoideus inferior muscle.

Hys.S.M. Hyohyoideus superior muscle.

Hvs.V. Hyohyoideus inferior vein.

I.Br.L. Internal branchial levator muscles (2). Levatores arcuum

branchialium interni of Vetter.

I. Car. A. Internal carotid artery.

I.Ir.V. Inner iris vein.

I.J.V. Inferior jugular vein.

I.lob.V. Interlobular veins.

Inf. A. Infundibular artery.
Inf.L.. Hypoaria or inferior lobes.

Inf.O.A. Inferior oblique muscle artery.

Inf.O.M. Inferior oblique muscle.

Inf.O.V. Inferior oblique muscle vein.

152 ALLEN

Inf.R.M. Inferior rectus muscle.

In.H. Interhyal.

In.J.V. Internal jugular vein.

In. Man. M. Intermandibularis muscle.

Int. Intestine.

Int.A.(i). Intestinal artery(i).

Int.A.(io). Dorsal branch of intestinal artery(t). In Anoplopoma.

Int.A.(ij). Ventral branch of intestinal arterjd). In Anoplopoma.

Int. A. (2). Intestinal artery(2).

Intc.A. Intercostal arteries.

Intc.V. Intercostal veins.

Int.R.A. Internal rectus artery.

Int.R.M. Internal rectus muscle.

Int.R.V. Internal rectus vein.

Int.V.(i). Intestinal veina).

Int. V. do). Dorsal branch of intestinal vein(ij. In Afioplopoma.

Int.V.(ij). Ventral branch of intestinal vein(i). In Anoplopoma.

Int.V.(2). Intestinal vein(2).

Ir. Iris.

Ir.A. Iris artery.

Ir.V. Iris vein.

Ir.V.(i). Ventral or minor iris vein.

I. Sub. A. Internal subclavian artery.

I.Sub.A.(i). Superficial branch of the internal subclavian artery.

I. Sub. A. (2). Profundus branch of the internal subclavian aitery.

J.L.O. Jugular lymphatic opening.

J.V. Jugular vein.

Kid. Kidney.

L. Liver.

Lat.A. Lateral arteries.

Lat.V. Lateral veins.

L.Cse.A. Left pyloric caeca artery.

L.Cse.V. Left pyloric caeca vein.

L.Car.V. Left cardinal vein.

L.Cau.A. Left caudal artery.

L.Cau.V. Left caudal vein.

L.Gas.A. Left gastric artery.

L.Gas.V. Left gastric vein.

L.G.X. Left gastric ramus of the vagus.

L.Hae.L.V. Longitudinal haemal lymphatic vessel.

L.Hep.A. Left hepatic artery.

L.IIep.A.(i). Posterior or minor left hepatic artery.

L.IIep.V. Left hepatic vein.

Lin. A. Lingual artery.

Lin.V. Lingual vein.

L.L.V. Lateral lymphatic vessel.

L.M.A.R. Levator muscles of the anal rays.

L.M.D.R. Levator muscles of the dorsal rays.

L.Neu.L.V. Longitudinal neuial lymphatic vessel.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI I53

L.Op.M. Levator opercular muscle.

L.Pal.A. Levator palatine arch. Levator arcus palatini of Vetter.

L. Pal. A. A. Levator of palatine arch artery.

L. P. Gas. A. Left posterior gastric artery.

L.P.Gas.V. Left posterior gastric vein.

L.Por.V. Left portal vein.

L.Sper.A. Left spermatic artery. In Sebastodcs.

L.Sper.V. Left spermatic vein. In Sebastodes and Scorpcrnichthys.

L.Ven.V. Left ventral vein.

L.V.Fin.A. ■ Left ventral fin artery.

L.V.Fin.V. Left ventral fin vein.

Man. Mandible (Dentary, articular, and angular bones).

Man. A. Mandibular artery.

Man.V. Mandibular vein.

Max. Maxilla.

Max.A.(i). Anterior or maxillary artery.

Max. A. (2). Posterior maxillary artery.

Max.V. Maxillary vein.

Me. A. Mesencephalic artery.

Mes.A. Mesenteric artery.

Me.V. Mesencephalic vein.

M.Lat.A. Median lateral arteries.

M.Lat.V. Median lateral veins.

My. Myelon, myel, or spinal cord.

My. A. Myelonal artery.

My.V. Myelonal vein.

N.Br. A. Nutrient branchial arteries.

N.Br.V. Nutrient branchial veins.

Neu.A. Neural arteries.

Neu.L.V. Neural lymphatic vessels.

Neu.V. Neural veins.

N.Fil.A. Nutrient branchial filament artery.

N.Fil.V. Nutrient branchial filament vein.

N.S. Nasal sac.

N.''S.'' Neural spines.

N.S.A. Nasal sac arteries.

N.S.V.(i). Anterior nasal sac vein.

N.S.V.(2). Posterior nasal sac vein.

Obi. Oblongata or medulla oblongata.

Obl.V. Oblongata vein.

Oc.Cl.V. Occipito-clavicularis muscle.

O.D.M. Obliqui dorsales muscles.

Oes. Oesophagus.

Olf.L. Olfactory lobes or bulbs.

O.N. A. Orbito-nasal artery.

O.N.V. Orbito-nasal vein.

Op. A. Opercular artery.

Oph.A. Ophthalmic artery.

Oph.V. Ophthalmic vein.

154 ALLEN

Opt. A. Optic or retina arterj.

Opt.L. Optic lobes.

Opt.V. Optic or retina vein.

Op.V. Opercular vein.

Orb. A. Orbital arterj. In Hydrolagus.

Ov. Ovaries.

O.V.M. Obliqui ventrales muscles.

P. A. Posterior ampulla.

P.A.Bl.A. Posterior air-bladder arterj.

P.A.Bl.V. Posterior air-bladder vein.

Paras. Parasphenoid.

P.Aud.A. Posterior auditorj arterj.

P.Aud.V. Posterior auditorj vein.

P.C.E.M. Pharjngo-clavicularis externus muscle.

P.Cer.A. Posterior cerebral arterj.

P.Cer.V. Posterior cerebral vein.

P.C.I. M. Pharjngo-clavicularis internus muscle.

P. E.Br. A. Posterior efferent branchial arteries. In Hydrolagtis.

Pec.F. Pectoral fin.

Pel. Pelvic arch.

Pel. P. Ventral process of the pelvic arch.

P.Enc.V. Posterior encephalic vein.

P. Gas. A. Posterior gastric arterj.

P.Gas.V. Posterior gastric vein.

P.G.Bl.A. Posterior gall-bladder artery.

P.G.Bl.V. Posterior gall-bladder vein.

Phar.A. Pharynx arterj.

Ph.H.M. Pharyngo-hjoideus muscle.

P.Hjo.A. Posterior hjoidean arterj.

Pig.L. Pigment lajer of the choroid coat.

P.Mes.A. Posterior mesenteric arterj.

P.Mes.V. Posterior mesenteric vein.

P.P.Ad.M. Pectoral profundus adductor muscle.

Prec.V. Precaval vein or Ductus Cuvieri.

Pref. Prefrontal.

Prem. Premaxilla.

Preo. Preopercular.

Pro. Prootic process.

Ps.A. Pseudobranchial arterj.

P.S.Ad.M. Pectoral superficialis adductor muscle.

Pseu. Pseudobranchia.

P&.Fil.Net. Pseudobranchial filament capillary network.

Pj. Pjlorus.

Pjl.A. Pjloric arterj.

Pjl.V. Pjloric vein.

R.Cie.A. Right pjloric caeca arterj.

R.Cie.V. Right pyloric caeca vein.

R.Car.V. Right cardinal vein.

R.Cau.A. Riyht caudal arterv.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI 1 55

R.Cau.V. Right caudal vein.

Rec. Rectum.

Rec.A. Rectus artery.

Rec.V. Rectus vein.

Ren. A. Renal arteries.

Ren.P.V. Renal portal vein.

Ret. Retina.

Ret.F. Retina fissure.

R.G. Gland-like body in retina fissure.

R Gas. A. Right gastric artery.

R.Gas.V. Right gastric vein.

R.Hep.A. Right hepatic artery.

R.Hep.V. Right hepatic vein.

R.Hvo. Ramus hyoideus.

R.Lat.X. Ramus lateralis vagi.

R.Lat.A.V. Facialis portion of the ramus lateralis accessorius.

R.Lat.A.X. Vagus portion of the ramus lateralis accessorius.

R.Man. Ramus mandibularis VII.

R.Man.V. Ramus mandibularis trigemini or ramus maxillaris inferior

trigemini.

R.Max.V. Ramus maxillaris trigemini or ramus maxillaris superior tri-
gemini.

R. P. Gas. A. Right posterior gastric artery.

R.P.Gas.V. Right posterior gastric vein.

R.Por.V. Right portal vein.

R.Sper.A. Right spermatic artery. In Sebastodcs.

R.Sper.V. Right spermatic vein. In Sebastodes and ScorpcejiicJithys.

R.Ven.V. Right ventral vein.

R.V.Fin.A. Right ventral fin artery.

R.V.Fin.V. Right ventral fin vein.

S. Suprarenal bodies.

Sac.Vas. Saccus vasculosus.
Scl. Sclerotic coat.

Scl.A. Sclerotic artery.
Scl.Ir.A. Sclerotic-iris artery.

Scl.V. Sclerotic vein.

SD.M. Superficial dorsal fin muscles.

S.F. Scapula foramen.
Sil.L. Silver layer of choroid coat.

Sin.Ven. Sinus venosus.

S.Lob.V. Sublobular veins.
Sp.A. Spinal or myelon arteries.

Sper.A. Spermatic arteries.
Sper.V. Spermatic veins.

Spl. Spleen.

Spl.A. Splenic artery.

Spl.V. Splenic vein.

Sp.V. Spinal or myelon veins.

Sr.A. Suprarenal artery.

156 ALLEN

Sr.V. Suprarenal vein.

St. Stomach.

Ster.hy.M. Sternohjoideus muscle.

Ster.A. Sternohyoideus arteries.

Ster.V. Sternohyoideus veins.

Sub. A. Subclavian artery.

Sub.S. Subclavian sinus.

Sub.V.(i). Internal subclavian vein.

Sub.V.(2). External subclavian vein.

Sub.V.(3). Minor external subclavian vein. In Ophiodoii.

Sup.O.A. Superior oblique muscle artery.

Sup.O.M. Superior oblique muscle.

Sup.O.V. Superior oblique muscle vein.

Sup.R.A. Superior rectus muscle artery.

Sup.R.M. Superior rectus muscle.

Sup.R.V. Superior rectus muscle vein.

Tes. Testes.

Thym. Thymus gland.

Thyr. Thyroid gland.

Thyr.A. Thyroid artery.

Trap.M. Trapezius muscle.

Tub. Tuber (cinereum).

T.V. Transversus ventralis muscle.

Ur. Ureters.

Ur.Bl.A. Urinary bladder artery. (Ur.B.A., in Ofhiodon.^

Ur.Bl. Urinary bladder.

Ur.Bl.V. Urinary bladder vein. (Ur.B.V., in Of//iodo)i.)

Ur.S. Urostyle.

Ut. Utriculus.

V.Ao. Ventral aorta.

Vas.L. Vascular layer of the choroid coat.

V.Chor.V. Ventral choroid vein.

Ven. Ventricle.

Ven.A. Ventral artery.

Ven.A.(i). Posterior ventral artery. In Anoplopoma.

Ven.F. Ventral or pelvic fins.

Ver. Vertebra.

V.Gas.A. Ventral gastric arteries.

V.Gas.V. Ventral gastric veins.

V.Intc.A. Ventral intercostal arteries.

V.Intc.V. Ventral intercostal veins.

V.Lat.A. Ventral lateral arteries.

V.Lat.V. Ventral lateral veins.

V.L.V. Ventral lymphatic vessel.

V.Myo. Ventral myotomes.

Vo. Vomer.

V.P.Ad.M. Ventral or pelvic profundus adductor muscle. "Adductor pro-
fundus pelvis of McMurrich.
V.Ret.M. Venous retia mirabilia of the choroid.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE LORICATI I57

V.S. Ventral spine.

V.S.Ad.M. Ventral or pelvic superficialis adductor muscle. Adductor

superficialis pelvis of McMurrich.

X. Place for injecting the arteries.

Y. Intestinal branch of posterior mesenteric vein.

Z. Gastric branch of posterior mesenteric vein.

I. Olfactory nerve.

II. Optic nerve.

III. Oculomotor nerve.

IV. Pathetic or trochlear nerve.
V and VII. Trigemino-facial complex.
VI. Abducent nerve.

VIII. Auditory nerve.

IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve.

X. Vagus or pneumogastric nerve.

V(n. Truncus supra-orbitalis or ramus ophthalmicus superficialis V

and ramus ophthalmicus superficialis VII.

V,2,. Truncus infra-orbitalis or buccalis-maxillo-mandibularis.

V(3). Truncus hyomandibularis or hyoideo-mandibularis facialis.

V.VII.R. Trigemino-facialis roots.

V.Scl. Supra-orbital ramus to sclerotic coat.

X.D. Dorsal root of the vagus.

X.V. Ventral root of the vagus.

PROCEEDINGS

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 157-1S6. [Plates vii-xi.] June 30, 190^

THE GYMNOTID^.
By Carl H. Eigenmann and David Perkins Ward.

CONTENTS.

lutroduction 159

Key to the Genera of Gjmnotidce 160

Genera and Species 161

Table showing known Geographical Distribution 179

Explanation of Plates iSo

The Gymnotidae are a family of fishes entirely confined to
the fresh waters of tropical America. At least 4 species [Ster-
narchus brasiliensis, Rhamj^hichthys marmoratus, Eigenmannia
virescens and Giton fasciattis) range as far south as the Rio de
la Plata, the second having been taken at Rio Grande do Sul
but not yet in the La Plata. The last three species range from
the Orinoco south through the Amazon basin and the Paraguay
basin ; no species is represented in the coast-wise streams be-
tween Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul ; and but one, Giton fas-
ciattis, reaches Bahia. Four, Sternarc/ncs brasiliensis, Eigen-
mannia virescens, Giton fas ciatus and Gymnotus carapus have
been found in the Rio San Francisco. But 2 species have
representatives on the Pacific slope, Eigenmannia hiimboldti,
which is found in the Magdalena basin and in the Mamoni, a
stream emptying into the Pacific in Panama, and Gyuinotiis
ceqiiilabiatiLS , which is found in the Magdalena basin and about
Guayaquil. North of Panama only a single species, Giton
fasciatits, has been found. It has been recorded by Giinther
from the Rio Motagua. The same species is also found in the
island of Trinidad and the islands of Grenada.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905. (159)

l6o EIGENMANN AND WARD

Several species are found in the Paraguay and Amazon rivers
which have not been reported from as far south as the La Plata.
These are Hypopoinus brcvii'ostris from the Cauca to Para and
Paraguay, Stcrnarchiis alhifrons and Gymnotus carajyiis from
the Orinoco through the entire course of the Amazons from
Peru to Para and to Paragua}'', and Rhamphichthys 7'cinhardti
which is not found north of the Amazons.

The place where more collections have been made than else-
where and which must serve as an index of the abundance of
the South American fish fauna is Manaos, or Barra do Rio
Negro. At this place or in its neighborhood 12 of the 29 species
have been taken; 21 species have been taken in the Amazons
but not more than 14 in any one of its 3 sections. The ac-
companying geographical table will give an idea of the abun-
dance of local faunas or the thoroughness with which collecting
has been done. Fifty species have been described, of which
29 seem to be valid.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF GVM.VOTID.4i:.

a. Caudal fin present ; eye without free orbital margin ; a large fon-
tanel ( Sternarchincc. )

b. Snout not producec], the eye nearer tip of snout than to gill-
opening.
c. Both jaws with teeth, tliose of the lower jaw in 2 series, those
of the upper in 3 or more series.
d. Gape long, the angle of the mouth but little if any in front

of eye; snout long Sternai-chus^ i«

dd. Gape short, the angle of the mouth below the anterior or

posterior nostrils; snout short Sternai-cheUa^ 2.

cc. Upper jaw without teeth, those of the lower jaw in a single

series; snout very short Sternaj'c/iogiton^ 2>'

hh. Snout produced, the eye nearer the gill-opening than to tip of
snout ; anal long.

e. Snout straight, the gape moderate SteruarchorhainpJiits^ 4.

ce. Snout strongly decurved ; mouth minute, the gape about twice

length of eye Sicruarc/iorZ/ync/ms^ 5.

aa. No caudual fin, the tail ending in a point.
f. A large fontanel ; vent below the head.

' If Peter's description of S(crna>x/ius sacJtsi is correct and sachsi does not
contain teeth in either jaw, it should stand as the type of a new genus.

THE GYMNOTID^ l6l

o. Snout produced into a long tube; no teeth; vent below or in
advance of eyes ; anal fin beginning at throat; eye nearer

gill-opening than end of snout Rhamphichthys^ 6.

gg. Snout not produced into a long tube.

//. No teeth; vent behind eyes; anal beginning below pec-
toral ; eye nearer tip of snout than gill-opening, minute.

/. jMental region without adipose filament Ilypopoimis^ 7.

ii. Mental region with a filament of adipose tissue in a

groove along each side Stcatogeiiys^ S.

Jih. Teeth present in both jaws.
j. Eye without a free orbital margin ; jaws equal or the
upper the longer; teeth feeble, in a patch or band;
anal beginning below or in front of pectoral ; snout
more or less compressed, conical ; eye large.

Eigen7)ia7i7tia^ 9.
jj. Eye small, with a free orbital margin; teeth feeble, in
bands ; jaws equal or the upper the longer ; gill-open-
ing small ; anal beginning below pectoral or slightly
in front of it; vent in fi'ont of gill-opening; snout

blunt, conical Gymnottts^ 10.

^. No fontanel ; maxillary very small ; lower jaw projecting ;
teeth rather strong, in a single series in each jaw ; anal begin-
ning behind pectoral ; vent below gill-opening; gill-opening
comparatively large; head depressed in front; eye small.

Giio7z, 1 1 .

I. Sternarchus Bloch & Schneider. (Figs. 1-3.)

Stcrnarchiis Bloch & Schneider, 497, tab. 94. (Type: Gym-

notus albifrons L.)
Sternarcluis Cuvier, Regne Animal, II, 237, 1817 {albifrons).
Apteronotus Lacepede, II, 208 {j)assan = albifrons).

Geographical distribution of the species : Amazons ; Rio San
Francisco, Paraguay and Parana.

a. Scales small, a maximum of 16 rows between lateral line and

middle line of back.^

b. A maximum of 1 1 to 16 scales between lateral line and middle of

back; angle of mouth in front of eye; snout 3.35 in head;

depth of snout just in front of eye less than length of snout;

depth of head more than 1.5 in its length brasiliensis., i.

' Not examined in ^S. bonapartii.

l62 EIGENMANN AND WARD

bb. A maximum of 1 1 to 13 scales between lateral line and middle
line of back ; angle of mouth just below or a trifle in front
of eye ; snout about 2.5 in head ; depth of snout just in front
of eye equaling or exceeding length of snout ; depth of head

about 1.35 in its length albifro?is, 2.

bbb. Angle of mouth behind e3-e ; vent in front of eye; A. 165.

( Castelnau ) bonapartii^ 3 .

aa. Scales large, a maximum of 6 scales between lateral line and
middle line of back macrolepis^ 4.

I. STERN ARCHUS BRASILIENSIS Reinhardt.

Sternarchus brasiliensis Reinhardt, Vidensk. Meddel. Naturh.
Foren. Kjobenh., 1852, or Wiegm. Arch. 1854, 182; Giin-
ther, Cat., VIII, 3, 1870 (Rio das Velhas) Lutken, Velhas
Flodens Fiske, 247 and XIX, 1875 (Rio das Velhas) ; Stein-
dachner, Flussf. Siidam., Ill, 14, 1881 (Rio das Velhas) ;
Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,
189T, 61 (Rio das Velhas).

SternarcJuLS alb(frons, Eigenmann & Norris, Revista Museu
Paulista, IV, 349, 1900 (Piracicaba) ; not of Linnaeus.
Habitat : Southeastern Brazil but not in its coastwise streams.

2. STERNARCHUS ALBIFRONS (Linnceus).

Gyninotus alhifrons Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. XII, i, 428, 1766 ;
Pallas, Spic. Zool., VII, 36, tab. 6, fig. i, 1769; Bonnaterre,
Tabl. encycl. des trois regnes natura, Poiss., 37, pi. 24; fig.
82, m. 3, 1788.

Sternarchus albifrons, Bloch & Schneider, 497, tab. 94 ; Castel-
nau, Anim. Amer. Slid, Poiss., 91, pi. 45, fig. i, 1855;
Kaup. Apodes, 126; Steindachner, Sb. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
LVIII, 1868, 249 (Cuyaba). Giinther, Cat., VIII, 2, 1870
(Para; Santarem) ; Peters, Mb. Akad. Wiss. Berl., 1877,
473 (Apure) ; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, (Peru-
vian Amazon); Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. 18S7, 282,
(Canelos) ; Steindachner, Flussf. Siidam., Ill, 13, pi. 5, fig-
6, 1881 (Manacapuru ; Teff e ; Obidos) ; Eigenmann &
Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891,61 ; Perugia,
Ann. Mus. Civics Stor. Nat. Genova, ser. 2, vol. 4, 55,
1891 (Asuncion); Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 1896

THE GYMNOTID^E 163

37 (Descalvados) ; Boulenger, Boll. Torino, XIII, 1898 (Rio

Zamora, Eqiiador) ; Eigenmann & Kennedy, Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phila. 1903, 30 (Arroyo Trementina).
A^tei'onotus fassan Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss., II, 209, pi. 6,

fig. 3, 1800.
Sternarchus laccpcdu Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud, Poiss., 93,

pi. 45, fig. 3, 1855, Surinam.
Sternarchus maxiniilliani Castelnau, 93, pi. 45, fig. 4, 1855,

Urubamba.

Habitat : Orinoco, Amazons and Paraguay.

3. STERNARCHUS BONAPARTII Castelnau.

Sternarchus bonapartii Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud, Poiss.,
92, pi. 45, fig. 2, 1855, Amazon; Kaup, Apod., 126, 1856;
Giinther, Cat., VIII, 3, 1870; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.
1878, 682 (Peruvian Amazon) ; Steindachner, Flussf. Siidam.,
II, 42, 1881 (Manacapuru) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat: Amazons.

4. STERNARCHUS MACROLEPIS Steindachner.

Sternarchus macrolepts Steindachner, Flussf. Siidam., Ill, 14,
pi. V, fig. 7, 1 88 1, near Barra do Rio Negro and Lake Man-
acapuru ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
XIV, 1891, 62; Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 427,
1898 (Riojurua).
Habitat : Amazon near mouth of Rio Negro and Jurua.

2. Sternarchella Eigenmann, new genus. (Fig. 4.)

Type : Sternarchus schotti Steindachner.

A glance at the figures of the species of Sternarchus and the
type of this genus will show conclusively that schotti is not con-
generic with Sternarchus alhifrons. The snout is much shorter
and the mouth is very much smaller.

Geographical distribution of the species : Barra do Rio
Negro to Peru.

a. Gape moderate, angle of mouth below posterior nostril ; A. 163;
teeth of premaxillary and mandible in 2 series ; opercle pointed ;

164 EIGENMANN AND WARD

snout 3.4 in head ; depth of snout in front of eye mucli less tlian
its length; depth of head 1.4 in its length. (Steindachner)

schotti^ 5.
aa. Gape short, angle of mouth below anterior nostril ; A. 171 ; only
9 transverse scales below dorsal ; lower jaw large, pi^ojecting
beyond upper both anteriorly and laterally; eye much nearer
tip of snout than gill-opening; depth equaling length of head,
8.5 in the length. (Cope) balcBiiops^ 6.

5. STERNARCHELLA SCHOTTI (Steindachner).

SternarcJiiis schotti Steindachner, Die Gymnotidce, 4, pi. I, figs.
I and 2, 186S, Barra do Rio Negro ; Giinther, Ca:t., VIII, 3,
1870; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 682 (Peruvian
Amazon); Steindachner, Flussf. Sudam., II, 42, pi. 2, fig.
2, 1881 (Manacapuru) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U.
S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat : Amazons, from the Barra do Rio Negro to Peru.

6. STERNARCHELLA BAL^NOPS (Cope).

Sternarchiis balcenops Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 682
Peruvian Amazon ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat: Peruvian Amazon.

3. Sternarchogiton Eigenmann, new genus. (Fig. 5.)

Type : Sternarc/uis iiatte^'ei'i Steindachner.

Steindachner in his original description recognized that S.
nattereri represents a distinct group of Sternarchoid fishes. It
is sufficiently distinguished by the absence of teeth in the upper
jaw. {^Sternarchiis and yscvcou, neighbor.)

Geographical distribution of the species : Orinoco to Barra
do Rio Negro.

a. Lower jaw with a single scries of teeth; head 12 ; depth S; snout
3.5 in the head; A. 197; anus below eye; snout very short
and convex. (Steindachner) iiattcrei-i^ 7.

aa. Lower jaw without teeth ; A. 16S; head 10.5; depth 13.3; snout
pointed; eye 3 in snout; lower jaw projecting; anterior nares
in middle of length of snout, the posterior close to eye. (Peters)

sac/isi^ S.

THE GVMNOTID^ l6$

7. STERNARCHOGITON NATTERERI (Steindachner).

Sternarchus «ci'//^rf;"/ Steindachner, Die Gymnotidiu, 3, pi. II,
fig. I, 188S, Barrado RioNegro ; Giinther, Cat., VIII, 3, 1870;
Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891,
62 ; Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 427, 1898 (Rio Jurua)
Habitat: Barra do Rio Negro and Jurua.

8. STERNARCHOGITON SACHSI (Peters).

SteniarcJms sachsi Peters, Mb. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1877, 473,
Apure ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
XIV, 189T, 62.
Habitat : Orinoco.

4. Sternarchorhamphus Eigenmann, new -genus.
(Figs. 6 and 7.)

Type : Sternarchtis imilleri Steindachner.

This genus is intermediate between Sternarchus and Ster-
narchorhynchus, having the long snout of the latter and the
mouth in size approaching the former.

Geographical distribution of the species : Amazon at Para
and in Peru.

a. Snout nearly or quite straight, the gape wide, more than half
length of snout ; eye midway between pectoral and tip of snout ;
mandible with a series of fine teeth on each side; depth 2.5 in

head; A. 202. (Giinther) 7?iacrosto??ius^g.

aa. Snout nearly straight, the gape moderate, \ length of snout;
depth of head 1.6 in its length ; 3 rows of slender teeth in lower
jaw, 2 rows of smaller teeth in upper jaw; eye minute; depth
less than length of head, 11 to 12 in total length. (Stein-
dachner) vmlleri^ 10.

aaa. Snout straight ; gape very small, not more than -^-^ of the length
of the snout; depth of head about i of its length ; eye ex-
tremely minute, about midway between pectoral and tip of
snout ; several rows of minute teeth ; depth of body \ the
length of the head ; a very strongly developed adipose fin
along entire length ; vent under chin. A. 220, originating
a little in advance of gill-opening; lat. line S5. (Boulenger)

tainandtia^ 1 1.

1 66 EIGENMANN AND WARD

9. STERNARCHORHAMPUS MACROSTOMUS

(Giinther).
Siernarchtis macrostoimis Giinther, Cat., VIII, 4, 1870, Xeberos.
RhanipJiosternarcJnis macrostomus^ Cope, Proc. Am. Philos.

Soc. 1878, 682 (Peruvian Amazon).
Sternarchorhynchus macrostomns, Eigenmann & Eigenmann,

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.

Habitat : Peruvian Amazon.

10. STERNARCHORHAMPHUS MULLERI

(Steindachner).
Sternarchiis [Rhamphosternarchus') mitlleri Steindachner,

Flussf. Siidam., Ill, 15, pi. V, fig. 4, 1881, Para.
Sternarchorhynchus mitlleri, Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.

Habitat: Para.

II. STERNARCHORHAMPHUS TAMANDUA

(Boulenger).
Ster?iarchus tamandua Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV,

427, plate XLII, 1898, Rio Jurua, tributar}^ of the Amazon.

Habitat : Rio Jurua.

This species may represent a genus distinct from Stcr-
narchorhamphiis as here understood.

5. Sternarchorhynchus Castelanu. (Figs. 9 and 10).

StcrnarchorhyncJuis Castelnau, 1856. Type : Stcrnarcho-
rhyncJms inulleri Castelnau = oxyrhynchus. Gill, Proc. Ac.
Nat. Sci. Phila. 1864, 152.

Rhamphosternarchus Giinther, Cat., VIII, 4, 1S70 {oxy-
rhynchus).

Rhamfhosicrnarchus Giinther is synonymous with Sternarcho-
rhynchus Castelnau. It includes the species with a caudal
and long tubular snout and minute mouth.
Geographical distribution of the species : Marabitanos,

Guiana and upper Amazon.

a. Anal with more tlian 200 rays.

h. Anal 210 to 226; mouth oblique; depth 1.6 to 1.75 in head.

mormyrtis, 12.

THE GYMNOTID^ 167

bb. Anal 205 to 215; mouth terminal; depth 3 in head.

oxyrJiynch ns^ 13.

aa. Anal 1S5 to 18S; snout much bent downward, its width at its

middle 8 in its length; distance between eye and pectoral 1.5

in snout; depth 1.6 in head. (Boulengcr) curvirostris^ 14.

12. STERNARCHORHYNCHUS MORMYRUS
(Steindachner).

Sto-narcJms mo^-myriis Steindachner, Die Gymnotidoe, 5, pi. I,
fig. 3, Marabitanos ; Giinther, Cat., VIII, 4, 1870 (Peruvian
Amazon); Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat: Marabitanos; Peruvian Amazon.

13. STERNARCHORHYNCHUS OXYRHYNCHUS

(Miiller «fe Troschel).

Stej'narchus oxyrhynchtis Miiller & Troschel, Hor^e Ichthyol.,
Ill, 16, pi. II, figs. I and 2, 1849, Essequibo ; Kaup, Apod.,
127; Giinther, Cat., VIII, 4, 1870 (British Guiana);
Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 427, 1898 (Rio Jurua).

Sternai'chof'kync/ms oxyrhync/ms, Eigenmann & Eigenmann,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.

Sternarchorhynchits imillc7'i, Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud.
Poiss., 1855.
Habitat: Guiana and Rio Jurua.

14. STERNARCHORHYNCHUS CURVIROSTRIS

(Boulenger).

St€?'7iarchus {Rhain^hostcrnarchus) ctirvirostris Boulenger,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, 282, pi. XXIV, Canelos.

SternarchorhyncJms curvirostris, Eigenmann &, Eigenmann,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1881, 62.
Habitat: Canelos.

6. Rhampbicbthys Miiller & Troschel. (Fig. 12.)

Rhamfhichthys Miiller & Troschel, Hor^e Ichthyol., Ill, 15,
1849. (T'ype • Gymnotiis rosti'atus L.)

1 68 EIGENMANN AND WARD

Geographical distribution of the species : Orinoco and
Giiianas south to Rio de la Plata. ^

a. Eye equidistant from tips of snout and pectoral; distance of center
of eye from gill-opening 2 in length of snout; eye 13 to 19 in
head; anus in front of eye; A. 390 to 515 ; depth about 1.2 in
head; brownish, variously spotted and banded. rostrattis^ 15.
aa. Eye nearly equidistant from tip of snout and gill-opening; dis-
tance of center of eye from tip of opercle i to 1.2S in snout.

inarmorattis^ 16.
aaa. Distance of eye from tip of opercle 1.5 in length of snout.

i'einha7'dtii^ 17.

15. RHAMPHICHTHYS ROSTRATUS (Linnaeus).

Seba, Thesaur, II, tab. 69, fig. 3, and III, 99, tab. 32, fig. 5.

Gyninottis Gronow, Mus. Ichthyol., no. 73, 1754; Gronow,
Zoophyl., no. 167.

Gymnotus rostratiis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. XII, i, 428,
1766; Gronow, Syst., ed. Gray, 22, 1854.

Cai'aftis rostratiis, Cuvier, Regne Animal, II, 237, 1817.

Rhamphichthys roslraUis^ Miiller & Troschel, Horae Ichthyol.,
Ill, 15, 1849 (Guiana); Giinther, Cat., VIII, 5, 1870 (Suri-
nam ; Brit. Guiana) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U.
S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.

Gymnotus longirostrattis Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss., II, 178,
1800.

Rhaniphichthys schomhurgkii Y^dM\^, Apod., 135, 10, 1856;
Steindachner, Die Gymnotida?, 10, 1868, Rio Negro.

Rhamphichthys sdineidcri Kaup, Apod., 136, fig. 11, 1856,
Cayenne.
Habitat : Guianas to Amazon.

16. RHAMPHICHTHYS MARMORATUS Castelnau.

Rhamphichthys ma7'inoratus Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud,
Poiss., 86, pi. 46, fig. 2, 1855, Uraguay ; Kaup, Apod., 132,
fig- 7> 1856, Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., XIV, 1891, 62 ; Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci.,
VII, 1894, 625 (Itaituba).

' It seems quite probable that the " species " are simply different forms of a
single variable species.

THE GYMNOTID^ 169

Rhamphichthys fantherinus Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud,
Poiss., 86, pi. 46, lig. 3, 1855, Lake near the Acayale ; Kaup,
Apod., 131, fig. 6, 1856; Giinther, Cat., VII, 5, 1870;
Peters, Mb. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1877, 473 (Apure) ; Cope,
Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 682 (Peruvian Amazon) ; Stein-
dachner, Fisch-f. Cauca and Guayaquil, 38, 1880 (Manaca-
puru ; Matto Grosso ; Surinam ; Uraguay ; La Plata ; Para ;
Obidos ; Xingu ; Rio Negro ; Ucayale). Perugia, Ann. Mus.
Civico Stor. Nat. Genova, ser. 2, vol. X, 55, 1891 (Asuncion
and Rio Maciel at Buenos Aires).

Rhamphichthys Uneatiis Castelnau, Anim. Amer. Sud, Poiss.,
87, pi. 47, fig. I, 1855, Tributary of Ucayale ; Kaup, Apod.,
130, fig. 5, 1856.

Gyinnotus rostratiis, Steindachner, die Gymnotidse, 8, 1868, in
part (Matto Grosso ; Surinam) ; (not of Linnaeus).
Habitat : Orinoco and Guianas south to Rio de la Plata.

17. RHAMPHICHTHYS REINHARDTII Kaup.

Gymnotus rostratus, Bloch & Schneider, 522, tab. 106, 1801 ;

not of Linnasus.
Gyinnotus rostratits, Steindachner, Die Gymnotidje, 8, 1868

(Rio Negro) ; in part.
Rhainphickthys reinhai'dtii Kaup, Apod., 132, fig. 8, 1856;

Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,

1891, 62.
Rhamfhichthys blochiiY^2L\v^, Apod., 133, fig. 9, 1856 ; Giinther,

Cat., VIII, 5, i860 (Para); Steindachner, Fisch-f. Cauca

and Guayaquil, 38, 1880 (Rio Negro; Manacapuru ; Para);

Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 1896, 38 (Paraguay);

Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 428, 1898 (Rio Jurua).

Habitat : Guinas south to Paraguay.

7. Hypopomus Gill. (Fig. 13.)

Hyfofonms Gill, Proc Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1864, 152.

Type : Rhamphichihys inulleri Kaup.
Brachyrhamphichthys Giinther, Cat., VIII, 6 {aj'tcdti).

Geographical distribution of the species : Cauca and Guianas
south to Paraguay.

170 EIGENMANN AND WARD

a. Snout less than 3 in head; spotted artedl^* iS.

aa. Snout 3 or more in head ; sides with cross-bands.

b. Head slender, compressed, conic: upper profile straight ; length
of head equaling depth; eye about 2 in snout; A. 160 to 260.

b)'evlrosti-is^ 19.

18. HYPOPOMUS ARTEDI (Kaup).

Seba, III, tab. 32, fig. 2.

Rhamphichthys artedlYs.?i\x^^^ K.^0^.^ 128, 1856, Mona ; Giinther,
Cat., VIII, 6, 1870.

Brachyrhamphichthys artedi\ Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc.
U. S. Nat Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.

Rhamphichthys miillcri Kaup, Apod., 129, 1856, French Gui-
ana; Giinther, Cat., VIII, 6, 1870.

Hypopomiis mulleri^ Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1864, 152.

Brachyrhamphichthys miiUeri^ Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc.
U. S. Nat Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat : French Guiana.

19. HYPOPOMUS BREVIROSTRIS (Steindachner).

Rhamphichthys brevirosti'is Steindachner, Die Gymnotidce, 6,

pi. II, fig. 2; 1868, Guapore; Giinther, Cat., VIII, 6, 1S70;

Steindachner, Fisch-f. Cauca and Guayaquil, 37, 1880 (San-

tarem ; Cauca, Rio Guapore), Perugia, Ann. Mus. Civico

Storia Nat. Genova, ser. 2, vol. X, 56, 1891 (Central Chaco) ;

Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 1896,38 (Descalvados).
Brachyrhaniphichthys hrevirostris^ Eigenmann & Eigenmann,

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62; Eigenmann, Ann.

N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII, 1894, 625 (Lower Amazon and Itaituba

on the Tocantins).
Hypopomiis hrevirostris^ Eigenmann & Kennedy, Proc. Ac.

Nat. Sci. Phila. 1903, 530 (Campo Grande; Arroyo Cha-

galalina).

Habitat : Cauca, Amazon and tributaries, Paraguay.

* Tlie nominal species artedi \\x\<\ nitillcri a.rt distinguished as follows :

tYellowish brown, marked with darker; fins without markings artedi.

tt Upper side of head and back uniform black; lower part of sides of head and
body with numerous spots; fins black, with brown ravs . . .muUcri.

THE GWMNOTID^ I7I

8. Steatogenes Boulenger. (Fig. ii.)
Stcatogcnes Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, XIV, 1898,
428.

Type : Rhamfhichthys cicgans Steindachner.
a. Head chubby, upper profile convex; head 1.5 in the depth. A.
165 to 176 (Steindachner) elegans^ 20.

20. STEATOGENES ELEGANS (Steindachner).
Rham^hichthys (JBrachyrhamfhichthys) clegans Steindachner,

Fisch-f. Cauca and Guayaquil, 37, 1880, Barra do Rio Negro.
Brachyrhamfhichthys clegans, Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus.,^XIV, 1891, 62.
Stcatogenys clegans, Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 428,

1898 (Rio Jurua).
Rhamphichthys [Brachyrha^nphichthys^ 7nirabilis Steindachner,

/. c., pi. IX, figs. I and la.

Habitat : Barra do Rio Negro.

9. Eigenmannia Jordan & Evermann. (Figs. 14 and 16.)

Stcrnopygus Miiller & Troschel, Horce Ichthyol., Ill, 13 (spe-
cies).

Cryptop Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci.,VII, 626 {himi-
boldtti) ; preoccupied.

Eigenmannia Jordan «&; Evermann, Fishes North and Mid.
Amer., I, 341, 1896 (substituted for Cryptops).
Type : Sternofygiis Jmmboldtii Steindachner.
Geographical distribution of the species : On the eastern slope

from Magdalena to La Plata, Pacific Slope of Panama.

a. " Maxillary shorter than the diameter of eye; eye without free
lid, a little longer than snout or interocular space; mouth very
narrow; upper jaw overlapping lower ; upper profile of head
descending in a curve ; vent a little behind vertical of posterior
border of eye; pectoral fin as long as head minus snout; A. 175,
originating below middle of pectoral ; depth of body greater than
length of head, 7.5 in length to end of anal ; tail produced be-
yond anal in a very long appendage terminating filiform and
measuring half total length without head ; scales very small.
Uniform pale brownish; anal fin white." (Boulenger.)

macrops, 2 r .

aa. Maxillary about equal to orbit, the mouth small.

172 EIGENMANN AND WARD

b. Ventral profile much more strongly convex than dorsal; head

strongly compressed, triangular in profile ; upper profile of
head nearly straight, a slight depression over eyes ; eye nearly
2 in snout; snout 3 to 3.25 in head; interorbital 3.25 to 3.7;

width of head 2 to 2.25 Jmmboldtii^ 22.

bb. Dorsal and ventral profiles equally convex; head less com-
pressed ; upper profile of head straight ; eye nearly 2 in snout ;
snout 3 in head; interorbital about 3 ; width of head 1.75 to

2 in its length virescens^ 23.

aa. Maxillary about twice width of orbit.

c. Eye 2 in snout ; jaws equal ; anal beginning below posterior third

of pectoral ; a large blackish spot at origin of lateral line ;

A. 212 axillaris^. 24.

cc. Eye 2.5 in snout; lower jaw longer than upper; anal beginning
below^ origin of pectoral ; color uniform ; A. 230.

troschelii^ 25.

21. EIGENMANNIA MACROPS (Boulenger).

Sternopygus 7jiacrops Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6),
XX, 305, Polaro River, British Guiana.

22. EIGENMANNIA HUMBOLDTII (Steindachner).

Sternopygus humboldtii Steindachner, Fisch-f. Magd. Str.
55, pi. XIV, 1878, Magdalena ; id. Flussf. Siidam., i, 21,
1879 (Mamoni R. at Chepo) ; id. Fisch-fauna Cauca and
Guayaquil, 36, 1880 (Cauca) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62 ; Steindachner, Denk.
Akad. Wiss.Wien, LXXII, 147, 1902 (Baranquilla on Rio
Magdalena).

Cry^tofs htimbohitu\ Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII,
1894, 625 (Marajo.).

Eigenmannia Jmmboldti\ Jordan & Evermann, Fishes North
and Mid. Amer., 341, 1896.
Habitat: ]Marajo, Magdalena and Mamoni.

23. EIGENMANNIA VIRESCENS (Valenciennes).

Sternarchus vircsccns Valenciennes, in d'Orb., Vov. Am.
Merid., Poiss., 11, pi. 13, fig. 2, 1847.

' Steindachner considers this identical with trosc/tclii.

THE GYMNOTID^ 1 73

Sternofygus v/rcsccns^ Kaup, Apod., 137 ; Steindacliner, Die
Gymnotidae, 12, 1S68 (Matto Grosso : Rio Negro, Guapore,
Alarabitanos ; Irisanga ; Guapore); Giinther, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1868, 229(Xeberos); Giinther, Cat., VIII, 7, 1870 (Suri-
nam; Lagoa Santa; Xeberos) ; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos.
Soc. 1870, 570 (Pebas; Rio Parana); Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat.
Sci. Phila. 1871, 257 (Ambyiacu) ; Liitken, Velhas-Flodens
Fiske, 247 and XIX, 1875 (Lagoa Santa and Rio das Velhas) ;
Peters, Mb. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1S77, 473 (Apure) ; Stein-
dachner, Fisch-f. Magd. Stromes, 55, pi. XIV, fig. 4, 1878;
Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 682 (Peruvian Amazon) ;
Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1894, 93 (Rio Grande do Sul) ;
Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc, XIV, 38, 1894 (Descalvados).

Ci'yptops virescens, Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII,
1894, 626; Eigenmann, /. c, 635 (Rio Grande do Sul);
Boulenger, Boll. Torino, X, 3, 1895 (Colonia Risso, Para-
guay); Boulenger, Am. Mus. Civico, Genova, 1898, 127
(Puerto 14 de Mayo).

Eigemnannia virescens^ Eigenmann & Norris, Revista Mus.
Paulista, IV, 549 (Piracicaba); Eigenmann & Kenned}'-,
Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1903, 530 (Arroyo Trementina ;
Paraguay).

Sternofygus tumifrons Miiller & Troschel, Hor. Ichthyol.,
Ill, 14, 1849, South America.

Sicrnofygus lineatus Miiller & Troschel, /. <:., Ill, 14, 1849,
Lake Amucu in Guiana; Kaup, Apod., 138; Steindachner,
Die Gymnotid^e, 261, 1868.

Cr-yftops lineatus^ Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII,
1894, 635 (Rio Grande do Sul).

Sicrnopygus mia-ostoimts Reinhardt, Videnk. Meddel. Naturf.
For. Kjobenh. 1852 or Wiegm. Archj. 1854, ^S^-

Stei'nopygiis limbatus Schreiner & Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. do Rio
de Janeiro, XII, 6, 1902, Amazonas.
Habitat : Rio Magdalena to Rio de La Plata, East of the

Andes.

The specimens of lineatus mentioned by Eigenmann from

Rio Grande do Sul have a more strongly arched ventral profile

resembling in this respect ImmboIdtii\ but they have a broad

174 EIGENMAXN AND WARD

head, young examples from Paraguay have the same form
and differ in this respect from the bulk of the Rio Grande
specimens recorded by Eigenmann.

24. EIGENMANNIA AXILLARIS (Giinther).

Stcrnopygus axillai'is Giinther, Cat., VIII, 8, 1864, Para;
Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,
1891, 62.
Habitat: Para.

25. EIGENMANNIA TROSCHELI (Kaup).

Sternofygiisvh-escens, Miiller & Troschel, Hor^e Ichthyol., Ill,
14, 1849 (Guiana); not of Valenciennes.

Sternopy gtis t7-oscheli 'K.diVi^, Apod., 139, 1856; Steindachner,
Die Gymnotidee, 12, 1868 (Barra do Rio Negro) ; Giinther,
Cat., VIII, 8, 1864; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878,
682 (Peruvian Amazon); Steindachner, Fisch-f. Magdal.,
56, 1878 (note) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat : Amazonas from Manaos to Peru.

10. Gymnotus Linuceus. (Figs. 17-19.)

Gymnottis Linnteus, Syst. Nat., ed. X, 246, 1758 (type:
Gymnotus carafo Linnaeus); ed. XII, i, 427, 1766 {carapo;
electrictts ; albifrons ; rostrattis ; asiaticits).

Gymnotus Lacepede.

Gymnotus Cuvier Regne Animal, ist ed., II, 235, 1817 (sp.
electricus^ cBqiit'labiatus); Giinther, Cat., VIII, 10, 1870 (re-
stricted to electrtcus).

Sternopygus Muller & Troschel, Horee Ichthyol., Ill, 13, 1849
(inacricrus = cai'apo ; tuniifrons = vif'csccns ; vircsccns ; Unc-
ut us ; cequ ila b ia tus).

Sternopygus Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII, 1894,
326 (restricted to carapo^ to include carapo, cequilabiatiis
and obtusirostris).

Gyninotcs Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1864, 152 {ccquila-
biatus).
The first species of the Stcrnopygidcc mentioned in literature

is the carapo of Marcgrav,

THE GYMNOTID^ I75

The name Gynuiotus was apparently introduced by Artedi in
his Genera Piscium, p. 25, and Synonymia, p. 43, and the
only species mentioned by him is the carafo of Marcgrav.
Linnteus, in adopting the name Gynmotus in the lOth edition
enumerated only cara^o, but in the 12th edition included in it
all the then known species of the family Gyninotidce as well as
the electric eel. In his 12th edition he recognized carapo,
elcctriciis^ albifrons, rosU'aUis and asiaticus in the order named.

The name GymnoUis was used by Bloch for caraj^o and elec-
trtctis, by Cuvier for elcctrictis and cBqtiilabiatns, the latter
species not known to Linnaeus. It was more formally restricted
to clectriais by Swainson.

In 1864 Gill properly contended that the genus Gymnotus
" had been originally founded solely on the Gymnotus cara^us,
and that even after the introduction of the Gymnotus elcctrictis
into the system, G. carapus was retained as the first of the
genus. * * * The name Gymnotus must be retained for G.
cara-pus. * * * "

Geographic distribution of the species : Atlantic slope, Mag-
dalena south to Rio das Velhas and Paraguay; Pacific slope at
Guayaquil.

a. Snout pointed, 3 or more in head; profile nearly straight.

b. Depth greater than length of head ; upper profile straight or con-
vex ; upper lip usually slightly projecting ; a dusky spot over

gill-opening carapo^ 26.

bb. Depth less than length of head ; upper profile slightly concave ;
jaws equal ; a light longitudinal streak ; body with numerous

small violet spots; A. 375 to 293 ccguilabiatzcs, 27.

aa. Snout very blunt, 3 in head; upper profile convex ; depth greater
than length of head; upper lip projecting in adult; A. more
than 300 obtusirostris^ 28 .

26. GYMNOTUS CARAPUS Linnaeus.

Marcgrav in Seba, Thesaur., Ill, tab. 32, figs. 3-4; Artedi,
Genera Pise, 25 ; Synonymia Pise, 43 ; Amoen. Acad., I, 318,
t. 14, f. 6.
Gymnotus Gronow, Mus. IchthyoL, I, 28, No. 72, 1754; Gro-

now, Zoophyl., no. 168, 1863.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., June, 1905.

176 EIGENMANN AND WARD

Gymnotiis carapo Linnaeus, ed. X, 246, 1858; ed. XII, 427,
1766; Bloch, V, 59, lab. 157, fig. 2; Gronow, Syst., ed.
Gray, 22, 1854.

Sternopygiis caraptis^ Giinther, Cat., VIII, 7, 1870; Liitken,
Velhas Flodens Fiske, 247, and XIX, 1875 (Rio das Vel-
has) ; Peters, Mb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1877, 473 (Apure) ;
Steindachner, Fisch-f. Magdalenen Str., 4, 1878 (Para);
Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, 282 (Canelos) ; Steindach-
ner, Flussf. Siidam., II, 44, 1881 (Amazon from Para toTeffe ;
Xingu at Porto do Moz ; Lake Manacapuru ; Rio Branco ;
Borba ; Caicara ; Essequibo ; Surinam ; Maroni River in Gui-
ana) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,
1891, 62; Perugia, Ann. Mus. Civico Storia nat. Genova,
ser. 2, vol. X, 56, 1891 (Central Chaco) ; Eigenmann, Ann.
N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII, 1894, 626 (Marajo) ; Boulenger, Trans.
Zool. Soc, XIV, 38, 1896 (Paraguay).

Gymnotus macrurtcs, Bloch & Schneider, 522, 1801.

Slemopygus macrnrus^ Miiller & Troschel, Hor^e Ichthyol.,
Ill, 14, 1849; Kaup, Apod., 137; Steindachner, Die Gym-
notidae, 11, 1868 (Surinam; Rio Branco: Borba; Caigara) ;
Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1871, 257, 1872 (Am-
byiacu) ; id., Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 57 (Peruvian Am-
azon).

Carapus macrourns^ Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. I, II, 237,
1817.

Caraptis arcnatus Eydoux & Souleyet, V^oy. Bonite, Zool., I,
p. 210, pi. 8, fig. 2, 1836.

Carapus sangiiinolcnUis Castelnau, Anim. Am. Sud, Poiss.,
85, pi. 32, fig. I, 1855, Urubamba or upper Ucayale.

SternopygiiS marcgravii Reinh., Vidensk. iMeddel. Naturh.
Foren. Kjobenh., 1852; and Wiegm. Arch., 1854, ^^O-
Habitat : Orinoco south to Paraguay and Rio das Velhas.

27. GYMNOTUS ^QPILABIATUS Humboldt.

Gymnotus cequilabiatus Humboldt, Recueil d'observat., Zool.

et Anat. Comp., i, 46, pi. 10; Kaup. Apod., 142 ; Giinther,

Cat. VIII, 7, 1870.
Slernopygus cequilabialus, Miiller & Troschel, Horaj Ichthyol.,

THE GYMNOTID^ I77

III, 15, 1849; Steindachner, Fisch-f. Magdalenen Str., 53,
pi. XIV, fig. I, 1878 (Magdalena River); id. Fisch-f. Cauca
and Guayaquil, 36 and 50, 1880 (Cauca and Guayaquil) ;
Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,
1891, 62; Boulenger, Boll. Univ. Torino, XIII, 1898 (Rio
Guayas) ; Steindachner, Denkschr., Acad. Wiss. Wien,
LXII, 59, 1902 (Rio Magdalena at Baranquilla).
Habitat: Magdalena basin and Guayaquil.

28. GYMNOTUS OBTUSIROSTRIS (Steindachner).

Sternopyg'tis obtusirosiris Steindachner, Flussf. Siidam., II,
43, pi. II, fig. 3, 1881, Amazon at Teffe ; Lago Alexo ; Man-
acapuru ; Rio Madeira; RioPuty; Eigenmann & Eigenmann,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 62.
Habitat: Amazonas and Rio Puty.

II. Giton Kaup. (Fig. 15.)

Carapus Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. I, 237, 18 17 (sp.).
Carafiis Miiller & Troschel, Horse Ichthyol., Ill, 13 {fascia-

tus) ; not Carapus Rafinesque.
Giton Kaup in Dumeril, Analyt. Ichthyol., 201, 1856. Type:

Gymnotus fasciatiis Pallas.

Geographical distribution is that of the single species.

29. GITON FASCIATUS (Pallas).

Carapo Marcgr., Hist. Pise, 170; Willoughby, Hist. Pise,
115, tab. G 7, fig. 4.

Gymnotus Seba, Thesaur., Ill, tab. 32, fig. i.

Gymnotus fasciatus^ Pallas, Spicil. Zool., VII, 35 ; Schom-
burgk, Fishes of Guiana, 184, pi. 19, 1843 (Guiana).

Carapus fasciatus^ Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. I, 237, 1817 ;
Miiller & Troschel, Horag Ichthyol., Ill, 13, 1849; Castel-
nau, Anim. Amer. Sud, 85, 1855 (Amazon), Kaup, Apod.,
139; Steindachner, Die Gymnotidse, 13, 1868 (Caigara ;
Cuyaba ; Marabitanos ; Surinam ; Matto Grosso) ; Giinther,
Cat., VIII, 9, 1870 (Capim ; Bahia ; Surinam; British
Guiana; Essequibo ; Berbice ; Trinidad; Is. Grenada; Rio
Motagua); Hensel, Wiegm. Archiv, 89, 1870 (Guahyba ;

178 EIGENMANN AND WARD

Porto Alegre) ; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1870, 570
(Pebas); Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1871 (1872), 257,
(Ambyiacu) ; Liitken, Velhas Flodens Fiske, 247 and XIX,
1875 (Rio das Velhas ; Lagoa Santa and Rio San Fran-
cisco) ; Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1878, 682 (Peruvian
Amazon) ; Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, 282 (Canelos) ;
Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV,
1891, 62; Perugia, Ann. Mus. Civico Storia Nat. Genova,
2nd. ser., vol. X, 56, 1891 (Central Chaco) ; Eigenmann,
Ann. N. Y. Ac. Sci., VII, 1894, 626 (Braret) ; Eigenmann,
/. c, 635 (Rio Grande do Sul); Cope, Proc. Am. Philos.
Soc. 1894, 93 (Rio Grajide do Sul) ; Boulenger, Boll. Torino,
X, 3, 1895 (Colonia Risso and Villa Rica, Paraguay) ; Boul-
enger, Ann. Mus. Civico, Genova 1898, 127 (Puerto, 14 de
Mayo).

Giton fasciatus Kaup in Dumeril, Analyt. Ichthyol., 201,
1856; Jordan & Evermann, Fishes North and Mid. Amer.,
340, 1896 (Guatemala to Rio de la Plata) ; Eigenmann &
Kennedy, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1894, 530 (Estancia La
Armenia; Campo Grande ; Arroyo Trementina).

Gymnottis albns Pallas, Spicil. Zool., VII, 36, Surinam; Bloch
& Schneider, 523, 1801.

Cara^us albiis^ Kaup, Apod., 140, 1856.

Gynmotus brachytirus Bloch, Taf. 157, fig. i, 1787.

Gyjmiottcs j)utaol 'Li^ce^hfXe., His. Nat. Poiss., 11, 176, 1800.

Gymnotiis cai'a^o^ Bloch & Schneider, 521, 1801.

Carapus brachytcrus, Cuvier, Regne Animal, I, 237, 1817.

Carapus tn<^qiiilabiattis, Valenciennes, in d'Orb. Voy. Am.
Merid., Poiss., 11, pi. 14, 1847 (La Plata).
Habitat: Rio Motagua South to Rio de la Plata.

THE GYMNOTID.(E

179

TABLE SHOWING KNOWN GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION BY RIVER
BASINS OF THE SPECIES OF GYMNOTID^.

a .

in 0

-3 cd

0 a

■a
be
a

ui
cd

n
.2
'3
0

*
*

cd CO rt 3

ex 2.0-0

Sternarchus brasiliensis

" albifrons

" bonapartii

" macrolepis

Sternarchella schotti

" balaenops

Sternarchogiton nattereri

" sachsi

Sternarchorhamphus macrostomus...

" niuUeri

" tamandua

Sternarchorhynchus mormyrus

(Marabitanos)

Sternarchorhj'nchus oxyrhynchus ...

" curvirostris

Rhamphichthys rostratus

" marmoratus

" reinhardtii

Hypopomus artedii

" brevirostris

Steatogenys elegans

Eigenmannia macrops

" humboldti

" virescens

" axillaris

" troscheli

Gymnotus carapus

" squilabiatus

" obtusirostris

Giton fasciatus

1 Trinidad.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL

Fig. I. Ster7iarchus brasiliensis. Photograph by C H. Eigenmann.

2. " albifrons. " " "

3. " macrolefis. After Steindachner.

4. Stertiarchella schotti. " "

5. Sternarchogitoti ?iatiereri. ," "

(180)

pRoc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate VII.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Fig. 6. Sternarchorhamphus tamajidua. After Boulenger.

7. " mullcri. After Steindachner.

8. Siertiarc/ior/iytichus mormyrus. " "

(1S2)

:. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate VIII.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 9. Sternarchorhynckus ciirvirostyis. After Boulenger.

10. " oxyrhyiichus. After Miiller and Toschel.

11. Steatogejiys elegans. After Steindachner.

(1S4)

Proc. Wash Acad Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate IX.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 12. Rhamphichthys marmoratus. Photograph by C. H. Eigenmann.

13. Hypopotnus brevirostris. " " "

14. Etgenma7inia virescens. " " "

15. Git07i fasciatus. " " "

(186)

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate X.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL

Fig. i6. Etgemnannia humboldtii. After Steindachner.

17. Gymnotus carapus. " "

iS. " CEqtiilabiattts. " "

19. " obtusirostris. " "

(iSS)

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

''■'&' ..-■^■;-,

Plate XI.

■^:m^^c-^^^^

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 1S9-249. July 24, 1905

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR
STARS DETERMINED WITH THE
MERIDIAN CIRCLE.

By Harriet W. Bigelow,
Instructor in Astronomy in Smith College;.

The stars whose right ascensions and declinations I have
observed with the Meridian Circle are those requested by Dr.
Auwers in the Astromische Nachrichten, No. 3440. They com-
prise a list of 21 stars between 84° 34' and 88° 55' north decli-
nation and in magnitude ranging from 5.3 to 7.5. As Dr.
Auwers points out, the Berliner Jahrbuch at present gives but
10 stars of declination above 82°, 5 of these being above 85° ;
and these are not symmetrically placed in right ascension leav-
ing several gaps of 2 or 3 hours when an observer would find
no fundamental star of high declination available. The pres-
ent observations were undertaken to furnish accurate places of
additional stars of high declination for use when such are
needed in determining instrumental constants.

The observations were begun in October, 1901, and extended
through the period to the end of June, 1903. The right ascen-
sions have not yet been reduced.

