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PROCEEDINGS 


THE  ROYAL   SOCIETY 


EDINBURGH. 


NOVEMBER  1862  to  APRIL  1866. 


EDINBDBGH ; 
PRINTED  BY  NEILL  AND  COMPANT. 

MDCCCLXVl. 


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CONTENTS. 


Opening  Address,  Setsion  1863-63.     Bj  Principal  Forbea,         Paqb  2 

On  the  Repreaentatira  ReUtionshipa  of  the  Fixed  and  Free 
Tunicata,  regarded  at  two  Bub-cluees  of  equivalent  value ;  with 
tome  general  remarks  on  their  Morphology.  B7  John  Denis 
Macdonald,  R,N.,  FR.S.,  Surgeon,  H.M.S.  "  Icarus,"  Com- 
municated bj  Professor  Maclagan,  .  .  .  .     4G 

On  the  great  Refractor  at  Elchies,  and  its  powers  in  Sidereal  Ob- 
servation. By  Professor  C.  Piazzi  Smyth,  Astronomer-Royal 
for  Scotland,  .  .  .  .  .47 

Biographical  Account  of  Professor  Louis  Albert  NecVer,  of  Geneva, 
Honorary  Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  By 
David  James  Forbea,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.R.S.  Ed.,  Principal 
of  the  United  College  of  St  Salvador  and  St  Leonard,  in  the 
University  of  St  Andrews,         .  .  .  .  .     5Z 

On  the  Structure  and  Optical  Phenomenon  of  Decomposed  Glass. 
By  Principal  Sir  David  Brewster,  .  .  .76 

Notes  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Genus  Firola.  By  John  Denis 
Macdonald,  R.N..  F.R.S,,  Surgeon  of  H.M.S-  "Icarus."  Com- 
municated by  ProFessor  Maclagan,         .  .  .  .76 

On  the  Zoological  Characters  of  the  living  CHo  caudaia,  as  com- 
jiared  with  those  of  Clio  Vorealu  given  in  Systematic  Works. 
By  John  Denis  Macdonald,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  Surgeon  of  H.M.S. 
"  Icarua."     Communicated  by  Professor  Maetagan,         .  .     76 

N'otes  on  the  Geology  of  Lflneburg,  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover. 
By  the  Rev.  Robert  Boog  Watson,        ,  .79 

On  the  Occurrence  of  StraEiGed  Beds  in  the  Boolder  Clay  of  Scot- 
land, and  on  the  Light  which  they  throw  upon  the  History  of 
that  Deposit.     By  Archibald  Geikie,  Esq.,  F.G  S  ,         .  .84 

On  the  Inttnence  of  Weather  upon  Disease  and  Mortality.  By 
R.  E.  Sooresby- Jackson.  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.RC.P.,  Lecturer  on 
Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics  at  Surgeons'  Hall,  Edinburgh,     86 

History  of  Popular  Literature,  and  its  Influence  on  Society.  By 
William  Chambers,  Esq,  of  Olenormiston,  .  .  .88 

Sketch  of  the  Recent  Progress  of  Sanskrit  Literature.  By  John 
Mnir,  D.CL.,  LL.D.,  .  .  .  .90 


359384         „„,.„,,Google 


IV  CONTENTS. 

On  a  Pre-BrBc)iial  Stage  in  the  Derelopmeiit  of  Gomatula,  and  iu 
iinpoTtMice  in  relation  to  certain  Aberrant  Forma  of  Extinct 
CrinoidB.     B;  Profewor  AUman,  .  .91 

Letter  from  Sir  D.  Brewster  relative  to  tbe  BpecineuB  of  Topaz 
irith  FreMure  CaTitiei  presented  b;  him  to  the  Museum  of  the 
Societj,  .■  .  .  .  ,  .96 

Ou  tbe  Polarisation  of  Bough  SurfaceB,  and  of  Subatancet  that 
reflect  White  or  Cubored  Light  from  their  Interior,  B^  Sir 
Darid  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S.,  .96 

On  a  CltLy  Deposit  with  Fossil  Arctic  Shells,  recently  obserred  in 
the  Baaiu  of  the  Forth.     B;  the  Rer.  Thomas  Brown,  F.R.S  E.,     96 

On  the  Remarkable  Occurrence  of  Graphite  in  Siberia.  Bj 
Thomas  C.  Archer,  Esq.,  .  .97 

On  tbe  Polarisation  of  the  Atmosphere.  Bj  Sir  David  Brewster, 
K.H.,  F.R.S.,  .  .  ,  .100 

OoDcloding  Note  on  the  Star  Observations  at  Elchies.  Bj  Pro- 
ftssor  C.  Piazii  -myth,  ,  .  ,  .  .   100 

On  a  new  Fossil  Ophiuridan,  from  Post-pliocene  strata  of  the  Valle/ 
of  the  Forth.     B/ Professor  Allman,   ,  .101 

Accompanjing  Note  to  Portions  of  Lead  from  the  Roof  of  the 
Lower  Storey  of  Nelson's  Monument,  injiired  b;  Lightning  on 
theeveningof  4th  February  1863.  By  Professor  C.  Fiazxi  Smyth,  105 

Note  on  the  Anatomical  Type  in  the  Funis  Umbilicalls  and 
Placenta.     By  Professor  Simpson,        ....  112 

On  Earth -Currents  during  Magnetic  Calms,  and  their  Oonneotion 
with  Magnetic  Changes.  By  Balfour  Stewart,  Esq.,  M.A., 
F.R.8.     Communicated  by  Professor  Tail,  .112 

Note  on  a  Pictish  Inscription  in  the  Churchyard  of  St  Vigeans. 
By  Professor  Simpson,  .....  113 

On  soma  Kinemati^  and  Dynamical  Theorems.  By  Professor 
W.  Thomson,  .  .  ,  .  ,113 

Note  on  a  Quaternion  Transformation.     By  Professor  Tut,  .  115 

On  the  CoDseTTation  of  Energy.     By  Professor  Tait,  .  131 

On  Fagnani's  Theorem.     By  H.  F.  Talbot,  LL.D.,  .126 

On  the  Theory  of  Parallel  Lines.     By  H.  F.  Talbot,  LL.D.,  .   126 

Address  to  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales,  .  126 

Opening  Address,  Session  1863-61,  By  Professor  Innes,  one  of 
the  Vice-Presidents,     .  .  .  .   130 

On  the  Morphological  Relationships  of  the  Molloicoida  and  Co9len- 
terata  and  of  their  leading  members,  tnUr  »e.  By  John  Denii 
Macdonald,  R.N.,  F.R.8.,  Surgeon  of  H.M.S.  "Icarus,"  Com- 
municated by  Professor  Maolagan,         ....  155 

On  the  External  Anatomy  of  a  new  Mediterranean  Pteropod.  Sj 
John  Oenia  Macdonald,  R.N.  Communicated  by  Professor 
Maclagan,        .......   155 

On  the  Limits  of  oar  Knowledge  respecting  the  Theory  of  Parallels. 
By  Professor  Kelland,  .  ,  .  ,155 

On  the  great  Drift-Beds  with  Shells  in  the  South-west  of  Arran. 
By  the  Rst.  Robert  Boog  Watson,  B.A  ,  F.R  S.E.,  Hon.  Mem. 
Naturw.  Ver.  Lttneburg,  .157 


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COMTENTS.  V 

On  the  Agrariui  L&w  of  Lyenrgas,  and  one  of  Mr  Grote's  Coqous 

of  Hittorical  Criticism.     B7  Profetsor  Blukie,  .  .  156 

Od  the  OeeurreDce  of  Ani<Bbifonn  Protoploam  and  the  Emietion  of 

Pwudopodia  in  the  Hydroida.     By  Profeiaar  Allman,    .  .158 

Desoription  of  the   Lithoscope,  an   inBtrumant  for  distingaishing 

Preoious  Stones  and  other  Bodies.  By  Sir  David  Brewiter,  K.H.,  160 
On  the  Tenperatare  of  certain  Hot  Springs  in  the  Pjreneea.     By 

R.  E.  Scoreaby-Jaeison,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P..  .160 

On  Human  Crania  allied  in  Anatoinical  Characters  to  the  Kngia 

and  Neanderthal  Skull*.     By  Wm.  Turner,  M.B.,  Senior  Demon. 

•tratoT  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  .   161 

Notice  of  a  Simple  Method  of  Approximating  to  the  Boots  of  any 

Algebraic  Equation.     By  Edward  Sang,  Esq.,  .  .  .163 

Notice  of  the  State  of  the  Open- Air  Vegetation  in  the  Edinburgh 

Botanic  Garden  during  December  1863.     By  J.  H.  Balfour, 

A.M.,  M.D.,  F.H.S.,  F.L.S.,  .  .  .  ,  .166 

On  tbe  Influence  of  the  Refracting  Force  of  Calcareous  Spar  on 

the  Polarisation,  the  Intensity,  and  the  Colour  of  the  Light  which 

it  Reflects.     By  Sir  David  Brewster,  E.H.,  F.R.S.,  .175 

On  the  Most  Volatile  Constituents  of  American  Petrolenm.     By 

Edmund  Ronalds,  Ph.D.,  .  .176 

On  the   Action   of  Terchloride   of  Pbosphoms  on  Aniline.       By 

Magnus  M.  Tait,  P.C.8.,  .  .  .177 

On  Fennat's  Theorem.     By  Professor  Tait,  .  .181 

Notice  of  a  curious  Binocular  Telescope.  By  Professor  Arober,  .  181 
On  the  Gods  of  the  Rigveda.  By  John  Muir,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  ,  183 
On  the  Diffraction  Bands  produced  by  Double  Striated  Surfaoes. 

By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S.,  .  .  .184 

AnEsiayontheTheoiyofCommensurables.  By  Edward  Sang,E8q.,  184 
On  Superposition,  No.  II.     By  Professor  Eelland,  .  .  190 

On  Centrobaric  Bodies.     By  Professor  W.  Thomson,  .  190 

On   the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the   Mitral,  THcuGpid,   and 

Semilunar  Valves  in  Mammals,  Birds,  Reptiles,  and  Fishes.     By 

James  B.  Fettigrew,  M.D.,  Edinburgh,  Absistant  in  the  Museum 

of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England.     Communicated  by 

Wm.  Turner,  M.B.,    .  ."  .  .  .193 

On  some  points  in  the  Metrology  of  the  Great  Pyramid.      By  Pro-    - 

fessor  C.  Piazzt  Smyth,  Astronomer- Royal  for  Scotland,  .   198 

The  Decimal  Problem  Solved.     By  James  Alexander,  Esq.     Com- 

mnnicated  by  E.  Sang,  Esq.,  .....  199 
On  the  Elevation  of  the  Earth's  Surface  Temperature  produced 

by  Underground  Heat.     By  Professor  W.  Thomson,  F.R.S., 

F,R.S.E.,  .  .  .200 

On  the  Celtic  Languages  in  their  Relation  to  each  other,  and  to  the 

Teutonic  Dialects,     By  W.  F.  Skene,  Esq.,  .  .  202 

On  the  Protection  of  Vegetation  fivm  Destructive  Cold  every  night. 

By  Professor  W.  Thomson,  .....  203 
On  Vital  Agency,  with  reference  to  the  Correlation  of  Forces.     By 

William  Seller,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 

Phyricians  of  Edinburgh,         .....  209 


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VI  CONTENTS. 

On  Sun  Spots,  and  their  oonneation  with  PlanetBTj  Conflguni- 
tiona.  By  Balfour  Stewart,  Esq.  Communicated  hy  Professor 
Tait,  .  .  .  .  .213 

Biographical  Sketch  of  Adam  Ferguson,  LL.D  ,  F.R.S.E.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  Unlvarsitj  of  Edinburgh  By 
John  Small,  Esq,,  M.A.,  Iiibrarian  to  the  Uoirersity  of  Edin- 
bui^h.      Communicated  by  Professor  Fraser,     .  .  .  2H 

Unpublished  Letter  of  the  late  Professor  Dugald  Stewart.  Trans- 
mitted by  John  Small,  M,A.,  Librarian  to  the  Unirersity.  Com- 
municated by  the  Rev.  Dr  SteTenson,  ....  21fi 

The  Law  of  Aeriform  Volumes  eitonded  to  Dense  Bodies.  By  J. 
G.  Maciicar,  A.M.,  D.D.  Commtmicated  by  Professor  Lyon 
Playfair,         .  .  .  .  .  .220 

On  the  Freezing  of  the  Egg  of  the  Common  Fowl.  By  John  Davy, 
M.D.,  F.R.SS.  Lond.  and  Edin.,  .  .224 

On  the  Variations  of  the  Fertility  and  Fecundity  of  Women  aocord- 
iiig  to  Age.     By  Dr  J.  Matthena  Duncan,         ,  .  .  225 

On  the  Chemical  and  Physical  Principles  in  connection  with  the 
Specific  Gravity  of  Liquid  and  Solid  Substances.  By  Otto 
Richter,  Ph.D.     Communicated  by  Professor  Maclagan,  .  226 

On  the  Theory  of  Isomeric  Com]>ound8.     By  Dr  A.  Cram  Brown,     230 

On  the  Rhombohedral  Sy8t«m  in  Crystallography.  By  Alfred  R. 
Catton,  B.A.,  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Fel- 
low of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society.  Communicated  by 
Professor  Tait,  ......  233 

Preliminary  Note  on  the  Connection  between  the  Form  and  Optical 
Properties  of  Crystals.  By  Alfred  R.  Catton,  B.A.,  F.C.P.8., 
Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  .  .242 

A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Oxides  of  Manganese.  By 
W.  Dittraar,  Esq.,       .  .  .  .255 

Notice  of  Glacial  Clay,  with  Arctic  Shells,  near  Errol,  on  the  Tay. 
By  the  Rev,  Thomas  Brown,  F.R.S.E.,  ,257 

Notes  on  the  Boulder  Clay  at  Greenock  and  Port>Qlasgow.  By  the 
Rev.  R.  Boog  Watson,  B.A,,  F.RS.E.,  Hon.  Mem.  Nat.  Vcr. 
Liinebarg,       .......  258 

Opening  Address,  Session  1861-65.  "By  His  Grace  the  Duke  of 
ArgyU,  .  .  .  .  .264 

AddrsBs,  as  President.     By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S.,     .  S21 

On  Variability  in  Hnman  Structure,  with  illustrations  from  the 
Flexor  Muscles  of  the  Fingers  and  Toes.  By  William  Turner, 
M.B.  (Lond.),  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy  in  the  Vnivenity.  Edin.,  327 

On  the  Principle  of  Onomatopoeia  in  Language.  By  Professor 
Blackie,  .  .  .337 

Note  on  the  Phlogistic  Theory.  By  Alexander  Crum  Brown, 
M.D-,  fte.      .  .  .  .  .328 

A  Map  of  Taranaki,  New  Zealand,  ezecoted  by  a  Maori,  ex- 
hibited, and  remarks  on  it  by  Dr  Lauder  Lindsay  were  com* 
municated  by  Mr  A.  Keith  Johnston,   ,  .  .  ■  335 

Note  on  the  Various  Investigations  of  the  Law  of  Frequency  of 
Error.     By  Professor  Tait,      ,  .335 


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CONTENTS.  Vll 

Notice  respecting  Mr  Reillj's  Topographical  Surve;  of  the  Chain  of 
Mont  BUnc.      By  Principal  Forbes,      ....   335 

On  the  Solution  of  Ferigal's  Problem  concerning  the  contact  of 
Epioyoloidal  Curves.     By  E.  Sang,  Eaq.  .  .  .338 

Exhibition  of  Three  Skulls  of  the  Gorilla,  receired  from  M.  Da 
Chtullu,  with  Observations  relative  to  their  Anatomical  Featurea. 
By  Dr  Burt  and  Mr  W.  Turner,  ...  .341 

Notice  of  a  Remarkable  Piece  of  Fossil  Amber.  By  Sir  David 
Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S.  .  .  .  .  .350 

On  the  Cause  and  Cure  of  Cataract.  Bj  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H., 
F.R.SS.  Lond.  and  Edin.,  .  .350 

On  the  Hill  Forts,  Terraces,  and  other  remains  of  ttie  Early  Races 
in  the  South  of  Scotland.  By  W.  Chambers,  Esq.  of  Glenor- 
mistoD,  .......  351 

On  the  Molecular  Constitution  of  Organic  Compcnnds,  No.  I.  By 
Alfred  R.  Catton,  B.A.,  Pelbw  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
Auistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  .  .  353 

Account  of  the  Progress  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  Scotland, 
illustrated  by  Maps  and  Sections.      By  Archibald  Qeikie,  Eaq.       355 

On  a  New  Bitumiuons  Substance,  imparted  under  the  name  of  Coal, 
from  Brazil.     By  T.  C.  Archer,  Esq.,     .  .  .364 

Experimental  Inquiry  into  the  Laws  of  Conduction  of  Heat  in 
Bars.  Part  II. — On  the  Conductivity  of  Wrought  Iron,  de- 
duced from  the  Experiments  of  1851.     By  Principal  Forbes,     .  369 

On  the  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Waters  of  the  Beauly,  Inver- 
ness, and  Moray  Firths.     By  Dr  Stevenson  Macadam,  .  .  370 

On  Hemiopsj,  or  Half  Vision.  By  Sir  David  Brewster, 
K.H.,  F.R.S.,  .  .  .  .  .373 

On  the  Tertiary  Coals  of  New  Zealand.  By  W.  Lauder  Lindsay, 
M.D.,  F.L.S.,  Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Philosophical  Institate  of 
Canterbury,  New  Zealand,       .....  374 

On  the  World  as  a  Dynamical  and  Immaterial  World.  By  Robert 
S.  Wyld,  Esq.,  F.R.S.E.,  .  .381 

On  the  Hudibranchialt  UolUuca  of  St  Andrews ;  Edwardtia ; 
and  the  Polype  of  Alcyottium  digitatum.  By  W.  C.  M'Intosh, 
M.D.,  F.L.S.  Communicated  by  Professor  Allman.  (Accom- 
panied by  various  Drawings),  ....  387 

Miscellaneous  Observations  on  the  Blood.  By  John  Davy,  M.D., 
F,R.SS.  Lond.  and  Edin.  &c.,  .  .395 

On  the  Pronunciation  of  Greek.     By  Professor  Blackie,  .  398 

Note  on  Action.     By  Professor  Tait,        .  .404 

On  the  Application  of  Hamilton's  Characteristic  Function  to  Special 
Cases  of  Constraint.     By  Professor  Tait,  .  .  .407 

On  Transversals.     By  the  Rev.  Hugh  Martin,  Free  Oreyfriars,         408 

On  the  Motion  of  a  Heavy  Body  along  the  circumference  of  a 
Circle.     By  Edward  Sang,       .....  40S 

On  the  Action  of  Hydrtodie  Acid  on  Mandelic  Acid.  By  Alex. 
Crum  Brown,  M.D-.  D.Sc.,       .  .  .409 

On  the  Nature  of  Antozone.  By  Alfred  R.  Catton,  B.A.,  F.R.8.E., 
Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Assistant  to  tbe 


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Profemor  of  Natural  PhiloMpb^  in  the  UniTcnitj  of  Edio- 

borgh,  .......  413 

On  the  Food  of  tbe  Bojal  Engineer*  itationed  st  CbKtbam.     Bj 

Dr  Lyon  Plajfair,  .  .  .431 

Notice  of  a  Urge  CalcareouB  Stalagmite  brought  ftvm  the  Itland 

of  Bermada  in  the  jear  I8I9,  and  now  in  tbe  College  of  Edin- 

borgh.     Bj  Darid  Milne  Home,  Etq.  of  Wedderbum,  .  423 

Meteorological   Ohierrationi    on    Storms   of   Wind    in    Oetober, 

NoTember,  uid  December  of  1863.     Bj  Alexander  Buchan, 

M.A.,  Secretary  to  tbe  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  ■  .  438 
On  the  Use  of  Graphic  ReprewDtationi  of  Chemical  Formula. 

By  Dr  A.  Cmm  Brown,  .....  429 

On  Confocal  Conies.     B;  H.  Fox  Talbot,  Esq.,    .  .  .433 

On  the  Celtic  Topographj  of  Scotland.  By  W.  F.  Skene,  Esq.,  .  483 
On  the  Bands  produced  bj  the  Saperposition  of  Paragenic  Speetm 

formed  iy  the  Grooved  Sarfaces  of  Glass  and  Steel.     Part  II. 

Bj  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.B.8.,  .  .  .434 

Remarks  on  the  Flora  of  Otago,  New  Zealand.     By  W.  Laoder 

Littdsaj,   M.D.,    F.L.S.,  Hon.    Member  of  the   Fhiloeaphraal 

Institote  of  Canterbury,  New  Zealand,  .  .  434 

On  the  Composition  of  some  Old  Wines.     By  Donglaa  MacUgan, 

M.D.,  Curator  Roy.  8oo.  Edin.,  .  .  .437 

Preliminarj  Note  on  the  Colouring  Matter  of  Petiza  certtginotsi. 

By  Dr  A.  Cram  Brown,  .....  439 

On  the  Motion  of  Interpenetrating  Media.     By  Alfred  R.  Catton, 

B.A.,  Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural  Philoaophj  in  the 

UniTersitj  of  Edinburgh,  .....  441 
Some  ObserTBtions  on  the  Cuticle  in  relation  to  Evaporation.     Bj 

JohnDaT7,M.D.,  F.R.SS.  Lond.  and  Edin.,    .  .443 

On  Water,  Hydrogen,  Oxygen,  and  Ozone.     By  John  Macvicar, 

D.D.     Communicated  by  Dr  E.  Ronalds,  .  .   444 

Note  on   the   Behaviour  of   Iron    Filings,  strewn  on  a  vibrating 

plate,  and  exposed    to  tbe  action  of  a  magnetic   pole.      By 

Professor  Talt,  ......  444 

On  some  Congenital  Ueformiliea  of  the  Hnman  Skull.     By  Wm. 

Turner,  M.B..  F.R.S.E.,  .444 

On  Saturated   Vapours.      By   W.  J.  Macqnom   Rankine,  C.E., 

LL.D ,  F.R  S8.  Lond.  and  Edin.,  &c.,  .  .449 

On  the  Ganglia  and  Nerves  of  the  Heart,  and  their  conDeelion 

with  the  Cerebro -Spinal  and  Sympathetic  Systems  in  Mammalia. 

By  James  Bell  Pettigrew,  M.D.,  Edinburgh,   Aigistant  in  the 

Museum  of  the  R«yal  CuUeg«  of  Surgeons  of  England,  .  453 

Opening  Address,  Session   1865-66.      By    Sir   David   Brewster, 

President,  .  .458 

Address  on  the  Forces  concerned  in  the  Laying  and  Lifting  of 

Deep-Sea  Cables.     By  Professor  William  Thomson.      .  .  495 

On  the  Dynamical  Theory  of  Heat.     Part  VII.     By  Professor 

WiUiam  Thomwn,      .  .  .310 

The   "Doctrine  of  Uniformity"  in  Geology    briefly  refuted.     By 

Professor  WiUiam  Thomson,    .  .512 


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CONTENTS.  IX 

Note  on  the  Atomioitj  of  Sulphur.  By  Dr  Alexander  Cram 
Brown,  .......  213 

Not«  <m  *  iwper  b;  Bklfonr  Stmnrt,  Esq.,  in  th«  TruiMetioni  of 
the  Rojel  Sooietj  of  EdinbiiTgh,  b;  I.  Todbunter,  Eeq.,  H.A., 
St  JohD'a  College,  Cambridge.    CommuDioated  bj  I^feiBor  Tait,  617 

Additional  ObierTatioiie  on  the  PolariaatioD  of  the  Atmoiphera 
m&de  at  St  Andnira  in  1H41,  1842, 1843, 1844,  and  1840.  By 
Sir  DaTid  Brawiter,  E.H.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  &o.,  .  SSO 

Notice*  of  fome  Anaient  Seulpturea  on  the  Walli  of  Cavee  in  Fift. 
Bj  Pn>fe«Mr  i.  Y.  SimpHon,    .....  521 

Obserrations  on  New  Lichens  and  Fnngi  from  Otago,  Noit  Zea- 
land,    By  Dr  Lander  Linduj,  ,  .  .  ,  627 

Orthogonal  Isothermal  Surfaoes.     B;  Profenot  Tait,  .  623 

Notea  for  a  Comparison  of  the  Qlaoiation  of  the  West  of  Scotland 
with  thatof  Arotio  Norway.     By  Archibald  QBikle,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  530 

On  the  Third  Cu-ordinate  Brandi  of  the  Higher  Caloulue.  By 
Edward  Sang,  Em].,     .  .  .056 

Od  the  Laws  of  the  Fertility  of  Women.  By  J.  Matthews  Doncao, 
MD.,  .  .  .559 

On  the  Claniflcation  of  Chemical  Substances  by  Meane  of  Qeneric 
Radicals.     By  Dr  Alexander  Cram  Brown,  .  561 

Note  on  the  Compression  of  Air  in  an  Air-bubble  under  Water. 
By  Profiassor  Tait,       ......  508 

On  some  Geometrical  Constructions  connected  with  the  BUiptic 
Motion  of  Unresisted  Projectile*.     By  Professor  Tait,   .  ,   665 

On  the  Fairy  Stones  found  in  the  Elwand  Water,  near  Melioee. 
By  Sir  David  Brewster,  E.U.,  F.R.S.,  .067 

Report  on  the  Hourly  ObserTations  made  at  Leith  Fort  in  IS26  and 
1827,  by  Direction  of  the  Society.  By  Sir  David  Brewster, 
K.H,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S,,  &o,     .  .  .573 

On  a  New  Prepay  of  the  Retina.  By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H., 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  Ac  .....  573 

On  some  Laws  of  the  Sterility  of  Women.  By  J.  Matthews 
Duncan,  M.D.,  ......  574 

On  oertain  PoinU  in  the  Morphology  of  Cleft  Palate.  By  John 
Smith,  M.D.,  F.R.C.S.B.  Commumoated  by  William  Turner, 
M.B.,  .  .  .  .575 

Notes  more  especially  on  the  Bridging  Convolotion*  in  the  Brain  of 
the  Chimpanzee.     By  Wm.  Turner,  M.B  ,  F.R.SE.,     .  .  576 

On  the  Theory  of  the  Refraction  and  Dispersion  of  Light.  Part  I. 
By  Alfred  R.  Catton,  M.A.,  F.R.S.E.,  FeUow  of  St  John's  Ool- 
lege,  Cambridge,  Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,    ....  587 

On  the  General  Equation  of  Motion  of  a  Heterogeneous  Compres- 
sible System  of  Particles  slightly  Disturbed  from  their  Position  of 
Equilibrium.     By  A.  R.  Cattun,  M.A.,  .590 

On  Eome  Capillar;  Phenomena.     By  Professor  Tait,  .   593 

On  Functions  with  Recnrring  Derivative*.     By  Edward  Sang,  Esq.,  594 

The  World  hb  Governed  by  Law,  Toleologically  considered.  By  R. 
8.  WyW,  Esq.,  .  .  .596 


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Description  at  Fygopterui  Orttnockii  (Agauiz);  with  Notes  on  the 
Strnctur&l  Relation!  of  the  f^ero  PygopUru»,  AnMyplerui,  and 
Evtynotti*.  Bj  Ranisaj  H.  Traquair,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of 
.  Analoin;  in  the  UDiversity  of  Edinburgh.  Commtuiicsted  hy 
W.  Turner,  MB., 597 

OtMerrationa  on  the  Marine  Zoologj  of  North  Uiat,  Onter  Hebrides, 
— (Calenterata,  Molliuca,  Echinodennata,  Gephyrea,  and  Piscei). 
By  W.  C.  M'Intosh,  M.D  ,  F.L.S.  Coinmnnioated  by  Profewor 
Allman,  .  .  .  .600 

On  the  Natural  History  of  LewiB,  By  Profe««or  Duub,  D.D., 
F.R.S.E.,       .  .  .613 

On  M.  M^  Monri^s'  ProceM  of  Frepaijng  Wheat  Flour.  By 
ProfeaBor  Wileon,  ■       -      .  626 

ObBervationi  on  Meat  (Butchers '-meat),  in  relation  to  the  Changei 
to  whioli  it  is  liable  under  difibrent  CirDumstanoei,  By  John 
Dary,  M.D.,  F.K.SS.  Lend,  and  Edin.,  Ac,      .  .628 

The  Buried  Foreati  and  Peat-Moues  of  Scotland.  By  Jaoiea 
Oeikie,  Esq.     Communicated  by  Archibald  Oeikie,  Esq.,  .  635 

Aoeount  of  Recent  Measures  at  the  Great  Pyramid,  and  the  Dedne- 
tion*  flowing  therefrom.     By  ProfeMor  Fiazzi  Smyth,    .  .  610 

Some  ObserTations  on  Incubation.  By  John  Davy,  H.D  ,  F.R.SS. 
Lend,  and  Edin.,        ......  612 

On  the  Absorption  of  Substances  from  Solutions  by  Carbonaceous 
Matters,  and  the  growth  thereby  of  Coal-Seams.  By  William 
Skey,  Esq.,  Analyst  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  New  Zealand. 
Communicated  by  James  Hector,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Director  of 
the  Geological  Sarrey  of  New  ZeeUnd,  .  .  .  643 

DeMTiption  of  Calamotkhthg*.  a  new  Genua  of  Oanoid  Fish,  from 
Old  Calabar,  Western  Africa,  forming  an  addition  to  the  Family 
Polgpterini.  By  John  Alexander  Smith,  M.D.,  F.R  CP.E., 
and  R,  U.  Traquair,  M.D.,  Demonatrator  of  Anatomy  in  the 
TJnirenity  of  Edinburgh,         .....  654 


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PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Eightieth  Sessioh. 

Monday,  2itk  Nmemher  1862. 

Dr  Ghsistibon,  V.P.,  in  the  Ch&ir. 

The  following  Council  were  elected  : — 

PraiAtnt. 
HiB  Geace  Tbb  duke  of  ARGYLL,  £.T. 

Viet-Prandieitta. 
Sir  Datid  Brbwstko,  E.H.  I      Hon.  Lord  Nkatbb. 

Dr  CsRiarmov.  Principal  Porbss. 

ProfeBWT  Eelland.  |     Professor  Ikhss. 

General  Secretary, — Dr  JoHX  HunoM  Balfour. 

Seeretariet  to  the  Ordinary  MeeHngt. 
Dr  Lton  Plaitaih,  C.B. 
Dr  Georob  Jakes  Allmah. 

Tteagurer, — J.  T.  Gtbsoh-Craio,  Esq. 
(hrainr  of  Ltiirary  and  Muieum, — Dr  Douglas  MAOIiAaAH. 

CowwiUon. 

Frdessor  Tait. 

John  Mom, Esq,  D.CL 

A.  GAitFBELL  SwiHTON,  Esq 

Dr  William  Bobertsok. 

DrE.  BoNAuis. 

T.  0,  J 


Professor  Fraber. 
Juaa  Lww.nt,  Esq.,  C.E. 


DtSei 

B.  W.  Dallas,  Esq. 

Her.  L.  8.  Orde. 


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Proceedinga  o/the  RoyeU  Sociedj 


MoJiday,  \et  December  1862. 

Principal  Forbes,  one  of  the  Vice-Preaidents,  delivered  the 
following  Opening  Address  : — 

Gkhtlbubn, — I  propose  to  address  ypu  on  this  occasion  with  re- 
ference to  the  following  points : — 

First,  to  reoapitalftte  briefly  the  origin,  the  objects,  and  the  Con- 
stitution of  Societies  similar  to  our  own. 

Secondly,  to  trace  the  rise  and  general  history  of  the  Royal  So- 
•   ciety  of  Edinburgh. 

Thirdly,  to  consider  what  chaoges  the  progress  of  science  and  of 
society  render  necessary  or  deeirable  in  the  working  of  associations 
like  ours,  and  how  far  such  changes  are  safe  and  prudent. 

Lastly,  to  recall  the  history  of  this  Society  during  tha  past 
twelve  months,  especially  with  reference  to  the  Fellows  whom  it  has 
lost. 

I.  To  recapitvMe  hriefiy  the  Origin,  ObjecU,  nnd  Conttitution  of 
Socieliet  similar  to  our  ovm. 

Societies  baring  any  true  analogy  to  the  academies  of  modem 
Europe,  or  to  the  Boyal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  or  the 
Boyal  Irish  Academy,  have  arisen  within  about  300  years.  Italy 
was  their  birth-place,  and  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  in  no  country  have 
they  flourished  more.  They  appear  to  have  been  the  direct  ofl'- 
apring  of  the  spirit  of  inquiry  so  active  in  that  country  thioughont 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  According  to  the  literary 
bistonans  of  Italy,  the  cultivation  of  literature  by  academicians, 
salaried  by  the  Government,  commenced  at  Bome  in  1514,  under 
the  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  It  is  well  known,  that  the  cultivation  of 
literature  and  the  fine  arts  continued  to  be  fostered  in  Italy  by 
similar  institutions  during  many  generations.  The  Aecademia 
deUa  Cnuca  (named  after  the  Italian  word  for  bran  or  chaff,  from 
the  fanciful  analogy  of  sifting  the  pure  from  the  heterogeneous 
parts  of  the  language),  and  the  Society  of  Arcadians,  which  still 


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of  Edinburgh,  Beeeton  1862-63.  3 

exiets  01  existed  lately,  are  romiliar  examples.  But  the  number  of 
sucli  asGOciatioDa  was  vastly  greater  than  we  can  fiod  a  parallel 
for  in  other  countries  ot  in  more  recent  times. 