The Walker Meridian Circle was built by Pistor and Martins
of Berlin in 1854. The telescope tube is heavy, unsymmetri-
cal, and shows considerable flexure; the object-glass and eye-
ends are not interchangeable, as in many modern instruments.
The objective, of 6.3 inches aperture, was examined at the
Physical . Laboratory. The focal length, 251.6 cm. or 8 ft.
0.8 in., was determined by measurements on the negative unit

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905. (1S9)

190 BIGELOW

planes. The radii of curvature, measured with the sphero-
meter, were found to be 165. 7cm. for the outer curve, 274.4 ^^^■
for the inner curve. The structure of the glass was examined
by means of Nicol prisms at conjugate foci. For perpendicular
position of the prisms the lens instead of being entirely dark
.shows irregular light portions extending toward the center, due
to irregular polarization in the glass. Practically, however,
the lens gives excellent star images for meridian circle work,
i. €., small, round disks, of uniform size across the entire field.

The graduated circles of the instrument are 27 H iriches in
diameter. The fine circle, which was the one employed, is
graduated to 2' and is read by 4 microscopes of 16 magnifying
power reading to tenths of a second of arc. Each microscope
has been furnished with two sets of threads one and a half
revolutions apart to eliminate periodic error. For a reading
two divisions of the circle were pointed on, the micrometer
screw being turned always one half revolution. The readings
were corrected for error in the run.

The micrometer eye-piece was obtained a few years ago
from the Repsolds. It contains 25 verticle threads in groups of
5, and 2 horizontal threads about 5" apart. There is no declin-
ation micrometer screw. Settings were made with the tangent
screw of the instrument, bringing the star to the point half-waj'-
between the horizontal threads. It was usually found possible
to make 3 or more pointings with the corresponding readings
of the microscopes while the star was crossing the field. The
positions off the meridian were symmetrically chosen to avoid
error caused by possible inclination of the wires. The reduc-
tions to the meridian were made according to the formula

, . ^ V sin^ i^/

Z = Z' sin 2 O' — V yr

sm 1"

where o' is the apparent declination. In this form a second
term becomes negligible. (See Leyden Observations, Vol. VI,
p. LX.) Tables were made out for each star from which the
correction could be taken with the declination and hour angle
as arguments.

Observations for nadir were made about every 3 hours. These

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS I9I

were obtained by turnino- the telescope over a mercury basin
and observing the reflection of the horizontal threads by means
of a collimating eye-piece. Four settings were made, the
mercur}' basin being turned iSo° in the middle of the set.
When successive nadirs differed by more than o".50' ^^ was
assumed that the difference was directly proportional to the
time ; when the difference was less than o". 50 the straight mean
was taken. Occasionally during observations for nadir the
instrument seemed to move after a setting had been made,
showing either that it was under a strain, or possibly that the
surface of the mercury changed slightly.

The plan was to obtain for each star, both at upper and
lower culminations, 2 observations in each of the four following
positions: clamp west, direct; clamp west, reflected; clamp
east, direct ; clamp east, reflected. This plan was not entirely
carried out as the tables show, in part due to the difficulty in
obtaining reflected observations. These were often prevented
by wind or unsteady seeing. Often, too, reflected observations
were prevented by trains on the Michigan Central Railroad,
and sometimes by the shutting of a door in another part of the
building. Nevertheless, nearly as many reflected observations
were obtained as direct. They seem to be quite as consistent
among themselves as the direct ; perhaps they are in a sense
selected observations. Each night's observing list included at
least one of the Berliner Jahrbuch stars.

Advantage in combining reflected and direct observations is
found in the fact that different sets of divisions on the circle are
employed, thus largely eliminating division errors, and in the
fact that the sign of the sine flexure is reversed. In the mean
of the 4 positions : W. D. ; W. R. ; E. D. ; E. R. ; the first 2
terms of the cosine flexure and the first term of the sine flexure
are eliminated.

To determine the amount of the flexure the following for-
mulas were employed :

W. D. ■: = z^ + a' cos z + l>' sin z — (iSo° + iV) + a'

W. R. (iSo° — ':)=z^ — a' cos z + 6' sin z— (180° -f ^) + «'
E. D. (360° — :) =z.^ + a' cos z — d' sin z — ( iSo° + JV) -{- a'
E. R. (iSo° + :) =z^ — a' cos z — d' sin z — (iSo° + A^) + a'

192 BIGELOW

The coefficient of cosine flexure found was i".6g^; and of
sine flexure, o".ii7. In the case of clamp west tlie circle read-
ings increase from the zenith toward the north and the formula
for flexure correction is

C = ^ + o". 163 — I ."694 cos z -f o". r 1 7 sin z — i ."694

The large cosine flexure was also found b}' Dr. Hall. (See
" Reprint from Report of Michigan Academy of Science,"

1904-)

Corrections for division errors were not applied. Some

examination of the circle was made to determine its general
character. The mean of the 4 divisions, 0°, 90°, iSo°, 270°,
was assumed to be without error. In finding the errors of the
intermediate divisions, taking also as a division the mean of 4
marks 90° apart, 2 microscope arms were set 100° apart, 110°
apart, etc. Readings were then made on a number of 100°
spaces, for instance, distributed symmetrically around the cir-
cle; these readings were taken forward and back so as to elim-
inate progressive changes in the instrument depending on the
time. The mean of these readings was assumed to be the correct
100° space and was used for obtaining the error of the 100^
mark on the circle. The microscopes were afterward changed
180° from their first position and the process repeated.

The 2 columns of division errors jriven show the changes
produced by placing the microscopes in the two positions.
Evidently the effect of gravity is considerable as might be
expected from the structure of the circle, which is rather frail.

ivisions.

Division

Errors.

Means.

100°

(vs,

. 10°

etc

•)

— 0. 1 I

— 0.62

-0.36

1 10

- 0.33

-0.S4

— 0.5S

120

— 0.50

— 0.5S

-0-54

130

-0.72

— 0.62

— 0.67

140

— 0.70

— 0.62

-0.66

150

— 0-34

-0.94

— 0.64

160

4- 0.06

— 0.26

— 0. 10

170

4-0.40

4- 0.02

-f- 0.21

I So

0.00

Two tabl

observe

eclinations

are presen

ited, the

first

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH TOLAR STARS I93

giving the absolute declinations from the circle readings with-
out correction for flexure or division errors ; the second giving
the declinations of the list stars from comparison with the one
or more zero stars observed on the same night.

In Table I the observed zenith distances are given, corrected
for runs, reduction to the meridian, and refraction. Bessel's
refraction tables were employed, as prepared by Professor
Eastman of the Naval Observator}-. The standard barometer
was repaired and tested a few years ago by the Weather Bureau
Office in Washincton. The thermometers also have been tested
by them and by the weather bureau official at Lansing. Dur-
ing observations the thermometer was hung near the object
glass of the telescope, and the readings were corrected w^hen
necessary, according to the table of corrections determined by
the Weather Bureau Office.

The next column in Table I gives the observed zenith dis-
tances, reduced to Jan. o.o of the year of observation. These
reductions w^ere made with the "Independent Star Numbers"
G, H, etc., given for each day in the Berliner Jahrbuch.
They were checked by a sufficient number of identical reduc-
tions made with the Besselian Star Numbers, A, B, C, D, E,
from the Berliner Jahrbuch and the star constants from Dr.
Auwers's list in the Astronomische Nachrichten.

The zenith distances are then reduced to Jan. o.o, 1900 and
the means taken of the different observations of each position.
In obtaining these means, a system of weights depending on
the number of settings in each case was adopted as follow^s :
probable error of one setting 0^.33 ; probable error of nadir
determination o".25 ; probable error in refraction tables 0^.30,
giving as weights :

No. of Settings. Weight.

1 .72

2 .90

3 ^-oo

4 ^-04

5 i-oS

6 1. 10

7 I.I I

194 BIGELOW

The reflected observations are also corrected for the position
of the mercury basin, the correction being h tan z where h is
height of telescope axes above the artificial horizon. This cor-
rection is o".04 for upper culmination, and o".03 for lower.

The mean of the 4 positions above pole combined with the
mean of the 4 below gives the value for latitude corresponding
to each star.

LATITUDE.

List Stars.

B.J. St;

xrs.

Cephei Br. 256

49-35

43 H. Cephei

48-74

Cephei 157 Hs.

48-95

Polaris

48.82

Cephei 15S Hs.

4S.86

Gr. 750

48. 68

Cephei 109 Hs.

48.72

51 H. Cephei

48.80

Urs. min. 4 B

48.71

I H Draconis

48.76

Cephei i3i Hs.

48. 48

30 H. Camelop.

49.10

Urs. min. 3 Hs.

48.43

0 Urs. min.

48-94

32 H. Camel, pr.

4S.70

I Urs. min.

48.65

" "• " seq.

49.08

76 Draconis

48.80

Cephei 135 Hs.

48-75

Mean

48.81

Urs. min. 57 B

48.74

Cephei 3 Hs.

48.60

Cephei Gr. 3548

48. 60

33 H. Cephei

48.72

36 H. Cephei

48.58

39 H. Cephei

48. 61

Cephei i 25 Hs.

48.72

Mean

48.74

The nine zero stars give 48". 81 ; the seventeen others,
48". 74. The value from the nine was given half weight and the
adopted value for the latitude of Ann Arbor is 42°i6'48".76.

The value found recently by Dr. Hall is 48^.8 (see Astro-
nomical Joiirnal, 518).

This value of the latitude combined with the zenith distances
gives for each star the eight values of declination in the last
column of Table I. The mean of the four values above pole,
with the mean of the four below, gives the linal value of abso-
lute declination.

In the case of the live stars not observed in all eight positions,
adopted values of declination were found by correcting for flex-

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH I'OLAR STARS I95

ure the places obtained and combining them with arbitrary
weights as follows :

Ccfhci 147 Hs. ] (W. D. + 2 W. R. + E. D.) for declina-
tion above pole, combined with equal weight with position
below pole.

Cephci 149 Hs. \ (2 W. D. + W. R. + E. R.) for declina-
tion above pole, and then treated like preceding star.

Caniclop. s 664. Mean of the four positions above pole.

Urs. inin. 33 Hs. \ (W. D. + E. D.) for position below pole,
combined with half weight with observations above pole.

£ Urs. mm. W. D. below pole combined with ^ weight with
the mean of the remaining observations.

In Table II in comparing the stars of the list with the zero
stars observed on the same night, differential flexure was ap-
plied. No attempt has been made to give weights to the means
depending on the number of zero stars employed. The final
declinations obtained by the two methods are found to agree
closely.

Table III gives a summary of the observed declinations to-
gether with the declinations given in Newcomb's " Fundamental
Catalogue of Stars," and those given in the Berliner Jahrbuch
for 1900, so far as the observed stars are found in either cata-
logue. The Berliner Jahrbuch for 1906 gives also in the ap-
pendix definitive corrections to the places as given in the main
catalogue. The last column of Table III has been formed by
adding these corrections to the catalogue places, and reducing
from 1906 to 1900, employing the Berliner Jahrbuch values
for precession without including proper motion. In the first
column of observed declinations the five values obtained, as
described above, from incomplete sets of observations are
bracketed.

University of Michigan,
Anx Arbor, May, 1904.

196

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. 43 11. cepiiei.

Date of Obs.

No.

of Set-

Zenith

Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.

tion.

tings.

1900.0

Obs. 1 Jan. 0.0.

43=^26'

43°

26'

85°43'

Weighted

Mean.

W.D.

Dec.

1 1,

'01

88. '01

48-38

28. 92

38.92

1 7! 68

-o W.R.

Dec.

'01

84.27

45.87

26.41

26.46

15.23

Dec.

'01

S4.49

45-90

26.44

^ E.D.

Nov.

iS,

'01

75.60

41.67

22.31

22.21

10.97

Oct.

'01

70-35

45.58

26.12

E.R.

Nov.

'01

75-46

44-49

25.03

25.61

H-37

Nov.

26,

'01

81.16

45-03

25-57

25.80

14.56

51°

58'

^59'

W.D.

Mar.

31^

'03

54-97

59.'7o

58'.oS

5842

1 3'.' 8 3

May

29,

'03

70.27

60.38

58.76

A W.R.

Mar.
May

31.
29,

'03
'03

2
I

53.80
68.73

58.53
58.84

56.91

57-22

57-08

14.16

May

'02

80.19

76.18

55-IO

S E.D.

May

16,

'03

80.59

75.23

54-15

54-65

16.59

Apr.

29,

'03

60.20

56.30

54.68

E.R.

Feb.
May

21,

'03
'03

41.79
64.94

57.70
58.88

56.08
57.36

56.67

14.57

56.71

14.53

14.55

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

197

Table I.—

ABSOLUTE DECLINATIONS FOR

1900.0. POLARIS.

Zenith Distance.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-

Declina-

Year of Obs.

tion.

tings.

Obs. Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

46°29'

°29'

88°46'

Jan.

8, '03

100.82

78.42

40.92

Weighted
Mean.

Oct.

7, '03

90.04

77-75

40.35

Oct.

8, '03

93. 38

79.69

43.19

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.

9, '03

38, '03

91-31
97-05

78.21
76.81

40.71
39-31

4o.'58

29-34

Oct.

29, '03

97.81

77.24

39-74

Oct.

30, '03

98.S9

77-99

40-49

Oct.

31, '03

99.71

78.47

40.97

Dec.

6, '01

91.38

55-7S

37-02

Oct.

30, '02

91-15

74.02

36-52

^ W.R.

Oct.

31, '03

93.19

74.64

37-H

37-35

26.11

>
0

Oct.

34, '03

94.53

75-73

38-23

Dec.

iS, '03

110.89

75.06

37-56

Nov.

13, '03

98.91

73-3S

35.S8

Nov.

3 1, '03

103.73

74.06

36-56

35-59

24-35

E.D.

Nov.

34, '03

103.34

72.76

35-26

Nov.

28, '03

103.86

73-iS

35.68

Feb.

5. '03

1 10.06

90.80

34-57

Dec.

3, '01

91.26

56.69

37-93

E.R.

Nov.

19, '02

103.08

75-11

37.61

37-72

26.48

Nov.

21, '02

103.72

75-05

37-55

37.81

26.57-

48°

. 4S

'56'

Apr.

II, '02

65-31

7046

47-96

Apr.

24, '03

6S.91

70.05

47-55

Apr.

28, '02

70-55

70.60

48. 10

June

8, '02

79.31

70.52

48.03

W.D.

Mar.

21, '03

40.31

49-77

46.00

46.96

24.38

Mar.

25, '03

41.90

50.19

46.42

Mar.

28, '03

43.03

50.28

46.51

Mar.

29, '03

42.81

49-72

45-95

s ■

May

29» '03

60.23

50.56

46-79

Apr.

29, '02

66.62

66.41

43-91

June

3 5 '02

74-55

66.40

43-90

W.R.

June

8, '02

74-31

65.63

43.12

44-03

27.31

Mar.

25^ '03

39-91

48. 30

44-43

May

29» '03

5S.17

48.50

44-73

198

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declixations for 1900.0. polaris. — Co7i-

tinued.

Zenith Distance.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-

Declina-

Year of Obs.

tion.

tings.

Obs.

Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

48=

'55'

48=56'

May

'03

67-37

64-34

41:84

Weighted
Mean.

May

13.

'02

6Z.s^

64.70

42.30

May

16,

'02

69.26

64.69

42.19

E.D.

May
Mar.

24.
I,

'03
'03

5
3

70.61
31-44

64-23
46-35

41-73
42.58

42.06

29! 18

Apr.

28,

'03

48.06

45-62

41.85

Apr.

29,

'03

48.41

45-70

41-93

May

'03

50-97

45-89

42. 12

May

'02

69.74

66.71

44.31

May

25,

'02

73-58

67.04

44-54

Feb.

24,

'03

32-59

48-77

45.00

E.R.

Feb.

25,

'03

33-04

48.99

45-22

45-09

26.15

Mar.

'03

34-29

48-93

45.16

Apr.

28,

'03

52.05

49.61

45-84

May

'03

54.08

49.00

45-23

44-54

26.70

26.64

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

199

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei br. 256.

W.D.

P W.R.

>
o

E.D.

E.R.

W.D.

^ W.R.

S E.D.

E.R.

Date of Obs.

Oct. S

Oct. 28

Oct. 29

Jan. 22

Oct. 21

Oct. 24

Jan. 23

Jan. 26

Nov. 24

Nov. 28

Dec. 2

Nov. 19

Nov. 21

June 8, '02
Mar. 21, '03

Apr. 29, '02
June 3, '02

May 9, '02
May 13, '02
May 16, '02

May 25, '02
Feb. 24, '03

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
obs. I Jan. o.o.

4o°48'

S7.23
92.94
92.87

96.44

87.41

S9-75
109.85

97-05
98.36

88.25
9S.71
99.69

79.21

77-75
77-33

75-59

74-74
76.02

91-54
93-90

72.56
72.63

58.65

75-84
76.17

54°36'

76.65
39-56

73-98

65-79

67-39
68.01

72. 86
33-34

67.74
49-23

65-57
65. 88

63-37
63.91

63-77

66.54

4S.85

44-73

43-27
42.85

4o°48'

i'ei
M

43.66

41. II
40.26

41-54
39.82

42.18

38.08

38.15

41.41
41.36
41.69

Weighted
Mean.

41.06

38.11

41-54

41.09

54°37'

42.22
40.95

40.05
40.36

37-85
3S-39
38-25

41.02
40.57

41.58
40.22

38.19

40.83
40.21

Declina-
tion.
1900.0.

83°o5'
32-42

29.82

26.87
30.30

29.85

29.66
31.02

33-05
30.41

3^-03
30.44

200

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 147 hs.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

•

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0

42°

16'

42°

16'

Weight' d
Mean.

S4°33'

W.D.

Dec.
Jan.

II, '01

8, '03

75 -S3
S3-15

54-17
67.99

40.66
40.99

40-83

29-59 (^vt. I)

6 W.R.

Dec.

Nov.
Nov.
Feb.

5. '01

13, '03
28, '03

5. '03

71-57

72.60
76.95
90. 98

51-79

63-36
62.19

75-23

38.28

36.36
35-19
34-75

38-32

35-34

27.08
4-.281

< E.D.

27.36 (Wt. 2)
24.10 (wt. I^

E.R.

53°

08'

53^^

09'

[27.10]

W.D.

June
Mar.

14, '03
29. '03

3
I

90.17
56.53

80.39
65-73

47-39
46.21

46.90

24-34

W.R.

June
Mar.
Mar.

3^ '02

25^ '03
28, '03

84.67
54.18

54-55

77-37

64-35
64.00

44-37
44-83
44.4S

44.61

26.63

I E.D.

May
May
Apr.

9, '02
16, '02

9, '03

75-79
77-34
54-32

75-40
74.88
60.56

42.40
41.88
41.04

41.69

29-55

E.R.

May
May
June
Apr.

21, '02

22, '02
26, '02
28, '03

2
I

I
I

81.83
82.11
89.46

65-55

77-94

77-95

77-54
66.16

44-94

44-95

44-54
46.64

45.21

26.03

44.60

26.64

[26.S7]

' Cos flexure and absolute term.

DECLINATIOxMS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

201

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 149 hs.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declination
1900.0.

Year of Obs.
Obs. Jan. o.o.

igoo.

44°o3'

86°i9''

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Dec.
Jan.

II, '01
8, '02

39 -So
47.48

22.63
34-43

10.77
10.74

IO-75

59-5 1
-2.75^

56.76 (wt.

ii W.R.

Jan.

Feb.

23, '02
15, '02

47-34
47.41

31.68
29.92

7-99
6.23

7.20

55-96

< E.D.

Nov.

24, '02

40.15

31.40

[7.71?

E.R.

Nov.
Nov.

19, '02
31, '02

38.76
39.60

31-73
31.88

S.04
8.19

8.15

56.91

[56.60]

51 =

22'

■"J

June

8, '02

61.36

53-17

16.86

W.D.

June
June

13, '02

14, '02

I
3

62.99
63.58

53-67
54.02

17.36
17.71

17-32

53-92

-3 W.R.

Apr.
June

29, '02
3' '02

3
3

46.11
56.86

49.69
50.06

13.3S
13-75

13-59

57-65

|e.d.

May
May

8, '02
13, '02

I
3

44.87
48. 02

45.68
47-30

9-37
10.99

10.48

60.76

May

25, '02

51.40

47.12

10.81

E.R.

May
May

21, '02

23, '03

5
3

53-93

55-22

50.81
51.80

14.50
15-49

15.01

56.23

14.10

57-H

[56.87]

^ There is evidently a large error in this value; probably due to an error in the original
ecord.
2 Cos flexure and absolute term.

202

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. gr. 7^0.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith

Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

43°oo'

85°i7'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.

38,
30,

'02
'03

57-07
57-05

62.55
63.01

43-29
42.75

43-02

3178

•^ W.R.

0
>

Jan.
Feb.
Dec.
Jan.

33,

15,

18,
36,

'03
'03
'03

'03

3
3

71.12

74-13
69.97

80.53

58.06

58.35
58.83

69.20

38.80

39-09
39-56
40-34

39-51

28. 27

^ E.D.

Nov.
Feb.
Feb.

34,

5^
13.

'02

'03
'03

60.51

78.73

79-15

57-29
66.07

65.65

38-03
37-21
36.79

37-36

26.13

E.R.

Nov.

31,

'02

61.67

59-49

40.23

40.27

39.03

40.04

28.80

52=

25'

52^

'25'

W.D.

June
June
June
Mar.

8,
13.

29,

'02
'03
'02

'03

I
I

3
4

31-91

34-H

35-47

5.50

24-35
25-36
26.41

15-51

43.61
44.63
45-67
44-37

44-64

26.60

6 W.R.

Apr.

June
June
Mar.

29,
3.

5r
28,

'03
'02
'02
'02

3
3
3

18.79

39.71

39.83

4.48

23.10

23-5^
33.03

14.73

42-36

43.77
43.38
43-5S

43.81

2S.43

M E.D.

May
May
Apr.
Apr.

25,

27,

'02
'02

'03
'03

I
I

17.08

24-36
3. 38

S.45

18.61
20.77
10.97
II. 15

37-87
40.03

39 -S3
40.01

39-49

31-75

E.R.

May
May
June
June

21,

24,
26,

'02
'02
'02
'02

I
I

I
2

25-92

27-15
36.63

35-48

23-52

24-43
25.12

23-57

42.78

43-69
44-38
42.83

43-42

27.82

42.59

2S.65

28.72

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

203

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 157 hs.

Date of Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. [ Jan. o.o.

1900.0

tion.
1900.0

43^

'33'

^32'

Weighted
Mean.

85°49'

W.D.

Feb. 22, '02
Feb. 24, '02

3
3

2c;.I2

24. 88

11.70
11.31

60.91
60.52

60.72

49-4S

i W.R.

Feb. 13, '02
Feb. 15, '02

20.25
20.55

7.70
7.76

56.91
56.97

56.98

45-74

1 E.D.

Mar. 5, '02
Mar. 6, '02
Feb. 5, '03

3
I

19.64
1S.93
19.87

5.82

5.10

10.60

55-03
54-31

54-46

54-64

43-40

E.R.

Feb. 24, '03
Feb. 26, '03

I
2

24.76
25.01

13-24
13-39

57-IO

57-25

57.22

45-98

57-39

46.15

5i°52'

51^

'53'

W.D.

June 9, '02
June 13, '02
Mar. 29, '03

3
5
4

S3.48
84.62
60.47

76.87
76.83
70.65

27.66
27.62
26.79

27-36

43-S8

2 W.R.

June 3, '02
June 5, '02
Mar. 28, '03

3
I

7S.36
7S.70
58.80

73-54

73-27
69.12

24-33
24.06

25.26

24-63

46.61

m E.D.

June 16, '02
June 17, '02

3
3

S0.77
79-56

72. IX

70.62

22.90

21.41

22.16

49.08

E.R.

June 24, '02
June 26, '02

4
3

85.12
84.90

74-23
73 -43

25.02
24.27

24.68

46-56

24.71

46-53

46.34

204

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declixations for 1900.0. cephei 15S hs.

>
o

W.D.

W.R.

E.D.

E.R.

W.D.

& W.R.

Date of Obs.

E.D.

E.R.

Jan. 16, '03

Feb. 15, '03

Feb. 22, '02

Jan. 33, 'o3

Feb. 13, '02

Mar. 4, '02

Mar. 5, '03

Mar. 6, 'o3

Feb. 34, '03

Feb. 35, '03

Mar. 3, '03

June 5, '03
June 9, 'o3
Mar. 39, '03

June 3, 'o3
Mar. 28, '03

June 16, '02
June 17, '02

May 31, '03
May 33, '02

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

43°53'

13.84

18.93

21. 01

10.45
15.04

15-50
16.38

19.20
18.69
19.09

19-55

9.29
S.65
9.80

5-27
5.08

3-45
4.37

7-05
9.07

9-36

9-38

24.39

24-33
5.10

52°34'
//
19.82

18.65

14.94

17.87
3-96

21.06
20.93

17.14
17. 1 1

14.01
13.89

13.37
13.85

17.19

16.87

Declina-
tion.
1900.0.

42^

'51'

Weighted
Mean.

85=08'

64.07

63-43
64.5S

63-97

52-73

60.05

59.S6

59-99

48.75

58.23
59-05

58.64

47.40

61.83

61.39

61.58

61.63

50-39

61.60

61.06

49.82

=34'

35.04
23.87

33:88

47-36

22.73

19.33

31.67

30.4S

50.76

18.49

18.07

1S.38

52.96

33.41
33.09

22.27

48.97

21.23

50.01

49.92

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS 205

Table I. absolute declinations for 1900.0. 51 h. cephei.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith

Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

44°55'

87'^i2'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Mar.
Mar.

29, '02

25. '03

34-87
38.98

25-43
20.52

34-93
34-84

34:88

23-64

W.R.

Feb.

15^ '02

25.09

21-52

31.02

31.06

19.83

0
? E.D.

Mar.
Mar.
Feb.

5^ '02
24, '02

6, '03

26.24
28.11

H-38

19.03

18.74
14.30

28.52
28.24
28.62

38.48

17.24

E.R.

Mar.
Mar.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Mar.

6, '02
19, '02

i3» '03

25, '03

26, '03

2, '03

3
3

30.89

32-47
19.64

23.38

22-77
34.40

23.48

23-56
17.60
18.49

17-74
18.57

32.98
33-o6
31.92
32.81
32.06
32.89

32.66

21.42

31-77

20.53

50=

30'

50^

'30'

W.D.

June
June
June

13, '02

9/03
14^ '03

68.16
69.49
70.93

64-27
66.12
66.09

54-77
51.80

51-77

52^92

18:32

£ W.R.

June
June
June

27, '02

9, '03

14. '03

I
I

68.30
69.13
69.68

60.04

65-75
64.85

50-54
51-43
50.53

50.84

20.40

ra E.D.

June
Apr.

17, '02
27, '03

I
4

62.41
55 -60

57-23
62.37

47-73
48.05

47.93

23.32

E.R.

June
June

26, '02

25^ '03

67.79
73-90

59.83
65-57

50-33
51-25

50. S3

20.42

50.63

20.63

20.57

2o6

BIGELOW

Table I.

ABSOLUTE DECLINATIONS

FOR I

900.0. (

:ephei I

09 HS.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith

Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. 0.0.

1900.0

tion.
1900.0

42°

03'

42^

03'

Weighted

Mean.

84°2o'

W.D.

Mar. 39, '03
"Apr. II, '03

51-95
53.46

45-37
45-07

64.40
64.10

64.26

53 -02

f W.R.

Feb. 15, '03
Mar. 3 1, '03

37-92
36.83

39-89
31-56

58.92
60.14

59-57

48.33

1 E.D.

Mar. 4, '03
Mar. 5, '03

3
3

42.26
40.94

39.86
38.31

5S.89

57-34

58.12

46.88

E.R.

Mar. 19, '03
Mar. 37, '03

3
3

48.09
49.80

43. So
43-44

61.83
62.47

62.19

50.95

61.04

49.80

53°22'

W.D.

June 5, '03
Oct. 6, '03

41.96

76.31

42.39
43-30

23-36

24-27

23-79

47-45

fS W.R.

Oct. 7, '03
Oct. iS, '03
Oct. 20, '02
June 9, '03

I
I
I

73-04
75-10

74-47
49.84

40.01
40.99
40.33
49.28

20.98
21.96
21.19
20.70

21.21

50.03

« E.D.

June 17, '02
Sept. 15, '02

2
2

40. So
66.86

37-99
37-59

18.96
18.56

18.76

53.48

E.R.

June 36, '03

46.79

41-34

22.31

22.34

48.90

21.52

49.72

49.76

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POEAR STARS

207

Table I. — .vbsolute declinations for 1900.0. urs. min. 4 b.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

tion.

1900.0

46°3S'

°39'

88°55'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Mar. 29,
Mar. 25,

'03
'03

2
2

61.30
49-13

54-32
42.89

14.20
12.83

13-52

62 [28

. W.R.

Mar. 31,
Mar. 25,

'03
'03

3
4

45-83
46-39

40.17
40.15

10. II
10.09

10.14

58.90

0
1 E.D.

Mar. 21,
Mar. 24,
Mar. 35,
Feb. 5,

'02
'02
'03
'02

I
I
I

54-09
53-31
54-41
32.12

48.15
46.94
47.91
37-66

8.03
6.S2

7-79
7.60

7.60

56.36

Feb. 6,

'03

32-57

37-79

7-73

E.R.

Feb. 5,
Feb. 34,

'03
'03

35-56
41.20

41.10

41.05

1 1 .04
10.99

11.06

59-82

10.58

59-34

48=

'47'

W.D.

June 37,
Sept. 22,
Sept. 26,

'03
'03

'03

39-65
66.61
67.01

34.18

35-15
34-79

14.30

15-27
14.91

i4.'S8

56^36

£ W.R.

June 27,
June S,

'03
'03

4
3

36.29
40-53

30.82
40.80

10.94
10.86

10.93

60.31

i E.D.

June 17,

'02

31.92

29.51

9-63

61.61

E.R.

June 36,
June 35,

'03
'03

36.96
47-73

3 1. So
43-"

11.92
13-17

12.54

58.70

12.00

59-24

59-29

208

BIGELOW

Table I. absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 121 hs.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

42°i7'

42=

18'

84=34'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Feb.
Mar.

23
29,

'02
'02

3
3

40-32
48.02

4548
44.49

13.12
12.13

12.62

61.38

6 W.R.

Apr.
Mar.
Mar.

25^
28,

'02

'03
'03

2
I

47.70
31-78
31-91

41.92
28.63
28.18

9.56

10. II

9.66

9-79

5S.55

0
1 E.D.

Mar.
Mar.
Feb.

13.

'02
'02
'03

35-91

36-54
17.71

38-17
38-52
25-39

5-81
6.16
6.87

6.34

55-IO

E.R.

Mar.
Mar.
Mar.

21,

25 .
27,

'02
'02
'02

3
3
3

44-15
46.40

46.26

42.18
43.61

43-09

9.82
11.25
10.73

10.64

59-40

9.85

58.61

^oS'

53'

'08'

W.D.

Sept.

Oct.

22,
I,
9^

'02
'02
'02

3
I

73-65
74.48

77-43

43-37
41.90

43.07

15-73
14.26

' 15-43

15-23

56.01

^ W.R.

June
Oct.
Oct.
June

27,
18,

21,
8,

'02
'02
'02

'03

2
I

I
I

41.85
77.12
77.27
52.20

39-17
41.06

40.72

54.88

11-53
13-42
13.08
13.40

I2.SI

58.43

E.D.

June
Sept.
Nov.
Nov.

17.
16,

20,

21,

'02
'02
'02
'02

3
I

3
3

37-94
67.92

78.04
77-86

37.88

39-29
39-11
38.93

10.24
11.65
11.47
1 1.29

II. 13

60.11

E.R.

June

26,

'02

43.60

41.20

13-56

13-59

57-65

13-19

58.05

58.33

DKCI.INATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

209

Table I

ABSOLUTE ]

DECLINATIONS

5 FOR I

900.0.

I H. DRACONIS.

Date of Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. 0.0.

1900.0

tion.
1900.0

39°

28'

39^

49'

Weighted
Mean.

8i°46'

W.D.

Apr. 4,

'03

37-7S

34-46

21.12

9.88

6 W.R.

Apr. 34,
Mar. 21,

'02
'03

I
2

52-50
31-57

47.20
31.26

18.30
17.92

18.13

6.89

9 E.D.

Apr. 7,
Apr. 9,

'03
'03

2
2

32-73

32-54

28.86
28.27

15-52
14-93

15.22

3-98

E.R.

Mar. 31,
Feb. 5,
Feb. 6,
Mar. 3,
Mar. 8,

'02

'03
'03
'03
'03

47.02

19-52
19.48

27.17
28.02

47-32
31.98
31.68
31.89

31-17

18.42
18.64
18.34
18.55

17-83

18.43

7.18

18.32

6.98

55°57'

57'

W.D.

June 37,
Oct. I,

'02
'02

38^11
69.63

36:98

38.22

5.88
7.12

6-43

4'.8i

2 W.R.

Oct. iS,
Oct. 34,

'03
'03

71-51
71.89

36.00
35-03

4.90
3-93

4-45

6.79

1 E-I^-

June 17,
Sept. 15,

'03
'03

31.88
58.59

32-99
31.84

1.89
0.74

1.33

9-92

E.R.

June 35,

'03

51-30

51-51

4.85

4.88

6.36

4-27

6.97

6.98

2IO

BIGELOW

Table I. absolute declinations for 1900.0. 30 h. camelop.

Date of Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.

1900.0.

40^

=46'

4o°47'

83^3'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

May
Mar.

2,
21,

'02
'03

2
3

44-53
19. So

39-53
22.13

15-74
16.46

16.10

64.'86

6
-o W.R.

Apr.
Mar.
Mar.

25^
28,

'02
'03
'03

3S.9S
17.90

19-39

36.46
19.10
19.78

12.67

13-43
14. II

13-44

62.20

3 E.D.

Feb.
Apr.

26,
9,

'03
'03

7-52
19-45

16.90
16.90

11.23
11.23

11.23

59-99

E.R.

Feb.
Apr.

24.

'03
'03

I
2

9.62
21.80

54'

19.63
19.70

'39'

13.96
14.03

14.04
13.70

=39'

62.80
62.46

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.

4^
6,

'01
02

2
I

59.00

76.5S

2S.07
45-99

9-96
9.78

9.S8

6 1. "36

i W.R.

Oct.
Oct.
Oct.

7.
21,

'01
'01
'02

2
2

57-31
58.38

79-27

26.05
26.47
44.27

7-94
8.36
8.06

8.15

63.09

1 E-^-

Oct.
Oct.

Nov.

23:

25,
21,

'01
'01
'02

60.04
61.41
84.30

23.48

24-33
43-04

5-37
6.22

6.83

6. II

65-13

E.R.

Nov.
Nov.

30.
20,

'01
'02

69.02
86.14

25.81
45.01

7.70
S.80

8.28

62.96

8.10

63.14

62.80

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

211

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0, camel, s. 664.

Date of Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

^52'

=54'

Weight'd
Mean.

86° 10'

W.D.

Mar. 21, '03
Mar. 29, '03

68.56
71.64

73.66
73-33

10.95
11.62

11". 2 8

60.04

-^ W.R.

Mar. 28, '03
Mar. 31/03

3
3

69.50
69.88

71.49
70.99

9.78
9.38

9-56

5S.32

> E.D.

Feb. 6, '03
Feb. 26, '03

3
3

50-59

55-93

67.86
67-35

6.15
5.64

5-90

54.66

E.R.

Feb. 21, '03
Feb. 25, '03
Mar. 2, '03

3
2
3

57-25
59.85
61.03

70,22
71.58
71.18

8.51
9.87

9-47

9-33

58.09

9.03

[57.78]

212

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0.

URS. MIN. 3 HS.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith

Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0

tion,
igoo.o

45°

57'

45=

58'

Weighted
Mean.

88°i5'

W.D.

Apr.
Apr.
Mar.

II, '02
24, '03
38, '03

47^28

49-85
24.80

49.98
48.93
39.76

39.87
38.81
39.60

29-50

iSr26

6 W.R.

Apr.
Apr.

10, '03

15^ '02

6
0

43.16
44-25

46.15
45-78

36.04
35.67

35.90

14.66

0 E.D.

May
May
May
Feb.

13, '03

33, '03

35, '03

6, '03

3
4

48.03

49.64

50.20

4.41

43.91

43-13
43-34

23-58

32.80
33.03

23-23
33.43

23-15

II. 91

E.R.

May
Feb.
Mar.

34, '03

25, '03
2, '03

53-39
12.09

14.10

46.64
36.65
37.34

26.53
36.49
37.08

26.73

15-49

36.33

15.08

49^

38'

49'

'27'

W.D.

Dec.
Jan.
Oct.

II, '01
8, '03
I, '03

3
4

62.29
64.89

58.43

19.56
40.37
39.60

59-61
60.38

59-71

59-93

11.31

W.R.

Oct.
Oct.

20, '03
24, '02

61.88
64.19

35-92
36-79

56.03
56.90

56.47

H-77

^ E.D.

Oct.

Nov.

28, '01
18, '01
24, '03

44.49
50.91
70.72

13-56
13-34
33-69

53-61
53-39
53-80

53-62

17.63

E.R.

Oct.

Nov.

33, '01
39, '01

9, '01

13, '03
19, '03
31, '03

I
I
I

46.08
49.73

52-13
70.59

73.83

73-09

17.37
18.44
17.33
36-89
37-11
36-84

57-32
58-49
57-27
57-00:

57-22

56-95

57-38

13-86

56.S5

H-39

14.74

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

213

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. 32 11. camel, pr.

Dateof Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

4i°39'

°4o'

83°57'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Apr.
Mar.
Mar.

II, '02
21, '03

29^ '03

3
3

71-55

46.73
48.46

76.33
55-91
55- 10

55-50
54-69
53.88

54-77

43 -'53

4 ^^'•^^•

Apr.
Mar.

29, '02
-5. '03

73-93
44.81

73-35

53.73

52-53
51-50

52.06

40.83

2 E.D.

May
May
Mar.

16, '02

23, '02
I> '03

74.68

75-50
36.09

70.00
69.66

51-13

49.18
4S.84
49.91

49-30

38.06

E.R.

Feb.
Feb.
Apr.

6, '03

25, '03
28, '03

3
I

33-63
3«-63

53-55
54-69
55.08

52.33

53-47
53.S6

53-21

41.97

52-34

41.10

53'

45'

^45'

W.D.

Jan.
Oct.

8, '03
8, '02

3
4

96.33

88.81

72. 28
72.17

33-10
32-99

33-04

38.20

1 W.R.

Oct.
Dec.

34, '03
18, '02

3
3

91-51
107.66

68.59
68.68

39.41
39.50

29.49

41-75

S E.D.

Nov.
Nov.

12, '02
28, '02

3
3

96-45
101.51

66.94
67.07

27.76
27.89

27. 82

43-42

E.R.

Dec.
Nov.

2, '01
19, '02

3
3

S8.73
101.13

50.S7
69-34

31.28
30.16

30.72

40.52

30.27

40.97

41.03

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

214

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. 32 h. camel.

seq.

Date of Ot

)S.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith

Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

1900.0

tion,
tgoo.o

41°

39'

41'

40'

Weighted
Mean.

83=57'

W.D.

Apr.
Apr.
Mar.

24>

38,
29,

'02

'03

57-45

58-31
30.60

56.63
58.01

37-25

35-80

37-19
36.01

36'3i

25-07

o- W.R.

June
June

'02

2
3

62.90
62.08

55-27
53-93

34-45
33-"

33.7S

22.54

% E.D.

May
May

9>
13.

'02

I
3

55-61
5<5-03

52.46
51-99

31.64
31-17

31-55

20.31

Mar.

^03

18.16

33-21

31-97

May

25,

'02

61.88

55-53

34-72

E.R.

Feb.
Mar.

24.

^03

'03

19.24
22.32

35-55
37.10

34-31
35.86

35-27

24.03

Apr.

28,

'03

39-92

37-33

36.09

34-23

22.99

53^46'

53^

45'

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.
Oct.

9^
30,
31.

'02
'02

'02

3
3

46.76
54-05
55-30

29.76
29.14
30.02

50-58
49.96
50.84

50.46

20 '.78

^ W.R.

Oct.
Oct.

I1
21,

'02
'02

I
3

41.87
47.21

25-63
25.64

46.45
46.46

46.48

24.76

tt E.D.

Nov.

24,

'02

57-50

24.22

45-04

26.20

E.R.

Nov.

21,

'02

59-97

27.58

48.40

48-43

32.81

47.60

23.64

23-31

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS 215

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 135 hs.

Dat«

: of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

°57'

40=58'

83°i5'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Apr.
June
Mar.

38, '03

8, '03

25. '03

I
3

SO. 8c;
61.56
24.70

53.51
53-07
34-69

28:55
39.11

28.75

28'.'8o

17-56

p W.R.

Apr.
June

39, '03

3, '02

48.63
57-87

49-99
50.27

26.03
26.31

36.30

14.96

1 E.D.

May
May
May

9, '03
13, '03
16, '03

3
I

48.49
50.19

51.82

46.89
47.48
48.30

22.93
23-52
24-34

23-54

13.30

E.R.

May
Feb.

35, '03
25. '03

3
3

56.38
15-07

50-56
32.11

26.60
26.17

36.42

15.18

36.24

15.00

'28'

^2/

W.D.

Jan.
Oct.
Oct.

8, '03

9, '03

I
4
3

55-52
43-73
42-94

34.00

35-14
33-98

57-96
59.10

57-94

58:38

12:86

"o W.R.

Dec.
Oct.
Dec.

6, '01
31, '03
18, '03

2
3

46.80

45-40
65-39

14-35

31-93
32.29

56.33
55.89
56.25

56.17

15-07

'^ E.D.

Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.

13, '03
31, '03
34, '03
28, '02

2
3
2

51.64

55-74
55-38
57-24

39.8S

30.75
29-35
39.89

53-84
54-71
53-31
53.85

53-93

17-31

E.R.

Nov.

19, '03

56.84

32-55

56.51

56.54

14.70

56.36

14.98

14.99

2l6

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. uus. minoris 57 b.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion.
1900.0.

45' 1 9'

'20'

87-37'

W.D.

May
June

2, '02
13, '02

5
2

47-94
60.13

50-45
50.67

17-65
17.84

Weighted
Mean.

I {.21

5.97

Mar.

21, '03

23. iS

35-43

16.19

'0 W.R.

Apr.
June

29, '02
8, '02

42.91
55-40

46.41

47-13

13-58
14.30

13.99

2-75

>
1 E.D.

May
May

8, '02
13, '02

43-53

45-54

44.17
44.61

11-34
11.78

11.97

0-73

Apr.

27, '03

30.23

32.01

12.77

E.R.

May
June

25, '02

26, '02

53-49
60.34

48.95
48.28

16.12
15-45

15.84

4.60

14-75

3-51

50^

b6'

06'

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.

28, '02
30, '02

40.73

42.15

37-54
3S-25

10.37
11.08

10.57

0.67

Oct.

31, '02

41.67

37-41

10.24

^ W.R.

Jan.
Dec.
Jan.
Jan.

22, '02
18, '02

23, '03
26, '03

2
2

52.18

55-76
62.29
64.69

34- 1 S

34-67
46.71

4S.77

7.01

7-50

5-95
8.01

7.07

4.17

E.D.

Nov.
Nov.

21, '02

24, '02

44.81
45.86

32-93
32.90

5-76
5-73

5-75

5-49

E.R.

Nov.

19, '02

45.98

34-S3

7.66

7-69

3-55

7-77

3-47

3-49

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

217

Table

I.—

ABSOLUTE DECLIXATIOXS FOR

1900.0

. UKS.

\II.\. 33 IIS.

Date of Obs.

No
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

XJCClltltltlOtl

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

4o°57'

40=

58'

83° H'

Weight'd
Mean.

W.D.

June
June

13, '03

14, '03

59-64
59.61

50". 8 1
50-51

II. 81
1 1 .5 1

11.67

60.43

W.R.

Apr.
June

29, '03

8, '03

42.06
55-44

47.28
48.04

8.38
9.04

8.72

57.48

0-i

May

S, '03

40-73

43-07

4-07

0 E.D.

May

13, '03

44.10

44.81

5.SI

5-41

54-17

6
42

Apr.

9, '03

25-S5

34-71

6.33

May

33, '03

51-55

49-36

10.36

E.R.

May
June

35, '03

36, '03

I
3

52.64
60.43

49.49
48.30

10.49
9-30

9-74

58.50

Apr.

27. '03

33-S7

37-54

9.06

8.88

57.64 wt. 2.

54^

28'

54'

38'

W.D.

Oct.
Oct.

38, '03
30, '02

2
3

32^04
32.11

36:87
36.29

15:87
15.39

15-56

55.68

i W.R.

Nov.

24, '02

37-83

33-22

12.22

-§ E.D.

Feb.

5^ '03

57-S3

43-23

II. 71

11.56

59.68

Feb.

13/03

57-72

42-45

10.93

E.R.

57-68

— .10*

[57-58] wt. I.

[57.62]

* Sine f

lexure.

2l8

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. e urs^

MINORIS.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declination
1900.0.

Years of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

39°54'

39'

55'

82° I 3'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

June
June

4,
9,

'03
'03

I
2

70.24
72.70

63-94
64.62

20.52
21.20

20.90

9.'66

1 W.R.

June
June

'03
'03

0
I

70.11
72.20

62.37
62.67

18.95
19.25

19-13

7-S9

i E.D.
E.R.

May
May

22,

'02
'02

59-71
64.79

63.71
64.32

14-75
15-36

15.10

3.S6

May
May
Apr.

21,

27,

'02

'03
'03

I
2
2

68.82
61.15
57.02

68.70
62.47
62.48

19.74
19.05
19.06

19.29
18.60

S.05

7.36 wt.

55=

31'

55°

31'

W.D.

Jan.
Jan.

8,
23,

'02
'03

I
I

21.75
29.01

16.43
21.54

5-39
4.96

5:18

6.06
+ 2.39*

£ W.R.

8.45

0
-^ E.D.

E.R.

[8.45] wt.

[7-63]

* Cos flexure, sine flexure and absolute term.

DECLINATIONS OF UKRTAIN NORTH POLAR STAR.S

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. 3 urs^ minoris

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

44° 1 9'

44° 19'

86^36'

Weight'd
Mean.

W.D.

June
June
June
June

5/02
9,' 02

4, '03
8, '03

5
I
2

66.29
67.62
66.46
68.02

63-13
63.22

62.65

62.80

62.31
62.40
61.46
61.61

62.00

50.76

§ W.R.

June
June

4, '03
8, '03

63-93
65.14

60.12
59-92

58.93
58.73

58.87

47-63

0
< E.D.

June
June
May

16, '03

17, '02
11, '03

3
I

64.06
63.66

53 -78

57-42
56.65

56.99

56.60

55-83
55.80

56.11

44.87

E.R.

May
Apr.

22, '02
27, '03

I
3

59-27
54-07

60.49
60.65

59-67
59-46

59-59

48.35

59-14

47.90

51°

06'

5i°o6'

W.D.

Jan.

16, '02

34.40

23-74

24.56

46.6S

W.R.

Jan.
Feb.

32, '03
13^ '02

3
3

24-37
39.61

21.96

21-35

22.78
32.17

22.51

48.73

Below Pol

Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Feb.

4, '02

5, '02

6, '02

13. '03

I
I
4

31-65
31-03
31.90

26.43

20.43
19.68
20.42
19.64

21.25
20.50
21.24
20.83

20.97

50.37

E.R.

Feb.
Feb.
Mar.

24. '03

25. '03
2, '03

31.40
31.46

32-58

22.63
22.49
32.92

23.83
23.68
24.1 1

33.88

47-36

22.98

48.26

48.08

220

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declixatioxs for 1900.0. A urs-e mixoris.

Date of 01)S.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Delination

1900.0.

Year of Obs.
Ob=. 1 Jan. 0.0.

igoo 0.

46=

42'

46 =

Weight'd
Mean.

8S°59'

W.D.

Sept. 22, '02
Oct. 7, '02
Oct. S, '02
Oct. 9, '02

3
I

4
3

74-63

75-51
77-83
77-78

43-59
42.90

45-15
45-04

29.66
28.97
31.22
31. II

30-35

19. 1 1

^ W.R.

>
0

Sept. 26, '02
June 8, '03
June 9, '03

2
2
2

73-36
50.22

50-25

41.78
48.44
48.15

27.85
27.69
27.40

27.69

16.45

< E.D.

June 26, '02
June 25, '03

2
3

45-31
51-44

3S-3S
44-35

24.45
23.60

24.02

12. 78

E.R.

June 25, '03

55-06

47-97

27.22

27.26
27-33

16.02

16.09

48=

43'

4S°43'

W.D.

Feb. 15, '02
Feb. 22, '02
Feb. 24, '02
Mar. 29, '02
Mar. 21, '03

7
5

45-99
47-78
48.60

53-98
44.62

44.18

44.10

44-40

44-99
36.90

58-11
58.03

58-33
58-92

57-65

58!22

13.02

-3 W-R-

Mar. 25, '03

42.36

34.16

54-91

54-94

16.30

P-(

^ E.D.

Mar. 24, '02
Mar. 25, '02
Feb. 6, '03
Ych. 26, '03-

I
9
3
3

47-65
47-96.
30.42

35-86

38.88

39-"
31-94
31-91

52.81

53-04
52.69

52.66

52.80

18.44

E.R.

Mar. 19, '02
Mar. 27, '02
Feb. 21, '03
Feb. 24, '03

3
3
3

49-44
51-08

37-37
37-66

41.30
42.15

34-76
34.26

55.33
56.0S

55-51
55-01

55-51

15-73

55-37

15.87

15.9S

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

221

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cephei 3 hs.

Date of Obs.

No
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. [ Jan. o.o-

igoo.o.

43°o6'

43°o5'

84°23'

Weight'd
Mean.

•

W.D.

J"i^e 5,
June 37,

'03
'03

13.41
19.09

13.98
14-15

51-94
53.1 1

53.03

4o'.'78

fS W.R.

Oct. iS,
Oct. 31,
Oct. 34,

'03
'03

'03

I
I

48.67
4S.47
48. Si

13.19

11-73
11.86

50-15
49.69

49.83

49-93

38.69

< E.D.

June 1 7,
Sept. 15,

'03
'03

3
0

10,30
38-99

8.40

8.21

46.36
46.17

46.26

35.03

E.R.

June 36,

'03

16.39

11.77

49-73

49-77

3S.53

49-50

38.26

53°

30'

53°

30'

W.D.

Feb. 33,
Mar. 39,

'03
'03

3
0

13.74
30.8S

13.07
13.69

35-11
35-73

35-44

35.80

'0 W.R.

Feb. 15,
Apr. 10,

'03
'03

8.58
19.71

II.OI

11.49

33-05
33-53

33-33

37-91

S E.D.

Mar. 4,
Mar. 5,

'03
'03

11.03
1 1.09

S.63
8.44

30.67
30.48

30.57

40.67

E.R.

Mar. 19,
Mar. 8,

'03
'03

17-56
3-88

11.89

0.62

33-93
33-66

33-S2

37-42

33-29

37-95

38.10

22:

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declixatioxs for 1900.0. 76 dracoxis.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. j Jan. o.o.

1900.00.

1900.0.

39°

53'

39°

52'

Weight'd
Mean.

82°o9'

W.D.

Sept.

Oct.

26, '02

6, '02

20, '02

54-29
56.11

58.95

20.96
20.58
21.03

53-S7
53-49
53-94

53-7S

42-54

(S W.R.

Oct.
Oct.

10, '01

7, '02

40.99
53-73

4.78
17.97

51-23
50.88

51. II

39-87

1 E.D.

Oct.
Sept.

28, '01
16, '02

2
I

39.80
46.58

1. 00
16.02

47-45
48.93

48.11

36.87

E.R.

Oct.
Oct.

29, '01
30, '01

2
I

46.45
44.84

7-51

5.78

53-96

52.23

53-23

41.99

51-56

40.32

55°

33'

W.D.

Apr.
Apr.

II, '02
4. '03

73-42
59-48

66.18

52.72

33-27
33-34

33-31

37-93

g W.R.

Apr.
Mar.

10, '02
21, '03

71-56
54-04

64.36
49-72

31-45
30-34

31.01

40.23

S E.D.

Apr.
Apr.

7, '03
9. '03

I
2

54-50
55-50

47-31
48.03

27-93
28.65

2S.33

42.91

E.R.

Feb.
Feb.

5. '03

6, '03

I
I

41.69
41.87

50.11
50.00

30.73
30.62

30.71

40.53

30.84

40.40

40.36

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS 223

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. cepifei

GR. 3548.

Date ofObs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Yearof Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

igoo.o.

tion.
1900.0.

44° 20'

'20'

86°37'

Weighted
Mean.

W.D.

Sept. 22, '03
Oct. 8, '02

100.38
105.23

69.58
70.14

3S.S8
39-44

39."i6

3 7'.92

6 W.R.

Oct. 10, '01
Sept. 26, '02

86.79
98.42

50.91
66.46

35-56
35-76

35-7^

24.47

1 E.D.

Oct. 23, '01
Oct. 28, '01
Nov. 21, '02

3
3
3

86.57

87.28

105.40

48.05

47-97
64.51

32.70
32.62

33-81

33-04

21.80

E.R.

Oct. 24, '01
Oct. 30, '01
June 26, '02

90-39
91.08
67.97

51-70
51-47
66.76

36-35
36.12

36.06

36.33

24.98

36.03

24.79

51^

04'

'05'

W.D.

Mar. 29, '02
Apr. II, 'o3

3
3

Si. 79
84.44

78.29
78.76

48.99
49-46

49-23

22.02

6 W.R.

Apr. 10, '02
Apr. 15, '02

81.82
82.50

76.27
76.34

46.97
47.04

47-03

24.31

1 E.D.

Mar. 4, '03
Mar. 5, '03
Feb. 13/03

3
4

69.97
70.48
49-35

72.85
73.06

57-73

43-55
43-76
43-76

43-71

27-53

E.R.

Mar. 19, '03
Mar. 35, '03
Feb. 24/03

77.72
79.60
55-44

76.47

76.95
60.25

47.17

47-65
46.28

47-04

34.20

46.75

24.49

24.64

224

BIGELOW

Table I.

H. CEPHEI.

Dateof Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declina-

Year of Obs.
Obs. } Jan. 0.0.

ipoo.o.

tion
1500.0.

= 19'

43^

'19'

Weight'd
Mean.

85^36'

W.D.

Sept.
Oct.

'03
'03

94-55
98.30

67-13
67.73

30.60
31-19

30.91

19.67

S W.R.

o E.D.

Oct.
Oct.

lO,

24.

'01
'03

3
3

81.06
103.4S

46.73
65-32

38.46
28.79

38.67

17-43

Oct.
June

Sept.

3S,
36,
15,

'01
'03
'03

83.21
59-28
S6.33

44-05
61.31

61.36

35.78

24-78
34.83

35.18

13-94

E.R.

Oct.
June

30.

26,

'01
'03

87.66
63-63

48.05
65.66

39.78
39.13

29-51

18.27

2S.57

17-33

=05'

53=

06'

W.D.

Mar.
Apr.
Apr.

39,

38,

'03
'03
'03

3
3
3

80.36
S3.80

85-31

80.09
79.63

79-45

56.63

56.15
55-98

56^.25

14.99

^- W.R.

Apr.
Apr.

10,

24,

'03
'03

3
3

8o.3i

82.74

77-23
77.37

53-76
53-90

53-86

17-3S

1 E.D.

Mar.
Mav

Feb.

24,

13,
13.

'03
'03

'03

73-59
81.80
44.33

74-76
74-99
56.46

51.39
51-52
51-25

51-35

19.89

E.R.

Mar.
Mar.
Feb.

19,
31,

31,

'03
'03

'03

3
3

75-63
76.61
49.09

78.23
78.63

58.73

54-76
55-^6

53-52

54-52

16.72

54.00

17.24

17.29

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

225

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0.

^16 II. CEPIIEI.

Dateof Obs.

No.

of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Declination.

1900.0.

Year of Obs.
Obs. Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

=33'

=31'

Weigh t'd
Mean.

83^48'

W.D.

Oct. 4, '01
Sept. 22, '02

43-06

57-57

12.51
32.69

53-24
54-14

53-69

42'.45

. W.R.

Oct. 5, '01
Oct. 10, '01
Dec. 6, '01
Oct. 21, '02
Oct. 24, '02

I
I

41-51
43-09
55-30
64.62
65.99

io.6i
10.51
10.68
29.99
30.52

51-34
51-24
51.41

51-44
51-97

51-54

40.30

9 E.D.

Oct. 23, '01
Oct. 25, '01

0
3

44.6S
44-93

8.07
7.76

48. So
48.49

48. 64

37-40

E.R.

Oct. 22, 'oi
Oct. 24, '01
Nov. 26, '01
Nov. 30, '01

3
I

48.85
47.60

55 --4
54.62

12.53
10.71
11.52
10.46

53-26
51-44

52.25
51-19

51.96

40.73

51.46

40.32

53^

53=

54'

W.D.

Mar. 29, '02
Apr. 28, '02
May 2, '02

I
3
3

52.13
60.65
61.50

53-62

55-51
55-S2

32.17
34-06
34-37

33-67

37.57

1 W.R.

Apr. 10, '02
Apr. 15, '02

3
3

53-72
55-00

53.10

52.24

30.65
30.79

30.75

40.49

1 E.D.

<—<

May 12, '02
May 16, '02
May 17, '02

57.60

57-17
57-95

50.94
50.29

51.02

29.49
2S.84

29.57

29.33

41.92

E.R.

Feb. 13, '03
Feb. 24, '03

3
3

20.33
23-49

34-13
33-S3

31-95
31-65

31-83

39.41

31-39

39.85

40.04

226

BIGELOW

Table I. — absolute declinations for 1900.0. 39 h. cephei.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance.

Year of Obs.
Obs. 1 Jan. o.o.

1900.0.

tion iqoo.o.

44"=

28'

=28'

Weighfd
Mean.

86°45'

W.D.

Oct. 4,
Dec. II,
Sept. 22,

'01
'01
'02

3
I

S2.65

100.12

96.41

55-14
55-47
75-07

35-27
35 -60

35-33

35-39

24- 15

. W.R.

Oct. 5,
Oct. 7,
Dec. 6,

'01
'01
'01

80.01
81.27

95-S3

52-13
52.67

51-70

32.26
32.80

31.83

32:28

21.04

0 E.D.

Oct. 23,

Oct. 25,

'01
'01

3
3

83.89
S3-57

49.80
48.84

29-93
28.97

29-45

18.21

E.R.

Oct. 22,
Oct. 24,
Nov. 9,

Nov. 30,
Nov. 21,

'01
'01
'01
'01

'03

■->
I

87.12
87.26
93.14

95-37
1 13.36

53-34
52.84

53-"
52.02

72.20

33-47
32.97
33-24
32.15
32.46

32.92

31.68

32.51

21.27

=56'

50^

^s7'

W.D.