After  all,  the  typical  form  of  the  modem  Boyal  Society  or  Aca- 
demy is  traceable  to  the  Bstonishing  impulse  given  to  the  experi- 
mental physical  sciences  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century. .  The  ^t 
such  society  recorded  by  Tiraboschi  and  Libn,  the  chief  annalista 
of  the  revival  of  letters  in  Italy,  was  called  "  Accademia  Secteto- 
Tum  Naturte,"  founded  at  Naples  in  1560,  of  which  the  celebrated 
Baptists  Porta  was  president.  It  was  suppressed,  however,  by  the 
influence  of  the  priests.  The  Society  of  Lineei,  or  Lynx-eyed 
scrutators  into  natural  phenomena,  of  which  Oalileo  was  a  member, 
held  its  sittings  at  Borne.  It  was  founded  in  1601  by  Gesi,  a 
Doble  Bomau,  and  still  survives,  though  after  a  long  intervening 
period  of  inactivity.* 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  newly  born  interest  of  mankind  in  the 
investigation  of  nature  by  experiment,  must,  far  more  than  mere 
literary  discussion  or  dialectical  argument,  have  fostered  such  asso- 
ciations. In  those  glorious  days  when  a  Virgin  mine  of  natural 
phenomena  was  first  opened  to  the  intelligent  exploration  of  man- 
kind, the  succession  of  inventions,  discoveries,  and  capital  theories 
in  physical  science,  kept  every  thoughtful  mind  on  the  stretch. 
The  comparatively  recent  art  of  printing  served  to  disseminate 
rapidly  both  facts  and  doctrines;  the  promulgation  of  the  true 
system  of  the  world  by  CoperoicuB,  the  improved  astronomical  ob- 
servatioQS  of  Tycho,  the  mechanics  of  Da  Vinci  and  Stevinus,  the 
telescope  of  Galileo,  kept  all  Europe  in  a  tremble  of  expectation  for 
the  discoveries  of  each  succeeding  year.  What  covld  men  do  in 
such  circumstances  but  assemble  with  others  like-minded,  and  see 
with  their  own  eyes  the  facts  which  seemed  to  contradict  the  espe- 
rience  or  prepossessions  of  ages,  and  either  maintain  or  overthrow 
the  new  philosophy  ?  It  was  under  such  circumstaDceB  that  the 
Florentine  Academy,  "  del  Gimento"  was  founded  in  16S7,t  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  II.  of  Tuscany,  and 
with  the  persooal  support  of  bis  brother  Leopold.    The  withdrawal 

•  Boo  DriniwaUr  Bethune's  Life  of  (Galileo,  p.  87, 

t  Fint  meeting,  18th  Jnoe  IB&T.  Saggi,  &c.,  Edit.  1811;  Introd.  p.  96. 
Aj  iti  name  imports  it  wu  sn  ssgocifttion  for  making  apsnmmtt. 


« ..Google 


4  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

oi  the  latter  from  Floreoce  in  1667,  on  being  made  a  Cardinal,  was 
followed  by  the  decline  and  virtual  extinction  of  this  remarkable 
Society.  This  is  considered  by  Mr  Hallam  asapioof  of  the  incon- 
veniences attending  such  exalted  patronage  of  literaiy  societies ; 
yet  it  does  not  seem  to  afford  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  cessation 
of  the  labonis  of  a  society  which  gave  snch  indisputable  proofs  of 
vigonr,  vhose  Tiansactions  remain  a  book  of  reference  to  this  day, 
and  whose  members,  including  the  best  and  ablest  pupils  of  Qalileo, 
weie  well  able  to  sustain  their  position  amoi^et  the  learned  mm  of 
Europe. 

The  wide  reputation  of  the  Florentine  Essays  oontribnted,  no 
donbt,  to  the  establishment — aleo  under  Royal  sanction— of  the 
Boyat  Society  of  London.  This  took  place  in  November  1660, 
immediately  after  the  Restoration,  and  from  that  time  their  pro- 
ceedings may  be  traced  with  minute  precision.  Founded  originally 
upon  the  basis  of  a  private  Society  for  the  cultivation  of  Natural 
and  Experimental  Science  instituted  in  1646,  It  was  incorporated  by 
charter  in  1662,  four  years  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris 
was  instituted  in  1666  under  the  auspices  of  Colbert.  This  last 
was  incorporated  with  the  previously  existing  Aeademie  Franpiise 
foonded  for  the  cultivation  of  the  French  Language  and  Literature, 
much  after  the  manner  of  the  Crusca  Academy  in  Italy. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Boyal  Society  of  London  sub- 
sist,  it  is  needless  to  say,  to  this  day ;  and  each  in  their  own  sphere, 
and  in  varying  ways,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  time,  have 
contributed  in  the  most  important  way  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences.  The  unbroken  series  of 
Transactions  of  both  are  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  know- 
ledge for  continuity  and  importance.  The  publication  of  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  commenced  in  monthly  numbers 
on  the  Ist  March  166S.  Our  own  Society  has  very  recently  ac- 
quired for  the  first  time  a  complete  set  of  these  publications 
from  the  commencement,— an  acquisition  of  some  difRculty  and 
importance. 

An  hundred  and  twenty  years  elapsed  before  the  progress  of 
knowledge  and  of  organisation  in  the  sister  kingdoms  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland  sufBced  for'  the  formal  institution  uf  associations  on 
similar  principles  and  with  similar  ends  to  the  Roynl  Society.    The 


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(if  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  5 

BoyaJ  Society  of  Edinburgh  wae  fonnaUy  constituted  in  17S3,  and 
that  of  Dublin,  or  the  Royal  Iriafa  Academy,'  in  1785.  Both  atoeo 
out  of  BOcietioB  previouBly  exietiDg,  though  of  a  more  private 
character,  and  not  incorporated.  Ab  most  interesting  to  as,  I 
shall  presently  proceed  to  trace  the  rise  of  tbe  Boyal  Society  of 
Edinburgh. 

But  before  giving  an  account  of  this,  let  me  interpose  a  remark 
OD  the  organisation  of  such  societies  generally.  Even  in  early  times, 
they  difTered  from  one  another  in  respect  of  being  either  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  State,  or  of  being  merely  private  associations. 
This  distinction  continues  to  tbe  present  day.  The  French  Aoa- 
demies,  for  example,  are  national  institutions,  and  the  members 
receive  salaries  from  public  funds.  Tbe  Royal  Societies  of  this 
country,  on  tbe  other  hand,  are  free  from  even,  the  vestige  of 
State  control,  and  pursue  tbeir  aims  without  pecuniary  objects, 
and  according  to  tbeir  own  regulations.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  the  advantage  of  tbe  two  Byatems,  in  favour  of  each  of 
which  something  may  be  said.  Tbe  place  of  a  salaried  acade- 
mician is  often  realty  desirable  for  those  whose  fortunes  do  not 
enable  them  to  pursue  the  un remunerative  paths  of  science  and 
literature.  On  tbe  other  hand,  tbe  pecuniary  gain  is  liable  to  give 
rise  to  motives  less  pure  than  mere  honorary  distinctions  can  do, 
on  tbe  part  both  of  candidates  for  the  post  and  of  the  academical 
electors.  It  appears  from  the  history  of  the  Academxe  Fran^aise 
in  its  origin,  that  the  enlargement  and  incorporation  of  it  under 
tbe  State  influence  of  Cardinal  Bichelieu  was  much  resented  by  its 
original  members. 

The  two  forms  of  constitutions — the  one  creating  a  power  in  the 
State  with  corresponding  advantages  to  its  associates,  the  other 
receiving  an  impulse  entirely  from  within — are  really  so  distinct, 
that  it  seems  almost  invidious  to  compare  tbem.  The  latter  appears, 
from  the  history  of  our  country,  to  be  most  congenial  to  English 
habits  in  such  matters;  and  perhaps  we  have  do  great  reason 
to  regret  the  absence  of  an  "  Institute  "  under  Imperial  or  Boyal 
administration. 

But  another  question  arises  with  reference  to  such  Societies  as 
those  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  :  Whether,  in  default  of 
substantial  endowments  in  connection  with  membership,  an  orti- 


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6  Proceedinga  of  the  Bm/al  Society 

ficial  Btandard  of  literary  and  scieDtific  dietinction  is  to  be  held  up 
aa  regulating  the  entrance  or  refusal  of  candidates  ?-^wbether,  in 
short,  the  membora  of  oni  Societies  are  to  be  held  as  unsalaried 
academicians, — men  &elect«d  for  intellectual  attainment  alone,  and 
forming  therefore  a  learned  class  ? 

On  this  point,  which  is  one  of  considerable  impoTtoDae,  I  confess 
that  I  entertain  little  doabt.  Whatever  disadvuatages  may  attend 
tb«  admission  to  Societies  like  this  of  persons  who  have  no  preten- 
sions to  what,  for  convenience,  one  may  call  a  pr<^euional  acquaint- 
ance with  ecieoce,  art,  or  literature,  I  think  that  they  ought  to  be 
eligible.  It  is  little  likely  that  where  no  emoluments  or  distinc- 
tions present  themseWeB,  the  privilege  of  membership  will  be 
sought  except  by  those  who  feel  tome  sympathy  with  pursuits  for 
which  they  have  probably  a  secret  leaniog,  but  from  which  they 
have  been  withheld  by  force  of  circumstancea.  I  say,  Let  them 
oome,  and  freely,  and  let  us  regard  their  adheaioQ  to  our  raoks  as 
a  compliment  on  either  side. 

In  Britain,  all  experience  points  to  this  resolution  of  what  may 
be  in  some  respects  regarded  as  a  difficulty.  From  the  day  of  the 
foundation  of  the  Royal  Societies,  both  of  London  and  Edinburgh, 
the  rule  of  mixture  of  clasaes,  and  the  absence  of  an  academic 
standard  of  exclusion,  hag  been  alt  but  aniveisol.  The  co-operation 
of  men  of  all  ranks,  and  of  the  most  varied  occupations  and  acquire- 
ments, was  the  very  corner-stone  of  these  institutions.  While  they 
diffused  a  taste  for  science  amongst  the  nobility,  gentry,  and  pro- 
fessional men,  this  very  mixture  enhanced,  in  no  small  degree,  the 
interest  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Societies  themselves,  and  con- 
duced to  the  respect  shown  to  literature  and  science.  It  also  in- 
directly aided  the  progress  of  the  latter,  by  raising  a  large  fund  for 
the  publication  of  Transactions  and  the  conduct  of  experiments. 

To  attempt  to  enforce  a  contrary  principle,  would  be  to  reduce 
the  members  of  our  Societies  to  a  select  few,  without  the  advan- 
tages which  academicians  properly  enjoy,  and  without  the  cordial 
sympathy  which  the  lay-members  (as  they  may  be  termed)  con- 
tribute to  diffuse  amongst  an  intelligent  public,  whose  sentiments 
in  such  matters  is  never  to  be  despised. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  7 

II, — Bite  and  Frogreia  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

G-uided  by  bd  inteiestiiig  pnsBOge  ld  the  "  Life  of  Lord  Eamu,"* 
it  would  appear  that  the  genn  of  our  Society  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Bankenian  Club,  inatitnted  in  Edinburgh  in  1716,  for  literary  aooial 
meetings,  and  which  had  the  unusual  duration  (for  each  aesociatione) 
of  almost  sixty  years.  It  expired  in  1774.  It  included  among  its 
original  or  early  members.  Principal  Wishart,  Biahop  Horsley, 
Colin  Haclaurin,  John  Stevenson,  Professor  of  Logic,  Lord  Auch- 
inleck,  seTeial  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh  and  neighbouring 
gentry,  and,  finally,  Sir  John^Fringle,  afterwards  President  of  the 
Boyal  Society  of  London.  No  publications  are  known  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  this  Club.f 

Contemporary,  in  part,  with  the  Bankenian  Club  was  a  Society 
for  the  Improvement  of  Medical  Knowledge,  instituted  in  1731. 
This  Society,  of  which  little  perhaps  is  now  remembered  save  its 
published  Transactions,  appears  to  have  been  conducted  with  an 
enlightened  sense  of  the  dignity  and  importance  of  associations  for 
the  promotion  of  science,  which  its  founders  justly  considered  to  be 
more  advanced  by  publishing  able  papers,  than  by  making  a  parade 

•  [B7  Lord  WoodboTuelee]  two  vols.  4to.  Edin.  1807,  vol.  i.  p.  174,  aud 
lUt  of  memben,  Appendix  p.  60. 

t  Sines  the  reading  of  this  addresB  I  have  been  indebted  to  FrofsBMi 
Pntserof  the  Edinburgh  TJnivenity  for  arefetence  to  an  ioteieetiiigalliuionto 
the  "  Banhenlau  Club,"  contained  in  Dvgald  Stewart's  Firet  Diaaertatian  on 
the  Progtese  of  Metaphysical  and  Gthicri  Fhiloeophy,  port  ii.  aect.  4,  where 
he  speaks  of  Berkeley's  oalebrated  aystem  of  Idealism  haring  "  attracted  very 
powerfolly  the  attention  of  a  aet  of  young  men  who  weie  then  prosecntiDg 
their  atndiee  at  Edinhnrgh,  and  who  formed  themaalvea  into  a  society  for  the 
eipresa  purpose  of  aolicitiDg  troia  the  author  an  explanation  of  soma  parts  of 
bis  theory  which  seemed  to  them  obecarely  or  eqnivocally  expteased.  To 
this  conespondence  the  amiable  aud  excellent  prelate  appears  to  have  given 
every  oDconragement ;  and  I  have  been  fold,"  adda  Ur  Stewart,  "  by  the  best 
authority,  that  he  waa  accostomed  to  say  that  bis  reaaonfnga  had  been  no- 
where better  nnderstood  than  by  this  dub  of  yonng  Sootamen."  To  which 
Ur  Stewart  adds  this  note :  "  The  anthority  I  here  allnde  to  ia  that  of  my 
old  fiiesd  and  preceptor,  Dt  John  Stevenson,  who  was  himself  a  member  (^ 

the  Sanimian  Clnh "    Mi  Fraser  justly  remarks,  that  tho  dates 

tallywell  with  this  statement  1  Berkeley's  "Dialogues  "having  been  published 
ia  1T1S,  and  the  Bankenian  Club  having  (us  stated  above)  been  fonnded  in 
1716. 


DvGooglc 


8  ProceecUnga  of  the  Boyal  Society 

of  ceremonioue  meetings  and  priDtiDg  lists  of  dignified  o£Sc«- 
beaiers.  With  a  reticence  which  we  all  mnst  regret,  the  six 
volumes  of  Medical  Easays  give  no  clue  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Society,  the  nature  or  frequency  of  its  meetings,  the  names  of  the 
presideats,  nor  even  of  the  diligent  secretary  by  whom,  no  doubt, 
its  Proceedings  were  edited.* 

I  think  I  am  entitled  to  assume  that  the  papers  were  fully  equal 
in  point  of  merit  to  those  contributed  on  medical  subjects  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  oi  any  similar  institution.  They  went 
through  more  editions  than  one,  were  translated  into  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  were  highly  commended  by  the  celebrated  Haller. 
is  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  Wide  lepatation  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Medical  School  dates  from  the  publication  of  these  im- 
portant Essays. 

In  a  paper  on  the  Climate  of  Edinburgh,  which  I  contributed  a 
few  years  ago  to  the  Boyal  Society's  TraDBactions,t  I  have  brought 
into  view  the  early  meteorological  observations  contained  in  the 
Medical  Esiagi,  though  by  whom  they  were  made  does  not  ap- 
pear. 

The  six  volumes  of  Medical  Essays  tenpinated  in  1744.  In 
1737,  at  the  snggeftion  of  the  celebrated  Moclaurin,  the  objects  of 
the  Society  had  already  been  extended  bo  as  to  include  general 
science  and  literatare4  ^^  ^^  QO^  existed  for  many  years  in  this 
form  before  political  troubles  antecedent  to  and  during  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1745-6  seriously  impaired  ita  usefulness,  and  probably  pre- 
vented the  separate  publication  of  its  Transactions,  which  was  from 
the  first  contemplated.^  The  death  of  Maclaunn,in  June  1746,  which 

*  Ad  incidental  notice,  however,  in  the  lutroJaetion  to  the  first  Tolame  of 
the  Hofal  Society's  TraoBactionB,  ioforms  ns  that  the  Becretarj  was  the  flrat 
Profesaor  Monro,  who  wai  alio  a  large  contribator  to  the  Euat/t. 

t  Vol.  iiii.  p.  827. 

X  The  date  nsuall;  aBaigned  is  1780.  Bat  from  two  letters  of  Haclanrin 
printed  in  the  "  Scota'  Magazine  "  for  June  1804,  the  etriier  date  is  certainlj 
correct.  Hr  David  Lainghaa  shown  me  apamphlet  (of  sixteen  qnarto  pages) 
coDtaining  the  Begnlationa  of  the  Society  and  a  List  of  Members.  The  Lilt 
of  Members  is  dated  1789 ;  but  at  page  8,  the  flrst  Thnrsda;  of  December 
1737  is  fixed  aa  the  first  day  of  meeting. 

%  The  papers  read  at  the  Society  were  in  part  printed  in  the  later  voIomM 
of  the  MadiaU  E—agt,  in  the  Philonphioal  Tramaetiom,  and  in  Madauriti'i 
FluxioM.     It  appears  ftom  a  notice  in  Mr  K.  Ohambeis'B  Dontatie  AtmaU  (vol. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  3862-63.  9 

vaa  immediately  traceable  to  bia  exertions  on  the  eide  of  the 
EDglish  in  the  melancholy  almgglea  of  the  period,  was  a  heavy 
blow  to  its  nsefnlneea,  and  a  mass  of  papers  connected  with  it  were 
found  to  have  been  in  his  poesesBion,  which  conld  be  only  partially 
recovered.  Some  of  these  were  published  in  1754,  under  the  title 
of  Et$at/$  OTid  Ohervationt,  Physical  and  Literary,  read  be/ore  a 
Socitly  in  Edifthtirgh,  and  they  were  followed  bj  two  other  volumes 
in  1756  and  1771.  The  first  president  of  the  Philosophical  Society 
wae  the  Earl  of  Horton  (afterwards  president  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London),  Maclaurin  and  Br  Flummer  (Professor  of  Chemistry) 
were  secretaries.  Afterwards  Professor  Uonro  (SeeuwlMt),  and  the 
celebrated  David  Hume,  acted  ae  secretariea.  The  Society  then  held 
its  meetings  in  the  Advocates'  Library.  Medical  subjects  still 
greatly  predominated  in  the  Transactions ;  but  among  the  contribu- 
tors appear  the  names  of  Maclaurin,  Lord  Eames,*  John  Stewart 
(Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy),  Matthew  Stewart,  Porterlield, 
Uelvill,  and  Joseph  Black.f 

It  is  no  small  credit  to  this  unpretending  Society  that  it  not  only 
gave  from  its  members  two  Presidents  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  but  reckoned  amongst  its  contributors  perhaps  the  two 
most  eminent  disciples  of  the  Newtonian  school  which  Britain  pro- 
duced in  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century, — namely,  Colin  Mac- 
laurin and  Matthew  Stewart.  The  Philosophical  Society  of  Edin-' 
bnrgh  was  the  immediate  parent  of  the  Boyal  Society.t 

The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  took  its  rise  in  a  meeting  of  the 
Fiofeesors  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  many  of  whom  were  also 
members  of  the  PbiloBopbical  Society ,§  on  the  proposition  of  Prin- 

tii,  p.  477),  that,  in  1743,  the  Society  Bdvertised  for  apeciraeoB  of  atoneB,  ores, 
•aline  Bulistancea,  bitumena,  ix.,  to  be  seat  to  their  secretar;,  Dr  Plummer, 
and  it  is  stated  that  "  the  Society  undertake,  by  some  of  their  number,  tu 
make  the  pmper  trials  at  their  own  charge  for  discovering  the  nattue  and  usea 
of  tbe  minerals,  and  to  return  an  anairei  to  the  penon  by  whom  they  were  sent, 
if  they  are  jadged  to  bo  of  any  use.  or  can  be  wrought  to  adTastage."  The 
quotation  ie  from  the  Edin.  Evening  Courant,  22d  Aug.  1748. 

*  Henry  Home,  Lord  Kamee,  becnnie  president  about  1760,  and  eoutriboltd 
greatly  to  the  Bucceaa  of  the  Society. 

t  Dr  Black's  sole  contribution  «ae  bia  celebrated  "  Experiments  on  Mag- 
nesia Alba,"  Eetaya,  &c.  vol.ii.  p.  167. 

I  See  Life  of  Kamea.  i.  184,  and  Trans.  Roy.  Soc  Edin.,  i.  p.  6. 

I  The  last  BurTiviirs  in  om  body  of  tbe  Philosophical  Society  were,  Profea- 


..,Goot;jlc 


10  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

cipal  Bobenrtson,  towftrds  the  end  of  1782.  It  is  sUtted  to  have  been 
fonnded  "  on  the  model  of  some  f'oreiga  AoademieB,"  and  bo  far  dif- 
fered from  the  Boyal  Society  of  London,  that  literary  objects  were 
equally  promoted  with  science,  and  the  interests  of  literature  repre- 
sented by  a  Literary  "  Class  "  or  aubordinate  Academy,  having  diatinot 
meetings  and  office-bearers.  It  appears  from  a  carious  letter  of  Pro- 
fessor Dalzel,  in  FrofesBor  Innee's  Lift  of  Dalxel,  *  that  the  Boyal 
Society  was  more  particularly  modelled  on  the  Berlin  Academy, 
and  that  its  rise  was  partly  doe  to  a  contest  between  Lord  Bnchan 
and  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Uoiveisitj 
and  Faculty  of  Advocates  on  the  other.  The  result,  however,  of 
this  party-war  was  in  favour  of  the  interests  of  soience  and  literatnie ; 
for  the  Society  received  a  Soyal  Charter,  and  wds  formally  consti- 
tuted at  a  meeting  held  in  the  College  Library  on  the  23d  June 
1783,  under  the  presidency  of  Principal  Bobertson,  at  which  Trara 
also  present  the  Lord  Provost,  Lord  Justice-Clerk  Miller,  Profea- 
Bors  CuUen,  Monro  (^SeeuTtdut),  Hugh  Blair,  John  Walker,  Adam 
Ferguson,  John  Bobison  (who  was  then  appointed  secretary),  the 
SolicitoT-Qeneral  Hay  Campbell,  and  several  members  of  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates,  the  oelebrated  Adam  Smith,  and  Ur  Hooter 
Blair,  M.P.  for  the  city  of  Edinburgh. 

The  Society  started  at  once  into  vigorous  existence,  and,  looking 
especially  to  the  reputation  of  the  members  of  the  Literary  Class, 
few  societies  in  any  country  have  given  a  fairer  prospect  of  a  dis- 
tinguished career.  The  members  were  either  Besideut,  Non-Besi- 
dent,  or  Honorary.  The  number  of  Original  Beeidente  was  102, 
and  of  NoD-Beeidents,  71 ;  and  this  before  the  Society  bad  ever  held 
a  meeting.  A  short  time  later,  the  total  number  of  members  be- 
longing to  the  Physical  Clasa  was  101,  and  to  the  Literary  Class, 
114.  An  excerpt  from  the  MS,  list  of  original  members,  in  Pro- 
fessor Bobison's  handwriting  (exclusive  of  those  who  have  been 
named  as  founders  of  the  Society),  will  give  no  mean  idea  of  the 
eminent  position  of  Edinburgh  in  the  literary  world  of  that  day: — 

■or  Junes  Rnaull  and  Sir  William  Miller,  Lord  Olenlee.  The  latter  died  so 
latal;  u  1846,  Id  his  niDetj-fint  ;eai.  The  Hiante-Boolu  of  the  Philosophical 
Bociety  were  expresBlj  convejed  to  the  onatad;  of  the  Bojal  Sodety  (lee 
Hiniite,  B.8.,or  4th  Angiut  1788);  bnt  the;  an.ftmaj  befeBred,  nowirre- 
cnf  ersbly  Inst. 
"  Page  89  {SOtli  Nov.  1782). 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seasion  1862-63.  11 

Tb«  FhtbioUi  Club  inclnded  Joseph  Black,  Clerk  of  Eldin, 
Sir  John  Dalrymple  (Lord  Hailes),  Jamee  Gregory,  JuneB  Hntton, 
John  Playfair,  Dngald  Stewart,  Lords  Bute  and  DandoDald,  Sir 
James  Hall,  James  Watt,  Dr  Small  of  Dnndee,  Patrick  Wilson ;  and 
in  the  Litirast  Club  we  find  tlio  Loid  President,  Chief  Baron,  and 
Lord  Advooate,  John  Home,  David  Home,  Henry  Mackenzie,  Alaz- 
ander  Tytler  (Lord  Woodhoaselee),  the  Buke  of  Bncoleuoh,  Aichi- 
bald  Alison,  Dr  Beattie,  Edmnnd  Bnrke,  Lard  Uorton,  Lord 
Hopetonn,  John  Hunter  of  St  Andrews,  Thomas  Beid,  Tonng  of 
Olasgov,  Dalzel,  and  Hr  (afterwards  Sir  Bobert)  Liston.  The 
earliest  meetings  of  the  Boyal  Society  (as  well  as  that  of  its  incor- 
poration) took  place  in  the  Univenity  Library.  A  large  snbscrip- 
tion  towards  the  erection  of  the  New  College  was  made  by  the 
Society,  on  the  understanding  that  the  Society  should  be  accommo- 
dated within  its  walls;  and  space  was  actually  allotted  on  the 
north  side  of  the  hailding.  How  this  was  fmstrated  I  do  not  know. 
The  formal  meetings  continued  to  take  place  tumally  in  the  same 
place  (the  Library),  at  least  until  1808,  with  an  occaBional  sabsti- 
tution  of  the  Physicians'  HalL  In  1810,  the  Society  purchased 
ft  house,  No,  40  Geoige  Street,  where  they  were  accommodated 
until  1826;  when  they  lemoTed  to  the  rooms  which  they  still 
occupy,  under  a  lease  from.  Goreniment,  in  the  Boyal  Institution 
Building  in  Princes  Street. 

I  proceed  to  trace  rapidly  the  fortunes  of  the  Society,  which 
almost  on  the  very  day  that  I  address  ycni  has  completed  the 
eightieth  year  of  its  existence. 

The  first  President  was  the  Duke  of  Buccleach.  He  was  sue* 
ceeded  in  1812  by  Sir  James  Hall,  who,  resigning  in  1820,  was 
followed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  ip  1832, 
Sir  Thomas  Makdongall  Brisbane  fiUed  bis  place,  to  be  succeeded 
at  his  decease  in  1860  by  the  Duke  of  Argyll.  ThuB  we  haye  the 
remarkable  and  very  unosoal  fact,  that  the  fint  four  preBidencies 
endnzed  over  seventy-seven  years.  The  chief  secretaryship  has  in 
the  same  period  been  held  by  only  five  individuals,  of  whom  bnt 
two  were  removed  by  death. 

The  earliest  period  of  the  Boyal  Society,  and  also  the  earliest 
volumes  of  its  TransaotiouB,  were  marked  by  the  efficiency  of  the 
literary  department.    The  first  two  volanes  show  a  mbstantial  if 


DvGooglc 


12  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

not  preciaa  eqa&Iity  in  the  extent  of  the  pnblisbed  contribntionB 
devoted  to  literature  and  to  acience.  Tlio  balance  will  even  pre- 
ponderate on  the  literary  side,  if  we  include  the  elegant  biographiea 
of  deceased  Fellows  drawn  up  by  accomplished  authors.  About 
1793 — only  ten  yoare  from  the  origin  of  the  Society — the  activity 
of  the  Literary  Class  had  already  become  materially  impaired.  But 
indeed,  at  no  period  conld  the  literary  papers  bear  compsiison  in 
point  of  merit,  as  a  whole,  with  thoso  on  science.  The  great  men 
of  letters,  who  lent  the  weight  of  their  names  to  the  institution, 
hardly  maintained  its  reputation  by  their  pens.  I'he  BobertsoDs, 
the  Beids,  the  David  Humes,  the  Fergusons,  and  the  Adam  Smiths, 
hardly  contributed  to  the  pages  of  the  TraUEactions. 

It  appears  from  the  minutes  of  the  Physical  and  Literaiy  Classen 
which  are  now  before  me,  that  towards  the  end  of  last  century  the 
meetings  of  the  Literary  Glass  became  rare — not  averaging  three  iq 
a  year — in  consequence  of  the  deficiency  of  communications.  In 
1807,  when,  owing  to  the  interest  excited  hy  the  geological  discus- 
sions of  the  period,  in  which  Sir  James  Hall,  Professor  Flayfair, 
Lord  Webb  Seymour,  Professor  Jameson,  Dr  Thomas  Thomson,  Mr 
Thomas  Allan,  and  Mr  Macknight  took  active  parts,  the  business  of 
the  Physical  Class  literally  overflowed  into  the  Literary  Ctaes,  the 
evenings  appropriated  to  the  latter,  and  not  taken  up  by  literary 
papers,  being  devoted  to  science.  In  the  following  year  the  minute- 
book  of  the  Literary  Class  ceases  altogether,  and  the  separate 
meetings  appear  to  have  been  discontinued  from  that  date  (1808). 
Afterwards  a  few  literary  papers  were  received  at  the  ordinary 
meetings,  without  any  attempt  at  separation.  It  was,  however, 
only  in  1827  that  the  distinction  of  the  two  classes  was  finally 
abandoned  in  the  annual  election  of  office-bearers,  and  thcU,  not 
from  any  disinclination  on  the  part  of  the  Society  to  afford  honour- 
able room  to  literary  papers,  hut  simply  from  the  cessation  of  such 
communications.  It  is  perfectly  understood  that  a  renewal  of  these 
would  be  considered  to  be  a  credit  to  the  Society,  and  I  hope  that 
our  literary  friends  will  be  induced  to  give  us  the  benefit  of  their 
support  and  their  contributions. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Literary  Class,  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Society  were  at  uo  time  marked  by  more  energy  and  importance 
than  during  the  first  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  the  present  century, 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  13 

when  the  geological  discuaeions  to  which  I  have  referred  made 
Edinburgh  the  chief  centre  of  inromiatioa  on  euch  subjects.  The; 
gave  rise  to  the  maaterl;  papers  of  Sir  James  Hall,  with  which  at 
that  time  the  TransactioDs  were  enriched.*  These  were  followed 
or  accompanied  by  the  early  communications  of  Sir  David  Brewster 
on  Polarization  and  other  parts  of  Optica,  which  added  much  to  the 
scientific  reputation  of  the  Society. 

The  accesflion  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  the  presidency  in  1820  did 
not  reanimate  the  Literary  section  of  the  Society.  He  contributed 
no  paper,  although  he  at  one  time  very  regularly  presided  at  the 
ordinary  meetings.  From  1832,  when  the  printing  of  the  "  Pro- 
ceedings" at  every  meeting  commenced,  to  the  present  time,  nothing 
in  the  history  of  the  Society  calls  for  special  remark.  During  that 
period,  as  at  former  ones,  there  have  been  fluctuations  in  the  pros- 
perity of  the  Society,  both  as  regards  the  number  and  value  of  the 
communications  received,  and  the  interest  taken  in  the  meetings 
by  the  Fellows  at  large  and  by  the  general  public.  That  such 
must  oconr  the  founders  of  the  Boyal  Society  were  sufficient); 
awaie.  At  the  very-  opening  of  our  Transactions  we  find  it  ob- 
served, that  "  Institutions  of  this  kind  have  their  intervals  of  lan- 
guor as  well  as  their  periods  of  brilliancy  and  activity.  Ever; 
associated  body  must  receive  ibi  vigour  from  a  few  zealons  and 
spirited  individuals  who  find  a  pleasure  in  that  species  of  bnsineas, 
which,  were  it  left  to  the  care  of  the  members  in  general,  would  be 
often.  leluctontl;  submitted  to,  and  always  negligently  executed. 
The  temporary  avocations,  and  still  more  the  deaths  of  each  men, 
have  the  most  sensible  effects  on  the  societies  to  which  the;  he- 
longed.  The  principle  of  activity  which  animated  them,  if  not 
utterly  extinguished,  remainslongdormant,  and  a  kindred  genius  is 
required  to  call  it  into  life,"t  The  truth  of  these  remarks  must  be 
apparent  to  all  who  have  had  experience  in  such  matters.  The; 
ought  to  encourage  us  to  keep  alive  the  interest  of  our  meet- 
ings, and  to  maintain  the  character  of  our  Societ;  at  times  when 

*  The  l&at  meeting  at  whicb  Sir  Jumes  Holt  appeura  to  have  presided,  sas 
that  of  the  6tb  June  1820.  He  resigned  the  prreidaiicy  in  NoTsmber  follow- 
ing.  Hit  list  paper  printed  in  the  Transactions,  "  On  the  ConiolidKtioii  of 
the  Strata  of  tlie  Earth,"  wai  read  in  Mank  1626. 

t  Trans.  R.  Suo.  Edin,,  vol.  i.  p.  6. 


DvGooglc 


14  Proceedings  of  the  Bot/ed  Society 

either  iiiKy  appear  to  be  iii  danger  of  flaggiog,  resting  well  aeaared 
that  the  development  of  knowledge,  and  the  intellectaal  Teeomces 
of  new  generations,  will  ever  from  time  to  time  give  luatie  and 
importance  to  associatiooB  destined  not  to  meet  the  capricea  or 
faehiona  of  a  time,  but  to  promote  the  great  cause  of  acientifio  and 
literary  progress. 

III. — 1  now  proceed  to  consider  vAat  dumgea  the  progreu  of 
*ct«nce  or  q/'  tcciety  renders  neeeuary  or  deiirable  in  the  working  of 
(utodatiotu  tueh  at  tite  Hoi/al  Society,  and  kov>  far  mch  ctum^  are 
la/e  arid  prvderU  T 

The  moet  casual  reader  of  history,  or  observer  of  men,  knows 
that  the  inevitable  progress  of  change — material,  intellectual,  and 
social— deprives  of  the  character  of  permanence  all  human  institn- 
tioDS.  Tboae  Institutions  are  most  likely  to  be  perpetuated,  in 
which  a  wise  forecast  of  progressive  change  adapts  their  parts  to  the 
wants  and  circumstances  of  the  age.  If  this  be  true  of  political 
Constitutions,  of  Churches,  of  Universitiea,  of  Charities,  nay  even 
of  public  Amusements,  it  is  no  less  true  of  learned  Societies.  Con- 
BJdering  that  the  Boyai  Society  of  London  and  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  are  each  two  centuries  old,  we  rather  must  wonder — 
taking  into  view  the  astonishing  progress,  or  indeed  reconstruction, 
of  the  sciences  during  that  time — that  so  much  of  their  original 
constitution  still  remains,  than  that  changes  have  been  needed,  or 
are  stilt  required,  to  meet  the  wants  of  successive  generations. 

I  shall  cooaider  some  of  the  most  obvious  changes  of  condition 
under  which  learned  associations  pursue  their  vocation  now  and 
formerly.  In  doing  so,  I  shall  speak  principally  of  their  relations 
to  tha  natural  and  experimental  sciences. 

The  Florentine  Academy  was  an  excellent  type  of  what  a  physical 
association  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  and  ought  to  have  been. 
The  memben  collected  appantQs,  they  had  a  laboratory,  they  fur- 
nished funds  for  these ;  and  the  associated  philosophers  (who  were 
select  in  number)  met  to  witness  the  experiments,  and  to  ai^s 
upon  the  conclusions  to  he  drawn  from  them.  The  Boyal  Society 
of  London,  as  well  as  the  lesser  societies  from  which  it  sprung, 
took  a  precisely  similar  course :  they  bad  a  paid  Operator  and 
Editor  of  their  Traashctions;  and  they  remitted  to  individual  mem - 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  15 

bera  01  Bmall  committeee  to  tiy  experiments,  and  to  report  the  re- 
Eulta  to  a  BUcoeeding  meetiag. 

This  seemB  to  be  the  moat  perfect  coDstitutioa  of  a  aociatj  for 
iovestigatuig  nature  which  we  can  well  imagine.  It  beare  a  close 
analogy  to  the  Fhilowphieal  Colkge  of  Bacon, — the  Solomon't  Moiae 
in  the  allegoiy  of  the  New  Atlantis, — which  ia  generally  believed  to 
have  been  really  an  antecedent  (in  the  way  of  snggestion)  to  the 
formation  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Bnt  it  is  now  less  prac- 
ticable than  formerly,  for  many  reasons,  of  whiclt  I  will  enumerate 
a  few.  For  example,  these  SocietieB  include  in  oar  time  bo  many 
members  that  they  can  no  longer  consult  as  a  committee,  but  must 
rather  listen  as  an  audience.  Again,  the  minute  enbdivisionB  into 
which  the  sciences  are  now  split,  render  a  perfect  comprehension  of 
one  science  alone  almost  the  occupation  of  a  single  life.  Hence,  un- 
less such  a  society  were  to  oonBist  all  of  chemists,  all  of  astronomers, 
all  of  comparative  anatomiats,  and  bo  forth,  the  proceedings, and  even 
the  experiments,  which  in  a  former  age  interested  nearly  all  well- 
informed  men  alike,  are  now  interesting  or  inteUigible  to  only  a 
small  section.  In  like  manner,  an  experimental  investigation  is  no 
longer  the  aimple  and  absolute  thing  which  it  was.  A  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  is  no  longer  inBtmcted,  as  in  former  times,  to  try, 
for  instance,  whether  spirit  of  wine  bums  or  not  in  an  exhausted 
receiver;  whether  salt  is  separated  from  water  in  freezing;  to  dis- 
sect an  oyster ;  to  measure  whether  pebbles  and  other  minerals 
grow  or  not ;  whether  eggs  frozen  continue  fecund ;  to  repeat  the 
Magdeburg  and  Torricellian  experiments ;  to  determine  the  relative 
weight  of  lead  and  water ;  and  to  report  the  result  of  any  such  ex- 
periment at  next  week's  meeting.*  But  the  iuvestigations  are  now-a- 
days  complicated,  Die  experimental  means  alone  furnish  matter  for 
long  and  anxious  preliminary  couBideratiou  ;  the  precision  needed, 
and  the  calculations  on  which  it  depends,  are  matterB  consuming 
time,  and  often  can  be  better  attained  by  the  patient  efforts  of  an 
individual,  than  through  any  amount  of  co-operation ;  oay,  the 
very  results,  unless  involving  a  capital  discovery  (which  is  a  rare 
and  fortunate  accident),  cannot  be  stated  without  an  amount  of 
detail  often  wearisome  to  those  who  are  not  eepecially  interested. 


DvGooglc 


16  Proceedings  of  the  Bot/cd  Society 

These,  among  otbeie,  are  causes  irhy  men  caDDot  now  do  the  hard 
work  of  Goience  in  their  collective  capacity  as  aseociatioDB.  How 
rarely  do  we  even  see  two  philosophers  (at  least  in  thifi  conntry) 
engaged  in  a  common  investigation  I 

One  result  of  what  has  been  stated  is  the  breaking  down  of 
scientific  commnnities  into  special  aggregations  or  societies  for 
the  promotion,  say,  of  astronomy,  or  geology,  or  chemistry,  or  even 
minuter  subjects,  each  as  microscopic  anatomy,  numismatics,  or. 
entomology.  Such  associations  bear  testimony  to  the  difficulty, 
which  increaaea  year  by  year,  of  rendering  the  sciences  intelligible 
and  interesting,  in  respect  of  new  discoveries,  to  the  mass  of  even 
well-educated  men.  They  are  so  far  a  protest  against  the  utility 
of  associations  at  all,  since  they  tend  to  reduce  the  prosecntion  of 
science  more  and  more  to  an  individual  affair. 

In  communities  less  numerous  and  comprehensive  than  those  of 
London  or  Paris,  the  difficulty  is  not  less  felt,  though  the  means  of 
meeting  it  (at  least  temporarily)  are  not  so  attainable.  The  largest 
provincial  town  or  district  cannot  possibly  maintain  the  group  of 
associations  which,  even  in  London,  may  be  said  to  enjoy  a  preca- 
rious intellectual  subsistence.  I  do  not  mean  to  say,  that  more 
subordinate  special  assoeiations  are  unadvisable,  even  in  the  pro- 
vinces ;  on  the  contrary,  I  believe  that  they  may  do  much  good. 
But  one  may  fairly  deprecate  the  encouragement  of  a  spirit  of 
rivalry  towards  the  larger  and  more  national  and  permanent  insti- 
tutions whioh  already  exist,  such  as  the  Royal  Society  may  fairly 
clum  to  be.  To  maintain  the  character,  for  energy  and  stability, 
of  one  central  Society,  is  in  reality  the  common  interest  of  all  of 
that  not  very  numerous  body  of  persons  who  cultivate  science  for 
its  own  sake.  Delightful  and  instructive  meetings  may  advan- 
tageously be  held  by  a  local  body  of  geologists  or  chemists,  or 
naturalists;  but  sacb  associations  require  immense  vitality  to 
be  permanent.  Practically,  they  fall  into  abeyance,  in  perhaps 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  or  even  less ;  and  if  they  have  attempted 
to  record  theii  labours  by  publication,  these  publications  having 
never  attained  more  than  a  very  limited  circulation,  become  in- 
accessible and  forgotten.  The  matured  written  results  of  those 
labours  which  properly  form  a  subject  of  almost  private  discussion 
in  minor  societies,  are  best  consigned  for  final  preservation  to  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  17 

publications  of  a  central  and  enduring  aesociatioD.  A  good  example 
of  what  I  here  intend  to  indicate,  may  be  foond  in  a  private  Parisian 
Society,  founded  early  in  this  century,  cfJIed  La  Soekti  d'ArutiU, 
from  the  name  of  the  country-house  of  its  president.  Count  Berthol- 
let,  where  it  met.  It  consisted  of  the  Slite  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  including  Laplace,  Humboldt,  Gay  Lussac,  Biot,  Arago, 
Decandolle,  &c.  But  the  Memoirs  (in  three  volumes)  published  by 
this  most  distinguished  and  delightful  club,  including  such  papers 
of  capital  importance  as  Malus's  original  one  on  the  Polariza- 
tion of  Light,  Humboldt's  on  the  Isothermal  Lines,  Tbenard  oB 
Ethers,  and  Arogo  on  the  Colours  of  Thin  Plates,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  in  fact  withheld  from  the  Proceedings  of  the  national 
Academy,  and  they  must  now  be  sought  for  consultation  in  a  small 
printed  collection  in  the  hands  comparatively  of  few.  It  is  need- 
Less  to  add,  that  the  Society  lasted  for  but  a  few  years. 

I  may  also  include  among  the  causes  which  bare  of  late  years 
affected  the  prosperity  of  our  own  and  similar  societies,  that  ten- 
dency to  centraKzalion  which,  during  the  last  half  century,  has 
affected  so  many  interests,  political,  social,  oommeroial,  and  also 
scientific  and  literary.  The  facility  of  communication  with  Lon- 
don has  facilitated  that  tendency  to  southward  emigration,  bo  long, 
and  not  unjustly,  attributed  to  Scotcbmea.  But  fai  from  aiding 
their  return,  the  facility  seems  to  be  all  in  one  direction.  The 
larger  arena  for  practical  talent  to  be  found  in  the  metropolis  at- 
tracts even  our  .writers  of  literary  essays,  and  our  labourers  in  the 
cause  of  physical  science.  It  is  a  fact  which  admits  of  no  doubt, 
that  the  Scottish  Qeologioal  School,  which  once  made  Edinburgh 
famous,  especially  when  the  Vulcanist  and  Neptunian  War  raged 
eimultsneously  in  the  hall  of  this  Society  and  in  the  class-rooms  of 
the  University,  may  almost  be  said  to  have  been  transported  bodily 
to  Burlington  House.  Boderick  Murchison,  Charles  LyeU,  Leonard 
Homer,  are  Scottish  names,  and  the  bearers  of  them  are  Scottish  in 
everything  save  residence.  Even  the  field  of  their  labours  is  in  no 
small  measure  Scottish ;  and  the  Silurian  standard  is  waved  over  half 
the  length  and  breadth  of  our  "  primitive"  Highlands.  Our  younger 
men  are  drafted  off  as  soon  as  their  acquirements  become  known. 
Professor  Ramsay  was  early  called  from  his  voluntary  labours  in 


DvGooglc 


18  Proceedings  of  the  Boycd  Society 

Airan  to  EDgHeh  eoil ;  and  we  only  retain  the  eervices  which  our 
townsman  Ur  G«ikie  volunteers  for  our  iDBtraction,  so  long  as  tbe 
central  forces  of  Jermyn  Street  Buffer  him  to  linger  within  the 
Scottish  border.  Others,  who  still  reside  in  Scotland,  not  unnatn- 
rally  seek  a  larger  audience,  and  a  more  »pid  publicity  for  their 
memoirs,  by  transmitting  them  to  LondoD.  This  is  reasonable  and 
ineritable.  Yet  a  certain  feeling  of  patriotism  might  still  retain  a 
portion  of  their  labours  for  the  Transactions  of  our  Scottish  Boyal 
Somety.  Indeed,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  centralization  of  which 
I  have  spoken  seema  to  reside  in  London  chiefly;  for  we  do  not 
find  mncb  tendency  in  Scottish  towns  or  nnivereities  (with  a  few 
honourable  e:xceptioos)  to  contribute  to  the  literary  and  gcientifio 
wealth  of  our  national  metropolis.  I  believe  that  the  original  list  of 
the  Boyal  Society  of  1783  includes  more  proTincial  members,  at  bU 
events  from  the  Universities,  than  we  can  reckon  in  1862.  Of  EiU  the 
changes  which  have  befallen  Scottish  science  during  the  last  half 
oentury,  that  which  I  most  deeply  deplore,  and  at  the  same  time  won- 
der at,  is  the  progressive  decay  of  our  once  illustrious  Geological 
School.  Centralization  may  account  for  it  in  part,  but  not  entirely. 
But  I  have  allowed  myself  to  be  partly  withdrawn  from  the  enu- 
meration of  the  oauses  of  change  which  have  affected  the  business 
and  functions  of  societies  for  the  promotion  of  science  and  litera- 
tnie.  Another  of  these  is  the  alteration  of  domestic  habits  in  some 
important  particulars.  Uost  of  the  older  societies  commenced  in 
Clvhi,  which  met  at  taverns,  in  conformity  with  the  all  but  uni- 
versal usage  of  the  period.  The  "  Fhilosophic^  Club,"  which 
foreshadowed  the  Boyal  Society  of  London,  met  in  1649  at  the 
Bull's  Head  in  Oheapside;  and  the  germ  of  the  Boyal  Society  of 
Bdinbuigh  was  a  dub  meeting  at  Ranken's  Tavern.  All  this  is 
past  and  gone.  The  Brydens,  the  Addisons,  and  the  Johnsons  of 
onr  day,  hold  forth  no  longer  at  "Will's"  or  "The  Hitie,"  If 
a  more  domestic,  we  are  certainly  a  less  "  clubable"  generation.* 
The  effect  tells  even  upon  our  literary  and  scientific  undertak- 
ings. Tbe  clubs  of  modem  London  are  ratbei  institutions  for  tbe 
luxurious  aocommodation  of  individuals  than  for  social  inteicouise ; 
and  the  attempt  of  Sir  E.  Davy  and  others  to  combine  them 
systematically  with  literary  conversation,  in  the  case  of  the  "Athe- 
*  "  fioiwell  is  a  to?  tUiUAU  man."    Johnsou,  in  Sotwell'i  lAfi. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edij^ntrgh,  Session  1862-63.  ^       19 

iwnm,"  proved  a  failure.  Aq  analogous  infiuenoe  is  found  {n  the 
vast  expansion  of  iDtellectual  intercoone  thnnigh  the  meanfl  of 
the  press,  and  in  the  filtering  of  knowlet^  of  all  kinds — of  soien* 
tific  knowledge,  perhiqw,  especially — ^through  the  widely  extended 
system  of  popular  lectures.  In  these  two  features  of  the  age,  we 
find  snSoient  reasons  alone  to  account  for  much  of  the  social 
change  to  which  I  have  referred.  Newspapers,  magazines,  and 
ephemeral  literature  of  every  kind,  supplant  the  oral  intercom- 
mnnication  characteristic  of  the  days  of  clubs.  A  man  takes 
home  with  him  to  his  fireside  the  gossip,  the  jokes,  the  disooTeries, 
the  discuBsions,  grave  or  gay,  of  the  day.  And  in  matters  of 
eoience  it  is  somewhat  the  same.  Much  hefindsof  all  that  is  most 
occupying  the  thoughts  of  able  men  pursuing  natural  knowledge 
set  down  in  the  pages  of  the  "  Atbeneeum,"  or  "  Macmillan,"  or 
"  Good  Words,"  perhaps  by  the  very  peieons  who  really  are  most 
able  to  speak  of  such  things.  Nothing  of  importance  oao  be  com- 
municated to  a  society  whidi  does  not  soon  become  matter  of  public 
notoriety  through  snch  ohanoels. 

Bat  still  wider  is  the  iDflnenoe  of  those  popular  discoutses  or 
lectures  which  now  praotic^y  supply  to  many  persons  of  general 
information,  but  not  professed  students,  the  intellectual  interest 
formerly  songht  in  the  meetings  of  our  learned  Societies,  and  I 
believe  I  might  add,  in  the  case  of  Edinburgh,  in  some  measure 
from  our  University  courses  also.  The  Eoyal  Institution  of  Lon- 
don commenced  this  system  with  splendid  advantages,  and  its 
popularity  (which  could  scarcely  increase)  has  been  maintained 
with  little  if  any  diminution  for  sixty  years.  But  in  fulfilling 
its  own  task  of  instructing  intelligent  persons  in  the  latest  results 
of  scientific  discovery,  often  from  the  very  mouths  of  the  discoverers 
themselves,  it  has  deprived  of  one  great  attraction  the  meetings 
of  the  Royal  Society,  the  groat  fountain  and  source  whence  such 
knowledge  ought  naturally  to  flow.  Similar  infiuencee  have  pre- 
vailed in  Edinbu^h,  to  the  diminution  of  the  attendance  in  this 
place.  Those  who  can  look  back  to  the  audiences  assembled  in 
this  room  when  ordinary  scientific  pRpers  were  read,  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  years  ago,  will  corroborate  my  testimony  as  to  the 
change  which  less  than  even  one  generation  has  brought  about. 
The  social  spirit  of  coming  together  for  common  objects,  self-im- 


DvGooglc 


20  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

provemeQt  in  the  Brat  place,  and  the  charm  of  a  periodical,  a  foit- 
oightly  meeting  with  like-minded  persoDS  (seldom  perhaps  m«t 
with  in  the  interval),  counteracted  the  tendency  to  criticise,  and  the 
istolerance  of  hearing  something  read  not  immediately  or  directly 
interesting  to  the  hearer. 

Were  I  to  enumerate  the  names  of  that  large  band  of  our 
fellow- citizens,  our  profesBors,  out  distinguished  lawyers,  our 
country  gentlemen  and  mere  amatenis,  who,  meeting  after  meet- 
ing, used  %Q  occupy  almost  the  same  individual  places  on  these 
benches,  so  that  their  loss  or  absence  could  in  a  moment  have 
been  noticed — ^I  should  recall  to  many,  even  now  present,  the  dif- 
ferent phase,  in  this  respect,  which  the  society  of  Edinburgh  pre- 
sented then  from  now.  Let  me  first  name,  almost  at  hazard,  a  few 
of  those  whose  images  live  in  my  memory  aa  I  now  address  you,  as 
among  those  who  as  a  rule  attended,  and  as  a  rare  exception  were 
absent :  There  was  the  ever  animated,  zealous,  and  punctual  presi- 
dent, Sir  Thomas  Brisbane;  the  polite  and  decorous  Dr  Hope; 
the  indefatigable,  unassuming  Lord  Q^reenock ;  the  sagacious  Dr 
Abercroinbie ;  the  lively,  uniestisg  Sir  George  Mackenzie ;  the 
hospitable  Professor  Bussell  (whose  academic  suppers  are  not 
even  now  forgotten) ;  the  beneficent,  large-minded  Dr  Alison ;  the 
kindly,  genial  Professor  Wallace,  close  to  whom  tisnally  sat  Mr 
James  Jaidine,  with  bis  finely  chiselled  features  and  intellectual 
forehead,  the  accurate  Mr  Adie,  and  the  conscientious,  modest  as? 
tronomer,  Mr  Henderson  :  there  was  also  the  ingenious  Sir  John 
Bobison,  fertile  in  expedients ;  the  frank  and  manly  Dr  Q-raham ; 
the  quietly  humorous  imd  ornithological  Mr  James  Wilson ;  the 
encyclopedic  Dr  Traill ;  and  the  shrewd  and  well  read,  but  re- 
served Mr  W.  A.  Cadell.  Besides,  there  were  many  others  who,  if 
they  rarely  took  an  active  part  in  the  business  of  the  Society,  were 
not  the  less  persevering  in  their  attendance, — thus  giving  evidence 
of  an  interest  in  its  welfare  and  permanence,  which  any  exigency, 
or  even  opportunity,  would  have  called  in  action :  there  were  Sir 
Henry  Jardine  and  Lord  Meadowbank ;  Dr  Brunton  and  Dr  Neill, 
occupying  probably  the  same  bench  with  Mr  B.  Stevenson  and  Mr 
Bald;  Mr  John  Craig,  Sir  William  Newbigging,  Professor  J.  S. 
More,  Mr  William  Wood,  Archdeacon  Williams,  Mr  George  Swin- 
ton,  Sir  Joseph  Straton,  Dr  Borthwick,  and  Mr  Stark.    1  could  far 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  21 

more  than  double  the  list  b;  iuclading  those  who,  thongh  not  ab- 
Bolntely  regnlarly,  attended  so  frequently  that  their  faces  were 
familiar  ia  this  room,  aad  their  presence  missed  in  the  social 
gathering  round  the  tea-table  later  in  the  evening. 

I  fear,  gentlemen,  that  ve  now-a-days  allow  oniKlves  to  become 
too  meohanically  intellectnal,  and  also  too  intellectaally  fastidious. 
If  the  recent  movement  which  has  been  set  on  foot  for  deepening 
and  enla^ng  the  interest  felt  by  the  members  in  our  meetings  is 
to  take  any  root  and  produce  any  rasults,  I  am  persuaded  that  it 
must  be,  though  not  solely,  yet  mainly  by  our  Fellows  recollecting 
that  though  the  meetings  of  the  Royal  Society  are  intended  for 
the  communication  of  knowledge  by  the  reading  of  papers,  they 
always  were,  and  still  are,  intended  quite  as  much  to  promote  a  cor- 
dial feeling  amongst  those  (at  best  but  a  small  number  in  the 
midst  of  a  teeming  and  busy  population)  who  profess  an  interest  in 
the  progresB  of  literature  and  science,  and  whose  presence  and  con- 
versation may  contribute  to  this  end,  as  well  as  the  more  formal 
contributions  of  others.  I  ask  the  more  numerous  portion  of  onr 
Associates,  if  they  are  not  disposed  to  contribute  papera  to  our 
meetings,  at  least  to  make  a  contribution  of  tkemtelve$ — their  per- 
sonal attendance,  their  approving  interest,  their  mite  of  infiuence 
towards  our  commonwealth  of  letters.  We  have  seen  how  much 
popular  lectures  have  done  elsewhere  towards  individual  improve- 
ment, and  the  increase  of  a  certain  kind  of  knowledge  amongst 
varioQB  classes ;  we  have  attributed  a  still  wider  and  more  beneficial 
influence  to  the  periodical  literature  of  the  day;  but  neither  of 
these  ia  a  sociai  form  of  scientific  and  literary  effort.  It  ia  that 
which  we  claim  as  one  of  the  two  remaining  (perhaps  only  perma- 
nent) functions  of  our  great  Societies  planted  in  different  times  from 
the  present :  the  one  is  to  afford  to  authors,  especially  to  the 
authors  of  learned  disseitations  on  science,  the  means  (otherwise 
wholly  unattainable)  of  bringing  their  labours  in  a  printed  form 
before  the  scientific  public  ;  the  other  function  is  to  encourage,  by  an 
expression  of  personal  sympathy  and  interest,  the  labaurs  of  those 
who  demote  themselves  to  the  too  often  ungrateful  toil  of  original 
investigation.*    To  the  utility  of  the  first,  our  Transactions  bear,  1 

■  To  the  two  permiknent  functions  of  scientiflc  associatiouB  mentioned  in 
the  text— naniBl;,  the  printing  and  circulation  of  momoin,  and  the  promo- 


DvGooglc 


22  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

will  t^e  it  upon  me  to  say,  eatisfactoT;  teetimon;.  Of  these  Soot- 
luid  has  just  canae  to  be  proud.  Nor,  on  the  whole,  have  we  to 
complain  of  auy  deteriontion  in  the  memoirB  by  which  this  Sodet; 
becomes  known .  to  the  learned  world.  The  second  fulfilment  of 
ottt  objects  of  incoiporation  seems  in  some  danger  of  being  forgot- 
ten.r  While  the  older  membere  of  the  Society  most  feel  a  ptsaeuie 
in  meeting,  fortnight  by  fortnight,  those  with  whom  tbey  worked  in 
earlier  days,  or  with  whom  they  perhaps  strorb  in  generous  riv^ry, 
thus  keeping  alive  those  embers  of  mutual  interest  which  the 
changing  gales  of  life  are  too  ready  to  disperse  and  extinguish, 
they  may  also  lend  their  coantenance  to  the  eSbrts  of  younger  men 
who  are  tieadiDg  in  their  steps,  and  who  may  soon,  if  they 
have  not  already  done  so,  occupy  their  own  seats  of  infiuenco  or 
of  honour.  They  may  thus  (ud  in  giving  ooherenoe  to  the  chain 
which  hinds  generation  to  generation  in  the  pursuit  of  truth,  and 
in  eetablishing  a  personal  relation  between  the  intellect  of  each,  the 
impreesive  inflnenoe  of  which  we  are  too  apt  to  forget.  I  say,  gen- 
tlemen, that  this  is  a  peiaonal  afTair,  which  no  abstract  ideas  can 
supersede, — I  say  that  no  popular  lecture,  listened  to  by  hundreds 
of  persons  immediately  to  be  dispersed  into  their  specific  individu- 
ality, no  perusal  of  scientific  digests  in  the  stndy  or  at  the  fire- 

tion  of  peraoaitl  latercoiirae  unongst  literary  man — wo  maj  add  a  third,  that  of 
Tewatdiug  meritoriona  papers  ot  dlscoTeriea  by  medali  aud  other  mora  or  less 
hoDorar/  dJBtiactioiiB.  Such  have  existed  both  in  BtitUh  and  FoiBign  Bode- 
ties  from  an  eartj  period  until  the  preBeat.  The;  are  of  two  dasaea ;  rewards 
offered  hj  anticipation  for  reaearchea  on  defloiU  mbjecU  propoaad  (this 
obtains  moatlf  BbK«d) ;  and  preminms  awarded  to  the  beet  paper  or  taoet  eoD- 
aiderable  diecoverj,  either  iu  science  geneiallf ,  or  iu  soma  apecifled  brancb  of 
it.  Tbia  last  form  is  more  naiial  in  this  country ;  and  snch  preminma  ara  onf 
Keitb,  Biisbane,  and  Neill  medals.  I  think  we  must  conclude  that  the 
foreign  system  has  worked  best  Many  considerable  memoirs  of  the  last  cen- 
tury on  physical  astronomy  and  aimilar  snhjecia  were  oSerad  in  competitioii 
for  snch  prizes.  The  stimulus  ia  cue  wMch  nddceeee*  itaelf  Tarionsl;  to  dif- 
ferent minds,  and  on  the  irliole  scema  to  be  less  efioctivo  in  these  later  times. 
One  disadvantage  of  tha  award  of  medala  for  researches  not  previonsly  defined, 
is  the  greater  difficulty  of  awarding  them  without  partiality  or  bias.  AJinaiA 
bind  of  encouragement  to  science  which  our  societies  sometimes  exert  ia  the 
bestowal  of  funds  for  the  prosecution  of  experimental  inTestigatiDn&  This  it 
frequently  a  atlmnloe  of  no  small  value.  It  was  first  systematically  applied 
in  Uiia  country  by  the  British  Association ;  and  the  Qovernment  of  the  coun- 
try have  wisely  committed  an  annnal  fund  for  auoh  porpoaes  to  be  dispensed 
by  the  Bcyal  Bociety  of  Iiondon. 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  23 

side,  can  replacs  such  infiuencea.  I  could  apeak  from  personal  ez- 
perieuae,  if  ueoessary,  of  the  inflaence  of  SieetmgB  like  oars,  dull 
and  commonplace  though  they  may  appear  to  some,  upon  the  mind 
of  the  yoang  atodent ;  of  the  zest  with  whioh  he  feels  himself,  per- 
haps for  the  first  time,  made  the  reoipient  of  knowledge  in  its  actual 
dynamie  progieBB,  not  through  its  past  hoarded  aoquisitions  merely ; 
the  enthnaiaam  with  whioh  he  sees  (perhaiw  also  for  the  first  time) 
men  of  whom  be  has  lead  in  books,  and  on  whom  he  looks  with  pos- 
sibly exceasiTe,  yet  still  elevating  and  generous  reqtect ;  how,  meet- 
ing after  meeting,  he  approaches  somewhat  nearer  to  those  thns  dis- 
tantly regarded,  and  finally  addresses  them,  though  with  something 
of  rereisnce,  as  friends  haring  a  common  intereat  in  common  and 
noble  porsnits.  If  such  alone  were  a  result  of  our  periodical  meet* 
ings,  such  would  alone  be  an  adequate  object  for  us  to  aim  at.  It 
is  only  by  a  certain  measuTe  of  self-denial,  a  certain  throwing  off 
of  poBaive  or  indolent  habits,  that  we  can  hope  to  render  our  meet- 
ings attractive  to  ourselves  and  to  one  another.  If  all  come,  all 
will  be  interested ;  let  each  man,  instead  of  pleading  his  inability- 
to  coDtrihnte  his  share  to  the  literary  and  scientific  proceedings, 
contribute  at  least  his  countenance.  There  is  something  magnetic 
in  the  concourse  of  intelligent  peraons.  Not  only  does  each  ele- 
ment attracted  incroaae  the  aggregate  by  ita  adhesion,  but  tho 
aggregate  so  increased  draws  new  molecules  with  greater  force 
withia  ita  sphere,  till  the  whole  gathers  in  an  increasing  progres- 
sion, and  (aa  physical  pbiLosophera  tell  us)  evolves  hy  the  mere 
act  of  aggregation  that  heat  and  light  which  maintain  energy  and 
vitality  even  to  the  bounds  of  the  universe. 

We  all  know  the  history  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science ;  some  here  remember  its  origin ;  few  have  not 
been  present  at  some  of  its  meetings.  Let  me  remind  you  how  small 
a  fraction  of  that  animated  whole  is  composed  of  direct  contributors 
to  the  advancement  of  those  sciences  which  the  Society  was  formed 
to  promote.  Let  me  ask  you,  what  would  be  the  result  if  every 
member  were  requested  to  withdraw,  who  had  not  some  paper  to 
communicate  or  aome  remark  to  offer.  Ton  may  imagine  the  dire 
scramble  which  would  ensue,  the  clearing  of  benches,  the  faces  of 
dismay.  The  dismay  would  not  be  all  on  the  side  of  the  retreating 
listeners.    The  small  knot  of  studious  philosophers  le^t^behind 


DvGooglc 


24  ProceedtngB  of  ttie  Royal  Society 

would  feel^bconraged  by  the  removal  of  that  BympathiBing  audi- 
tory. HaTfl  we  not  all  heard  with  ptttience,  Bometimes  almost 
with  ioteiest  and  admiratioD,  papers  read,  fTom  which  we  rnoBt 
afterwards  have  confessed  to  onrselves  if  not  to  others  that  we 
were  able  to  carry  little  or  nothing  away  ?  Yet  that  intelligent  con- 
contBS  of  partially  instmcted  persons  gives  life  to  the  meeting, 
semction  and  enconragemeut  to  the  really  knowing,  a  taste  for 
knowledge,  respect  for  its  professors,  and  some  portions  at  least 
of  positive  acquirements  to  those  who  are  not  so.  I  believe  that 
we  ignore  too  much  this  element  aa  inherent  in  the  conatittt- 
tion  of  onr  learned  societies.  If  we  continue  to  do  so,  we  shall 
degenerate  (1  venture  to  call  it  a  degeneracy)  into  mere  pnblieh- 
ing  clubs,  whose  Transactions  are  read  by  a  select  few,  bnt  which 
exist  and  shine  by  a  mere  "  lumen  tieewm," — disembodied  exis- 
tences claiming  no  sympathies,  calling  forth  no  regard,  combining 
no  diversities  of  interest.* 

*  I  may  peihapa  be  allowed  to  eftll  attention  to  a  atriUng  change  (on  the 
whole)  ia  the  character  of  the  pnblicstioiu  of  teamed  BOcietieB;  I  mean  the 
great  detail  Into  which  the  papers  geneTeUy  rtin,  espectaUj  in  thoee  on  espe- 
rimental  PhjeicB,  mixed  Mathematics,  and  Natural  Hiatorj.  The  bulk  of 
these  coDininDicatioiis  ia,  it  maj  be  feared,  too  often  ont  of  proportion  to  the 
intriniic  valcB  of  the  matter  which  they  contain.  It  is  by  no  means  wiUiont 
example  to  sea  the  pogee  of  Tionsactiana  (oa  well  Foreign  as  Britisli]  occnpled  by 
a  deaeription  of  eiperimenta  of  which  the  lesnJts  were  merely  negative,  and  by 
mathematical  iaveetlgationa  with  no  lees  iudeflnite  conolnsions.  Bnch  papeia 
are  raiel;  read  by  any  one.  They  increase  the  bulk  and  ezpenae  of  Trona- 
actions,  and  bewilder  the  unaided  student.  Even  in  cases  less  extreme  tbey 
are  encumbrances  to  acientiSo  literature.  An  author,  who  has  before  him 
no  fear  of  a  printer's  bill,  or  the  remonstiam»«  of  an  impatient  publisher,  is 
bnt  too  apt  to  please  himself  by  expanding  a,  small  amount  of  matter  over  a 
goodly  number  of  those  handeome  quarto  pages,  in  which  hia  Incnbrations 
appear  so  adrantageoudy  to  the  eye.  Eien  where  numerical  preciaion  in  the 
results  is  of  primary  consequence,  exceasivo  elaboration  in  printing  the  steps 
of  colcnlation  and  Inetmmental  eorrsctioni  is  often  anneoeaaarj,  as  well  as 
extreme  mfnateneee  in  deecribing  fbrms  of  apparatus,  and  reealts  of  chemical 
reactions,  especially  where  sucb  details  are  not  remote  from  common  appre- 
hension. A  stricter  editorial  censonhip  than  the  Councils  of  societiea  usually 
ventnre  to  exert  (similar  in  Urul,  though  not  in  di^ree,  to  that  which  the 
editors  of  onr  leading  periodicals  eseicise  over  contribntors  not  leea  eminent 
in  their  departments),  seema  to  be  called  for,  by  the  expanding  bulk  of  the 
volumes  published  by  learned  Bodies. 