Apr, 1 1 ,
Apr. 28,
May 2,

'03
'02
'02

3
I

73-35
77-65
77-54

73-31

73-71
72.88

53-05

53-45
52.62

53''o9

18.15

6 W.R.

Apr. 10,
Apr. 24,

'02
'02

69.70
73-05

69.92
69.91

49.66
49-65

49-69

2 1-55

1 E.D.

May 1 2 ,
May 16,
May 24,

'02
'02
'02

5
2

74-15
74-95
75-18

68.05
68.44
68.10

47-79
48.18

47.84

47-94

23-30

E.R.

May 9,
May 17,
Feb. 6,
Feb. 24,

'02
'02

'03
'03

3
I

4
4

75.89

77-79
33-10

38-59

70.16
71.18
50-57
50.93

49-90
50.92
50.19

50.55

50.38

20.86

50.27

20.97

21.12

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS 227

VBLE I.

Ar.SOLUTE

OECLIXATIOXS

FOR I

900.0.

CEPIIK

I 135 IIS.

Date of Obs.

No.
of Set-
tings.

Zenith Distance-

Year of Obs.
Obs. Jan. 0.0.

rgoo.o.

Declination
1900 0.

40°2l'

40^

'21'

82°3S'

Weigh t'd

Mean.

Oct.

'02

80.45

57-76

17-65

W.D.

Oct.

'02

82.78

58.23

18.12

i8ro7

6. S3

Oct.

'03

83-47

58.55

18.44

*-'

Oct.

'01

60.38

34-28

14.23

W.R.

Dec.

'01

77-91

34-79

14-74

14.65

3-41

o
1— 1

iJec.

'01

78-34

35.08

15-03

Oct.

38,

'01

66.04

31.96

I T.9I

E.D.

Nov.

iS,

'01

72.33

32.40

12.35

JNov.

20,

'03

91-25

52.81

12.70

12-43

1. 19

Nov.

31,

'02

91-43

52.79

12.68

Oct.

23,

'01

68.23

36.10

16.05

E.R.

Oct.

29,

'01

71-57

37-17

17.12

16.16

4.93

Nov.

19,

'02

93-59

55-39

15.28

15-33

4.09

55'

'03'

55'

'05'

Apr.

II,

'02

87-56

88:13

8^24

W.D.

Apr.

28,

'.02

93.01

S9.44

9-55

s!52

2.72

Mar.

21,

'03

62.70

67.60

7.76

Apr.

10,

'02

86.40

87.23

7-34

W.R.

Apr.

15,

'02

87. 20

86.69

6.80

7-30

3-94

Mar.

25,

'03

63.81

67-53

7.69

May

'02

90.90

85-33

5-44

May

12,

'02

90.77

84-77

4.88

E.D.

May

16,

'02

91.47

84.96

5-07

5-03

6.21

May

17,

'02

90.61

84.00

4.11

May

24,

'02

92.59

85-34

5-45

E.R.

Feb.

13,

'03

51.86

67.76

7.92

8.09
7-23

Mar.

'03

57.10

68.05

S.21

3-15

4.01

—

4-05

228

BIGELOW

Table II. — declixatioxs for 1900.0 from comparisox with zero stars.

CEPHEI BR. 256, 6.9 MAG., R.A. 2" l" 25^

Year of

1 Differ-

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

ential
Flexure.

5-K

00 0.

83^05'

83°o5'

S3°o5'

Oct. 8, ^03

?. Urs. min.

63-42

2 8'. 94 ! — .13

28'.'8i

Mean.

Oct. 8, '02

Polaris.

63-65

29.17

-•13

29.04

W.D.

Oct. 28, '02

Polaris.

65.07

30-59

--I3

30-46

29.21

Oct. 28, '02

Gr. 750.

62.64

28.16

— -05

28.11

Oct. 29, '02

Polaris.

64.22

29.74

-.13

29.61

Jan. 22, '02

Gr. 750.

64.97

30.49 -.04

30.45

Jan. 22, '02

5 Urs. min.

s.p.

65.28

30.80 1 -.21

30.59

Oct. 21, '02

30 H. Camel

• s.p.

63-36

28.88 ! — .29

28. 59

3 W.R.

Oct. 21, '02

Polaris.

64.23

29.75 I--II

29.64

29.94

Oct. 24, '02

1 H. Draconis s,p.

65.27

30.79 j - .32

30.47

Oct. 24, '02

Polaris.

64.42

29.94 ~~ -^^

29.83

Jan. 26, '03

Gr. 750.

Si. 74

30.02 j - .04

29.98

Nov. 24/02

Polaris.

63-93

29.45 i 4- .11

29.56

E.D.

Nov. 24/02

Gr. 750.

62.71

28.23

4- .04

28. 27

29.01

Nov. 28/02

Polaris.

63.58

29.10

4-. II

29.21

Dec. 2, '01

Polaris.

47-35

30.11

4- .12

30.23

E.R.

Nov. 19/02

Polaris.

64.86

30.38 i 4- .12

30.50

30.32

Nov. 21/02

Polaris.

65-25

30.77

4- .12

30.89

Nov. 21/02

Gr. 750.

64.11

29.63

4- .04

29.67

June 8, '02

Gr. 750.

s.p.

64.05

29-57

-•05

29.52

June 8, '02

Polaris.

s.p.

66.91

32-43

-.14

32.29

W.D.

Mar. 21/03

X Urs . min .

s.p.

S3.85

32-13

-.14

31-99

31-44

Mar. 21/03

30 H. Camel.

83.91

32.19

--32

31-S7

Mar. 21/03

Polaris.

s.p.

83.40

31.68

- .14

31-54

Apr. 29/02

Polaris.

s.p.

64.97

30.49

--13

30-36

W.R.

Apr. 29/02

Gr. 750.

s.p.

64.97

30.49

— .05

30.44

30-34

June 3, '02

Polaris.

s.p.

64.65

30.17

--13

30.04

June 3/02

Gr. 750.

s.p.

65.07

30.59

- -05

30.54

May 9, '02

Polaris.

s.p.

65.10

30.62

4-. 12

30-74

May 9/02

43 n . Cephei

s.p.

66.56

32.0S

4- .06

32-14

2 E.D.

May 13/02

Polaris.

s.p.

64.92

30.44

4- .12

30.56

30.98

May 16, '02

Polaris.

s.p.

65-05

30.57

4-. 12

30.69

May 16, '02

43 II. Cejihei

s.p.

65.20

30.72

4- .06

30.7S

May 25/02

Polaris.

s.p.

64.63

30.15

4-. 14

30.29

Feb. 24, '03

<JUrs. min.

s.p.

S2.49

30.77

4- .09

30.86

E.R.

Feb. 24, '03

/ Urs. min.

s.p.

S1.37

29-65

+ -15

29. So

30-51

Feb. 24/03

30 II. Camelo

S1.79

30.07

+ -32 ;

30.39

Feb. 24/03

'Polaris.

s.p.

82. 78

31.06

4-.i4i

31.20

30.22

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH I'OI.AR STARS

229

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 fkom comparison with zero stars.

CEPIIEI 147 IIS., 5.9 MAG., R.A. 3'' 8"" 35".

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of

Obs.
Jan. 0 0.

1900.0.

Diff.
Flexure.

S — 1900.0.

84°33'

„ ^4^33'

Dec. II, '01 43 H. Cephei

40.07

26.56

--03

26.53 ''T

W.D.

Jan. 8, '02

Polaris

53-69

26.69

— . 10

26.59 26.91

Jan. 8, '02

e Urs. min. s

.p.

54-94

27.94

--32

27.62

-o W.R.

Dec. 5, '01 43 H. Cephei

40.20

26.69

— .02

26.67 26.67

Nov. 1 2, '02 Polaris

54-11

27.1 1

4- .08

27.19

1 K.O.

Nov. 28, '02 Polaris
Feb. 5/03 ' Polaris

53-14
67.29

26.14
26.81

4- .08
4- .08

26.22 ^
26.89 '^-^^

Feb. 5, '03

Gr. 750

66.20

25.72

4- .01

25-73

E.R.

June 14, '02

Gr. 750

s.p.

53-46

26.46

— .02

'^•"^ 26.34
26.26 -^^

W.D.

Mar. 29, '03 ' Polaris

s.p.

66.85

26.37

— .1 1

Mar. 29, '03 ' Gr. 750

s.p.

66.82

26.34

— .02

26.32

June 3, '02

Polaris

s.p.

53-16

26.16

- .09

26.07

June 3, '02

Gr. 750

s.p.

53-5S

26.58

— .01

26.57

Mar. 25, '03

A Urs. min.

s.p.

65-99

25-51

-.09

25-42 36.0S

W.R.

Mar. 25, '03

30 H. Camel.

65.76

25.28

--25

25-03

Mar. 25, '03

Polaris

s.p.

66.71

26.23

-.09

36.14

Mar. 28, '03

30 H. Camel.

66.79

26.31

— -25

26.06

Mar. 28, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

67.76

27.28

— .01

27.27

May 9, '02

Polaris

s.p.

53-07

26.07

4- .09

26.16

May 9, '02

43 H. Cephei

s.p.

54-53

27-53

+ .03

27.56

May 16, '02

Polaris

s.p.

53-94

26.94

4- .09

27.03

E.D.

May 16, '02

43 H. Cephei

s.p.

54-09

27.09

+ -03

27.12 27.05

Apr. 9, '03

76 Draconis

s.p.

67.75

27.27

-•05

27.22

Apr. 9, '03

I H. Draconis

67.38

26.90

4- .27

27.17

Apr. 9/03 30 H. Camel.

67-35

26. 87

4- .25

27.12

Apr. 9, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

67-45

26.97

4- .03

26.99

May 21, '02

Gr. 750

s.p.

53-02

26.02

4- .02

26.04

May 21, '02

£ Urs. min.

54-14

27.14

4- .30

27.44

E.R.

May 22, '02

<i Urs. min.

54-21

27.21

4- .21

27.42 26.55

June 26, '02

Gr. 750

s.p.

53-47

26.47

4- .02

26.49

June 26, '02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

52-93

25-93

4- .06

25-99

Apr. 28, '03

Polaris

s.p.

66.31

25 -S3

4- .10

2C.9'l

26.59

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

230

BIGELOVN'

Table II. — declixatioxs for 1900.0 from comparisox with zero stars.

CEPHEI 149 HS., 5.9 MAG., R.A. 3'' 33" 55'.

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

Diff.
1900.0. Flexure.

5—

tgoo.o.

86° 3o'

86° 19'

°i9'

W.D.

Dec. II, '01
Jan. 8, '02
Jan. S, 'o3

43 H. Cephei

Polaris

£ Urs. min. s

.p.

S'.'53 1 56.67
30.13 j 56-44
31.38 ,57.69

4- .01
-.06

-.38

S6.6S
56.3S
57-41

Mean.
56:83

'0 W.R.

Ah
>

Jan. 33, '03
Jan. 33, '03
Feb. 15, '03
Feb. 15, '03

Gr. 750
d Urs. min.
Gr. 750
51 H. Cephei

s.p.

31.06
31.37
19.01
19.05

57-37
57.68

55-32
55-36

4- .02

-•15
4- .03

— .03

57-39
57-53
55-34
55-34

56.40

c
^ E.D.

Nov. 34, '03
Nov. 34, '02

Polaris
Gr. 750

33.77
21-55

59.08 + .05

57.86 — .03

59-13
57-S4

[5S.48]*

E.R.

Nov. 19, '02
Nov. 3 1, '02
Nov. 3 1, '03

Polaris
Polaris
Gr. 750

30.75
20.96
19.83

57.06
57-27
56.13

4- -05
4- .05

--Q3

57-11
57-32
56.10

56.84

W.D.

June 8, '03
Jvine 8, '03
June 1 3, 'o3
June 13, '03
June 14, '03

Polaris
Gr. 750
Gr. 750
51 H. Cephei
Gr. 750

s.p.
s.p.
s.p.
s.p.
s.p.

31.48
18.63

19-13
31.35

19.83

57-79
54-93
55.44
57-56
56.14

-.06

+ .03
4- .03
— .03
4- .03

57-73
54-96
55-47
57-54
56-17

56.37

4 W.R.

Apr. 39, '03
Apr. 39, '03
June 3, '03
June 3, '03

Gr. 750

Polaris
Polaris
Gr. 750

s.p.
s.p.
s.p.
s.p.

30.8,-

30.85
30.47

30.S9

57-16
57-16
56.78
57-20

4- -03
--05
— -05
4- .03

57-19
57-"
56-73
57-23

57.06

^ E.D.

May 8, '03
May 8, 'o3
May 13, '03
May 35, 'o3

Gr. 750
e Urs. min.
Polaris
Gr. 750

s.p.

s.p.
s.p.

30.37
31.41

21-53
31.14

^6.68

57-72
57.84
57-45

— .02
4- .23
4- .05

— .02

56.66

57-95
57.89

57-43

57.48

E.R.

May 3 1, '03
May 31, '03 ,
May 33, '03

Gr. 750
e Urs. min.
S Urs. min.

s.p.

30.15
31.37
30.36

56.46

57-58
56.67

— .02
4- .36

+ -17

56-44
57-S4
56.84

57.04
56.S6

* This value wa.s cH.scardeil in obtainins
the orifjinal record.

tlic final mean. Piobablv there is an eiror in

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

231

Table II. — declinations for iooo.o from comparison with zero stars.

CEPHEI 157 HS., 6.3 MAG., R.A. 4'' 56" iS".

Year of

Diff.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

Flexure.

5—1

)0O.O.

85^49'

85°49'

35'

'49'

W.D.

Feb. 2 3, '03

X Urs. mill.

s.p.

5S.'34

4745

— .13

47-33

Mean.

Feb. 34, '03

?. Urs. niin.

s.p.

57.55 46.76

— .12

46.64

46!98

Feb. 13, '03

d Urs. min.

s.p.

58.01

47.22

-.16

47.06

W.R.

Feb. 15, '03

Gr. 750

56.85

46.06

4- .01

46.07

46.40

Feb. 15, '03

51 H. Cepliei

56.89

46.10

--03

46.07

Mar. 5, '03

d Urs. min.

s.p.

57.80

47.01

+ -I5

47.16

]Mar. 5, '03

51 H. Cephei

57-45

46.66

+ .03

46.69

E.D.

Mar. 6, '03

d Urs. min.

s.p.

56.34 45-55

4-. 15

45-70

46.31

Feb. 5, '03

Polaris

63.66

46.52

1+ .06

46.58

Feb. 5, '03

Gr. 750

61.57

45-43

— .01

45.42

Feb. 34, '03

5 Urs. min.

s.p.

61.90

45-76

4- .17

45-93

Feb. 34, '03

X Urs. min.

s.p.

63.80

46.66

+ .11

46.77

E.R.

Feb. 34, '03

30 H. Camel

62.60

46.46

-.06

46.40

46.01

Feb. 34, '03

Polaris

s.p.

61.61

45-47

4- .12

45-59

Feb. 36, '03

5 1 H. Cephei

61.47

45-33

4- .03

45-36

June 9, '02

d Urs. min.

58.01

47.22

-.17

47-05

June 13, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

55-97

45.18

4- .02

45.20

46.20

W.D.

June 13, '03

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

58.09

47-30

-.03

47.27

•

Alar. 39, '03

Polaris

s.p.

61.93

45-79

-.07

45-72

Mar.39, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

61.90

45-76

4- .03

45.78

June 3, '03

Polaris

s.p.

56.99

46.20

-.06

46.14

June 3,'o3

Gr. 750

s.p.

57-41

46.62

4- .02

46.64

46.21

W.R.

June 5, 'o3

Gr. 750

s.p.

57-19

46.40

4- .02

46.43

Alar. 38, '03

30 H. Camel.

61.67

45-53

_ 32

45-31

Mar. 38, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

63.64

46.50

4- .02

46.52

June 16, '03

3 Urs. min.

56-97

46.18

4- -17

46.35

F D

June 17, '02

d Urs. min.

58.06

47.27

4- .16

47-43

46.92

J_j • 1-^ •

June 17, '02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

57.26

46.47

4- .03

46.50

June 17, '02

I H. Draconis^

' s-P-

58.26

47-47

-.09

47-38

June 24, 'o3

Gr. 750

s.p.

5S.33

47-54

— .01

47-53

46.S3

E.R.

June 36, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

57-53

46.74

— .01

46.73

June 36, '03

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

56.99

46.20

4- .03

46.23

46.48

232

BIGELOW

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

CEPHEI 158 HS., 6.3 MAG., R.A. 5'' 29"" 55'.

Year of

Diff.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.

1900.0

Flexure.

6 — 1900.0

Jan. 00.

85°o8'

85°

08'

Jan.

16, '02

5Urs. min.

s.p.

57'2i

5 1 ''99

— -19

5i'-So

Mean.

W.D.

Feb.

15, '02

AUrs. min.

s.p.

55-"

49.89

--I3

49.76

50:85

Feb.

22, '02

A Urs. min.

s.p.

56.34

51.12

-•13

50.99

Jan.

22, '02

rJUrs. min.

s.p.

54-96

49-74

--I7

49-57

W.R.

Jan.

22, '02

Gr. 750

54-65

49-43

.00

49-43

49-67

Feb.

13, '02

i5Urs. min.

s.p.

55-39

50.17

-•17

50.00

Mar.

4, '02

d Urs. min.

s.p.

54.68

49.46

+ .16

49.62

. E.D.

Alar.

5, '02

^Urs. min.

s.p.

56.25

51-03

4-. 16

51-19

50.51

<a
>
0

Mar.

5. '02

51 H. Cephei

55-90

50.68

+ .04

50.72

Mar.

6, '02

51 H. Cephei

54-22

49.00

+ .05

49-05

Feb.

24, '03

5 Urs. min.

s.p.

57-73

49-95

4- .19

50.14

Feb.

24, '03

A Urs. min.

s.p.

58.63

50.85

4- -13

50.98

Feb.

24^ '03

30 H. Camel.

58.43

50.65

--04

50.61

Feb.

24. '03

Polaris

s.p.

57-44

49.66

4-. 14

49.80

E.R.

Feb.
Feb.

25. '03
25» '03

51 H. Cephei
5 Urs. min.

s.p.

56.69
58.16

48.91
50.38

4- .05
4- .19

48.96
50.57

49.91

Feb.

25^ '03

Polaris

s.p.

57-51

49-73

4-. 14

49.87

Mar.

2, '03

(5 Urs. min.

s.p.

57-75

49-97

+ .19

50.16

Mar.

2, '03

51 H. Cephei

56.64

48.86

4- .04

48.90

Mar.

2, '03

I H. Draconis

57.82

50.04

-.07

49-97

Mar.

2, '03

Polaris

s.p.

57-59

49.81 i 4- .14

49-95

June

5, '02

'5 Urs. min.

54-97

49-75 1 --19

49-56

W.D.

June

9, '02

'5 Urs. min.

56.23

51.01

-.19

50.82

^0.00

Mar.

29^ '03

Polaris

s.p.

57-64

49.S6

-.09

49-77

Mar.

29. '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

57-6i

49-S3

.00

49-83

June

3^ '02

Polaris

s.p.

56.52

51-30

— .10

51.20

6 W.R.

June
Mar.

3» '02
28, '03

Gr. 750

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

56-94 51-72
56.90 49.12

— .02
-.24

51-70
48. 88

50.47

Mar.

28, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

57.87 50.09

.00

50.09

June

16, '02

5 Urs. min.

55.81 50.59 + .18

50.77

•^ E D

June

17, '02

'5 Urs. min.

55-S3 50-61

4-. 18

50.79

50.54

x^ • 1^ •

June

17, '02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

55-03

49.81

4- -05

49. 86

June

17, '02

I II. Draconis

s.p.

56.03

50.81

-.07

50.74

May

21, '02

Gr. 750

s.p.

53-77

4S.55

.00

48.55

E.R.

May

21, '02

£ Urs. min.

54.89

49.67

4- .28

49-95

49-59

May

22, '02

5 Urs. min.

55-29

50.07

4- .19

50.26

50.19

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

233

Table II. — declixatioxs for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

CEPHEI 109 HS., 6.2 MAG., R.A. ^^ 53" 2'.

>
o

W.D.

W.R.

E.D.

E.R.

W.D.

W.R.

E.D.

E.R.

Mar.
Mar.
Apr.
Apr.

Feb.
Feb.
Mar.
Mar.

Mar.
Mar.
Mar.

June
Oct.
Oct.

Oct.

Oct

June

June
June
June
Sept.

June
June

29, 02
29/02
1 1, '02
II, '02

15/02
1 5, '02
21/03
21/03

'02

:>•>

5/02

19, '02
19, '02
27, '02

5/02
6, '02
6, '02

7/02
18, '02
20, '02

9/03
9/03

17/02
17/02
17/02
15/02

26, '02
26, '02

51 H. Cephei
A Urs. min. s.p.
76 Draconis s.p.
Polaris s.p.

Gr. 750

51 H. Cephei

76 Draconis sp.

I H. Draconis

8 Urs. min.
8 Urs. min.
51 H. Cephei

51 H. Cephei
k Urs. min.
X Urs. min.

s.p.
s.p.

d Urs. min.

76 Draconis

30 H. Camel, s.p.

76 Draconis

I H. Draconis s.p.

Polaris

51 H. Cephei s.p.

X Urs. min.

8 Urs. min.
51 H. Cephei s.p.
I H. Draconis s.p.
I H. Draconis s.p.

Gr. 750 ^ s.p.

51 H. Cephei s.p.

Year of

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

84° 20'

30-59
31.02

32-14
30-48

28.98
29.02
21.56
20.63

31.09
30.29
29.94

29.S9
32.14

31-93

32-40
30-53

29. So

31.21
30-65
29.67
22.30
22.69

30.69
29.89
30.89
30.14

29.67
29.13

1900.0.

S4°2o'

49.62
50.05

51-17
49-51

48.01
48.05
50.14
49.21

50.12

49-32
48.97

48.92

51-17
50.96

51-43
49.56

48 -S3

50.24
49.68
48. 70
50. 88
51-27

49-72
48.92

49-92
49.17

48.70
48.16

Diff.
Flexure.

-.06

--I5
-•32
-•15

— .01

--05
-.28
+ .05

+ .18
+ .18
+ .06

+ .07
+ •15
+ -I5

--31
+ -03

-.27

4- .06

--15
-.06

-.14

4--I9
4- .06
-.06
-.07

4". 02
4- .06

5 — 19000.

84° 20'

49-56
49.90

50-85.
49-36

48.00
48. 00
49.86
49.26

50.30
49-50
49-03

48.99

51-32
51. II

49-97

49-74

48-55
50.S2

51-13

49.91

48.98
49.86
49.10

48.72
48.22

Mean.

49.92

48.78

49.61

50.47

5^-" 49.78
49.25 ^^ '

4S.86

50.04

49.46

48 -47
49-57

234

BIGELOW

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from co:mparison with zero stars.

URS^ MINORIS 4B, 7.2 MAG., R.A. 7" 58" 3^

Year of

Diff.
Flexure.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

«-i

JOO.O.

88°55'

3- -'

Mar. 29, '02

51 H. Cephei

39-54

5942 4- ,04

59-46

Meau.

W.D.

Mar. 29/02

/iUrs. min. s.p.

39-97

59,85 -,05

59,80

Mar. 25/03

51 H. Cephei

28,20

58,14

4- ,04

58,18

59-29

Mar, 25/03

Polaris s.p.

29,84

59-7S

--05

59-73

Mar. 21/03

76 Draconis s.p.

30.17

60.11

— ,20

59-91

Mar. 21/03

I H, Draconis

29,24

59,18

4--I3

59-31

W.R.

Mar. 25/03

k Urs. min. s.p.

29,81

59-75

--05

59-70

59-60

Mar. 25/03

30 H. Camel.

30,04

59-9S

4-. II

60,09

Mar. 25/03

Polaris s.p.

29,09

59-03

--05

58.98

0)'

Mar, 24/02

51 H. Cephei

38,85

58.73 --03

58,70

Mar. 24/02

/ Urs. min. s.p.

38-47

5S.35

+ .04

58.39

>
0

Mar. 25/02

A Urs. min, s.jd.

39-44

59-32

4- .04

59-36

^ E.D.

Feb, 5/03

Polaris

29,72

59,66

.00

59-66

59-07

Feb. 5/03

Gr. 750

28.63

58.57

-.07

58,50

Feb. 6/03

51 H. Cephei

29.32

59.26

--03

59-23

Feb. 6/03

y^. Urs. min. s.p.

29.67

59.61

4- .04

.59-65

Feb. 5/03

76 Draconis s.p.

30.71

60.65

4-.21

60,86

Feb. 5/03

I H. Draconis

29-45

59-39

-,i6

59-23

E.R.

Feb. 24/03

5 Urs. min. s.p.

29.71

59-65

+ ,IO

59-75

{^r\ n T

Feb. 24/03

A Urs. min. s.p.

30.61

60.55

4- .04

60,59

\j\j »\j 1

Feb. 24/03

30 H. Camel.

30.41

60.35

--13

60.22

Feb. 24/03

Polaris s.p.

29.42

59-36

+ .05

59-41

June 27/02

I H, Draconis s.p.

38.69

5S.57

4-. 18

58.75

58.92

W.D.

Sept. 22/02

/iUrs. min.

39.08

58.96

— ,05

58.91

Sept. 26/02

76 Draconis

39-42

59-30

— ,20

59.10

June 27/02

51 H. Cephei s.p.

39-S7

59-75

+ .04

59-79

-^ W R

June 8/03

X Urs. min.

29.0=;

58.99

-,04

58-95

58.61

0 ^^ •^^"

June 8/03

e Urs. min.

28.08

58.02

-,17

57-85

June 8/03

5 Urs. min.

28. 00

57-94

—,09

57-^5

June 17/02

i^ Urs. min.

39-17

59-05

4- ,09

59.14

5S.S1

« E.D.

June 17/02

51 II. Cephei s.p.

3S.37

58.35

-,04

58.21

June 17/02

I II. Draconis s.p.

39-37

59-25

-,i6

59-09

June 26/02

Gr. 750 s.p.

39.21

59.09

-,09

59.00

June 26/02

51 11. Cephei s.p.

3S.67

58.55

— -05

SS.SO

58.57

E.R.

June 25/03

51 11. Cephei s.p.

28. 29

5S'--3

-•05

58.18

June 25/03

I H. Draconis s.p.

28.73

58.67

-.18

58.49

June 25/03

?. Urs. min.

28,68

58.62

4- .04

58.66

59-"

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

235

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 i-kom comparison wiin zejuj stars.

CEPHEI 121 HS., 6.3 MAG., R.A. 8" 54" 32'.

Year of

Diff.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

Flexure.

5—1

500.0.

84°34'

84^

'34'

Feb. 2 3, '03

I Urs. min. s.p.

33.02

59-66

-.15

59-51

Mean.

W.D.

Mar. 29/02

A Urs. min. s.p.

30.14

57-78

— •15

57-63

58."i4

Mar. 29/02

51 H. Cephei

39.71

57-35

-.06

57-29

Apr. 15/02

30 H. Camel.

32.57

60.21

+ •03

60.24

Mar. 25/03

A Urs. min. s.p.

18.39

59-77

-•13

59-64

• W R

Mar. 25/03

30 II. Camel,

18.52

60.00

+ .03

60.03

59-24

^ V V . JL\. .

Mar. 25/03

Polaris s.p.

17-57

59-05

— 13

58.93

1— 1

Mar. 2S/03

30 H. Camel.

17-39

58.87

+ .03

58.90

0
>

Mar. 28/03

Gr. 750 s.p.

16.43

57-90

— .21

57-69

0
^

Mar. 4/02

8 Urs. min. s.p.

29.40 57.04

+ •17

57-21

Mar. 5/02

51 H. Cephei

30-15

57-79

+ .05

57-S4

E.D.

Mar. 5/02

d Urs. min. s.p.

30.50

58-14

+ .17

58.31

58.66

Feb. 13/03

Gr. 750

16.78

58.26

+ .01

58.37

Feb. 13/03

8 Urs. min. s.p.

17.04

58.52

+ .17

58.69

E.R.

ISIar. 21/03
Mar. 37/03

I H. Draconis

/ Urs. min. s.p.

30-75
31-5S

58.39
59.22

-.06
+ .14

58.33
59-36

58.84

Sept. 33/03

I Urs. min.

30.86

58.50

-.16

58.34

W.D.

Oct. 1/03

I H. Draconis s.p.

33.21

59.85

+ .07

59-92

59.31

Oct. 9/o3

I Urs, min.

33.61

60.2 c;

— .16

60.09

Oct. 9/03

Polaris

31.01

58.65

-.16

58.49

June 27/02

51 H. Cephei s.p.

31-52

59.16

--05

59-11

Oct. 18/02

I H. Draconis s.p.

30.58

58.22

4- .07

58.39

Oct. 21/02

30 H. Camel, s.p.

30.66

58.30

4- .04

58.34

c8 i^

W.R.

Oct. 21/03

Polaris

29-79

57.43

-.14

57-29

^'-'-^D

June 8/03

e Urs. min.

16.41

57.89

-.26

57-63

June S/03

d Urs. min.

16.33

57.81

-.18

57.63

June 8/03

). Urs. min.

17.38

5S.86

-•13

58. 73

0
1j

June 17/03

0 Urs. min.

30.80 I 58.44

+ .19

58.63

June 17/02

51 H. Cephei s.p.

30.00

57-64

4-. 06

57-70

June 17/02

I H. Draconis s.p.

31.00

58.64

-.06

58.58

58.31

E.D.

Sept. 15/02

I H. Draconis s.p.

30.16

57.80

— .06

57-74

Sept. 16/02

76 Draconis

29-99

57-63

+ .27

57-90

Nov. 21/02

30 H. Camel s.p.

31.22

SS.86

-•03

58.83

Nov. 21/02

Polaris

3 1 -oo.

58.64

+ .14

58.78

E.R.

June 26/03

Gr. 750 s.p.

29.81

57-45

4- .02

57-47

57.22

June 36/03

^i II. Cephei s.p.

39.37

56.91

4- .06

56-97

58.40

236

BIGELOW

Table II. declixatioxs for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

CAMELOP. S 664, 7.4 MAG., R.A. Il'' 2°" 30\

Year of

Difif.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.

1900.0.

Fle.xure.

S — 1900.0.

Jan. 0.0.

■ S6° 9'

86° 10'

86^

'10'

Mar.2i, '03

A Urs. mill.

s.p. 59!58

57^87

— .1 I

57-76

Mean.

Mar.2i, '03

Polaris

s.p. 60.03

58.32

— .11

5S.21

W.D.

Mar.2i, '03

30 H. Camel.

59-52

57.81

+ .07

57-88

58^33

Mar. 29, '03

Polaris

s.p.

60.75

59-04

— .11

58.93

Mar. 29, '03

Or. 750

s.p. 60.78

59-07

— .30

58.87

Mar.2S, '03

30 H. Camel.

60.70

58.99

+ .06

59-05

W.R.

Mar. 28, '03

Gr. 750

s-P- 1 59-73

58.02

- .18

57-84

58.09

Mar.31, '03

43 H. Cephei

s.p. 59.26

57-55

- -17

57-38

Feb. 6, '03

51 II. Cephei

i 59-39

57.68

+ .02

57-70

^ E.D.

Feb. 6, '03

X Urs. min.

s.p.: 59.74

58.03

-f .09

58.12

57-7S

Feb. 26, '03

A Urs. min.

s.p.

59.26

57-55

+ .09

57-64

Feb. 26, '03

30 H. Camel.

59-44

57-73

- .06

57-67

Feb. 21, '03

?. Urs. min.

s.p. 59.28

57-57

+ .11

57.68

Feb. 21, '03 43 H. Cephei

s.p.

59-32

57-61

+ .19

57.80

Feb. 25, '03 ' 51 H. Cephei

58.91

57.20

+ .03

57.23

Feb. 25, '03 Polaris

s.p.

59-73

58.02

+ .12

=^8.14

E.R.

Feb. 35, '03 0 Urs. iiiiii.

s.p.

60. 38

58.67

+ -I7

5S.84

57.79

Mar. 2, '03 3 Urs. miii.

s.p.

59-55

57.84

+ -17

58.01

Mar. 2, '03

51 II. Cephei

58.44

56.73

4- .02

56.75

Mar. 2, '03

I H. Draconis

)

59.62 ; 57.91

- .09

57.82

Mar. 2, '03

Polaris

s-P- : 59-39 57-68

+ .13

57.S0

58.00

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH I'OLAR STARS 237

Table II. — declixations for 1900.0. i-ko.m comparison' with ;iERO stars.

URS. MIN., 3 HS., 6.2 MAG., R.A. 12'' 14" 23'.

Year of

DiflF.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.

1900.0.

Flexure.

8— 1900.0.

Jan. 0.0.

88^14'

8S°i5'

88°

15'

Apr. II , '03

Polaris s.p.

35-39

15:38

—

.07

1 5" 2 1

Mean.

W.D.

Apr. II, '03
Apr. 34, '03

76 Draconis s.p.
Polaris s.p.

37-05
35.8S

16.94
15-77

___

.24
.07

16.70
15-70

16.00

Mar. 3S, '03

Polaris s.p.

16.63

16.46

—

.07

16.39

W.R.

Apr. 10, '03

76 Draconis s.p.

35-04

H-93

—

.21

14.72

Apr. 15, '03

30 H. Camel.

36.43

16.33

.10

16.42

15-57

May 13, '02

Polaris s.p.

34-oS

13-97

.06

14.03

May 33, '03

£ Urs. mill.

35-43

15.32

—

.12

15.20

^ E.D.

May 35, '03

Gr. 750 s.p.

35-13

15.02

-13

15-15

H-93

Feb. 6, '03

51 H. Cephei

15. II

14.95

—

.02

14-93

Feb. 6, '03

A Urs. min. s.p.

15.46

15-30

-05

15-35

Feb. 35, '03

51 H. Cephei

13.98

13.82

—

.02

13.80

Feb. 35, '03

Polaris s.p.

14.80

14.64

.07

14.71

Feb. 35/03

<? Urs. min. s.p.

15-45

15.29

.12

15-41

E.R.

Mar. 3, '03

3 Urs. min. s.p.

15.61

15-45

.12

15-57

H.93

Mar. 3/03

51 H. Cephei

14.50

14-34

—

-03

14-31

Mar. 3, '03

I H. Draconis

15.6S

15-52

—

.14

15.3S

Mar. 3, '03

Polaris s.p.

15-45

15.29

.07

15.36

Dec. 1 1, '01

43 H. Cephei

54-54

14.49

—

.14

H-35

W.D.

Jan. 8, '03

Polaris

34-03

13.92

—

-07

13.S5

13.90

Jan. 8, '03

£ Urs. min. s.p.

33.78

12.67

•15

12.83

Oct. I, '03

I H. Draconis s.p.

34-5 1

14.40

.16

14.56

Oct. 30, '02

Polaris

33-97

13.86

—

.06

13.80

W.R.

Oct. 34, '03

I H. Draconis s.p.

33-96

i3.«5

-15

14.00

14.15

Oct. 34, '03

Polaris

34.81

14.70

—

.06

14.64

Oct. 38, '01

76 Draconis

54-23

14.18

.19

H-37

0 F D

Nov. 18, '01

43 H. Cephei

54-05

14.00

.12

14.13

14.89

(^ ±-j ■ ±^ •

Nov. 34, '03

Polaris

34-94

14.83

.06

14.89

Nov. 34, '03

Gr. 750

36.16

16.05

•13

16.18

Oct. 33, '01

43 H. Cephei

54-03

13.98

.14

14.12

Oct. 39, '01

76 Draconis

56.00

15-95

.21

16.16

E R

Nov. 9, '01

43 H. Cephei

52.99

12.94

.14

13.08

14.42

X^ • J.\.«

Nov. 19, '02

Polaris

33-87

13.76

.07

13-S3

NOV.31, '03

Polaris

34.08

13-97

.07

14.04

Nov.31, '03

Gr. 750

35-22

15. II

•15

15.26

14.85

238

BIGELOW

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

33 H. CAMELOP. PR., 6.3 MAG., R.A. 12^ 48" l6\

Year of

Difif

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

Flexure.

S — 1900.0.

S3°56'

83°57'

S3^

'57'

Apr.

1 1, '02

76 Draconis

s.p.

63-39

42-57

-•33

42-24

Apr.

1 1, '03

Polaris

s.p.

61.73

40.91

-.16

40.75

Mean.

Mar.

31/03

/ Urs. mill.

s.p.

42-83

41.61

-.16

41-45

W.D.

Mar.

3 1, '03

30 H. Camel.

42.77

41.55

4- .02

41-57

41-45

Mar.

31/03

Polaris

s.p.

.43-28

43.06

-.16

41.90

Mar.

29/03

Polaris

s.p.

42.52

41.30

-.16

41.14

Mar.

29/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

42.55

41-33

-•25

41.08

Apr.

39/03

Polaris

s.p.

63.81

41.99

-.14

41.S5

Apr.

39/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

63.81

41.99

— ,23

41.77

^ W.R.

Mar.

25/03

>^Urs. min.

s.p.

43.38

41.16

-.14

41.03

41.27

Mar.

25/03

30 H. Camel.

43.61

41-39

4-.03

41.41

Mar.

25/03

Polaris

s.p.

41.66

40-44

-.14

40.30

E.D.

^lay

16/03

Polaris

s.p.

61.18

40.36

+•15

40.51

May

16/03

43 H. Cephei

s.p.

61.03

40.31

+ .31

40.43

40.72

May

33/03

£ Urs. min.

61.96

41.14

--03

41. 1 1

Mar.

1/03

Polaris

s.p.

41.93

40.70

+ •15

40.85

Feb.

6,'o3

76 Draconis

s.p.

43-27

42-05

+ -33

43.3S

Feb.

6,'o3

I H. Draconis

43.30

40.98

-.04

40.94

E.R.

Feb.

25/03

51 H. Cephei

43.03

40. So

+ .08

40. 88

41.67

Feb.

25/03

Polaris

s.p.

43.84

41.63

+ •17

41.79

Feb.

25/03

c?Urs. min.

s.p.

43-49

43.37

+ .33

42-49

A-^r.

38/03

Polaris

s.p.

43.61

41-39

+ •17

41.56

Jan.

S/03

Polaris

63.03

41.30

-•17

41.03

W.D.

Jan.

S/03

£ Urs. min. s

.p.

60.77

39-95

+ .05

40.00

Oct.

S/02

A Urs. min.

63.62

43.80

--17

42.63

41.44

Oct.

8/02

Polaris

63.09

43.37

-.17

42.10

Oct.

24/03

ill. Draconis s.p.

63.16

41-34

-f.05

41-39

P-I
^ W.R.

Oct.
Dec.

34/03
18/03

Polaris
Polaris

63.01
62.25

43.19
41-43

-.16
-.16

42.03

41.27

41.5S

Dec.

lS/03

Gr. 750

63.70

41.88

--23

41.65

E.D.

Nov.
Nov.

13/03
38/03

Polaris
Polaris

63.31
61.98

41.49
41.16

+ •15
+ •^5

41.64
41-31

41.4S

E.R.

Dec.

3/01

Polaris

S0.43

40.03

+ -17

40.19

40.60

Nov.

19/03

Polaris

61.64

40.83

+ .18

41.00

41. 28

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS 239

Table II. — declinations eok 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

32 II. CAMELOP. SEQ,., 5.5 MAC, 1{.A. I 2'' 48™ 33".

Year of

Diff.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

igoo.o.

Flexure.

8—3

900.0.

S3°56'

83^^57'

83'

'57'

Apr. 34, '03

Polaris

s.p.

43-58

22.76

-.16

22.60

Mean.

W.D.

Apr. 38, '03
]Mar. 39, '03

Polaris
Polaris

s.p.
s.p.

43.28
24.67

23.46
23-43

-.16
-.16

22.30
23.37

22^84

Mar. 39, '03 Gr. 750

s.p.

24.70

23.46

-.25

23.21

June 3, '03

Polaris

s.p.

44-74

23-92

-.14

23-78

W.R.

June 3, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

44-32

23-50

— .22

33.28

23-43

June 8,'o3

Polaris

s.p.

44.18

23-36

-.14

23.22

May 9, '03

43 H. Cepliei

s.p.

42.53

21.71

4-. 21

21.92

E.D.

May 9,'o3

Polaris

s.p.

43-99

23.17

-f-15

23-32

22.66

May 1 3, '03

Polaris

s.p.

43.16

22.34

+ -I5

22.49

Mar. I, '03 Polaris

s.p.

24.00

22.76

+ .15

22.91

May 3 5, '03

Polaris

s.p.

44-36

23-54

+ -I7

23.71

Feb. 24,'o3

8 Urs. min.

s.p.

24.21

22.97

-f.22

23.19

Feb. 34, '03

^ Urs. niin.

s.p.

25.11

23.87

+ .16

24-03

Feb. 34, '03

30 H. Camel.

24.91

23.67

— .01

23.66

E.R.

Feb. 34, '03

Polaris

s.p.

23.92

22.68

+ -I7

22.51

23.70

Mar. 2, '03

8 Urs. min.

s.p.

25-47

24-23

4-. 22

24-45

Mar. 2/03

51 H. Cephei

24.36

23.12

4-.07

23.19

Mar. 2/03

I H. Draconis

25-54

24.30

-.04

24.26

Mar. 2, '03

Polaris

s.p.

25-31

24.07

4--I7

24-24

Apr. 38, '03

Polaris

s.p.

24.86

23.62

4--I7

23-79

Oct. 9,'o3

X Urs. min.

45-92

25.10

-•17

24-93

Oct. 9, '03

Polaris

44-32

23-50

— 17

23-33

W.D.

Oct. 30, '03

Polaris

44-72

23-90

-•17

23-73

23-94

Oct. 30, '03

Gr. 750

45-43

24.61

— .25

24.36

Oct. 3 1, '02

Polaris

44-32

23-50

-•17

23-33

Oct. 7, '03

76 Draconis

45-59

24-77

-.28

24.49

^ W.R.

Oct. 3 1, '03

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

45-74

24-92

4- .02

24.94

24-44

F D

Oct. 21, '02

Polaris

44.87

24.05

-.16

23.89

Nov. 34, '03

Polaris

44.41

23-59

4--15

23-74

34.38

J-J • J-^ •

Nov. 24, '02

Gr. 750

45-63

24.81

4-. 22

25-03

E R

Nov. 2 1 ,'03

Polaris

43-34

22.52

4-. 18

22.70

±^ aXV*

Nov. 2 1, '02

Gr. 750

44.48

23.66

4-. 26

23.92

23-3^

23-59

240

BIGELOW

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

CEPHEI 135 HS., 6.1 MAG., R.A. 13" 45° lO'.

Year of

Diflf.

Date.

, Zero Star.

Obs.

1900.0

Fle.vure.

6-1

300.0.

Jan. 0.0.

83°H'

83°i5'

§3=

'15'

Apr. 28, '03

Polaris

S.p.

37''7S

13:82

- .17

1 3. '65

Mean.

June 8, '03

Gr. 750

s.p.

41. 38

17.32

- .36

17.06

W.D.

June 8, '03

Polaris

S.p.

38.43

14.46

- -17

14.29

14:90

Mar. 35, '03

51 II. Ccphei

30.00

14.06

-.08

13.98

Mar. 35, '03

Polaris

S.p.

31.64

15-70

--I7

15-53

Apr. 39, '03

Polaris

S.p.

39-45

15-49

- -15

15-34

ai W.R.

Apr. 39, '03

Gr. 750

S.p.

39-45

15-49

- -23

15.36

15-34

June 3, '03

Polaris

s.p.

39-74

15.78

— -15

15-63

June 3, 'o3

Gr. 750

S.p.

39-32

15-36

- -23

15-13

>
0

May 9, '03

Polaris

S.p.

38.43

14.46

4- .16

14.62

^ E.D.

May 9, '03

43 II. Cephci

S.p.

36.96

13.00

4- .33

13.23

May 13, '03

Polaris

S.p.

38.65

14.69

4- :i6

14.85

14.79

May 16, '03

43 II. Cephei

S.p.

39-33

15-37

4- -32

15-59

May 16, '02

P(jlaris

S.p.

39-4S

15-52

+ .16

15.68

May 25, '03

Polaris

S.p.

39-39

15-43

4- .18

15.61

E.R.

Feb. 35, '03

5 I H. Cephei

19.44

13-50

4- -09

13-59

14.85

Feb. 35, '03

Polaris

S.p.

30.76

14.82

4- .18

15.00

Feb. 25, '03

d Urs. niin.

s.p.

30.91

14.97

+ -23

15.30

Jan. 8, 'o3

Polaris

40.30

16.34

-.19

16.15

Jan. 8, '02

£ Urs. min.

s.p.

39-05

15.09

4- .03

15.13

W D

Oct. 8, '02

X Urs. min.

40.65

16.69

- -19

16.50

16.36

» T • X-' •

Oct. 8, '02

Polaris

40.43

16.46

- -19

16.37

Oct. 9, '02

i Urs. min.

41.70

17-74

- -19

17-55

Oct. 9, '02

Polaris

40.10

16.14

- -19

15.95

Dec. 6, '01

43 II. Cephei

57.37

15.29

--23

15.06

Dec. 6, '01

Polaris

56.04

14.06

- -17

13.89

£ W.R.

Oct. 21, '02

30 II. Camel.

s.p.

39-45

^5-49

4- -01

15-50

14.72

Oct. 21, '03

Polaris

38.58

14.62

--17

H-45

Dec. 18, '03

Polaris

38.64

14.6S

-.17

H-51

Dec. 18, '02

Gr. 750

39-09

15.13

- .34

14.89

Nov. 12, '03

Polaris

39-37

15.41

4- .17

15. 58

N0V.21, '03

30 II. Camel.

s.p.

39-40

15.44

.00

15-44

E.D.

Nov. 31, '03

Polaris

39- H

15.1S

+ •17

15-35

15-67

Nov. 34, '03

Polaris

39.38

15-32

4- .17

15.49

Nov. 34, '03

Gr. 750

40.50

16.54

4- .24

16.78

Nov. 28, '03

Polaris

39.16

15.30

4- .17

15-37

E.R.

Nov. 19, '03

Polaris

3S-43

14.47

+ .19

14.66

14.66
15-15

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH I'OLAR STARS

241

Table II. — declinations fok 1900.0 fkom compakison with zeko stars.

URS. MIN. 57 B, 7.1 MAG., R.A. I5" 9'" 2l'.

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of
Obs.

1900.0.

Diff.
Flexure.

5-1

900 0.

Jan. 0.0.

87°36'

87°37'

. ^^

May 2, '02

30 II. Camel.

38:06

.09

5-32

June 13/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

37.S7

—

-17

4.87

Mean.

W.D.

June 13/02
Mar. 21/03

51 H. Cephei
-^Urs. min.

s.p.
s.p.

35-75
22.35

93
1 1

—

.13

.08

3.80
3-03

3'.'78

Mar. 21/03

30 H. Camel.

23.39

.10

3- '5

Mar. 21/03

Polaris

s.p.

33.80

—

.08

3-48

Apr. 29/02

Polaris

s.p.

35-87

—

.07

2.97

g W.R.

Apr. 29/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

35-S7

—

•15

3.89

3-45

June S/02

Polaris

s.p.

37-3S

—

.07

4-48

May S/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

3S.13

•15

5-44

May 8/02

e Urs. min.

37.08

—

.10

4-15

E.D.

May 13/02

Polaris

s.p.

35-7S

.08

3-03

4.41

Apr. 27/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

33.83

-15

4-73

Apr. 27/03

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

33.81

.11

4.68

]SIay 25/02

Polaris

s.p.

37-78

.08

5-03

E.R.

June 26/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

37-27

•17

4.61

4.92

June 26/02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

37-81

•13

5-11

Oct. 2S/02

Polaris

35-H

.08

2-23

Oct. 2S/02

Gr. 750

37-57

—

.16

4.58

3-37

W.D.

Oct. 30/02

Polaris

35-6i

—

.08

3.70

Oct. 30/03

Gr. 750

36-32

—

.16

6-Jo

Oct. 31/03

Polan's

36-93

—

.08

4.03

Jan. 22/03

Gr. 750 _

36-44

—

-15

3-46

Jan. 22/02

d Urs. min.

s.p.

36-13

.03

1 1 ->

^ W.R.

Dec. iS/02

Polaris

36.36

—

.08

3-35

3-57

ov\

Dec. 18/02

Gr. 750

36.71

—

-15

3-73

Jan. 26/03

Gr. 750

23-39

—

-15

4.00

Nov. 21/02

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

37.33

—

.10

4.29

E.D.

Nov. 21/02

Polaris

37.00

.07

4-24

3-94

Nov. 34/03

Polaris

35-73

.07

2-97

Nov. 24/03

Gr. 750

36-95

.14

4.26

E.R.

Nov. 19/02

Polaris

36-15

.09

3-41

3.86

242

BIGELOW

Table IL — declixatioxs for 1900.0 fkom co.mparisox with zero stars,
urs. mix. 33 hs., 7.5 mag., r.a. i ^^ 53™ 47'.

Year of

Diflf.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

Flexure.

8— ic

)oo.o.

83°H'

^83°

14'

June 13/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

38:01

59 -o I

-.26

^8.7-;

Mean.

W.D.

June 13/02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

35-89

56.89

— .21

S6.6S

57-94

June 14/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

37.66

5S.66

-.26

58.40

Apr. 29/02

Polaris

s.p.

36.74'

57-74

-•15

57-59

W.R.

Apr. 29/02

Gr. 750

s.p.

36.74

57-74

-•23

57-51

58.08

June S/02

Polaris

s.p.

38.29

59-29

-•15

59.14

May S/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

37.03

58.02

+ -23

58.25

May S/02

£ Urs. min.

s.p.

35-98

56.9S

— .02

56.96

May 13/03

Polaris

s.p.

35-98

56.9S

4-. 16

57.14

1^ E.D.

Apr. 9/03

76 Draconis

s.p.

26.40

57-92

4- .30

58.33

57-94

0
>

Apr. 9/03

I H. Draconis

26.77

58.39

— .02

58.27

Apr. 9/03

30 H. Camel.

26.80

5S.33

58.32

Apr. 9/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

26.70

58.33

4-. 23

58.45

May 22/03

d Urs. min.

s.p.

37.20

58. 20

4-. 07

58.37

May 25/02

Polaris

s.p.

3S.32

59-32

4-. 18

59-50

E.R.

June 26/03

Gr. 750

s.p.

37-29

58.29

+ .26

58.55

June 26/02

51 H. Cephei

s.p.

37-83

58.83

4-. 22

59-05

58.37

Apr. 27/03

£ Urs. min.

26.14

57.66

— .02

57-64

Apr. 27/03

^Urs. min.

25.60

57-12

4- .07

57-19

Oct. 2S/03

Polaris

35-81

56.81

-.19

56.62

W.D.

Oct. 3S/03

Gr. 750

38.24

59-24

-.27

58.97

58.24

Oct. 30/03

Polaris

37-57

58.57

-.19

58.3S

Oct. 30/03

Gr. 750

38.28

59-28

-.27

59.01

i W.R.

Nov. 34/03

Polaris

35-41

S6.41

4-. 17

56.5S

Nov. 34/03

Gr. 750

36-63

57-63

4-. 24

57-S7

§ E.D.

Feb. 5/03

Polaris

24.71

56.23

4-. 17

56.40

57-31

Feb. 5, 03

Gr. 750

2 5. So

57-32

4". 24

'=^7-56

Feb. 13/03

Gr. 750

26.16

57.68

4-. 24

57-92

Feb. 13/03

d Urs. min. s^

^.p.

25.90

57-42

4-. 08

57-50

E.R.

57.98

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

243

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zepvO stars.

CEPHEI 3 US., 7.0 MAG., R.A. 20*" I3'" 59'.

Date.

W.D.

W.R.

E.D.

E.R.

W.D.

W.R.

I E.D.
E.R.

June
June

Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.

June
June
June
Sept.

June
June

18,
21,

21,

24.

26,
26,

Feb. 22,
Mar. 29,
Mar. 29,

Feb. 15,
Feb. 15,
Apr. 10,

Mar. 4,
Mar. 5,
Mar. 5,

Mar. 19,
Mar. 19,
Mar. 8,

02
02

02
02
02
02

02
02
02

02
02

•5 Urs. min.

I H. Draconis s.p.

30 H. Camel, s.p.

Polaris

I H. Draconis s.p.

Polaris

d Urs. min.
51 H. Cephei s.p.
I H. Draconis s.p.
I H. Draconis s.p.

Gr. 750^ ^ s.p.

51 H. Cephei s.p.

I Urs. min. s.p.
A Urs. min. s.p.
51 H. Cephei

Gr. 750

51 H. Cephei

76 Draconis s.p.

0 Urs. min. s.p.
51 H. Cephei

(5 Urs. min. s.p.

A Urs. min. s.p.
51 H. Cephei

1 H. Draconis

Year of

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

S4°2 2'

59-19
61. 2S

60.15
60.35
61.22
61. II
60.26

59.72
60.52

59-92
60.48

60.76
61.30

60.39
60.66
61.09

59-90
59.S6

59.62
60.14

59-93
59.5S

58.77
61.02

70.22

Diff.
Flexure.

5 — 1900.0.

84°22'

3 7 '-'15
39-24

38.11

38.31
39.18

39-07
38.22

37.68
38 .48
37.88

38.44

38.72
39.26

38.35
38.62

39-05

37.86

37.82
37-58

38.10

37-89
37-54

3<5.73
38.9S

37-18

•05
-33

.29
.26
.08
.29
.08

.04

•17
.29
.29

.24
.20

— .11

— .20

— .22

— .18
4- .05

84°22'
, Mean.

4-
4-
4-
4-

+
4-

4-
4-
4-

4-
+

•05
•17
•05

.1 1
.19

■31

37.10
38.91

37.82
38.05
39.10
38.78

38.14

37-72
38.65

38.17
38.73

38.96
39-46

38.24

38.51
38.85

37-64
37-64
37-63

38. 15
38.06

37-59
36.84
39-17
37-49

3S.00

38-38

38.

39.21

J8.53

37-64

37-93

37-83
38.23

244

BIGELOW

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.
CEPHEI gr. 3548, 7.3 :mag., r.a. 31'' 19™ 35%

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of

Obs.
Jan. 0 0.

1900.0.

Diff.
Flexure.

S — 1900.0.

86°37'

^37'

W.D.

Sept. 33/03

Oct. 8/03
Oct. S/03

A Urs. min.
A Urs. min.
Polaris

55-35
54-35
54-5S

34.65
33.65

33.88

--05
--05
-•05

34.60
23.60

23 -S3

Mean.
34.01

i W.R.

Oct. 10/01
Sept. 26/03

76 Draconis
A Urs. min.

39-34
54-04

23-99
23-34

4- .08
— •05

34.07
23-29

23-68

1 E.D.

Oct. 23/01
Oct. 28/01
Nov. 31/02

Nov. 3l/03

30 H. Camel.
76 Draconis
30 H. Camel.
Polaris

s.p.
s.p.

39-36
40.18

54-36

54-5S

34.01
34.83
33.66
33.88

+ .31
-.08
4-. 31
+ .04

34.33
24-75
23-S7
23-92

34.19

E.R.

Oct. 30/01
June 26/02
June 26/03

76 Draconis

Gr. 750

51 H. Cephei

s.p.
s.p.

38.90

55-75
56.39

23-55
35.05

25-59

-.09
+ .19

+ -I5

23-46

2S.24
25-74

34.81

W.D.

Mar. 29/03
Mar. 39/03
Apr. 1 1/03
Apr. 1 1/03

51 H. Cephei
X Urs. min.
76 Draconis
Polaris

s.p.
s.p.
s.p.

56.49
56.06

54-17
55-83

25-79
25-36
23-47
25-13

— .IS

-.06

4-. II
-.06

25.64
35.30

23-58
35.07

34.90

W.R.

Apr. 10/03
Apr. I '^/o3

76 Draconis
30 H. Camel.

s.p.

54-S4
53-OI

34.14
33.31

-f .10

— .31

24-24
33.10

33.17

Below Pole.

Mar. 4/03
Mar. 5/03
Mar. 5/03
Feb. 13/03
Feb. 13/03

8 Urs. min.
d Urs. min.
5 I H. Cephei
Gr. 750
t?Urs. min.

s.p.
s.p.

s.p.

55-92
54-96

55-31
70.88
70.62

35.33
34.36
34.61
34.85

24-59

00
00

4-. 13

+.16

25.22
34.36

24-73
25.01

24-59

34.76

E.R.

jSIar. 19/03
Jvlar. 19/03
Feb. 34/03
Feb. 34/03
Feb. 34/03
Feb. 34/03

51 II. Cephei
A Urs. min.
oUrs. min.
/ Urs. min.
30 11. Camel.
Polaris

s.p.
s.p.
s.p.

s.p.

56.44
54-19
71.09
70.19

70.39
71-3S

25-74
23-49
35.06
34.16
24-36
25-35

+.14

4- .06

+ •23
4- .05

35.88

23-55
35.06
34.33

24-59
35.40

34.78

34.38

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

245

Table II. — Declinations for 1900.0 from comi'aiuson with zero stars.

32 II. CEPHEI, 5.3 MAG., R.A. 33" 3l"' iS".

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of
Obs.

1900.0.

Diff.
Flexure..^

6 — 19000.

Jan. 0.0.

85^36'

S5°36'

'36'

Mean.

W D ^^P^'

'03

). Urs. min.

53.90

16:37

—

.07

16:30

i6."54

V V • J_^ •

Oct.

'03

I H. Draconis s

53-

17.08

—

•30

16.78

Oct.

lO,

'01

76 Draconis

35-

16.89

.06

16.95

W.R.

Oct.

24.

'03

I H. Draconis s

18.04

—

.37

17.77

17. 28

^ ^

Oct.

24.

'03

Polaris

17.19

—

.06

17-13

Oct.

3S,

'01

76 Draconis

17.99

—

.07

17.93

E.D.

June

26,

'03

\ Urs. min.

15.76

.06

15.83

17.04

Sept

15.

'03

I H. Draconis s

.p.

17.10

.37

17-37

Oct.

30^

'01

76 Draconis

17.21

—

.07

17.14

E.R.

June

26,

'03

Gr. 750

.p.

18.12

.31

18.33

18.10

June

26,

'03

51 H. Cephei

.p.

18.66

•17

18.83

Mar.

39,

'03

51 H. Cephei

1S.16

—

-17

17.99

Mar.

39,

'03

/Urs. min.

.p.

17-73

—

.08

17.65

W.D.

Apr.

II,

'03

76 Draconis

.p.

16.78

.09

16.87

17.91

Apr.

II,

'03

Polaris

.p.

18.44

—

.08

18.36

Apr.

38,

'03

Polaris

.p.

18.75

—

.08

18.67

W.R.

Apr.

10,

'03

76 Draconis

.p.

17-35

.08

17-43

17-30

Apr.

24,

'03

I H. Draconis

17.41

—

•25

17.16

1— t

Mar.

24,

'03

/ Urs. min.

.p.

17.18

.07

17.25

E D

Mar.