An  evil  nearly  allied  to  this,  is  the  fragmentary  manner  In  which  anthors 
are  apt  to  cootribnte  the  resolta  of  their  iaqniries.    This  is  a  conseqnence  of 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63-  25 

IV. — On  the  Changes  in  ihe  Society  dtaing  the  latt  Twelve  Month*. 
The  past  year  hae  produced  more  than  the  nsual  uambeT  of 
casualties  both  on  the  borne  and  foreign  liats  of  the  Society.  Dur- 
ing its  cotLise  the  Society  hae  bad  to  deplore,  in  common  with  the 
whole  Britiflh  Empire,  the  premature  deoeaae  of  H.B.H.  the  Prince- 
Consort.  It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  offer  a  detailed  eulogy 
on  one  wht^e  connection  with  our  body  was  comparatively  alight 
and  indirect,  but  whose  loaa  bae  been  profoundly  felt  in  nearly 
eveiy  borne  in  these  islands.  An  enligbtened  patronage  of  Science 
and  tbe  Arts  was  one  of  the  especial  characteristics  of  hie  patriotic, 
nnselfieb,  and  too  short  life. 

Amongst  Foreign  and  Honorary  Fellows  we  miss  three,  all  of 
whom  were  on  the  verge  of,  or  had  exceeded,  fonisoore  yean. 
These  would  by  themselves  afford  topics  for  an  address.  I  mnst 
allude  to  them  very  briefly. 

The  venerable  Jxan-Baptibte  Biot  was  bom  2lBt  April  1774. 
He  has  been  an  Honorary  Member  of  this  Society  for  the  uncommon 
period  of  forty-seven  years,  having  been  elected  in  January  1815.* 
He  had  become  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1803,  his  jubilee  having  been  celebrated  nearly  ten  years  ago. 
But  it  is  also  a  singular  and  probably  unprecedented  fact,  that  at 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a  member  of  three  out  of  four  of  the 
Academies  composing  the  Institute  of  Fiance;  that  is,  of  the 
AeaCUmie  Frangaite,  and  that  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres, 

the  Btniggle  for  prlorit;  in  even  second  and  third  rate  results  of  Bcientiftc  in- 
vestigstion,  though  theae  ara  often  no  more  than  corollaiiea  to  propoBitions 
well  eitablisbed,  or  assnmed  to  he  so.  Snch  eaeeaU  ue  hotter  adapted  for  the 
weekly  or  monthi;  JouraalB,  where  they  properly  and  reasonably  find  a 
place.  It  uema  to  be  the  bnsineaa  of  societiee  to  conanlt  more  than  thay 
nanally  Ai,  the  instmction  and  conTsnienee  of  readers,  and  lest  exclnaively 
the  sometimeB  inconsiderate  demands  on  the  part  of  anthors.  There  is. 
perhaps,  no  society  to  which  these  temotb  do  not  more  or  less  apply :  hot 
the  case  of  the  Oamptet  Beaiiu*  of  the  E^nch  ikcademy  of  Sciences  supplies 
an  example  of  excMsive  pablication  so  geDenll;  admitted  to  be  an  embai- 
rasaing  evil  that  it  may  be  referred  to  as  a  warning. 

*  I  find  hf  the  old  minnte-boohs  of  this  Society,  that  a  paper  by  Biot  on 
the  Folarizatloii  of  Light  by  Crystals,  was  read  by  Sir  David  (then  Dr) 
Brewster  at  the  aidinary  meeting  of  the  I6th  January  1B16. 

VOL,  V.  B 


DvGooglc 


26  Proceedings  of  the  BoytU  Society 

SB  well  BB  of  the  Academy  of  Soiencee.  Hu  divereified  abilitiee  as 
aD  anther  are  well  exemplified  in  the  .miscellaneooB  wiitiuga  col- 
lected by  him  before  hia  death  under  the  title  of  Milangtt  Seienti- 
fiquei  et  LiUSrairtg.* 

His  fame,  however,  chiefly  rests  on  his  scientific  productions, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  polarization  of  light.  His  writ- 
ings on  astronomy,  though  ToluminoiiB,  are  not  original,  except, 
perhaps,  in  their  historical  and  antiquarian  aspect.  Even  in  his 
own  subject,  that  of  optics,  there  did  not  fall  to  his  shore  so  many 
capital  discOTeries  as  from  hia  opportunities,  zeal,  and  unbounded 
persererance,  might  perhaps  have  been  expected.  His  discovery 
(independently  of  Seebeck)  of  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polariza- 
tion caused  by  liquids,  is  the  chief  of  these,  and  he  pursued  it 
with  unflagging  energy  into  its  numerouH  consequences  during  at 
least  forty  years.  Biot  was  an  instance  of  all  that  mere  talent 
and  perseverance,  nnsustained  by  great  genius,  can  attain.  His 
long  life  was  one  scene  of  intellectual  labour  from  first  to  last. 
Brought  up  at  the  feet  of  the  great  Laplace,  he  was  perfectly 
conversant  with  his  writings,  and  with  all  that  belonged  to  the 
most  advanced  state  of  mathematics  of  the  time.  His  optical  re- 
eearohes  were  pursued  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  same 
school,  as  contained  in  the  Emission-  or  Corpusoular-Tbeory.  First 
in  his  latest  years  did  he  begin  to  betray  a  consciousness  that 
Young,  Fresnel,  and  Arago  might  be  right,  and  that  light  is  an 
undulation  after  all.  But  the  imperfect  concession  hod  then  tost 
all  grace.  His  theoiy  of  Moveable  Polarization,  and  generally  his 
modes  of  conceiving  complex  physical  phenomena,  were  more  ela- 
borate than  satisfactory. 

One  of  Biot's  most  considerable  contributions  to  science  was  hia 
determination  of  the  length  of  the  secouds-peDdulum  in  different 
latitudes.  It  was  the  occasion  of  (I  believe)  his  only  visit  to 
Scotland,  which  took  place  in  the  snninier  of  1817,  when  he  made 
numerous  observations  at  Leith  Fort,  uid  then  undertook  his  me- 
morable journey  to  the  Isle  of  Unst,  the  northmost  of  the  Shetlands, 
of  which  he  has  left  an  interesting  memorial  in  the  first  volume 
of  his  published  Essays.f    Thus  he  had  the  no  small  distinction 

•  8  voIb.  8vo.     PiriB,  1868. 

t  Taken  from  the  Hemoirs  of  the  Academj  of  Sciencei. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh  Sesmon,  1863-«3.  27 

of  haviDg  cuTted  on  these  important  labours,  imder  veiy  great 
difficnltiee,  over  a  terreetrial  are  of  22°  of  latitude,  extending  from 
the  lale  of  Ivipa  in  the  M editorranean,  to  that  of  Unst,  not  vei;  far 
from  the  Arctic  Circle.  Of  his  true  devotion  to  the  Bcientlfio  career 
which  he  had  proposed  to  himself,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  too 
strongly.  So  diatinctious  except  literary  oaee  had  any  attraction 
for  him.  He  oaiefully  escheved  those  political  promotiona  coveted 
by  too  many  of  hia  academic  compeers.  His  views  on  politics, 
though  definitely  moaarchioal,  were  oever  obtruded.  The  isolaticm 
induced  by  his  habits  of  unromitting  study  fostered  a  coldness  of 
dispoution  often  manifeeted  by  him  towards  other  scientific  men. 
He  had  few  intimate  friends  oat  of  his  family  circle,  and  hia 
fluconragemeDt  towards  yonng  aspirants  was  cautious  and  inter- 
mitting.  It  is  worthy  of  being  added  in  his  favour,  that  dnring 
the  last  thir^  years  of  his  life  he  reoogoised,  in  a  marked  manner, 
the  obligations  of  his  religions  creed.  Notwithstanding  his  very 
advanced  age,  he  continued  his  studies  on  Indian  astronomy  to 
within  a  very  short  time  of  his  death,  which  he  met  with  Christian 
composure,  on  the  Sd  February  1862,  when  he  had  nearly  completed 
his  eighty-eighth  year. 

FanssioH  Tibdxmanh,  the  eminent  anatomist  and  physiologist, 
was  bom  at  Casael  in  1781,  and  died  on  the  22d  January  1861,  in 
the  eightieth  year  of  hia  age.  His  death  was  inadvertently  not 
noticed  at  our  last  anniversary.  Tiedemann  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  comparative  anatomists  and  phyaiologistB  of  Europe.  His 
earliest  paper  of  note,  that  on  the  Circulation  of  the  Eohinoder- 
mate,  obtained  a  prize  offered  by  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  became  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Heidelberg  in  1816,  and  con- 
tinued so  until  1848.  I>aring  this  period  he  published  a  cele- 
brated work  OD  the  Human  Brain,  and  another  on  that  of  the 
Monkey,  as  well  as  several  works  in  coignnotion  with  Oppel  and 
Treviranus.  He  was  blind  during  some  of  the  later  years  of  his 
life,  hut  recovered  his  sight  through  an  operation  for  cataract. 
Subsequent  to  bis  leaving  Heidelberg,  he  lived  in  great  retirement 
at  Bremen  and  Frankfort. 

Loois  Albxrt  Kbcbbb,  honorary  Professor  of  Uineralngy  and  Geo- 


DvGooglc 


28  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

logy  at  G«neva,  wasboni  there  in  1766,  and  died  at  Portree,  in  the 
lele  of  Skye,  on  the  20th  November  1862,  in  his  seTen^-Bizth  year. 
Ur  Neoker  was  far  moie  intimately  connected  with  this  ooontry 
and  with  this  Society  than  oar  foreign  members  usually  are ;  indeed 
he  might  be  called  a  naturalised  Scotchman,  and  he  contributed 
papers  to  oui  Transactions.  It  was  my  intention  to  have  entered 
on  his  biography  here  at  some  length.  But  I  think  it  will  be  best 
to  bring  before  the  Society  in  a  separate  form  the  facts  and  re- 
miniscences which  I  have  to  offer. 

On  our  home  list,  we  have  to  lament  the  lose  of  12  of  our  Ordi- 
nary Fellows ;  a  considerable  number  of  whom  had,  however,  also 
attained  the  full  term  of  human  life.  Their  names  ate, — Bobert 
Bald,  John  Cockbnm,  Norwich  Duff,  James  Forsyth,  Jamee  P. 
Ftasei,  John  Fyfe,  J.  Bum  Murdoch,  James  Bussell,*  John  Bussell, 
Thomas  Stewart  Traill,  James  Walker,  and  Alex.  Maconochia 
Welwood. 

To  replace  these  we  reckon  aleo  12  new  Fellows, — namely,  Profes- 
eor  Archer,  Bev,  W.  Q.  Blaikie,  Mr  Henry  Cheyne,  Hr  Nicholas  A. 
Dolzell,  Sir  A.  M.  Edwards,  Rev.  V.  Q.  Faithful,  Dr  James  Hector, 
Dr  J.  P.  Macartney,  Dr  W.  B.  Mackinloy,  Mr  Edward  F.  Maitland 
(now  Lord  Barcaple),  Dr  E.  Honalds,  and  Hev.  Hobert  B.  Watson. 

Our  numbers,  therefore,  remain  the  same  as  last  year. 

I  mDBt  confine  myself  to  a  very  short  obituary  notice  of  a  few  of 
our  deceased  Fellows  who  showed  most  interest  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Society. 

The  seuior  in  standing  as  a  Fellow  was  Mr  Albxakdkk  Maoohooeoe 
WxLwooD,  better  known  during  his  active  life  here  as  Lord  Mea- 
dowbank.  His  father  also  bore  the  some  title ;  and  was  a  man 
of  much  ocuteness,  and  an  original  Fellow  of  this  Society.  The 
late  Mr  Maconochie  Welwood  was  bom  in  March  1777,  he  joined 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1799,  was  made  Lord  Advocate  in 
1816,  and  a  Judge  in  1819.  He  retired  from  the  Bench  in  1843. 
Ho  joined  this  Society  in  1817,  but  was  not,  so  fat  as  I  know,  a 
contributor  to  our  Proceedings.  He,  however,  took  an  interest  in 
them,  and  for  many  years  attended  the  meetings  regularly.  He 
had- a  large  circle  of  acqa^tances  in  and  out  of  the  Society ;  and 
*  Who  AM  tince  the  Aaniul  LiiU  were  miule  iip. 


DvGooglc 


o/Udinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  29 

thongh  ia  pnblii;  matten  his  manner  was  occoBionally  dogmatic,  he 
was  of  a  kind  and  hoepitabte  natiue,  and  was  mnoh  regarded  by  a 
large  circle  of  personal  friends.  The  frequency  of  his  attendance 
here  coDtribnted  to  excite  a  spirit  of  interest  in  the  meetings.  For 
abont  twenty  years  past  he  had  lived  in  calm  retirement  in  the 
midst  of  his  family,  and  on  the  property  which  he  had  an  heredi- 
tary pride  in  caltiTatiDg  and  adorning.  He  died  at  Ueadowbank 
on  the  30th  November  1861,  in  the  eighty-fif^h  year  of  his  age, 

£lected  in  the  same  year  with  Mr  M .  Welwood,  but  his  senior 
by  one  year,  was  Kr  Bobbbi  Bald,  who  for  many  years  ooonpied  a 
very  high  position  as  a  mining  engineer.  He  was  bom  at  Cnlross,  in 
Perthshire,  in  1776,  and  soon  after  removed  to  Alloa,  where  he  early 
gave  his  attention  to  mining,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Earl 
of  Marr.  He  was  ultimately  engaged  in  the  extensive  Uan  Col- 
lierios, — a  connection  which  he  held  for  a  very  long  period.  He 
commenced  general  practice  as  a  mining  engineer  in  Edinburgh 
about  the  year  1820,  and  was  very  extensively  employed  in  Scot- 
land, England,  and  Wales.  He  was  requested  by  the  Swedish  Govern- 
ment to  report  on  the  coalfields  of  that  kingdom,  and  received  from 
the  King  of  Sweden  marked  acknowledgments  of  the  valne  attached 
to  his  report  by  the  Qovemment  of  that  country.  Mr  Bald  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1817,  and 
was  a  contributor  to  its  Proceedings.  He  was  author  of  a  "  View 
of  the  Coal  Trade,"*  of  the  article  "Mine"  in  the  Edinburgh  Ency- 
clopaedia, and  of  numerous  other  papers  bearing  on  his  profession. 
Mi  Bald  was  univeraally  esteemed ;  and  dnring  his  long  stay  in 
Edinburgh  he  formed  many  lasting  friendBhipa,  which  death  alone 
terminated.  He  was  for  long  in  ill  health,  and  bote  his  protracted 
and  severe  illness  with  truly  Christian  resignation.  The  latter  years 
of  his  once  active  life  were  spent  in  retirement  at  Alloa,  where  he 
died  in  December  1861,  in  bis  eighty-sixth  year. 

As  connected  by  the  nature  of  his  occupations  with  Mr  Bald,  I 
next  notice  a  third  octogenarian  among  our  Fellows,  Mr  Jambs 

*  In  thU  work  he  made  b  benevolent  and  mnch  required  appeal  on  bolialf 
of  the  miaeTable  lot  of  women  then  emplojed  in  coal  minei,  nnder  the  name 
of  "  Bearers." 


DvGooglc 


30  Proceedvage  of  the  Boyal  Society 

Walkbk,  the  eminent  oi^  »ngineer,  who  vna  born  at  Falkirk  on 
the  11th  of  September  1761-  He  was  educated  at  the  parish  sobool 
of  Falkirk,  and  tbereafter  removed  to  Glasgow,  wheie  he  Btudied 
at  the  Uuiversitj.  He  went  to  LoDdon  in  the  year  1600,  and  com- 
menced the  study  of  engineering  under  his  unole  the  late  Ralph 
Walker,  who  was  then  engaged  in  constructing  the  West  India 
Docke.  Mr  Walker  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  marine 
engineering,  in  which  important  branch  of  the  profession,  though 
his  rise  wss  gradual,  he  ultimately  attained  the  position  of  the  first 
authority  of  his  day.  He  had  not  a  very  inventive  cast  of  mind,  bnt 
bB  had  great  cantion  and  sound  judgment,  and  above  all  the  faculty 
of  profiting  by  his  large  and  varied  esperienoe.  His  works  were, 
in  consequence,  eminently  successful.  It  would  be  out  of  place  in 
this  brief  notice  to  attempt  even  an  outline  of  bis  works,  so  varied 
were  they  in  character,  and  so  many  iu  number.  It  may  be  auffi' 
cient  to  say  that  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  conducting,  as 
Government  engineer,  the  national  harbours  of  refuge  at  Dover, 
Aldemey,  and  Jersey,  and  the  refuge  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne.  Ae  engineer  to  the  Trinity  House  ef  London,  ha  construotad 
various  lightbouaee,  inoluding  that  on  the  Bishop's  Bock,  a  vary 
exposed  situation.  He  was  Is^^ly  consulted  in  navigation  and 
canal  works ;  and  the  Stockwell  Street  Bridge  at  Glasgow  may  be 
adduced  as  a  favoainble  specimen  of  his  bridge  architecture. 

Mr  Walker  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  Institntion 
of  Civil  Engineers  on  the  death  of  Mr  Telford  in  1834.  He  was 
a  fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London ;  and  in  1624  he  was 
elected  into  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinharg^.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  before  his  death  in  declining  health,  but  to  a  robast 
constitution  be  added  an  abundant  flow  of  cheerfulness  and  spirit ; 
and  even  on  the  day  before  he  died  be  was  writing  a  report  to  the 
Admiralty  on  the  subject  of  Aldemey  Harbour  of  Befage.  He 
was  suddenly  seized  with  a  stroke  of  apoplexy,  and  expired  on  the 
Sth  October  1862,  in  bis  eighty-first  year.  At  his  own  request, 
his  remains  were  interred  in  his  family  burial-place,  at  St  John's 
Chapel,  Edinburgh. 

Dr  Thomas  Stbwirt  Traill  was  bom  on  the  29th  October  1781, 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Seaston  1862-63.  31 

at  Kirkwall,  iu  Orkaey,  of  which  place  hie  father  was  minister. 
Thronghont  hia  life  he  retained  a  most  affeetionate  interest  in  his 
native  islandi,  "  He  was,"  as  we  read  in  a  oontemporarjr  notice, 
"  Oreadietuilnu  orcadientior,  and  his  face  lighted  up,  and  his  hand 
gave  an  extra  grip,  when  he  met  with  a  man  whose  yonng  eyes  had 
seen  the  Old  Man  of  Hoy,  and  who  had  heard  the  roar  of  the  Pent- 
land  Firth  from  the  south." 

He  graduated  in  medicise  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1802,  where  he  had  been  the  fellow-Btudent  of  Lord  Brougham, 
Sir  David  Brewster,  Principal  Lee,  and  other  eminent  pereone. 
He  is  believed  to  have  settled  iu  Liverpool  in  1S04,  where  he  con- 
staotly  resided  as  a  physician  in  good  practice  until  1882.  He 
was  highly  esteemed,  professionally  and  perBonally,  in  that  great 
mercantile  city,  and'formed  intimate  friendships  with  its  leading 
men.  He  promoted  warmly  the  souieties  founded  there  for  the 
diffnsion  of  literature  Euid  science,  especially  the  Boyal  Institutipn 
of  Liverpool,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first 
secretary.  He  maintained  throughout  life  an  intimacy  with  Lord 
Brougham,  having  a  common  interest  with  him  in  many  philan- 
thropic objects.  In  1682,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of  Hedical 
Jurisprudence  in  this  University,  which  he  filled  until  his  death 
thirty  years  later.  He  took  great  pleasure  in  lecturing.  Chemistry, 
mineralogy,  and  meteorology,  were  his  favourite  soiences.  In  1804, 
he  delivered  a  popular  course  on  chemistry  for  a  benevolent  object 
in  Kirkwall.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  flmt  course  of  the  kind 
^ven  in  Scotland.  He  lectured' frequently  in  Liverpool;  and 
after  he  became  a  profeeeot  in  Edinburgh,  he  not  only  delivered 
hia  own  course  of  leotures,  but  also  repeatedly  that  of  Professor 
Jameson  on  natural  history ;  and  once  at  least  he  lectured  for  a 
session  in  the  chemical  class,  during  Dr  Hope's  decline. 

He  was  a  diligent  attender  en  this  Scciety,  and  for  many  yeant 
curator  of  the  library,  with  a  seat  in  the  Council.  He  contributed 
a  great  many  papers  to  our  Proceedings,  and  some  are  printed  in 
the  Transactions.*  They  are  not  always  of  an  important  class, 
but  ore  of  a  kind  very  serviceable  in  promoting  the  interest  of 

*  In  voluma  ix,,  "  Aceouut  of  a  Mineral  from  Orkney,"  and  "  Blectto- 
magnatia  Obserrationa  and  Experiments."  Vol.  xiv.,  "  On  a  New  Writing 
Ink"    Vol.  XT.,  "On  Foull  Elibea  foond  in  the  New  Bed  Sandstone  of 


DvGooglc 


32  Proceedinga  of  the  Boyal  Society 

roeetiDgB  rach  as  onra,  and  a  tute  for  scieuce  genenllj.  This, 
indeed,  wu  Dr  Traill's />rie.  His  tenacious  memory  etoring  op 
the  results  of  considerable  reading  and  extensive  converaational 
intercomse,  supplied  him  with  read;  materials  for  illustratiDg  any 
topic  bronght  under  bis  notice.  It  is  not  eutprieing  that,  trusting 
largely  to  memory,  his  accuracy  is  not  in  all  cases  perfectly  to  be 
lelied  on.  He  was  nominally  editor  of  the  eighth  edition  of  the 
Encyolops^ia  Britonnica,  and  fae  certainly  contributed  to  it  some 
forty  articles ;  bnt  his  responsibility  was,  I  believe,  chiefly  confined 
to  the  earliest  volumes,  the  greater  part  having  been  practically 
edited  by  the  able  publisher,  Ur  Adam  Black. 

Latterly,  owing  to  infirmity,  Dr  Traill  ceased  to  attend  the 
meetings  of  this  Society,  where  he  had,  for  a  quarter  of  a  ceotoiy, 
occupied  a  familiar  place.  Bat  his  lectures  he  never  disoontinaed, 
and  persevered  with  them  until  within  twelve  days  of  his  death. 
It  was  well  known  to  his  colleagues,  that  had  he  lived  to  complete 
that  course,  which  was  his  thirtieth,  he  would  then  have  resigned 
his  chair.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  on  the  30th  July  last,  in  bis 
eighty-fiist  year,  being  the /ourtA  octogenarian  on  our  list. 

Tet  one  more  venerable  colleague  and  useful  member  remains 
to  be  noticed. 

Mr  John  Bussbll,  writer  to  the  Signet,  and  for  eighteen  years 
treasurer  of  the  Society,  was  bom  22d  February  1780.  He  was 
descended  from  three  generations  of  men  who  had  exercised  in  Edin- 
burgh the  same  respectable  calling.  By  his  mother's  side,  however, 
he  inherited  of  right  a  taste  for  literature ;  for  she  was  daughter  of 
Principal  Bobertson,  an  honourable  connection,  which  Ur  Bnssell 
always  loved  to  recall.  In  point  offset,  Mr  Bussell  retained  through- 
out an  active  professional  career  both  the  tastes  and  acquirements  of 
a  well-educated  man  and  a  scholar.  He  was  intimate  with  many  of 

Orkney,"  and  on  "  Bay-nual,  or  Mineral  Flour  of  Degersfora,  in  Swedish 
Lapland,"  In  toI.  xvi,,  "  Hemoit  of  Dr  T.  C.  Hope."  In  vol.  xx.,  "  On  a 
FeniTian  Mnsieal  luBtnuiieat"  In  toL  xxi.,  "On  tho  Toibuiebill  MJueral." 
TheM  titles  give  a  good  general  Idea  of  the  varied  Bnbjecte  of  Dr  Traill's 
eommnoications.  His  last  contribution  to  the  Society  aeema  to  hare  been  that 
made  on  l&th  Febmary  1668,  "  Descriptian  of  the  Snlphoj  Mine  of  Conil  [in 
Spain],  preceded  by  a  Notice  of  the  Geological  Features  of  the  Sonthem  por- 
tion of  Andalnda."    An  abstract  appears  in  our  "  Proceedings,"  vol.  ir.  p.  77. 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  33 

those  who,  some  forty  years  ago,  reDdered  the  literaiy  society  of  Edin 
burgh  famous,  with  not  a  few  of  whom  lie  was  associated  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  in  which  he  took  a  life- 
long interest.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  this  Society  in  1822,  and  its 
Treasnrer  in  1838.  He  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  latter  ofGce  in  a 
very  exemplary  manner,  ae  I  can  testify  from  personal  knowledge. 
He  devoted  toit  not  alittleofhis  time,  and  brought  the  finances  into 
a  better  state  than  they  had  been  for  a  long  time  previously.  For  a 
good  many  years  past  his  health  prevented  him  from  taking  his  place 
at  the  evening  meetings ;  but  so  long  as  he  possibly  could,  he  assidu- 
ously attended  at  council  meetings,  and  in  1857,  when  he  could  no 
longer  do  bo,  he  resigned  his  office.  On  that  occasion  he  received 
from  the  Society  a  piece  of  plate  as  a  recognition  of  his  valuable 
services.  His  Utter  years  were  tranquilly  spent  at  Southbank,  near 
Edinburgh,  a  charming  villa  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  nncle, 
General  Robertson.  I  have  very  often  visited  him  there,  and  found 
bim  ever  cheerful  and  occnpted,  generally  with  literary  poisuits,  in 
which  to  the  last  he  took  a  real  pleasure.  At  my  very  latest  visit  I 
found  him  refreshing  his  recollections  of  the  Latin  Classics.  He 
was  a  man  of  wide  sympathies,  and  had  many  friends  of  all  parties. 
He  was  a  sincere  Christian,  and  died  at  peace  with  all  men.  This 
happened  on  the  30th  January  1862,  when  he  had  almost  completed 
bis  eighty-Becond  year.  He  is  therefore  the  Jifth  octogenarian  on 
our  list,  besides  foreign  membersi 

Of  the  remaining  names  on  our  obituary  list  I  do  not  feel  colled 
on  to  say  much.  But  I  must  mention  Dr  Fns,  a  highly  isspectable 
chemist,  and  a  well-known  lecturer  in  Edinburgh.  Ho  was  at  first 
ehemic^  aaaistant  to  Dr  Hope.  In  and  after  1817,  he  lectured  at 
the  Society  of  Arte,  and  in  1S44  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of 
Medicine  in  Aberdeen,  having  already  been  President,  the  year  be- 
fore, of  the  Boyal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh.  He  died  on 
the  31st  December  1861,  aged  nearly  seventy  years. 

Admiral  Noswioh  Durr,  bom  in  1793,  was  descended  from  the 
first  Earl  of  Fife.    His  earlier  years  were  spent  in  active  service  in    • 
various  parts  of  the  world.     Even  before  he  waa  twenty  he  hod 
taken  part  in  several  great  naval  battles.    About  the  time  of  enter- 

VOL.  T.  K 


DvGooglc 


.34  Proce^inga  of  the  Soya'  Society 

ing  this  Society,  id  162S,  he  was  well  known  in  Edinbiugb, 
where  he  spent  several  winteiB,  though  he  may  be  perhaps  recol- 
lected by  few  persona  now  present.  He  married  in  1833  a  lady  of 
Bath,  and  ha  died  in  that  city  in  the  course  of  last  summer. 

Kr  BvRN  Mo&nooH  and  l(r  John  Cockbvkn  (brother  of  the  late 
Lord  Cockbsm)  both  frequently  attended  our  meetings,  but  other- 
wise require  no  detailed  notice  here.  The  former  was  an  active 
Bgricultarist  and  country  gentleman,  and  died  in  August  last  in  his 
seventieth  year, 

Dr  Jims  Rdbsill,  whose  death,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one,  occurred 
only  on  the  Slat  Kovember  last,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Mr  James 
Bussell,  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery,  and  grandson  of  the  Frofee- 
sor  of  Natural  Philosophy  (also  in  this  UQiTeraity),  who  waa  the  pre- 
decesBor  of  Dr  Sobison.  Dr  Bussell  lived  a  retired  life,  and  although 
ft  physician,  had  not  for  m&uy  years  practised  his  profession. 

I  have  now,  gentlemen,  with  some  prolixity  I  fear,  attempted  to 
go  ovei  the  ground  which  I  had  in  view  when  we  started.  Hy  great 
object  baa  been  to  induce  yon  to  give  a  fair  consideration  to  the 
elaime  which  the  objects  of  this  really  national  inatitntion — ^tbe 
Boyal  Society — has  upon  you,  its  members.  I  have  asked  you  to 
look  back  to  your  origin, — to  the  conatellation  of  eminent  men  who 
assisted  at  your  incorporation, — to  the  important  labours  which  the 
Transactions  include, — to  the  social  meetings  which,  with  varying 
brilliancy  and  significance,  have  for  eighty  years  connected  genera- 
tion with  generation  of  the  literary  and  scientific  men  of  this  me- 
tropolis and  univenity-seat  with  one  another;  and  I  aek  you  to 
assist  now,  by  your  personal  efforts,  by  your  literaty  contributions 
if  possible,  at  least  by  your  attendance  at  our  evening  meetings, 
in  adding  to  tbe  interest  and  value  of  these  meetings ;  I  aek  you 
to  encourage  thoee  who  labour  for  the  promotion  of  original  re- 
search, to  maintain  the  credit  of  a  society  established  for  purposes 
the  most  diBintbnested  and  humanizing,  and  by  so  doing  to  justify 
the  position  which  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  assumes,  of 
representing  in  aome  degree  before  tbe  academies  of  Europe  the 
intellect  and  original  talent  of  our  native  country. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semion  1862-63.  36 

The  following  Gentieinen  were  duly  elected  Ordinary 
FellowB : — 

BoBSBT  Cahpbbll,  Esq.,  Advocate. 

Hdoh  F.  C.  Cleobobh,  H.D.,  Cousemto  irf  Fonata,  Hkdiu. 

Professor  Blackie. 

The  fallowing  Donations  to  theLibraiy  were  annooDced: — 

"ItrwoKpaToiK  Ktu  a[XXuv  tarpwi'  voXcutM'  KtOfHa'a.     HipporcatlB  et  ftlio- 

omm  Medicoram  Tetenim  reliquiee.  Mandatn  Actideinin  regie 

diaciplinaram  qnte  Amstelodami  eat.    Edidit  FruicieouE  Za* 

charias  EnoerinB.     VolnineQ  Primam.    Trajecti  ad  Bhennm. 

1859.     ito.—From  the  Academy. 
Veralagen  en  Hededeelingen  der  Eoninkltjke  Akademie  Tan  Wet- 

eoBchappen.  Afdeeling  Natuurkande.    Achate  Oeel.    8vo. — 

From  the  tame. 
VeialageD  en  Hededeelingen  der  Eoninklijke  Akademie  van  Wet- 

eDBchappen.  AfdeeliDg  Natuurkunde.    Negende  Deel.  I.  II. 

en  III.     Stak.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Verslagen  en  Hededeelingen  dei  Eoninklijke  Akademie  ran  Wet- 

engchftppen.    Afdeeling  Letterkunde.    Vierde  Deel.    I.  II. 

en  III.     Stuk.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Vcrbandelingen  der  Eoninklijke  Akademie  van  Wetonschappen, 

Afdeeling  Letterkunde.    Eerste  Deel.    Het  Platen.    4to. — 

From  the  tame. 
Verbandelingen  der  Eoninklijke  Academie  van  Wetenschappen. 

Zevende  Deel.    Met  Platen.    4to.    From  the  tame. 
Jaarboek  van  de  Eoninklijke  Academie  van  Wetenschappen  gevea- 

ttgd  te  Ameteidam  Toor  1668.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Verlag  van  het  Verhandelde  in  de  Algemeene  Vergadering  van 

der  Provincial  Utrechteche  Genootecbap  van  Eunaten  en  Wet- 

enscbappen,  25  en  26  June  1861.     8vo. — From  the  Auoeia- 

Aanteekeningen  van  het  Provincial  Utiechtsche  GenootBchap  van 
Eunaten  en  Wetenschappen,  1869,  1860,  en  1861.  8vo.— 
From  the  tame. 

Memorias  da  Academia  real  das  Scienciaa  de  Lisboa :  Claase  de 
Scientias  Mathematicaa,  Fhyaicas  e  Natnraes.  Nova  Bene, 
Tomo  II.,  Parte  1  e  2.     ito.—From  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


36  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

ReBumen  de  las  Actaa  de  la  real  Academia  da  Cienciaa  de  Hadrid 
por  loa  aBoB  1857,  1858,  1859,  y  1860.  Svo.—From  th«  Aca- 
demy. 

Memoriae  de  la  real  Academia  de  Ciencias  de  Madrid.  Tome  III., 
IV.,  y  V.    ito.—Frtm  the  $ame. 

La  Bot4iiica  j  los  Botfinicoe  de  la  Peninsala  HispaDo-LnBitana : 
EstudioB  bibliogiificoB  y  biogiifiooe  per  don  Mignel  Colmeiro, 
Madrid.     ivo.—From  the  same. 

Notieei  nr  ^Uekapets  pro  Fanna  et  Flora  Fennica  Forbandlingar  : 
lY.,  v.,  and  VI.  Haftet,  1858,1859,  and  1861.  Helsingfors. 
8to.— JVom  the  Society. 