24,

'02

51 H. Cephei

16.80

.14

16.94

17.22

z*^

1 Feb.

i3r

'03

Gr. 750

17.36

.19

17-55

Feb.

13.

'03

5 Urs. min.

.p.

17.10

-03

17-13

Mar.

19,

'03

51 H. Cephei

6'S>

18.15

.16

18.31

Mar.

19,

'03

>iUrs. min.

.p.

15.90

.08

iv9S

E.R.

Mar.

31,

'03

I H. Draconis

16.37

.38

16.55

17.14

Feb.

31,

'03

43 H. Cephei

.p.

•17

17-38

.00

17-38

Feb.

31,

'03

A Urs. min.

.p.

.21

17.43

.08

17-50

17.33

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

246

BIGELOW

Table II. — declixatioxs for 1900.0 from comparisox with zero stars.

36 H. CEPHEI, 5.7 ]MAG., R.A. 33*' 55™ 13%

;

Year of

! Diff.

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.

1900.0.

Flexure.

6—1

900.0.

Jan. 0.0.

83°48'

83^48'

83°4S'

Mean.

W.D.

Oct. 4, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

59-23

39-96

-30

39-66

39-73

Sept. 23, '02

A Urs. min.

78.46

39-91

—

.11

39-80

Oct. 5, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

59-35

40.08

—

.37

39-81

Oct. 10, '01

76 Draconis

58-94

39-67

-03

39-70

Dec. 6, '01

43 H. Cephei

59.06

39-79

—

-03

39-76

0 W.R.

Dec. 6, '01
Oct. 21, '03

Polaris

30 H. Camel, s.p.

60.39
7S.61

41 .03
40.06

~~'

.09

.37

40.93
39-79

40.25

Oct. 21, '03

Polaris

79-4S 1 40.93

—

.09

40. 84

0
>

Oct. 34, '03

I H. Draconis s.p.

79-77

41.33

—

•30

40.92

0
<

E.D.

Oct. 34, '03 i Polaris

78.93

40-37

—

.09

40.28

Oct. 33, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

59-38

40.1 1

.37

40-38

39-80

Oct. 35, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

58.33

38.95

.37

39.33

Oct. 33, '01

43 H. Cephei

61.33 41.96

.04

43.00

E.R.

Nov. 36, '01

43 H. Cephei

60.77

41.50

.04

41-54

41-34

Nov. 30, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

59-44

40.17

-31

40. 48

Mar. 39, '02

51 H. Cephei

St. 16

43.61

.31

43.40

W.D.

Mar. 39, '03
Apr. 38, '03

A Urs. min. s.p.
Polaris s.p.

So.73
79.23

43. iS
40.67

—

.13

42.06
40.55

40.70

May 2, '02

30 H. Camel.

76.60

38.05

—

.37

37-78

0 W.R.

Apr. 10, '02

76 Draconis s.p.

79.01

40.46 i +

.04

40. so.

39-40

Apr. 15, '03

30 H. Camel.

77.11

38.56 -

.37

38.39

> F D

May 16, '02

43 II. Cephei s.p.

7S.6S

40.13 ' +

.04

40.17

40.13

May 16, '02

Polaris s.p.

78.53

39-98 \ 4-

.10

40. oS

Feb. 13, '03

51 II. Cephei

97.64

39.83 ! 4-

.31

40.03

Feb. 24, '03

d Urs. min. s.p.

97-5^ 1 39-69

.07

39-76

E.R.

Feb. 24, '03

X Urs. min. s.p.

96.61

38.79

•13

38.93

39.62

Feb. 34, '03

30 II. Camel. 96. Si

38.99

•30

39-39

Feb. 34, '03

Polaris s.p. 9 7. So

•^9.08

.12

40.10

0 J J <

40.12

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

247

Table II. — declinations for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

39 H. CEPHEI, 5.9 MAG., R.A. 23". 27™ 49'.

Year of

D ft

Date.

Zero Star.

Obs.
Jan. 0.0.

1900.0.

Flex

ure.

6-1

900.0.

86=45'

S6°45'

86'

4:)

Oet. 4, '01

30 11. Camel.

s.p.

41". 86

3i'.'99

—

.24

31.75

Mean.

W.D.

Dec. II, '01

43 H. Cephei

41-37

21.50

.02

31.53

31.44

Sept. 3 3, '03

A Urs. mill.

60.84

31. 10

—

-05

21.05

Oct. 5, '01

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

40.87

3 1. 00

—

.22

20.78

W.R.

Oct. 7, '01

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

40.99

31.12

—

.22

20.90

30.83

Dec. 6, '01

43 H. Cephei

40.08

20.21

.03

20.23

Dec. 6, '01 Polaris

41-31

21.44

—

.04

21.40

S E.D.

Oct. 23, '01 ! 30 H. Camel.

s.p.

41. II

21.24

.21

21-45

30.54

Oct. 35, '01

30 n. Camel.

s.p.

39-30

19-43

.31

19.64

Oct. 32, '01

43 H. Cephei

42.04

22.17

—

-03

33.14

Nov. 9, 'oi

43 H. Cephei

42.90

23-03

—

-03

33.00

E.R.

Nov. 30, '01

30 H. Camel.

s.p.

41.00

21.13

.24

31.37

31.69

Nov. 2 1, '02 Polaris

61.28

21.54

.04

21.58

N0V.21, '02

Gr. 750

60.14

20.40

—

.04

20.36

Apr. 1 1, '02

76 Draconis

s.p.

59.63

I9.SS

.12

20.00

W.D.

Apr. II, '02

Polaris

s.p.

61. 38

21.54

—

-05

21.49

30.5 8

Apr.28, '02

Polaris

s.p.

61.03

21.28

—

•05

21.23

May 3, '02

30 H. Camel.

59-54

19.80

—

.20

19.60

W.R.

Apr. 10, '02

76 Draconis

s.p.

61.19

21.45

.11

21.56

T T CD

Apr. 24, '02

I H. Draconi>

61.40

21.66

—

.22

21.44

-1 . «,U

May 16, '02

43 PI. Cephei

s.p.

60.53

20.79

—

.02

20.77

§ E.D.

May 16, '02

Polaris

s.p.

60.38

20.64

.04

20.68

30,67

May 24, '02

Polaris

s.p.

60.36

20.52

.04^

20.56

May 9, '02

Polaris

s.p.

60.68

20.94

•05

20.99

Feb. 6, '03

76 Draconis

s.p.

79.71

20.09

—

.1 I

19.98

Feb. 6, '03

I H. Draconis

80.78

21.16

.26

21.42

E.R.

Feb. 24, '03

d Urs. min.

s.p.

80.41

20.79

30.65

Feb. 24, '03

/ Urs. min.

s.p.

79-51

19.89

.06

19-95

Feb. 24, '03

30 PI. Camel.

79.71

20.09

•23

20.32

Feb. 24, '03

Polaris

s.p.

80.70

21.0S

•05

21.13

20.99

248

BIGELOW

Table II. — declination for 1900.0 from comparison with zero stars.

CEPHEI 135 HS., 6.3 MAG., R.A. 23'' 51"" 46'.

Date.

Zero Star.

Year of
Obs.

1900.0.

Diff.
Flexure.

&—

900.0.

Jan. 0.0.

83°38'

82^38'

°3S'

Oct.

I,'03

I H. Draconis s.p.

43-65

3-54

-•37

3-17

Mean.

Oct.

6,'03

76 Draconis

44-40

4- .01

4-30

W.D.

Oct.

6,'02

30 H. Camel, s.p.

45-13

--33

4.69

4-32

Oct.

7,'03

J Urs. mill.

45.01

— -15

4-75

Oct.

7,'03

Polaris

44-93

-.14

4.68

Oct.

5, '01

30 H. Camel, s.p.

33.03

-->

— .39

3.68

-o W.R.

Dec.

5, '01

43 H. Cephei

23.30

— .05

3.10

3-42

Dec.

6/01

43 H. Cephei

33.46

-•05

3-36

Dec.

6, '01

Polaris

34.69

— .11

4-53

E.D.

Oct.

3S,'0I

76 Draconis

34.17

— .01

4. II

Nov.

iS,'oi

43 H. Cephei

35.01

4- .06

5.03

1 'TO

Nov.

3I,'03

30 H. Camel, s.p.

43.64

4- .29

2.83

0- /'^

Nov.

3 I, '03

Polaris

43. 86

4- .13

3.87

Oct.

3 3, '01

43 H. Cephei

34. So

4- .06

4.81

E.R.

Oct.

39/01

76 Draconis

22.73

— .01

3.67

3-97

Nov.

19/02

Polaris

44.41

+ -13

4-43

Apr.

I I,'03

76 Draconis s.p.

44.80

4- .03

4.71

Apr.

1 I, '03

Polaris s.p.

46.46

— -15

6. 30

W.D.

Apr.

3S,'03

Polaris s.p.

45.39

--15

5-03

5-15

Mar.

31/03

A Urs. mill. s.p.

65.48

— -15

5-17

Mar.

31/03

30 H. Camel.

65-54

-•33

5^05

Mar.

31/03

Polaris s.p.

65-03

— -15

4.73

Apr.

10/03

76 Draconis s.p.

43.S8

+ .01

3-7S

Apr.

15/03

30 II. Camel.

43.66

--30

3.25

i W.R.

Mar.

25/03

/ Urs. mill. s.p.

63. Si

-.14

2.51

3.7S

Mar.

25/03

30 II. Camel.

63. 58

-•30

2.13

Mar.

25/03

Polaris s.p.

63-53

-.14

May

9/02

Polaris s.p.

43-H

+ •13

3.16

May

9/03

43 II. Cephei s.p.

44.60

4- .07

4.56

E.D.

May

16/03

43 H. Cephei s.p.

44.01

4- .07

3-97

3-72

May

16/03

Polaris s.p.

43.S6

+ -13

3.SS

May

34/03

Polaris s.p.

43.03

+ •13

3-04

Feb.

13/03

51 II. Cephei

64.01

4- .34

4-09

Mar.

2/03

fJUrs. mill. s.p.

63-58

4-. 10

3-52

E.R.

Mar.

2/03

51 II. Cephei

64.69

+ .25

4.78

3-96

ISIar.

2/03

I II. Draconis

63-51

+ •35

3-70

Mar.

2/03

Polaris s.p.

63-74

4- .IS

3-73

0 >'

1 ^'

3.88

DECLINATIONS OF CERTAIN NORTH POLAR STARS

249

Table III. — observed declinations for 1900.0 compared with

CATALOGUE PLACES.

Declinations.

Observed

B. T. for

Right
Asceusion.

Newcomb's
Funda-

Berliner
Jarbuch
for igoo.

Name.

Fr. Com-

Igoo with
Correc-

Absolute.

parison
with Zero

mental
Catalogue.

tions,
Reduced

Stars.

to igoo.o.

0 /

43 H. Cephei

85 43

14-55

14.74

14.82

14.53

Polaris

0 ^

88 46

36.64

36.61

36.63

26.50

Cephei, Br. 356

83 5

30-44

30.33

Cephei 147 Hs.

84 33

[26.87]

36.59

Cephei 149 Hs.

Z6 19

[56.87]

56.S6

Gr. 7 so

85 17

38.73

38.18

38.81

Cephei 1^7 Hs.

85 49

46-34

46.48

Cephei 158 Hs.

85 8

49-92

50.19

49.60

51 H. Cephei

45:87 13

30.57

20.53

20.15

20.05

Cephei 109 Hs.

84 30

49.76

49-57

Urs. min. 4B.

88 55

59.39

59-11

59-36

Ceph. 131 Hs.

32 84 34

58.33

58.40

I H. Dr aeon is

Si 46

6.98

6.91

6.99

6.73

30 H. Camel.

83 4

3.80

3.78

3-32

3.38

Camel., s 664

1 1

86 10

[57.78]

58.00

Urs. min. 3 Hs.

88 15

14.74

14.85

15.30

33 H. Camel, pr.

83 51

41.03

41.38

33 H. Camel, seq.

23 '83 57

23-31

23-59

23-39

Ceph. 135 Hs.

10 83 15

14.99

15. H

Urs. min. 57B

87 37

3-49

3-86

4-04

Urs. min. 33 Hs.

83 14

[57-62]

57.98

£ Urs. min.

83 13

[7-63]

7.68

7.66

7.S5

^ Urs. mi7z.

86 36

48.08

47.71

47-52

48.13

). Urs. min.

88 59

15.98

15.81

15-43

15-94

Cephei 3 Hs.

84 33

38.10

38-23

76 Draconis

83 9

40.36

40.01

39.66

40.33

Ceph., Gr. 3548

86 37

34.64

34.38

34.85

33 H. Cephei

85 36

17.39

17.33

36 H. Cephei

13 183 48

40.04

40.13

39 H. Cephei

0 1
^0

86 45

31.13

30.99

31.14

Ceph. 135 Hs.

83 38

4.05

3.8S

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 251-256. July 24, 1905,

THE CAMBRIAN FAUNA OF INDIA.
By Charles D. Walcott.

Through the courtesy of the Director of the Geological Sur-
ve}^ of India, I have had the opportunity of studying the collec-
tions of Cambrian fossils from the Cambrian rocks of the Salt
Range. The fauna was first described by Dr. William Waagen ^
and later by Dr. K. Redlich." In order to have a stratigraphic
section to which the subfaunas may be referred, the following
is made up from Dr. Fritz Noetling's^ sections and Dr. Red-
lich's* statements of the occurrence of the fossils. Dr. Noet-
ling's detailed sections ^ give the stratigraphic succession and
character of the Cambrian shales and sandstones, and prove that
the sediments of the eastern section of the Salt Range were
deposited mainly near shore. The fossils show that they w^ere
subjected to the vicissitudes of life on a shifting, sandy and
muddy bottom.

Ag-e 0/ the Contained Fauna. — The first reference of the
brachiopods of the lower strata of the Salt Range was to the
Silurian." Subsequently they were referred by Dr. Waagen to

iMem. Geol. Sur. India, Ser. XIII, Vol. I, pp. 748-770, 18S5 ; Vol. IV, pp.
S9-108, 1891.

2 Mem. Geol. Sur. India, New Ser., Vol. I, pp. 1-13, 1899.

3 Records Geol. Sur. India, Vol. XXVII, 1S94, pp. 74-86. Geol. Salt Range,
N. Jahr. Mem. Geol. and Pal., 1901, Bd. XIV, p. 416.

* Loc. cii., p. 9.

sRec. Geol. Sur. India, Vol. XXVII, 1S94, pp. 74-86.

^Mr. Wynne, Geol. Salt Range in the Punjab, Mem. Geol. Sur. India, Vol.
XIV, p. 86.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

251

1^2

WALCOTT

Baganwalla

No fossils found.

group

Jutana

c. Upper magnesian lime-

180

Psendotheca -vaaffeni.

group

stone.

b. Middle magnesian
limestone.

a. Lower magnesian lime-
stone.

Thickness about i8o feet.

Ptyclioparia richteri.
Lingulella fucksi.

;

Dark compact shaly thin-

15-1S

Redlichia ncetlingi.

bedded and subconcretion-

ary, micaceous but not glau-

Hxolifhes.

conitic.

Obolus ( Liiigulella )

1
i

Kussak

Thickness 15-18 feet.

fusc//t, 0. ( LingulcUa )
zvaftniecki, Acrothele
[Mobergia) granulata.

Thin - bedded purple,

Disciiiolcpis granulata.

group

sandy and micaceous shales.
Thickness approximately
15 feet.

SckizQpholis rngosa ,
Ncobolus 'carthi, Lakh-
intjta li?iguloides, Obolus
{Lingulella) kiurensis.

Cambrian

III

Upper Annelid sandstone.

Ptchofaria ? vjarf/ii.

A series of hard cream-

P.? i>idicus JVa age u ,

colored sandstones, flaggy

Hvolifhcs zvynnei, Hvo-

and glauconitic, alternating

lithes kussakcnsts, Wyn-

with soft, dark and shaly

nia -u.' art hi.

layers.

Thickness about 40 feet.

Dark purple shales with

Hyolithes -wynnei, and

green patches.

fragments of undeter-

Thickness about 10 feet.

mined trilobite.

Lower Annelid sandstone.

Annelid trails and frag-

A series of hard cream-

ments of brachiopods and

colored sandstones, alter-

Hyolithes.

nating with darker shaly

partings or soft sandy beds.

Thickness about 50 feet.

Khewra

Purple sandstones.

200

No fossils found.

group

200-400 feet thick.

to
400

Pre-

Salt marls.

1 Cambrian

the Carboniferous fauna.' On the discovery of Cambrian trilo-
bites Dr. Waagen referred the fauna to the Cambrian,- and ten-
tatively conchided that the Olenus, Paradoxides and OleneHus

' Loc. cit., 1885.

"^ Loc. cit., 1891, p. 94.

THE CAMBRIAN FAUNA OF INDIA 253

faunas might be represented.' Later (1899) Dr. K. Redlich
described the collections made by Messrs. Middlemiss and
Noetling, and concluded that the Cambrian fauna of the Salt
range cannot be referred to a later horizon than the Paradoxides
zone^. My review of the type material received from Dr. Hol-
land and a small collection made for me by Dr. Fritz Noetling
lead me to agree with Dr. Redlich and also to add that there
is no evidence that the fauna is much older than the Paradoxides
or Middle Cambrian fauna.

The supposed heads of Olcnellus mentioned by Dr. Waagen
are very properly referred by Dr. Redlich to a new genus
named by him Hocfcria which name being preoccupied was
replaced by Redlichia b}^ Cossman.^ This genus differs from
Olcnelhis " by the presence of a well-developed facial suture
and by the distinct separation of the eyes from the glabella." ^
Another difference is the absence of the characteristic surface
sculpture of OloicIInsJ' My present impression is that Redlichia
is a direct descendant of Olenelhis and that it lived in late
Lower Cambrian or Middle Cambrian time.

Dr. Redlich calls attention to the resemblance between Red-
lichia^ and Protolemts Matthew, but he does not note the re-
semblance to Zacanthoides Walcott.*' Both Protolenus and
Zacanthoidcs are Middle Cambrian genera. The former occurs
just below the Paradoxides fauna on Handford Brook, New
Brunswick, and the Olenellus fauna is found 460 to 480 feet

' Loc. ct'L, p. 106.

'Mem. Geol. Sur. India, N. Ser., Vol. i, 1899, p. 11.

* Revue Cretique Paleozoologie, Sixieme Ann., 1902, p. 52.

* Loc. cit., p. 2.

5 Dr. Redlich states that Walcott mentions the presence of facial suture in
Oletiellus and quotes from page 175 of Bulletin 30, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1886.
In 1S91 I wrote of the supposed suture in Olenellus: "The discovery of more
perfect specimens of O. (M.) asafhoides shows that what I had identified as the
facial suture is a raised line in the coat of the interior of the shell that fills a de-
pressed line occupying the position of the suture. I have since found this line
in many specimens but in none is there a true suture cutting through the shell,
as in Paradoxides and most other genera of trilobites." (Tenth Ann. Rep. U. S.
Geol. Sur., 1891, pp. 633, 634).

^ As shown on plate XXV, figures 2, 3, 4 and 6, Bulletin 30, U. S. Geol.
Surv., 1S86.

254 WALCOTT

beneath in the same section.^ In western Utah, in the House
range, the Middle Cambrian contains over 400 feet of strata
and is characterized by four subfaunas of which Zacanthoides
is the oldest.^ To the westward in Nevada, the Olenellus fauna
ranges through 5,000 feet of beds, and the Upper Cambrian
fauna is found 1,500 feet above the Middle Cambrian fauna in
the Highland range.'

By reference to the table showing the Cambrian formations of
the Salt Range and contained fossils {ante, p. 252) it will be
noted that there are only 115 feet of fossiliferous strata beneath
the beds containing Redlichia ncetlingi and the basal sandstone.
In the absence of any fossils clearly indicating the Olenellus
fauna I think it is unwise at present to assume any other age
for the fossiliferous Cambrian beds than Middle Cambrian.
The brachiopods of division IV, Neobolus beds, of the Khus-
sak group, indicate a stage of evolution in advance of any
brachiopod we know in the Olenellus fauna. LahJnnina lin-
guloi'des with its interior platforms and perforate ventral valve
and Neobolus xuartJii with its central platform in the ventral valve
indicate Ordovician rather than Lower Cambrian development.

Notes on the Fossils. — The annelid trails are of the usual
forms occurring on the surface and penetrating the sandy layers.
Dr. Redlich illustrates a form of Cylindritcs, and states that
many worm-trails remain alike from the Cambrian to the pres-
ent day. ^

jBrachiopoda : Oholus {^Lini^ulcllii) wannieeki Redlich and O.
{L,.) k fur en sis Waagen, are essentially Middle Cambrian forms
and O. {L.) fuchsi suggests the Upper Cambrian, Lini^iilefis-
like shells. Aerothele {Alobergid) o-rantilata Redlich is not
unlike Aerothele suhsidua White, which is abundant in the
Middle Cambrian of Utah. The brachiopods, Discinolefis
granulata Waagen, Schizopholus rugosa Waagen, Neobolus

' Lower Cambrian terrane in the Atlantic Province, Proc. Washington Acad.
Sci., Vol. I, pp. 320-322.

* This section was examined in 1903. I expect to study it more in detail this
season (1905) as it is the most complete section of the IMitldle Camhrian zone
known to me in America.

3 Bull. 30, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 33-35.

* Loc. cit., p. 8, pi. I, figs. 19 and 20,

THE CAMBRIAN FAUNA OK INDIA

=55

zvarlhi Waagen and Lakliniina liiigiiloidcii Waagen all indicate
a stage of development more advanced than that of the brachi-
opods of the Cambrian faunas in other parts of the world.
Wynnia zuarthi Waagen is the onl}'- articulate brachiopod in
the collection ; it is related to both Nisusia and DillitigscUa of
the Lower and Middle Cambrian faunas.

Plcropoda : The fragments representing Hyolilhcs Jciissahcn-
sis Waagen is undistinguishable from young shells of Hyolilhcs
■priinordialis Hall and H. americanus Billings. A similar,
if not identical, species occurs with Rcdltchia [Ilceferta) ncetlingt
in Division V. Hyolilhcs wynnci Waagen is clearly distin-
guished by the median furrow on the ventral side from other spe-
cies of the genus. It occurs in Divisions II and III. Pseudo-
theca ivaagcui Redlich is one of the doubtful forms which has
little stratigraphic value. Its relations appear to be with Stcno-
theca.

Trilobita: Reference has already been made to Rcdlichia
ncellingi Redlich when speaking of the stratigraphic position
of the genus. The genus occurs in China in the basal fossilif-
erous beds, but it is not far below the characteristic Middle
Cambrian fauna. As has been stated, I regard the genus as of
late Lower Cambrian or early Middle Cambrian age. Ptycho-
■paria richtcri Redlich from the Magnesian limestone series
is a form that might well occur at any horizon of the Cambrian
although it is more of a Middle Cambrian type. The same
may be said of Ply chof aria zvarlhi from Division III. A frag-
ment of the central portions of the head of a trilobite from Divi-
sion III, was named Olcnns indices by Waagen. The pustulose
surface and strong, rounded glabella indicate a species more
nearly related to Conocoryfhc trilincatus Emmons of the Lower
Cambrian fauna than Olenus of the Upper Cambrian fauna.
The fragment is hardly sufficient to base a generic or specific
determination upon. The stratigraphic horizon of this species
is in doubt. It probably came from Division IV, as the asso-
ciated Hyolilhcs kiissakcnsis is abundant in the superjacent
shales of Division V.

As stated by Dr. Redlich, the composition of the fauna is very
simple. In Division IV there is an unusually remarkable de-

256 WALCOTT

velopment of brachiopods, but only 5 species are present. In
Division V the large trilobite, Rcdlichia ncetlingi, may indicate
the horizon of the lower beds of the eastern China section or
the Middle Cambrian, as the genus ranges up to the summit of
the Middle Cambrian. Only 4 other species of fossils occur at
this horizon in India. My impression is that systematic search
will give a larger fauna from the Salt Range, and that when this
is obtained some revision of our present views of the stratigraphic
succession and age of the various parts of the known fauna may
be necessary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 257-366. July 24, 1905.

ON BASIC SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE ZEOLITES.
By F. W. Clarke.

During the past 7 or 8 3'ears a number of researches upon
the constitution of the natural silicates have been carried out in
the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey. Some
remarkable results have been obtained ; and it is now seen that
the zeolitic minerals exhibit a high degree of chemical plas-
ticity. Sodium and calcium are easily withdrawn from them,
and replaced by other metals or basic radicles ; and some of the
more striking examples of these reactions are already on rec-
ord. In Survey Bulletin 207, for instance, a number of am-
monium substitution derivatives are described, such as am-
monium analcite, ammonium natrolite, and so on. In Bulle-
tin 262, data are given concerning silver and thallium salts of
similar character, and the list might be extended almost indefi-
nitely. A large and novel field of investigation is now open,
which is not likely to be soon exhausted.

In addition to the compounds just mentioned, a number of in-
teresting sodium, strontium and barium derivatives have been
prepared and studied during the past year by Mr. H. C. JNIc-
Neil. His work will be published in detail, later; the present
communication gives only a summary of his results, together
with some theoretical discussion. A few of Mr. Steiger's prep-
arations are also cited, for purposes of comparison, and to illus-
trate the range of the observations.

The mineral analcite has proved to be peculiarly susceptible
to transformation, and has yielded derivatives most easily.
They may be tabulated as follows :

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

258 CLARKE

Analcite NaAlSijOfi.HjO.

Ammonium analcite NH^AlSioOg.

Silver analcite AgAlSisOg.HjO.

Thallium analcite TL\lSi206.

Strontium analcite SrAl^Si^Ojo.

Barium analcite BaAljSi^Oij.

The ammonium, silver and thallium compounds, prepared by
Mr. Steiger, are all very definite and stable. They were
formed by heating analcite with ammonium chloride to 350°,
or by fusing analcite with the nitrate of silver or of thallium,
and the temperature of the reactions was relatively low. For
that reason there was little or no breaking down of the funda-
mental molecule. The barium and strontium salts, prepared
by Mr. McNeil, were obtained by fusing the mineral with
barium or strontium chloride, and afterwards leaching the prod-
uct with water, when the new compounds remained undis-
solved. The temperature of their formation was unavoidably
high, and some decomposition evidently occurred. In fact, in
both cases, silica and alumina were found in the leach water
in surprising amounts. In the preparation of strontium anal-
cite 36.2 per cent, of the original silica, and 23.36 per cent, of
the alumina were thus leached out ; and the insoluble residue
had the subjoined composition. The composition of the ideal
SrAlgSi^Ojo is given in the second column.

Found. Calculated.

SiOj 50.3S 53.92

AI2O3 26.01 22.88

SrO 23.21 23.20

CI trace

99.60 100.00

The sodium of the original analcite had been completeh' replaced
by strontium, but the product obtained was not absolutely pure.
With barium analcite the results were better, as may be seen
in Mr. McNeil's anal3'ses of three distinct preparations. In the
last column I give the theoretical composition of the salt.

Found. Found. Found. Calculated.

SiOo 43-73 45-6i 45-22 48.54

AljOg 20.75 20.71 21.09 20.57

BaO 32.95 31.36 33.02 30.89

II2O 2.02 1.78 .44

99-45 99-46 99-77 100.00

ON BASIC SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE ZEOLITES

•59

Here again a perfect replacement of sodium has been effected,
and a close approximation to the true barium analcite is shown
in the analyses.

Stilbite, which is a calcium alumosilicate, has also been care-
fully studied. Mr. Steiger prepared its ammonium and thallium
derivatives, and Mr. McNeil obtained a sodium salt by fusing
the mineral with sodium chloride. The analvses are as follows :

Steiger.

steiger.

McNeil.

McNeil

Stilbite.

NH4 Salt.

Tl Salt.

Na Salt.

SiOj . . .

• 5.=;-4i

60.73

36-75

6.S.58

64.49

Al^Os . .

• 16.85

1S.31

11.74

20.21

19.91

Fe,0;, . .

.iS

MgO. . .

.05

CaO . . .

• 7-78

1.66

.68

•79

1.02

Na.,0. . .

• 1-23

.12

•15

12.10

13. II

(NH,),0 .

7-83

T1,0 . . .

42.94

H^O . . .

. 19.01

10.73

7-77

CI ... .

i.iS

1-75
100.43

1.68

100.51

100.56

100.03

100.21

Less O. .

.26

.40

•38

100.30

100.03

99-83

If we throw out the water of cr3^stallization as extraneous, the
molecular ratios give the following empirical formulae for the
anhydrous compounds. The tw^o sodium preparations are aver-
aged together, and the monoxide bases are united under the
general symbol R/O.

Stilbite (Ca salt) R..,/Al36„S:ioo(A7:)«-

NH, salt R373'Al,5«Si,oooO.,7o5Cl32-

Tl salt R:i76 ^'^'376'^'l0O0^2751*

Na salt R408'^^l:)67yiioooOmiCl38.

The anal3'ses show clearly the e.xtent of the substitutions
effected in stilbite, and the formulae indicate the persistency of
the original type.

Chabazite, like stilbite, is essentially a calcium aluminum
trisilicate, and it yields substitution derivatives quite readily.
It has, however, a noteworthy tendency to take up extra atoms
or groups of atoms, and the analyses consequently show the
presence of chlorides or nitrates thus retained. The figures in
the following table represent some of these products.

26o CLARKE

Steiger, Steiger. Steiger. Steiger. McNeil.

Chabazite. NH4 Salt. Ag Salt. Tl Salt. Na Salt.

Si02 50. 7S 56.09 34.95 28. 92 54.77

AI2O3 17. iS 19-49 II. 89 10.75 20.36

Fe203 .40

MgO 04

CaO 7.84 2.01 .65 1.52

Na,0 1.28 .24 .40 .28 17-42

K,6 73

(NHJ^O 7-39

AgzO 39.63

TI2O 51. 58

H2O 21. 85 13.45 6.78 4.15 .28

N2O5 6.64 3.54

CI 1.35 6.92

100.10 100.02 100.29 99-87 101.27

Less O .30 1.56

99.72 99.71

From the molecular ratios the following formulae for chaba-
zite and its derivatives are deduced.

Chabazite (Ca salt) R402^-^l«4Siiooo02807-

NH^ salt R.;87 AL(,jiSiio(,o02786Cl3s-

Ag salt R608'Alj02SiioooC>280s(^''03)u09-

Tlsalt R5-0^-'^U36Sil000O2S7l(>^"O3)l:i7-

Na salt R67/-^U:;sSiiooo0289-Cl202-

The regularity of these ratios is disturbed by the presence of
the CI and NO3 radicles, whose functions will be considered
later. The barium chabazite, prepared by Mr. McNeil, shows
even greater irregularities, and uniform products were not ob-
tained. In one experiment the melt of chabazite and barium
chloride, upon leaching, yielded two products, one glassy, the
other flocculent, which were partially separable mechanically.
A second preparation was entirely glassy. The anal3'ses of
these products gave the subjoined results : (A) Glassy, first
preparation ; (B) flocculent, first preparation ; (C) second prep-
aration.

A. B. C.

SiOj 43-63 43.17 39-68

AI2O3 17.12 21.24 16.31

BaO 31.58 35.21 40.37

CI 9-53 -55 .S-44

101.86 100.17 101.80

Less 0 2.15 .12 1.23

99.71 100.05 100.57

ON BASIC SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE ZEOLITES 261

The empirical formulx' are as follows :

'■' Ba2pf,Al4g.,Sl,ooQ02798Cl37i.

■t> i*'l;',?7-''^.'>-<3'^'lOOo'^31t-l*-''21'

^ l^<*101-^'486'^'lllOo'J3l>H*-'i:l2'

Although the replacement of monoxide bases by barium is
complete, the products are evidently mixtures, and their ratios
are not easy to interpret. The fact that yl, rich in chlorine,
and B^ almost chlorine free, both came from the same melt,
indicates a breaking down of the molecules. This suspicion
is contirmed b}^ a study of the leach waters. In the washings
from A and B, Mr. McNeil found 15.85 per cent, of the original
silica of the chabazite, with 13.10 per cent, of the alumina.
The leachings from C similarly contained 20.3 of the silica and
11.96 of the alumina. The flocculent compound B approxi-
mates ver}^ roughly in composition to a salt of the type BagAlg
(SiOJ^(Si30g)2, but A is not reducible to any rational formula.
It is probable that a series of reactions took place, in which
barium chabazite was first formed and afterwards partly broken
down or otherwise modified by the continued action of the
molten barium chloride. The solvent effect of the latter salt
upon silica and alumina is quite marked, and was studied by
Mr. jNIcNeil upon the pure oxides or hydroxides. In four ex-
periments, one gramme of finely divided silica was acted upon
by fused barium chloride for 30 minutes. Upon leaching and
filtering, the following quantities of silica were found to have
been dissolved :

1. 0.0973 gramme, = 9.73 per cent.

2. .0592 " =5-92 " "
3- -0945 " = 9-45 " "
4. .0771 " — 7.71 " "

When aluminum hydroxide equivalent to one gramme of AI2O3
was fused for 30 minutes with 20 grammes of BaCU, 11. 15 per
cent, of it went into solution in the washings. Ignited alumina,
however, was not attacked. From these experiments it seems
probable that when zeolitic derivatives are formed and partly
decomposed, the decomposition products pass largely into solu-
tion upon leaching. Irregularity in the composition of the
residues is therefore to be expected ; and in the order which

262 CLARKE

was actually observed in the analyses of barium and strontium
analcite.

The presence of CI and NO3 in the substituted stilbite and
chabazite remains to be interpreted. The simplest explanation
of the facts is that adopted by Mr. Steiger in Bulletin 262,
where it is assumed that chlorides or nitrates as such are re-
tained or occluded by the residues. When' these substances
are deducted from the analyses, the remainders agree closely
with the theoretical composition of the derived zeolites. But
this explanation is not the only one possible. We may imagine
that new compounds have been formed, analogous to if not
identical wdth such silicates as sodalite or marialite : and it is
worth while to examine the data from this point of view.

The simplest formula assignable to stilbite, regarding all
water as crystalline, represents the species as a mixture of the
two isomorphous salts

Na,Al,(Si30,),.6H,0,

CaAl2(Si303),.6H,0 ;

with the calcium compound largely predominating. In chaba-
zite we have a similar commingling of

(CaNa,)Al2(SiOj2.4H20,

(CaNa,)Al2(Si308)2.8H20,

the calcium and the trisilicate being most abundant. The true
formula} are probably multiples of these, and the anhydrous
salts are perhaps best figured by the following expressions,
which represent the salts as isomers of nepheline and albite,
with their equivalent calcium compounds :

Al— SiO,=Al Al— Si30s=Al

^Si04=Al ^SisOg^Al

ySiO^^Al ySiaOg^Al

Al— SiO,=Al Al— SiPs^Al

\si04=Ca ^SL08=Ca

Ca Ca

I I

ySiO^=Ca ySiaOg^Ca

Al-SiO,=Al Al— Si30,=Al

^SiO.sAl \si,0«=Al

ON BASIC SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE ZEOLITES 263

From formula' of this character, structures of many types are
derivable, and some of them may contain chlorine. The sodium
stilbite, prepared by Mr. McNeil, may be represented thus :

4AI— SiaOs^Al + A\—Si,0^='Sai + Al— SiO^sNaj
\si30s=Al ^SijOg^Al \siOt=Al

the last molecule having been formed by loss of silica from the
original trisilicate molecule. This set of symbols corresponds
to the percentage composition given below, as contrasted with
the average of McNeil's two anal3'Ses.

Calculated. Found.

SiO,, 64.88 65.03

AlO., 20.05 20.06

CaO ) 91

XaaO \ 13-72 12.60

CI 1.74 1-71

100.39 100.31

Less O 39 -S^

100.00 99-93
The sodium chabazite agrees well with a mi.xture of the sec-
ond and third molecules in the expression given above, in the

ratio of 5 : 3 ; thus :

5Al,Na3(Si30,).Cl ;

3Ai;Na3(SiO,),Cl ;
which compares as follows :

Calculated. Found.

SiOj 54-90 54-77

AljOs 20.67 20.36

CaO } 1.52

NajO ) 18.S5 17.42

CI 7- 10 6.92

H^O -28

101.52 101.27

Less O 1-52 1-56

100.00 99-71

In silver chabazite, which was prepared by the action of silver
nitrate upon the mineral, NO3 appears in place of CI, and we

have

3AlAg3(Si303),N03;

iAlAg3(SiO,),N03;

264 CLARKE

which compares as follows. The 7'cdiiccd analysis was com-
puted from Mr. Steiger's analysis by rejecting water, transform-
ing Na.,0 into the equivalent amount of Ag.,0, and recalculating
to 100 per cent.

Calculated. Fouud, reduced.

SiO., 37.39 3^-94

AUO3 12.67 12.57

AgjO. . . . : 43.23 43.47

N2O3 6^ 7-02

100.00 100.00

The thallium chabazite is also a nitrate derivative, but the
transformation was less complete than in the case of the silver
salt. It corresponds to

3Al,Tl3(Si30,),N03;

iAl3Tl3(SiO,)3.

Reducing the actual analysis by exclusion of water, computing
CaO and Na.O into Tl^O and recalculating to 100 per cent., we
have

Calculated. Found, reduced.

SiOj 2S.47 2S.46

AljOj 10.3S 10.5S

T1,0 57.49 57-48

N,05 _3^ _34S

100.00 100.00

These agreements are strikingly close, and establish, with a
high degree of probability, the existence of the chlorine or nitro-
derivatives represented by the formula?. These substances,
sometimes mingled with the normal derivatives, seem to exist
in the residues obtained in the experiments. Even the barium
chabazite " C" agrees roughly with the composition.

Al,Ba3(Si30,),Cl + Al,Ba3(SiOJ,Cl ;

although much weight cannot be "given to this coincidence. It
may be noted, in passing, that Weyberg ' has recently described
compounds obtained by fusing kaolin with calcium chloride or
bromide, to which he assigns the formulas

' Centralblatt Min. Geol. Pal., 1904, p. 729, and 1905, p. 13S. The calcium
chloride derivative had previous! v been noted by Gorsreu, Bull. Soc. Min., 10,
276.

ON BASIC SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE ZEOLITES 265

6SiO,.6Al03. 1 2Ca0.4CaCl ;
and

5SiO,.8Al03. 1 2Ca0.4CaBr,.

These substances, however, have no apparent relation to our
zeolitic derivatives, nor can they be simply formulated structur-
ally. By fusing kaolin with strontium and barium chlorides he
obtained the basic salts

4Sr0.4AU03.7Si02;
and

4Ba0.4Al203.7Si02;

which, in their physical properties, resemble nepheline.

For thomsonite, a silicate of quite different ratios from stilbite
and chabazite, three derivatives have been prepared. The
anal^'ses are as follows :

Steiger. Steiger. Steiger. McNeil.

Thomsonite. NH4 salt. Ag salt. Na Salt.

SiOj 41.13 42.65 34.99 44.00

AI2O3 29.58 31.34 24.02 32.S5

CaO 11.25 9-23 7-54 2.75

Na,0 5.31 2.48 .74 18.32

(NHJ2O 4.0S

Ag,0 24.32

H2O 13.13 10.40 8.39

CI 3-OI

100.40 100. iS 100.00 ic)o.93

Less O .68

100.25

From these the subjoined empirical formulae follow, calculated
for the anhydrous compounds.

Thomsonite Rsss'Alg^SijoooOneM'

NH4 salt R7il6''Al863Sil000O:<693-

Ag salt Rse^'AlgogSiioooOagii-

Na salt R9i/Aly,,jSiiooo0373oCli,6.

The thomsonite itself conforms sharply to the normal ratio of
Al3Na3X3, in which X3 represents SiO^ + SiaOg. The propor-
tion of Si30g however, is only one eleventh. The sodium deriv-
ative, which contains chlorine, appears to resemble the com-
pounds derived from stilbite and chabazite, and may be regarded
as ver}' near the mixture

266 CLARKE

4A],Na3(Si30,),Cl,
ioAl,Na3(SiOJ,Cl,
25Al3Na3(SiO,)3;
which may be compared with the reduced analysis as follows :

Calculated. Fouud, reduced.

SiO, 43.53 43-75

AI2O3 32.02 32.68

NajO 22.11 21.26

CI 3.03 2.99

100.69 100.6S

Less O 69 .68

100.00 100.00

The agreement is as close as we could reasonably expect it
to be, when we remember that the substance was formed at a
temperature above the melting point of sodium chloride. One
of the chlorinated molecules, it may be observed, is curiously
like kaolin in structure, as a comparison of the probable for-
mulas will show.

,0— H yCl

Al— SiO,=H3 Al— SiO.^Naj

^SiO^sAl ^SiO^^Al

Kaolin. New compound.

These expressions have the merit of suggestiveness and may
lead to new experiments by and by. The compounds should
be derivable the one from the other, if the comparison between
them is really sound.

In addition to the derivatives mentioned in the foregoing pages,
Mr. Steiger has prepared ammonium, silver, and thallium
natrolite, thallium mesolite, ammonium and silver scolecite,
ammonium leucite, ammonium heulandite, etc. These products
are sufficiently described in Survey Bulletins 207 and 262.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 267-275. Plate XII. July 24, 1905.

SIMULTANEOUS JOINTS.
By George F. Becker.

Joints are almost universally distributed over rock expo-
sures, and they are so highly significant that the interest attach-
ing to them can never be exhausted. In the present paper I
propose to discuss systems of joints of simultaneous or almost
simultaneous origin, not with the idea of developing any new
principles, but in order to call the attention of geologists and

mining men to some details which have been insufficiently con-
es ^

sidered although they are of importance in reading the record
of mining districts and tectonic belts.

Most fine-grained solids which are capable of rupture under
given conditions behave similarly. Exceptionally plastic or duc-
tile bodies, like aluminium and pure lead, can scarcely be broken
by crushing. Some substances again show different resist-
ances in different directions ; for example, single crystals, like
those of quartz, and masses with a laminar structure, such as
slate. But massive rocks in large masses, as well as many
limestones and sandstones, cast iron and some forms of steel,
are to all intents and purposes isomorphous in that they display
practically equal resistances in all directions. Such materials
when subjected to forces obey the same laws as softer solids,
such as plaster of paris, wax and " ceresin " (the trade name
for a mixture of crystalline parafiines derived from ozokerite).
It would indeed be perplexing if large blocks of materials com-
posed of small crystalline grains irregularly oriented, did not
show common properties.' Even clay, so little moistened as to
be " stiff " acts as if it were a true solid.

'With glasses, a class of bodies which needs more study than it has received,
I shall not deal in this paper.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Set., July, 1905.

267

268 BECKER

These isomorphous or pseudo-isomorphous substances rup-
ture in 2 ways, both of which may often be illustrated in the
same experiment. One species of fracture takes place by ten-
sion, and is usually characterized by sharp curvatures and un-
■even surfaces ; the mass is torn asunder. The other method of
fracture is by "shearing motions," due to pressure; the mass
is ctit to pieces by surfaces which are often, and in fact char-
.acteristically, flat and smooth.

Persistent joints and systems of joints are due to pressures
■while the partings between columnar basalts and the very sim-
ilar cracks in drying mud arise from tension. In mining dis-
tricts tension cracks often appear as a subordinate phenomenon
where faulting has forced apart slaty walls, leaving splinters
attached to both sides of a fissure which itself arose from pres-
sure, and I have even seen similar occurrences along the crev-
asses of a glacier. So, too, when a cylinder of relatively mild
steel is crushed, the bulging edge of the mass may show merid-
ional tension cracks due to the increase of the equatorial periph-
•er}', even when the interior displays diagonal fracture. The
behavior of cylinders, however, has some peculiarities which
will be mentioned presently.

Rocks are often ruptured without much preliminary^ deforma-
tion, and it is easiest to begin with the hypothesis that the de-
formation is negligibly small. The effect of larger deforma-
tion can be traced after the principal characteristics of rupture
ihave been examined. It is also convenient to consider first of
:all a cubical or at least a rectangular mass.

Suppose then that a cube of rock (shown in Fig. i, PI. XII)
is subjected to a perpendicular and evenl}^ distributed force
acting on its upper and under surfaces while the face A and that
opposite to it are supported in such a way as to obviate rupture.
Then the effect of force will be to produce ruptures along planes
perpendicular to A and inclined in opposite directions at an
angle of 45° to the line of force. Two systems of joints will
result forming angles of 90° to one another on A or on sections
parallel to this face. On the face of the cube marked B and
that opposite to />', the traces of these joint planes will be hori-
zontal straij^ht lines, while on the surfaces on which the forces

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate Xil.

SIMULTANEOUS JOINTS 269

act, that is to say, on the top and the bottom of the cube, the
traces of the joints will be parallel straight lines perpendicular
to A. By these means the cube will be divided into a number
of square prisms so placed that the diagonals of the squares are
either horizontal or vertical.

It has come to be pretty generally recognized that two sys-
tems of joints such as those described may be produced by a
single force acting at an angle of about 45° to each system. If
the deformation antecedent to rupture were of sensible amount,
the joints would make angles of somewhat more than 45° with
the line of force.

It is not so generally understood that 4 or even more than 4
systems of joints may be due to a single force. This case is less
common than that of a smaller number of partings, and is usually
confined to limited areas, but it is not infrequent, particularly in
the disturbed regions which ores so much affect.

Imagine a second cube, shown in Fig. 2, similar in all re-
spects to the first excepting that the faces J5 and its opposite are
supported instead of faces A and that opposite to it ; then of
course the result will be the formation of prisms whose square
cross sections will be visible on B instead of on A. If on the
other hand the cube is not supported on any side, or if the resist-
ance perpendicularly to the line of force is uniform, then these
2 systems of rupture will take place simultaneously, so that on
both A and B there will be systems of cracks at 45° to the line
of force intersecting one another at 90°, while each of these
faces will also show horizontal cracks. By these means, the
cube will be divided into octahedral and tetrahedral blocks as
indicated in Figs. 3 and 3«. Such rupturing can be and has
been experimentally verified, for instance by Daubree ; but I
know of no experiments so perfect as instances which may be
observed occasionally in rock exposures.

In experiments on cylinders, the lines of rupture are often
found to be conically disposed, and this mode of rupture requires
explanation, especially as corresponding phenomena are so rare
in nature that I have never met with them. When a cylinder is
linearly compressed (say vertically) between masses of much
more rigid material, the cylindrical form is not preserved, the

270 BECKER

mantle of the cylinder expanding to the shape of a barrel. The
reason for this is that intense friction is produced by the effort
of the end surfaces to expand in contact with the rigid planes
exerting the vertical pressure. I have experimented somewhat
elaborately on the character of this strain and have determined
the position of the strain ellipsoid at 64 points on a vertical cross-
section. The greatest axis of the ellipsoid lies in the plane
passing vertically through the center of the cylinder, but it is
not horizontal ; it is inclined to the horizontal at an angle which
varies with the distance from the central vertical axis of the
barrel-shaped mass. The least axes of the ellipsoid also lie in
the vertical central cross-section of the mass and the surfaces ^
of " maximum tangential strain " are conoidal with their apices
in the axis of figure. It is along these latter surfaces that rup-
ture due to pressure must occur if at all, as I showed long ago.
At any one point of such a cylinder the strain is homogeneous
and exactly comparable to that in a uniformly strained cube.
The peculiarity of experimental results on cylinders lies in the
radial symmetry of the stress system.

If it were possible to crush cylinders between frictionless sur-
faces, so that the deformed blocks would retain a uniform diam-
eter, the strain ellipsoids would have 2 equal horizontal axes,
and, if the mass were ideally homogeneous, it is difficult to see
what would determine the position of the ruptures. But this is
not an important question. In real matter the resistance could
not be exactly the same in all directions and 2 S3"stems of joints
would form as in the cube. In a cubical mass, or in one of
square cross-section, the cracks will be perpendicular to the
sides of the cube as explained above, because this is the posi-
tion of least resistance, or because a unit area of rupture in this
orientation goes farthest towards relieving the strain in the
yielding mass.

In the lithosphere, when crushing or jointing takes place, the
masses exerting the pressure are almost invariably little more
resistant than the rock which is ruptured. It is very seldom,

' U. S. Geol.[Suiv. Bull., 241, 1904. The surfaces of rupture are such as would
be obtained by rotating Fig. 14 of that bulletin about its smallest diameter, but if
the deformation were small these surfaces would be indistinguishable from right
cones.

SIMULTANEOUS JOINTS 27 1

therefore, that those features of experiments are observable in
nature which depend on great differences in strength between
the material tested and the apparatus used in testing.

In cases of uniform lateral resistance then, at least 4 systems
of joints may form simultaneously as the result of the action of
a single force, separating the rock into octahedrons and tetra-
hedrons. Very minute differences in resistance would of course
modif}^ the development of the octahedral faces, but the 4 sets
of planes at least would be, and often are, perfectly distinct.

In experiments the 4 surfaces are so oriented as to be readily
distinguished, but in nature such orientation is relatively rare.
Tectonic forces are not usually exactly horizontal or exactly
vertical, and the exposures due to erosion or other causes are
generally inclined surfaces. Now, granting the simplicity and
symmetry of the fissuring, it is not at once evident how the
joints would be distributed on a plane taken at random through
the jointed mass. It is really an easy matter to project the fis-
sure systems onto a random plane, and requires only the appli-
cation of rudimentary descriptive geometry ; but the step has
not heretofore been taken, while it is interesting to compare the
results of the process with natural examples. The plots also
indicate how observations on a random plane may most simply
be dealt with when it is desirable to reduce field data to a sym-
metrical orientation and to find the line of force.

On account of its bilateral symmetry the octahedron gives a
convenient starting point for constructing a random section.
This octahedron will not be a regular one, inasmuch as the
angle between 2 planes taken over the coign will be a right
angle, and the 8 triangles of the octahedron will therefore not
be equilateral.

Fig. 4 shows such an octahedron so drawn as to expose
to view only 2 of the triangular faces. Fig. 5 shows the
same octahedron in plan and Fig. 6 in elevation, 4 faces being
visible.

In order to display the fissure systems of the jointed mass
taken on a random plane, any 3 points on the edges of the
octahedron may be selected in Fig. 6, such as /, in, n. These
points of course fix the plane. By evident and familiar methods

272 BECKER

the random plane can now be brought into the plane of the paper
as shown in Fig. 7/ where also the direction and amount of
dip of the 4 surfaces is shown as determined by an easy con-
struction. Finally from the data of Fig. 7 and the hypothesis
that the fissures are evenly distributed in space, it is possible to
display the traces of the joints on the random plane as shown
in Fig. 8.

Every observer who has paid attention to systematic joint-
ing, will recognize the similarity between Fig. 8 and certain
field occurrences ; it is noticeable, too, that the effect produced
by Fig. 8 is much more complex than the indications of Figs.

1 and 2 might lead one to expect. Such a joint system as is
displayed in Fig. 8 does not ordinarily extend over any large
region of country and the reason is that in nature, as a rule,
the unequal support afforded by surrounding rock masses is
sufficient to suppress one or more of the joint systems. As
pointed out above, it is only when the resistance perpendicular
to the line of force is the same in every direction that all 4
systems of joints will appear. On the other hand, even more
complex systems are sometimes found locally developed for
reasons which will be set forth a little later.

The process of construction outlined can be reversed, so that
if the spacing and dip of the fissures on the random plane were
given, the quadrangle of Fig. 7 could be drawn and the posi-
tion of the octahedron, or the line of force, determined. There
are natural cases in which this reduction would be instructive.

In the construction of Fig. 8, it has been assumed that the
permanent strain at rupture was insignificant and, on this
hypothesis, the faces of the octahedron are isosceles triangles
with one angle of 70° 32' (cos"' 1/3) and 2 equal smaller angles.

'Transfer the intersections of the random plane from Fig. 6, PI. XII, to
Fig. 5, PI. XII; draw also in 5 a square (parallel to the plane of 5) which
will contain the point at which the random plane intersects the axi& of the octa-
hedron. Then the line rs is common to 5 and 7 and rotation of 5 about the line
rs yields 7.

In constructing Fig. 7 it is necessary to have a vertical section through Fig.
5 perpendicular to rs. In finding the spacing for Fig. 8 it is convenient to have

2 other vertical sections of 5, one along the line /;« and the other along /«. It
is unnecessary to state that computation might be substituted for construction
if a high degree of accuracy were called for.

SIMULTANEOUS JOINTS 273

If permanent deformation of notable amount preceded rupture,
the single angle would be greater than 70° 32'.

In the foregoing, it has been supposed that the joints are
mere cracks and that no measurable amount of motion occurs
on any of them. This is often approximately true in nature.
The throw of the faults produced on the joints is sometimes so
small as to be microscopic, and I have measured great numbers
of such dislocations which were expressible only in hundredths
of an inch. Nevertheless, it remains true that a joint does not
form except in obedience to a tendency to faulting. When a
block of any material is squeezed between a plunger and an
anvil, it does not crack until it can yield no further without
cracking. In other words, rupture takes place in order to
permit of a closer approach between plunger and anvil than is
consistent with the continuity of the block subjected to experi-
ment. These cracks undergo a certain throw in the very act
of forming. In order to perceive the nature of the dislocation
it is best to assume that it reaches a considerable amount. I
will suppose for example that the shortening of a ruptured
block is 10 per cent. Then the dislocation must be of the t3'pe
represented in Fig. 9, though a certain variety in the disposi-
tion of the residual fragments is evidently possible. Now, Fig.
9 shows several large faults, and the shortening evidently could
not have been achieved without these or equivalent dislocations.

It is often assumed that when one fissure faults another the
latter is the older, but this inference is not justifiable and they
must often be of exactly the same age. Very frequently inter-
lacing quartz veins may be studied in which the quartz is con-
tinuous from one system of ruptures to the other, and in which
there is every indication that the ore was deposited at a single
epoch. Such instances show no slickensides within the veins,
but even when there are slickensides these may possibly be due
to fresh movements on the old surfaces after ore deposition is
finished. Of course I do not mean to deny that cases occur in
which some veins are younger than others with which they are
associated. I merely mean to w^arn colleagues against hasty
inferences in regard to the relative age of veins.

If such a system of dislocations as is shown in Fig. 9 were to

274 BECKER

be produced under any considerable external pressure, it is
manifest that the several residual fragments might be pressed
against one another with ver}- great force. In such a case the
mere grinding action accompanying the dislocation would tend
to produce further ruptures in the residual fragments. It is not
easy to work out a satisfactor}* theory of the distribution of such
secondary fractures. It is fairly evident, however, that in an
extensive complex, of which Fig. 9, PI. XII, may represent a
small portion, there is likely to be a repetition of identical con-
ditions, so that many separate blocks will be similarly situated
with reference to their neighbors. If secondary rupture takes
place, such blocks will be similarly affected and their fissures
will be parallel, but probably not continuous throughout the
mass. The more numerous the groups of similarly oriented
blocks after the original jointing, the more numerous will be
the systems of blind secondary joints. These latter may in-
deed be regarded as subsequent to the original joints, yet the
difference in age may be only a second or two and the brevity
of the interval should be taken into account in reading the his-
tory of the district.

To me it appears questionable whether in a region once
jointed by a system of forces, the application of a new system
of forces could produce a fresh set of joints systematically ar-
ranged. The resistance of a jointed rock mass is so extremely
unequal in different directions, and so small in manv of them,
that fresh movements on the old joints or the reduction of the
formation to a chaotic rubble seems more probable than any-
thing comparable with renewed systematic jointing. Thus
forces acting on a brick wall usually produce cracks which fol-
low the joints between bricks, and if bricks were not designedly
laid so as to "break joints," and carefully cemented besides,
cracked bricks in dama<red walls would be still rarer than
they are.

Fig. 9 shows that a cube fractured by pressure must occupy
a larger volume than it did before fracture. Following the in-
dications of Fig. 9 the lateral expansion would amount to over
two-tenths when the vertical diminution of height is one-tenth,
so that the crushed cube under these conditions would occup}- a

SIMULTANEOUS JOINTS 275

volume nearly a third greater than before rupture. It follows
then that in a rock mass which has been jointed there must
be an increase of volume which cannot be without geological
importance. There are various ways in which this volume
might make itself manifest. If the material surrounding the
crushed mass does not yield, and if one surface of the crushed
mass coincides with the surface of the earth, then the area
affected by joints must rise regularly or irregularly above this
level. If on the other hand, the space subjected to crushing is
so placed that a vertical swelling is impossible, the masses sur-
rounding the crushed volume must be driven back and thus
either deformed or crushed. Now nearly all rocks are jointed,
and the total increment of volume over a large area affected
b}' joints is likely to find expression in technically important
faults or even in tectonic movements.

Of course rock masses are usually supported on all sides, or
on all sides but one, by masses presenting great resistance
either to deformation or to rupture. This would not obviate
the tendency to the formation of joints on systems like those
represented in Figs, i, 2 and 3, but it might prevent, or par-
tially prevent, the realization of these ruptures. In such a case
w'hat would be the internal changes affecting the rock masses?
Evidently there would be relative movements along the lines on
which joints tended to form, but since no opportunity or an in-
sufficient opportunity was afforded for an increase of volume,
few joints or none at all would result. In the extreme case, the
result would be deformation w'ithout rupture. In so far, how-
ever, as the actual relative motion of the particles exceeds the
limit of elastic recovery, it is natural to suppose that cohesion
along these surfaces would be diminished and that the mass
would manifest this alteration of structure by splitting more
readily in these directions than in others bearing no relation to
them. It is to such a weakening along the surface of relative
motion that I have ascribed the origin of schistosity and slaty
cleavage, subjects which I have discussed at quite sufficient
length elsewhere.

F'ROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 277-2S2. Plate XIII. July 24, 1905.

A FEATURE OF MAYON VOLCANO.

By George F. Becker.

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in March, 1905, pub-
lished Chart No. 4,237 showing Mayon Volcano and neighbor-
ing portions of Sorsogon on a scale of i to 40,000. It gives the
elevation of the summit as 7,943 feet, which is a little lower than
the determinations of Jagor and Abella. About the time that
these surveys were being made in 1901, Mr. Henry Gannett
was in the neighborhood and took a small photograph of the
volcano from the bridge at Legaspi. This point is 8^ miles,
measured horizontally from the summit of the mountain, which
bears north 30° west from the bridge. There being water in
the foreground of the photograph, it is possible to determine
with a close degree of accuracy the direction of a level line, and
therefore to compute or construct elevations at the distance of
the cross-section of the volcano. It may thus be determined
that, on the scale of the photograph, 26 millimeters in the per-
pendicular through the summit of the volcano are equal to
7,943 feet, or 305.5 feet per millimeter.

The most thorough investigation of the lava of Mayon was
published in 188 1 by Mr. K. Oebbeke, who had at his disposal
the lithological collections made by Carl Semper. Mr. Oebbeke
pronounces the rock an olivinitic augite andesite. Eruptions at
Mayon are of very great frequency. They occur every couple
of years and oftentimes last several months. Many of these out-
bursts have been described and they all appear to belong to a
single type. Large quantities of ash are ejected, but the ejecta
are by no means all ash. Lava streams descend the side of the

Proc. W^ash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

277

278 BECKER

mountain and have more than once been known to reach the sea.
The last eruption in which this happened was in March, 1900,
and the account of it given by Colonel. Waher Howe appears in
the Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. i, p. 223, 1905.
Besides the fairl}^ solid rock masses represented by lava flows,
it may be considered tolerably certain that, as elsewhere, vol-
canic ash, wet by the showers accompanying eruptions, cements
into a firm tuff. In all probability, how^ever, the actual smooth-
ness of external form of the volcano is due to a mantle of ash
which dresses up the surface, filling out inequalities, increasing
the steepness wherever possible, and producing a conical figure
very characteristic of a large class of volcanic cones. This
shape is still recognizable and fairly well preserved in moun-
tains like Shasta and Ranier. One of the most perfect ex-
amples in the w^orld is the famous Fujisan of Japan, which,
however, has had no eruption since 1707. Evidently, had
Fujisan been entirely loose ash, the erosion and gales of 2 cen-
turies w^ould have seriously impaired its beaut}-, and since it is
still so perfect, the material must offer considerable resistance
to the forces of degradation. Mayon is even more perfect than
Fujisan, because of its frequent eruptions.

This characteristic form of volcanic cone is rarely associated
with rocks of an exclusively basaltic character. The Hawaiian
volcanoes emit basalts which flow for immense distances before
final solidification, and as a consequence, the accumulations of
lava aggregate to dome-like shapes the height of which is small
as compared with the mass and with the diameter. Small
cinder-cones of basaltic ash, however, sometimes occur which
are recognizably of the same geometrical type as Fuji.

Mere inspection shows that these beautiful cones have un-
broken outlines, and observation indicates that the characteristic
form is due to ash. Hence the mathematical problem of the
figure appears to be this : To find the loftiest figure of given
volume and continuous curvature which can be built up of suc-
cessive showers of ash, each ash layer being supposed to be-
come indurated after its deposition. In dealing with this prob-
lem, the crater may be supposed of inlinitesinial size.

In 1885, I published a theory of volcanic cones, and in 1898

A FEATURE OF MAYON VOLCANO 279

o-ave a fresh demonstration of the formuhi deduced.^ Accord-
ingto this theory, the outHne of a volcano should be represented
by the hyperbolic sine curve, or

z =

e'-'- — c-''"

where .v is the distance below the summit, y the radius of the
horizontal cross-section and c a unit of measurement which is
in fact twice the height of a column of the lava which would
just support its own weight.

Mr. Gannett's photograph, together with the elevation of the
mountain given by the Coast Survey, enables me to compute
the particular value of c for this volcano. If the outline of the
mountain were perfectly smooth, the value of c could be deter-
mined for any point upon the slope. -^ The actual outline in the
photograph, although remarkably regular, is not absolutely
smooth, and therefore this means of ascertaining c affords only
an approximation. I thus found that c must be between 8 and
9 mm. On plotting the hyperbolic sine curve for c = 8.8 mm.,
it appeared that this value was decidedly too large, while a
similar trial showed that 8.3 was decidedl}^ too small. The
third trial, taking c = 8.6 mm., gave a curve almost indis-
tinguishable from the natural outline. Both the photograph

1 Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 30, 1SS5, p. 283. U. S. Geol. Survey, iSth Ann.
Rep., Pt. Ill, 1S9S, p. 20.

2 If 1? is the angle which the curve makes with the axis,

l/tan^i? — I

The angle at the summit when the crater is infinitesimal, or 45°, is the maxi-
mum possible angle of rest. If IV is the resistance due to friction and IV the
normal pressure, while p is the angle of rest,

tan p = WIN.

Now the resistance, IV, cannot possibly exceed the normal pressure which
excites it, so that the limiting value of WIN is 1 or 10 = 45°.

The meaning of the constant c is readily grasped by considering that at a
great distance from the summit the theoretical volcanic cone sensibly coincides
with the logarithmic column

and here the maximum possible value of c is twice the height of a prismatic
column of the material which will just support its own weight.

280 BECKER

and the hyperbolic sine curve for this value of c are given in
the first illustration, PL XIII, Figs, i and 2. The easiest
method of making a comparison is to trace the mathematical
locus on a bit of thin paper and lay it over the picture of the
mountain. The value of c thus found corresponds to 2,627 feet.

In 1885, I computed the value of c from 4 surveyed cross-
sections of Mt. Shasta, finding for that case a value of 2,640
feet, while for the neighboring smaller mountain. Sugar Loaf,
I got 2,560 feet. It is certainly a very remarkable circumstance
that a photograph of Mayon gives a value of c only 13 feet
lower than that found for Shasta, or to within a half per cent,
the same value. The rocks of Shasta are chiefly andesite,
largely olivinitic, associated with some basalt, and therefore
extremely similar to those of Mayon. It would appear also
that, in spite of the great variation which the manner of cooling
and other accidents attending eruption must induce in the con-
tinuit}^ and grosser physical qualities of the lava, the mean
strength of the rock at these two localities, distant from one
another so many thousand miles, is almost exactly the same.

While the similarity in strength and in lithological composi-
tion of Shasta and Mayon is \Q.xy noteworth}', it does not follow
that all andesitic volcanoes would show similar vahies of the
constant c. The rock of Shasta is chiefly of the rough porous
type called by Giimbel trachytic andesite and by me asperite.
On the other hand, Fujisan appears to consist of pyroxene
andesites of the denser basaltic type. Professor Milne applied
my theory to this famous mountain and found as the mean of
several determinations from photographs and surveys c = 4,490
feet.' I reached substantially the same value by constructing a
cross-section of Fuji from the topographical map issued by the
Geological Survey of Japan in 1887. The section was taken
along a line bearing N. 36 ^X^ E. and gave c = 4,462 feet.
This section and the theoretical curve are shown in Text-fig. i
and agree most satisfactorily.

I have from time to time met with a great number of photo-
graphs of volcanic cones, especially in Central and South
America, which agree admirably in form with the hyperbolic

'Trans. Seismological Soc, Japan. Vol. 9, Pt. II.. p. iSo, 1SS6.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. VII.

Plate XIII

Photo h/i llnnji Ciniiu

Fn.. 1.

Fig. 2.
Ma\6n \olcano.

A P'EATURE OF MAYON VOLCANO

2«I

sine curve. As a rule, however, the height of the summit of
these mountains above the camera is not known, and there is
insufiicient proof that the camera was properly leveled. It is
to be wished, in the interest of vulcanology, that observers tak-
ing photographs of such cones would carefully level their instru-
ments and state the exact locality from which they were taken,
in order that when the topography of the regions is better

Fig. I.

known, it may be possible to determine exactly what the value
of c is for each particular case.

Closely allied to the form of volcanic cones is that of the
small "driblet cones" of J. D. Dana. He describes them as
forming about small apertures whence the escape of vapors
produces a throw of fiery spray. The drops fall back upon
one another, becoming soldered, because still partially melted,
and gradually build up the driblet cone.^ He was able to ob-
serve the process in Hawaii.

While in a cone of the Fuji type the solid ejecta falling on
the steep slopes must roll or slide down the declivities to a
greater or less extent, it is possible to imagine the several par-
ticles so sticky as to stay where they fall and this seems actually
to be the case when driblet cones form. The drops from a
vertical spray, or the grains from a vertical sand blast of small

1 Characteristics of Volcanoes, 1890, pp. 17, 71, 85, 160.

282

BECKER

diameter, would strike like bullets on a target of which the bull's
eye represents the orifice of the spray. The distribution of the
mass as a whole would then be given by the well known proba-
bility curve, but the geometrical configuration of the aggrega-
tion would be somewhat different. Takingr the constant of the
probability curve as equal to -^71 so that the maximum ordinate,
zf , becomes unity, the equation of that curve is

w = c~'"".
For the solid figure representing the driblet cone, it is easy to
see that if z is the vertical ordinate i-rdr- z = zvdr or

z = . e—"' .

2-r

This I take to be the most natural form of a driblet cone.
If perfect, it would be a slender spine reaching an infinite
height though of finite volume, but wind or seismic jars would
prevent its growing very high, even if the molten spray spurted
to indefinite heights and the orifice were of infinitissimal diam-
eter. Hence the column in nature would be truncated and would
doubtless be surrounded by a talus. It is so represented in fig.
25, while one of Dana's figures is reproduced in 2a.

TiiK CATiitURAL ; Dkiiu.etconk, 181J4.
Fig. la.

It is imaginable that the famous spine of Pelee might have
been formed in this way, but llie evidence points rather to Mr.
Lacroix' hypothesis of extrusion, something as a lead rod is
forced out of a cvlinder by pressure.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 2S3-3SS. July 24, 1905.

THE LINEAR FORCE OF GROWING CRYSTALS.
By George F. Becker and Arthur L. Day.

That growing crystals exert a linear pressure in the direc-
tion in which they grow appears to have been first observed by
Dr. Jean Lavalle in 1853.^ He noticed that crystals in satu-
rated solutions increase most rapidly on their under surfaces, so
that the first portion of the crystal to form is driven upward by
the forces involved in the crystallization. This result was de-
nied by Kopp, but has since been confirmed by various authori-
ties, including Lehmann, who gave an account of the matter in
his work on Molecular Physics" in 1888. The evidence in
favor of Lavalle's view includes many familiar phenomena like
the raising of crusts of earth by frost, the appearance of which
must be familiar to everyone in high latitudes. Perhaps a
still better one, to which reference has not been made, is the
fact that fence-posts are very apt to be gradually drawn out of
their beds by recurrent frosts.

No quantitative experiments have been made, so far as we
know, on this subject, which seems to have excited very little
attention for the past twenty years.

In the study of ore deposits, occurrences are sometimes ob-
servable in which crystals have exerted a very considerable
force ; for example, it was long ago noticed that crystals of
pyrite form in slates in such a way as to drive apart the lamince
of the rock without any sensible or traceable deformation of the
crystals.^ More important evidence of similar action is found

' Compt. Rend., vol. 36, 1S53, p. 493.
2 Vol. I, p. 345.

3U. S. Geol. Survey, i6th Ann. Rep., Part III, p. 2S7.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905.

283

284 BECKER AND DAY

in some of the deposits of so-called ribbon-ore. In the gold
belt of California this term, often used in a different sense, is
applied to designate quartzose ores containing thin, parallel
lamince of slate. It has often been supposed b}- geologists and
mining engineers that the mechanics of this form of deposit
consists of a preliminary faulting in the slate, the more or less
irregular surfaces of which were forced apart by undulations of
or projections from the surfaces of cleavage followed by a quiet
deposition of quartz from solution. In some relatively rare
cases, however, it can be shown conclusively that the distribu-
tion of the slate is not due to faulting. Occasionally the slates
contain grit bands which cause a local, sharply marked deflec-
tion in the cleavage of the slate ; and in the Mother Lode cases
have been observed where such marked laminae have been
driven apart normally by some cause or other, leaving room be-
tween them for combs of quartz crystals in layers which some-
times reach 6 inches in width. When such occurrences cannot
be accounted for by faulting, the inference is almost unavoid-
able that the lamince have been driven apart by the force of the
growing crystals, the axes of which stand sensibly at right
angles to the planes of the laminae. This hvpothesis, however,
ought not to be accepted without the most careful scrutiny, for it
implies force of great intensity. If the lamina? have been forced
apart in this way, then the whole lode must have been increased
in width by the same means ; and when the sum of the dis-
tances between the slate bands is taken into consideration, this
indicates a force of orogenic intensitv and of really stupendous
aggregate amount. The Mother Lode in California is some-
thing like 150 miles in length, and has been explored to a depth
of several thousand feet. Its width is often several hundred
feet, and that such a cleft could have been opened or consider-
ablv increased in width through the force of growing crystals
is certainly hard to believe.

Experiments on the subject were instituted immediateh' after
the first observation of this kind was made. The first effort
was directed to ascertaining whether crystals of a substance like
alum would raise a glass jtlate bencatli whicli a saturated solu-
tion of the salt had been introduced. The experiment was im-

THE LINEAR FORCE OF GROWING CRYSTALS

285

mediately successful, so that after a few hours a measurable
rise in the glass plate was detected.

Having established in principle that a considerable load could
thus be raised, the attempt was made to develop well formed
crystals of alum and to measure the load which they were ca-
pable of raising per unit of lifting area. After the technique of
these experiments had been mastered, it was found practicable

s) k

GLASS

r ^ - ■■- Y//My//'m///M-- ' -

— -

— -Y/Z/J^^^-^^r^=^-:^^^^^/A— .—

- —

— /

GLASS

^^y

^ ^

Fig. I.

in a saturated solution of constant temperature to grow clear
crystals a centimeter in diameter which would raise a weight of
a kilogram through a distance of several tenths of a millimeter.
The crystal was placed upon a piece of plate glass in a beaker
containing saturated solution of the same material, and loaded
as desired. Knowing the weight raised, it appeared an ex-
ceedingly simple matter to determine the force required, since
it was only necessary to ascertain the actual area of contact be-

286 BECKER AND DAY

tween the weight and the crystal. Here, however, an unex-
pected difficulty was encountered. The face of the crystal in
contact with the lower surface of the vessel is not plane and
does not even distantly approach this configuration. On the con-
trary, a terraced cup forms below the crystal so that the bearing
surface remains a mere edge throughout its growth. The ac-
companying figure may serve to give a fair idea of a section
through the crystal at any time during its growth.

The closer the examination made of these cupped faces the
smaller the actual bearing surface was found to be. One
method of determining this area is obviouslv to print it off on a
piece of paper, but it was found that the edges were often so
fine that the printed lines appeared several times broader than
the true edge. The process finally adopted was this : A fine
micrometer screw was mounted vertically so as to carry the
crystal downward in a motion accurately parallel to itself.
Chlorophyll made up with fat was selected as printing ink. It
gave a good color in extremely thin la3'ers, showed no disturb-
ing capillary action while the imprint was being made, and ex-
erted no solvent effect upon the crystals. A very thin coating
of this mixture upon bristolboard made a good inking pad. No
paper was found sufficiently hard and flat to take the impression
accurately, and our ingenuity was considerably taxed to find
something which would do so ; finally we hit upon the following
device : White celluloid was dissolved in ether and alcohol
and flowed upon a glass plate somewhat as a photographic plate
is coated. When the volatile solvent had evaporated a level
surface of opaque celluloid remained behind which was ex-
tremely smooth and flat. On this surface prints of the crystals
could be taken, portions of the impressions often being so fine
that they quite escaped notice unless seen through a reading
glass. They would defy reproduction in illustrations.

The measurement of the minute areas thus recorded is a mat-
ter of great difficulty and uncertainty, and the force per unit
area which the crystals exert is, therefore, hard to estimate. It
was at once evident that it amounted to man}' pounds per square
inch, and as observations multiplied, it became reasonably cer-
tain that it is actuallv of the same order of maiinitude as the

THE LINEAR FORCE OF GROWING CRYSTALS 287

ascertained resistance which the crystals offered to crushing
stresses. Moreover, there is reason to believe that this area
changes constantly as the crystals grow, and is less for a smaller
load than for a larger one.

The upper contact surface of the crystal is also variable, but
always much more perfect than the lower. Relatively large
areas in perfect contact with the glass plate which supports the
weight were frequently found by careful printing.

Following these determinations, confirmatory experiments
were made upon other salts (copper sulphate, ferrocyanide of
potassium, lead nitrate), the results being practically the same
as those found for alum.

It is manifest that we here have to do with a force of great
geological importance. If quartz, during crystallization, exerts
a pressure on the sides of a vein which is of the same order of
magnitude as the resistance which it offers to crushing, then
this force is also of the same order of magnitude as the resistance
of wall-rocks, and it thus becomes possible that, as indicated by
observation, the Mother Lode and other great veins have actually
been widened to an important extent, perhaps as much as lOO
per cent., or even more, by pressure due to this cause. In
mining regions the whole country is frequently intersected with
systems of quartz veins. Some of these, of course, are of
notable size and capable of being worked, provided the quartz
is sufficiently rich ; but many more, a number vastly in excess
of the large veins, are thin sheets no thicker than a card, in-
capable of profitable exploitation by man, though there is little
question that these tiny veins have often contributed the bulk of
the gold to placer deposits. In such a country there is almost
no limit to the effect which might be produced by the force of
the growing crystals, and the displacement might readily be so
great as to induce important new fissures or important renewed
movements on old fissures.

Again, in a vein where auriferous quartz is being deposited,
the growth of crystals may readily extend the space in which
successive crops of crystals might grow, so that in certain cases
(for instance on an inclined vein, like the Comstock Lode, near
the cropping) the deposition of ore might continue almost indefi-
nitely and the total deposit thus increase with time.

288 BECKER AND DAY

To what extent detailed observations will show a history of
this kind for ore deposits, it is too early to say, but it is cer-
tainly worth while to draw the attention of geologists and min-
ing engineers to the possibilities thus presented, and to dynamic
conditions which may prove important as well as interesting.

To the physicist also the phenomena cannot be uninteresting.
The power which roots exhibit to prize apart large building
stones we are content to classify as "vital" and mysterious.
We cannot so easily dispose of the similarly intense force with
which, as it appears, inorganic molecules drive themselves into
place, much as oakum is driven into the seams of a ship by a
caulking iron. We hope to be able to continue this study at
some future time.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 2S9-299. Plate XIV. July 24, 1905.

AN INTERESTING PSEUDOSOLID.
By George F. Becker and Arthur L. Day.

As is well known, Professor J.J. Thomson's investigations
lead to the hypothesis that a molecule is a highly complex body
consisting of great numbers of minuter particles called cor-
puscles, so that a molecule would be more nearly comparable
to a swarm of meteorites than to, let us say, a planet. In
considering this theory, it occurred to us that a model might be
made from a mixture of liquid and gaseous ingredients, the
physical properties of which would very closely resemble a
homogeneous solid made up of such complex molecules. A
bubble of soap solution, or any other viscid liquid would enclose
great numbers of molecules of oxygen and nitrogen, all of
them in rapid motion, and representing the corpuscles of
Thomson's molecule, while the surface tension of the bubble
itself would replace the attraction of the systems of corpuscles
towards some interior point or points. The foam which ac-
cumulates in sheltered places on a rock-bound sea-coast, the
beaten white of an egg or the whipped cream products of the
pastry cook's art, represent very stable aggregates of such
imitation molecules while they are of a size and character to
admit of manipulation and study.

In order to obtain experimental evidence as to the properties
of such foam, we prepared a prismatic mass of fine soapsuds
and attempted by torsion to ascertain whether its behavior re-
sembled that of a viscous liquid or a true solid. It is well
known that the behavior of a twisted prism is very characteristic
of the state of the matter composing it. A viscous liquid, such

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., July, 1905. 289

290 BECKER AND DAY

as sealing wax, under torsion moves in planes at right angles
to the axis of torsion in such a way that each plane after torsion
remains a plane. On the other hand, in a solid mass even of
very feeble rigidity, surfaces originall}- plane and at right
angles to the axis of torsion become warped or otherwise dis-
torted surfaces after torsion. A prism of fine soapsuds was
-experimented upon by laying a fiber of silk around the per-
iphery at right angles to the axis and then twisting the mass.
The silk fiber immediately assumed the warped outline charac-
teristic of solids and showed that, in this respect at least, the
foam had the properties of a solid body.

After some qualitative trials, it seemed worth while to make
at least an effort at measurement upon a solid of this character,
one principal reason being that distinctl}" finite displacements
(amounting to 30 or 40 per cent.) could very readily be obtained
with it.

Plateau's solution was at first thought to offer the most promis-
ing material with which to prepare the pseudosolid, but we did
not find it as serviceable for this purpose as it has proved to be
for some others. We made up the solution from various olive
oil soaps, then from " C. P." sodium oleates furnished by
dealers, and finally with 2 preparations of very pure oleate
made in the chemical laboratory of the Geological Survey.
We were unable to verify Plateau's conclusion that increased
purity produced increased tenacit}- of film ; on the contrary, a
plain solution of yellow soap mixed with glycerine in random
proportions produced quite as rugged films. It was our experi-
ence, however, that all these films lost their toughness upon
being beaten into foam, and that the prisms of such foam de-
teriorated so rapidly that no measurements could be made upon
them.

We next turned to the white of egg, with which we attained
a considerable measure of success. The white of a fresh egg
(it is imperative that it be very fresh), in which about an equal
volume of powdered sugar has been completely dissolved, can
be beaten to an extraordinarily fine homogeneous foam from
which prisms can be cut, mounted, and measurements covering
several minutes made upon them without any considerable

AN INTERESTING PSEUDOSOLID

291

deterioration taking place. It also proved possible to strain
these prisms to fracture and to lay them aside to dry, which
they do with but little change of form, and to study or photo-
graph these fractures at leisure. Many of these specimens
resembled fractured close-grained rock so closely in the photo-
graph as to be practically indistinguishable from it.

The apparatus with which the measurements upon these
prisms were made was of extraordinary sensitiveness and
admitted of very rapid manipulation.

A fine analytical balance was mounted with a mirror at the
top of, and at right angles to, the beam, which could be
observed with a telescope and vertical scale at a considerable
distance, thereby furnishing a very sensitive measure of the

Fig. I.

motion of the beam. A die was then prepared with which
cylinders of uniform size could be cut out of a mass of foam
and deposited quickly upon one of the pans of the balance.
The w^eight of the cylinder was compensated by an equal
weight in the other pan. A glass bridge was then fixed in posi-
tion over the foam cylinder and the pan raised until the upper
surface of foam was in perfect contact with the glass bridge.
The illustration (Text-fig. i) will serve to show the distribufion
of the essential parts of the apparatus.

Having placed our cylinder in position between 2 clean glass

2Q2

BECKER AND DAY

plates, the movable scale pan and the fixed bridge, weights
could be added in the other pan of the balance which would
serve to compress the cylinder, or in the same pan to exert a
tensile stress upon it and the change in length be recorded very
accurately by the observer at the telescope. A simultaneous
measurement of the diameter was obtained b}- mounting 2
cameras at right angles to each other and focusing them sharply
upon the periphery of the cylinder so as to record 2 perpendicu-
lar diameters (Fig. 2). The back of each of these cameras

Fig. 2.

was provided with a permanent slit in front of the plate in such
a way that the rotation of the plate behind the slit gave succes-
sive images of the same portion of the cylinder to the same
scale (magnified about 4 times) upon the same negative.

The operation was then a simple one, requiring 2 observers :
As soon as the foam cylinder had been deposited upon the pan,
the bridge placed over it and the balance had reached its posi-
tion of rest, simultaneous photographs were made with the 2
cameras, and at the same moment a reading of the length with
the telescope and scale. A small weight was then quickly added
in the other pan. This produced a slight compression, the pan
came to rest almost immediatel}', whereupon a second reading
of the telescope and scale was made and a second pair of photo-

Proc. Wash. Acad Sci., Vol. VI

Plate XIV.

Composite photo,<;riiph showing path of cafh component particle of a foam
cylinder.

AN INTERESTING PSEUDOSOLID 293

graphs taken with the cameras. This operation occupied per-
haps 20 seconds, after which a second increment of weight
could be added and the proceeding repeated. It was thus pos-
sible to make perhaps 6 measurements upon each solid within a
period of 2 minutes, during which the foam showed no deterio-
ration whatever.^ Experiments on Poisson's ratio were also
made by compressing cylinders of foam between a fixed plate
and a movable plate attached to a micrometer scale, the results
being recorded photographically.

The photographs were made with the help of 2 powerful arc
lights equipped with reflectors and the most rapidly moving
shutters we could obtain ready made. The photographic expo-
sure therefore occupied perhaps a i/ioo of a second.

The remainder of the process was mechanical. The plates
were developed and measured with great accuracy upon a com-
parator, the mean of 5 measured diameters constituting the
diameter which was used in each calculation.

It will be seen by a glance at the accompanying table that the
results of these measurements afforded a greater accuracy than is
usually obtained upon the common solids of laboratory practice,
with which no more than i per cent, of displacement can be
attained.

It was also possible to make a series of photographs of the
entire foam cylinder after successive increments of compression
and then by superposing the plates to obtain accurate traces of
the path of each component particle (bubble). A " composite "
photograph of this character is reproduced in PI. XIV.

It was found that the lines of flow were parabolic {xy" = const.),
as they should be in a solid, according to theory, which is not
well illustrated by most experiments.

It was also found that such masses of foam could be ruptured,
and that in this respect they behave sensibly like very rigid
solids, such as steel, cast-iron, or rock, in spite of the fact that

1 The apparatus here described was obviously intended to furnish data for a
complete discussion of the elastic constants of the pseudosolid, including the
relation between force and displacement, but the lack of a stable pier in our labor-
atory made it impossible to carry out the latter measurements and was the imme-
diate cause of the suspension of the work until more favorable conditions should
be available.

J94

BECKER AND DAY

TABLE.

Photograph

No.

Length, j Width,
y. X.

Poisson's Ratio.

o- = . soon-

er' = a" +

Compression,

24-1

18.952

16.210

—

-2

18.827

16.268

0.542

0.502

4-0.042

+0.040

-3

10.702

16.316

.490

.496

•505

— .010

— .009

.-4

18.577

16.369

.489

.496

•507

— .011

25-2

18.452

16.429

.502

.512

.510

+ .002

-3

18.327

16.482

•497

.509

•512

— .003

-4

18.202

16.529

.482

.497

.515

— .018

Compression.

22-1

20.577

16.328

— ■

—

-2

20.327

16.420

0.459

0.464

0.504

— 0.041

— 0.040

-3

20.077

16.523

.483

.491

.509

— .017

— .018

-4

19.827

16.614

.468

.481

.514

— ^032

— .033

23-2

19-577

16.717

•473

.490

•519

— .027

— .029

-3

19.327

16.821

•474

•497

.524

— .026

— .027

-4

19.077

16.936

•483

.511

•529

— .017

— .018

Compression.

30-1

20.577

16.016

—

-2

20.077

16.217

0.507

0.516

0.509

+0.007

-3

19^577

16,418

•498

.516

•519

— .002

— .003

-4

19.077

16.630

• 497

.52b

.529

— .003

31-2

18.577

16.847

• 495

•534

•539

— .005

-3

18.077

17^065

•490

•539

•550

— .010

— .011

-4

17^577

17.311

•493

•555

.561

— ,007

— .006

Tension.

28-1

18.077

15^760

—

-2

18.577

15-553

0.484

0.475

0,490

—0.016

—0.015

-3

19.077

15-363

•474

.455

,481

— .026

-4

19-577

15-143

•501

.472

.471

+ .001

29-2

20.077

14.962

•495

•458

.462

— .005

— .004

-3

20.577

14-756

•509

,461

•454

+ .009

+ -007

-4

21.077

14.598

•499

,444

•446

— .001

— .002

The values of Poisson's ratio are computed from the 3 equations,

logy-logy^

a =

* oc^ ^Ay

.'- = 2^ f, _ J ^ \.

The equation for ct results from the assumption that the loadstrain relation is an
exponential.' a' is the ratio of the observed lateral contraction to the linear
elongation expressed in terms of the initial dimensions ; and c^' is the same
ratio, the lateral contraction being computed on the assumption that the volume
remains constant.^

' Amer. Journ. Sci,,Nov., 1S93, p. 34S.

^ Stewart iS: Gee, General Physics, p. 194.

AN INTERESTING TSEUDOSOLID 295

the absolute value of the modulus of rigidity of the foam is ex-
tremely small. The ruptures took place at rather more than
45° to the direction of the compressive force, and in symmetri-
cal cases 4 systems of fissures were developed in 2 planes at
right angles to each other, as has been found by Mr. Adams in
his experiments on marble, as well as by man}- earlier observers..

According to a theory of elasticity published by one of us in
1S93, the continuity of a solid under linear compression should
be represented by the simple formula xy°' = constant, and the
attempt was made to determine the value of <t for this foam, with
the result that (t was found nearly or quite indistinguishable from
one half, a in this equation represents Poisson's ratio, which,
according to the molecular theory adopted by Cauch}- and him-
self, should in all cases be exactly one-fourth. On the other
hand, for a theoretically incompressible solid, Poisson's ratio is
necessarily one-half. Now, the mass of foam experimented
upon is certainly highly compressible, or in other words, its bulk
modulus is small, but the results of the experiments showed that
the modulus of rigidity is very much smaller than even the
modulus of compressibilit}', so that (t is nearly ^-. ^

Further experiments on this pseudosolid have been necessar-
ily postponed, but even the results which have been obtained

' Poisson's ratio is ordinarily defined as the ratio of lateral contraction to axial
elongation. This definition should, however, be limited to the case of infinites-
imal strain. This may be shown by considering the case of an incompressible
mass of unit volume, when the equation of continuity must evidently be x'^y= i
or xy^= I. For infinitesimal strain in this case we have

ff = — "^"^ / "'-^=i
X I y -

while if the common definition is extended to finite deformation we should have

y—\ i-t-.v

which becomes J when 'a; differs infinitesimally from unity but is in general a

variable. The theory of finite strain referred to in the text may be derived from

the hypothesis that

dx I dy

X I y
is constant, or that

^_log .Vq — log.v

log y — log Jo'

296 BECKER AND DAY

appear to lead to some interesting reflections. They certainly
offer a confirmation from a new standpoint of Thomson's theory
of solids for which so much other and more exact evidence is
accumulating, and in so far as the foam is comparable with a
true solid, it suggests some new ideas upon the nature of the
molecule itself. In the foam, when statical conditions are
reached, the molecules (bubbles) themselves are not in motion.
From this point of view, the molecule is merely the space
enclosed between a fixed set of equipotential surfaces, and what
has been regarded as molecular motion is confined to the cor-
puscles constituting the molecule, instead of being an attribute
of the centroid of the molecule itself.

In the foam much is known regarding the form of these equi-
potential bounding surfaces. Lord Kelvin has shown that the
figure of stable equilibrium corresponds very closely to a regular
octahedron truncated by a cube in such a way that all the 36
edges of the resulting figure are of equal length. Of the 14
faces, the 6 corresponding to the cube are true planes, whereas
the 8 corresponding to the octahedron are slightly curved.
The curvature of these faces was found approximately by Lord
Kelvin, but the exact expression for these surfaces appears to
be as yet unknown.

The assumption of Cauchy and Poisson which has led to so
much controversy between the uniconstant and biconstant theo-
ries of isotropy, was merely that molecules act as mass points,
attracting or repelling from their centroids. This was a very
natural assumption, and, as Saint Venant pointed out, is no
other than that made by Newton in developing the theor}' of
gravitation, viz., that celestial bodies attract towards their cen-
ters. It is also known that some substances, especially glasses,
nearl}' fulfill the conditions expected by Cauchy and Poisson,
that is, <T equals nearly ^. On the other hand, the experi-
ments of various physicists, and especially of Voigt, show that,
for crystalline substances, the rariconstant theory of elasticity
is totally untenable and a often differs greatly from \. Now, it
seems pertinent to reflect that while from certain points of view
the planetary masses may be regarded as mass points, when
phenomena such as that of precession and mutation are con-

AN INTERKSTING PSEUDOSOLID 297

sidered, the planets can no longer be so regarded, their attrac-
tion being in reality perpendicular to their spheroidal surfaces-
It seems as if similar considerations must apply also to mole-
cules. If a molecule is in fact a space bounded by equipotential
surfaces and filled with a swarm of moving corpuscles, the
attraction here too must be perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces, and the molecule will be centrobaric onl}' under cer-
tain limiting conditions. It thus seems possible to think of an
isotropic body as composed of fourteen-sided molecules, not
always in their simplest shape but answering to Kelvin's figure
after distortion has taken place.

We found it impossible to produce linear compression of pris-
matic masses of foam without a certain amount of permanent
set. Reflecting on the nature of the pseudosolid, it appears
fairly certain that the bubbles were not all of one size, in spite
of all care which might be applied to making the mass fine-
grained and homogeneous. Partly on this account also, the
orientation of the several pseudomolecules cannot have been
uniform. Now, if such a mass is subjected to a linear com-
pressive stress, it is clear that some pseudomolecules must
be almost in a position of labile equilibrium so that even a small
amount of distortion must push some of the bubbles into new
positions, the edges of some of the tetrakaidekahedral molecules
being forced beyond the corresponding edges of their neighbors
in such a way that when the pressure was removed they could
not spring back into their original positions. Even the mere
lack of uniform orientation of the pseudomolecules aside from
tending to set up unstable equilibrium w^ould seem seriously to
affect the results of the application of force, since the resistance
which they offer must differ somewhat according to the direc-
tion of the several faces ; thus a force applied to the plane
cubical faces must produce different results from one applied to
the undulating octahedral faces of the pseudomolecule. Con-
sequently, even if there were no difference in size, some of the
pseudomolecules would break or be so distorted as to escape
from their original positions of equilibrium before others were
similarly affected.

Do not these facts throw a certain amount of light on the

298 BECKER AND DAY

nature of viscosity and after action? Maxwell's theory of vis-
cosity ^ presupposes that various molecular groups are in dif-
ferent states, so that even a very rigid mass like steel contains
a certain proportion of fluid molecular groups. With so hetero-
geneous a mass as steel, this hypothesis ma}^ possibly be valid,
and yet it does not appear thinkable that in a single clear
crystal of a simple compound such as quartz or mica, a portion
of the molecular groups is in reality fluid, as Maxwell sup-
poses, and the remainder solid. It is very well known that a
high temperature (about 1800°) must be employed to convert
quartz into a glass, or in other words, to fuse it; that well
developed quartz crystals deposited from aqueous solutions at
temperatures below the boiling point of water could really be in
part fluid appears to us extremely improbable. On the other
hand, when crystalline masses possess a confused orientation,
as in the case of marble or of pure platinum consolidated from
a melt, it is at least thinkable that the difference of orientation
alone is sufficient to bring about the deformation of some mole-
cules before others have reached their elastic limit and the dis-
location of other molecules so oriented as to be ill supported by
their neighbors. It is possible that in this way the phenomena
of solid viscosity and after action may arise.

It may be worth while to call attention to the fact that Kel-
vin's fourteen-sided solid suggests the possibility, and perhaps
the convenience, of a new resolution of the forces acting upon a
cube. The ordinary method of procedure is, of course, to
resolve a system of inclined forces acting on a cube into 6
normal and 12 horizontal components. Now if these 12 com-
ponents are combined three b}'' three, they may be replaced by
forces acting perpendicularly to the centers of the octahedral
faces ; and the phenomena seem to indicate that this is the
actual resolution in nature.

^Maxwell supposes a solid to consist of i,'roiips of molecules of 2 kinds. Of
these, one kind shows relatively great stability and in a true solid is so abundant
as to build up a resistant framework. The other kind of group is so unstable as
to break up spontaneously or on slight provocation, and if it was exclusively
present the medium would be a viscous fluid. Maxwell ascribes the phenomena
of clastiche nach-virkuug' ox Kelvin's viscosity of solids, to a mingling of the
two sorts of molecular groups. (Constitution of Bodies in Encyclopedia
Brittanica. )

AN INTERESTING TSKUDOSOLID 299

On the whole, therefore, this pseiidosolid is an extremely
suggestive material and deserves the study which we hope in
future to give it.

We take pleasure in acknowledging the very efficient assist-
ance which has been afforded us both in the experimental work
and in the computation by our associate, Mr. C. E. Van Orst-
rand ; also our obligation to Mr. Norman W. Carkhuff for
placing the facilities of the photographic laboratory of the
Geological Survey at our disposal.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 301-333 March 19, 1906.

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT.

By O. F. Cook.

introduction.

More fundamental than any other problem relating to or-
ganisms is the question of the method by which their develop-
ment has been accomplished. Any progress in this direction
places us nearer to an understanding of the real nature and
essential conditions of organic existence. To solve the prob-
lem, or even to approach a solution, requires a choice to be
made among the infinity of biological data which science has
already amassed, to say nothing of the still greater multitudes
of unrecorded facts which encounter us on every side. With-
out a choice of clues or a criterion of evidence, our search is
unscientific, hopeless wandering, with every probability of fail-
ure and no prospect of success.

The history of evolution has furnished, even in its first half-
century, ample evidence of the truth of this fact. The first
step toward a causal explanation still remains to be taken ; in-
deed, we have not yet decided which way to face in taking it;
whether to seek the causes of evolution in the environment or
in the organisms themselves. The present paper gives reasons
for believing that the chief agency of evolution is to be found
in the association of organisms into interbreeding species, and,
not in the external conditions, nor in the isolation of individual
variations. A species is not a mere aggregation of similar in-

301

302 O. F. COOK

dividuals, but a fabric of interwoven lines of descent, and it is
only in such associations that evolutionary progress goes for-
ward, or that the vitality of organisms can be permanently
maintained.

The standpoint from which these biological relations can be
perceived was indicated as far back as 1895, but was first for-
mally presented in 1901.^ It differs fundamentally from earlier
structures in the same field of thought in its conception of the
nature of evolutionary motion. Two alternatives had thus far
monopolized the interest of the scientific world, and both had
proved to be inadequate to accommodate the facts of organic
existence, or to conduct us toward more detailed explanations
of them.

The progressive development of organisms had been con-
ceived as due (i) to environmental causes, and (2) to determi-
nate internal forces or " hereditary mechanisms." The kinetic
theory was the result of contact with facts which showed that
both these suppositions were wrong. The true actuating causes
of evolution do not lie in the environment. Neither is the for-
ward progress or vital motion of species determinate, or re-
stricted to a particular direction ; it has great freedom of choice
of environmental opportunities.^

The kinetic interpretation accommodates and admits natural
and consistent relations between numerous other facts which
had appeared to conflict with each other or with the doctrines
which had undertaken to explain them. The normal condition
of evolutionary progress is found in symbasis, that is, in the
traveling together of the members of the specific group. New
variations among the individuals of such groups are prepotent
and can be preserved, whether useful or not, without being seg-
regated. The environment does not cause the evolutionary
variations, but it can induce adaptations by restricting the pro-
gressive development of the species to particular directions or
characters. Selection is thus a negative factor, instead of a
positive or actuating agency of evolutionar}- motion.

'A Kinetic Theory of Evolutioti, Science, N. S., 13 : 969.
^ Evolutionary Inferences from the Diplopoda, Proc. Entomological Society
of Washington, 5 : 14, March, 1902.

THE VITAL FAHRIC OF DESCENT 3O3

In line with'the previous teaching, that evolution is due to the
environment, it has been held that interbreeding hinders or pre-
vents evolution bv interfering with the preservation of new
variations ; sexuality, in other words, has been reckoned as
anti-evolutionar}'. In complete contrast with this is the kinetic
interpretation, that the continued interbreeding of the numerous
and diverse individuals of the species is essential to sustained
organic progress. Evolution becomes, in short, a sexual proc-
ess. This distinction is not merely a matter of terms and defi-
nitions, but is capable of being tested by application to estab-
lished facts of evolutionary history.

In accordance with the earlier view, that sexuality was anti-
evolutionary, it has been assumed that the complex and special-
ized bodies of the higher plants and animals are asexual struc-
tures whose development has been accomplished by the suppres-
sion of sexuality in alternating generations of individuals. A
more careful inspection of the facts shows that instead of evolu-
tion having been accomplished through alternation of genera-
tions, or having been accompanied by a greater and greater
accentuation of asexual structures, it has remained closely at-
tached to the sexual process of cell-conjugation, and dependent
upon it. The bodies of the higher plants and animals are not
built up between conjugations or subsequent to the completion
of the conjugation of the parental reproductive cells, as often
supposed. The reproductive cells divide and build up the new
structure while still in the sexually double or conjugating con-
dition.

This phase of the subject has been treated in a previous
publication.^ The present paper undertakes only a brief and
informal presentation of some of the general consequences and
applications which flow from the recognition of symbasic inter-
breeding as the normal condition of organic existence, and of
evolutionary progress. By emphasizing and applying the fact
that organic descent is a continuous network, it seeks to avoid
the danger of mistaking the results of violations of the law of
symbasis for examples of genuine, constructive evolution. All

iCook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T., 1905. Evolution of Cellular Structures.
Bulletin 81, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

304 O. F. COOK

evolution might be described as organic change or motion, but
it is not safe to assume the converse, that any and all organic
changes represent evolution. Degeneration is quite as general
a phenomenon as evolution, and the two are easily confused.

EFFECTS OF SEGREGATION.

Many discussions of evolution rest upon abstract terms which
have no concrete meaning or definite application. Such ex-
pressions as -prepotency and reversion are veritable stumbling-
blocks in the evolutionary theories of those who use the words
without taking into account the different relations of the phe-
nomena grouped under them. Having once made the assump-
tion, for example, that mutations are instances of a normal
saltatory evolution, it is natural to look upon the prepotency
which brings "reversion" as tending to prevent evolutionary
progress by "the swamping effects of intercrossing," of which
the last decades have heard so much. Segregation appears
essential for the preservation of new characters ; it becomes, in
other words, a primary factor or condition of evolution. This
series of deductions leads, however, to a biological absurdity,
because extreme segregation or inbreeding not only puts an end
to true evolutionary advance, but causes the deterioration of the
organisms themselves.

The phenomena which have been interpreted as mutations
and reversions can be accommodated under a kinetic theory of
evolution without this fatal inconsistency of inference. Instead
of affording progressive new characters, or constituting new
species, there are reasons for believing that mutations are
digressive lapses from normal heredity, induced by inbreeding
or too great segregation. The '* prepotency of the wild type"
which " swamps " these abnormalities is not a backward step
along the highway of evolutionary progress. It marks, instead,
a return from a too narrow sidepath. The reversion is only
formal ; it represents a restoration rather than a retrogression.

Evolution has seemed to go backward only because the side-
path has been mistaken for the main thoroughfare. The pre-
potency which seems to obliterate the mutational " new species"
is the same which carries forward the evolutionary progress of

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 305

the whole specific aggregation of interbreeding individuals.
The real and permanent advance is made in the main body of
the species, not among the stragglers from the flanks, nor by
the distraught captives of our cages, pastures and gardens.

That the plant mutations which " come true to seed " are
often extremely uniform or constant, does not make it certain
that they are true species, but indicates, rather, the contrary,
since prosperous natural species show abundant individual
diversity. To give such "sports" formal descriptions and
Latin names does not prove that they represent genuine species
formed in the normal course of evolution ; it simply assumes
the identity of two biological conditions essentially distinct.

The possibility that mutations, or even genetic variations,
may also be induced by new environmental conditions, as
believed by Darwin, is not excluded. But even in such cases
the environment would need to be regarded as furnishing the
occasion of the change, rather than as being the true, actuating
cause. Very diverse mutations, of the coffee plant, for ex-
ample, have been found to arise under the same environment,
and closely similar mutations under very different environ-
ments.

The changes by which many organisms are able to accom
modate themselves to different conditions appear to be of little
or no direct significance for evolutionary purposes, though the
diversity manifested under the different conditions may serve
the same physiological purposes as other intraspecific differ
ences in connection with symbasic interbreeding. Evolution is
an integration of genetic variations, not of environmental in-
fluences.

Segregation, or isolation, conduces to the formation of new
species by the subdivision of older groups, but it is not on that
account to be reckoned as a cause of evolution. Free inter-
breeding throughout the range of a species tends to keep the
characters uniform, but it does not tend to keep them stationary.
The characters remain relatively uniform because interbreeding
holds the members of the group well together on their evolu-
tionary pathway, not because progress is prevented by inter-
breeding. Free interbreeding '* swamps the incipient lines of

306 O. F. COOK

variation " only when the change is of a degenerative nature, and
not truly symbasic and constructive.

If the two geographical halves of a species become separated
they will also become different, but this only shows that evolu-
tionary motion is everywhere taking place; it does not prove
that either of the new species has travelled farther than the
undivided group would have gone, or that segregation has
served as an agency of evolution. Evolution has very little to
do with the origination or subdivision of species ; this is almost
entirely a matter of segregation, geographical or otherwise, and
is a mere incident of the process of change. That separated
groups of organisms so universally and so promptly become
different, affords the strongest possible testimony that evolu-
tionary motion is not determinate or limited to one direction,
but it gives no warrant for looking upon isolation as contribut-
ing to evolutionary progress.

As general evolutionary factors, natural selection and geo-
graphical isolation are negative and restrictive ; they influence,
but do not actuate, the progress of species.

To say that isolation causes species-formation because it
brings the separated groups under different environmental or
selective conditions is only to confuse the issue. Segregated
groups become different, even in the same environment, and in
characters having no relation to environmental differences which
may exist. Unsegregated groups can remain relatively uniform
in very different environments. No evidence has been found
that any action of the environment can produce evolution, either
by direct transformation or by the indirect influence of selec-
tion and segregation. All nature abounds, on the other hand,
with evidence that evolution can take place without environ-
mental differences, without selection, without isolation. Evolu-
tion takes place without any external cause or compulsion, and
is capable of no explanation which does not recognize the fact
that specific groups or organisms, no less than sidereal systems,
are in motion.

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 3O7

ORGANIC DESCENT A CONTINUOUS NETWORK.

The normal individual diversity which has been destroyed by
inbreeding is not restored by mutation ; possibly it would reap-
pear if the different mutations were propagated in sufficient
numbers and allowed to intercross freelv ; but in domestication
they always suffer still further inbreeding.' Finally, even
crossing ceases to be effective for restoring the normal condi-
tion of intergraded individual diversity. Hybrids of inbred mu-
tations often follow closely the parental lines, and soon separate
again into the distinct types, as discovered by Mendel. It is
hoped by some to recombine these fag-ends of undone creation
into " new species," but this is to see Persian rugs in rag car-
pets, or oil paintings in three-color prints.

A general misconception of the nature of evolutionary motion
has arisen because attention has been directed so largely to
domesticated species, in which descent has been limited to single
or very narrow lines. Phenomena of degeneration induced by
inbreeding have been interpreted very often as results of changed
environmental conditions. The mistake has been made of sup-
posing that evolutionary progress is a mere resultant of external
influences, whereas it is in reality a highly composite motion
carried forward in the intricate network of descent of the
normally interbreeding species. Natural selection forbids the
weaving of patterns discordant with the environment, but no
external influence actuates the loom. Nor need we allege any
other and more hypothetical force or agency as conducting the
change, the necessity of which is inherent, not in the individual
organisms as such, but in the association of diverse individuals
in interbreeding groups or species. If the physical basis of
this law of symbasis were understood the general fact of evo-
lution would also be comprehended as a natural and necessary

' The abnormal amplitude of mutational variations has been likened in an-
other place to the unusual fluctuations of temperature in disease. The abnor-
mality is in the conditions ; mutations may be of the same essential nature as
normal variations, into which they seem to grade as insensibly on the one side
as they do into obvious monstrosities on the other. Professor DeVries has ex-
plained that he gave Oenotkera lamarckiaiia special attention in his search for
mutations because it was " rich in monstrosities." DeVries, 1905, A New Con-
ception of the Origin of Species, Harper's Magazine, no: 212.

308 O. F. COOK

consequence. Instead of preventing evolution by " swamping
effects" symbasic interbreeding is the true method or principle
by which evolution has been accomplished.

Normal descent does not go forward in simple series of uni-
form individuals ; it is a broad network of closely interwoven
diversity. Once frayed by inbreeding into narrow, " unit-
character" shreds, the vital fabric is hopelessly weakened, and
the hereditary pattern distorted. The higher the organisms the
more acute the requirement of symbasic interbreeding, and the
more prompt and obvious the damage wrought by abnormal
segregation. To insist that mutational aberrations are suddenly
originated, genuine species, is the same as to assert that the
idiot offspring of cousins afford true examples of the steps by
which the perfection of the human race has been attained.

Through long-continued selective inbreeding, cultivated plants
have been broken up into numerous local varieties of mutative
origin. These are frequentl}- quite as distinct from each other,
in the purely descriptive, taxonomic sense, as wild species in
nature, but their evolutionary status is very different. Wild
species in the truly normal and progressive (prostholytic ^)
evolutionary condition have a multifarious, intergraded indi-
vidual diversity, not to be found in mutative varieties. Species
which have not been domesticated too long show the inter-
mediate (hemilytic) condition of retarded evolution. Inbreed-
ing has induced an abnormal uniformity in which the degenera-
tive mutations begin to appear.

Thus the coffee shrub has not yet become a mere congeries
of local varieties, but has an astonishing uniformity of type.
Seeds brought from remote regions and sown in the same place
produce plants of almost indistinguishable likeness. Of very
distinct, true-to-seed mutations of coffee, however, there is no
longer any lack, but very few of them have been preserved and
cultivated, because of their inferior powers of seed production
— a very practical proof of their degenerative nature. That
adverse conditions or abnormally restricted distribution may
bring about in nature evolutionary conditions analogous to those
of our domesticated plants, is, of course, to be expected, but

' Stages of Vital Motion, Popular Science Monthly, 63 : 14. May, 1903.

THE VITAL FAIJRIC OK DESCENT 3O9

very rare and local species are correctly looked upon as rem-
nants verging toward extinction rather than as ascendant new-
born types.

Some have thought to reconcile the idea of a progressive
evolution with the older notion of constancy of characters
among the members of a species by supposing that evolution-
ary changes proceed by imperceptibly gradual, infinitesimal
steps, and must therefore have required millions on millions of
years. As a matter of fact, however, differences between the
individual members of species in nature are commonly quite
perceptible, and often strikingly obvious.

It has been attempted, also, to distinguish between what are
called continuous, or gradual, and discontinuous, or saltatory,
variations, the former to be found within specific lines, the
latter initiating new species. This distinction is artificial and
misleading ; variations may be discontinuous but they do not
disconnect the species. No reason is apparent why a species
might not be completely transformed within a few years, dec-
ades or centuries through the acceptance, by all of its mem-
bers, of a new character or characters. Instances where such
changes appear to be going on have been adduced by several
naturalists. Evolutionary progress can be accomplished in this
way much more rapidly than if it were necessary to replace the
older form of the species with the progeny of a mutation, which
needs to be kept isolated from the older species lest it be swamped
by intercrossing. Prepotency, the power to transform the
species, instead of being swamped, is the practical difference
between genetic variations and mutations.^

The kinetic theory sets no limits to the length of the steps,
nor to the rapidity with which they may be taken. It implies,
however, that the evolutionary progress of the species goes for-
ward as a network of descent, broken neither by sudden trans-
formations nor by periods of stationary constancy. As far as
our present perceptions carry us, variations may appear fortui-
tous. Evolution, however, is not accidental nor casual, but
necessary and universal. Neither is it passive nor intermittent,
but persistently and continuously conservative and constructive.

^The Evolutionary Significance of Species, Smithsonian Report for 1904, p.
397-

3IO O. F. COOK

WHY MUTATIONS ARE RECESSIVE.

That inbreeding induces many of the evolutionary aberra-
tions of domestic plants and animals is shown by the fact that
such characters commonly disappear in crosses with the sym-
basic, or freely-interbred, wild type. Darwin's classical experi-
ments with pigeons have been repeated and supplemented by
many observers in Europe and America, and additional testi-
mony of the same kind has been published recently by Professor
Castle.' The "Angora coat" and other similar abnormalities
of inbred animals are found to be recessive, in the Mendelian
sense ; that is, the long hair disappears when crossed with the
short.

Whether such characters are " recessive " or " dominant," or
whether they appear at all, may depend on the relative degrees
of inbreeding, rather than upon any special strength or weak-
ness of characters as such. Like normal genetic variations,
mutations are prepotent with their own equally inbred relatives,
but abnormalities induced by inbreeding can be corrected when
more remote lines of descent are brought together. Professor
Castle maintains that to preserve such mutations as the long-
haired guinea-pigs and horses they must be bred with others of
like kinds, but in accordance with the present interpretation it
will be found more effective to continue inbreeding with their
own immediate, unmutated relatives. The fact that these long-
haired mutations arise in the first place from short-haired parents,
should not be overlooked.

Plant mutations which can be propagated asexually or by
self-fertilization are often remarkably constant. With animals
the experiment is more difficult because some crossing, at least
of individuals, is necessary to reproduction. The remote clrance
that mutations sometimes initiate new^ species would be still
further attenuated if it were necessary that two of the same kind
arise at the same time and place in order to make possible the
preservation of the new type.

Under the kinetic theory- no fundamental importance is

'The Ilcrcditj of "Angora" Coat in Mammals, Science, N. S., iS: 760,
1903.

^ A Kinetic Theory of Evolution, Science, N. S., 13 : 969, June 21, 1901.

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 3II

ascribed to mutations. The fact that one member of a group of
inbred individuals has mutated, is accepted as an excellent rea-
son for believing that others are ready for the same step, thus
explaining at once the relative prepotency of a mutation under
continued inbreeding, and its " reversion " in the presence of
the wild stock or of a more symbasic breed. On the other hand,
the crossing of two mutations of distinct ancestry, even though
of closely similar form, constitutes a decrease of inbreeding,
and carries with it a possibility of restoration to the normal type.
Darwin found that crosses of unrelated white pigeons " reverted"
to the blue plumage of the wild type, but he did not hold that
such precarious, pathological variations are factors in the evo-
lution of species in nature. Symptoms of disease have often
helped, however, to understandings of healthy functions.

Mutations are abnormal manifestations of the normal phe-
nomenon of variation or diversity inside the species. The pre-
potency of mutations when bred with their own inbred relatives
corresponds to the prepotency of normal variations. The
" reversion" or negative prepotency of a mutation in the pres-
ence of a more widely symbasic stock does not prove that new
species originate in nature by the segregation of mutations ; it
simpl}^ increases the improbability of a general theory of evolu-
tion built on the narrow basis of the mutations of domesticated
plants and animals.

The rejection of the hypothesis of the origin of species through
mutation does not make it necessary to disregard any of the facts
which have been collected to support it. The objection is not
to the data, but to the generalization, and to the use of a stand-
point which can be maintained only while other equally perti-
nent facts are disregarded.

In his report of experiments on " Color Inheritance in Mice "^
Professor Davenport notes that albino mice of mixed parentage
were found to be more prepotent, or less completely recessive
than those of pure descent. Instead of more gray progeny
as an inheritance from the gray parent, they gave a larger pro-
portion of white offspring, a result as directly in accord with the
kinetic theory as it is at variance with the current mechanical

1 Science, N. S., 19: no, January 15, 1904.

312 O. F. COOK

explanations of Mendel's laws. White mice are now an inbred
domesticated variety while the gray mice with which they are
compared have had much more recent opportunities of inter-
breeding. Recessive gray mice can doubtless be secured by
inbreeding, and dominant white mice by interbreeding.

That mutations like those which " Mendelize " as "pure
recessives " should be able to " revert" after man}^ generations,
to a parental type by crossing with each other, would also seem
to show that the whole question is one of ancestry and methods
of descent, rather than of pure germ cells, chromosomes, or
character units. Such explanations of Mendelism can only
show in higher relief the abnormality of the phenomenon, instead
of justifying themselves as general " principles of heredity."

In the higher plants and animals the conjugation of the par-
ental nuclear elements is not completed until the fusion of chro-
matin, or mitapsis, has occurred, before the so-called " reduc-
ing-division " which precedes the formation of the germ-cells
for the next generation. Inability to form normal germ-cells
may explain why the line of descent is broken at the stage of
sexual reproduction, in sterile mutations and hybrids, though
in other cases equally fatal derangements may appear, either
before or after the reproductive period. The failure of the
chromosomes of sterile hybrids to behave normally is no proof
of the existence of a predetermining " hereditary mechanism " ;
it is but one of the many related phenomena which show that
the evolutionary mischances of hybrids and mutations are not
confined to the external form, but may affect an}' part of the
organism, and even the cells of which the body is composed.

MUTATION AND REVERSION.

Evolutionary debility and derangement through inbreeding
are old and well-known facts, but, notwithstanding the frequent
use of the term, it has yet to be shown that there is any such
phenomenon in nature as reversion, in the strict sense — any
actual doubling back upon the evolutionary road. There is
sometimes an arrest of development ; accidents or unfavorable
circumstances may keep a plant or animal from attaining the
normal stature or form of its species, and thus leave it with a

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 313

suggestion of a more primitive or ancestral type. A variety
narrowly selected in one country to secure the accentuation of
its peculiar characters, may deteriorate, or fail to reach the
same degree of specialization when tlie cultural conditions of
growth are changed. Through degeneration, or loss of com-
plexity, a species may appear more primitive or less evolved
than it really is. To reversion is also ascribed the occasional
cropping-out in the individual of some ancestral peculiarity
(atavism), but these minor fluctuations of form minister to the
healthful diversity of the species, and are far from proving that
evolution has turned backward. The transformation of pistils
and stamens into petals, as in the formation of double flowers
and similar mutative changes, is not, as sometimes supposed, a
reversal of evolutionary processes, but is in the direction of
developmental history — an over-shooting of the mark, as it
were. Reversion would change petals back to stamens ; this
seldom happens, and when it does we recognize it as a recovery
of normal form and function. It is now coming to be appreci-
ated that the evolutionary history of the higher plants has
involved a progressive sterilization and vegetative specializa-
tion of parts which were once devoted to reproductive purposes.
Even the cells of which the bodies of the higher organisms are
composed are sexual in their origin and represent a condition of
prolonged conjugation.

The final inconsistency in terms is reached by those who have
suggested reversion as the cause of the same phenomena which
it is held to obliterate, that is, the mutations themselves. This
is to use the one word reversion in two directly opposite senses.

Mutations often suggest other species of the genus, as in
Coffea, and have been termed "reversions" to an ancestral
character;^ but just such "reversions" are said, also, to " re-

' The " ISIaragogipe " mutation of Coffea arabica, for example, has a super-
ficial resemblance to Coffea liberica, and has been held by some to be a cross be-
tween the two. Other mutations of coffee originating in Central America share
features of several of the wild African species.

Mr. Luther Burbank has found that hybrids also are sometimes more obviously
similar to other members of the genus than to their own parents. Thus the
Wickson plum, a hybrid between Japanese varieties of Prutius trijiora, was be-
lieved by Professor L. H. Bailey to be descended from P. siinoni, a Chinese

314 O- F. COOK

vert" to the normal t3^pe of their own species, through inter-
crossing. It may be admitted, perhaps, that a mutation is as
near as an3'thing to the original idea of reversion ; it is at least
a ^/version, an evolutionary aberration, or wandering aside.
But in this sense reversion becomes synonymous with muta-
tion, and is thus a superfluous term, as well as inappropriate.
It is equally at variance with the current meaning of the word
to refer to the recovery of the normal form of the species as re-
version, since this process is conservative and reconstructive
rather than degenerative or retrogressive, however much an
" improved" breed may appear to " deteriorate" when crossed
with its wild or less inbred relatives. If this be reversion the
word should be relieved of all sinister implications, at least in
evolutionary usage.

Better than the substitution of a new term for " reversion"
would be the transfer of emphasis from this negative concept
to the kinetic view of prepotency, not in the Mendelian sense of
an arbitrary and inexplicable "dominance" of one character
over another, but mindful of the law of proportion between
symbasis and prepotency, without which the facts of descent are
a hopeless tangle of apparent contradictions. The -prefotcncy
of a variation defends upon the extent 0/ the normal interbreed-
ing under which it arises. The law of mutation is the biological
converse : As the lines of descent are narrozved the amplitude
of variations increases and reproductive fertility declines.

PREPOTENCY ILLUSTRATED BY PARALLEL VARIATION.

The abnormality of mutations is scarcely to be appreciated
without a recognition of the normal diversity (heterism) of the

species which had not been introduced into the United States at the time when
the cross Avas made.