Diatomaceis  Fentiiie  FosBilibna  Additamentum  scripaJt  William 
Njlander  (Aftiyck  nr  %illBkapelB  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  FennJo 
Notiser  VI.,  ny  Berie,  3  Haftet)  Helsingfors.     8vo.— JVom  the 

Berichte  fiber  die  Verb andlnn gen  der  Eiinigl.  ^chsischen  Gesell- 
■cbaft  der  Wie'sengchaften  zu  Leipzig.  I.  and  II.  von  der 
Matbematiach-phyBiBchen  Classe ;  and  II.,  III.,  u.  IV.,  too 
der   Philologiscb-biBtoriBcben  Clasae.     8to. — From  the  So- 

Preisscbnften  gekriint  and  heranegegeben  tod  der  furetlicb  Jab- 

lonowski'schen  GeBellBcbaft  zu  Leipzig.  IX. :   Victor  Bob- 

mert's  BeitrSge  zur  Geschicbte  dea  ZunftwesenB.  8to. — From 

the  Soeieti/. 
Locke'B  Lebie  tod  der  Mcnecblicben  ErkenntnisB  in  Vergleichnng 

mit  Leibniz'a  Eritik  dereelben  dargeatellt  von  G.  Hartensteiu. 

No.  II.    8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Die  DeutBcbe  nation al-okonomik  an  der  Grenzscbeide  dee  16teD 

a.  17ten  JahrhundertB  von  William  BoBcber.     No.  III.    8to. 

— From  the  tame. 
HesBungen  iiber  die  Absorption  der  CbcmiBchea  Stiahlen  des  Son- 

nenlicbta  von  W.  G.  Hankel.     8vo.—From  the  tame. 
P.  A.  Hauaen's  Darlegnng  der  tbeoretiacben  Perecbnung  der  in 

den  Mondtafeln  angewandten  Stomngen.    Erete  Abhandlung. 

8to. — From  the  same. 
Verbandlungen  des  Vereins  fiir  Naturkunde  zu  Presburg.    IV. 

Jabrgang,  1859,  u.  V.  Jabrgange,  1860  u.  ISCO.     8vo.—From 

the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  37 

KlimBtograpbiscbe  UeberBicbt  der  Erde  tod  A.  Muhry,  H.D.    8vo. 

— From  the  Author. 
Pbtbica  Saoka  JohanneB  Jacobi  Schevcbzeri,  Medicinae  Doctoria, 

et  Hatb.  in  Lyceo  Figvrino  Prof.,  etc.,  Iconibva  a^DeU  illvB- 

trata.    Tomi  quattvor.     Avgvet«  Vindelinorvm  et  YimEe  1831. 

Folio.— PmCTUed  by  Patrick  Miller,   E»q.,  M.D.,  F.R.SE., 

Exeter. 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.    Nos.  7-9. 

1862.     Syo.—From  the  Society. 
Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  LoDdoD.     Nob. 

3-5.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  May  to  November 

1862.    8to.— fVom  the  Societi/. 
Proceediogs  of  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Society  of  Loodon.     Vol. 

IV.,  Nos.  1,  2.     Svo.— ^rom  the  Society. 
The  AsBuranco  Magazine.   Vol.  X.,  Part  5.   8vo. — From  the  Sociely. 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  July  and  October  1862,    8vo. — From  lh« 

Sighland  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  from  May  to  November  1862. 

Sto. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedinga  of  the  Linnean  Society.    Vol.  VI.,  Nob.  23,  24.     8to. 

— From  the  Society. 
Joamal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.     No.  4,  1861 ;  and  Nos. 

1  and  2, 1862.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Asiatic  Society.    Vol.  XIX.,  No.  3;  and 

Vol  XX.,  No.  1.     &vo.—FTom  tie  Society. 
Jonmal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  June  and  September  1862.   8vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society.    Vol.  XXXI.    8vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Medico-Chirurgical   Transactiona.     Vol.    XLV.     8vo. — From   the 

Society. 
TransactioQB  of  the  Uiatorio  Society  of  Lancashire  and  Cheshire. 

New  Series.     Vol.  I.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Manual  of  Hydrology.     By  Nathaniel  Be&rdmore,  C.E.     8to. — 

From  the  Author. 
RadcUffe  Obaervalory.     Vol.  XX.     8vo. — From  the  Radcliffe  True- 


DvGooglc 


38  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.    Nob.  97-101.    8to. 

— From  the  CWduc/ors. 
FbiloBophioa,!  TrangactioDB  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London,  Farts 

1,  2,  and  3,  and  Part  1,  1862,  4to.— /Voni  the  Society. 
ProceediDgs  of  the  Koyal  Society.    Vol.  XII.,  Noe.  49-51.    8vo. 

— From  the  tame. 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Literature.    Second  Series. 

VoL  VII.,  Part  II.    Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.     Nob.  38-40. 

8vo, — Fiwn  &e  ImtUute. 
The  Journal  of  the  Boyal  Dublin  Society.     Nob.  24,  25.    8yo.— 

From  the  Society. 
Joumsl  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Dublin.     VoL  IX.,  Part  II. 

8vo.~From  Ike  Society. 
The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Material  Wealth,     By  A.  K. 

Johnston,  F.B.S.E.     II.  Historical  Notes  regarding  the  Mer' 

chant  Company  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  Widows'  Scheme  and 

Hospitals.     8vo. — From  tlfe  Sight  HoJiom-aUe  the  Lord  Provoat. 
Geology  of  Canada,  and  Geological  Survey  of  Canada.    Two  Parts. 

8to.     From  Sir  W.  E.  Logan, 
The  Mechaniem  of  the  Heavens.    By  James  Beddie,  Esq.    8vo, 

— From  the  Author. 
HemoiiB  of  the  Literary  and  PhiloBophical  Society  of  Manchester. 

Vol.  I.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
ProceediDgs  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Man- 
chester,   Vol.  II.  (with  the  Society's  Bules.)    8to.— /Vom  (As 

Society. 
Notice  of  a  Mass  of  Meteoric  Iron.    By  J.  A.  Sroilb,  M.D. ;  and 

Chemical  Analysis  of  the  same,  by  Murray  Thomson,  M.D. 

8vo.— /Vom  the  Avihort. 
Madias  Journal  of  Literatuie  and  Science.    December  1861.    6vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.  VoL  III.,  Part  1.  4to. 
Proceedings  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Liverpool. 

No.  16.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
The  Museum  of  Natural  History — Art.  "Fishes."     By  Sir  Job. 

Bicbardson,  C.B.,  &o.     8vo.~From  the  Author. 
Errata  in  Hansen's  Lunar  Tables.     8vo. — From  J.  B.  Hind,  Eaq. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburffh,  Session  1S62-  39 

Monthly  and  Quarterly  Beturne  of  the  Birthe,  Deaths,  and  Mar- 
riages registered  in  the  DiTisious,  GonntieB,  and  Dietricte  of 
Scotland.  From  May  to  October  1862.  8vo.— From  the  Be- 
gutrar-  Oeaeral. 

Atti  deir  Imper.  Beg.  Istituto  Yeneto  di  Scienze,  Lettere,  ed  Arti, 
1861,  diepenza  decima;  1862,  dispense  1,  2,  3.  8vo. — From 
the  InttiUtte. 

Memorie  del  Beale  latitoto  Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Arti. 
VoL  VIII.,  Fasc.  VI.     Milano.     8vo,— JVom  the  ImtitvU. 

Snr  le  Magn6tisme  et  Bur  I'Electricitfi  pendant  lea  Orages.  Par  A. 
Secchi  et  Ad,  Quetelet.  8to, — From  th«  Royal  Belgian 
Academy. 

Sur  I'EtoUes  Filantes.  Far  E.  Herrick  et  Ad.  Quetelet.  8to.— 
From  the  same. 

Annnaire  de  rAcademie  Boyale.     12mo. — From  the  tame. 

Annnaire  de  I'Obserratoire  Boyale  de  Braxelles.  Par  Ad.  Quetelet. 
16mo. — From  the  same. 

De  la  N&^esaite  d'un  Syst&me  Gien§ral  d'Observations  Nantiques  et 
Mdttorologiquea.  Lettre  du  M.  Maury,  Diiecteur  de  I'Obser- 
Tatoiie  de  Washington,  il  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.    8vo. — from  At 

Observations  sur  Siffgients  Snjets  d'Aatronomie  et  de  Physique  du 

Globe.     Far  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Etoiles  Filantes  et  MagnStisme.     Far  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.     6vo. — 

From  the  same. 
Sur  la  Statisque  GSn^rale  dee  Diff6rentB  Fays.    Far  M.  Quetelet. — 

From  the  lamie, 
M^moires  Couronnte  et  Autres  M6moires,  publifo  par  I'Academie 

Boyale  de  Bruxelles.     Tomes  XI.  and  XII.     8to.    From  the 

Aeaderny. 
Bulletins  de  I'Academie  Royale  dea  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  dea 

Beaux  Arts  de  Belgique,  1861.    Tomes  XI.  et  211.     8to.— 

From  the  same. 
Annalea  de  rObeervatoiie  Boyal  de  Bruxelles.     Far.  A.  Quetelet. 

4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Memoirea  Couronnfs  et  M^moiiee  des  Savants  fitranggres  publife. 

Far.  I'Academie  Boyale  de  Belgique.    Tome  XXX.    4to  — 

From  the  same. 


DvGooglc 


40  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

ObeervatioDS  den  Fhenom^nea  Feriodiquee.     6vo. — From  tM  tame. 
Bulletin   de  la  Soci^te  dee  Sciences   Natarelles  de  ffeufch&tel. 

Tome  V.     8vo. — From  the  Soeiely. 
UittheilungeD  der  Xaturforschenden  CreeellBchaft  in  Bern  auB  dem 

Jahre  1861.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Bulletin  de  la  Socitte  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  Naturellee.    Tome 

VII.,  48.     8vo.— from  the  Society. 
ObservatioDB  ABtronomiqiies,  1**  Supplement  au  Tome  XVI.,  17'  et 

18"  eerie.     4to. — From  the  Natural  and  Phyncal  Society  of 

Geneva. 
Nouvellee  B^hercbes  Bur  lea  Anrorea  BoT^alee  et  Auetralex,  &c. 

Par  Sf.  de  la  Btve.     4to. — From  the  Author. 
Further  Besearchea  on  the  Aurora  Borealis.    By  H.  de  la  Bive. 

8to. — From  the  tame. 
Beeumg  Uettorologique  de    TAonie  18C0,   pour  Geneve    et    Id 

Grand  St  Bernard.     Par  E.  Plantamour.     8vo. — From  the 

Note  anr  les  Variations  Periodiques  de  la  Temperature  et  de  la 

Pression  Atmoepbenque  an  Grand  St  Bernard,    8to. — From 

Ike  tame. 
Sitzungsbericbte  der  konigl.  bayer.  Akademie  der  WissenEchaften 

zu  Uiinchea.    Heften  i.  a.  ii.,  1861,  u.  I.    Heften  i.  ii.,  u.  iii., 

1862.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Ueber  Vertheilung  dea  HagnetismaB  Jn  CylindriEohen  Stahl-Staben: 

Von  Dr  Casper  Eothlauf.     8vo.— JVom  the  tame. 
Anualen  der  konigl.  Stemwarte  bei  Miincben,  XI.  Band.    8vo. — 

From  the  Boyal  Obtervatory. 
Verzeichniss  der  Sf  itglieder  der  k.  b.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaftenr 

1862.     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Zum  GedachtnisB  an  Jean  Baptiate  Biot,  Ton  C.  F.  Philipp  von 

Martina.     4to. — From  the  tame. 
Abhaudlungen  dei  hiBtorischen   Clasee  der  k.  b.  Akademie  der 

WisBenBchaften  zu  Miinchen.     IX***  Bandes  1**  u,  2"-  Ab- 

theilung.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Von  der  Bedeutung  der  Sanskrit-atndien  fiii  die  Griecbische  Phi- 

lologie.     Von  Dr  Wilhelm  Chriat.     4to. — From  the  tame. 
Beden  gebalteue  am  26"'Mtlrz  1861,  und  am  28'~NDTember  1861. 

Vom  Freiberm  von  Liebig.     4to. — From  ihe-tame. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seeaum  1862-63.  41 

Denkiede  anf  Gotthilf  Heinrich  vod  Schubert  gehaltene  von  Dr 

A.  Wagner  am  26***HaTZ  1861.    iU>.—From  the  tame. 
OedSchtniBB-reds  anf  Friedrioh  Tiedemana  Toi^tragene  am  28*^ 

Nov.  1861  von    Dr  T.  L.    W.    BiBohoff.     ito.— From    the 

tame. 
Denkrede  anf  Dr  G«org  Thonua  V.  Budhart  galesene  am  26"* 

Marz  1861  von  E.  A.  Hnffatt.     ito.—From  Oe  tame. 
•  Ueber  Briefstellen,  n.  Fonnelbiicher  in  Dentachland  wahiend  dee 

Uiltelalten.    You  Dr  L.  Bockinger.    4to. — From  ihe  same, 
Ueber  die  laoge  Dau«i  u.  die  Entwickelang  des  ChinesiBchen 

Beicbs.     Von  Dr  H.  Flath.     Ito. — From  th«  tame. 
AbhandluDgen  der  matbematiBoh.-phjrsikalisoben  Olasse  der  k.  b. 

Akademie  der  WlssenBchaftftn  so  Uitncben  IX*"  Bandes  I" 

n.  2"  Abtbeilung.     6to. — From  the  tame, 
Ueber  Fartfaenogeneaia.     Von  Dr  0.  Th.  £.  von  Slebold.    4to. — . 

Frwn  the  Author. 
Beise  der  oetrareicb.  Fregatte  "  Norara"  am  die  Erde.    Nantico- 

PhyBLcal  Fart.     First  Beotiou.     4to. — FVom  Ihe  Awtrian  Qo- 

vemmtnt. 
Beiloge  to  the  above. — From  the  tame, 
Sitzangeberichte  der  kaiserlioben  Akademie  der  Wiesensobarten 

ED  Wien.  November  and  December  1861 ;  Januaiy,  February, 

Sfarcb,  April  1862.    8vo.    From  the  Academjf, 
Sitzungsberichte  der  kaiasiL  Akademie  der  Wissenohaften ;   Oc- 
tober,  November,   December  1861 ;   January  1862.     Svo. — 

From  the  tame. 
Sitzungsberichte  der  kaiwrl.  Akademie  der  WiBaenEohaften.    Ha- 

thematisoh-NatnrwlBsensobaftliob  Clasee.    April,  Jane,  July, 

October,  November,  December,  1861 ;  Jmnary  and  Febmary 

1862.     8vo.— i^Vom  the  tame. 
Almanach    der   kaiseiL    Akademie   der    Wissenscbaften.      12*" 

Jabrgang.    1862.    Svo.    From  the  tame. 
Jahrbucher  fiir  Ueteorologie  u.  Erd.  UagnetiBmus  von  Earl  Ereil. 

VIII'"  Band.     Jabrgang  1856.     4Ao.—From  the  tame. 
Felsiibb  Eggentletek  egy  Ismeretleunel  irta  D.  Vallaa  Antal :  Elzi5 

Fiizet.     8vo.— -From  ihe  Academy  of  Feet. 
Termfezettndomanyi  FalyarnDDkik,  1st,  2d,  and  3d  Kotet.    Svo. — 

From  the  tame. 


DvGooglc 


42  Proceedings  of  the  Roycd  Society 

Mathematicoi'  FalfamQDk&k  1  kotet.     8vo. — Fntn  the  tame. 

A'  Felflobb  Analyaia  Elemei  irta  lyory  3&iidoT.     I.  and  II.  Fiizet. 

4to. — From  the  tame. 
Elm^ked^Bek  a'  Fhysiologia  ea  FBjrchologia'  Eortben  ixta  D.  Mocsi 

If  ihali. — From  the  tame. 
A  Fuhfinyok  Izomrostjairol,  etc.     4to. — From  the  tarn*. 
A  Hangrefidszer  Eiszamitaearol,  ato,     4to. — From  the  tame. 
Hagyat  Akademioi  Erteafto  nj  folyam.    £ls6  Kotet.    I.,  II.,  and 

III.,  szam.     8to. — From  the  Academy. 
Index  to  the  Catalogue  of  a  Fartion  of  the  Pnblic  Lihrai;  of  the 

City  of  Beaton,  airanged  in  the  Lover  Hall  (vith  font  Supple- 
ments),    8vo. — /Vwn  the  Tnutees. 
Eighth  and  Ninth  Annual  Beport  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Public 

Library  of  Boston.     8vo. — From  the  $ame. 
Catalogue  of  Books  in  the  Upper  Hall  of  the  Libmy  of  BostoB. 

8to. — From  the  tame. 
Abfltracta  of  the  Obseirations  taken  at  the  Stations  of  the  Boysl 

Eugineen,  from  1853  to  1859.    Edited  by  Colonel  Sir  H. 

Jamee,  B.£.     ito. — From  the  Secretary  <^  Slate  for  War. 
Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Soie&ce  of  Philadelphia^ 

4  parte.     8vo. — From  the  Academy, 
Journal  of  the  aboYe.    Vol.  V.,  Part  1.    4to. — Frtmt  the  tame. 
ObserrationB  on  the  Genus  Unio,  eto.    By  leaao  Lea,  LL.D.    Vol. 

VIII,,  Part  2.    ito.~From  the  tame. 
Publicatioua  of  laaao  Lea,  LL.D.,  on  Recent  Conchology.   3  pwrts. 

8to. — From  the  lame. 
Parliamentary  Papers  on  the  Burke  and  Wills  Commission.    Vic- 
toria, 1861-62.— ^FVofn  Major-Oeneral  SirThomat  Pratt,K.O.B., 

to  Bev.  Dr  Manna.     Folio. — Preiented  by  Dr  Haima. 
Bulletin  de  la  Sooi£t6  de  Oeographie,  5idme  sfirie.    Tomes  II.  et 

m.     8to.— .Prmn  the  Society. 
Aiinales  hydrographiquee  an  DSpot  des  Cortes  et  Plans  de  la  Ha- 

rine.    Nos.  311-328.    Svo.—From  the  DSpot. 
Le  Vrai  Principe  de  la  Loi  dee  Ouragans  appliqu6  d'nne  maniire 

pratique  anx  deux  hemispheres.    Par  James  Sedgwick.    Tra- 

duit  de  I'AngUis.     8to. — From  the  tame. 
Description  hydiographique  de  la  C6te  Orientale  de  la  Coiie  et  du 

Golfe  d'Osoka.     8Y0.—From  the  tame. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  43 

Pilote  Franfaise,  1860. — From  the  Depot  de  la  ^artne. 

James  Horsbni^b'a  InetTuctious  nantiqneB,  l*"partie.    4to.    1861. 

—From  the  lame. 
Benseignemeats  uautiqnes  anr  lea  Cotes  de   Patagonie.    8vo. — 

From  the  tame. 
InetiuctionB  uantiqneB  sur  lea  Cotes  d'Islaude.      6to. — From  the 

same. 
Annates  hydrographiqnes.     Nos.    833   et   836.      Bto. — From   the 

tame. 
Anuuaira  das  Uai^ee  dee  Cotee  de  Fraoce  pour  lea  aDn^es  1662 

ct  1863.     12mo.—Ftom  the  tame. 
Fortschritte  der  Fhysik  im  Jahro  1859,  dargeetellt  von  der  physi- 
kalischen  Gesellachaft  zn  Berlin.     XV.  Jahrgang.    8vo.— 
From  the  Society. 
Uoaatsberichte  der  konigl,  prenssiachen  4.kademie  der  Wissen- 
schaften  zu  Berlin;  ana  dem  Jahre  1861.      8vo. — From  the 
Academy, 
AbhandlaDgen  der  konigl.  preass.  Akademie  der  WisBenscliarten 

zu  Berlin  1861.     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Schriften  der  konigl.  pbyeikalisch-okonomiachen  C^esellscbaft  zu 
Eonigsberg.     Zweiter  Jahrgang  1861.    Ite  n.  3te  Abtheilang. 
From  the  Society. 

1  Actorum  Academiie  Cnaarefe  Leopoldino-Carolinae  Oet- 
!  NatuTfD  CurioBoram  tomna  29.     Jenaa.     4to. — From 
the  Academy. 
Abhandliiagen  herausgegeben  von  der  Senckenbergiscben  natur- 
foracbenden  Gesellscbaft.    Viertes  Bandes  erates  Heft.    4to. 
— From  the  Soctefy. 
Denkscbriften  der  kaiaerlicben  Al;ademie  der  Wiseenachaften — 
(Sfathematisch-naturwiesenechaftliche  Classe.)    20ater  Band. 
4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Jabrbuch    der    kaiserl.-k<jniglicben    geologiachen    Beichaanatalt, 

January  1861  to  April  1862.     8vo.~From  the  Beichtanttalt. 
Natuurkundige  Verbandelingen  van  de  HoUandische  Haatscbappij 
der  Wetenacbappen  te  Haarlem.    Tweede  Verzameling  Zes- 
tiende  Deel.     1862.     4to. — From  the  Aasociation. 
Schriften  der  Unlveraitatzu  Kiel  aus  dem  Jahre  1861,     Bander 
VII.  u.  VIII,     ito.—From  the  Univtrtity. 


DvGooglc 


44  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Dee  Hineralogen  nod  Chemikere  Job.  Wep.  von  Facbs.    4to. — 

From  Pro/ator  Kaiaer. 
BelatioDB  des  Experiences  enterprisee  par  ordie  de  S.  E.  U-   lo 

Uiniatie  dea  TnTanx  Fabliqaes,  fit  anr  la  demaDde  de  U  Com- 

miaaion  Centiale  des  Uacfaines  i  Vapenr,  poni  determiner  lea 

loiB  et  lee  donnas  pbyBiqiieB  necesaairea  an  calcnl  des  Hacbinefl 

i>  Feu.  Par  M.  V.  Eegnault.  Tome  Second.    4to.— /Vom  the 

Attthor. 
Bleventb  Kambei  of  Afeteorological  Papeia.    Compiled  by  Ad- 
miral Fitzroy,  F.R.S.     8vo.— J"n»m  lAe  Board  of  Trade. 
Beport  of  the  Ueteoiological  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 

1862.     Sto. — From  the  larno. 
TranaaoUoDB  of  the  Koyal  Iriah  Academy.    Vol.  XXIV.,  Part  II., 

Science.     Ito. — From  the  Academy. 
Contenta  of  the  Coireaposdence  of  Scientific  Men  of  the  I7th  Cen- 

tnry.    Compiled  by  A.  D.  Morgan,  F.B.S.,  io.    Bvo.— from 

the  Avlhor. 
Beporta  on  the  Isthmva  of  Eran.  By  Captaina  Fraser&nd  Forlong, 

April  1861.     Folio.— J*Vw»  the  Avihon,  6y  Major  SeoU. 
Bevne  Orientale  et  Americaine.    Par  L£on  de  Bosny.    Pane.    8vo. 

—-Prom  the  Author. 
On  the  Probable  Cauaea  of  the  Earth  Gnrrents.    By  the  Bev.  H. 

Lloyd,  D.D.     8vo.— JVom  the  AtUkor. 
Qoarterly  Beporta  of  the  Meteorological  Society  <^  Scotland,  March 

and  June  1862.     6vo. — From  the  Soeiely. 
Notice  of  the  Angi^ntibo  of  Old  Calabar.     By  J.  A.  Smith,  M.D. 

8vo. — From  the  Jutftor. 
Carte  Agronomiqne  dea  Environa  de  Paria.    Par  M.  Deleeae.    8to. 

— From  (Ae  Author. 
The  Bell  Bock  Light-Honae;  Letter  by  David  Stevenaon,  F.B.aE. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
The  EaaeBtiala  of  a  Healthy  Dwelling,  and  tbe  Extension  of  ita 

Benefite  to  the  labouring  Population.    By  Henry  Boberts, 

F.S.A.,  etc.     8yo.—Frvm  the  Author. 
Calendu  of  th«  Univerai^  of  Qneen'a  College,  Kingston,  Canada, 

Session  1662-3.     8to.— From  the  Univenity. 
Annual  Beport  of  tbe  Geological  Survey  of  India,  and  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Geology.  Fifth  Year,  1860-1.   Q^o.— From  the  Survey. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  45 

The  Description,  CompoBition,  and  Preparations  of  the  Sanguituiria 
Canadetuii,  by   Geo.  D.   Gibb,    M.D.,  etc.     8vo.— from  the 
Author. 
International  Exhibition,  1862;  Catalogue  of  the  Nova  Scotian 

Departments.     8vo. — From  ike  Secretary. 
Greenwich   Observations,    1860.     4to. — From    the   Board  of  Ad- 
miralty. 
The  Quarterly  Jonrnal  of  the  Geological  Society.    Nos.  69, 70,  and 

71.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Flint  Implements  in  the  Drift,  being  an  Account  of  their  Discovery 
in  the  Oontinent  and  in  England.    By  John  Evans,  F.S.A., 
etc,     4to. — From  tlie  Author. 
Annala  of  the  Botanical  Society  of  Caoada.    Vol.  I.,  Part.  III. 

4to. — From  tlie  Society. 
Reduction  of  the  Observations  of  the  Deep-sunk  Thermometers  at 
the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  from  1846-S9.    By  Pro- 
fesBOi  J.  D.  Everett,  Nova  Scotia.     4to. — From  the  Author . 
List  of  Fellows  of,  and  Papers  read  before,  the  Koyal  Institute  of 

British  Architects,  1861-2.     4to.— JVom  the  IntiUule. 
The  Theory  of  Probabilities,  by  George  Boole,  F.R.S.    4to.— from 

t&«  Author. 
Abstracts  of  Meteorological  Observations  in  1860-1.    Edited  by 

,  Sir  H.  James,  E.B.    4to.— Frwt  the  Editor. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India :  PalKontologica  Indies. 

Edited  by  Thomas  Oldham,  LL.D.     Aio.—From  the  Editor. 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London  (with  Lists). 

VoL  I.,  Nob.  II.- VII.     8vo.— /Vw»  the  Society. 
Uemoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London.    Vol. 

XXX.    ito.~From  the  Sod^y. 
Meteorologische  Waamemingen  en  Nederland  en  Zijne  Bezittin- 
gen,  etc.,  1869-60.     Oblong  8vo. — From  Ihe  Royal  Meteoro- 
logical Irutitute  of  the  Neiherlandi. 
RScherches  sur  I'Evolution  des  Araign^.    Par  M.  E.  Clapar£de. 

4to. — From  the  Society  of  Arte  and  Seience$  at  Utrecht. 
Compte  Rendu  de  la  Commission  Imperiale  Archfologiqne  pour 
I'Ann^e  1860,  et  Atlas.    S.   Petersbourg.    FoIio.—^Voni  the 
SuMtan  Qovemment, 


DvGooglc 


46  Proceedvnga  of  the  Royal  Society 

Monday,  IStA  December  1862. 
PBOPEaaoB  OHEISTISON,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Communicstione  were  read : — 
1.  On  the  Representative  RelationahipB  of  the  Fixed  and  Free 
Tunicata,  regarded  as  two  Biib-claases  of  equivalent  value ; 
with  some  general  remarks  on  their   morphology.     By 
John  Denia  Macdonald,  Esq.,  E.N.,  F.R.S.,  Surgeon  H.M.8. 
"  Icarus."     Communicated  by  Professor  Maclagan. 

In  this  paper  the  author  maintains  the  proposition,  that  the 
clua  Tunicata  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  eub-cIasBee, 
viz.,  the  Fixed  or  Stationary,  and  the  Free  or  Locomotive,  of  at 
least  nearly  equal  value  in  a  zoological  point  of  view,  in  opposition 
to  the  opinion  commonly  entertained,  that  the  so-called  Pelagic 
Tunicata  compose  a  gronp  only  commensni'ate  with  the  groups  of 
the  Compound,  the  Social  and  the  Simple,  into  which  the  Fixed 
Tunicata  have  been  divided  by  Milne-Edwarda  and  others. 

After  some  general  remarks  on  the  morphology  of  the  class 
Tunicata,  the  author  proposes  the  classification,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  leading  subdivbions,  and  under  which  he  groups 
and  claesifies  the  varions  genera  of  Tunicata. 

TuKlCATi. 

Sab-elasa  \st,—AnimaU  jaxd  or  stoiionary. 
I.  Branchial  membrane  cbsely  adherent,  or  more  or  less  per- 
fectly   sac-like;    simply    areolated    or    distinctly    retiform,     the 
meahea  disposed  in  many  transverse  series  without  non-ciliated 
supporting  bars. 

1.  Gemm»  springing  direotly  from  the  parent,  with  a  temporary 
bond  of  union — Simple  Tunicata. 

2.  Oemmte  springing  aeparately  from  a  definite  "  ascidiarium " 
(Hnx.),  and  communicating  indirectly  through  a  central 
common  vaeculai  system — Social  Tunicata. 

3.  GemmR  arising  separately  from  the  parent  with  or  without 
vascular  intcrcommanication,  but  always  immersed  in  a 
common  test  or  "ascidiarium" — Compound  Tunicata. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  47 

Sub-eloM  2d. — Animalafree,  hcomoUvt. — Pelagic  Tunieata. 

II.  Branchial  membrane  sac-like,  with  transverse  slita  in  single 
loDgitudinal  Beries,  etrengthened  by  longitudinal  son-ciliated  rode, 
apertures  terminal  or  Bub-terminal. 

III.  Bespiring  by  an  upper  and  a  lover  gill-band,  connected 
with  each  other  laterally,  and  with  the  walk  of  the  atriam ;  having 
branchial  elite,  but  no  supporting  longitudinal  rods ;  apertures 
terminal. 

lY.  Bespiiing  by  a  central  and  inferior  gill-band,  with  free 
borders  and  transverse  ciliated  stripes,  but  without  elite  or  rods ; 
apertures  terminal  oi  sub-terminal. 

V,  Pharynx  ciliated  below,  withont  a  distinct  gill-band  ;  bran- 
chial elite  reduced  to  two  ciliated  openings  on  the  sides  of  the 
rectum. 

The  author  concludes  his  paper  with  remarks  on  several  of  the 
genera,  in  reference  to  the  position  assigned  to  them  in  his  classi- 
fication, and  with  some  details  as  to  the  anatomy  of  Orthocala — 
the  Salpa  pinnata  of  authors. 

2>  On  tbe  great  Effractor  at  Elcbies,  and  its  powers  in 
Sidereal  Observation.  By  Professor  C.  Fiazzi  Smyth, 
AstroQomer-Boyal  for  Scotland. 

The  telescope  here  referred  to  is  the  largest  and  best  ever  erected 
in  Scotland,  for  exact  sidereal  observation  ;  and  the  author  having 
paid  a  visit  last  September  to  its  liberal  and  hospitable  owner,  J. 
W.  Grant,  Esq.,  of  Elchies,  Morayshire,  had  an  opportunity  of 
trying  its  powers  on  double  stars,  and  describes  the  results  of  the 
trial  in  his  paper. 

Out  of  a  list  of  twenty-nine  doable  stars,  there  were  six  coses 
where  one  or  more  new  small  stars  were  discovered ;  and  the  ob* 
servations  of  position  and  distance  on  the  older  members  of  each 
group  were  so  trustworthy,  as  to  add  valuable  information  towards 
elucidating  both  the  proper  motion  of  some  optical  donble  stars, 
and  the  orbital  motion  of  several  binary  ones.  In  addition  to 
which,  several  unexpected  results  were  arrived  at  with  reference  to 
cosmical  changes  in  the  magnitudes  and  colours  of  certain  stars. 


saovGoOglc 


48  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

The  folloving  DoDatiuns  to  the  Library  were  laid  on  tho 
Table:— 

Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections.    Vole.  I.,  II.,  III.,  and  lY. 

8to. — From  the  Imlitvtion. 
TMrteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Begents  of  the  UniTersit;  of  the 

State  of  New  York  on  the  Condition  of  the  State  Cabinet  of 

Natural  History,  &c.     Sto. — From  the  SegeiUt  of  the  Uni- 

vertili/. 
Proceedings  of  the  Amorican  Fhiloeophioal  Society.    Yol.  YIII., 

Nos.  64,  65,  and  66.     8vo.— From  Ike  Society. 
Annual  Beport  of  Brevet  Lieutenant-Colonel  J.  B.  G-raham  on  the 

Improvement  of  the  Harbours  of  Lakes  Michigan,  S.  Clair, 

Erie,  Ontario,  and  ChunpUin,  for  the  year  1660.      8to. — 

From  the  American  Oovemment. 
Manual  of  Public  Libraries,  Institutions,  and  Sooieties  in    the 

United  States  and  British  Provinces  of  North  America.    By 

William  J.  Eheee.    8vo. — From  the  Smilhtonian  Iiutitution. 
Studies  in  Oi^anic  Morphology.    By  John  Warner.    6vo. — From 

the  Author. 
Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for 

the  year  1660.     Svo. — From  the  Ohio  Board. 
Annual  Beport  of  the  Board  of  Begents  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution for  1860.     8vo. — From  ihe  ItutittUion. 
Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London.    Yol.  XIII. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society.    December  I8G2. 