The same phenomenon occurs among human hybrids. Mulattos are some-
times very black, and sometimes white. Wallace observed in the Portuguese
settlements of the Malay Archipelago that the mixed population has " become
darker in color than either of the parent stocks," and in ]?ia/il that crosses be-
tween Portuguese and Indians are " not infrequently lighter tlian citlicr parent."
(The Malay Archipelago, p. 257.)

"Another clear fact is the rapid loss of resemblance of the offspring to the
Indian parent, the white element always predominating; the aboriginal seems
to be merged into the Spanish in Iavo generations." (Orton, The Andes and
Amazon, 3d Edition, 465.)

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 315

members of the same species. Mutation is a reaction from the
abnormal uniformity which is the first effect of selective inbreed-
ing. Not only do the same or closely similar mutations occur
repeatedly in the same species, but different species and genera
may mutate in the same way, just as the same disease may call
forth similar symptoms in different plants or animals. But
even in this respect mutations may be looked upon as furnishing
indications of the behavior of normal variations. Species, like
other bodies, can move only from where they are; each " new
character" is, after all, only a modification of parts already
existing. The novelty is very largely that of the language in
which it is described. Genetic variation is not completely inde-
terminate, fortuitous or in all directions at random ; nor is it
narrowly determinate or limited to one character, or two char-
acters, or to any small number of characters, as we well know
from the excellent example of individual diversity afforded by
the members of our own species. Variation does of necessity
have reference to characters already existing, and must be con-
sistent with these if the change is to be advantageous. Some
varietal or racial characters are also prepotent over others, and
with sufficient opportunity of interbreeding will continue to
spread, and to become more and more accentuated.

It is therefore in accordance with the most obvious probabili-
ties of kinetic evolution that nature should abound in instances
of parallel development.^ The same or similar variations are
likely to arise more than once and to have a similar welcome or
rejection by characters already existing. Tendencies of varia-
tion once begun in a species are continued, even after the spe-
cies subdivides. Each natural group, of whatever rank, was
once a single interbreeding species, and every such group rep-
resents, in evolutionary history, the subdivision of an original
species. Each character or tendency can continue its develop-
ment, though in the company of different later variations in
each of the groups, as they have successively segregated. The
static theories, which ascribed evolution to environment, might

1 Instances of parallel development have been reviewed recently by Professor
Osborn as affording "evidence of a predisposition to similar evolution." (Sci-
ence, N. S., 21 : 28, January 6, 1905.)

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., March, 1906.

3l6 O. F. COOK

appear to explain parallel variation under parallel conditions,
but the recognition of the kinetic principle enables us to under-
stand parallel variation even under different conditions.

Inside specific lines descent is a completely connected fabric,
but superspecific descent, the phylogeny of genera, families, and
orders, is not reticular at all. For lack of adequate evidence
we may be unable to decide which is the nearest relative of a
given group, but when we represent our groups as having com-
plex interrelationships we are merely making graphic represen-
tations of alternative solutions of unsolved problems. The com-
mon possession of an ancestral character affords, in itself, no
assurance of closer relationship, nor do the separate acquisitions
of similar characters. Each character must be placed, as it
were, in its true chronological position before its phylogenetic
significance can be appreciated. Without careful regard for
sequences, phylogeny becomes as hopeless as history without
dates.

If the parallelism of variation be accentuated by selective in-
fluences there occur wonderful approximations in the characters
of different and unrelated organisms living under diverse nat-
ural conditions in remote and isolated regions. The facts have
been effectively summarized by Professor Osborn and made the
basis of what is called " The Law of Adaptive Radiation." ^ In
each continental area and geological period there have arisen
among the mammals specialized groups adapted by their teeth
to all the different kinds of food available. There are always
some with slender skeletons and long legs adapted to escape by
running, and others stout-footed and heavy- limbed, able, in all
probability, to protect themselves by sheer strength and ferocity
or by defensive armor.

Adaptive radiation is inconsistent with both of the current
ideas, that evolution is caused by the environment or by a pre-
determining hereditary mechanism. The conditions are too di-
verse to cause such similarity of results, but at the same time
the results are too diverse to warrant the inference of predeter-
mination. The trutli lies, obviously, between the two extremes.
The environment dors not cause evolution, but neither is evolu-

' American Naturalist, 36 : 353, 1902.

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 317

tion independent of the environment. Evolution must produce
characters which the environment can admit, and with unspec-
ialized mammalian t3'pes as a beginning, the requirements be-
come similar, even though the regions be different.

With mammals the selective factors are at the very highest,
and b}' competing with and preying upon each other they make
by far the most effective part of their own environment. The
struggle for existence is a stern reality, and the issue rests, very
often, on a narrow margin of speed, strength, armament, or en-
durance. It need not surprise us, then, that the numerous
geological and geographical experiments enumerated by Pro-
fessor Osborn have turned out so much the same. Kinetic evo-
lution explains the power of radiation, and the selective condi-
tions explain the adaptive results, the extent of adaptation being
proportional to the thoroughness of the selection, providing of
course, that the group be not narrowed to the point of degenera-
tion. The most specialized types have ever been the most liable
to extinction.

INADEQUATE MECHANICAL CONCEPTIONS OF HEREDITY.

The prepotency of symbasic wild types and the " reversion"
of domesticated varieties when selective inbreeding is relaxed,
are manifestations of the biological laws of which mutation and
Mendelism represent the violations. The problems are histori-
cal rather than mechanical ; to interpret the facts in terms of
descent rather than in those of crudely inadequate and wholly
hypothetical " hereditary mechanisms." The organism may be
described, for some purposes, as a machine, but it is no mere
corn-sheller or steam engine, and there is no assurance that we
have, as yet, even a basis of conjecture regarding the principles
on which it is constructed, or the ultimate nature of the materials
of which it is made. What the mechanism does, however, is a
very practical and pressing question which need not be post-
poned on account of any lack of agreement in general theories,
if, indeed, the workings of the device do not afford the best
clue to an understanding of its structure.

The formal recognition of gravitation and other natural laws
or properties has proved useful, although mechanical explana-

3l8 O. F. COOK

tions are still lacking. The principles of evolution are being
sought in rare and exceptional phenomena while the apples con-
tinue to fall unregarded. Many evolutionary experiments have
been proposed which would require extensive and costly facili-
ties to be maintained for very long periods of time. Such sug-
gestions may not be carried out, but they have a present interest
as showing that current theories of descent do not apply in
nature at large, where the evolutionary possibilities of organ-
isms have been tested continuously for millions of years, and
the results are open freely for our inspection.

The question turns on general biological interpretations and
standpoints far more than on formal proofs and demonstrations,
either sj^llogistic or statistical. The history of biology shows
what diverse and contradictory theories can be proved, or at
least rendered plausible, if their authors are allowed to select
the facts to go with them.

A general law of organic succession must accommodate all
the pertinent facts. Each biologist can test it with the data of
his own experience if he have imagination enough to assume,
for the time being, the required standpoint. Indeed, one might
formulate procedure in such matters by saying that the more
general the law the less susceptible it is of being established by
reference to any small group of facts. Such reasoning from cir-
cumscribed data has always to be bolstered up by the argument,
expressed or implied, that the facts must mean what is alleged
because they cannot mean an3'thing else, a formula which trans-
mutes our ignorance into knowledge, by sheer intellectual al-
chemy. We unconsciously admit the author's unconscious
assumption that his standpoint is correct and final, and instead
of testing it by our own facts we accept his at their face value,
though every one of them may beg the question it is supposed
to answer.

Ae long as experiments are limited to conditions of inbreed-
ing by which the desired phenomena can be induced, there will
be no lack of evidence for mutations and Mendelism. But even
if all the animals and plants were successively domesticated,
inbred and conventionalized into " character units," we would
still be as far as ever from having ascertained that these are the

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 3I9

means by which the constructive evolution of nature has gone
forward.

There can be no certainty that any particular species may
not, at some remote period and place, be crowded into a narrow
corner of the environment, and made to yield degenerative
mutations, but this possibility should not cause us to forget that
the broad fabrics of continuous, diverse, and gradually chang-
ing descent are being woven in the living looms of all the wide-
spread species in nature. To say with Professor Haeckel and
others that the abnormal is the important for evolution, is not
merely to frame a paradox, it is to confess what in theological
language would be termed a most pernicious heresy. For do
not isolation and inbreeding represent the very principle and
essence of biological evil, the ever-present danger of deteriora-
tion, which nature is taking such infinite pains to escape, by all
the devices of sex and symbasis? All new characters must,
indeed, be classed as abnormal if we think of species as nor-
mally constant and stationary, but to base evolution on the
degenerate abnormalities of inbreeding darkens counsel indeed.

The acceptance of the laws of planetary motion was impeded
by mediaeval theology, but thought is now clouded by the
opposite tendency, an equally unscientific fear to admit the
reality of phenomena not immediately explainable in current
terms of physics and chemistry.^ The facts of vital motion are
obscured by mechanical dogmas, vastly complicated, and yet
wholly incompetent. In terms of physics and chemistry, we
do not know zvhy cousins may not marry, why inbreeding is
destructive, or why symbasis is necessary to maintain organic
strength and evolutionary progress ; but we may be certain
that evolutionary doctrines which disregard such primary facts
of descent are fatally defective.

Current theories require that new characters be saved by
segregation, but organisms are not like chemical compounds, to
be preserved by keeping them from contact with others. Pro-
toplasmic compounds are noted, it is true, for their extreme
lability or tendency to decompose as soon as life is extinct, but
this fact, instead of proving that vital processes are due to the

1 Evolution and Physics, Science, N. S., 20 : 87, July 15, 1904.

320 O. F. COOK

mechanical " forces" hitherto recognized, only shows in higher
relief their hyperphysical stability.

The atomic theory of matter has led Professor DeVries and
others to assume that morphological alterations are " incumbent
on slight chemical changes of the representative particles of
the hereditary qualities." ^ We know, however, that organic
structures and vital processes persist through a wide range of
physical conditions, and in spite of changes of the material
particles, or even of the chemical substances of which the living
tissues are composed. There is a stability of motion as well as
of rest ; new characters can be preserved by prepotency better
than by segregation.

The higher we go in the scale of organic existence the more
obvious these facts become. To keep alive the bodies of the
higher animals there must be a constant supply of new ma-
terials, and a removal of the fatigue-products of the high-grade
vital activity. The animals were able to out-strip the plants
largely because they developed superior facilities for secretion
and excretion. They are able to make use of a much greater
variety and complexity of compounds and can also rid them-
selves of waste products with more freedom. Plants are able,
for the most part, to excrete only gaseous compounds ; other
rejectamenta have to be accommodated inside the cells or laid
down in the cell walls.

The idea that the cellular bodies of plants and animals are
built up on simple principles of "developmental mechanics"
sees no significance in the wonderful series of gradually super-
posed complexities which have attended the advance of organ-
isms to their present stages of perfection. To build up our
bodies, cells have become associated in immense numbers and
highly specialized inform, structure and function. The number
and complexity of chemical substances has likewise increased
from the simple inorganic compounds used by the soil bacteria
to those supplied by the mixed diet of civilized man.

* Professor DeVries also explains in a preceding paragraph: "Chemical
substances are changed into others bv definite and measurable steps, and hence
it seems to me that this rule might prevail for the minutest material particles
which determine the hereditary qualities of organisms." (Harper's Magazine,
no : 210, January, 1905.)

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 32 1

Reproductive cytological processes have advanced from the
brief fusions and prompt redivisions of simple and equal cells
to intricate combinations which may not require renewal for de-
cades and centuries. The Sequoias of California and Dracaenas
of the Canary Islands live as individual trees for thousands of
years, and some of our cultivated plants have been grown from
cuttings since the earliest dawn of primitive agriculture, behind
all human history and tradition/

Still other avenues of vital motion and achievement are to be
seen in the complexity of individuals, sexes and polymorphic
forms which the higher plants and animals often maintain in-
side the same species, and in the multitudinous reproductive de-
vices and instincts for weaving this diversity into the still more
intricate fabric of descent ; a social evolution, in short, which is
at once the basis and the prophecy of the still higher intellec-
tual and personal development of man himself.

SUMMARY OF KINETIC INTERPRETATION.

The causes of evolution are still unknown, but we have arrived
at the perception that evolution has a very practical physiolog-
ical function which explains the general fact of progressive
change. Organisms are under the necessity of motion ; it is
the only way that they can maintain their stability and continue
to exist. Instead of being moved by environmental causes from
a condition of normal constancy of characters, they are, by their
very constitution, wheeled against the environment, seeking new
avenues along which motion can be made. Nor are their im-
pulses toward diversity and evolutionary progress limited to the
environmental side. Species of common origin and inhabiting
the same region are found, very often, to have become different
in many ways, internal as well as external, which can have no
direct reference to the environment.

Instead of having been built upon any general rules or prin-
ciples of nutrition or tissue-formation, we find in different natural
groups the utmost diversity in the solutions of the same bionomic
problems, each a testimony of the protean constructive powers
of life and of the futility of physiological generalizations based
on single species or a few related types.

'The Food Plants of Ancient America, Smithsonian Report, 1903, 481-497.

322 O. F. COOK

The more specialized groups abound in characters which in-
stead of being explainable as called forth by natural selection,
and hence as useful, appear to have been pushed to worse than
useless extremes. It is as though species were impelled from
within by an essential kinesis or property of motion to make
trial of every feasible degree of expression of every attainable
character. Kinesis is not a mysterious force or mechanism to
be sought in reproductive cells ; it is a general property of or-
ganisms, as gravitation is of matter. And of kinesis we know
more than of gravitation. Two factors and two results are al-
ready obvious. The factors are heterism, or intraspecific diver-
sity, and symbasis, or interbreeding in a specific network of
descent. The results are the sustained variety of the inter-
breeding organisms, and the continuous progressive modifica-
tion of the specific groups.

The normal evolutionary progress or vital motion of organ-
isms is symbasic ; they advance in large groups of interbreed-
ing individuals, commonly called species. Separate mechanical
explanations of each example of this law are as superfluous as
the mediaeval angels who pushed the planets round and hurled
the meteors. Nobody doubted that the meteors and planets
moved, but special causes continued to be conjectured until it
was discovered that the earth itself was also in motion. If
species were normally stationary, the environment must needs
have impelled them. They have, however, motions of their own.

Natural selection neither originates species nor actuates their
further development ; progressive change would go on whether
selection were active or not, and whether the environment were
uniform or not. Nevertheless, selection conduces to adapta-
tion, since by permitting changes in some directions and for-
bidding them in others, it deflects the specific motion. The
workings of natural selection are adequately explained only
under the kinetic theory, which recognizes the physiological
value of organic changes as such, and which thus supplies the
materials on which selection can act.'

The organic structure is held together and supported by the
symbasic interweaving of different lines of descent. When the

'Natural Selection in Kinetic Evolution, Science, N. S., 19: 594.

THE VITAL FABRIC OF DESCENT 323

vital^ fabric is weakened by narrow segregation or selective
inbreeding, mutative degenerations and Mendelian disjunctions
appear. Variations thus induced afford examples of evolution-
ary motion, but in its aberrant and destructive form. Symbasic
evolution is a process of constructive integration ; it proceeds
the better when the diverse individuals of a species remain
together, not when they are kept apart. Variations of positive
evolutionary significance are prepotent ; they strengthen the
organism, and are shared and preserved by the vigorous, inter-
breeding members of the species. The conditions under which
a^species enjoys its greatest numerical prosperity are also the
most favorable for its evolutionary progress.

PROCKEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. VII, pp. 325-396. March 29, 1906.

THE FOLIACEOUS AND FRUTICOSE LICHENS OF
THE SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA, CALIFORNIA.

By Albert W. C. T. Herre, A.M.

The following paper embodies some of the results of a study
of the lichens of the Santa Cruz peninsula, carried on during
the past three years. Only the foliaceous and fruticose lichens
are treated at present, the crustaceous lichens being reserved for
a later and more comprehensive paper.

As a matter of fact a scientific treatment should take no
cognizance of the old arbitrary divisions into fruticose, folia-
ceous and crustaceous lichens, as they possess no significance
and members of one grouping merge gradually into another,
all forms being found in one family or even in one genus. In
a later paper the author hopes to present the chemical reac-
tions, spore measurements, and synonymy of all the lichens of
the Santa Cruz peninsula. The forms selected for treatment
in the present paper are mainly those which attract the attention
of the general botanist or amateur.

The descriptions and keys have been written from a first-hand
study of material collected within the territory described below,
and accordingly may not apply in some cases to specimens of
the same species from other localities, or agree with Tucker-
man's descriptions.

So far as possible, technicalities have been avoided and sim-
plicity, rather than brevity, has been the aim. In constructing
the keys an effort has been made to utilize those characters most
prominent in the field ; a more correct way would be to use the
natural characters and classification, rather than the artificial
plan followed. The author believes that it is possible to make

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., March, 1906. (325)

326 Herre

the study of lichens as easy as that of the Liverworts, Grasses,
Compositas, or other more difficult groups.

The Santa Cruz peninsula comprises that region lying west
of San Francisco Bay and the broad, originally treeless Santa
Clara valley, and north of Monterey Bay, and forms a natural
biological region. In it are included the counties of San Fran-
cisco, San Mateo, Santa Cruz and a part of Santa Clara. It
rises from sea level on three sides to 3788 feet on Loma Prieta,
the highest of the Santa Cruz mountains. The Pacific side of
the peninsula is very moist and in the fog-laden air of the red-
wood or forest formation certain forms of lichens reach a devel-
opment perhaps unsurpassed elsewhere.

In studying the lichens of this region special attention has
been paid to their distribution as it is believed that the presence
or absence of lichens is an ecological factor of quite as much
moment as the presence or absence of any other plants. To
say that lichens are irresponsive to conditions of temperature,
light, and moisture, and that they are of no importance in study-
ing plant ecology, is a gross fallacy.

Not all the Santa Cruz peninsula has been explored for
lichens, but practically every portion has been visited except the
region of the Big Basin. It is believed that the plants described
in this paper include a large majority of the forms which are
indigenous to this region.

It is now nearly forty years since Bolander collected about
San Francisco. His lichens were determined by Tuckerman,
a great many being described then for the first time. Since
Bolander ceased his work, Dr. Marshall A. Howe collected
three or four forms in San Mateo county, which were distributed
in the published exsiccata of Cummings, Seymour, and Wil-
liams. C. F. Baker also collected a score or less of the com-
monest lichens about Stanford University, the determinations
being made by Dr. H. E. Hasse.

Aside from these no collecting has been done in this region,
and there is no doubt tnat careful search will reveal many
new forms. Already several new lichens have been found by
the author although the crustaceous lichens have hardly been
noticed or collected.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 327

The systematic treatment of lichens by Dr. Alexander Zahl-
bruckner in Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien is as yet only
partially completed, but as far as possible this authority has been
followed in generic names. Genera not treated in the portion
thus far published are defined according to Tuckerman exxept
that the genus Gyrophora has been used to designate our forms
belonging to Tuckerman's genus Uinbilicaria.

As far as possible the author has attempted to retain the
earliest specific name though he is aware that his attempt has
probably not been wholly successful. The synonymy of lich-
ens seems to be in a chaotic condition and is in urgent need of
thorough revision. Personally the author believes that the same
principles should be applied to botanical nomenclature that have
been adopted by zoologists.

To Dr. H. E. Hasse, surgeon of the National Soldiers' Home
near Santa Monica, California, I wish to express my profoundest
gratitude ; without his active cooperation my material would
have been of little value. To Dr. A. Zahlbruckner, of the
Royal Botanical Museum, Vienna, Austria, I owe a debt not
second to that due Dr. Hasse. Each of the above has gone
over a duplicate set of my material and revised my determina-
tions, with a few exceptions which are noted in each case.
Professor Clara E. Cummings, of Wellesley College, has also
kindly determined material. For the keys and descriptions I
alone am responsible.

To Mr. LeRoy Abrams I am indebted for the use of his her-
barium and for material from southern California. To Dr. G.
J. Peirce, of Stanford University, I am indebted for literature
otherwise inaccessible, and for many valuable suggestions.
To Professor William R. Dudley, head of the department of
systematic botany in Leland Stanford Junior University, I owe,
besides material favors such as literature and specimens, the
encouragement and guidance which have made this paper
possible.

Stanford University, September, 1905.

328 Herre

artificial key to genera of the foliaceous and

fruticose lichens of the santa cruz

peninsula, california.

I. Foliaceous Lichens,
a. Thallus gelatinous when wet ; color always dark ; algae blue-green.

b. Thallus without distinct cortical layer; generally dark green.

XV. Collema^ 375.
bb. Thallus with distinct cortical layer ; usually lead-colored.

XVI. Leptogiu?n^ 379'
aa. Thallus not gelatinous when moist.

c. Apothecia never present.
d. Thallus dark.

e. Plant black, with black granules; beneath pale, villous,

with white cyphels X. Sticta^ 367.

ee. Plant dark brown ; sub-fruticose ; the ascendant irregularly-
cut lobes with narrow white edges II. Cetraria^ SS^-

dd. Thallus green or pale.
f. Plant yellowish green with gray soredia ; beneath villous,

between naked pale spots X. Sticta^T^6^.

ff. Plant more or less orbicular, at length very large ; gray,
yellowish or bright green ; beneath black, usually brown-
margined, more or less black fibrillose.

VII. Par?nelia, 350.
cc. Apothecia usually present.
£. Thallus attached at a single point near the center by an um-
bilicus.
h. Apothecia visible to naked eye ; thallus large or of medium
size.
i. Apothecia adnate, gyrose ; thallus brown.

IX. Gyrophora^ 3^5'

ii. Apothecia immersed, appearing as minute dark specks

on the ashy-gray thallus.. XXII. Dermatocarpofi^ 393.

hh. Apothecia not visible to naked eye ; thallus very small,

olive, with bluish edges XIII. Endocarpisciiin^ 374*

gg. Thallus attached by numerous rhizoids, not umbilicate.
j. Apothecia adnate on under side of marginal lobes.

XI. Nephroviium^ 370.
jj. Apothecia always on upper surface of thallus.
k. Thallus bright yellow or orange.

/. Apothecia chestnut; spores simple, colorless.

II. Cetraria^ 33^-

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 329

//. Apothecia yellow or orange ; spores bilocular, colorless.

VI. Theloschistes^ 347*
kk. Thallus not bright yellow or orange.

771. Thallus horizontal, orbicular or variously lobed ; under
surface with veins or cyphels.
71. Thallus pale or whitish beneath, with brown veins
and fibrils ; apothecia adnate on tips of more or

less elongate lobes XII. Peltigera^ 372.

7171. Thallus pale villous beneath, with large pale naked

spots or small white cyphels X. Siicta, 367.

mTn. Without veins or cyphels on under surface.
o. Spores simple, colorless.
p. Thallus flat, usually appressed ; under surface
brown or black, more or less clothed with
black fibrils; apothecia scattered over surface

of plant VII. Par77telia, 350.

pp. Thallus sub-fruticose, compressed; apothecia
marginal or on tips of ascendant lobes.

II. Ceiraria, 336.
00. Spores bilocular, brown VIII. P/iyscia, 359.

2. Fruticose Lichens.

Plants more or less erect and shrub-like, or drooping and pendulous.

a. Thallus of two kinds: (i) a horizontal, more or less leafy or

granulose one; (2) a more prominent, erect, and caulescent

one, simple and club-, cup- or funnel-shaped, or slender and

much branched; apothecia, when present, scarlet or brown.

XIX. CladoTiia., 3S6.
aa. Thallus uniform ; not two-fold.

b. Apothecia globose, terminal ; plant tufted, shrub-like, gray.

XXI. Sphcerophorus., 39^.
bb. Apothecia dish- or shield-like; terminal, marginal, or more
rarely scattered.
c. Thallus hair-like.

d. Brown or black, like tangled mats of fine hair; on shrubs

and trees ; sterile V. Alecioria., 346.

dd. Color not black or brown.

e. Thallus erect or decumbent, densely tufted, intricately
branched, terete, gray; sterile; on maritime rocks.

XX. Dendrographa^ 392-
ee. Thallus coarser, gray or pale straw-color, rarely red ;

330 Herre

tufted or pendulous, becoming enormously elongated ;
apothecia concolorous or pale tan, with fibrillose

margin IV. Usnea^ 342.

cc. Thallus not resembling hair.
f . Plants not gray or green.
g. Thallus brown or black.

h. Sooty black, small, shrub-like, compact, sterile; on

perpendicular sandstone rocks.. XIV. Ephebe^ 375*

hh. Greenish black or brown, spreading, compressed;

apothecia abundant, terminal ; on old fences, shrubs,

and trees II. Cetraria^ 336-

gg. Thallus yellow.

i. Spores simple, colorless; thallus bright lemon-color;

apothecia chestnut III. Ever?iia^ 341.

a. Spores polar-bilocular, colorless; plants and apothecia
reddish yellow or orange.
j. Thallus lax, spreading, pendulous or decumbent; on
trees and maritime rocks ; apothecia scattered or

marginal VI. Theloschistes^ 347*

jj. Thallus short, rigid, becoming decumbent ; apothecia
terminal; on maritime rocks.

XVII. Placodium, 3S3.
j^. Plants gray, green, or pale.

k. Apothecia present.

/. Apothecia concolorous ; thallus tufted, compressed or
terete, or elongate, pendulous, and greatly com-
pressed I. Ra7nalina^ 33 !•

//. Apothecia not colored like thallus.

in. Apothecia chestnut ; thallus lobes long, ascendant,

white beneath ; on trees II. Cctraria, t^t^G.

7)17)1. Apothecia yellowish, dusky, or red ; plants verj'
short, stout, erect, rigid, sub-crustaceous ; on

maritime rocks XVIII. Leca)io7'a^ Z^A'

kk. Apothecia absent.

71. Thallus not pendulous or decumbent.

o. Thallus erect, the narrow lobes margined with stout
branching fibrils ; on earth. .VIII. /V/_y.yc/a, 359.
00. Sub-crustaceous ; short, stout, terete, powdery ;
simple or branched ; on maritime rocks.

XVIII. LecaTiora., 384.
nti. Thallus pendulous or erect; more or less white sore-

diate ; on trees and shrubs III. Ever7iia^ 34^'

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 331

I. Ramalina Acharius.

Apothecia shield-like, scattered, marginal, or terminal, sub-
pedicellate, concolorous ; spores ellipsoid or curved, colorless,
bilocular. Thallus fruticose, tufted, erect or pendulous, terete
or compressed, alike on both sides ; color pale green, varying
from white or gray to a yellowish glaucous green.
Ramalina Ach. Lich. Univ. 122. 1810.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Habitat, maritime rocks.

b. Thallus terete, smooth or wrinkled.

c. Sparingly branched, blackening at base ; apothecia lateral.

I. ceruchls, 33 1«
cc. Thallus much shorter than above, simple; not blackening;

apothecia terminal 3. combeoides^ 332.

bb. Thallus compressed, two-edged 4. homalea^ 332.

aa. Habitat, trees, shrubs, fences.
d. Apothecia abundant.

€. Thallus a lace- like net-work, long, pendulous, much branched

and tangled 5. reticulata^ 333.

ee. Thallus tufted, erect or pendulous, little branched, compressed,

two-edged, not sorediate 6. menziesil, 334.

dd. Apothecia rare, inconspicuous, or none.
f. Apothecia never present; thallus terete, thread-like, with con-
spicuous bluish soredia ; on maritime trees, shrubs, and old

fences.. 2. ceruchis cephalota^ 332.

ff. Apothecia rare or inconspicuous.

g. Plants tufted, erect or pendulous, compressed, two-edged
or linear; white or pale soredia abundant.

7. farinacea^ 335'

gg' Thallus very small, erect, tufted, much branched, with

filiform tips; soredia not present 8. r ig I da ^ t^t^^.

I. RAMALINA CERUCHIS (Ach.) DeNot.

Thallus tufted, terete, smooth, becoming wrinkled ; sparingly
branched, the tips pointed ; color yellowish green, basally black
or blackening ; apothecia (not seen) lateral.

The long, cylindrical, pointed thallus of this species serves to
separate it very markedly from the other Ramalinas.

I have obtained the typical form but once, and then it was

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., March, 1906.

332 Herre

sterile. It occurs very sparingly on the sandstone cliffs above
the sea at Sutro Heights, San Francisco.
ParmcUa cc nick is Ach. Meth. Lich. 260. 1803.
Borrera ccrtichis Ach. Lich. Univ. 504. 1810.
Ramalina ccrtichis DeNot. Giorn. Bot. Ital. i : 45. 1846.

2. RAMALINA CERUCHIS CEPHALOTA Tuckerman.

This subspecies is known at once by the conspicuous, lateral,
bluish soredia which abound on the very slender, short, round,
entangled filaments. It is always sterile. It occurs all along
the Pacific coast within our territory, growing on dead or dying
twigs and branches of maritime trees and shrubs, and on old
fences. It was first collected at Santa Cruz, by Dr. C. L.
Anderson, who supplied Tuckerman with his specimens.

I have collected specimens at Point San Pedro and at Pacific
Grove on trees and shrubs, and along the coast near Pigeon
Point on old fences.
Ramalina ccruchis f. ce^halota Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i :

21. 1882.

3. RAMALINA COMBEOIDES Nylander.

Thallus tufted, short, stout, terete ; color a pale glaucous
green ; no part of the thallus black ; apothecia abundant, ter-
minal ; concolorous, or slightly yellowish.

Habitat, maritime rocks.

This species is placed with Ramalina ccruchis by Tucker-
man, but there seems to be no difficulty in separating the two
forms in the field. They differ constantly in color, appearance
of thallus, size, and in the apothecia. The short c^'lindrical
thallus, capped by the disk-shaped apothecia, together with the
sage-green color and absence of black, distinguish it from all
related forms.

This species is very abundant about Point San Pedro, on
rocks 200 or 300 feet above the Pacific Ocean.
Ramalina combcoidcs Nyl. Bull. Soc. Linn. Norm. 11. 4: 107.

1870.

4. RAMALINA HOMALEA Acharius.

Thallus tufted, compressed, two-edged, smooth or becoming
wrinkled ; lobes spreading, simple or irregularly branched :

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 333

apothecia abundant, marginal or sub-terminal ; color, yellowish-
green ; apothecia concolorous, or decidedly yellowish ; hold-fast
and basal portion of plant filled with red or orange coloring
matter. The living plant is perhaps a gray-green, the yellow
tinge coming out more strongly in herbarium specimens.

Habitat, maritime rocks.

This singular looking Ramalina occurs all along the coast of
California, wherever conditions are favorable. In places it
covers the rocks to such an extent that at some distance they
seem to be hidden from view by some kind of tufted grass.

The holdfast is very strong and often brings a layer of rock
away with it. It contains a remarkable amount of orange-red
coloring matter and no doubt would furnish a satisfactory orchil.

Specimens have been obtained at Golden Gate, San Fran-
cisco, Point San Pedro, Pilarcitos Creek Canon about two miles
from the ocean, and at Pebble Beach, Pescadero. I have ex-
amined specimens in the University herbarium from Santa
Cruz Island, off the coast of California near Santa Barbara,
collected by Mr. R. E. Snodgrass, and from Guadalupe Island,
Lower California, collected by the late Dr. W. W. Thoburn.
Rmnalina homalea Ach. Lich. Univ. 598. 1810.

5. RAMALINA RETICULATA (Noehd.) Krempelh.
Lace Lichen.

Thallus much compressed, greatly elongated, pendulous ;
very much branched, forming tangled mats : the whole plant
filled with holes, the result being a more or less coarse or deli-
cate net-work ; the branches giving off many lobules, also
reticulated ; color grayish green, alike on both sides. Apo-
thecia abundant, scattered over surface of plant, concolorous.

This giant lichen is found throughout our range, but reaches
its greatest development in the lower foothills around San
Francisco Bay. It is common on trees and old fences, but
grows best on the deciduous oaks and the buckeye, ^scubcs
calif ornica.

In deep dark humid cahons, or at great elevations where
subject to the influence of the prevailing ocean fogs and winds,
the thallus is exceedingly delicate and filmy, resembling the

334 Herre

finest lace. In the dry lowlands the plant is often very coarse,
the broad unperforated expansions of the thallus reaching a
breadth of 40 mm. or more. In favorable locations Ramalina
reticulata may reach a length of at least two meters and a
breadth of two-thirds of a meter.

The apothecia are produced in profusion and many specimens
can be found attached by the holdfast from which they have
grown, but the chief method of propagation and diffusion is by
the tearing or breaking of the thallus and the dissemination of
the fragments by the wind. This method goes on at all times,
fragments constantly breaking off and floating downward even
during the dryest and calmest weather. Alighting on any
object, the fragment soon becomes greatly entangled through
the hygroscopic action of its hyphse.

The oaks are often completely covered with festoons of this
lichen, so that they present an appearance identical with that
of the live oaks of the Gulf States, covered with Tillandsia
usneoides.
Lichen reticulata Noehd. ; Schrad. Journ. Bot. 1800: 238.

1801.
Ramalina reticulata Krempelh. Geschicht. u. Litt. d. Lich.

I : 86. 1867.

6. RAMALINA MENZIESII Tuckerman.

Thallus originally tufted, rigid, linear, canaliculate ; lobes
more or less twisted, irregularly branched ; puberulent or
smooth. With age the plant becomes more or less flaccid and
pendulous, the lobes long, dilated and ribbon-like, more or less
irregular in outline, the edges fringed occasionally with lobules ;
surface furrowed and channelled ; color sage-green, gray-green,
or bright green. Apothecia abundant, at first marginal or sub-
terminal, later scattered ; small to large, sub-pedicellate, margin
usually incurved.

Habitat, trees, shrubs, and old fences. It is apparently not
found in the higher mountains, but is exceedingly abundant
throughout the plains and foothills.

This remarkable Ramalina attains a length of four or five
inches on trees, but reaches its maximum development on the

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 335

windward, shady side of old fences bordering the salt marshes
about San Francisco Bay. Specimens from near Mountain
View landing are over 25 cm. long, with lobes reaching a
breadth of 16 mm. The largest apothecia seen were 10 mm. in
diameter, but this is exceptional. The long, ribbon-like plants
produce apothecia no larger than do those of only an inch in
height.
Ramalina me^iziesii. Tuck. Syn. Lichens New Eng. 12. 1848.

7. RAMALINA FARINACEA (L.) Ach.

Thallus tufted, erect or pendulous, compressed and two-
edged, or attenuate and thread-like, channeled ; color pale
green to almost white ; lateral white powdery soredia very
abundant on lobes. Apothecia lateral, rare and inconspicuous,
concolorous ; spores curved.

Throughout the foothills and mountains, on trees and shrubs.
A few fruiting specimens were obtained on oaks in the moun-
tains above Searsville, at an altitude of 1500 feet.

This plant is likely to be overlooked or confused with
Evei-nia prunastrt\ with which it is commonly associated.
Ramalina farinacea, Evernia frimastri., Usnea Jlorida^ and
Us7iea hirta clothe densely the twigs of trees in the foothills,
converting them into gray brushes.
Lichen far inaceus'L,. Sp. PI. 2: 1146. 1753.
Ramalina farinacea Ach. Lich. Univ. 606. 1810.

8. RAMALINA RIGIDA Ach.

Thallus small, tufted, erect, irregularly much branched,
terete or flattened and somewhat channelled ; the branches
slender, thin, their tips filiform ; color white to greenish white.
Apothecia small, lateral, the disk greener than the thallus;
spores ellipsoid, ^\'l^ mic.

This pretty little Ramalina occurs on the trunks of alders
along Los Gatos Creek near Wrights, at about 800 feet, and in
Austrian Gulch at 1500 feet. It is found very sparingly,
growing with Ramalina farinacea and Evernia frunastri^ with
young stages of which it is likely to be confused and hence
overlooked in collecting.

336 Herre

My largest specimens do not exceed three-fourths of an inch in
height. Two fruiting specimens were found in Austrian Gulch.

It will probably be found beside all perennial streams in deep
and shady canons.

Identification by Dr. Hasse.
JRamalina 7'igida Ach. Syn. Meth. Lich. 294. 1814.
Lichen rigidus Pers. in Ach. 1. c. as syn.

II. Cetraria (Acharius) Fries.

Thallus fruticose, or in most of our species expanded folia-
ceous, with lobes more or less ascendant, narrowed and elongate ;
medullary layer cottony ; color very variable, green, white, yel-
low, brown and black. Apothecia, except in number one,
darker and of a different color from that of the thallus ; termi-
nal or marginal ; spores simple, ellipsoid, colorless.
Cetraria Ach. Meth. Lich. 292. 1803 ; in part. Lich. Univ.

96. 1810.
Diifotirea Ach, Lich. Univ. 103. 1810; in part.
Cornicularia Ach. Lich. Univ. 124. 1810 ; in part.
Cetraria Fries, Lich. Europ. Reform. 34. 1831.

KEY TO THK SPECIES.

a. Thallus black or greenish black i. califoniica^ 337-

aa. Thallus variously colored.
b. Thallus nol green or pale.

c. Thallus yellow 8. Juniperi/ia^ 340-

cc. Thallus some shade of brown.
d. Apothecia abundant.

e. Thallus greenish to dark brown ; lobes ascendant, crowded,

finally narrowed 2. c//iar/s, ^^J.

ee. Thallus dark brown; lobes broad, flat, but little ascen-
dant 3 . platypliylla^ 33S .

dd. Always sterile; lobes with white sorediate edges,

4. chloroplivlla^ 33S.
bb. Thallus green or pale.
f. Foliaceous; green, more or less black basally bencatii ; edges

laciniate; surface sorediate 6. glauca, 339.

ff. Fruticose; lobes long, narrow, ascendant or pendulous.
g. Apothecia abundant, terminal; lobes white beneath.

5. lacunosa stcnopIiyUay 339.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 337

gg. Sterile; lobes broad, foliaceous, black beneath, becoming
linear and white beneath 7. tnckcr/>ia/u\ 340.

I. CETRARIA CALIFORNICA Tuckerman.

Thallus tufted, fruticose, erect ; lobes spreading, flattened or
linear, much branched, their tips finely dissected ; color black
or very dark green; occasionally brownish green or dusky;
dull; beneath paler, usually olive green or brown, but varying
greatly; finally white with a tinge of greenish. Apothecia
terminal ; margin toothed or fringed, sometimes almost smooth ;
concolorous and dull, but sometimes shining and darker than
the thallus.

On fences, shrubs, and twigs of trees.

Found everywhere ; most abundant on Adenostoma^ at an
elevation of 1800-2000 feet. Our specimens small or dwarfed
when compared with those from other parts of the state. The
largest and most t3'pical plants with us occur on sheltered fences.

I have specimens obtained at all elevations from the salt
marshes about San Francisco Bay to 3788 feet.
Cetraria calif ornica Tuck. Am. Jour. Sci. 28, 203. 1859 ' ^yn.

N. Am. Lich. i : 29. 1882.

2. CETRARIA CILIARIS (Ach.) Tuck.

Thallus foliaceous, depressed, expanded, irregularly cut and
lobed ; lobes expanded and leafy, or more often narrowed,
crowded, ascendant, and much dissected ; margin of lobes not
ciliate, but crenate, and margined with minute black or dark
tubercles ; similar tubercles often appearing on the surface of
lobes, or even covering them; color dusky brown, but varying
from bright to dusky green, brownish, and dark brown ; beneath
brownish, wrinkled and pitted, and with occasional fibrils.
Apothecia terminal or marginal; disk chestnut; margin crenu-
late or minutely tuberculate.

Habitat, trees, shrubs, and fences. Abundant throughout;
I have specimens from all altitudes from sea-level to 3000 feet.

A careful examination of many specimens has failed to show
any according in character with the specific name, marginal
cilia or fibrils being invariably absent.

338 Herre

A particularly luxuriant but aberrant form is found on fences
along the Pacific coast. It is distinguished by its large clumps
of erect, complicated, and crisped lobes, and great development
of the tubercular or cephaloid growths mentioned above, the
entire surface being covered with them. This form is usually
sterile, though sometimes apothecia are abundant.
Cetraria ciliaris Ach. Lich. Univ. 508. 1810; Tuck. Syn. N.

Am. Lich. i : 34. 1882.

3. CETRARIA PLATYPHYLLA Tuckerman.

Thallus thin, compressed, foliaceous, rigid ; lobes appressed
and expanded, with elevated tips, or more often ascendant, nar-
row at base ; surface rough, covered with tubercles, the lens
also often disclosing the presence of many sulphur-colored gran-
ules ; color dull dark olivaceous brown ; under surface paler,
wrinkled ; medullary layer sulphur-colored or white and cot-
tony. Apothecia marginal ; disk shining, darker than thallus ;
margin tuberculate.

A limb of Pseudoisuga taxifoliay brought from the Butano
Ridge by Professor Dudley, has on it several plants of this spe-
cies, growing with Parnielia enteromorpha. This came from
an altitude of about 2000 feet. This specimen has the med-
ullary layer cottony, with no trace of the sulphur-color men-
tioned by Tuckerman. It does, however, have many minute
sulphur-colored grains scattered over the surface of the thallus.

A single sterile specimen was collected by the author on Loma
Prieta, altitude 3788 feet, growing on Adenostovia. In this speci-
men the medullary layer is sulphur-colored.

Identification by the author.
Cetraria plaiyfhylla Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 34. 1882.

4. CETRARIA CHLOROPHYLLA (Ilumb.) Wahl.

Thallus foliaceous, expanded ; lobes numerous, short, irregu-
larly cut ; terminally ascendant, sinuate, crenate, with white
sorediate edges ; color varying from olivaceous or greenish dull
brown to a shining chestnut, and darker ; beneath paler, wrinkled,
and with occasional scattered fibrils.

Alwa3's sterile with us.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 339

Common on fences throughout the foothills and to the summit
of the range.

This species may be recognized at once by the narrow but
conspicuous white edge of the thallus.

Lichen chlorophyllus Humboldt, Fl. Fri. Spicil. 20. 1793.
Cetraria chlorophylla Wahl.

5. CETRARIA LACUNOSA STENOPHYLLA Tuck.

Thallus becoming fruticose, deeply and irregularly lobed ;
lobes long, lax or sub-pendulous, narrow to linear, deeply chan-
nelled ; margins laciniate, erose, and minutely tuberculate ;
color pale sage-green or gray-green ; some specimens with a
brownish cast; beneath white, or very pale. Apothecia ter-
minal ; disk chestnut ; margin crenate or more rarely entire.

Habitat, trees.

Very common in the mountains above 1500 feet. Especially
abundant on the limbs of Pseiidotsuga taxifolia^ which it some-
times clothes to the exclusion of all other lichens.
Cetraria lacunosa stenophylla Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i :

35. 1882.

6. CETRARIA GLAUCA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus membranaceous, foliaceous, sinuately or irregularly
broad-lobed ; the crenate or dissected edges of the lobes fre-
quently sorediate, thickened, and prolonged into more or less
conspicuous coralloid branchlets ; color of plants growing on
earth : greenish gray marginally, varying to olive- or brown-
gray centrally, or sometimes the whole plant a glaucous gray-
green ; beneath wrinkled or reticulate and black, with now and
then a chestnut margin ; fibrils wanting, or occasionally scat-
tered and very minute.

Color of plants on trees : pale sage-green, varying to colors
as dark as those of earth-growing forms. Beneath black, fad-
ing into pale brown, with broad white margins.

Always sterile with us.

Everywhere on trees in the mountains above 1,500 feet, but
at no place very abundant. Usually on the limbs of Psetido-
tsiiga taxijolia^ mixed with Usneas^ Sphcerophortcs globosuSy
and Cetraria lacunosa stenophylla.

340 Herre

This lichen also occurs at slight elevations, on earth in rock
crevices. I have specimens from Pilarcitos Creek Canon, at
an altitude of 250 feet.

Lichen glaiicus L. Sp. PI. 2: 1148. 1753.
Cetraria glauca Ach. Meth. Lich. 296. 1803.

7. CENTRARIA TUCKERMANI Herre, nom. sp. nov.

This form differs from C. glauca in having the lobes elon-
gated, lax, narrow or linear, and more or less channelled; mar-
gin irregularly cut and erose ; beneath black or dark brown
basally, the lobes white below. Sterile with us.

Habitat : On Pseudotsuga taxifolia.

Collected but once, near King's Mountain House, at the head
of Purissima Creek, at an altitude of 1900 feet. No doubt it
occurs all along the summit of the range mixed with C. lacunosa
stenophylla and C. glmica.
Cetraria glauca stenofhylla Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 36.

1882 ; name preoccupied.

8. CETRARIA JUNIPERINA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus foliaceous, membranaceous and expanded, or else
tufted, irregularly cut-lobed and ascendant ; lobes crowded,
edges erose and crenate. Apothecia submarginal, the disk
chestnut ; margin crenulate or tuberculate.

This lichen is known at once by its bright yellow color, alike
on both sides ; sometimes the yellow is tinged with greenish.

Very abundant on the twigs and limbs of Pinus radiata {P.
insignis) at Pacific Grove, especially on dead wood. This is
extra-limital, being on the southern shore of Monterey Bay.
It also occurs in the mountains near San Juan, below the Pajaro
River ; this is just across from the southern extremity of the
Santa Cruz peninsula. I have no doubt however that it occurs
somewhere along the coast between Santa Cruz and Pescadero,
as Pinus radiata is found there also, and the conditions are
similar to those at Pacific Grove.
Lichen junipcriuus L. Sp. PI. 2: 1147. i753-
Cetraria junirpcrina Ach. Meth. Lich. 298. 1803.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 341

III. Evernia Acharius.

Thallus tufted, fruticose, erect, becoming finally long and
pendulous ; terete and angular basally, or else leafy and flat-
tened ; branched or lobed ; medullary layer cottony ; color,
lemon-yellow, or pale green. Apothecia, when present, sub-
terminal or marginal, the disk chestnut; the margin often
fibrillose.

Spores simple, colorless, ellipsoid.

With us, fruiting specimens are very rare.
Evernia Ach. Lich. Univ. 84. 1810.

I. EVERNIA VULPINA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus tufted, erect, much branched, becoming long and
pendulous; branches terete, basally angular ; large specimens
conspicuously angular and lacunose ; whole plant a bright
lemon-color; very small, immature specimens sometimes of a
yellowish green. Apothecia large, terminal, more or less pedi-
cellate ; disk chestnut ; margin often fringed with large fibrils,
otherwise smooth and entire.

On trees, old fences, and sandstone.

Occurring everywhere on the Santa Cruz peninsula, though
never attaining a length greater than 3 inches. Small, incon-
spicuous specimens are found on old fences and roofs from the
salt-marshes about San Francisco Bay to the summit of the
range. At the head of Devils Canon, at an altitude of 2300
feet, it occurs in considerable abundance on Pseudotsuga taxi-
folia; here it is also common on sandstone as also at Castle
Rock, altitude 3000 feet. On Loma Prieta(3788 feet) it occurs
on dead limbs of Adenostoma fascicidatton.

I have but one fertile specimen from the Santa Cruz penin-
sula, found on an old fence near Stanford University, at an
altitude of 200 feet.

In the Santa Lucia Mountains, San Luis Obispo County, and
in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, it forms huge, matted, yellow
clumps 6 inches or more in length, fruiting in the greatest pro-
fusion.

Used as a dye-stuff in the valley of the Willamette, Oregon,
where its growth is also luxuriant.

342 Herre

Lichen vulpinus L. Syst. Nat. ed. lo. 2 : 1343. i759-
Evernia vtdpina Ach. Lich. Univ. 443. 18 10.

2. EVERNIA PRUNASTRI (L.) Acharius.

Thallus tufted, fruticose, erect or pendulous, angular or
flattened : branches numerous, narrow to linear, elongate ; or
(forma soredifera Ach.) shorter and much wider lobed, beneath
lacunose or channelled ; white or greenish, mealy, lateral and
confluent soredia very abundant ; also more or less present in
the typical form ; color whitish, pale green, to dark green ;
beneath much paler, often white.

Sterile with us.

A very common lichen throughout our territory, growing on
trees, shrubs, dead wood, fences, roofs, mossy stones. Form-
ing conspicuous whitish tufts on twigs.
Lichen prtinastri 1^. Sp. PI. 2: 1147. 1753-
Evernia ^runastri Kq\\. Lich. Univ. 442. 1810.

IV. Usnea (Dill.) Ach.

Thallus shrub-like and erect or excessively elongated lax
and pendulous, terete, much branched, smooth or roughened,
with or without many short fibrils ; medullary layer solid, white,
cord-like ; color pale gray, silver-green, or straw-color, except
in one form which is red ; alike on all sides. Apothecia tan,
pale flesh-color, or concolorous, orbicular, peltate, terminal or
lateral ; the margin radiately fibrillose ; spores simple, color-
less, ellipsoid, small.

On trees and shrubs throughout ; occasional on old fences
and roofs. Reaching the maximum thalline development and
number of species at high altitudes where exposed to fog.

The species not always well defined and apparently inter-
grading. One species not heretofore described is rather com-
mon over part of our territory.
Usnca Dillenius, Muse. 56. 1741 ; in part.
Usnea Ach. Meth. Lich. 306. 1803.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Plants small, erect, shriib-like.
b. Color gray-green.

c. Without soredia i. Jforida, 343.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 343

cc. Soredia more or less abundant 2. hirta^ 343*

bb. Color rusty red 3. i-nbiginea^ 343.

aa. Plants more or less pendulous.

d. Suberect or short-pendulous 4. ccratina^ 344'

dd. Pendulous, tangled, long to very long.

e. Fibrils numerous.

f. Thickly set with short spreading fibrils ...5. dasypoga^ 344-
ff. Fibrils nearly straight, horizontal 7. longissiina^ 345*

ee. Fibrils very few or wanting.

g. Without spreading fibrils ,6. plicata^ 344-

gg. Smooth or with very few fibrils; plant stout and coarse.

8. californica^ 345-

1. USNEA FLORIDA (L.) Ach.

Thallus terete, tufted, erect, stout, rather rigid, shrub-like,
spreading-branched, beset with stiff, straight fibrils ; epidermis
smooth or more or less roughened with minute papillae or tuber-
cles ; color gray-green. Apothecia medium to very large,
numerous, terminal; color a pale tan, very pale flesh-color, or
sometimes whitish.

On trees and fences throughout. Dwarfed and usually
sterile near sea-level ; larger and fruiting profusely above 1000
feet.

Lichen jloridiisl^. Sp. PI. 2: 1154. i753-
Usnea jlorida Ach. Meth. Lich. 307. 1803.

2. USNEA HIRTA (L.) Hoffm.

Thallus small, tufted, shrub-like, erect, rigid ; branches wide-
spread, curving, thickly clad with short fibrils ; the whole plant
densely beset with soredia. Apothecia small, rare.

On trees and fences throughout, but most frequent in the foot-
hills at moderate elevations.
Lichen hirtus L. Sp. PI. 2 : 1155. i753-
Usnea hirta Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 133. 1795*

3. USNEA RUBIGINEA (Michx.).

Thallus much like that of Usnea hirta; epidermis smooth to
papillate-scabrous ; color varies from bright to dark rusty red
or brick-red. Apothecia (not seen) concolorous.

A few insignificant specimens found near the head of Alpine

344 Herre

Creek, at an altitude of looo feet. Very abundant and con-
spicuous on Pinus radiata at Pacific Grove, Monterey Bay.
Should be carefully looked for along the coast between Santa
Cruz and Pescadero.

A very handsome lichen.
Usnea Jlorida nibtginea Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 332. 1803.

4. USNEA CERATINA Acharius.

Thallus fruticose, much branched, at first erect but becoming
pendulous ; reaching a length of 6-8 inches or perhaps more ;
thickly covered with long slender curling fibrils ; epidermis
smooth to warty or papillose. Apothecia abundant, medium to
large ; concolorous, tan, or very pale flesh-color.

On trees and dead wood. Abundant at 2000 feet and above.

Specimens collected by Dr. Peirce on the La Honda grade
were identified by A. B. Seymour of Harvard University.
Specimens collected at Castle Rock and elsewhere identified by
the author; for lack of time not submitted to Dr. Zahlbruckner.
Usnea ceratina Ach. Lich. Univ., 619. 1810.

5. USNEA DASYPOGA (Ach.) Nyl.

Thallus greatly elongated and pendulous, slender, terete ;
thickly beset with short spreading fibrils ; epidermis usually
smooth or minutely roughened ; color gray or yellowish green
(straw-color) ; the principal branches often blackening basally.
Apothecia small, infrequent, rather pale.

Common on trees and shrubs above 600 feet ; best developed
in the redwood formation, often reaching a length of four feet.
Usnea flicata dasyfoga Ach. Meth. Lich. 312. 1803.
Usnea dasypoga Nyl. St. Gall. Nat. Ges. 202. 1876.

6. USNEA PLICATA (Ach.) Nyl.

Thallus greatly elongated and pendulous, rather coarser than
Usnea dasypoga; sub-dichotomously divided, the branches
without spreading fibrils ; varying from gray-green to straw-
color. Apothecia very small, rare.

Frequent on trees and shrubs above 600 feet altitude. Often
growing in inextricable confusion with Usnca dasypoga.
Lichen pi icatus Kch.. Prodr. 225. 1798.
Usnca plicata Nyl. Flora, 68: 299. 1885.

Lichens of Santa Cruz Peninsula 345

7. USNEA LONGISSIMA Ach.

Thallus pendulous, finally exxessively elongated, terete or
basally slightly compressed, sparingly branched; thickly
clothed with simple, nearly straight, horizontal, comparatively
short fibrils. Apothecia small or very small, lateral or terminal ;
concolorous or pale tan ; color a soft but bright silvery or gray-
green ; herbarium specimens fading badly, becoming finally a
yellowish green.

On trees above 1500 feet, in the redwood formation.

About the head of Purissima Creek, at an altitude of 1900
feet, the long, swaying, silver gray fronds of this lichen form
a conspicuous feature of the landscape. Here it attains a length
of eight or nine feet, but owing to its inaccessible situation only
fragments are obtainable, my largest specimens being but about
five feet in length.
Usnea longissima Ach. Lich. Univ. 626. 1810.

8. USNEA CALIFORNICA Herre, sp. nov.

Thallus large, stout, terete, much elongated and pendulous,
smooth ; the coarse branches irregularly divided and wide-
spread, readily traceable nearly to the extremity of the plant ;
secondary branches long and sub-divided ; sparsely clothed with
fibrils ; branchlets and fibrils occasionally sorediate ; color gray-
green to yellowish green. Fruiting specimens rare ; apothecia
borne on second branches, terminal or lateral, small to medium
size ; concolorous or tan.

On trees.

As yet only seen about the head of Alpine Creek Canon at
an altitude of 1000 feet ; locally abundant.

A robust, conspicuous plant, reaching a length ordinarily of
2-3 feet and probably the bulkiest of our Usneas. Quite dif-
ferent in habit and general appearance from all our other species.

" Species adhuc non descripta, similem in Mexico lectan vidi
in herbario Horti Vindobonensi." — Zahlbruckner.

Type, No. 194, Stanford Univ. Herbarium. Cotypes in Royal
Botanical Museum, Vienna, Austria ; Stanford Univ. Her-
barium; Herbarium of Dr. H. E. Hasse ; and Herbarium of A.
C. Herre. Type locality, head of Alpine Creek Canon, San
Mateo County, California. Coll. A. C. Herre, July 28, 1903.

346 Herre

V. Alectoria (Ach.) Nylander.
Thallus pendulous, terete, resembling fine hair; alike on all
sides; much and intricately branched, forming tangled mats;
color black to dull brown ; medullary layer cottony.
Alectoria Ach. Lich. Univ. 592. 1810; in part.
Alectoria Nylander, Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 277. i860.

1. ALECTORIA JUBATA (L.) Tuckerman.
Thallus tufted, pendulous, elongated, slender, terete, smooth,

polished, very much branched and hair-like, forming tangled
clumps and mats; small, greenish, powdery, lateral soredia
sometimes present ; color black, green-black, or rarely brown-
ish black.

Always sterile with us.

On trees and shrubs, above 1800 feet.

This peculiar plant, resembhng mats of fine black hair, is
perhaps widely distributed among the Santa Cruz Mountains,
but is nowhere really abundant and is readily overlooked.

Found in greatest quantity on Black Mountain on the Page
Mill Road (1800 feet), growing on dwarf Adenostoma within
two feet of the ground. A single small specimen on an oak
tree near the summit of Black Mountain, altitude 2500 feet.
Occurring also along the summit of the range above Saratoga,
at an altitude of 2400 feet and above on Pseudotsiiga taxijolia
and ^cercus agrifolia. To be looked for throughout on the
under side of limbs of Douglas Spruce and oaks, associated
with Cetraria lacunosa stenophylla^ Cctraria glatica^ and
Usneas.

At the Pinnacles, San Benito County, a short distance south
of the Santa Cruz Peninsula, this lichen is common and rather
conspicuous, occurring on Adenostoma.
Lichen jiibatus L. Sp. PI. 2: 1155. i753; in part.
Alectoria Jubata Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 44. 1882.

2. ALECTORIA FREMONTII Tuckerman.

This species has not yet occurred within our territory but
should be carefully looked for in the mountains, above 3000
feet. It is probable that a search of the larger conifers will
reveal its presence.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 347

It may be readily distinguished from Alcctoria juhata by its
uniform reddish brown color, and by the greater length and
denser mattinfj of its thallus.
Alcctoria frcmontii Twck.. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i: 45. 1882.

Suppl. I : 422. 1858-9.

VI. Theloschistes Norman.

Thallus foliaceous, fruticose, or only made up of squamules ;
usually closely appressed and expanded, but in some species
tufted and erect, or even pendulous ; color, orange or yellow,
occasionally pale gray or ash-color. Apothecia shield-like^
usuall}'^ abundant, the disk always yellow or orange ; spores
ellipsoid and polar-bilocular, or simple ; colorless.

This group is distinct from all others except the genus Pla-
codium, with which it has several points of resemblance but from
which it may generally be distinguished by the much greater
development of the thallus.
Theloschistes Norman, Con. Gen. Lich. i6. 1852.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Thallus fruticose ; erect, decumbent, or pendulous.

I. Jlavicans^ 347-
aa. Thallus foliaceous.

b. Spores polar-bilocular, 8.

c. Thallus pale or bright yellow or orange ; more or less or-
bicular.
d. Lobes short, thick, crenate, often pruinose.

2. parietiruis^ 34S.
dd. Lobes many cleft.

e. Thallus small, effuse or stellate; more or less concealed
by the small, very abundant apothecia.

3. poly carpus^ 348.
ee. Thallus with granulose, powdery margins; apothecia

numerous, large 4. lychneus laciniosa^ 349'

CO. Thallus minute or small, effuse, scattered. .5. raDiidosus^ 349'
bb. Spores simple or i -septate, 30 to 60 in the thekes.

6. concolor^ 349-

I. THELOSCHISTES FLAVICANS (Sw.) Norm.
Thallus tufted, elongated, erect and spreading, becoming
decumbent ; branches numerous, narrow to linear, more or less
twisted and pitted or channelled ; margins with numerous small.

348 HERRE

concolorous soredia. Apothecia rare, without marginal radial
fibrils ; disk a very dark orange ; color of thallus a bright
orange-yellow.