Svo. — From  the  Siidety. 
Jahresbericbt  iibei  die  Fortschritte  der  Chemie  fiii  1861.    Besorgt 

von  Wilbelm   Hallwachs.      Ergte  Halfte.      Bvo.—From    the 

Editor. 
The  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society.    Yol.  XVIII., 

No.  72,  Pt.  i.    (With  Charter,  and  Bye-Laws,  and  List  of 

Members.)     Svo. — From  the  Boci^. 
On  the  Danger  of  Hasty  Generalization  in  Geology,     By  Alexander 

Bryson,  Esq,,  F.R.S.E.     8vo.— iVom  the  Author. 
Beport  upon  the  Colorado  Biver  of  the  West;  explored  in  1857 

and  1858  by  Lieutenant  Joseph  C.  Ives,  by  Order  of  the 


DvGooglc 


o/Fdinburgk,  Sesaim  1862-63.  49 

Secretary  of  War  Royal  8vo. — From  the  American  Qo- 
vemmtnl. 

TranaactioDS  of  the  Linoean  Society  of  London.  Vol.  XXIII., 
Part  Second.     4to. — From  the  Society. 

Kesults  of  Meteorological  Observations  made  under  the  Direction 
of  the  United  Stat«B  Patent  Office  and  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, from  the  year  1864  to  1859  inclusive :  being  a  Beport 
of  the  CommiBsioner  of  Patents  made  at  the  First  Session  of 
the  Thirty-Sixth  Congress.  Vol.  I.  4to.— From  the  Smith- 
Ionian  Institulion. 

Nova  Acta  Begira  Socictatis  Scientiarum  Upsaltensis,  seriei  tertiie 
Vol.  IV.    Tasc.  1.,  1862.     4to.— from  the  Society. 

Ofversigt  af  Eongl.  Vetenskaps — Akademiens  Ford h and! ingar. 
Adertonde  Argangen.     1861.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 

Kongliga  Svensl:a  Vetenskaps— Akademiens  HanJlingar.  Ny 
Foljd.  Tredje  Bandet.  Andra  Haftet.  1860.  4to.— From 
the  fame. 

Moteorologiska  Jakttagelser  Sverige  utgifna  af  Kongl.  Svenska 
Vetenskaps — Akademien  bearbctade  af  Er.  Edlund.  Andra 
Bandet.     1860.     8vo. — From  the  tame, 

Beport  on  the  Fhysics  and  HydraulicB  of  the  MiBsiEsippi  Biver ; 
upon  the  protection  of  the  Alluvial  Begion  against  Overflow, 
etc.  Prepared  by  Captain  Humphreys  and  Lieutenant  Abbot. 
4to. — From  the  American  Government. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  held  at  Phila- 
delphia for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge.  Vol.  XII.  New 
Series.     Parti,     4to. — From  tke  Sodtty. 

Mtmoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  New 
Series.     Vol.  VHI.     Part  I.     4to.— from  the  Society. 

Proceedings  of  the  above ;  from  the  Four  Hundred  and  Ninety* 
Sixth  (o  the  Five  Hundred  and  Seventh  Meeting.  6to. — 
From  the  tame. 

Jalirbuch  dcr  kaiserlicli-kbniglichen  geologiechen  Beichsanslalt, 
13G1  and  1862.  XIL  Band.,  Nro.  3.  Mai,  Juni,  JuH, 
August  1862.     Wien.     8vo.— From  the  Reichtamtali. 

Die  Fossilen  Mollusken  des  Tertiar-beckens  von  Wien.  Von 
Di  Moritz  Homes.     8vo. — From  Oie  tame. 

Bulletin  de  I'Acadgniie  Imperial  des  Sciences  de  Si  P^tcrabourg. 


.„,sle 


50  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

Tome    IV,,    Nob.    3,   4,  5,   and    6.       8vo.— ftw»   the    Aca- 

Mt'moireH  de  rAcad^mJc  Imp6riale  des  Sciences  de  SI  FeterBboui^. 

VII'.  S^rie.     Tome  IV.,  Nos.  I.  to  IX.    8vo.— fn«ntA««om*. 
Ii'ondicobto  delle   SeBBioni   deil'   Accademia  delle  Scienze  dell' 

letituto  di  Bol(^a.    Anno  Accademico  1859-GO,  e  186&-1. 

]2nio. — From  the  Academy. 
Alemorie  dell'  Accademia  delte  Scienze  dell'  letituto  di  Bologna. 

Tomo  X.,  Faac.  I.,  II.,  e  III. ;  e  Tomo.  XI.     %so.—From  the 

I^[emo^ie  del  Retile  Istitato  Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Letters,  ed  Arti. 

Vol.  VIII.,  Fasc.  7;  e  Vol.  IX.,  Fmc.  1.    Svo.— from  the 

InstiltUe. 
Atti  del  Beale  Istitnto  Lombardo  di  ScieDze,  Letters,  ed  Arti.     Vol. 

II.,  Fas.  15,  10,  17,  18,  19,  e  20;  e  Vol.  III.,  Faac.  1-4. 
Fnrb  and  linger  i   Videnekaba-selskabet  i  Cbrietiania.    Asr  1861. 

8vo.-~From  the  Soeiely. 
Flateyjarbok  en  Samling  af  Norake  Konge-Sagaer,  etc.,  1859, 1860, 

1861,  1862.     8yfy.— From  the  Society. 
Reologiske  Underagelaer  i  Bcrgeng-Omega  af  Th.  Hiatdahl  og 

U.  Irgens.     4to. — From  the  Authort. 
Beskrivelee  over  Lophogaster  Typicaa,  af  Dr  Michael  Sara.     4to. — 

From  the  Author. 
BcskriTeUe  over  Aas  hi^iere  Landbnig^kole  af  F.  A.  Dahl.    4to. — 

From  the  Author, 
Fortegnelse  over  Modeller  af  Land liusb old n Inge.    Kedekaber  fra 

Ladegaard  sens  Hovedgaard  ved  Christianta.    8vo.— Front  t^ 

Umveniiy. 
Meteorologische  Beobachtnngen  aufgezeicbnet  auf  Chriatiania's 

Observatorium.     Liefeiung  I.  and  II.     8vo, — From  the  Obier- 

valory. 
Pet  Kongelige  Norske  Videnekabera-Selakabs  Skrifter  Idet  19de 

Aarhandrede.     4de  Binds  2det  Hefte.     Drontbeim.    8vo. — 

From  the  Society. 
Det  Svenake  Under  visningBvaesen.     8vo. 
Index  Scholanim  in  TJniverBitate  Regia  Fredeiiciana  nonagesimo 

octavo   ejuB  eenicstri   anno   HDCCCun.    XVII.   EalendaB   Fe- 

bruaiias  habendanim.     8vo. — From  the  Univertity. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Seesim  1862-63.  51 

Index  Scholanim  io  TTniverBitate  Reg;ia  Fredericiana  nonagesimo 

noDo  ejns  eemestri  anno  udocclii  ab  Anguato  Uense  ioeunte 

habendanim.     8vo. — From  the  satn«. 
Er  Niirek  det  Samme  Bom  Daoek?    Af  K.  EDudeen.    Hvo. — from 

(he  Author. 
Ueber  das  Frictiona-F  ban  omen  von  Herrn   Theodore  Ejenilf  in 

CbrietiaDia.     8vo.— from  the  Author. 
BeretniDg  cm  Fiskeri-udati Hinge u  i  AmBteidam  1861. — From  the 

Utiivenity  of  Chritliimia. 
BeretDiDg  om  det  koogelige  Selbkab  for  Norgee  Vel,  etc.    i.  Aaiet 

1861.     8vo. — From  the  lame. 
Sypfailisationen  ndfort  i  DrammeDB  Sjgebnns.     Ved  Stadelaege 

F.  C.  WildhageD,     Svo.—From  the  Author. 
Fortsatte  Observationer  om  SypbilisatJonem  von  Prof.  W.  Boeck. 

8to. — from  the  Author. 
La  Norvdge  Fittoresque.    Becueit  de  Vues.    Oblong  8vo. — From  - 

the  Vnivenity  of  ChriUiania, 
Norges  Mooter  1  Uiddetaldereo,  samlede  og  beakrevne  af  C.  J. 

Sobive.     Folio. — From  the  aame. 
Die  Culturpflanzen  Norwegeae  beobachtet  von  Dr  F.  C.  Scbiibeler, 

etc.     8vo.— fro»»  (Ae  tame. 
Geograpliical  Charts. — From  the  same. 
Recberches  sur  la  Syphilis.    Folio.     Far  W,  Boeck. — From  the 

Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  ABtronoiuical  Society.    Vol.  XXIII., 

No.  1.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the   Chemical   Society,    December  1862. — From    the 

Society. 
Monthly  Betura  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Hairiages,  Begiatered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towna  of  Scotland,  November  1862. — 

From  the  Begittrar-Oenerat. 


DvGooglc 


DvGooglc 


PEOCBEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Monday,  6th  January  1863. 

i  KELLAND.  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  foUowiog  CommunicatioDS  were  read  :■ — 

1.  Biographical  Accoant  of  Professor  Looia  Albert  Necket, 
of  Geneva,  Honorary  Member  of  the  Bojal  Socie^  of 
Edinburgh.  By  David  James  Forbee,  D.O.L.,  F.B.S., 
VJ*.B.8.  Ed.,  Principal  of  the  United  College  of  8t  Sal- 
vador and  St  Leonard,  in  the  University  of  St  Andrews. 

LoniB  Albikt  Nwiebb,  who  died  at  Portree,  in  Skye,  on  the  20th 
November  1861,  aged  76,  had  been  for  many  years  a  Foreign 
Honoraiy  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

ffis  relation  to  tfie  Boyal  Sooiety,  and  to  Soothmd  generally,  was, 
however,  fw  different  &om  what  belongs  to  most  hontmuymemben. 
As  a  youth,  his  etadiee  had  been  pnraned  at  the  Bdinha^h  Uni- 
vereity.  He  had  received  almost  his  first  intTodaations  to  society 
amongst  the  very  best  circles  whieh  the  Scottish  oapital,  in  the 
days  of  perhaps  its  highest  literary  and  scientific  celebrity,  conld 
afford;  be  visited  the  Highlands,  and  even  the  remoter  Hebrides, 
with  an  admiring  enthnsiaBm  which  few  native  tonrista  have  sni- 
passed  In  later  life  he  returned  with  renewed  interest  to  revisit 
the  scenes  where  he  spent  his  youth.  He  not  nnfreqnently  attended 
the  meetings  of  tiie  Boyal  Society,  and  occasionally  contributed  to 


DvGoogIc 


54  Proceedings  of  the  Boyd  Society 

its  TnuiBootionB ;  and,  finally,  having  made  Scotland  the  country 
of  his  adoption,  and  passed  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life 
almost  entirely  on  its  soil,  his  remains  were  laid  in  the  chnrchyaid 
of  the  remote  village  of  Portree,  which  had  long  hecome  hia  sole 
residence. 

Under  all  these  oircnmstancee,  a  slight  biography  of  Mr  Necker 
pecnliaily  merits  a  place  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society. 
I  shall  rather  endeavour  to  convey  an  idea  of  what  our  learned  and 
amiable  assomato  really  was,  derived  from  my  acqnaintanOe  with 
him  personally,  and  through  his  writings,  than  to  enumerate  all  the 
details  of  his  life,  which,  as  ia  the  case  of  most  literary  men,  was 
far  from  eventful. 

Louis  Albert  Necker  was  bom  at  Geneva  on  the  lOth  April 
1786.  His  father,  Jacques  Necker,  was  Professor  of  Botany,  and 
also  a  councillor  of  state  and  syndic  of  Geneva.  This  Jacques 
Necker  was  nephew  of  the  financier  Necker  under  Louis  XVI.,  and 
oousin-german  of  Madame  De  Sta^l.  Louis  Necker  was  ther«fore 
one  generation  farther  removed  from  those  eminent  persons.  His 
mother,  Albertine  de  Saussure,  daughter  of  the  iUustriooe  Swiss 
naturalist,  was  a  person  of  unusual  talent,  and  of  the  most  amiable 
disposition.  His  attachment  to  her  throughout  her  life  was  of  the 
tenderest  and  most  constant  kind.  She  died  in  1641.  She  is 
known  to  the  publio  by  her  excellent  work  called  "  EdwtUion  Fro- 
grative,"  and  also  by  a  biographical  notice  of  Madame  de  Stafil. 
Neokei  finished  his  sohool  studies  at  Geneva  in  1800,  and  entered 
the  Aeadimie,  where  he  followed  the  various  courses  of  the  higher 
studies  for  four  years.  In  July  1803,  in  company  with  his  father, 
he  made  his  fitst  jonmey  into  the  Alps,  commencing  with  Cha- 
mouni,  and  extending  it  to  Zermatt.  I  recollect  to  have  seen  in 
the  visitore'  book  at  Chamonni  Louis  Keeker's  own  record  of  this 
visit,  entered  in  a  boyish  hand. 

Id  1806  Louis  Necke«  proceeded  to  Edinburgh  (being  then 
twenty  years  of  age),  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  his  studies  at 
the  University,  and  of  improving  his  mind  by  foreign  travel-  This 
was  apractice  by  no  means  uncommon  amongst  the  educated  Gene- 
veae  of  that  date,  and  one  which ,  I  am  glad  to  say,  continues  at  the 
present  time.  Those  who  pursued  medicine  and  the  physical  sci- 
ences have  especially  resorted  to  Edinburgh.  The  result  has  been 
a  very  friendly  mutual  feeling  between  the  Genevese  and  the  Scotch, 


of  Edinimrgk,  Session  1863-63.  56 

which  hu  been  oonituitly  experienced  not  less  b;  those  of  the  one 
country  thui  of  the  otbei.  Hatn&l  hoBpitalities  and  muiy  valued 
friendshipB  have  been  thence  derived. 

Of  saeh  lesalts  Neoker'a  was  a  signal  instance.  After  the 
age  of  twenty,  Scotland  beoame  to  him  a  second  fatheriand.  As 
became  the  grandson  of  De  Saoesnte,  be  was  already  unvenant 
with  mineralogy  and  geol<^;  uid  he  conid  not  in  all  Baiope 
hare  found  a  school  better  fitted  to  ednce  bis  talents  than  Bdin- 
boigh  presented  at  that  period.  Id  the  TJnivanity,  indeed,  under 
the  zealous  Jameson,  the  doctrines  of  Wemsr  raigited  supreme. 
Tet  it  was  well  for  a  young  geologist  of  that  day  to  beoome 
aoqnainted  with  his  teachings ;  and  in  so  far  as  they  were  over- 
strained  or  erroneouB,  there  was  an  ample  coirective  iu  the  dis- 
tingaished  school  of  Hnttouians,  who  than  discussed  and  eluci- 
dated the  theory  of  their  master,  partly  in  the  UsiTeraity,  but 
principally  in  tbe  hall  of  the  Boyal  Society,  and  by  their  writ- 
ings. Necker  was  personally  aoquaiated  with  Flayfair,  Sir  James 
Hall,  Lord  Webb  Seymour,  Hope,  Allan,  and  others,  who  met 
nearly  every  week  at  the  period  of  Neoker's  stay  in  Edinbuigh,  to 
disoass  in  this  Society  the  theories  of  geoli^y,  and  to  listen  and 
reply  to  the  less  nnmerona,  ^t  nndannted  supporters  of  Wemeri- 
anism,  headed  by  the  persevering  Jameson.  Already,  during  the 
winter  of  1806-7,  Nacker  had  visited  tbe  interesting  coast  of  Fife, 
and  the  principal  islands  of  tbe  Forth ;  and  nnder  the  guidance  of 
Sir  James  Hall  himself  had  inspected  the  numerous  and  interest- 
ing geological  sections  which  abound  on  its  southern  sbore  as  £>r 
as  8t  Abb's  Head.  At  other  times  he  travelled  in  company  with 
Patrick  Neil]  and  others  of  ibe  Jameeonian  school,  and  had  an  op- 
portunity of  judging  impartially  the  opinions  of  either  party.  Of 
course  the  disoussionB  of  the  winter  were  to  be  farther  pursued  in 
the  field  during  summer ;  and  l^ecker,  nothing  toth  to  judge  for 
himself  conoeming  the  facta  of  which  be  bad  beoome  accustomed  to 
hear  such  conflicting  explanations,  undertook  excursions  not  only  in 
the  geologically  interesting  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  but  to  the 
weet  of  Scotland,  and  even  into  the  farthest  Highlands,  then  but 
little  visited.  The  origins  of  granite  and  trap  were  of  course  the 
mun  objects  of  bis  search,  so  far  as  geology  was  concerned ;  and,  no 
donbt  by  the  advice  principt^Iy  of  Flayfair,  who  used  to  call  Arran 
an  epitome  of  tbe  world,  one  of  bie  early  excursiona  (in  May  1807) 


56  Proceedings  of  the  Boyed  Society 

VM  to  visit  that  isUiid,  wbioh  he  appeara  to  hav«  stodied  vitb 
sornpalom  care,  having  spent  nine  days  in  the  noitheni  and  most 
interesting  part  of  the  island.  He  was  aooompanied  by  a  fellow- 
stndent  named  Shnte.  He  then  became  a  oonvert  to  ths  ignwas 
theory  of  granite,  and  seems  to  have  been  among  the  Snt  to  diivot 
attention  to  the  granite  veins  of  Tor-nid-neon,  afterwards  more 
careftiUy  explored  by  Mr  James  Jardine.* 

On  the  6th  Augast  1807,  N'eoker  again  left  Edinburgh  to  visit 
Staffs  and  the  Western  Highlands.  He  travelled  by  Inveiary  and 
Oban,  and  traversing  Mull,  enjoyed  at  the  small  island  of  Ulva  the 
hospitdi^  of  Mr  Maodonald  of  BtafTa,  with  whom  he  formed  a 
close  friendship,  and  of  whose  kindness  I  have  heard  him  speak 
warmly  even  in  his  later  years.  From  Ulva  he  made  two  exonr- 
Bions  to  Staffs,  to  the  geology  and  mineralogy  of  which  he  of  comae 
devoted  the  utmost  attention.  He  next  visited  the  Island  of  GoU, 
where  he  observed  tiaoes  of  the  action  of  the  Qnlf-stream  in  the 
transported  seeds  and  other  foodncts  of  West  Indian  origin.  He 
crossed  to  Tiiee,  with  its  omamental  mariile ;  on  leaving  which  he 
was  driven  back  to  Coll  by  stress  of  weather,  but  finally  reached 
Eigg,  ascended  the  Sonir,  celebrated  for  iU  pitohstone,  its  fossil 
wood,  and  for  the  cavern  which  was  the  scene  of  a  well-known 
historic  massacre.  Thence  he  touched  at  Bum  and  Gaona,  care- 
fnlly  visiting  what  was  most  interesting  in  each ;  crossed  to  Sooth 
Uiat,  and  finally  to  Skye,  leaohing  Talisker  on  the  23d  September. 
The  advanced  season  of  the  year  compelled  him  soon  to  think  of 
retnming  sonthwuds.  After  a  stay  of  a  few  days  only,  he  left 
Skye  with  vivid  feelings  of  regret  at  having  obtained  only  a  glance 
at  its  noble  scenery  and  interesting  minenlogy.  Little  did  he  then 
think  that  that  island  shonld  one  day  be  as  familiar  to  him  as  his 
native  Switzerland,  and  shonld,  after  mioB  than  half  a  century, 
afford  him  a  final  resting-place  I  He  returned  to  Edinbn^^  by  Inver- 
ness, Elgin,  and  Blair- Athole,  without,  however,  visiting  Glen  Tilt. 

These  particulars  have  been  chiefly  gathered  from  a  jonmal  of 
his  Tour  in  Scotland,  by  Mr  Necker,  evidently  nearly  tSi  written 
at  the  time,  but  (with  a  procrastination  which  became  habitual 
with  him)  not  published  until  1821  f  (fourteen  years  later),  when 

•  A  modol  of  tbese  bj  Jardioe  U  stated  by  Necier  to  h^ve  bean  presented 

to  the  Boyol  Society  of  Edinburgh.   I  tmst  it  atill  niaj  be  foand  in  tbeii  moBeum. 

t  Vogaga  m  Etoin  it  mix  Iiltt  ffebriJa,  par  /-.  A.  f/tdttr  i*  Sautiurf. 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaum  1 862-63.  57 

the  intAreet  of  tbe  details  was  conndenblj  diminiBfaed.  Perhaps 
[MTtly  from  this  oaase,  the  oiionlation  of  the  woik  wae,  I  believe, 
not  gieat,  and  in  this  oonntry  it  is  oertainl;  much  less  known  than 
h  deserves  to  be.  It  is  written,  for  the  most  part,  with  great 
aDimation,  and  conveya  a  lively  impresaion  of  the  literary  society  of 
Edinboi^h  at  that  day,  and  of  the  state  of  society  in  the  remoter 
Highlands  and  Islands,  as  weH  among  the  higher  as  the  lower 
classes.  It  includes  many  excellent  descriptioDfi  of  scenery,  and 
many  acctuate  details  of  the  mineralogy  and  geology  of  the  plaoes  . 
he  visited,  written  evidently  in  the  manner  of  De  Saassaze,  whoee 
writing  irera  naturally  the  object  of  his  life-long  admization. 
Though  admitted  to  the  intimate  society  of  many  amiable  and 
accomplished  families,  he  exercised  a  wise  discretion  in  giving  no 
personal  details,  and  he  ctmfined  bis  pnblio  references  to  eoieatific 
and  Uteraiy  men,  whose  attainments  and  opinions  were  open  to  the 
remark  of  every  one.  The  oantion  with  which  be  holds  the  balance 
between  Hnttonian  and  Wemerian  doctrines  is  almost  amusing. 
Bnt  though  the  decidedly  Wemerian  views  of  bis  illnstriona  grand* 
father  tended,  perhaps,  more  than  anything  else  to  seoure  his 
favourable  mention  of  Werner's  olaeeification  of  Bocks,  and  his 
adoption  of  his  nomenclature,  the  Huttonian  bias  of  his  mind  is 
everyvhere  visible ;  and  he  does  not  hesitate  to  declare,  that  what- 
ever may  be  the  worth  of  Hatton's  Theory  of  the  Etutb  in  ite  moct 
wide  and  speculative  sense,  yet  that  the  facts  of  geology  have  been 
more  coireetly  and  impartially  stated  by  his  followers  than  by  their 
opponente.* 

Theee  volnmee  also  show  a  general  acquaintance  with  other 
branches  <J  science  besides  geology,  and  with  literature  and  art, 
highly  cfaaractenatic  of  the  mau.  Ornithology,  in  particular,  was 
then  and  afterwards  a  favourite  study.  They  contain  a  great  deal 
on  matters  connected  with  the  social  condition  of  the  country,  and 
ita  progress  in  civilisation,  and  on  various  questions  of  the  day, 

S  Tola.  8to.  Oeneva.  1821.  1  nay  liere  note,  tliat  it  ig,  or  wu  the  ciutom  at 
Geneva,  for  Dnmanied  men  to  aumme  tboir  mother's  euroame  after  theft 
own:  after  marriage,  their  wife'a.  Hence,  H.NeckerlsBometJmea  ipoksD  of 
as  if  his  family  name  were  De  Sanasnie. 

•  Mr  Camming  Brace,  U.P.,  recoUecta  that  at  tbis  period,  Necket  "  luwd  la 
eipTeM  hiB  regret  that  the  partj  epirit  then  at  its  height  between  the  Wer- 
neifans  and  Hnttonlani  did  oot  allow  either  to  gire  dae  weight  to  facta 
whjoh  might  have  made  them  more  tolerant  of  each  other." 


,,.,  Google 


5S  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

which  now,  of  conrae,  have  lost  mncli  of  their  intereet,  bat  which 
mark  a  veiy  intelligent  a&d  Boqaisitive  mind.  In  particotar,  it  is 
amnBing  to  notice  how  hia  Caledonicui  enthnsiaant  ever;  now  and 
then  breaks  forth  in  defence  of  Scotsmen  and  their  conntiy  in 
opposition  to  what  he  considered  to  be  unjust  Englisli  prejadices. 
He  repudiates  the  idea  that  Scotland's  prosperity  was  in  any  mate- 
rial degree  due  to  the  Union  with  England ;  be  despises  the  Bneers 
of  Dr  JohuBOD ;  and  he  believes  all  that  reasonably  could  be  be- 
.lieved  of  the  genaineness  of  Ossiaa's  Poems,  a  portion  of  which, 
moreover,  he  heard  recit«d  by  a  native  of  Tiree. 

It  is  easy  to  believe  that  a  young  Swiss,  highly  intelligent,  and 
animated  hy  sentimentB  bo  agreeable  to  Scotchmen,  was  warmly 
welcomed  into  the  best  circles  of  Edinburgh.  Among  the  snt- 
rivoiB  of  those  who  were  tben  intimate  with  him,  I  have  received 
a  few  slight  reminiscences  from  two, — Hi  Charles  L.  Gumming 
Bruce,  M.P.,  and  Mr  James  Mackenzie.*  In  the  families  of  these 
two  gentlemen  he  was  ever  welcome ;  and  his  gaiety,  intelligence, 
gentleness,  and  love  of  female  society,  made  him  a  great  favourite. 
Indeed,  the  domestic  pleasures  of  that  early  visit  made  an  impres- 
sion on  his  mind  which  was  never  eclipsed, — which  yet  possibly 
tended  to  throw  a  shade  of  gloom  over  his  more  advanced  years, 
when,  still  solitary  in  the  world,  the  magnetic  influence  of  early 
scenes  and  friendships  drew  him  once  and  again  back  to  his  much- 
loved  Scotland.  It  was  at  the  hotiBe  of  "  the  Man  of  Feeling" 
especially,  that  "  he  met,  and  was  most  intimate  with,  all  that  was 
best  and  most  distinguished  in  the  then  ohaiming  society  of  Edin- 
burgh, which  consisted,  among  others,  of  Dngald  Stewart,  Flayfair, 
Walter  Scott,  Jeffrey,  Dr  Hope,  and  Lord  Webb  Seymonr,  with 
all  of  whom  his  happy  temper  and  naive  cheeifnlness  made  him  a 
great  favourite.  When  they  took  their  departure,  he  used  to  remain 
discussing  tbeir  various  characters  with  the  accomplished  ladies  of 
the  family."t  ^^  James  Mackenzie  kindly  informs  me  that 
Necket's  chief  college  companion  was  an  intelligent  English  medi- 
cal student  named  Smith,  with  whom  he  lodged  at  first  in  St  James's 
Square.  Previously  (no  donht  in  the  winter  1806-7)  he  lived  in 
the  College,  in  the  house  of  Wilson  the  janitor, 
The  travels  described  in  the  three  volumes  I  have  mentioned 
*  Writer  to  ibe  Signet ;  a  Km  of  the  aathi»  of  the  Mm  qf  tieliiig, 
t  From  a  Iett«r  of  Ki  Cnmming  Bniee,  whom,  later,  he  visited  at  Oxford. 


...GooqIc 


o/Edinbargh,  Beanon  1862-63.  59 

Beem  all  to  bave  been  performed  either  in  the  winter  of  1806-7,  or 
in  the  following  Bommer  and  atttama.  Theie  ia  no  doubt  that  he 
passed  the  sacoeeding  winter  in  Edinbnrgh,  bat  then,  for  a  time,  we 
lose  trace  of  him.  It  appears  from  a  passage  in  hie  book  (vol.  ii. 
p.  67),  that  he  visited  DevonshirB  and  ComwiJl  in  1809  with  geo- 
li^cal  objects.  I  cannot  be  sure  whether  or  not  be  had  previously 
tetnraed  to  Oeneva,  I  undeiBtand  that  his  home  journey  took 
place  through  Holland,  and  was  not  free  from  embarraasment,  owing 
to  the  war.  In  1808  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Bod^  tie 
Phgtique  tit  d'Bialoire  Nalvrdle  de  Oenitte,  which  seems  rather  to 
indicate  that  he  returned  home  in  that  year.  In  1810  he  was 
appointed,  under  the  French  rigime,  joint  Profeeeor  of  ICineralogy 
and  Oeology  at  Geneva ;  and  became  Honorary  Profeasbr  (under 
the  Swiss  Oovemme&t)  in  1817.  In  both  these  capacities  he  de- 
livered varicns  courses  of  lectures,  as  well  on  geoh^  as  mineralogy ; 
and  his  geolo^cal  excurEioua  with  his  students  are  still  advsn- 
tageously  reci^ected. 

In  1813  he  visited  Anvefgne,  the  Vivarais,  and  the  Sonth  of 
France,  for  geological  purposes,  and  at  the  same  time  the  Pyrenees, 
and  probably  the  ccaste  of  Genoa.*  Ur  Cnmming  Bruce's  notes  give 
us  a  glimpse  of  Necker  about  this  period  under  a  different  aspect. 
"  My  next  wJien*  recollection  of  him,"  writes  Mr  C.  Bmoe,  "pre- 
sentB  him  to  me  as  '  Minister  of  Police'  on  my  arrival  at  Geneva 
in  the  early  summer  of  1614,  when  I  arrived  there  from  Italy. 
The  repnblio  had  jnst  effected  its  reeteration,  and  repudiated  ila 
B&nezation  to  France.  I  was  stopped  at  the  gates  to  exhibit  my 
passport,  when,  to  my  infinite  delight,  my  friend  [Necker]  presented 
himself  in  iiniform,t  and  you  may  imagine  that  my  baggage  was 
passed  with  scant  investigation.  He  consigned  it  to  two  attendants, 
with  orders  to  carry  it  to  Cologny,  to  which  (his  father's  charming 
villa)  he  insisted  on  my  accompanying  him ;  and  there,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  kindest  hospitality,  rendered  more  and  more  agree- 
able by  the  ohann  of  his  charming  mother's  society,  I  remained 

•  FcyiVa  m  SeM»t,  tome  i.  pp.  4fi  sad  216.  Bee  ilw  Sltidt*  Mr  Im  A^, 
p.  MS. 

t  Ha  «■>  in  1816  u^tuB  of  a  eompaa;  in  tlie  CbnAiv*''  OawMW,  nndar 
a«n«tal  BacluDBD.  I  may  hue  add  that  ho  wu  twice  a  dopstj  in  the  Onmd 
OaMd  or  his  Canton,  and  in  1818  was  a  tvpnttatattn  of  Omen  at  the 
SwisDlet. 


DvGooglc 


60  •  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

duriog  ail  weeks  or  two  months  of  m;  stay  od  the  shtM^s  of  the 
beautifnl  laks.  In  those  days  we  used  to  call  him  FoOchi,  in  viitae 
of  his  office  as  Minister  of  Police.  X  owed  to  him  at  that  time  my 
introduction  to  the  society  of  Goppet,  and  the  kind  and  snstained 
friendship  of  Madame  de  Stael.  There,  with  Schlegel,  Sismondi, 
Dnpont,  Sit  H  and  Lady  Davy,  Lady  Charlotte  CampbeU  and 
her  daiigfatcT,  Lonis  and  I  formed  two  of  the  immofu  fiervmm  in 
acting  little  plays  arranged  by  otir  hostess  from  tiie  lesser  poems  <^ 
Byron."* 

I  &nd  that  in  1820  he  made  an  ezcuraion  to  Italy.  Indeed,  he 
not  improbably  had  passed  the  proTions  winter  there,  though  I  do 
not  know  the  occasion.  At  all  events  he  visited  Meant  YesaTiiu 
in  April ;  and  he  then  made  interesting  obserrationB  on  the  dykes 
or  injected  lavas  of  Monte  Somma,  his  aooount  of  which  f  stil] 
remains  olassioal,  and  connects  iteelf  with  his  stndies  of  Hattonian 
geology  in  Scotland. 

Id  1821  he  at  last  brought  out  his  work  on  Scotland,  and  havii^ 
thus  relieved  himself  of  a  task  of  which  he  had  no  donht  limg  felt 
the  weight,  he  set  himself  aeriously  to  what  be  no  doubt  considered 
the  main  bnaiDOBS  of  hb  life — the  study  of  the  geology  of  the  Alps, 
in  continuation  and  verification  of  the  labours  of  his  grandfather, 
De  SauBsure,  whose  academic  chair  he  had  for  some  years  occupied.} 
He  had  previously  travelled  in  Switzerland  from  time  to  time  with 
geological  objects  in  view,  but  from  and  after  1821  (as  he  himself 
tells  ns)  he  made  regularly  two  annual  excnrsions,  one  in  the  early{ 
part  of  summer  in  the  lower  and  outlying  parts  of  the  chain,  and 
another  towards  autumn  in  the  higher  Alps.  He  justly  remarks 
that  the  importance  of  the  study  of  the  inferior  and  eztenial  parts 
of  the  range  was  at  that  time  not  fully  appreciated,  and  still  lees, 
periiaps,  the  excBsaive  fatigue,  heat,  and  even  peril,  attending  the 
investigatioD,  step  by  step,  of  these  rugged  calcareous  monntains, 
which  fully  equal  in  height,  even  when  allowance  is  made  for  their 
elevated  bases,  the  highest  mountains  of  Britain.  In  all  these 
cases  he  examined  on  foot,  and  step  by  step,  the  range  of  country 

*  Vtom  a  letter  of  Mr  Oamming  Bmoe. 

t  Hem.  de  U  8oc.  de  Phye,  de  GenSre,  tome  ii. 

X  One  of  hU  pnblio  acadeiolcal  oddmaet,  delivered  Id  1821,  hu  been  pre- 
Bwved  {BOKalMqiu  UnitndU,  1824). 

;  Autlra  Ota.  tur  let  A^.     I'tBtaM. 


:6ovGoog\c 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaaum  1862-63.  61 

vithin  which  his  apeoikl  jonniey  was  confined,  making  elaborate 
notes  and  drawings  on  the  spot,  which  he  inked  in  at  leisore,  thne 
aocnmolating  a  mass  of  authentic  and  valuahle  details,  of  whioh 
nnfortnnately  hat  a  very  Bmall  part  ever  saw  the  light.*  The 
enTiiDDB  of  Qenera  and  the  important  and  intricate  conntij  between 
its  lalce  and  the  bases  of  Mont  Blanc,  formed  the  most  freqnent 
scene  of  his  geological  labours.  In  1826  he  mode  a  special  Btnd; 
of  the  Y&Iley  of  Yalorsine  (near  Chamonni),  with  its  inteieettng 
granite  veins  and  padding- stonea.  It  may  be  conceived  with  what 
inteiest  he  compared  the  former  traces  of  the  vast  upheaving  forces 
which  raised  the  Alps,  with  those  which  he  had  sedalonsly  ex- 
amined nearly  twenty  years  before  in  the  Isle  of  Arran. 

But  his  researches  were  far  from  confined  to  hia  own  district  of 
Switzerland  and  Savoy.  He  had  previously  visited  the  Eastern 
Alps,  including  the  environs  of  Trieste,  and  a  great  extent  of 
country  then  almost  unknown  to  geologists,  extending  southwards 
nearly  to  Dalmatia,  and  northwards  to  Vienna.  FamUy  affairs 
in  part,  I  believe,  directed  his  course  to  Trieste,  and  the  visit  was 
repeated  for  some  consecutive  years.  To  connect  his  studies  in 
the  East  with  those  in  the  Western  Alps,  he  undertook  in  1828  a 
special  journey,  which  lasted  From  Uay  to  September,  of  part  of 
which  he  published  a  brief  account  {Ehtdti  Qtologi^aa,  Fraface, 
and  Bibl.  Univ.,  Oct.  1829).  This  last  is  a  paper  on  the  inter- 
esting hypersthenic  syenite  of  the  Valteline.  He  started  by  the 
Tarentaise,  Little  St  Bernard,  and  Val  d'Aoste,  by  Val  Sesia,  along 
the  whole  series  of  the  Italian  lakes  to  the  Ticentin,  and  thence 
to  Bellnno  a  Piave  di  Gadore,  from  whence  he  reached  Trieste  by 
the  Valley  of  the  Tagliamento.  He  thence  traversed  Camiola  and 
Carinthia,  entering  the  Tyrol  near  Fassa,  and  pursuing  his  route 
by  the  Stelvio  and  Valteline,  until  he  regained  his  former  track  at 
Como.  In  1829,  or  subsequently,  he  returned  once  again  with 
admirable  perseverance  to  the  Alps  of  Oamiola,  and  those  of  Istria 

*  As  aa  example,  I  msf  mention  that  ooon  aflei  M.  Favre'i  inteiertiBg 
paper  had  «ppewed  in  1S4B,  ou  the  Oeologj  of  OhamonDl,  In  which  he 
uuioniicee  the  intareBting  fact  that  the  aninmit  ol  the  Aignllle  Bonge  Is 
oomposed  of  lias  in  hotiiDiital  atratB,  heing  at  PartrM,  I  mentioned  the  faot 
to  H.  Necker,  who  theienpon  speedily  taroed  np  in  hie  old  Alpne  note*  a 
tsetion  of  the  Aiguille  Boage  dearly  expressing  the  aame  fact 
TOt.  T.  1 


DvGooglc 


62  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

aud  Illyria;  yet  uadertook  also  reaearchee  ioto  the  eoigmatical 
foaailiferouB  deposits  of  the  TarentAise,  to  which,  abont  that  time, 
a.  £lie  de  Beaumont  Uad  called  fresh  attention. 

i  cannot  but  pause  to  remark,  that  had  M.  Necker  resolntel;  eet 
himself  to  publish  at  thai  time  his  most  elaborate  and  peTBevering 
reaearcheB  on  conntriee  even  yet  so  little  known  to  geologists  aa  the 
Southern  aud  Eastern  Alps,  he  would  have  obtained  a  distingiiiahed 
rank  amongst  the  foremost  field-gec4ogiate  of  his  day.  There  is  do 
doubt  but  that  almost  to  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  looking  forward 
to  still  effecting  the  publication  of  what  he  knew  had  been  too  long 
delayed,  yet  of  which  he  could  not  but  be  aware  of  the  volae. 

We  have  now  reached  the  year  1829,  when  Neoker  woe  forty- 
three  years  of  age,  and  from  this  period  we  may  probably  trace  the 
oommencement  of  the  second  and  far  less  happy  stage  of  bis  life. 
As  one  of  bis  attached  countrymen  observes,  in  a  letter  to  me,  tbe 
two  phases  were  bo  unlike,  that  they  might  seem  to  have  belonged 
to  diffeient  individnalB ;  the  first  period  marked  by  the  greatest 
bodily  and  mental  activity,  exuberant  spirits,  and  relish  for  society ; 
the  second  by  comparative  indolence,  too  often  by  moody  reserve, 
and  a  painful  tendency  to  mieconstrue  the  kindest  intentions  of  bis 
wannest  friends.  One  of  the  latter  informs  me  that  when  he  saw 
him  OS  late  as  1824,  he  was,  to  use  a  homely  phrase,  "  blithe  as  a 
bee;"  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  was  about  1829  that  his  health 
began  to  foil, — partly,  one  may  believe,  in  consequence  of  the  effects 
upon  a  nervous,  though  wiry  constitution,  of  the  very  prolonged  and 
laborious  pedestrian  journeys  which  be  had  previously  made  through 
conntriee  often  inhospitable  and  sometimes  insalubrious.  One 
evidence  of  the  change  in  his  health,  was  his  seeking  variety  of 
Bome,  and  a  less  rigorous  winter  climate  than  that  of  Geneva,  1^ 
retoming  once  more  to  his  well-remembered  Scotland. 

Uy  acquaintance  with  U.  Necker  commenced  at  Edinburgh  in 
November  or  December  1S31.  The  exact  date  is  recalled  to  me  by 
having  first  heard  from  him  (then  just  arrived  from  London)  of 
the  brilliant  discoveries  which  Mr  Faraday  had  commnnioated 
to  the  Boyal  Society,  on  the  derivation  of  electric  currenta  from 
permanent  magnets.  I  can  even  now  recall  the  spot  on  which  M. 
Necker  first  made  me  acquainted  with  this  grand  result.  The 
privilege  of  making  his  aoquaintasce  was  to  me  at  the  time  a  great 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaum  1862-63.  63 

one.  His  favoimte  sciences  wete  tboee  vhich  tbeD  occupied  most  of 
my  own  attentioD, — geolt^^,  meteorology,  tuid  general  and  teiresfarial 
physics.  He  was  perfectly  at  bone  in  the  Alps,  which  I  had  Steady 
visited,  and  to  vhioh  I  was  about  to  rehim.  He  was  as  oommnni- 
oative  as  I  was  deeirons  to  learn ;  aod  having,  at  that  pcutionlar 
period,  my  time  very  mnch  at  my  own  Hspotai,  as  he  also  had,  we 
fonnd  inftny  congenial  subjects  of  disooune  of  which  we  never  tired, 
^Mi  inntuierable  objects  for  geological  rambles  in  the  neighbour- 
faood  of  fidinboTgfa,  with  which,  of  coorBe.  I  was  familiar,  and  which 
were  intimately  asHocaated  in  his  mind  with  the  precious  lessons 
which  he  had  drawn  from  the  lips  (tf  Playfair  and  of  Hall.  In 
addition  to  this,  many  of  his  early  friends  were  also  my  own.  It 
may  therefore  be  believed  that,  with  his  natnrally  amiable  axid 
oommimicative  disposition,  we  were  not  long  in  becoming  fast 
td&adB.  I  may  say  oonfidentiy  that  with  few  persons  have  I 
spent  more  delightful  hours  at  any  period  of  my  life,  or  been  re- 
warded by  a  larger  amount  of  inBtmotion,  conveyed  with  asimplicity 
and  grace  which  were  peculiuiy  his  own.  U,  Nec^er's  appearance 
at  this  time  was  remarkably  prepossessing.  He  was  rather  short 
than  otherwise ;  well  {soportioned  and  active ;  hie  complexion  was 
dork  but  mddy ;  his  eyes,  of  a  fine  blue,  beamed  with  intelligonce ; 
hia  iiofle  was  aquiline,  and  the  upper  and  lower  parte  of  the  face 
sli^tly  retreating;  the  month  firm  but  sweet;  his  gait  rapid, 
nervons,  and  earnest.  He  qioke  English  with  tiie  utmost  fluency, 
but  with  a  foreign  accent  far  from  disagreeable.  He  had  a  keen 
sense  of  humour  (as  may  be  gathered  from  Mr  Gumming  Bniee'e 
early  reooUections),  which  never  forsook  him,  and  be  posaeesed  a 
stock  of  natural  gaiety  which  flavoared  hie  conversalaoii  even  long 
after  he  was  subject  to  those  fits  of  melancholy  from  which,  in  later 
life,  he  snffeied  so  severely. 

He  left  Edinburgh  for  London  in  February  18S2,  where  I  also 
passed  some  time  in  his  society.  Later  in  the  same  year  we  met 
at 'Geneva,  where  I  expOTienced  his  hospitality,  and  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  introduced  to  his  excellent  mother.  The  same  antumn 
he  invited  me  to  join  him  in  a  tour  through  part  of  Switzerland, 
including  the  Oberland  and  Valais.  This  pleasant  tour  lasted  for 
a  fortnight,  and  showed  the  resources  of  ray  friend  in  many  new 
lights.     From  the  commencement  of  1832  until  his  death,  almost 


DvGooglc 


t>4  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

thirty  yeara  later,  we  maintained  a  correspondence  vhicb,  though 
often  recnmng  at  long  intervals,  was  not  discoii tinned.  By  the  aid 
of  these  lettois  I  can  trace  some  particnlaiB  of  his  migrations, 
which  might  otherwise  have  escaped  me. 

In  1833  and  1834  he  appeals  to  have  been  mnch  engaged  in  the 
preparation  of  a  treatise  on  Mineralogy,  which  had  for  longoccupied 
his  thoughts.  He  spent  the  winter  of  1834r-5  in  Paris,  carrying  it 
through  the  press.  This  was  M.  Necker's  most  considerable  and 
most  systematic  work.  It  shows  to  advantage  the  combinatioii  of 
scientific  knowledge  which  he  possessed, — which,  as  I  have  already 
intimated,  extended  over  a  wide  range  of  snbjecte,  inclnding  not 
only  the  Natural  History  Sciences,  bnt  Phyeios  and  Chemistry. 
Such  a  combination  is  eminently  required  by  the  philosophical 
mineralogist.  His  science  is  unfortunately  at  present  cultivated 
by  few,  and  jnrofoundly  studied  by  baidly  any.  Had  this  not  been 
so,  Necker's  fame  would  have  been  more  widely  spread  than  it  is. 
la  a  very  remarkable  paper,  first  published  in  Jameson's  Edin- 
burgh Philosophical  Journal  for  1832,  be  treated  of  "  Uineralogy 
as  a  Branch  of  Nataral  History."  He  showed  that  a  well  character- 
ized mineral  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  individtuU,  and  that  snob 
individuals  are  to  be  grouped  under  species,  genera,  orders,  and 
classes,  as  in  the  classification  of  the  organic  creation,  by  having 
a  philosophical  regard  to  the  tehole  of  the  characters  and  properties 
which  belong  to  the  individuals  of  each  species,  in  tJie  same  way 
as  was  done  by  Cuvier  for  animals,  and  by  DecandoUe  for  plants. 
His  aim  was  to  conciliate  as  far  as  may  be  the  hitherto  conflicting 
systems  of  classification, — ^that  by  Chemical  properties  alone,  and 
that  from  External  characters  alone.  His  doctrine  was  (in  brief) 
tbat  those  chemical  characters  are  most  to  be  regarded  which  visibly 
and  palpably  affect  the  external  features  of  the  mineral  indi- 
vidual j  that  the  indications  of  ultimate  chemical  analysis  are  not, 
correctly  speaking,  mineralogical  characteristics  at  all ;  and  that, 
where  chemical  and  external  indications  are  in  apparent  contradic- 
tion (which  is  rare),  the  latter  are  to  be  preferred. 

Necker  applied  his  principles,  which  he  had  derived  from  a  targe 
and  wide  study  of  Natural  History  in  its  most  general  sense,  with 
very  great  ingenuity  to  the  distinction  and  classification  of  minerals. 
His  system  is  detailed  at  great  length,  and  with  much  clearness 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  6& 

and  preciaiou,  in  hia  Segne  Mineral,  rameni  avceMithoda  d'JBt^oire 
NatureUe  (Foiia,  1835,  2  Tols.),  to  which  I  have  aliead;  refened. 
It  it  evidently  a  work  conducted  with  the  moBt  patient  and  consci- 
eutione  l&boni.  The  elaborate  tabular  viewe  illnBtrating  the  system 
of  clasaification  by  the  totality  of  tbe  properties  on  which  it  is 
founded,  have  probably  never  been  exceeded  in  cteaiDesa  of  detaiL 

I  do  not  feel  entitled  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  snccees  with 
which  Necker  applied  his  principles  to  the  reform  of  mineralogicat 
GlaasiGoatioa.  But  it  is  admitted  by  competent  judges  that  be  laid 
down  those  priucipleB  with  great  BuccesB,  and  in  a  highly  philosophic 
manner.  Di  Whevell  in  his  Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences, 
has  devoted  almost  a  whole  chapter*  to  an  analysis  of  Necker's 
work,  to  which  he  gives  high  commendation.  Frofeesoi  W.  H. 
Uilier,  of  Cambridge,  probably  our  highest  English  authority  on 
mineralogy,  has  expressed  to  me  his  approbation  both  of  Necker's 
paper  in  the  Philosophical  Journal,  and  of  his  larger  work.  "  They 
indicate,"  he  says,  "on  the  part  of  the  author,  a  most  philosophic 
mind.     His  criticismB  pn  preceding  clasBifications  are  very  just." 

I  think  that  the  labour — ^both  mental  and  mechanical — of  writing 
and  editing  this  elaborate  treatise,  so  full  of  minute  details,  and  of 
discussions  (at  least  in  the  introdnction)  of  almost  metaphysical 
subtlety,  was  perhaps  greater  than  the  author's  then  enfeebled  health 
could  well  support.  Necker  was  never  afterwards  quite  the  same 
man  as  before.  Tfi;  nervousneas  increased  painfully,  accompanied 
by  fits  of  absence,  and  excessive  love  of  Beclusiou.  He  considered, 
probably  with  justice,  that  the  rigorous  winters  of  Geneva  aggra- 
vated his  sufferings,  and  returning  to  Scotland,  he  passed  the  winter 
of  1836-7  in  Edinbtugh.  In  the  summer  of  1837  he  returned  to 
Switzerland,  and  made  probably  bis  last  journey  of  any  length  in 
the  Alps.  He  crossed  the  Col  of  Mont  Cervin,  studying  carefully 
the  geology  of  that  wonderful  oonntiy,  and  also  the  Bouthem  portioa 
of  the  mountains  separating  Grindelwald  from  the  Valais.  In 
1838  we  find  him  again  in  Edinburgh,  preparing  to  pass  the 
winter,  which  he  did  at  Portobello,  near  Edinbn^h,  and  close  to 
the  seaside,  where  he  hired  a  small  house,  and  lived  in  almost  com- 
plete seclusion.  I  visited  him  occasionally;  but  any  society  was 
oppressive  to  him.  His  windows  looked  right  out  upon  the  sea, 
*  Fhilot,  Ind.  8ci.,  book  riii.  ebap.  8.    Edit.  1S40,  toI.  i.  pp.  600-616. 


DvGooglc 


66  Proceedings  of  the  Hoycd  Society 

and  he  plea§ed  himself  by  thinking  that  nothing  but  the  ooean 
separated  him  in  a  right  line  from  Norway.  Leaving  Portobello 
in  May  1839,  he  spent  part  of  three  monttiB  in  his  old  favourite 
resort,  the  Isle  of  Arran.  Here  he  occupied  himself  with  moch 
diligeuoe  and  zeal  in  rarveying  accurately  the  granitic  and  trappean 
formatione  of  the  nland.  The  results  were  presented  to  the  Boya) 
Society  of  Edinbui-gh,  in  April  1840,  in  an  elaborate  paper,  which 
embraces  a  minute  tabular  description  of  no  less  tiian  149  individual 
trap  dykes  in  the  north-eastern  port  of  the  island  alone,  besides 
giving  indications  of  many  more.  It  was  an  ooonpatitm  well  suited 
to  M.  Necker's  state  of  health,  affording  constant,  yet  moderate 
occupation  of  mind,  «aA  attraction  out  of  doors,  with  the  advan- 
tages of  a  temperate  climate,  and  removal  from  any  intermption, 
or  anxiety.  The  wonderful  patience  and  conKientious  ability 
with  which  this  labour  was  executed  is  worthy  of  all  commenda- 
tion ;  and  the  really  astonishing  nature  of  the  phenomena  which 
it  chronicles  with  so  much  minuteness,  exempts  it  from  the  ans- 
picioD  of  being  a  useless  or  puerile  employment.  So  close  a  Burrey 
introduced  If.  Necker  to  many  singular  mineralogtcal  and  geological 
pecaliarities  previously  overlooked;  and  having  myself  since  gone 
over  much  of  the  ground  with  his  memoir  in  my  hand,  I  can  testify 
to  its  wonderful  fidelity.  It  is  impoesible  to  foresee  how  important 
this  catalogue  of  dykes  may  one  day  prove  to  the  future  dynamical 
geologist.* 

We  have  an  interesting  chrooicle  of  Necker's  life  at  this  time, 
in  a  series  of  letters  to  his  mother,  which  were  printed  soon  after 
in  the  BibHiOhique  Univeraelle  de  Oenive.f  They  commence  at 
Portobello  in  February  1839,  and  they  unfortunately  terminate  in 
September.  These  letters,  now  buried  in  a  large  periodical  work, 
are  charming  in  themselves,  and  give  a  delightful  picture  of  the 
writer's  capacity  for  intellectual  enjoyment.  He  always  presented 
to  his  mother  the  gayer  side  of  his  impressions.    The  little  traits  of 

*  In  this  paper  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed,,  vol.  x<t.),  Necker  refers  with  much 
inteieet  uid  latiBfBCtion  to  his  discovery  of  an  onttoeak  itf  granitfl  to  the  north 
of  the  head  of  Oleuoloj,  quite  detoobed  from  the  granitic  qhcIsde  of  OoatfeU. 
Jameaon  hadalread;  noted  ajenite  near  thia  localitj.  I  am  not  sure  whether 
Necker  re<!ollected  having  cited  Jameaon's  earlier  obseTvatJoo  in  hia  owo  Voy- 
age  at  Emit,  torn.  ii.  p.  81. 

t  Tom.  nv.,  ixvi.,  for  1689  and  1811). 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seseion  1862-63.  67 

luB  daily  life  are  told  with  charaottiiiBtio  naivete,  and  ore  inter- 
Bpereed  in  the  moet  natiinl  mannei  imagin^le  with  a  notioe  of 
what  he  saw  iotoTestiug  in  botaD;,  ornithology,  mineralogy,  or 
npos  other  scientific  topics,  which  he  evidently  felt  Hure  would  be 
neither  nnintelligiUe  nor  oniDtereeting  to  his  coneepoDdent.  In 
qnitting  Amu,  he  adds  the  sigDificfuit  remarV,  "  Je  legrette  Amn, 
oft  je  me  enis  fait  no  bien  prodigietix."  The  later  part  of  the 
season  he  spent  io  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands,  interesting  to 
him,  as  well  from  the  pictnie  of  primitiTe  manners  which  they 
present,  as  from  their  remarkable  geology.  This  part  of  his  toor  is 
detailed  in  his  lettera  to  Hadame  Neoker ;  and  there  is  a  letter  to 
H.  Horicand  of  Oeneva  on  the  geology  of  the  Island  of  Unst,  in 
a  Buhseqaent  number  of  the  BibUothique  UniveneUe.  From  the 
Shetlands  he  proceeded  to  Skye,  where  he  passed  the  winter  of 
183d-40.  Here  he  found  so  mnoh  to  interest  him  geologically, 
and  also  foand  the  damp  but  mild  climate  to  snit  him  so  well,  that 
he  was  gradnally  led  to  adopt  Portree  as  his  permanent  abode. 

Daring  his  residence  in  Skye,  in  the  winter  of  1839-40,  he  was, 
I  believe,  actively  engaged  in  preparing  for  the  press  the  first 
volume  of  his  Etudet  Ott^ogigvet  dam  U»  Alpes,  of  which  no  other 
ever  appeared.*  He  spent  the  sommer  of  1840  at  G^eneva,  where 
the  work  was  no  doubt  ohiefly  written.  In  the  antonm  he  quitted 
G«neTa,  with  the  deliberate  purpose  of  making  Portree  his  fntnre 
residence.  He  passed  the  winter  in  Paris,  seeing  hia  work  through 
the  press.  I  find,  from  a  letter  to  myself,  dated  at  Edinburgh  in 
A|^  1841,  that  Necker  was  then  returning  to  Skye,  having  com- 
pleted the  printing  of  his  book,  which  bears  date  of  1841. 

The  Elude*  Oeologtquet  form  the  third  of  Neoker's  separately 
pnbliahed  writings.  They  were  probably  expected  by  the  anther 
to  be,  when  completed,  his  best  memorial,  and  the  ohief  contribu- 
tion to  scienoe  of  a  lifetime  devoted  to  its  pursuit.  But  the  woric 
as  it  stuids  goes  but  a  little  way  to  realise  those  reasonable  hopes. 
It  is  but  a  fragment,  and  a  fragment  of  which  the  merits  and 
defect  are  equally  characteristic.  We  find  evidence  of  patient, 
clear-sighted  investigation  into  natural  operations  which  would 
have  escaped  a  less  diligent  observer,  and  whose  significance  a  less 

*  Tha  inuk  itself  Inolndes  niuiieTtnu  refwenoes  to  his  obsemtloiia  fn 
SooQuid  made  in  1689. 


DvGooglc 


68  Proceedings  o/tke  Royal  Society 

mtelligent  reaaoDei  might  have  disregarded.  It  is  profeeeedly 
oonfined,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  superficial  foimatioDB,  and  to 
the  basin  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  But  the  author's  tnm  for  dis- 
cursive  illustration  of  his  snbjeot  evei  tempts  him  to  introduce 
coriooB,  and  sometimeB  important  facts,  recorded  by  him  in  other 
conntriee,  and  in  the  older  rock  formations.  The  work,  in  fact, 
oscillates  between  a  memoir  on  local  geology  and  a  systematic 
treatise ;  and  it  does  not  exactly  fulfil  the  pnrpose  of  either.  The 
innumerable  references  which  it  contains  to  forthcoming  parts  of 
the  intended  work  give  us  good  room  to  regret  that  Necker  bad 
not  more  strictly  followed  the  course  pursued  by  hie  grandfather, 
De  SausBure,  by  publishing  his  geological  observationB  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  made,  and  interspersing  them  with  those  oon- 
tributions  to  the  other  parte  of  physical  geography,  and  those 
animated  descriptions  of  sceuery,  in  which  be,  as  woll  as  his 
illustrious  relative,  peculiarly  excelled. 

Even  in  its  present  fragmentary  form  there  is  much  to  intenst 
the  geologist  in  the  isolated  volume  of  studies  wfaioh  M.  Necker  has 
left.  The  followers  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell  will  find  in  it  a  fund  of 
admirable  observations  on  the  effect  of  causes  still  in  action ;  and 
although  the  doctriuesof  glacial  operation  have  made  great  pro- 
gress since  1841 ;  and  although  Necker  was  systematically  disin- 
clined to  side  with  those  who  attributed  to  the  formerly  vast 
extension  of  glaciers  conspicuous  effects  both  in  and  out  of  Swit- 
zerland, his  information  on  the  distribution  of  erratics  in  the  basin 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  is  very  interesting  and  suggestive,  and 
many  of  the  facts  and  difficulties  which  he  propounds  are  worthy 
of  great  consideration.* 

As  the  Etadea  mr  la  Alpei  was  the  last,  not  only  of  Neokei's 
larger  and  separate,  but  even  (I  believe)  of  his  more  occasional 
printed  contributions  to  science,  I  may  as  well  advert  here  to  one 
or  two  of  the  Utter — his  detached  memoirs — which  I  have  not 
already  bad  occasion  to  mention.  There  are  several  on  subjects  of 
pnre  mineralogy,  perhaps  of  no  great  intrinsic  importance.  There 
is  a  paper  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh, 

*  1  have  elsewhere  pointed  out  (Edin.  Revfew,  April,  1842]  tome  etnas 
into  which  H.  Necker  fell  In  treating  of  the  meehanista  of  glacier*,  a  mbject 
to  whioh  he  appears  to  have  gJTea  bnt  little  attention. 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinbargh,  Session  1862-63.  69 

Vol.  XII.,  on  tbe  True  and  Appareot  Dip  of  Strata;  and  there  is 
a  pleasing  and  somewhat  elaborate  paper  in  the  second  volume  of 
the  Genevese  Memoirs  on  the  native  birds  of  the  district.*  To 
these  I  shall  merely  make  this  general  reference.  But  I  wish  to 
mention  three  occasional  papera,  somewhat  original  in  their  nature, 
and  which  are  characteristic  of  the  pleasure  which  decker  took  in 
cultivating  Bubjects  connected  with  Physical  Geography  and  Natural 
Philosophy,  in  an  enlarged  acceptation,  just  such  as  M.  Saussure 
Would  have  relished. 

The  first  of  these  was  an  attempt  to  connect  in  a  general  way 
the  great  lines  of  geological  stratification  over  the  globe,  with  the 
lines  of  equal  magnetic  intensity,  as  traced  by  Hanstcen  and 
General  Sabine.  This  was  as  early  as  1830,t  and  it  b  only  fair 
to  state,  that  the  knowledge  either  of  the  one  or  of  the  other  class 
of  phenomena  was  then,  at  all  events,  too  limited  to  justify  any 
conSdent  deductions  on  the  subject.  Tbe  comparison  of  these  lines 
of  direction  was  not,  however,  made  without  considerable  lesearcb, 
and  the  growing  interest  of  the  inquiry,  and  perhaps  tbe  increasing 
probability  of  its  having  some  physical  foundation,  induces  me  to 
recall  attention  to  Necker's  memoir.  The  recent  speculations  of 
Dr  Lloyd  tend  in  the  same  ditection,  and  I  think  also  the  observa- 
tions of  MM.  Schlagintweit.  In  Necker's  later  vrritings,  such  as 
the  preface  to  his  Etudes,  and  in  his  letters  to  Mad,  Necker,  we 
find  that  he  continued  to  give  weight  to  the  theory  of  the 
connection  of  magnetic  with  geological  phenomena. 

The  nest  of  these  papers  is  contained  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Sii 
David  Brewster,  printed  in  the  *'  Philosophical  Magazine"  for  1832. 
It  describes  a  very  beautiful  optical  phenomenon  observed  by  the 
author  in  the  Alps,  when  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  concealed 
by  a  line  of  forest  fringing  some  rising  ground  between  the  spec- 
tator and  the  sun.  The  outlines  of  tbe  trees,  and  even  their 
entire  stems,  are  then  seen  to  shine  with  a  white  light  of  dazzling 
brilliancy,  resembling  frosted  silver.     The  effect  is  not  peculiar  to 

•  TheniGmoii  on  birds  seoma  to  Lave  been  also  printed  »epMiitely.  Necker's 
feineman,  M.  H,  de  SmisBure,  a,  vury  competent  judge,  styles  it  "  cbanuauto 
pTodnction  deveDue  trie  rare,  trop  pen  conooe  &  I'Stranger,  ot  qui  mSrilorait 
uue  uouveUe  Edition."     Its  data  is  182S. 

r  Bibl.  Univcrselle,  torn,  iliii.  1830. 


VOL.  ' 


DvGooglc 


70  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Soci^y 

uiy  season  of  the  year,  or  to  any  hoar  of  the  day.  It  is  no  doubt 
due  to  the  difTraction  or  inflection  of  light  acting  under  rather 
nnusnal  oiroamBtancee,  and  is  the  most  notable  example  of  the 
kind  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  without  any  artificial  arrange- 
ment. I  veil  recollect  H.  Necker  showing  me  this  beaotifnl 
appearance  in  the  course  of  onr  torn  of  1832,  and  I  have  often 
observed  it  since.  The  remarkable  ciiciunstance  is,  so  far  as  I 
recollect,  the  absence  of  prismatic  oolouis,  which  might,  however, 
be  anticipated  from  the  infinite  variety  of  dimension  of  the  objects 
diffracting  the  light. 

The  third  of  these  occasional  memotis  by  M.  Necker,  having  for 
its  subject  certain  "  diverging  rays  which  are  seen  long  after  snn- 
set,"  appeared  in  the  Annak*  de  Chimie  et  de  Phytique  for  Febiu- 
aiy  and  March  1839.  It  was  communicated,  I  believe,  by  Arago's 
request.  This  paper  excited  little  notice  at  the  time,  and  is  now 
perhaps  nearly  forgotten.  Tet,  though  somewhat  diffuse  in  com- 
.  position)  it  contains  observatione  and  speculations  worth;  of  record. 
It  contains  ample  and  specific  descriptions  of  the  second  coloration 
of  Alont  Blanc,  and  the  exact  intervals  after  sunset  at  Geneva  dC 
the  vuious  appearances  of  illumination  presented  by  the  Alps, 
which  have  been  more  vaguely  described  by  several  writers.  But 
the  more  interesting  and  original  port  of  the  paper  refers  to  the 
production  of  divergent  beams  streaking  the  oalm  western  sky,  at 
a  period  about  45  minutes  after  the  sun's  disappearance.  These, 
no  doubt,  are  most  usually  caused  by  detached  clouds  intercepting 
the  sunlight,  and  throwing  their  dusky  shadows  athwart  the  vapor- 
ous sky.  When  such  is  the  cause,  M.  Necker  remarked  that  bad 
weather  usually  followed  within  a  short  period.*  But  he  also 
observed  that  some  of  these  crepuscular  phenomena  had  a  more  fixed 
ofaaracter,  and  did  not  indicate  a  change  of  weather ;  moreover,  that 
they  recurred  (he  thought)  as  often  as  the  sun  set  in  the  same 
position, — that  is,  every  spring  and  autumn,  especially  on  certain 
days  of  February  and  October,  at  Geneva. 

Hence  he  began  to  entertain  the  idea  that  the  dark  rays  were 
shadows  of  distant  mountains  lying  westward  from  the  spectator, 

*  Tliis  is  the  foundatian  of  tlie  populai  phra«e  applied  to  the  appearano* 
of  "  the  nm  drawing  watw."  See  Henohel'i  Aitronom;  (Lardnei's  Enojo.), 
p.  81. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  71 

on  the  horizon  of  which  the  bud  was  eitnated  when  the  rays 
appeared.  In  the  spedal  case  mentioned,  he  believed  the  Monta 
Ddme,  near  Clermont,  in  Fiance,  to  originate  those  njs,  and  he 
obtained  informatioD  from  Tariona  qoarteis  tending  to  confirm  hig 
idea.  From  having  vet;  often  convened  with  M.  Neokei  on  the 
subject  of  bis  "  Batons  orepaecnlaiies,"  I  know  that  for  a  nuntjbei 
of  years  he  gave  this  cnrions  inquiry  his  close  attention ;  and  ha 
believed,  I  think,  that  from  Edinbo^h  he  conld  see  the  gigantic 
shadows  of  the  hilla  of  Arrui  and  Jnra. 