On rocks and earth.

Only found thus far in Pilarcitos Creek Canon, at an altitude
of 200 feet ; where it is rather abundant on a sandstone cliff,
mingled with Ranialina Jionialca^ Sphcero^hortis globosus
Cetrarta glatica, Sticta scrobiculata^ Physcia leucomcla, Par-
inelia jiavicans^ and Cladonias.

My specimens were compared with those in the Tuckerman
herbarium at Harvard by Professor Clara Cummings, of Wel-
lesley. Given by Tuckerman as growing on trees, but not
apparently doing so with us. The tree form is abundant fartlier
south in the coast ranges near Santa Barbara and in San Luis
Obispo County, on the twigs of various trees and shrubs. The
specimens collected there by Professor Dudley are darker
colored and the apothecia are numerous.
Lichen jiavicaiis Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occid. 3 : 1908. 1788.
Theloschistes jlavicans Norm. Gen. Lich. 17. 1852.
Physcia jlavicans DC. Fl. Fr. 2: 189. 1805; Crombie, Brit.

Lich. I : 295. 1894.

2. THELOSCHISTES PARIETINUS (L.) Norm.

Thallus foliaceous, more or less orbicular, appressed ; lobes
short, blunt, thick, crenate ; somewhat pruinose. On fences
sometimes forming a thick, effuse crust ; color yellow to orange.
Apothecia inconspicuous, small to medium size ; margin thick,
prominent, entire, becoming flexuous ; finally disappearing ;
^disk concolorous.

On trees, rocks, roofs, and fences.

Common in the lowlands and foothills about San Francisco
Bay, seemingly best developed on ^icrcus lobata.
Lichen -parietiims L. Sp. PI. 2: 1143. i753-
TJicIoschistes ^arictintis Norm. Nyt. Mag. Naturvid. 7 • 229.

1853.
3. THELOSCHISTES POLYCARPUS (Ehrh.) Tuck.

Thallus very small, sub-orbicular, stellate, or more often
effuse, closely appressed, yellow ; lobes much cleft, narrow.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 349

Apothecia small and very numerous, sometimes covering the
Ihallus ; disk concolorous or orange.

On trees. Common in the valleys and lower foothills.
Lichen folycarpiis Ehrhart, Plant. Crypt. Exs. No. 136. 1785.
TheloschistcspolycarpiisTxxck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 50. 1882.

4. THELOSCHISTES LYCHNEUS LACINIOSA Schaer.

Thallus foliaceous, appressed, orbicular or stellate, expanded ;
lobes much and intricately dissected, their tips ascendant and
more or less fibrillose ; lobes either smooth or with granulose,
powdery margins. Apothecia abundant, medium to large, their
'disks dark orange ; margins entire or minutely crenulate ; color
of thallus yellow to orange, rarely greenish to whitish ; beneath
white or greenish white, with scattered fibrils of the same color.

Habitat, trees and dead wood ; especially noticeable on y^s-
culus calif ornica.

Very abundant in the valleys and foothills.

5. THELOSCHISTES RAMULOSUS Tuck.

Thallus small, effuse, closely appressed ; the minute and
scattered lobules but little divided ; color pale yellow to greenish
yellow. Apothecia very small, entire, concolorous, or at length
orange.

On trees and shrubs, in the valleys and foothills.

My specimens were obtained from a pepper tree {Schimis
molle) in Mayfield, growing with Tlieloschistes concolor and
Theloschistes ■polycarpus.

This insignificant little plant is readily overlooked. It re-
sembles ThcloscJiistes coticolor, from which it may be best dis-
tinguished by the difference in spores.

According to Dr. Zahlbruckner this species is only a variety
of Xantho7-ia lychnea.

Theloschistes ramtilosus Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 51. 1882.
Xanthoria lychnea ranmlosa ]. Miill.

6. THELOSCHISTES CONCOLOR (Dicks.) Tuck.

Thallus foliaceous, appressed, the narrow lobes more or less
dissected ; quite small ; color yellow, greenish yellow, or pale ;
often an ashy white. Apothecia small, yellow to orange ;
spores numerous, 20 to 60 in the thekes, simple or one-septate.

35© HERRE

On trees. An inconspicuous lichen, apparently rare in the
valleys and lower foothills. A few scattering specimens were
found on Schinus molle (pepper tree), growing with Thelo-
schistes -polycarfus and with T. ramulosus. Specimens sub-
mitted to Dr. Zahlbruckner were all referable to the two latter
species, but unmistakable T. concolor was determined by Dr.
Hasse as well as by myself.
Lichen concolor Dicks. PL Cryt. Brit. 2 : 18, fl. p,y. 8. 1785-

1801.
Thelosclnstes concoIo7'T\\ck. S}^. N. Am. Lich. i : 51. 1882.

VII. Parmelia Acharius.

Thallus foliaceous, appressed, expanded, often very large,
variously lobed or laciniate, usually imbricate ; the lower sur-
face usually black or dark brown, often brown-margined, gen-
erally more or less black fibrillose. Apothecia shield-like,
scattered, often sub-pedicellate ; the disk usually chestnut ;
spores small, simple, colorless, ellipsoid or ovoid.

This genus contains the largest and most conspicuous folia-
ceous lichens of our flora, and is well represented both m num-
ber of species and of individuals.
Parmelia Ach. Meth. Lich. 153. 1803.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Thallus dark.

b. Bright shining brown, to dull brown, nearly black.

c. Soredia absent ; on trees and rocks 9. olivacea^ 2>S^'

cc. Soredia present.

d. Soredia small; thalkis dark, medium to large, on rocks.

10. sorediata^ 35^'
dd. Soredia conspicuous, erumpent; thallus gray to brown;

small; on rocks 11. conspurcata, 357.

aa. Thallus some shade of green.

e. Thallus inflated, loosely attached; whitish to bright green.
f. Without perforations in tinder siuface ; lobes usually with

terminal soredia 7. physodes^ 354.

ff. With perforations in under surface; lobes longer, more in-
flated, without terminal soredia 8. cfitcromorp/ia^ 355'

ee. Thallus not inflated.

^. Color pale, whitish or glaucous.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 35 1

h. Under siile black, brown-margined; thallus expanded.
i. Lobes marginally ciliate; thallus medium to very large ;
glaucous white ; on trees and rocks.. 3. perforata,, "^^^^z.
it. Margin not ciliate ; thallus small to medium, pearly white ;

maritime, on fences, roofs, rocks i. perlata,, 351.

hh. Under side not brown-margined; thallus narrowed,
branched.
j. Always sterile.

k. Thallus not reticulate above; margin ciliate; lobes

very narrow, short 4. herrei,, 353'

kk. Surface of thallus reticulate; margin not ciliate; lobes
broader, long, man}^ cleft, apically retuse.

6, saxatilis^ 354*
JJ. Apothecia abundant, margin crenulate; thallus adnate,
lobes narrow, sinuate; color bright ...5. iiliacca^ 353*
g'g-. Color yellow to yellowish green.

/. Beneath black, with chestnut or brown border.
?n. Margin of lobes not confluently white sorediate.
n. Thallus smooth or isidiose-sorediate ; on rocks.

2. JlavicuTis, 352*
n7t. Surface wrinkled, plicate, with concolorous soredia ;

on stones and shrubs 12. caper ata^ 357-

mm. Edges of lobes confluently white sorediate ; surface
wrinkled, at least marginally ; on trees, fences, roofs.

13. soredica^ 358.
//. Beneath pale or dark, margin darker ; surface more or less
isidiose ; fibrils concolorous, scattered, short.

14. conspcrsa^ 35^-

I. PARHELIA PERLATA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus greenish pearl-gray, dilated, membranaceous ; mar-
gin thin, smooth, rounded and irregularly lobulate ; rest of
thallus thickened, convolute, more or less ascending ; margins
of inner lobes covered with confluent, concolorous soredia ; un-
der surface black, wrinkled, papillose, margin brownish ; from
strongly and densel}^ black fibrillose to smooth.

Sterile. Apparently confined to a narrow strip along the
Pacific coast, not occurring in the mountains or on the Bay
shore.

On the roof of an old house on the sea-beach, near Pilar

352 HERRE

Point, and also on old fences along the county road from Span-
ishtown northward for six or eight miles. None was found at
an altitude of more than 50 feet and the best specimens grew
just above high tide.

Lichen ^ei'latiLS L. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 712. 1767.
Par7nelia -pcrlata Ach. Meth. Lich. 216. 1803 ; Lich. Univ.
458. 1810.

2. PARHELIA FLAVICANS Tuckerman.

Thallus large, orbicular, becoming very large and irregular,
as in the following species ; surface smooth, or centrally more
or less wrinkled and plicate ; often isidiose-sorediate ; lobes long,
sinuous, imbricate, marginally crenate and undulate, their tips
thin and rounded ; color of thallus pale yellow or more often a
yellowish green ; beneath black, with chestnut margin ; smooth
or wrinkled ; generally naked, but also more or less inter-
ruptedly black fibrillose. Apothecia not uncommon ; disk
chestnut in dried specimens ; in the field sometimes of same
color as thallus ; margin entire or crenulate, often sorediate.

Common on rocks in the foothills.

A well-marked species, not to be confused with any other.
Parmelia pcrlata JiavicansTMQ^i. Lich. Calif. 13. 1866.
Parmelia jlavicans Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 53. 1882.

3. PARMELIA PERFORATA (Wulfen) Acharius.

Thallus large, finally greatly dilated, smooth, gray, tinged
with greenish, or whitish ; the ample lobes crenate, becoming
marginally much dissected ; margins of inner lobes often con-
fluently gray sorediate ; lobes fringed (f. ciliata Nyl.) with long,
black, simple or branched cilia ; under side black, with a broad
chestnut margin ; interruptedly clothed with dense patches of
black fibrils. Apothecia rare, medium to large ; margin entire ;
disk chestnut ; rarely perforate.

On trees, mossy rocks, and earth.

This large and handsome plant occurs throughout the Santa
Cruz mountains, usually sterile. On shaded moss-covered sand-
stone cliffs immense circular mats are formed ; in many cases
these coalesce into gigantic carpets covering many square feet.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 353

Fruiting specimens occur in abundance on oaks and Uinbcllu-
laria, about the head of Alpine Creek Cafion, at an altitude of
looo feet. Nearly all the apothecia found belie the specific
name, being imperforate.

Lichen ^ erf or atus Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. i : ii6, //. j. 1786.
Parmclia perforata Ach. Meth. Lich. 217. 1803 ; Ach. Lich.

Univ. 459. 1810.

4. PARHELIA HERREI Zahlbruckner, sp. nov.

Thallus narrow, lobed and deeply dissected ; smooth above ;
the lobes sinuately pinnatifid, their tips rounded or crenate,
sometimes sorediate ; centrally becoming much complicate and
imbricate; margin fringed with long, black, conspicuous cilia.
Beneath black and densely clothed with long black fibrils.
Surface a dull pearly gray, var3'ing to a slate-gray.

Apothecia not seen.

" P. siniioscB Ach. affinis, differens thallo semper esoredioso,
in margine ciliato, KHO supra flavo," Zahlbruckner.

This distinct Parmelia has been found but once. A few speci-
mens were found growing on earth in the crevices of sandstone
in Pilarcitos Creek Canon, about two miles from the Pacific, at
an altitude of 200 feet. It was mixed with Parmelia saxatilisy
Tkeloschistes Jlavicans, Cladonia fiircata racemosa and SphcB-
rop/iorus globostis.

Specimens are in the herbaria of Leland Stanford Junior
University, Dr. A. Zahlbruckner, Dr. H. E. Hasse, and the
author. As yet no other specimens have been discovered.
Parmelia herrei A. Zahlbr. in lift. 1905.

Type, No. 516 Stanford University Herbarium. T3'pe lo-
cality, Pilarcitos Creek Canon, two miles from the Pacific,
Santa Cruz peninsula, Cal. Coll. A. C. Herre, May 28, 1904.

5. PARMELIA TILIACEA (Hoffm.) Ach.
Thallus much narrowed, membranaceous, often suborbicular ;
smooth, becoming finely wrinkled ; closely adherent to the sub-
stratum ; lobes contiguous, often subimbricate, sinuous, deeply
incised; margins crenate or rounded; color gray, varying
from nearly white to green, but always of a peculiarly bright,

354

HERRE

clean appearance ; beneath black ; densely clothed with small
black fibrils. Apothecia abundant, mostly central ; disk bright
chestnut ; margin entire, crenate, or crenulate, or even lobed.
This beautifully colored lichen is very abundant on oaks and
buckeyes at an altitude of 2000 feet and upward. It occurs in
special abundance about the summit of Black Mountain, at an
altitude of 2780 feet. Wherever found it is in full fruit.
Lichen tiliaceus Hoffm. Enum. 26, -pi. 16, f. 2. 1784 ; in part.
Parmelia tiliacea Acharius, Meth. Lich. 215. 1803.

6. PARMELIA SAXATILIS (L.) Ach.

Thallus narrowed, deepl}' cleft; lobes long, sinuous, more or
less pinnately dissected, or sometimes rather simple and irregu-
larly cut-lobed. Surface reticulate, rimose, at length sculptured
and lacunose ; often scabrous, becoming isidiophorous ; color
usually ashy gray, but varying from almost white to green or
even a yellow-gray ; beneath black, with paler or chestnut tips
to the lobes ; usually densely clothed with black fibrils. Apo-
thecia small to medium ; disk pale chestnut ; margin irregular,
sub-crenulate or rather entire ; in my specimens greenish
powdery sorediose. Practically always sterile with us. Of
several thousand specimens examined in the field but one was
found with fruit. This was growing in Devils Canon on sand-
stone (altitude 2300 feet), the specimen having 12 apothecia.

Common on trees and rocks. Rarer in the foothills, where
it descends as low as 150 feet, but becoming very abundant as
the mountains are ascended. Grows indifferently on dead or
live trees and rocks, but reaching its maximum size on moss-
covered sandstone.

While there is considerable variation in color, texture, and
width of the fronds, all our plants seem to be referable to the
type form.

Lichen saxatilis L. Sp. PI. 2 : 1142. 1753.
Parmelia saxatilis Ach. Meth. Lich. 204. 1803.
Parmelia saxatilis Fries, Lich. Europ. Reform. 61. 183 1.

7. PARMELIA PHYSODES (L.) Acharius.
Thallus suborbicular, deeply cut, more or less inflated
loosely attaclied to the substratum ; lobes numerous, sinuous

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 355

many cleft, plane or convex ; becoming crowded centrally,
somewhat ascendant and complicate ; ends of lobes often termi-
nating in white soredia ; surface smooth, becoming tuberculate ;
color var3'ing from greenish pearl-gray to slate-color or green ;
beneath dull black or dusky, much wrinkled ; naked ; lobes
sometimes edged with chestnut. Apothecia more or less cup-
shaped ; margin crenulate ; disk chestnut.

This lichen occurs very sparingly throughout our range ;
most abundant on old fences and trees at slight elevations.
Lichen fhysodcs L. Sp. PI. 2: 1144. i753-
Pai-viclia fhysodes Ach. Melh. Lich. 250. 1803.

8. PARMELIA ENTEROMORPHA Acharius.

Thallus suborbiculate, soon becoming large, expanded, and
indeterminate ; deeply cleft, loosely attached to the substratum ;
lobes very numerous, more or less inflated, elongated, lax or
pendulous, irregularly divided ; usually narrow but occurring
in all shapes from linear or terete to broad and flat, these last
usually short and marginally imbricate ; surface smooth and
convex, or more rarely wrinkled, sometimes papillate ; often
densely sprinkled with black specks, the spermogonia ; color
green, but var3dng from gray to dingy brownish or even dusky ;
beneath black or dark brown, wrinkled, without fibrils ; more
or less beset with holes in the lower cortex. Apothecia usually
abundant, medium to large ; sub-pedicellate, top-shaped and
cup-like, becoming plane or even convex, when the margin
disappears ; margin entire, crenulate, or lobulate ; disk chest-
nut; often perforate.

On trees, shrubs, and fences.

Very abundant along the summit of the range and extending
down in the foothills almost to sea-level. Especially fine on
Sequoia sempcj'virens and Pscudotsuga taxi/olia, being a char-
acteristic lichen of the red-wood forest, growing very rapidly
and all the year round. The summer fogs supply it with enough
moisture for growth during the dry season and the dense forests
protect it from injury by frost during the rainy season.

In the foregoing description the arrangement of Bitter (Hed-
wigia, 1901) has been followed, including under one head

356 HERRE

Tuc-'kermvin?, Parmelia physodcs c. enteromor^ha and Parmelia
physodes d. vittata.

Parmelia enter omor^ha Ach. Meth. Lich. 252. 1803 ; Bitter,
Hedwigia, 40: 233; t. 11; fl. 11, 12, ij. 1901.

9. PARMELIA OLIVACEA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus membranaceous, expanded, orbicular or becoming
irregular, appressed ; usually smooth and polished, but finally
wrinkled, rough, and isidiophorous ; lobes rounded, crenate,
flat; color olive-brown to very dark brown, almost black;
beneath black, with short black fibrils. Apothecia concolorous
or chestnut ; margin crenate or dentate ; very abundant on tree-
growing forms, but rare or wanting on those growing on rocks.

Common on rocks, trees, and shrubs throughout.

There is a form {P. o. -panniformis Nylander) in which the
inner lobes become erect or ascendant, irregularl}^ cleft, and
densely crowded or imbricate.

This subspecies forms large shagg}^ patches on the under or pro-
tected side of sandstone ledges at Castle Rock and other points
on Castle Rock Ridge, at an altitude of 3000 feet and above.

For the determination of this subspecies the author alone is
responsible.

Lichen olivaccus L. Sp. PI. 2 : 1143. 1753.
Parmelia olivacea Ach. Meth. Lich. 213. 1803 ; Ach. Lich.

Univ. 462. 1810.

10. PARMELIA SOREDIATA (Ach.) Nylander.

Thallus indeterminate or suborbicular ; the marginal lobes
much dissected or merely crenate lobulate ; centrally wrinkled
and folded, more or less imbricate ; becoming rough and
isidiose, the isidia thickly sprinkled with tiny white soredia ;
color dark brown ; beneath black, with many short black fibrils.

No fertile specimens found.

On rocks throughout, but rare below the summit of the range,
and at no place very abundant ; my best specimens came from
Loma Prieta, at an altitude of 3788 feet.

Similar to Parmelia olivacea in form and color, but differing
in the presence of soredia and in the chemical reaction. Par-
melia olivacea, medulla K— C — .

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 357

Parmclia sorcdiata, " medulla C + ! " Zahlbruckner.
Parmelia styg-ia sorediala Ach. Lich. Univ. 471. 1810.
Parmclia sorediala Nyl. Lich. Scand. 102. 1861.

II. PARMELIA CONSPURCATA (Schaer.) Wainio.
Thallus small, orbiculate or irregular; inner lobes somewhat
ascendant, their margins often confluently isidiose-sorediate ;
marginal lobes flatter, rounded, sub-imbricate, crenate ; color
brown, but varying from ashy gray to chocolate. The whole
surface sprinkled with conspicuous, white, erumpent soredia,
these passing into the dusky isidiose soredia on older portions
of the thallus ; beneath brown, varying from buff to black ;
thickly set with short, shaggy fibrils.
Sterile.

Very abundant on a huge sandstone boulder at the summit of
the range on the Bear Gulch road, at an altitude of 1900 feet.
Not found elsewhere as yet.

Recorded from Minnesota by Bruce Fink, but not otherwise
known from North America.
Parmelia olivacea leiicocheilea Mass. Sched. Critt. Lich. Exa.

Ital. no. 166. 1855.
Parmelia subargenti/era^yX. Flora, 58 : 359. 1875.
Parmelia conspircata Wainio. Medd. Soc. Faun. Fl. Fenn.
14: 22. 1888.

12. PARMELIA CAPERATA (L.) Acharius.
Thallus large, orbiculate to indeterminate, with smooth but
wrinkled and plicate surface ; marginally much dissected ; lobes
long, imbricate, laciniate, their margins often pointed, elevated
and roughened, their tips rounded, becoming isidiose centrally
or sprinkled with concolorous soredia ; color pale yellowish or
greenish ; beneath black with narrow brown margin ; more or
less abundantly clothed with short black fibrils. K+ Cl.
Not seen in fruit.

On stones and shrubs. Golden Gate, San Francisco.
A similar lichen, which may prove to be the same, occurs
sparingly on twigs along the summit of the range.
Lichen caferatus L. Sp. PI. i : 1147- i753-
Parmelia caperata Ach. Meth. Lich. 216. 1803.

358 HERRE

13. PARMELIA SOREDICA Nylander.

Thallus coriaceous, large to very large, orbicular, becoming
irregular, undulate, radiately plicate, closely adherent to the
substratum ; lobes rounded, complicate, imbricate, their mar-
gins ascendant and confluently white sorediate, except on pe-
riphery where they are dilated, smooth or wrinkled, with crenate
edges. Surface of lobes more or less sorediate ; central por-
tion of thallus finall}^ passing into sorediate heaps which be-
come detatched and fall away, leaving the outer portions to con-
tinue their growth ; color green to yellowish green ; beneath
black, with brown margin ; outer lobes sometimes with a few
white or dark fibrils. Apothecia abundant on large specimens ;
generally of small or medium size ; disk chestnut ; margin en-
tire or lobulate, usually sorediate.

On trees, fences, roofs, and occasional on rocks.

Common everywhere in the valleys and foothills and extend-
ing to the summit of the range ; especially conspicuous and well
grown on ^lercns lobata, on whose rough bark it seems to at-
tain its maximum development.

Dr. Zahlbruckner writes: *' a P. conspe7'sa distat thallo
sorediis absito, reactionibus aliis, sporis microribus."
Parmclia soredica Nylander, Flora 68: 605. 1885.

14. PARMELIA CONSPERSA (Ehrh.) Acharius.

Thallus dilated, membranaceous, usualh^ orbicular, but finally
irregular and greatly expanded; marginally closely appressed,
smooth, often polished, much and intricately divided or lobed ;
the lobes usually narrowed, often complicate and intricate ; the
central portion wrinkled or roughened, becoming isidiose,
thickened or elevated, finally forming irregular heaps detached
from the substratum ; color varying from pale to dark yellowish-
or gray-green ; beneath pale to dark brown, or occasionally
black, with short, scattered, concolorous fibrils, or even merely
tuberculate ; marginally darker, often lustrous. Apothecia
numerous ; margin incurved, crenate ; disk chestnut.

Common on rocks throughout our range.

Like Parmclia perforata this species often turns a beautiful
red or rose-purple color when pressed while wet,, and occasionally
one sees similarly discolored specimens on the rocks.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 359

Lichen conspcrsus Ehrh. in Ach. Prodr. ii8. 1798.
ParmeUa conspcrsa h.z\\. Meth. Lich. 205. 1803; Lich. Univ.
486. 1810.

VIII. Physcia (DC.) Th. Fr.

Thallus usually foliaceous, stellate or orbicular, appressed,
laciniately branched or lobed ; more rarely fruticose or ascen-
dant ; beneath fibrillose or more seldom naked. Apothecia
usually abundant, shield-shaped; the disk dark or blackish,
often pruinose ; spores bilocular, ellipsoid, brown.

This widely distributed genus is well represented in our terri-
tory, one or more species being present everywhere from sea
level to the summit of the range.
Physcia Th. Fr. Lich. Arctoi 60. i860.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Thallus fruticose, sterile, fringed with long black fibrils; on earth.

2. leucomela^ 360.
aa. Thallus foliaceous.

b. Thallus not appressed, lobes ascendant or sub-fruticose.

c. Apothecia abundant; plant fuzzy, with long fibrils; maritime

trees and shrubs i. erinacea^ 360.

cc. Sterile ; tips of ascendant lobes vaulted or hood-like.

1 1 . Jiispida^ 364.
bb. Thallus appressed.

d. Surface not pruinose.

e. Color usually brown; thallus very thin, closely adherent,
seemingly apart of the substratum. .12. adgluti^iata^ 365.
ee. Color white or glaucous.
f. Thallus sorediate; margin of lobes upturned, much cut.

10. tribacia^ 364.
ff. Thallus not sorediate; thickly sprinkled with small,
white, sub-epidermal spots.
g. Under surface white, with white fibrils.

8. stellar is,, 3^3'
gg. Under surface black with black hispid fibrils.

9. aipolia^ 3^3'
dd, Thallus more or less pruinose.

h. Medullary layer and soredia more or less yellow or sulphur-
color 7. muscigena^ 3^3.

hh. Medullary layer white or greenish white.

i. Apothecia with leafy or lobulate margin. .6. venusta^ 2^62.

360 HERRE

a. Apothecia without leafy or lobed margin.
j. Thallus green, becoming brown or dingy.

3. fiulverulenta^ 361.
jj. Thallus not green or brown.

k. Thallus silver}' white ; apothecial margin more or
less sorediate ...4. pidverulenta argyphcea^ 361.
kk. Color bluish slate to dingy black.

5. ptilverulenta isidiigera^ 3^2.

I. PHYSCIA ERINACEA (Ach.) Tuck.

Thallus small, matted or loosely tufted ; naked, white or
greenish white ; beneath very white and often covered with a
greenish powder; the ascendant lobes more or less flat, sinu-
ous, and irregularly notched ; contracting and dilating so as to
be knobbed ; marginally ciliate with very many long fibrils, so
that the whole plant has a fuzzy appearance ; cilia white, brown,
or blackening; apothecia usually abundant, small, scattered ;
pedicellate ; the disk convex, black or brownish-black ; more
or less bluish-white pruinose, becoming later naked ; margin
entire or minutely crenulate.

Confined to shrubs near the sea shore, occurring in both
Lower and Upper California. Southward it is both abundant
and luxuriant, but in our territory I have found only scanty
specimens on dead or dying shrubs of Arteuiisia californica^
growing on cliffs above the sea near Point San Pedro.

In the Stanford University herbarium are specimens from
Santa Cruz Island, near Santa Barbara, and from Guadalupe
Island, Lower California, collected by Mr. R. E. Snodgrass, of
Stanford University. The best specimens seen were collected
by Mr. LeRoy Abrams at Tia Juana, near San Diego.
Borrera erinacca Ach. Lich. Univ. 499. 1810.
Physcia erinacea Tuck. Proc. Am. Acad. 4 : 388. i860.

2. PHYSCIA LEUCOMELA (L.) Michaux.
Thallus fruticose, ascendant, elongated, forming diffuse
clumps or mats ; the lobes but little divided, narrow to linear,
very much intertwined ; margins with numerous stout, branched,
black or dark fibrils ; color above varying from greenish or
pearly gray to pale dingy brown ; under surface channelled,
verj' white ; white powder}' ; sterile.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 361

Given by Tuckerman as growing on trees, but with us found
as yet only on earth, agreeing thus with Leighton's description :

Found in some abundance in Pilarcitos Creek Canon, at an
altitude of 200-300 feet, growing on high clay banks and on
earth in crevices of sandstone cliffs. A few scattered specimens
were also found on clay banks beside the road over San Juan
Hill, east of Monterey Bay, at an elevation perhaps not far from
a thousand feet. This localit}-, however, is just beyond the
southern boundary of our territory.
Lichen Icuconiclas L. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 2 : 1613. 1763.
Physcia Icucomela Michaux, Fl. Bor. Am. 2 : 306. 1S03.

3. PHYSCIA PULVERULENTA (Schreb.) Nyl.

Thallus orbiculate or stellate ; the numerous lobes usually
long and broad, laciniate, crenate, their margins sometimes dis-
sected, tips rounded; central lobes sometimes short, rounded,
imbricate, with refuse tips ; color greenish to brownish, the
upper surface more or less white pruinose ; beneath black, or
marginally white, densely black fibrillose ; medullary layer white
or greenish white, apothecia wanting or imperfectly developed.

On stones in the foothills.
Z?V//^;/ ^/^/z'l?;-?^/^;^//^^ Schreber, Spicil. 128. 1771.
Physcia ptilveruleiita Nyl. Syn. Meth. Lich. 419. i860.

4. PHYSCIA PULVERULENTA ARGYPH^A Nyl.

Thallus orbicular or stellate, appressed ; lobes discrete, nar-
row, elongate, many-cleft ; their margins crenate or entire ;
usually upturned and confluently sorediate ; thallus often be-
coming powdery sorediate or crustose at center, and now disap-
pearing, leaving only the marginal lobes.

Varies from the type in having the thallus of a silvery white
color ; rarely darker or dingy. Medullary layer white or
greenish white ; apothecia rare ; disk pruinose ; margin thick,
sorediate, entire or sometimes slightly dentate; spores 15 x 30
mic.

Common on trees in the foothills and mountains.
Physcia pidverulenta argy^hcBa Nyl.

362 HERRE

5. PHYSCIA PULVERULENTA ISIDIIGERA Zahl-
bruckner, subsp. nov.

" Thallus adpressus, in laciniis marginalibus parcius in cesto
thalli dense isidiis subcorallinis, brevibus, tenuibus, fuscis
opacis que obsilus," Zahlbruckner in litt.

Thallus orbicular, marginally closely appressed and thin ;
becoming thick, heaped, and isidiose powdery or granular in
central portion, all trace of lobes being lost; margin lobes
short, crenate, imbricate ; color brownish or dingy black ; often
bluish pruinose, the plant then of a pale, bluish slate-color;
beneath black, the margin pale ; covered with short black
fibrils ; medulla greenish white. Apothecia small ; disk black,
occasionally pruinose ; margin thick, tumid, elevated, soredi-
ate ; spores 15-20 x 32-37.5 mic.

On trees, roofs and fences.

Very common in the lowlands about San Francisco Bay and
back to the foothills, growing in great abundance on the shady
side exposed to the moist bay winds. Very fine fruiting speci-
mens were obtained from an old roof in Mayfield.

Type, No. 365, Stanford University Herbarium. Cotypes in
Royal Botanical Museum, Vienna, in Hasse Herb., and Herre
Herb. Type locality, old roof in Mayfield, Cal.

6. PHYSCIA VENUSTA (Ach.) Nylander.

Thallus expanded, orbicular, appressed ; lobes many-cleft,
narrow, laciniate or crenate, the tips usually rounded ; inner
lobes often marked with small tooth-like lobules ; color varying
from green through buff to tawny brown ; gray pruinose at
least on tips of lobes, but usually otherwise naked; beneath
black and densely black fibrillose, usually pale at margin ;
medullary layer white. Apothecia pruinose, sessile ; disk flat,
black or reddish-black ; often gray or bluish pruinose ; margin
thick, entire, fringed with small thalline lobules. Spores

27-32 "I'C.

This species grows luxuriantly on oaks, principally ^^ic?-cus
chrysolcpis^ along the summit of the range at an altitude of
2200 feet and above.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 363

Parniclia voiKsta Ach. Meth. Lich. 211. 1S03.

Physcia vcnusta Nyl. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 25 : 383,//. Jj. 1878.

7. PHYSCIA MUSCIGENA (Ach.) Nyl.

Thallus diffuse, spreading, irregular; the laciniate, numerous
lobes short, narrow, distinct, often upturned at the tip ; margins
more or less sorediate or powdery with confluent, sulphur-col-
ored soredia ; surface often with isidiose or cephaloid out-
growths. Medullary laj'^er usually greenish yellow or sulphur-
colored ; color brown, finally a very dark dull brown ; rarely
greenish ; usually only tips of lobes pruinose ; beneath white,
becoming very dark ; densely clothed with more or less hispid
black fibrils. Apothecia rare, scattered ; margin thick, becom-
ing sorediate.

Common in the foothills on mossy sandstone and the trunks
of oaks.

Pai'inelia inuscigcna Ach. Lich. Univ. 472. 1810.
Physcia imtscigena Nyl. Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 418. i860.

8. PHYSCIA STELLARIS (L.) Nylander.

Thallus smooth, appressed, stellate or irregular; lobes many-
cleft, sinuate, very close together; thickly sprinkled with small
white sub-epidermal spots ; neither pruinose nor sorediate ;
color white ; beneath white or pale, clothed more or less with
simple white fibrils. Apothecia black, usuall}^ pruinose ; mar-
gin entire.

On stones and twigs ; not common.
Lichen stellaris Linn. Sp. PI. 2 : 1144. 1753-
Physcia stellaris Nyl. Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 424. i860.

9. PHYSCIA AIPOLIA (Ach.) Nylander.

Thallus orbicular, expanded, appressed; lobes much cleft,
sinuous, separate and distinct, or coalescent and imbricate ; very
thickly sprinkled with small white sub-epidermal spots; surface
smooth, without soredia; color white or bluish white.; beneath
dark or black, usually densely clothed with black hispid fibrils.
Apothecia numerous, usually bluish pruinose; disk brownish
black: margin thick, prominent, more or less crenate. Spores

364 HERRE

Common on twigs and trunks throughout our range. Par-
ticularly well developed on y£sctiltcs californica^ above 2000
feet. Abundant on rocks along the summit of the range.
Lichen aipolius Ach. Lichenogr. Suec. Prodr. 112. 1798.
Physcia aipolia Nyl. Flora, 53 : 38. 1870.

10. PHYSCIA TRIBACIA (Ach.) Tuckerman.

Thallus more or less orbicular, usually rather small, much
lobed ; lobes short, intricatel}" laciniate ; their margins upturned,
much dissected, granulate, becoming lined with confluent
soredia ; center of thallus sometimes converted to a granulate
or sorediate crust ; color bluish white, gray, or ashy ; beneath
white, becoming buff centrally ; sparingly covered with short,
white fibrils. Apothecia not seen.

On trees and rocks.

Common in the lowlands and foothills, the best specimens on
sandstone.

Lccanora tribac/a Ach. Lich. Univ. 4i5« 1810.
Physcia trihacia Tuck. Lich. Am. Sept. No. 85 ; Syn. N.

Am. Lich. I : 75. 1882.

11. PHYSCIA HISPIDA (Schreb.) Tuckerman.

Thallus quite small ; sub-stellate and appressed, or more
commonly forming small, loose, diffuse clumps ; the short as-
cendant lobes irregularly and deeply cleft, their tips inflated
and vaulted, forming a very characteristic feature ; margins of
lobes beset with long, concolorous, or now darkening, fibrils ;
color white or bluish ashy gray ; beneath white, with few short
white fibrils. Sterile.

Frequent on trees and slirubs throughout. Common in the
Stanford University arboretum on the stems of the giant cactus
of Arizona, Cereus gigantcus.

Lichen hispidus Schreber, Spicil. Fl. Lips. 126. 177 1.
Physcia hispida Tuck., Obs. Lich. 397; Tuck. Syn. N. Am.

Lich. I : 75. 1SS2.

It seems to the author that this species should stand as Phy-
scia tenclla (Scop.) Nyl., when the synonymy should be as
follows :

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 365

Lichen tenellus Scopoli, Flora Cain, ed. 2. 2 : 394. 1772.
Physcia tcnclla Nyl. Flora 57 : 306. 1874. Nom. Nud. Medd.
Soc. Faun. Fl. Fenn. 13 : 49. 1886.

12. PHYSCIA ADGLUTINATA (Floerk.) Nylander.

Thallus small, inconspicuous ; very closely appressed so that
it appears to be a part of the substratum ; lobes thin, flat, coal-
escent ; center of thallus often crustose ; color " glaucescent
becoming cinerescent and brown, pale and scarcely fibrillose
beneath ; apothecia small and very small ; disk blackish brown ;
margin entire, scarcely ciliate." Tuckerman.

On trees and shrubs.

One olive-brown specimen of this obscure lichen was found
by me on Black Mountain, at an altitude of 2500 feet, growing
on the trunk of yEsculus californica. Unfortunately this speci-
men was afterward lost and at the time of writing no other
specimens had been discovered.

Lecanora adgliitinata Floerke, Deutsch. Lich. 4: 7. 1815.
Physcia adglutinata Nylander, Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 428.

i860.

IX. Gyrophora Acharius.

Thallus horizontal, foliaceous, one-leaved to polyphyllous ;
when dry very brittle and hard, but leathery when moist ; be-
neath naked or fibrillose ; attached to the substratum at one point
only, umbilicate. Apothecia innate or becoming prominent,
rounded or angulate, the surface gyrose-plicate, black ; spores
of our species simple, ellipsoid, colorless.
(ryrc'/Z^or^^ Acharius, Meth. Lich. no. 1803.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Thallus polyphyllous i. polyphylla^ 3^5'

aa. Thallus one-leaved.

b. Without fibrils beneath 2. phcca^ 366.

bb. Fibrils present beneath 3. diabolica, 366.

I. GYROPHORA POLYPHYLLA (L.) Turn. & Borr.

Thallus small to medium size, many-leaved, crinkled, cespi-
tose ; surface smooth, often polished ; irregularly much lobed
and dissected, the erectish lobules often slender with dilated and
rounded tips ; marginally crenate, dentate, unevenly cut, or

366 HERRE

erose ; sometimes minutely and excessively dissected and
crisped ; color black or very dark brown ; beneath naked, finely
granulate, dull black. Sterile.

Not rare on the high sandstone cliffs at the head of Devils
Canon, at an altitude of 2300 feet, mingled with Gyt'ophora
diabolica. Apparently not occurring elsewhere in the peninsula.
Lichen polyp/iylliLs 'Lmn. Sp. PL 2: 1150. 1753.
Gy?'ophora -polyfJiylla Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 214. 1839

2. GYROPHORA PH^A (Tuck.).

Thallus small to medium, one-leaved or occasionally poly-
phyllous, smooth above ; color brown, but varying from greenish
or grayish to olive or dark tawny brown ; under surface without
fibrils, granular: usually darker brown or blackish, but some-
times paler. Apothecia numerous, black ; at first innate but
finally prominent ; angular or rounded ; plicate ; spores simple,
colorless.

On bare, exposed, sun-blistered rocks ; most frequently on
sandstone but also on igneous rocks. According to Tucker-
man found only between 1000 and 3000 feet altitude, but
really extending much above and below those limits. Occurring
from Searsville ridge, at an elevation of about 350 feet, to the
summit of Loma Prieta, 3788 feet. In the Mt. Hamilton Range
across the Santa Clara Valley from the Santa Cruz Mountains,
it occurs in Alum Rock Park near San Jose at about 200 feet
above sea level. Usually abundant wherever found. My
largest specimens have a diameter of somewhat more than two
inches.
Unibilicaria p/iceaTuck. Lich. Calif. 115. 1866; Tuck. Syn.

N. Am. Lich. i : 86. 1882.

3. GYROPHORA DIABOLICA Zahlbruckner, sp. nov.
Thallus small to medium, one-leaved becoming many-leaved
and complicate ; more or less orbicular, the edges torn or
irregular ; coriaceous, rigid, usually smooth and polished ; color
a very dark rich brown, becoming olive when moist ; beneath
black, granulate, more or less covered with short, dense, black
fibrils. Fertile plants infrequent ; apothecia at first innate and

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 367

very small, but finally large, rounded or irregularly oblong,
prominent and dome-like, reaching a diameter of 8 mm. ;
beautifully gyrose-plicate, black ; spores simple, colorless, short
ellipsoid, ''Vll'7^'^ mic.

" differt a G. aiigulata apotheciis omnlno aliis, a G. viuhlcn-
bergii^ quacum forma apotheciorum convenit, thallo minore,
subtus atrofibrillosus, non reticulato." A. Zahlbruckner in litt.

Abundant on high sandstone cliffs in Devils Canon, at an
altitude of 2000-2300 feet ; mingled with G, -phoia and G. foly-
■phylla but from its greater size and abundance forming the
dominant tone of the rock lichen flora. As yet not found else-
where in the range.

Type, No. 682, Stanford Univ. Herbarium. Type locality,
Devils Canon, Santa Cruz peninsula, Cal. Cotypes in Herb.
Hasse, Herb. Herre and Royal Botanical Museum in Vienna,
Austria. Coll. A. C. Herre, July 28, 1905.

X. Sticta (Schreb.) Fr.

Thallus foliaceous, leaf-like, the fronds usually wide-lobed,
rounded or elongate. Color of our species various ; green,
brown, russet, or black ; under side pale, villous or fleecy,
dotted with cyphels or pale bare spots. Apothecia shield-like,
marginal or scattered, sessile, the disk red-brown and darken-
ing or black. Spores elongated, slender, 2- to 4-locular, color-
less.

Growing on trees, dead wood, rocks, and earth.

For the present the arrangement of Tuckerman has been
followed, though the genus as given by him probably includes
at least three good genera, if not four.
Sticia Schreber in L. Gen. PI. ed. 8. 2 : 768. 1791.
Sticta Fries, Lich. Europ. Reform. 49, 348. 183 1.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Under side of thallus without cyphels; marked by naked pale
areas or spots.
b. Spots large, convex; between, more or less brown-veined.

I. pulmonaria^ 368.

bb. Spots small, white or pale, flat or sunken, scattered through

the dense, dark nap 5. scrobiculata^ 369.

368 HERRE

aa. Under surface with cyphels.

c. Not sorediate ; thallus black, always sterile. ...2. fuliginosa^ 368
cc. More or less sorediate.

d. Thallus smooth, marginally sorediate ; always sterile.

3. limbata., 36S.
dd. Thallus lacunose-reticulate ; apothecia usually abundant.

4. anthraspis^ 369.

I. STICTA PULMONARIA (L.) Acharius.

Thallus leathery, medium to very large, irregularly and
loosely lobed ; the surface reticulate and deeply pitted ; lobes
narrow, deeply and sinuously crenate ; the margins and reticula-
tions often sorediate or isidiose ; color varying from bright green
to olivaceous and yellowish brown ; under surface pale or dark
brown villose veined, between large, pale, naked, bullate spots.
Apothecia infrequent, marginal, small; disk red-brown.

Common on trunks of trees in the mountains above 1500
feet ; reaching its best development in the redwoods at about
2000 feet altitude, the immense lax lobes sometimes having a
spread of nearly two feet.

Occurring also on shaded mossy sandstone in Devils Caiion,
at 2300 feet.

Lichen ^ulmonar his \^. Fl. Suec. 1087. i755-
Sticta ^uhnonaria Ach. Lich. Univ. 449. 1810; nom. emend.,

given as S. ^idmonacca.

2. STICTA FULIGINOSA (Dicks.) Acharius.

Thallus leathery, more or less round-lobed ; lobes short,
wrinkled and pitted, the margin entire, sinuous or somewhat
crenate ; color a dark brownish or lurid gra}', this obscured by
the dense covering of black isidia, so that the surface appears
black ; beneath pale brown, tomentose ; more or less sprinkled
with white, concave cyphels. Sterile.

On rocks, trees, dead wood, old fences, moss, and earth.

Common at all elevations above 100 feet.
Lichen fuliginosiis Dickson, Brit. Crypt, i : 13. 1785.
Siiciafuliginosa Ach. Melh. Lich. 281. 1803.

3. STICTA LIMBATA (Sm.) Acharius.
Thallus small, usually one-leaved ; lobes smooth, rounded,
broad, the margin crenate or sinuous ; confluent gray soredia

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 369

abundant along or near the margin ; color in the field usually a
glaucous green ; herbarium specimens vary from bluish or
greenish drab or gray to dull rufous brown ; beneath covered
with a pale brown fleece which becomes darker centrally ;
white concave cyphels rather sparingly present. Sterile.

On tree trunks, growing w'ith other Stictas.

Not uncommon along the summit of the range at an altitude
of 2400 feet and above.

Lichen limbaltis Smith, in Eng. Bot. i6 : -pi. iio^. 1802.
Sticta limbata Ach. Meth. Lich. 280. 1803.

4. STICTA ANTHRASPIS Acharius.

Thallus medium to large, rounded or irregular, usually con-
spicuously pitted and reticulate ; texture leathery or parchment-
like ; short and wide-lobed, margin sinuous, rounded and cre-
nate, or often more narrowly and deepl}'- cut, even becoming
lacerate ; ridges of surface often covered with confluent gray
soredia ; color usually brown, but varying from green to russet
or chocolate ; sometimes darkening ; beneath covered with a
pale dense fleece, becoming darker toward the center or some-
times entirely dark or dingy black ; thickly sprinkled with small
white convex cyphels. Apothecia scattered, becoming very
abundant ; disk red-brown, sometimes dark or black ; flat,
finally convex and excluding the prominent, entire or denticu-
late margin.

On trees, roots and occasional on old fences ; rarely on earth.

Very abundant in the mountains at all elevations and extend-
ing downward in the foothills to about 200 feet. Usually sterile
at lower elevations but luxuriant and fruitful in San Mateo
Canon at not more than 200 feet.

Often attaining a diameter of 10 or 12 inches, being next in
size to Sticta pulmonaria.
Sticta anthraspis Ach. Meth. Lich. 280. 1803.

5. STICTA SCROBICULATA (Scop.) Acharius.
Thallus medium, round or sub-orbicular, leathery, short-
lobed ; surface more or less pitted or wrinkled ; thickly sprin-
kled with gray soredia ; lobes rounded, imbricate, but little in-
cised, more or less crenate ; color of herbarium specimens dull

370 HERRE

yellowish green or gray. In the field often a dark liver-green ,
beneath densely villous, buff to dark brown or dingy black ;
more or less interspersed with naked white or pale spots.
Sterile.

On trees and rocks.

Common in the mountains above 1500 feet. Also very
abundant on a sandstone cliff in Pilarcitos Creek Canon, two
miles from the Pacific Ocean, at an altitude from 200 to 300
feet.

Lichen scrobiciilatus Scopoli, Fl. Carn. 384. 1772.
Sticta scrobiciilata Ach. Lich. Univ. 453. 1810.

XI. Nephromium Ny lander.

Thallus foliaceous, membranaceous, expanded ; our species
of small to medium size; naked, or clothed with a nap beneath,
but not veined.

Apothecia reddish brown, innate on the under side of the
more or less extended and narrowed lobes ; usuall}^ exposed to
view by the curling of the tips of the lobes ; spores dark, quad-
rilocular, subfusiform.
Ncfhromium Nylander, Mem. Soc. Cherb. 5 : loi. 1857 (nota) ;

Nylander, Syn. Meth. Lich. i: 318. i860.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

a. Under side of thallus with white tubercles.

I. to7nentos7iin rarneum^ 3/0'
aa. Under side not white tuberculate.

b. Under side tomentose ; medulla white 2. helvcticjini^ yji.

bb. Under side smooth ; medulla yellow 3. lusitaiiicmn^ '^'-ji.

I. NEPHROMIUM TOMENTOSUM RAMEUM Nyl.

Thallus expanded, membranaceous, medium to large ; lobes
rounded, crenate, tomentose at the margin ; becoming elevated
and finally imbricate and complicate ; beneath covered with a
pale fleecy nap in which are many small white or yellowish
tubercles, these larger and more numerous on basal portion of
lobes ; color a dusky velvety brown usually, but varying from
greenish brown to almost chestnut. Apothecia large, numer-
ous, reddish brown.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 37 1

On trees and shrubs ; commonest on Rhus divcrsi'loha.

Apparently confined to damp undergrowth in oak woods about
the summit of the range. Abundant on Black Mountain, Page
Mill road, at 2000 feet.
Ncpi7'omiiim to7nentosum subspecies ramcum^ Nyl. Norrl. Med.

Silllsk. Faun, et Flor. Fenn. i : 18. 1876.
Ncfhroma ramciun Schaerer, Enumerat. Crit. 18,//. 2^/.j.

1850.

2. NEPHROMIUM HELVETICUM Acharius.

Thallus small or medium, expanded, intricately and sinuously
complicate-lobed ; lobes rounded, more or less crisped, their
margins crenate, typically fringed with small or minute tooth-
like lobules ; surface smooth or minutely granular, but occa-
sionally sprinkled with pustules or lobulate outgrow^ths ; some-
times deeply pitted : medullary layer white ; beneath pale brown
to dusky, covered with a dense concolorous nap ; color brown,
of varying shades. Apothecia abundant, very dark red.

On trees and shrubs in the mountains, above 1700 feet.

Apparently confined to dense damp woods near the summit of
the range ; widely distributed but not ver}- abundant at any one
locality.

Nephroma helvetica Ach. Lich. Univ. 523. iSio.
Nephroma helveticum Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 104. 1882.

3. NEPHROMIUM LUSITANICUM (Schaer.) Nyl.

Thallus expanded, rounded ; of medium size but becoming
rather large by the coalescence of adjacent plants ; deeply^ and
sinuately imbricate-lobed ; lobes crenate at tip, their margins
sometimes minutely crenate or notched, when they simulate the
denticulate margins of Nefhromhim helveticum. Surface
smooth, becoming more or less wrinkled ; color varying from
drab and pale browai to dark chestnut ; beneath smooth, more
or less wrinkled ; pale brown, becoming dusky and finally
black : medullary layer yellow. Apothecia numerous, medium
to large.

Very abundant on mossy sandstone and trunks of oaks in
Devils Canon, at an altitude of 2300 feet. Not found as yet

372 HERRE

elsewhere, but no doubt occurring at the head of similar deep
canons rising from the heavy redwood forests of the Pescadero
and other coast streams.

Neph7'07na lusitamcum Schaerer, Enum. Crit. 323. 1850.
Ne^hroinhmi lusitant'cum Nyl. Flora 38. 1870.

XII. Peltigera Willd.

Thallus frondose, lobate ; beneath veined, villous or fibrillose.

Apothecia adnate on tips of the more or less extended and
narrowed fertile lobes ; spores elongated, slender, 4- to 8-locu-
lar, colorless.

Common throughout, on earth, moss, rocks, and trunks.
Peltigera Willd. Fl. Berol. 47. 1787.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Thallus more or less marginally sorediate i. sczdata^ 37-'

aa. Thallus never sorediate.

b. Tips of lobes not tomentose ; thallus thick, rather rigid.

2. rufescens^ 373*
bb. Tips of lobes more or less very minutely tomentose.

c. Thallus medium to large, thin 3. canina^ 373-

cc. Very thin and papery, expanded.

4. canina membranacea^ 374*

I. PELTIGERA SCUT ATA (Dicks.) Leighton.

Thallus comparatively thick ; much and irregularl}^ lobed ;
lobes undulately crenale, their edges confluently gray soredi-
ate ; surface smooth, occasionally sorediate ; the lobes some-
times finall}' converted into a powdery sorediate heap, losing
all semblance of the original thalline form except marginally ;
color greenish ashy or gray, or more seldom reddish brown ;
beneath white, with broad, tomentose, anastomosing, brown
veins ; these dark brown or blackening centrally and finally
coalescing so as to obscure the under surface, which appears
only as small white or pale brown spots in the dark area.
More or less fibrillose neai the margins. Apothecia dark red-
dish brown to black.

On sandstone, tree trunks, and earth, among moss.

Common at all altitudes above 300 feet. Reaching its great-
est vegetative development on perpendicular mossy sandstone
cliffs, wdiere it forms extensive mats, but is usually sterile.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 373

Occasionally abundantly fertile, especially on trees, but as a
rule apothecia are rare and scattered.
Lichen sciUalus Dickson, PI. Crypt. Brit. 3 : 18. 1793, excl.

syn.
Peltigera scutata Leighton, Lich. Fl. Gt. Brit. ed. i. 210.

1871.

2. PELTIGERA RUFESCENS (Neck.) Iloffm.

Thallus small or medium, ratber rigid and thick, smooth,
rounded, irregularly laciniate ; lobes more or less imbricate,
becoming narrowed, crowded, and somewhat crisped mar-
ginally ; color varying from pale greenish gray to reddish,
finally russet or dark brown ; pale brown beneath, reticulate
with thick brown veins ; these thinly sprinkled with coarse
brown fibrils. Apothecia often clustered ; comparatively large ;
terminal on long narrow lobes ; disk reddish brown and dark-
ening.

On earth, moss, and rocks, in the foothills.
Lichen rufescens Necker, Meth. Muse. 79. 177 1.
Peltigera riifescens Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 107. 1795.

3. PELTIGERA CANINA (L.) Hoffm.

Thallus thin, orbicular, becoming expanded, irregular, and
very large ; lobes large, broad, imbricate, intricately cut ; tips
rounded or often more pointed, more or less deeply crenate.
Surface smooth, terminal margin sometimes with minute pubes-
cence, not visible except with a powerful magnifier. Apothecia
marginal, numerous ; circular, becoming elongate ; disk red-
brown ; color greenish gray or drab, varying to reddish or
brown. Beneath very pale, netted with pale, prominent veins
of the same color, these sometimes darkening centrally ; long
conspicuous concolorous or darkening fibrils present.

Common on earth and moss throughout.
Lichen ca7nmcs 1^. Sy St. Nat. ed. 10. 1342. 1759; Fl. Suec.

1109. 1755.
Peltigera canina Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2: 106. i795-

374 HERRE

4. PELTIGERA CANINA MEMBRANACEA (Ach.)

Nyl.

Thallus very thin and papery, becoming greatly expanded,
the surface smooth and more or less pitted and furrowed.
Lobes large, dilated, rounded, irregularly crenate and lacini-
ate, more or less imbricate, often forming mats several layers
in thickness ; tips of lobes often visibly tomentose ; color and
under surface as in typical form. Apothecia numerous, margi-
nal or terminal on somewhat narrowed and extended lobules.

Occurring throughout with the type on mossy tree trunks and
on earth and stones.

Pcltidea canina membj'anacea Ach. Lich. Univ. 518. 1810.
Pcltigera canina membranacea Nyl. Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 324.

i860.

Xin. Endocarpiscum Nylander.

Thallus quite small, one-leaved, umbilicate. Apothecia im-
mersed, indicated only by an ostiole, or superficial, lecanorine.
Spores numerous, very minute, simple, colorless.
Endocarpiscum Nylander, Flora 47 : 487. 1864.

I. ENDOCARPISCUM GUEPINI (Moug.) Nyl.

Thallus small to very small, one-leaved, umbilicate, ap-
pressed, rounded, scattered or crowded and imbricate ; the
sinuous, crenate, upturned margin bluish sorediate ; color
brownish olive to gray ; beneath naked, smooth, wrinkled,
flesh-color, brown, or even blackening. Apothecia deeply im-
bedded in tiny pits, invisible to the naked eye ; sometimes be-
coming superficial, lecanorine, black. Spores very small,
numerous, simple, colorless.

Abundant in the foothills at moderate elevations and on cliffs
above the ocean. An inconspicuous plant easily overlooked ;
readily recognized by the blue sorediate margin.

For the present I follow Tuckerman's classification of this
lichen ; Dr. Zahlbruckner places it in the genus Hcppia.
Ji7idocarpo7t guepini yioug. Fr. Lich. Eur. 410. 1831.
Endocarpiscum guepini ^y\. YXoYH ^^ : 487. 1864.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 375

XIV. Ephebe Fries.

Thallus fruticulose, branched, composed mainly of the alga
Sirosifhon fiilviualus associated with a fungus, the form and
habit of the plant being due mainly to the alga ; color black ;
apothecia immersed or superficial and globose; spores ellipsoid
or colorless. On rocks.
Efhche Fries, Syst. Orb. Veg. 256. 1825.

I. EPHEBE PUBESCENS (L.) Fries.

Thallus small, erect, tufted, minutely shrub-like, compact,
much branched, sooty black. Alga Sirosiphon. Sterile.

Abundant on perpendicular sandstone rocks at several differ-
ent places in the Searsville ridge, at an altitude of about 400
feet. As yet not seen elsewhere.

A very remarkable form unlike any other lichen of our flora.
Lichen piibcscens L. Sp. PI. 2: ii55' ^753'
Efhebefiibescens Fries, Fl. Scan. 294. 1835.

XV. Collema Wigg.

Thallus foliaceous, very small to medium size, very dark
green, or blackening ; cortical layer not present or indistinct;
apothecia scattered or crowded, usually numerous, very small
to medium size; spores ellipsoid, spindle-shaped or needle-
shaped ; 4-locular, plurilocular, and muriform ; colorless.

On trees, earth, and rocks.
Collema Wigg. ; Weber, Prim. Fl. Hols. 89. 1780.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Confined to trees.

b. Surface with anastomosing ridges covered by black granules.

I. aggregatum, 376.
bb. Surface radiately wrinkled and pustulate.

c. Surface, smooth, naked 2. vcspertilio^ 376.

cc. Surface isidiose-pulvenilent 3. nigresce7ts^ 376.

aa. Confined to earth and rocks.

d. Thallus not sCjuamulose or crustaceous.

e. Very gelatinous; on earth in damp places.

f. Thallus rather large, smooth, more or less pustulate and
wrinkled; apothecia small 4. pulposiivi, 377.

376 HERRE

ff. Thallus usually forming only a border to the large, crowded,

imbedded apothecia 5. litnosuin^ 377-

ee. On limestone rocks.

g. Thallus thick, undulate, plicate 6. plicatile^ 37S

dd. Thallus minute, squamulose or crustose...7. cristatellum, 37S.

I. COLLEMA AGGREGATUM Nyl.
Thallus small or medium size, circular, irregularly lobed,
with crenate margin ; marked by thick, rough, anastomosing
ridges densely covered by black granules ; more or less fenes-
trate ; color dark green or black ; beneath pale, smooth, much
wrinkled and pitted ; apothecia numerous, mostly on the ridges ;
disk from concave becoming flat or even convex ; reddish or
darkening ; margin entire ; spores fusiform, long, plurilocular,
*±'»mic.

4-5

On trees. Not rare in the foothills.

Collana agg-regatum Nyl. Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Cherb. 2 :
318. 1854.

2. COLLEMA VESPERTILIO (Lightf.) Wainio.
Thallus of medium size, orbicular, thin, closely appressed ;
lobes rounded, with entire or crenate margin; surface naked,
smooth, radiately wrinkled and thickly pustulate; color 3'ellovv-
green, very dark green, and black ; beneath paler or concolor-
ous, lacunose or pitted ; apothecia small, usually very numer-
ous and crowded ; disk reddish or blackening ; plane, becom-
ing convex ; spores needle-shaped or fusiform, long, plurilocular,
^i!^;li mic.

On trees and perhaps occasional on rocks. Common in the
foothills at moderate elevations. Our most abundant Collana.
Lichen vesperti'lio Lightfoot, Flora Scotica 2 : S40. 1777.
Collcma vcspcriilio Wainio, Act. Soc. Faun. Fl. Fenn. 7 : 235.

1890.

3. COLLEMA NIGRESCENS (Huds.) Wainio.

Thallus medium size, more or less orbiculate, thin, marginally
closely appressed, the rounded lobes with margins more or less
undulate or crenate ; surface radiately ridged and pustulate,
finally densely isidiose pulverulent; color ver}' dark green or

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 377

blackish green ; beneath concolorous or paler, lacunose, pitted
or fenestrate. Apothecia usually infrequent and scattered,
rarely numerous, small to medium ; the disk dark red-brown ;
the entire margin rather thick, finally excluded; often isidiose,
when it is tuberculate-radiate or toothed.

On trees in the foothills. Fairly common.
Lichen uigrcscens Hudson, Flora Anglica 450. 1762.
Collema nigrcscens Wainio, Act. Soc. Faun. Fl. Fenn. 7 : 235

1890.

4. COLLEMA PULPOSUM (Bernh.) Ach.

Thallus thin, small to medium size, orbicular or irregular,
closely appressed, usually depressed or concave centrally ; very
soft and gelatinous when moist ; lobes rounded, sometimes
imbricate, margin varying from entire and sinuous to crenate
and slightly laciniate or even denticulate ; surface smooth, more
or less pustulate and wrinkled ; sometimes beset with tiny erect
lobules ; color dark green or black ; sometimes brownish ;
beneath paler, smooth, wrinkled. Apothecia small, numerous ;
disk flat or concave, reddish, with paler entire margin ; spores
ovoid, from 4-locular becoming sub-muriform.

On earth on damp hillsides, forming rather extensive patches
among mosses. Not rare in the foothills at an elevation of
about 1000 feet.
Lichen fiilfostis Bernhardi in Schrader's Journ. Bot. i : 7.

p. I, /. I. 1799.
Collema fidposuni Ach. Lich. Univ. 632. 1810.

5. COLLEMA LIMOSUM Ach.

Thallus thin, small to medium, irregular or scattered, very
closely appressed ; margin irregularly crenate or dentate-lobu-
late ; surface smooth, or here and there beset with small ascend-
ant lobules ; color black or dark green. Thallus mostly dis-
appearing and becoming merely a net-work or margin about the
numerous large, imbedded apothecia ; disk mostly flat, reddish
or blackening; spores usually in fours in the thekes, ellipsoid,
muriform-plurilocular.

On a wet clay bank beside a spring a mile above Wright's

378 HERRE

Station ; altitude about looo feet. Probably occurring in similar

situations throughout the mountains.

Lichen liniosiis Ach. Lich. Suec. Prodr. 126. 1798 (excl. syn.

Collcma graniforuiis Hoffman).
Collema Itmosum A^zh.. Lich. Univ. 629. 1810.

According to Crombie, Brit. Lich. i : 47. 1894, Collema
limosum is a synonym of Collcma glaiicescens Hoffman, Deut-
sches Flora 2 : 100. 1795. If this is correct the name proposed
by Acharius must be discarded.

6. COLLEMA PLICATILE Ach.

Thalius, small, orbicular, thick, laciniate ; divisions distinct,
separate, or disappearing centrally leaving only the marginal
lobes ; these rugose, undulate-plicate, compact, more or less
ascendant; surface sometimes covered with small erect gran-
ules or lobules : color dingy brownish green or black. Apo-
thecia small to medium, numerous, concave or usually plane ;
disk reddish or more often blackening, the margin entire or
fiexuous ; spores ovoid ellipsoid, quadrilocular, 8 x 30, 7^ X
321^, and 7>^ X 35 mic.

On limestone rocks near the summit of Black Mountain, alti-
tude 2700 feet, and at New Almaden, at about 1200 feet. Rare.

Conspicuously different in habit from an}- other Collema in
our flora.
Lichen ^licatilis Ach. Nov. Att. Acad. Sci. Stockh. 16: 11,

pi. I,/. 2. 1795.
Collema plicatile Kc\\. Lich. Univ. 635. 18 10.

7. COLLEMA CHRISTATELLUM Tuckerman.

Thalius scattered, microscopic, forming an indeterminate
crustaceous or squamulose crust; lobes minute, ascendant, with
more or less dissected and crenate or dentate edges, or reduced
to tiny erect lobules ; color greenish or brownish black. Apo-
thecia medium size, concave ; disk concolorous or reddit^h ; mar-
gin entire.

On clay and crumbling rock on a steep slope in Hidden Villa
Canon, elevation 800 feet. Probably occurring throughout in
similar situations but too readily overlooked.

l.ICIIENS Ol' SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 379

Determination by Dr. Hasse ; through an oversight not sub-
mitted to Dr. Zahlbruckner.
Collcma cristatcUum Tuck. Lich. Cahf. 29. 1866; Tuck, Syn.

N. Am. Lich. i : 152. 1882.

XVI. Leptogium Gray.

Thallus foliaceous or rarely fruticulose, with a distinct cortical
layer; lead-colored, brown, dark green, or black. Apothecia
scattered or crowded, usually numerous, small ; spores bilocu-
lar, to plurilocular or muriform-multilocular, ovoid or ellipsoid,
colorless.

Our species not well known as yet; only those which have
been positively identified are herein described, although at least
two or three more species are represented in our flora.
Lcftogiiim Gray, Nat. Arr. i : 395. 182 1.

KEV TO THE SPECIES.

a. On earth, moss or rocks.

b. More or less white fleecy beneath, margin minutely white ciliate.

I. albociliatiiin^ 380.
bb. Without nap or fibrils beneath.

c. Thallus very small, rather entire 2. scotimim^ 3S0.

cc. Thallus medium size to large.

d. Color red-brown, chestnut or plumbeous ; lobes narrowed,

corniculate tipped 5. pahiiatti?>i, 381.

dd. Color bhick.

e. Erectisli, crenate, narrowed, complicate.

3 . ca lifo rn icii m, 381.
ee. Flat, expanded, suborbiculate.

4. calif 01- niciim platyniifn^ 381.
aa. On trees.
f. Dark green to black ; usually smooth beneath ; thallus fenestrate
wrinkled, with isiodose granulate or isidiose lobulate ridges.

6. chloro}neliini stellaiis^ 382.
ff. Lead-color to blackish green.

g. Beneath fleecy, with long white or brown fibrils.

7. Saturn inum^ 3S2.
gg. Beneath covered with minute velvety pubescence.

8. luyochrotun to7)ientosti77i^ 3S3.

380 HERRE

1. LEPTOGIUM ALBOCILIATUM Desmaz.

Thallus small to medium size, rounded, by coalescence form-
ing extensive indeterminate mats ; lobes imbricate, deeply and
sinuately laciniate, their tips rounded or pointed ; margin in folds
or crisped, up-turned, crenate, lacerate, or denticulate; surface
smooth, centrally often granulate or with small erect lobules;
color greenish black ; the margin ciliate with minute w^hite
bristles; under surface paler; marginally with a conspicuous
white fleece ; this longer, shaggy, and brown within, rarel}' dis-
appearing. Apothecia numerous, becoming crowded when
present; small to medium size, sessile; disk reddish, plane or
convex ; margin pale, entire, finally disappearing ; often bristly
wath minute white cilia similar to those on margin of thallus.
Spores bilocular.

Found throughout on rocks and earth among mosses.

Fruiting abundantly at 3000 feet altitude on Castle Rock
Ridge and in Devils Canon at 2300 feet ; still luxuriant in
growth as low as 2000 feet. Extending downward to 150 feet
in the foothills, but there reduced and sterile.

Fruiting specimens collected too late to be submitted to Dr.
Zahlbruckner.
Le^togimn alhocilaUim Desmazieres, Ann. Sci. Nat. iv. 4 : 132.

1855-

2. LEPTOGIUM SCOTINUM (Ach.) Fries.
Thallus small, suborbicular or effuse, appressed, with up-
turned edges ; lobes rounded, more or less complicate ; margin
entire, crenate, or somewhat laciniate ; greenish lead-color to
brown. Apothecia numerous and comparativeh^ l^i'ge, reddish
brown; margin entire, paler; spores -^ mic, muriform-mul-
tilocular.

On earth, among mosses.

A few specimens collected on a high clay bank on Black
Mt., at an altitude of 900 feet. Should be looked for in similar
situations throughout. From its small size too readil}' over-
looked.

Lichen scotinus Ach. Lichenogr. Suec. Prodr. 128. 1798-
Collcnia scotinuni Ach. Lich. Univ. 651. 1810.
Le^togituu scotinmn Fries, Sum. Veg. 122. 1846.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 381

3. LEPTOGIUM CALIFORNICUM Tuck.

Thallus medium size, indeterminate, irregularly and narrowly
laciniate and cut-lobed ; the margins erect, crinkled or much
and intricately folded, more or less crenate, serrate, or dentate-
lobulate, or sometimes merely granulate. Thallus occasionally
much reduced, the erect, very narrow much dissected lobes
then densely crowded; color black or dark brown; margin
often lustrous as if oiled or varnished. Apothecia infrequent,
small, red-brown, the paler margin elevated, entire or more or
less dentate.

Occurring throughout, forming large coal-black mats on
mossy sandstone ledges at moderate elevations in the foothills ;
reduced forms occurring in rock crevices as low as 150 feet.
Lcftogiuni californicum Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 159.

1882.

4. LEPTOGIUM CALIFORNICUM PLATYNUM Tuck.

Thallus medium to large, orbicular, or indeterminate through
fusion of adjacent plants ; appressed ; lobes irregular, elongate
and expanded, imbricate, with crenate or dentate margin ; sur-
face finely striate or wrinkled, more or less pustulate, occasion-
ally minutely lobulate ; beneath paler, finely wrinkled ; color
black or greenish black; rarely brownish black. Apothecia
very numerous, minute, reddish brown, the prominent entire
margin paler; spores 48 x 16 mic, muriform multilocular.

On earth, roots, and rocks, in damp situations. Abundant
on Castle Rock Ridge from 1500 to 3000 feet elevation. As
yet not seen elsewhere.

A very distinct and handsome lichen.
Leftogmm californicum ■platymnn Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich.

I : 159. 1882.

5. LEPTOGIUM PALMATUM (Huds.) Mont.

Thallus medium to large, more or less tufted, very irregular,
deeply laciniate ; lobes more or less convolute, with crenate
margin, the 2-4 corniculate tips erect, narrow, tubular, pointed
or blunt ; surface of thallus finely wrinkled and pitted ; beneath
paler, wrinkled ; color usually reddish brown to chestnut ;

382 HERRE

sometimes greenish lead-color. Apothecia scattered, becoming
very numerous and crowded, concolorous or red-brown ; the
paler elevated margin entire. Spores '^ mic, muriform-multi-
locular.

On earth, mosses, and rocks ; often occurring in very exten-
sive tufted patches. Abundant.

Lichen fahnattis Hudson, Fl. Ang. ed. 2. 536. 1778.
Leftogimn fahnatwn Montague, PI. Cell. Voy. Pol. Sud, 128.

1845.

6. LEPTOGIUM CHLOROMELUM STELLANS Tuck.

Thallus orbicular, becoming indeterminate, medium to very
large, more or less fenestrate, laciniate ; lobes usually narrow,
irregular, more or less imbricate or coalescing ; surface striate,
wrinkled, and ridged, the ridges densely covered with black
isidiose granules, or by cristate-lacerate isidiose lobules ; color
dark green, plumbeous, or black ; beneath paler, wrinkled ;
rarely a very minute down sparingly present.

Sterile.

On trees. Common ; reaching its maximum development at
an altitude of from 500 to 800 feet, the loosely connected
thallus often 4 or 5 inches in diameter.

Lichen chloronielos Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occident. 3 : 1892. 1806.
Leptogiuni chloromehmi Nyl. Syn. Meth. Lich. i : 128. i860.
Leftogitun chloromeliim stellans Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich. i :

163. 1882.

7. LEPTOGIUM SATURNINUM (Smith) Schaer.

Thallus large, orbicular, one-leaved or polyphyllous and im-
bricate ; the long, irregular, sinuate lobes rounded at the tips ;
their margins upturned, more or less convolute and elevated ;
sometimes with finely laciniate edges, margined with isidiose
granules ; upper surface varying from smooth to granular or
finally densely isidiose granulate ; color plumbeous to greenish
black, with usually a more or less evident metallic rufous or
bronze lustre ; granules, when present, brownish black ; be-
neath paler, finely wrinkled ; covered with a white or brown
fleece, tliis becoming interruptedly long and shaggy. Sterile.

On trunk of trees ; abundant throughout.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 383

Lichen saturnhiuni Smith, Trans. Linn. Soc. i : 84. I79^-
Leftogium saturninum Schaerer, Lich. Helvet. Spicil. 534.
1840,

8. LEPTOGIUM MYOCHROUM TOMENTOSUM

(Schaer.) Tuck.

Thallu^ orbicular, flattish, much thinner than L,. satiirninuni ;
lobes large, round, somewhat plaited. Color greenish black
with very small black granules more or less thickly sprinkled
over the surface ; beneath pale, smooth, very minutely velvety
pubescent. Sterile.

On trees. Rare. A very few specimens collected on Black
Mountain, at an elevation of 2200 feet.

Identification by Dr. Hasse and the author ; no specimens
available to submit to Dr. Zahlbruckner.
Leftogiiim tomentostim Schaerer.
Leptogium myochroiini tomenioswn Tuck. Syn. N. Am. Lich.

I : 166. 1882.

XVn. Placodium (DC.) Naeg. & Hepp.

Thallus typically crustaceous and lobate at the circumfer-
ence, or uniform ; very rarely suffruticose, as in the species de-
scribed below ; color usually yellow or orange.

Apothecia generally scattered, but in the following species
terminal ; the disk usually yellow or orange. Spores ellipsoid,
polar-bilocular in the present species as is t3^pical of the genus,
simple, colorless.
Placodimn DeCandolle, Fl. Fr. 2: 377. 1805; Naegeli &

Hepp in Hepp, Abb. u. Beschr. d. Spor. d. Flecht. Eur. pi.

2, et passim. 1853.

I. PLACODIUM CORALLOIDES Tuck.
Thallus slender, solid, cartilagineous, decumbent, forming
orbiculate, eventually indeterminate patches ; branches terete,
nodulose, blunt, sub-dichotomously divided, much intertangled ;
color bright yellow or orange, finally dark orange ; underneath
and basally grayish or blackening. Apothecia small to me-
dium, lateral or terminal, sub-pedicellate ; the rough, dark-
orange disk somewhat concave, becoming finally convex and

384 HERRE

excluding the entire, thin, elevated margin. " Spores oblong,
the sporoblasts approximate, the isthmus deficient, ~ mic.
The biatorine apothecia bordered more or less, or coronate,
with the finally powdery nodules of the thallus ; 1-2 mm. wide."

The above description but little altered from Tuckerman's
excellent diagnosis.

Very abundant on sandstone ledges from Pescadero Point
southward along the coast to Pigeon Point. It grows usually
within a few feet of the water, barely above ordinary high tide,
and must be submerged at every storm or unusual tide.

Identification by the author.
Placodium coi'alloidcs Tuck. Proc. Am. Acad. 6: 287. 1864;

Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 169. 1882.

XVIII. Lecanora (Ach.) Tuck.

Thallus typically crustaceous and uniform ; in some species
lobed and sub-foliaceous and in a few Californian species fruti-
cose. Apothecia (in the present species) sub-pedicellate, termi-
nal or sub-terminal ; the spores simple, colorless, ellipsoid.

A strict interpretation of this genus will undoubtedly exclude
certain sections of the* group as interpreted by Tuckerman, e.
g.^ Acarospora.

Lecanora Ach. Lich. Univ. 77. 1810; in part.
Lecanora Tuck. Gen. Lich. no. 1872 ; Syn. N. Am. Lich. i :

181. 1882.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Species fruticose, stout, short, erect; on rocks.
b. Apothecia abundant, terminal or sub-terminal.

c. Disk yellowish, tawny, dusky, or black i. boIanderi\ 3S4.

CO. Disk pale yellowish to tawny red 3. thavitiitis^ Z^S'

bb. Sterile. (Apothecia lateral when present, with pale-brick-
colored disk) 3. phryganitis^ 2>^S'

I. LECANORA BOLANDERI Tuck.

Thallus fruticose, short, rigid, dichotomously divided, form-
ing dense clumps ultimately ; branches terete, erect, blunt ;
color a yellowish green. Apothecia terminal, medium size, be-
coming large; disk concolorous or decidedly yellowish, some-

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 385

times tawny, dusk}-, or blackenin<; ; margin swollen, entire or
more or less crenate or denticulate. Spores '^^g'* mic.

On granite cliffs 250-300 feet above the sea, near Point
San Pedro, and on sandstone at Pescadero Point, 50 feet above
the ocean. Not common.
Lecanora bolanderi TwcV. Proc. Am. Acad. 6: 266. 1864;

Syn. N. Am. Lich. i : 181. 1882.

2. LECANORA THAMNITIS Tuck.

" Thallus papillate-fruticulose, made up of short, erect, fasti-
giately divided trunks which are crowded densely together into
an effuse crust (or pass now into compact, rounded peltate
clumps) ; pale straws-colored ; apothecia middling to ample,
sub-terminal ; disk from pale-yellowish passing into tawny-red,
margin crenate. Spores ovoid-ellipsoid, '^^ "^^'^•" Lich. Calif.
p. 20.

"Sandstones of the Pacific coast ; Oakland hills, and S. Bruno
(Bolander), Tuckerman, 1. c. 1866." Tuckerman, Synopsis
N. Am. Lichens, Part I, p. 181 ; 1882.

San Bruno, mentioned above, is in San Mateo county and the
lichen should occur with us but thus far I have been unable to
discover it. Tuckerman states that it is probably but a form of
L. bolander i.
Lecanora thamnitis Tuck. Lich. Calif. 20. 1866; Syn. N.

Am. Lich. I : 182. 1882.

3. LECANORA PHRYGANITIS Tuck.

Thallus short, terete, rigid ; simple or irregularly short-
branched; tufted, or forming low, rounded, intertangled mat-
like clumps, the branches longer and decumbent at the circum-
ference ; covered with yellowish gray-green granules or powder ;
beneath brown or blackening basally ; apothecia not seen, all
our specimens being sterile. Tuckerman states, Syn. N. Am.
Lich. Vol. I, p. 182 : " apothecia middling to ample, lateral,
sub-sessile ; disk pale-brick-colored, margin flexuously lobed ;
spores oblong, ellipsoid, ^'^^ mic."

Abundant on granite cliffs above the sea near Point San

386 HERRE

Pedro, at an altitude of 300 feet. A few plants also found on
sandstone at Pescadero Point, at an elevation of 50 feet.

A very distinct lichen, always associated with Lecanora pin-
guts Tuck., and X. bolanderi Tuck.
Lecanora -phrygmiitis Tuck. Lich. Calif. 19. 1866; Syn. N.

Am. Lich. I : 182. 1882.

XIX. Cladonia (Hill) Wainio.

Thallus 2-fold ; the primary one usually inconspicuous, of
horizontal or up-turned, more or less leafy squamules or merely
granular; the secondary one more conspicuous, forming the
"plant," of upright hollow podetia, which ma}^ be simple and
club-, cup- or funnel-shaped, or shrub-like and much branched ;
apothecia cephaloid, red or brown, borne on the tips of the
podetia; spores ovoid-oblong, simple, colorless, small, very
much alike in all the species.

The species of Cladonia are comparatively few in number,
but are of wide distribution and within certain limits are greatly
variable. The boundaries of some of the species are therefore
difficult to define, but all the members of the genus are readily
recognizable as Cladonias.

An almost indefinite number of varieties, sub-varieties, and
forms have been described, and what one author has described
another has recast and subdivided until great confusion is the
result.

From a single handful plucked from a thick mat of some Cla-
donia one may isolate a dozen of the named varieties of certain
authors, until as a result one has a separate name for almost every
individual in the lot. This, it seems to me, is the rcductio ad
absiirdum of classification.

That all differing forms should be segregated is self-evident,
but to give a name and a description to every individual varia-
tion is to make a farce of systematic botanical or zoological
work, while to take no account of the plasticity of organisms
and their consequent yielding to the varying environmental
conditions is to shut one's eyes to the larger phases of scientific
vvork.

Ill the present paper the material has been described in ac-

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 387

cordance with tlie determinations of Dr. Zahlbriickner, but the

account here presented is only tentative. Before the Cladonias

of the region can be understood a full collection of determined

material must be at hand for purposes of comparison with local

material.

Cladonia Hill, His. PI. 91. 175 1 ; in part.

Cladonia Wainio, Monog. Clad. Univ. 1887.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. Apothecia scarlet ; podetia powdery or granular.. 9, ??iacilen/a,'T^()i.
aa. Apothecia brown.

b. Not cup-bearing; podetia irregularly branclied.

c. Podetia stout, ciespitose, club-shaped, densely clad with leafy

squamules 7. sgHa?nosa, 390.

cc. Podetia slender, fruticose, subulate ; branches spreading,

curved, much divided S. fiircata racemosa^ 391.

bb. Podetia cup-bearing ; simple.

d. Cups proliferous.

e. From the center 6. verticillata^ 390.

ee. From the margins of the much reduced cups.

3. chlorop/icca pro/iycra^ 2)^S.
dd. Cups not proliferous.

f. Podetia turbinate, with cyathiform cups.

g. Podetia longitudinally furrowed.. i . pyxidata costata^ 387.
gg. Podetia not longitudinall}' furrowed; epidermis of yel-
lowish or sulphur-colored powder.. 3. chloi'opha;a^ 3S8.
ff. Podetia cylindrical, trumpet- or club-shaped ; cups reduced,
often obsolete.
h. Podetia stout, short, roughened and verrucose or even

squamulose 5 . Jimbriata tiibccforinis^ 389-

hh. Podetia powdery ; not roughened.

/. Podetia stout, trumpet- or clul)-shaped ; tips obscurely

cup-like Ty. Jimbriata clavata, 7)^^.

a. Podetia slender, filiform, pointed, to coarse and blunt,
with greatly reduced zw^s..^. Jimbriata cornuta^ 3S9.

I. CLADONIA PYXIDATA COSTATA Floerke.

Primary thallus of minute to medium-sized ascendant squam-
ules, entire or crenate-lobate ; rarely large ; color sage-green to
brown. Podetia short, stout, turbinate, with longitudinal fur-

388 HERRE

rows ; basally more or less warty or sub-squamulose ; above
more or less naked ; cups dilated, with margins more or less
denticulate or proliferous ; within usually granular warty or
even squamulose ; apothecia small, brown.

On earth and rock, at an elevation of about 1000 feet, on the
Page Mill road, Black Mountain.

Probably not uncommon in the mountains above 1000 feet.

Cladonia -pyxidata is a very variable species ; the variety cos-
tata is distinguished from the typical form of the species by the
podetia being longitudinally furrowed and more or less naked.
Cladonia pyxidata costata Floerke, Clad. Comm. 66. 1828.

2. CLADONIA CHLOROPH^A Floerke.

Squamules of primary thallus crenate-lobed, rather broad,
medium size to large ; usually ascendant ; green to ashy or olive
brown. Podetia simple, short, broadly turbinate, rising from
center of squamules ; covered with a yellowish-greenish or sul-
phur-colored powder, or warty granules ; cups dilated, rather
deep, with entire or denticulate margins. Apothecia rare,
brown, becoming confluent.

Occurring throughout on earth and stumps.

2a. CLADONIA CHLOROPH^A PROLIFERA Arn.

Podetia elongated and comparatively slender ; cups but little
evident, their margins greatly extended in branched prolifera-
tions ; these flattened or expanded and more or less densely
clothed with leafy thalline lobules ; summits terminated by the
abundant, minute, light brown apothecia.

A peculiar form resembling Cladonia squamosa in the abun-
dant squamules on the thallus, and in habit and general appear-
ance like a very stout and coarse condition of Cladonia furcata
racemosa. " Habet podetia scyphosa qua C. /areata non
habet," Zahlbruckner /« ////.

On earth in the redwoods above Woodside, at an altitude of
1200 feet.
Ccnoviycc chlorophcea Floerke, in Somm. Suppl. Lapp. 130.

1826.
Cladonia chlorophcBa Floerke, Chul. 70. 1828.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 389

3. CLADONIA FIMBRIATA CLAVATA Arn.

Primary thallus of leafy, rounded, very numerous and imbri-
cate squamules, more or less ascendant, passing finally into an
effuse, powdery crust ; margin crenate or incised, upturned ;
color brown, varying from pale whitish or brownish green to
dark ; margin usually paler ; beneath while. Podetia ascendant
from surface of primary squamules, simple, stout, cylindrical,
trumpet- or club-shaped, the tips obscurely cup-like, with more
or less denticulate margin, or more usually blunt or pointed ;
thickly covered with a greenish or whitish powder. Apothecia
rare, small, terminal, or on the denticulate margin of the cups ;
becoming confluent and larger; very dark brown.

A common lichen on rotton wood, earth and moss ; occasional
on old roofs. Generally distributed throughout the peninsula.
Cladonia fimbriata clavaia Arnold. Act. Soc. Faun. Fl. Fenn.

10: 293. 1894.
4. CLADONIA FIMBRIATA CORNUTA (L.) Acharius.

Primary thallus of leafy, elongate squamules, more or less
lobed, with crenate or laciniate margins; color pale or dull
sage-green ; beneath very white. Podetia rising from surface
of squamules; simple, small to medium, slender, terete ; api-
cally pointed and thread-like ; or coarser, thicker, blunt, with
greatly reduced, minutely denticulate cups ; more or less thickly
covered with a greenish powder, through which the white cor-
tex is more or less visible. Apothecia very minute, brown, on
tips of denticulation of cups.

On dead wood, rotten logs, and old roofs. I have specimens
from the roof of a house in Mayfield, at an altitude of about 35
feet, and from logs of Sequoia semfcrvircns in the hills above
Wright's Station, at from 1200 to 1500 feet altitude. Probably
occurring throughout our range wherever redwoods are native.
Lichen cor7iutits L. Sp. PI. 2: 1152. 1753.
Cladonia Jimhriata coniuta Ach. Syn. Meth. Lich. 257. 1814,

5. CLADONIA FIMBRIATA TUB^FORMIS Hoffm.

Primary thallus densely imbricate, squamulose. Podetia
short, stout, broadly trumpet-shaped ; covered witli a greenish

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., March, 1906.

390

HERRE

powder, becoming rough and verrucose ; occasionally with
thalline squamules ; cups entire or denticulate ; tips of the teeth
capped by the very minute dark brown apothecia.

Collected on an old roof in Mayfield, at an altitude of 35
feet. Probably occurring throughout the foothills and moun-
tains, on old dead wood.
Cladonia -pyxidata tubcefonnis Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 122.

1791.

6. CLADONIA VERTICILLATA Hoffm.

Primary thallus leafy, rounded or more or less dissected,
usually crenate-lobulate ; brownish green, whitish beneath.

Podetia cylindrical, from short to elongated, cup-bearing ;
the cups marginally denticulate and 2-5 times proliferous from
their center, forming a series of whorls ; sometimes two or more
branches arise from one cup. Podetia smooth, but here and
there roughened or bearing occasional thalline lobules. Color
gray-green to browmish.

Apothecia light to dark brown, on short stalks from margin
of cups, or nearly sessile on margins.

(Forma ■phyllophora Floerke differs in the much greater de-
velopment and elongation of the primary thallus, which may be
as much as an inch in length in the larger and frequently leafy
cups, and the often conspicuous and abundant thalline leaflets
on the podetia, especially on the basal joints. The podetia are
also longer and proportionately slenderer.)

On earth and in crevices of rocks. Found throughout the
foothills and mountains. Ofttimes growing in the dryest situa-
tions on the rocky summits of hills, where even the chaparral
is thin and stunted.
Cladonia verticillata Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 122. 1795.

7. CLADONIA SQUAMOSA (Scop.) Iloftm.

Primary thallus leafy or squamulose, lobulate or dissected.

Podetia erect, ca3spitose, i^^ to 31^ inches long, irregularly
much-branched, forming matted clumps ; densely clothed to the
summit with light green or brown squamules, these often large,
leafy and lobulate ; epidermis pale green, disappearing, the sur-
face then pale reddish brown ; axils of branches sometimes in-

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 39I

flated, their tips usually subulate. Apothecia numerous, very
small, clustered, dark brown.

On earth on damp hillsides.

Not rare in the foothills at moderate elevations.
Lichen sqnamostis Scopoli, Flora Carniolica ed. 2. 2 : 368.

1772.
Cladonia squamosa Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 125. 1795.

8. CLADONIA FURCATA RACEMOSA (Hoffm.)

Floerke.
Primary thallus at first of tiny scattered squamules, these
eventually quite long, leafy, lobed, with crenate-lobulate
margin ; pale green. Podetia fruticose, very slender, elon-
gated ; branches spreading, curved, intricately divided ; surface
smooth, becoming more or less roughened or thickly clothed
with squamules or thalline lobules ; axils of branches often gap-
ing ; tips of branches very slender and subulate, or thickened
and stumpy. Color varying from a very pale greenish gray to
brown. Apothecia numerous, very small, pale to dark brown.
On earth in the foothills ; not rare. My best specimens are
from Pilarcitos Creek Canon, two miles from the Pacific, at an
altitude of 200-300 feet.

Cladonia racemosa Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 144. 1795.
Cladonia Jiircaia racemosa Floerke, Clad. Comm. 152. 1828.

9. CLADONIA MACILENTA (Hoffm.) Nylander.
Primary thallus minute to small, squamulose or leafy, scanty,

crenate-lobate ; pale gray-green to brownish; white beneath.
Podetia cylindrical, slender or sometimes swollen, simple, or
with few and irregular branches ; occasionally dilated at the
summit and forming cups, these marginally proliferous with
(usually) fertile branchlets ; covered by a pale gray-green pow-
der or by granules, these becoming squamules and on the lower
half finally leafy lobules, similar in form and color to those of
the primary thallus ; the white ground color usually but little
evident ; specimens occasionally occur in which the powder or
granules are not present. Apothecia scarlet, turning black
when wet; small to medium, irregular, more or less confluent;
terminal.

392 HERRE

On stumps and old logs of Sequoia semfervirens and Psctc-
dotsuga tax if oil a.

A common, handsome and somewhat variable Cladonia.
Cladonia macilenta Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2 : 126. 1795.
Cladonia macilenta Nylander, Syn. Meth. Lich. 223. i860.

XX. Dendrographa Darbish.

Thallus fruticose, erect or decumbent, tufted or matted ; fila-
ments terete or compressed basally, branched, with infrequent
lateral soredia ; color gray. Alga Trcntepohlia (^Chroolepiis).
Apothecia lateral, circular, the disk black, white pruinose;
spores quadrilocular, colorless, spindle-shaped or slightly
curved.

On maritime shrubs on coast of California or on earth and
rocks in the same region.
Dendrographa Darbishire, Ber. der Deutsch. Bot. Gesellsch.,

13 : 313. 1895 ; Darbishire, Monographia Roccelleorum

(Bibliotheca Botanica, 45). 1898.

I. DENDROGRAPHA MINOR (Tuck.) Darbish.

Thallus fruticose, erect or more often lax and decumbent,
tufted ; terete and hair-like or slightly flattened below, much
and intricately branched, forming dense, tangled clumps ; color
gray, or basally blackening. Sterile. Large globose lateral
soredia sparingly present.

Abundant on rocks and earth 50-100 feet above the sea near
Golden Gate, San Francisco. As yet not found elsewhere
within our limits.

J^occella leucophcsa var. minor Tuck.,
Dendrographa minor Darbishire, Ber. der. Deutsch. Botah.

Gesellsch. 16: 13. 1898.

XXI. Sphaerophorus Pers.

Thallus fruticose, erect, shrub-like, rather rigid, much
branched ; medulla densely cottony. Tips of the fertile branches
swollen, enclosing the globose apothecia ; spores simple, spheri-
cal, violet-black.

But one species occurs in our territory.
Sphcerophoriis Persoon, in Usteri Annal. d. Bot. i : 23. 1794.

LICHENS OF SANTA CRUZ PENINSULA 393

I. SPH/EROPHORUS GLOBOSUS (Huds.).

Thallus fruticose, tufted and shrub-like, erect, branched,
terete, smooth, with short, fine, and very numerous terminal
branchlets, these often in clumps which shatter off very readily ;
color silver}' gray or whitish but varying to brownish or a de-
cided brown ; rarely reddish. Alike on all sides. Medullary
layer densely cottony. Apothecia terminal, within the swollen
and globular tips of the fertile branches, which split open ex-
posing the globose apothecia ; spores violet-black, simple,
spherical.

On trees, dead wood, and sandstone. On the Pacific side of
the peninsula occurring from near sea-level to the summit of
the range, but not descending on the Bay side more than a few
hundred feet, remaining within the limits of the spruce and red-
wood forests. Occasionally found in great abundance. A
handsome and striking looking plant.

Lichen globosus Hudson, Fl. Anglica, vol. i, 460. 1762.
Lichen glohifcrns L. Mantissa 133. 1767.

Sphcsrophorus globiferiis DeCandolle, Fl. Fr. 3d ed. 1805.
Sphmrofhoron coralloides Persoon, Usteri Annal. d. Bot. i :

23. 1794.

XXII. Dermatocarpon (Eschw.) Th. Fr.

Thallus foliaceous or squamulose, umbilicate or appressed
and adnate. Apothecia ver}'- small, immersed, appearing as
minute specks on the surface ; spores ellipsoid or ovoid, simple,
colorless, usually 8 in the obsolete paraphyses.

On rocks and earth.

Our squamulose forms not included in the present paper.
Dermaiocarfon Eschweiler, Syst. Lich. 16. 1824; in part.

Th. Fries, Genera, 103. 1861.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

a. One-leaved, large : i. ?niniatu?n, t,<^^.

aa. More or less polyphyllous.

b. Thallus more or less cttspitose, the convolute and complicate

lobes ascendant 2. ynijiiattun cojuplicatum^ 394*

bb. Thallus pseudo-crustaceous, small, closely appressed.

3. aqiiaticiun^ 394*

394

HERRE

1. DERMATOCARPON MINIATUM (L.) Mann.

Thallus medium to large, smooth, coriaceous, one-leaved or
lobate, the margin rounded, undulate or crenate, and more or
less recurved ; attached by an umbilicus ; color whitish to bluish
gray or occasionally brownish ; sometimes granulose pruinose ;
beneath varying from a bright to a dark brown or black ; smooth
or minutely pustulate. Apothecia very numerous, minute, scat-
tered, immersed in the thallus ; opening by small dark or brown
pores, which appear as specks thickly distributed over the en-
tire surface. Spores simple, colorless, ellipsoid.

On rocks, in shaded or damp situations.

A common and conspicuous lichen throughout the foothills
and to the summit of the Santa Cruz range, the thallus reaching
a diameter of more than two inches.
Lichen niiniatus L. Sp. PI. 2: 1149. i753«
Der?natocar^on ininiattun Mann.

2. DERMATOCARPON MINIATUM COMPLI-

CATUM (Sw.).

Thallus small to medium, polyphyllous, densely compacted,
the imbricate and complicate lobes rotund, convolute and more
or less ascendant, with recurved margin ; the surface more or
less roughened and wrinkled. Otherwise like the species.

Common in the foothills with the species.
Lichen coinplicatus Swartz, Nova Act. Upsal. 4: 38. 1776.
Dcf'nialocarpon niiniatimi complicaUim.

3. DERMATOCARPON AQiJATICUM (Weis.).

Thallus small, thick, smooth, lobes densely imbricate and
compacted ; margin rounded, entire or crenate-lobulate ; closely
appressed, umbilicate ; resembling an intricately convolute, ad-
nate, crustaceous lichen ; color dull gray or olive-brown ; some-
times white granulose pruinose ; beneath dark brown to dingy
black ; smooth. Apothecia as in Dermatocarpon miniatum^
but proportionately larger and less numerous.

Abundant on granite cliffs 200 feet above the sea, near Point
San Pedro. Occurring also on wet sandstone in Devils Canon,
altitude 2300 feet.

Lichen aqiiaticus Weis, PI. Crypt. 77. 1772.
Dennatocarpon aquaticum .

INDEX TO LICHEN PAPER.

Note. — New species and subspecies in black face type.

Alectoria jubata (I>.) Tuck. 346

Cetraria californica Tuck. 337

chlorophylla (Ilumb.) Wahl. 338
ciliaris (Ach.) Tuck. 337
glauca (L.) Ach. 339
glauca tuckermani llerre 340
juniperina (L.) Ach. 340
lacunosa stenophylla Tuck. 339
platjphjlla Tuck. 338

Cladonia chlorophaea Floerke 388
chlorophsea prolifera Arn. 388
fimbriata clavata Arn. 3S9
fimbriata cornuta (L.) Ach. 389
fimbriata tubaformis Iloffm. 389
f urcata racemosa (Hoft'm.) Floerke

391
macilenta (Hoffm.) Nyl. 391
pyxidata costata Floerke 387
squamosa (Scop.) Hoffm. 390
verticillata Fries 390
Collema aggregatum Nyl. 376
cristatellum Tuck. 378
limosum Ach. 377
nigrescens (Huds.) Wainio 376
plicatile Ach. 378
pulposum (Bernh.) Nyl. 377
vespertilio (Lightf.) Wainio 376

Dendrographa minor (Tuck.) Darbish

392
Dermatocarpon aquaticum (Weis.) 394
miniatum (L.) Mann 394
miniatum complicatum (S\v.) 394

Endocarpiscum guepini (Delis.) Nyl.

374
Ephebe pubescens (L.) Fries 375
Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. 342
vulpina (L.) Ach. 341

Gyrophora diabolica Zahlbruckner 366
phaea (Tuck.) 366
polyphylla (L.) Turn. & Borr. 365

Lecanora bolanderi Tuck. 384
phryganitis Tuck. 385
thamnitis Tuck. 385

Leptogium albociliatum Desmaz. 380
californicum Tuck. 381
californicum platynum Tuck. 381
chloromelum stellans Tuck. 382
myochroum tomentosum ( Schaer.)

Tuck. 383
palmatum (Huds.) Mont. 381
saturninum (Smith) Schaer. 382
scotinum (Ach.) Fries 380

Nephromium helveticum (Ach.) 371
lusitanicum (Sc!iaer. ) Nyl. 371
tomentosum rameum Nyl. 370

Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach. 357
conspersa (Ehrh.) Ach. 358
conspurcata (Schaer.) Wainio 357
enteromorpha Ach. 355
flavicans Tuck. 352
herrei Zahlbruckner 353
olivacea (L.) Ach. 356
olivacea panniformis Nyl. 356
perforata (Wulf.) Ach. 352
perlata (L.) Ach. 351
physodes (L.) Ach. 354
saxatilis (L.) Ach. 354
sorediata (Ach.) Nyl. 356
soredica Nyl. 358
tiliacea (Hoftm.) Ach. 353

Peltigera canina (L. ) Hoffm. 373

canina membranacea (Ach.) Nyl.

374
rufescens (Neck.) Hoffm. 373
scutata (Dicks.) Leighton 372

(395)

39^

INDEX

Physcia adglutinata (Flrk.) Njl. 365
aipolia (Ach.) Nvl. 363
erinacea (Ach.) Tuck. 360
hispida (Schreb.) Tuck. 364
leucomela (L.) Michaux 360
muscigena (Ach.) Njl. 363
pulverulenta (Schreb.) Njl. 361
pulverulenta argyphjea Njl. 361
pulverulenta isidiigera Zahlbr. 362
stellaris (L.) Nyl. 363
tribacia (Ach.) Tuck. 364
venusta (Ach.) Njl. 362

Placodium coralloides Tuck. 383

Ramalina ceruchis (Ach.) DeNot. 331
ceruchis cephalota Tuck. 332
combeoides Nyl. 332
farinacea (L. ) Ach. 335
homalea Ach. 332
menziesii Tuck. 334
reticulata (Noehd.) Krempelh. 333
rigida (Pers.) Tuck. 335

Sphjerophorus globosus (Huds.) 393

Sticta anthraspis Ach. 369

fuliginosa (Dicks.) Ach. 368
limbata (Sm.) Ach. 368
pulmonaria (L.) Ach. 368
scrobiculata (Scop.) Ach. 369

Theloschistes concolor (Dicks.) Tuck.

349
flavicans (S\v.) Norm. 347
lychneus laciniosa Schaer. 349
parietinus (L.) Norm. 348
polycarpus (Ehrh.) Tuck. 348
ramulosus Tuck. 349

Umbilicaria see Gyrofhora 365
Usnea californica Herre 345

ceratina Schaer. 344

dasypoga (Ach.) Nyl. 344

florida (L.) Ach. 343

hirta (L. ) Hoftm. 343

longissima Ach. 345

plicata (Ach.) Nyl. 344

rubiginea (Michaux) 343

INDEX

Note.— New names in black-face type, synonyms in ilalics.

Acrothela (Mobergia) granulata 252, 254

subsidua 254
adglulinata, Lecanora 365

Physcia 365
sequilabiatus, Gymnotus 176

Sternopygus 176
aggregatum, CoUema 376
aipolius, Lichen 364
aipolia, Physcia 363
albifrons^ Gyvtnotus 162

Sternarciius 162
albociliatum, Leptogiuni 380
albus, Carapiis 178

Gynnotiis 178
Alectoria 346

fremontii 346

jubata 346
americanus, Hylolithes 255
anthrapsis, Sticta 369
Apteronotus 161

passan 163
aquaticum, Dermatocarpon 394
aquatiais, Lichen 394
arena/iis, Carapns 176
artedi, Brachyrhamphichthys 170

Hypopomus 170

Rhampliichthys 170
asaphoides, Olenellus (M.) 253
axillaris, Eigenmannia 174

Sternopygus 174

balccnops, Sternarchella 164

Billingsella 255

blochii, Rlianiphichlhys 169

Blood-vascular System of the Loricati 27

bolanderi, Lecanora 384

bonapartii, Sternarchus 163

Borrera ceriichis 332

erinacea 360
Brachyrhamphichthys 1 69

ariedi 170

brevirostris 170

mitlleri 170
brachyurus, Carapusi'ji

Gymnotus 178
Branchiopoda, Cambrian, of India 254
brasiliensis, Sternarchus 162
brevirostris, Brachyrhamphichthys 170

Hypopomus 170

Rhamphichthys 170

californica, Cetraria 337

Usnea 345
californicura, Leptogium 381

platynum, Leptogium 381
Cambrian Fauna of India, The 251

canina mcmbranacea, Peltidea 374

membranacea, Peltigera 374

Peltigera 373
canimts, Liclien 373
caperata, Parmelia 357
caperatus. Lichen 357
Carapo 177
carapo, Gymnotus 176, 178

Sternopygus 174
Carapns 177

albus 178

arenatns 176

brachyurus 178
/asciatjis 177

inceqtiitabiatiis 178

macrourus 176

rostratus 168

sanguinolentus 176
farapus, Gymnotus 175

Sler)wpygus 176
Carboniferous Faunas, Relations of i
Cenomyce chlorophcea 388
ceratina, Usnea 344
ceruchis, Borrera 332

cephalota, Ramalina 332

Parmelia 332

Ramalina 331
Cetraria 336

californica 337

chlorophylla 338

ciliaris 337

glauca 339

juniperina 340

lacunosa stenophylla 339

platyphylla 338

tuckermani 340
chloromelos, Lichen 382
chloromelum, Leptogium 382

stellans, Leptogium 382
chlorophcra, Cenomyce 388

Cladonia 388

prolifera, Cladonia 388
chlorophylla, Cetraria 338

Liclien 339
Christatellum, CoUema 378
ciliaris, Cetraria 336, 337, 338
Cladonia 386

chloropheca 388
prolifera 388

fimbriata clavata 389
cornuta 389
tubaeformis 389

furcata racemosa 391

macilenta 391

pyxidata costata 387

tubcp/ormis 390
racemosa 391

397

39«

INDEX

Cladonia — Continued

squamosa 390

verticillata 390
Collema 375

aggrregatum 376

christatellum 378

limosum 377

nigrescens 376

plicatile 378

pulposum 377

scotinunt 380

vespertilio 376
combeoides, Ramalina 331, 332
complicattis, Lichen 394
concolor^ Lichen 350

Theloschistes 349
Conocoryphe trilineatus 255
conspersa, Parmelia 358
co?i5persus. Lichen 359
conspurcata, Parmelia 357
coralloides, Placodium 383

SphiProphon 393
Cornicularia 336
cornutus, Liche^i 389
Crypt ops 171

hJintboldtii 172

lineatus 173

virescens 173
Crystals, Linear Force of Growing, 283
curvirostris, Sternarchorhynchus 167

Slernarchus ( Rhamphosternarchus)
167
Cylindrites 254

dasypoga, Usnea 344

Declinations of North Polar Stars 189

Dendrographa 392

minor 392
Dermatocarpon 393

aquaticum 394

miniatum 394
complicatum 394
Descent, the Vital Fabric of 301
dlaboUca, Gyrophora 366
Discinolepis granulata 252, 254
Dufourea 336

Eigenmannia 171

axillaris 174

humboldti 172

humboldtii 172

macrops 172

troschelii 174

virescens 172
elegans, Brachyrhaniphichthys 171

Rhaniphichlhys 171

Rhamphichthys {Brachyrhaniphich-
thys) 171

Steatogenes 171
Endocarpiscum 374

guepini 374
Endocarpon f;uepini 374
enteromorpha, Parmelia 355
Ephebe 375

pubescens 375
erinacea, liorrera 360

Physcia 360
Evernia 330, 341

prunastri 342

pruiiastri forma soredifera 342

vulpina 341, 342

Fabric of Descent, the Vital 301
farinacea, Ramalina 331, 335
/arinaceus, Lichen 335
fascia tus, Carapus 177

Giton 177

Gym?iotus 177
fimbriata clavata, Cladonia 389

cornuta, Cladonia 389

tubseformis, Cladonia 389
yiavicans, Lichen 348

Parmelia 352

Physcia 348

Theloschistes 347
florida rtibiginea, Usnea 344

Usnea 335
Jloridus, Lichen 343
Force of Growing Crystals, the Linear 283
fuchsi, Lingulella 252

Obolus (Lingulella) 252, 254
fuliginosa, Sticta 368
fuligiiiostis. Lichen 368
furcata racemosa, Lichen 391

Giton 177

fasciatus 177
glauca, Cetraria 336, 339, 340

stenophylla 337, 340
glaucus, Lichen 340
globiferus, Sphaerophorus 393
globosus. Lichen 393

Sphaerophorus 393
granulata, Acrothele (Mobergia) 252, 254

Discinolepis 252, 254
Growing Crystals, Linear Force of, 283
guepini, Endocarpiscum 374

Etidocarp07i 374
Gymnotes 174

crquilabiatus 174
Gymnotidse, Key to the genera of 160
Gymnotus 174

aequilabiatus 176

albus 178

brachyurus 178

carapo 176

carapus 175

electricns 175

fasciatus 177

longirostratus 168

macrurns 176

obtusirostris 177

putaol 178

rostratus 168, 169
Gyrophora 365

diabollca 366

phaca 366

polyphylla 365

helvetica, Nephroma 371
helveticum, Nephromium 371
herrei, Parmelia 353
hirta, Usnea 343
hirtus, Lichen 343
hispida, Ph3'scia 364
hispidus. Lichen 364
Hoeferia 253
homalea, Ramalina 332
humboldtii, Cryptops 172

liligenmannia 172

Sternopygus 172
Hyolithes 252

INDEX

399

Hyolithes — Continued

americanus 255

kussakensis 252, 255

wynnei 252, 255
Hypopomus 169

artedi 170

brevirostris 170

mulleri 170

incrgttilabialus, Carapus 178
India, The Cambrian Fauna of 251
indicus, Ptj-choparia 255

Joints, Simultaneous 267
jubata, Alectoria 346
jubatus. Lichen 346
juniperina, Cetraria 336, 340
juniperinus. Lichen 340

kiurensis, Obolus (Linguella)'252, 254

lacepedii, Sternarchus 163
lacunosa stenophylla, Cetraria 336, 339
Lakhminia linguloides 252, 254, 255
I<ecanora 384

adglutinata 365

bolanderi 384

phryganitis 385

thamnitis 385

tribacia 364
I^eptogium 379

albociliatum 380

californicum 381
platynum 381

chloromelum 382
stellans 382

myochroum tomentosum 383

palmatum 381

saturninum 382

scotinum 380

tomentosum 383
leucomela, Physcia 360
leucomelas, Lichen 361
leucophcEa yninor, Roccella 392
Lichen aipolius 364

aquaticus 394

caninus 373

caper atus 357

chloromelos 382

chlorophylla 339

compiicatus 394

concolor 350

conspersus 359

cornutus 389

farinaceus 335

flavicans 348

fioridus 343

fuliginosus 368

glaucus 340

g^lobosus 393

hirtus 343

hispidus 364

jubalus 346

juniperinus 340

leucomelas 361

limbatus 369

liniosus 378

miniatus 394

niffrescens 377

olivaceus 356

I,ichens — Continued

palmatus 382

Parietinus 348

Perforatus 353

perlatus 352

physodes 355

piicatilis 378

piicatus 344

Polycarpus 349

Polyphyllus 366

prunastri 342

pubescens 375

pulmonarius 368

pulposus y]"]

pulverulentus 361

reticulata 334

rigidus 336

riifescens 373

saturninum 383

sa. rati lis 354

scotinus 380

scrobiculatus 370

scutatus 373

squamosus 391

stellar is 363

tenellus 365

tiliaceus 354

vesPertilio 376

vulpintts 342
Ivichens, Foliaiceous, Key to Genera 328

of Santa Cruz Peninsula 325
limbata, Sticta 368
limbatus, Lichen 369

Sternopvgtis 173
limosum, Collenia 377
limosus. Lichen 378

Linear Force of Growing Crystals.The 283
lineatus, Cryplops 173

Rhamphichthys 169

Sternopvgus 173
Lingulella fuchsi 252
linguloides, Lakhminia 252, 254, 255
longirostratus, Gymnotus 168
longissima, Usnea 345
Loricati, blood-vascular system of the 27-

157
lusttamcum. Nephroma 372

Nephromium 371
lychnea ramulosa, Xanthoria 349

Xanthoria 349
lychneus laciniosa, Theloschistes 349
macilenta, Cladonia 391
macrolepis, vSternarchus 163
macrops, Eigenmannia 172

Sternopvffus 172
macrostomus, Rhamphosternarchus 166

Sternarchorhamphus 166

Sternarchorynchus 166

Sternarchus 166
macrourus, Caraptis 176
ntacrurus, Gymnotus i'j6

Sternopygus 176
Mail-cheeked fishes, Blood-vascular sys-
tem of 27-157
marcgravii, Sternopygus 176
marmoratus, Rhamphichthys 168
maximilliani, Sternarchus 163
Mayon Volcano, A Feature of 277
menziesii, Ramalina 331, 334, 335
microstomus, Stemopygus 173

400

INDEX

miniatum complicatum, Dermatocarpon

394

Dermatocarpon 394
miniatus, Lic/ien 394
minor, Dendrographa 392
mirabilis, Rhamphichthys {Brachy-

rli a nipk ich Ihys, 171
morymiis, Sternarchorhynchns 167
ninllet-i, Brachyrhamphichthys 170

Hypopormis 170

Rhamphichthys 169, 170

Sternarchorhamphus 166

Slernarchorhynchus 166, 167

Sternarchus 165

Sternarchiis ( Rhamphosternarchus)
166
muscigena, Parmelia 363

Physcia 363
mychroum tomentosum, I.eptogium 383

nattereri, Stemarchogiton 165

Sternarduis 164, 165
Neobolus warthi 252, 254
Nephroma lusitanicum yj2

helvetica 371

rameum 371
Nephromiuni 390

helveticiim 371

lusitanicum 371

tomentosum rameum 370
nigrescens, CoUema 376

Lichen 377
Nisusia 255

ncetlingi, Redlichia 252, 254, 255, 256
North Polar Stars, Declinations of 189

Obolus (Lingulella) fuclisi 252, 254

kiurensis 252, 254

wanniecki 252, 254
obtusirostris, Gymnotus 177

Sternopygus 177
Olenellus 253

(M.) asaphoides 253
olivacea leucoclieilea, Farmelia 357

Parmelia 356
oliz'aceus. Lichen 356
oxyrhynchus, Sternarcborhj-nchus 167

Sternarchus 167

palmatura, Leptogium 381
palmatus, Lichen 382
pantherinns, Rhamphichtliys 169
parietinus, Lichen 348

Theloschistes 348
Parmelia 350

caperata 357

cerucliis 332

conspersa 358

conspurcata 357

enteromorpha 355

flavicans 352

herrei 353

muscigena 363

olivacea 356

olivacea leucocheilca 357

perforata 352

perlata 351

perlata Jlavicans 352

physodes 354

baxatilis 354

Parmelia — Continued

sorediala 356

soredica 358

stygia sorediata 357

subargentifcra 357

tiliacea 353

venusta 363
passan, Apteronotns 163
Peltidea canina membranacea 374
Peltigera 372

canina 373

canina membranacea 374

rufescens 373

scutata 372
perforata, Parmelia 352
per/oratns, Lichen 353
perlata flavicayis, Parmelia 352

Parmelia 351
perlatus, Lichen 352
phsea, Gyrophora 366

Umbilicaria 366
phryganitis, Lecanora 385
Physcia 359

adglutinata 365

aipolia 363

erinacea 360

flai'icans 348

hispida 364 ,

leucomela 360

muscigena 363

pulverulenta 361
argyphaja 361
isidiigera 362

stellaris 363

tend la 365

tribacia 364

venusta 362
physodes, Lichen 355

Parmelia 354
Placodium 383

coralloides 383
platyphylla, Cetraria 336, 3-^8
plicata dasypoga, Usnea 344

Usnea 314
plicatile, Collema 378
piicatilis. Lichen 378
piicattis, Liclien 344
polycarpus, Lichen 349

Theloschistes 348
polyphylla, Gyrophora 365
polyphylliis, Lichen 366
primordialis, Hylolitlies 255
Protolenus 253
prunastri, Evernia 335, 342

Lichen 342
Pseudosolid, An Interesting 289
Pseudotheca waageni 252, 255
Pteropoda, Cambrian, of India 255
Ptychoparia indicus 252

ricliteri 252, 255

warthi 252, 255
pubescens, ICphebe 375

Lichen 375
pulmonaria, Slicta 368
pnlmonarius, Lichen 368
pulposum, Colkina 377
pulposus, [.ichen 377
pulverulenta argypluca, Pliyscia 361

isidiigera, Physcia 362

Pliyscia 361

INDEX

401

pulz'eriilenlus, Lulun 361
ptilaol, Gyninoliis 178
pyxidata costata, Cladonia 387
tubicforniis, Cladonia 390

raceniosa, Cladonia 391
Ranialina 330, 331

ceruchis 331, 332
cephalola 331, 332

combeoides 331, 332

farinacea 331, 335

liomalea33i, 332, 333

menziesii 331, 334, 335

reticulata 331, 333, 334

rigida 331, 335, 336
7-ameum, Net>hronia 371
ramulosus, Theloschistes 349
Redlichia 253

ticetlingi 252, 254, 255, 256
reinhardtii, Rhaiiiphichthys 169
reticulata. Lichen 334

Ranialina 331, 333, 334
Rbamphichthys 167

artedi 170

blochii 169

( Brachyrhamph icli tliys ) m irabilis
171

brevirostrts 170

tinea tus 169

inarmoratus 168

mulleri 169, 170

pantherinns 169

reinhardtii 169

rostratus 168

Schneider J, 168

schoinburgkii 168
Rhaviphosternarchus 166

macrostomns 166
richteri, Ptychoparia 252, 255
rigida, Ramalina 335
riffidus, Lichen 336
Roccella leucophc£a minor 392
rostratus, Carapus 168

Gvmnolus 168, 169

Rhamphichthys 168
rubiginea, Usnea 343
rufescens, Lichen 373

Peltigera 373
rugosa, Schizopholis 252, 254

sachsi, Sternarchogiton 165
satif^iiinolentus, Carapus 176
saturninum, Leptogium 382

Lichen 383
saxatilis, Lichen 354

Parmelia 354
Schizopholis rugosa 252, 254
schneideri, Rhamphichthys 168
schomburgkii, Rhamphichthys 16S
schotti, Sternarchella 164

Sternarchus 164
scotinum, Collenia 380

Leptogium 380
scotitius, Lichen 380
scrobiculata, Sticta 369
scrobiculatus, Lichen 370
scutata, Peltigera 372
scutatus. Lichen 373
Simultaneous Joints 267
sorediata, Parmelia 356

sored ica, Parmelia 358
soredifera (forma) Ivvernia prunastri 342
Sphcrrophoron coralloides 393
Spha'rophorus 392

globiferus 393

fflohosus 393
squamosa, Cladonia 390
sguamosiis, Lichen 391
Steatogenes 171

elegans 171
Stella ris. Lichen 363

Physcia 363
Stenolheca 255
Sternarchogiton nattereri 165
Sternopyi^tdcr 174
Sternopyc^us 174

crijuilahiatus 176

carapus 176

hutnboltdii 172

lineatus 173
Sternarchorhynchus mormyrus 167

oxyrhynchus 167
Sternarchus 161

albifrons 162

bonapartii 163

braziliensis 162

lacepedii 163

macrolepis 163

macrostovnts 166

vta.ri m ill ia ni 163

mulleri 165

nattereri 164

oxvrhynchus 167

( Rh a VI ph osterna rch lis) cu rvirostris
167

mulleri 166

sachsi 165

schotti 163

tamandua 166
Stertiopyffus macrtirus 176

viarcf;ravii 176

obtusirostris 177

troscheli 174

virescens 173, 174
Sternarchella 163

baUt'nops 164

schotti 164
Sternarchina; 160
Sternarchogiton 164

sachsi 165
Sternarchorhamphus 165

macrostomns 166

mulleri 166

tamandua 166
Sternarchorhj^nchus 166

curvirostris 167

macrostomus 166
Sternarchus virescens 172
Sternopygus 171

axillaris 174

carapo 174

limbatus 173

lineatus 173

tnacrops 172

viacrurus 174

microstomus 173

iumifrons 173

virescens 174
Sticta 367

anthraspis 369

402

INDEX

Stecta — Continued

fuliginosa 368

limbata 368

pulmonana 368

scrobiculata 369
stygia sorediata, Parmelia 357
subargenti/era, Parmelia 357
subsidua, Acrothele 254

tamandua, Sternarchorhamplius 166

Sternarchus 166
tetiella, Physcia 365
tenellus. Lichen 365
thamnitis, Lecanora 385
Theloschistes 347

con color 349

flavicans 347

lychneus laciniosa 349

parietinus 348

polycarpus 348

ramulosus 349
tiliacea, Parmelia 353
liliaceus, Lichen 354
tomentosuvt, Leptogiuni 383

rameum, Nephromium 370
tribacia, Lecanora 364

Physcia 364
trilineatus, Conocoryphe 255
Trilobita, Cambrian of India 255
troscheli, Sternophygus 174
troschelii, Eigenmannia 174
tuckermani, Cetraria 340
tutnifrons, Sternopygtis 173
Umbilicaria 327

phcBa 366

Usnea 330

californica 345

Usnea — Continued

ceralina 344

dasypoga 344

florida 343
rubiginea 344

hirta 343

longissima 345

plicata 344
dasypoga 344

rubiginea 343
Usneas 342

venusla, Parmelia 363

Physcia 362
verticillata, Cladonia 390
vespertilio, Collema 376

Liche7i 2)l(i
virescens, Cryptops 173

Eigenmannia 172

Sternarchus 172

Sternopygus 173, 174
Volcano, May on, a feature of 277
vulpina, Evernia 341
vulpimis, Lichen 342

waageni, Pseudotheca 252, 255
wanniecki, Obolus (Lingulella) 252, 254
warthi. Neobolus 252, 254

Ptychoparia 252, 255

Wynnia 252, 255
Wynnia warthi 252, 255
wynnei, Hyolithes 252, 255

Xanthoria lychnea 349

lychnea ramulosa 349
Zacanthoides 253
Zeolites, On Basic Substitutions in 257

MBl WMOI I Ibtnrv

5 WHSE 00868

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