M.  Necker  waa  an  honorary  member  of  the  Wemeiiau  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  and  of  the  Q«ological  Society  of  London.  In  the  Pro- 
needing*  of  the  latter  (vol.  L  p.  392,  Feb.  1832)  is  a  short  abstract 
of  a  paper  by  him,  on  the  Geological  Position  of  Uetallifeious  De- 


Betoming  now  to  the  history  of  M.  Neoker's  later  yeata,  I  may 
abridge  my  record  of  them  within  a  brief  compau.  Ws  have  seen 
that  he  letnmed  from  Paris  (where  he  had  been  printing  his 
"Etudes  snr  les  Alpee,")  in  April  1841,  through  Edinburgh,  to 
Portree,  in  Skys.  He  was  there  met  by  the  grievous  tidings  of  the 
death  of  the  mother  to  whom  he  had  been  so  deeply  attached.  This 
event  occnrred  at  Momex,  near  Geneva,  on  the  13th  April,  pre- 
cisely two  days  before  be  quitted  Edinburgh,  It  must  have  been 
sudden  and  unexpected,  or  we  may  be  sure  that  Necker  would 
not  have  poved  northwards  had  be  perceived  her  health  to  bo 
failing.  It  is  easy  to  conceive,  though  we  have  no  record  of  its 
details,  the  shock  which  thus  fell  upon  the  amiable  recluse. 
Madame  Necker  was  not  only  the  dearest  tie  which  still  linked 
him  to  his  natural  home,  but  in  losing  her  he  lost  the  bene- 
ficial outlet  to  his  sympathies  which  he  had  ever  found  in 
the  sustained  and  intimate  correspondence  which  he  held  with 
her,  and  of  which  the  printed  specimens  give  us  so  pleasing 
an  impression.  From  this  time  be  never  again  revisited  bis 
native  country,  and  his  habits  became  more  and  more  recluse. 
For  some  years  after  bis  great  loss  he  refused  to  see  almost 
every  one  who,  with  the  kindest  intentions,  sought  to  interrupt  his 
solitude,  and  he  suspended  nearly  all  correspondence.  He  rambled 
occasionally  over  difTeront  parts  of  the  Island  of  Skye,  especially 


DvGooglc 


72  Proceediiiga  oj  (he  BoydL  Society 

amongst  the  Cuchullin  Hills,  and  in  the  environs  of  Portree  and 
the  Storr.  But  gradually  he  ceased  to  absent  himself  even  for  a 
night  from  home,  and  confined  his  excursioDs  within  the  distance 
which  his  pedestrian  powers  allowed.  Once  in  two  or  three  years, 
as  other  engagements  permitted,  I  visited  Skye  ahont  this  period, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  his  condition,  and  of  offering  such 
sympathy  as  he  was  willing  to  receive.  My  friendly  overtures  were 
rarely  if  ever  repulsed  ;  aud  though  it  was  painful  to  witness  the 
isolation  and  depression  of  a  person  so  cultivated  and  so  amiable, 
there  were,  always  intervals  in  which  his  old  spirits  and  old  inte- 
rests awoke  out  of  the  partial  torpor  induced  by  his  enfeebled 
health  and  monotonous  life.  Scarcely  a  day  passed  during  any 
one  of  my  visits  in  which  we  did  not  walk  together  to  some  of  the 
charming  localities  near  Portree,  and  discuss  with  renewed  inter^t 
the  scientific  problems  which  his  intelligence  and  quick  observa- 
tion were  ever  unfolding,  whether  from  the  noblest  natural  object, 
or  the  most  trivial  daily  occurrence,  in  his  neighbourhood.  It  was 
evidently  agreeable  to  him,  even  in  his  sadder  moments,  to  use  and 
listen  to  bis  native  language,  to  recall  the  scenery  of  his  glorious 
Alps,  the  achievements  and  writings  of  his  eminent  grandfather, 
the  memory  of  bis  accomplished  mother,  and  the  cherished  reminis- 
cences of  bis  early  life  in  Edinburgh.  Nothing  was  more  sur- 
prising than  to  find  bow  few  passing  events  of  either  public  or 
domestic  interest  escaped  him  in  his  apparent  isolation,  from  which 
even  correspondence  was  at  times  almost  banished.  At  this  period, 
however,  he  read  the  newspapers  with  great  perseverance,  and  he 
seemed  never  to  forget  anything  that  he  once  read,  or  to  fail  in 
connecting  it  with  what  he  bad  previously  known.  I  nsed  to  be 
amazed  to  find  that  be  occaaioDally  knew  more  of  what  was  hap- 
pening in  Edinburgh  than  I  myself  did ;  and  be  tracked  with  an 
unfailing  instinct  the  changes  which  time  rapidly  produced  in  the 
wide  connections  of  his  early  Scottish  friends,  many  of  whom  very 
erroneously  believed  that  he  had  quite  forgotten  them.  His 
periodical  reading  at  this  time  embraced  the  c/oumol  dea  Debati, 
the  Caledonian  Hercury,  and  the  John  O'Oroai  Journal  (a  Caith- 
ness paper);  and  from  this  singular  library  he  managed  to  ex- 
tract a  wonderful  amount  of  current  information,  not  only  public 
nnd  domestic,  but  also  concerning  physical  events  and  changes. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  73 

and  literary  iotelligence.  Of  modern  books  he  read  very  few, 
but  probably  occupied  hie  leisure  in  reTiewing  the  records  of  his 
geological  tours,  and,  perhaps,  in  extending  them  for  the  purpose 
of  future  publication.  He  waa  a  very  aeaiduoiiH  observer  of  Meteor- 
ological changes,  of  which  he  kept  a  constant  record,  and  by  the 
aid  of  bis  barometer,  and  his  great  knowledge  of  atmospheric  effects, 
bis  cautions  became  of  the  most  practical  value  to  the  fishing  popu- 
lation of  Portree,  by  whom,  as  indeed  by  all  the  islanders,  he  was 
regarded  with  much  respect  and  interest,  to  which  the  pecittiarity 
of  his  manner  of  life,  and  his  extreme  shyness  towards  persons  in 
his  own  rank  of  life,  no  doubt  contributed.  The  prediction  of 
storms  was  with  him  for  many  years  a  matter  of  systematic  study, 
and  his  warnings  were  at  least  as  much  regarded  by  the  Skye 
sailors  as  any  which  Admiral  Fitzroy  could  now  furnish.  Indeed, 
one  use  which  he  made  of  his  newspaper  studies  waa  to  trace,  by 
means  of  the  Shaping  InteUigmce,  the  progress  of  gales  not  only 
over  Britain  but  to  the  moat  distant  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  and  be 
has  often  diacuased  with  me  the  reaulta  of  these  interesting,  and  far 
from  easy  inveatigations.  In  other  reapecte  also  he  took  a  aincere 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  poorer  neigbboura.  Hia  kindnesa  was 
unpretending,  and  the  extent  of  his  liberality  will  never  be  known. 
It  ia  little  to  say  that  it  waa  exercised  occasionally  in  ways  pecu- 
liarly of  his  own  devising,  and  that  he  was  sometimes  the  dupe  of 
designing  or  unworthy  petitioners.  But  in  a  country,  a  portion  of 
whose  population  may  be  said  to  be  ever  on  the  verge  of  destitution, 
the  presence  of  so  generous  a  friend  was  a  public  benefit. 

From  1851  the  state  of  my  own  health  made  renewed  journeys 
to  Skye  impossible,  and  through  a  most  unfortunate  accident  (which 
I  need  not  explain)  our  correspondence  waa  for  aome  years  inter- 
rupted. Before  this,  however,  the  intense  gloom  supervening  upon 
his  mother's  death  bad  become,  in  some  measure,  dissipated.  He 
no  longer  rejected  the  visits  of  hia  countrymen,  or  eschewed  corre- 
spondence as  he  had  once  done.  The  death  of  his  only  brother  in 
1849  affected  him  conaiderably,  but  led  him  to  welcome  the  younger 
relatives,  who  now  almost  every  summer  gladdened  his  solitary 
chamber.  It  is  cheering  to  know  that  the  later  years  of  so  godl  a 
man  were  blessed  with  a  revival  of  domestic  intereats,  from  which 
nn  invincible  melancholy,  foreign  nlike  to  hia  original  disposition 


DvGooglc 


74  Proceedings  of  the  Soyai  Society 

and  his  priuciples,  bad  for  a  time  debarred  him.  In  ttie  odI;  letter 
from  him  of  at  all  recent  date  which  I  poMess, — it  was  written  in  . 
18S9,  and  was  evidently  the  result  of  considerable  physical  exer- 
tion,— there  is  pleasing  eTidence  that  neither  advBDciDg  age,  noi 
expatriation,  aor  twenty  yeats  of  Bolitnde  and  of  struggle  with  con- 
stitutional depreasion,  had  quenched  his  sympathy  with  his  friends, 
01  his  interest  in  the  cause  of  science.  In  it  I  find  a  tonchtog 
enumeration  of  the  losses  which  he  had  suffered  in  the  rapidly 
narrowing  circle  of  his  (^enevess  contemporaries  and  relatiTes ; — 
I  find  also  expresaions  of  lively  sympathy  with  the  yoonger  gene- 
ration, and  theii  family  connections  j — ample  proofs  that  during 
years  of  silence  and  seeming  forgetfulnesa,  both  his  earlier  and  his 
later  friends  in  Edinburgh,  and  elsewheis  in  Scotland,  had  never 
long  been  absent  from  his  thoughts ; — and  inquiries,  made  with  an 
almost  tremuloufl  anxiety,  as  to  soma  of  those  of  whom  he  had  had 
no  recent  tidings.  Especially  did  bis  lecollection  tbeii  turn  towards 
the  families  of  Gumming  and  of  Mackenzie,  amongst  whom  there 
still  survived  a  few  of  those  friends  of  1806,  with  whom  he  had 
shared  the  intellectual  and  social  enjoyments  of  bis  first  and 
happiest  Scottish  sojourn.  I  venture  to  give  these  details,  because 
his  friends  were  not  all  aware  of  the  warmth  and  unalterable 
sincerity  of  bis  attachment,  to  which,  unless  an  opportunity  was 
directly  offered  through  a  letter  or  a  visit,  he  rarely  if  ever  sought 
to  give  expression. 

At  this  period,  1859,  he  was  sufiering  severely  from  attacks  of 
rheumatism,  which  confined  him  almest  entirely  to  the  house. 
Though  enjoying  tolerable  general  health,  he  became  mors  and 
more  of  an  invalid.  I  ought  here  to  record,  that  throughout  the 
whole  of  his  twenty  years'  residence  at  Portree,  he  was  lodged  in 
the  house  of  Mr  John  Cameron,  whose  attention  and  kindness  be 
very  highly  valued.  The  knowledge  of  this  ciionmBtauce  relieved 
materially  the  anxiety  of  M.  Necker's  friends.  Nothing  In  his 
last  illness  requires  special  notice.  He  sunk  gradually  through  in- 
creasing debility,  and  without  pain,  and  quietly  expired  at  7  p.m., 
on  tbe  20th  November  1861,  in  the  seventy- sixth  year  of  his  age. 


DvGooglc 


o/Ediniwrgh,  Sesaioa  1862-63.  75 

NoU  OR  the  Family  of  IS..  L.  A.  Sedcer. 

Since  the  preceding  biography  vas  dntwo  up,  I  have  reoeired 
from  M.  Theodore  Neckei,  nephew  and  nearest  sarriving  relative 
or  Frofeaeor  Necker,  aome  genealogical  particnlaia  which  are  of 
Bafficient  interest  to  be  here  briefly  recorded.  The  family  of 
Necket  is  stated  to  hare  been  originally  Irish,  and  to  have  taken 
tefnge  in  Protestant  Prussia  daring  the  religions  persecntlons  of 
Queen  Uaiy  of  England.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  Charles 
Frederic  Necker,  great-grandfather  of  the  snbject  of  out  biography, 
left  GnBtrin  in  Pomerania  for  Geneva,  being  charged  with  the  edu- 
cation of  a  young  German  prince.  He  waa  a  juriat  of  eminence, 
and  having  determined  to  settle  at  Genera,  a  chair  of  law  was  in- 
stituted for  him  in  1724.  He  died  in  1760.  Hia  eon  Louia 
Necker  was  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Geneva,  and  author  of 
several  works,  while  another  son  was  Jacques  Necker,  the  cele- 
brated financier.  These  biothers  both  died  in  1801.  The  former 
was  grandfather  of  Louis  Albert  Necker,  the  subject  of  our  bio- 
graphy, and  father  of  Jacques  Necker  who  in  1785  manied  the 
daughter  of  de  Saussure.  This  Jacques  Necker  retreated  with  his 
family  to  England  during  the  French  Bevolution,  and  after  his 
return  became  Professor  of  Botany  &t  Geneva.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  unflinching  opposition  to  the  French  sway.  On  the  Bestora- 
tion  of  the  Swiss  Government  he  was  named  one  of  the  first  magis- 
trates of  Geneva,  and  died  in  1825,  very  highly  respected  and 
regretted.  Besides  Louie  Albert  Necker,  his  eldest  son,  he  had 
another,  Theodore,  and  two  daughters. 

Hence  the  subject  of  this  notice  was  Professor  at  Geneva  in  the 
fourth  generation. 

M.  Theodore  Necker  (the  nephew  of  my  friend)  informs  me  that 
among  his  uncle's  papers  there  remains  nothing  like  a  completed 
work,  and  little  that  is  available  for  publication.  Through  the 
kindness  of  the  same  gentleman,  the  minerals  collected  by  U .  Louis 
Necker  during  his  residence  in  Scotland  have  been  presented  to 
the  University  of  St  Andrews. 

I  ought,  perhaps,  to  add  (on  the  authority  of  M.  de  Candolle) 
that  the  long  delay  which  occurred  in  the  publication  of  Necker'e 
Voyage  «n  Eaitte,  to  which  I  have  adverted  in  the  preceding  notice. 


DvGooglc 


76  Proceedings  of  the  So^cd  Society 

was  in  port  due  to  the  detention  of  bJB  papers  in  Scotland  uotil 
arter  the  peace  of  1815. 

I  have  been  indebted  for  Bome  valuable  information  respecting 
M.  Necker'B  earlier  history  to  the  kind  communications  of  Pro- 
feaeoF  Alfred  Q-autier,  a  distant  connection  and  attached  friend  of 
the  anbject  of  this  biography. 

2.  Oq  the  Structure  and  Optical  Phenomenon  of  Decom- 

pressed Q-lass.     By  Principal  Sir  David  Brewster. 

3.  Notes  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Genus  Firola.  By  John 
Denis  MacdoEald,IlN.,F.E.a,  Surgeon  of  H.M.S. "  Icarus." 
Communicated  by  Professor  Maclagau. 

These  notes  are  intended  to  form  an  appendix  to  the  author's 
pap«r  on  the  anatomy  and  cIsasificatioD  of  the  Heteropoda,  read 
before  the  Society  lost  session.  He  finds  the  relationship  between 
f  iWa  and  Firoloidet  even  closer  than  he  had  supposed,  and  that, 
with  the  exception  of  gills  in  the  former  genus,  nearly  every  ana- 
tomical point  occurring  in  one,  may  be  distinctly  traced  out  in 
the  other,  only  difiering  in  relative  character.  The  author  de- 
scribes in  detail  the  anatonly  of  Firola,  illustrating  his  description 
by  a  drawing.  He  concludes  this  notice  by  stating  his  now  con- 
firmed conviction  of  the  separation  of  the  sexes  in  the  Heteropoda, 
of  some  of  which  be  bad  obtained  specimens  which  were  indubit- 
ably females ;  and  be  states,  in  reference  to  the  male  sexual  organs — 
08  the  result  of  the  examination  of  some  hundreds  of  Heteropoda — 
that  the  vas  deferens  is  never  traced  onwards  to  the  external  male 
organ,  bat  that  the  penis  is  imperforate  as  in  many  of  the  Gastero- 
poda, is  far  in  advance  of  the  spermatic  opening,  and  that  these 
stmctures  are  held  in  communication  by  a  ciliated  groove,  capable, 
more  or  lees,  of  being  converted  into  a  canal. 

4  On  the  Zoological  Characters  of  the  living  Glio  caudala, 
as  compared  with  those  of  Clio  borecUis  given  in  Syste- 
tematic  Works.  By  John  Denis  Macdonald,  K.N.,  F.R.S., 
Surgeon  of  H.M.S.  "Icarus."  Communicated  hy  Professor 
Maclegan. 
The  object  of  the  author  in  this  paper  is  to  prove  the  im^Kirtancc 


DvGooglc 


ofEdMmrgh,  Session  1862-63.  77 

of  flxamiaing,  in  the  liTing  and  exploded  state,  all  aoft,  col^petble, 
and  ooutnctile  aaimala.  He  deecribea  in  detail  the  anatomy  of  tlie 
geniu  Clio,  illastrating  his  deacoiptioD  bj  a  dr&nng.  He  points 
oat  the  oonfosioQ  that  has  occnired  in  Bystamatic  wo^  between 
the  apeciee  named  respectiTely  C7io  bonatit  and  Clio  avttratii  ;  and 
be  deecribee  chuactera  by  which  be  tbiolES  that  these  two  species 
ought  to  be  separated  from  Clio  eaudaia  and  erected  into  a  new 
genna;  whiob,  however,  he  declines  to  designate,  being  averee  to 
add  new  names  to  a  list  alieady  large. 

The  following  Geotlemen  were  admitted  Ordinary  Fellows 
of  the  Society : — 

EDWAttD  MELCBmc,  Esq. 

Ths  Bight  Hon.  Chauju  Lawbon,  Lord  PioTOft  of  Edinburgh. 

luaa  Hakkat,  Esq. 

it.viiVTvn  FxDDiz,  H  J). 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced  :— 

Tiaosactions  of  the  Soyal  Society  of  Victoria.    Vol.  V.    8to. — 

From  th«  Society. 
The  Canadian  Jonmal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art,  November 

1862.     8to.— ^rom  tKe  IiulituU. 
The  Journal  of  Agriculture,  January  1863.    Svo. — From  tAs  High- 
land and  AgrieuUaral  Society. 
The  Jonmal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  January  1663.    6to. — From 

the  Society. 
The  Cultivation   of  Cotton  in  Italy :  Beport  by  G-.  Derincenii, 

Uembet  of  the  Italian  Parliament,    8to. — From  the  Author. 
Notices  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Institution  of  Great  Britain. 

Fart  XII.,  1861,  1862.     8to.— ^rom  the  Iiutitution. 
Bayal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  1862.    A  list  of  the  Uembers, 

OfficeTB,  &c.,  for  1861.    B-vo.~From  the  lame. 
Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XIZ.,  No.  62. 

8vo. — From  the  Soci^. 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.    No.  CXII.    Sva.—From 

the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London,  December  1862.    8vo. 

■—From  (A«  Society. 


DvGooglc 


78  Proceeding*  of  the  Boyal  Society 

TraneactiODB  of  the  LiDiiean  Society.    Tol.  ZSIII.,   Fart  III. 

4to. — From  the  Soeteli/. 
Uagnetical  and  Meteorological  Obaerrations  made  at  the  Gorera- 

meiit   Observatory,  Bombay,   in  the  year  1860,   under  the 

Superintendence  of  Lieutenant  E.  F.  T,  Fergusson,  I.N.,  &o., 

and    Lieutenant  F.   W.  Mitcheeon,  I.N.     8to. — From  Her 

Majesty' »  Qovemmenl. 
Compte  Bendn  de  la  45'  Seaaion  de  la  Soci§t6  Suieae  des  Scieuoea 

Katarellee,  r^nttie  A  LauHanne  lea  20,  21,  et  22  Aoflt  1861. 

8  TO, — From  the  Society. 
Neue  DenkBcbrilten  der  Allgemeinen  Schweizerischen  GeBellaahaft 

fur  die  OeeammteD  NatufwiBBeuschafteo.    Band  XTX.    Ito. 

—From  the  tame. 
Annalee  de  rObservatoire  Fbysique  Central  de  Buasie,  publife  pat 

ordre  de  sa  Majeete  Imperiale,  par  A.  T.  Eupffer.     Kos.  1  &  2 

(Anofe   1859).     4to. — From  the  Ruatian  AdmimttrtUion  </ 

Cercles  Ctiromatiquea  de  M.  E.  GbeTieul.    4to.    From  the  Author, 
Mlmoires  de  I'lnstitut  Imperial  de  France.    Tome  XXXIII.    4to. 

— f^vm  the  Academy  o/Sdeneee. 
Supplement   aux  Comptea  Rendns  bebdomadairea  dea  Stances. 

Tome  II.     ito.— From  the  same, 
M^moirea  prfeent^  par  divers  saranta  k  I'Academie  des  Sciencea, 

Tomea  XVI.  et  XVII.     ito.— From  the  tame. 
Caite  Qeologiqne  dee  Fartiee  de  la  Savoi,  da  Pi4mont  et  de  la 

'  Suisse  ToiainoB  du  Uont  Blanc,  par  Alphonae  Favie,  Frofeaaor 

de  Geologic  &  I'Academie  de  Geneve.— /Vent  the  Author. 

Mcmday,  19^  Janwxty  1863. 

His  Grace  the  DUKE  of  ARGYLL,  Preeident, 
io  the  Chair. 

Tbe  Council  having  awarded  the  Uakdongall- Brisbane  Frize,  for 
the  biennial  period  ending  November  1862,  to  Dr  'William  Seller, 
for  his  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Dr  Robert  "Whytt," 
printed  in  the  Transaotiona,  tbe  Friee  was  presented  to  Dr  Seller 
by  the  Freeident. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edifiimrgh,  Seaaion  1862-63.  79 

The  following  CommimicatioiiB  were  read  : — 

1.  Notes  on  the  Geology  of  Ltineharg,  iu  the  kingdom 
of  Hanover.    By  the  Rev.  Robert  Boog  Watson. 

Lnneboi^  is  the  capital  of  the  old  Hauoverian  duch;  of  the 
same  name.  It  stands  on  the  small  navigable  rivei  Ilmenan,  about 
thiit;  miles  S.£.  from  Hamburg,  and  about  150  feet  above  the 
■ea.  The  conntiy  around  is  a  flat  sandy  heath,  from  which  the 
gypseons  limestone  lock  of  the  £alkberg  rises,  not  nnlike  Dum- 
barton Castle,  to  a  height  of  ISO  feet  above  the  plain.  The  strata 
which  heie  present  themselves  are — 

1.  Becent  sea  sand. 

2.  Boulder  sand,  sometimes  100  feet  thick,  foil  of  boulders  large 
and  small,  of  gneiss,  chalk,  flints,  flint-fossils,  and  great  lumps  of 
amber. — ^Absent  from  the  site  of  the  town  and  from  the  EalkbeTg, 
bnt  present  at  elevations  in  the  neighbourhood  considerably  greater 
than  either.  Liineburg  was  not  therefore,  as  it  has  been  described, 
"  a  Helgoland  in  the  Boulder  Clay  sea."  (Both.  Zeitscbriit  der 
Deutscben  Geol.  Oeaell.     I860.) 

3.  Miocene  clay,  with  fossils,  aometimea  from  200  to  300  feet 
thick. — It  rests  unconfonuably  on  the  chalk ;  but  within  the  town, 
and  round  the  Ealkberg,  where  the  chalk  is  absent,  it  lies  directly 
on  the  gypsum.  It  has-not  been  disturbed  by  intmsion  from  below, 
as  the  underlying  strata  have  been,  but  its  upper  surface  has  been 
violently  torn  and  abraded  during  the  Boulder  Clay  period.  It  often 
crops  out  through  the  overlying  sands,  and  its  presence  is  generally 
indicated  by  fine  woods  of  forest  trees. 

1.  Upper  white  chalk,  with  flints  and  characteristic  foBsils. — 
Absent  from  the  site  of  the  town  and  around  the  Kalkberg,  but 
spreading  out  oil  around,  appearing  on  the  surfaoe,  however,  only 
in  one  patch  on  the  north  side  of  the  town, 

6.  Tiiassic  clays,  limestones,  and  shales,  with  fossils. — Present 
on  the  surface  only  in  a  patch  west  of  the  chalk,  and  intermediate 
between  the  chalk  and  the  Ealkbeig,  but  found  below  the  surface 
in  a  thin  layer  over  the  entiro  site  of  the  town,  and  further  met 
with  wherever  borings  bave  been  made  through  the  chalk. 

6.  Oypsum  and  anhydrite. — Found  wherever  borings  have  been 


DvGooglc 


80  Proceedings  of  the  BoycU  Society 

made  rafflciently  deep.  In  the  Eolkbeig  and  the  Schildetein, 
a  hillock  to  the  west  of  the  Eolkbei^,  they  haTS  penetnted  the 
■nrface.  In  general,  the  gypaum  fonns  hot  comparatively  a  thin 
skin  over  the  unaltered  anhydrite;  but  in  the  EaUcberg,  the  whole 
masB  of  the  rock,  which  has  been  quarried  to  the  very  heart,  ia 
gypaom.  The  gypaum  and  anhydrite  are  a  good  deal  like  one 
another ;  resemble  marble ;  compact,  greyish-white  in  colour,  and 
slightly  translucent.  The  gypaum  especially  ie  i\ill  of  fisauiee,  one 
of  which  has  been  fallowed  130  feet  deep,  filled  with  dolomite; 
more  commonly  they  are  filled  with  a  gypseous  breccia,  which  in 
one  of  the  fissures  contained  the  bones  of  a  recent  bat  (Feapet-ftiM 
noetula).  These  fissures  produce  a  false  appearance  of  vertical 
bedding.  The  crystal  Boracite  is  found  in  the  gypsum  and  anhy- 
drite. It  is  only  found  elsewbeie  in  the  precisely  similar  gypeum 
rock  of  Alsberg,  at  Segeberg  in  Holstein.  Kon-cryatalline,  it 
appears  in  the  Keuper  gypaum  of  LiineTille  in  France. 

No  fossils  exist. 

The  gypsum  forms  an  anticlinal  axis,  with  the  Ealkberg  for  its 
highest  point,  sinking  away  to  the  east  under  the  town  in  the  form 
of  a  narrow  round-backed  bank,  which  dips  steeply  to  north  and 
south.  Aasociated  with  the  anhydrite  are  brine  springs  almost  at 
saturation  point,  comiug  to  judge  by  their  temperature  from  a 
depth  of  400  or  500  feet.  These  have  bo  exhausted  the  under  sur- 
face that  great  aubaidencee  have  occurred. 

The  points  of  geological  interest  connected  with  this  locality  are: — 

I.  That  it  IB  far  the  most  instructive,  and  indeed  almost  the  only 
place  in  the  great  flat  of  Northern  Germany,  where  the  underlying 
strata  have  been  brought  to  the  surface,  these  being  generally 
buried  deep  under  sand  and  clay. 

II.  That  there  is  here  an  exhibition  of  a  very  peculiar  agency 
by  which  these  strata  were  elevated,  and  of  the  time  when  this 
occurred. 

One  of  these  inferior  strata  is  anhydrite,  a  sulphate  of  lime 
deposited  from  water,  but  deposited  without  water  of  crystallization 
entering  into  its  formation.  Later,  through  exposure  to  moistare, 
it  has  accepted  water  into  chemical  combination  with  the  sulphnrio 
acid  and  lime,  and  thus  changing  to  gypsum,  has  expanded  to  a 


DvGooglc 


o/EdMmrgh,  Seanon  1862-63.  81 

bulk  more  than  one-fourth  gretttei  th&n  befon,  an  incteue  dquIt 
four  timefl  u  great  as  that  of  vatei  in  freezing.  This  expansion, 
prBTeuted  from  deTelopiog  itself  freely,  haa  accomalated  at  tli« 
point  of  least  resistance,  and  foiced  up  the  Ealkbeig  just  like  the 
ping  of  ice  vhich  rises  throngh  the  fosa-hole  of  a  mortar-ahell  vhen 
filled  with  water  and  fiozen. 

The  origin  of  the  anlphnric  acid  cannot  be  tiaoed.  Heat,  pna- 
■nre,  and  strong  brine  have  all  been  proved  suffioient  to  effect  the 
deposition  of  the  salphate  of  lime  in  an  anbydrotu  state. 

The  expansion  thiongh  metamorpfaiam  mast  hare  occuired  after 
the  deposition  of  the  cLolk,  and  before  that  of  the  miocene  clay,  the 
chalk  having  been  distnibed,  and  the  olay  thrown  down  on  it  after 
its  disturbance. 

III.  That  the  age  of  these  gypseons  and  saline  deposits,  though 
a  difficult  question,  can  be  determined. 

No  borings  have  been  carried  through  the  anhydrite  to  show  on 
what  it  rests.  Evidence  of  age  therefore  lies  in  the  fossils  of  the 
overlying  strata,  which,  resting  on  the  gypsum,  have  been  brought 
up  along  with  it.  These  strata  are  minute  in  extent,  but  abound 
in  fossils— chiefly  casts.  They  indicate  the  Upper  Trias,  but  the 
paitionlar  member  of  it  to  wMoh  the  beds  are  to  be  assigned  haa 
been  keenly  debated.  Very  recently,  however,  the  discovery  of  five 
specimens  of  CvaiiUi  notioau*  have,  in  connection  with  the  rest  of 
the  evidence,  and  especially  as  associated  with  JfyopAoria  pa  antmt, 
given  the  preponderance  in  favour  of  the  Lettenkohl.  This  is  a 
saboidinate  formation  now  admitted  to  exist ;  but  whether  to  be 
ranked  as  the  highest  of  the  Uuscbolkalk  or  the  lowest  of  the 
Eenper,  or  a  transition  link  between  the  two,  is  doubtful.  Its  flora 
connects  it  with  the  Keuper,  its  fauna  with  the  MnschelkaLk.  In 
the  Ldnebn^  beds  no  vegetable  remains  have  been  found,  and  the 
WMit  of  these  renders  the  relation  of  these  beds  to  the  Eeuper  more 
<A»cnre.  The  absence  of  aoch  vegetable  remains  is  indeed  a  char- 
aoteristio  of  the  Uuschelkalk ;  but  this  is  but  a  negative  resem- 
blance, and  ita  force  is  counteracted  by  the  absence  in  the  Liinaburg 
beds  of  such  distinctive  fossils  of  the  Muschelkalk  as  the  ETtcrmtet 
lititformia,  NatUiltu  bidontUtu,  Terehratula  mlgarit,  Sec. 

The  question  then  must  be  detennined  by  the  Mt/ojAoria  pe* 
anterii  and  tlie  Ctrattin,  both  of  them  interesting  in  themselves 


DvGooglc 


82  Proceedings  of  ike  Boyal  Society 

from  their  facility  of  recognition  and  from  tbeii  very  limited  range 
in  time.  The  genus  Myophoria  is  confined  to  the  Triae,  and  the 
two  deep  teeth  at  the  hinge  in  either  valve  make  it  easily  reoog- 
nisable  from  the  Trigonia,  which  has  three  teeth.  The  species  Pa 
atuerit  is  rihhed,  bo  as  exactly  to  resemble  the  foot  of  a  goose.  It 
does  not  last  on  into  the  Keuper ;  it  has  just  barely  begun  to  ap- 
pear in  the  latest  strata  of  the  Uoachelkalk ;  it  abounds  in  almost 
incredible  numbers  in  the  intermediate  Lettenbohl.  Kow  at  Liine- 
burg,  the  limestone  is  almost  made  up  of  it  alone,  bo  abundant  is 
it.     Thie  fact  therefoje  connects  these  beds  with  the  Lettenkohl. 

The  Oeratites  nodoeui  confirms  this  conclusion.  The  entire  genus 
is  confined  to  the  Trias.*  It  forms  a  link  both  in  form  and  in 
time  between  the  expiring  goniatites  and  the  yet  future  ammonites. 
The  Ceratitea  nodanu  may  be  very  easily  recognised  by  the  charac- 
teristio  feature  of  the  genus,  which  is,  that  in  each  septum  all  the 
lobes  which  point  in  towards  the  interior  of  the  shell  are  toothed, 
while  the  projecting  rounded  saddle  between  each  two  lobes  is 
smooth.  The  species  nodoaat  is  marked  by  thick  ribs  on  the  sides, 
radiating  outwards,  and  terminating  just  at  the  edge  of  the  back  in 
high  knobs  or  knots ;  whence  its  name.  The  projection  of  these 
knobs  being  on  the  side  of  the  shell,  the  back  is  rendered  unusually 
broad,  and  has  a  very  square  appearance.  Minute  variations  are 
very  frequent,  but  are  not  eufScient  to  constitute  more  than  mere 
varieties,  and  the  general  marks  mentioned  are  unfailing. 

The  CeratiUt  nodotua,  then,  thus  easily  recognised,  is  confined  to 
the  narrowest  limits,  as  it  first  appears  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  Hns- 
chelkolk,  and  disappears  finally  and  for  ever  in  the  Lettenkohl,  with- 
out so  much  as  reaching  the  Eeuper.  Wherever  fonnd,  therefors, 
it  stamps  the  strata  with  one  of  the  most  definite  assay-marks  of 
science ;  and  such  was  the  importance  attached  to  its  discovery  in 
the  Liineburg  strata,  that  Von  Strombeck,  the  great  Triassio  autho- 
rity of  northern  Germany,  in  the  absence  of  the  solitary  specimen 
discovered,  but  unfortunately  lost,  refused  to  believe  in  its  exist- 
ence. Since  then,  however,  five  other  specimens  have  been  found. 
They  ore  mere  casts,  and  but  broken  fragments  of  an  inch  or  two 

*  It  diMppean  wholly  in  the  Joraaue,  but  reappeare  in  n  few  specie*  [fonr 
or  flTfl)  in  the  Cietaceoui.  Bee  Pictet,  "  Faliontolgie,"  vol.  ii.  p.  662.  TbM 
i*  thsnfoN  an  exoeption  to  the  atwalutansM  of  what  it  stated  abora. 


DvGooglc 


o/EdmburgA,  Session  1862-63.  83 

in  length,  and,  as  ia  so  often  the  case  with  ammonites,  seem  to 
hkTfi  lain  long  in  the  water  after  the  death  of  the  animal.  They 
have,  however,  the  distinct  eharacteristica  of  the  CeratileM  ttodotut. 

These  epecimena  have  been  the  more  caiefully  examined,  and 
the  infetencefl  deducible  from  them  the  more  keenly  diecuBBed,  from 
the  fact  that  they  have  been  thonght  to  offer  some  support  to  the 
Darwinian  theory  of  transformation.  Von  Stromheck  and  others  be- 
lieve that  the  latest  generations  of  the  Ceratita  nodoaut,  as  exhibited 
in  the  highest  strata  of  the  Unschelkalk  elsewhere,  show  a  pro- 
gressive tendency  to  a  certain  aberration  from  the  earlier  type,  as 
figured  by  Von  Buch  in  his  monograph  "  fiber  Ceratiten."  This 
aberration,  though  marked,  is  not  sufficient  to  constitute,  but  may 
be  represented  as  a  step  towards,  a  new  species.  The  Lhnehurg 
specimens  present  this  aberration  in  its  widest  form,  while  still 
obviously  belonging  to  the  species  nodotut.  If,  therefore,  the  beds 
in  which  they  are  found  can  be  attributed  to  the  Lettenkohl,  then 
a  greater  lapse  of  time  is  secured.  To  this  lapse  of  time  the  change 
of  form  may  be  assigned,  and  thus  some  colour  may  be  found  for 
attributing  to  this  same  cause  the  whole  of  those  minute  cbangea 
of  form  which  the  successive  species  of  ceratites  present,  and  which 
so  completely  link  tbem  on  at  either  end  with  the  antecedent 
goniatites,  and  the  succeeding  ammonites. 

As  to  the  question  of  form.  The  Ceratites  of  Liineburg  differs 
from  that  figured  hy  Von  Buch  in  this,  that  in  the  latter  the  knobs 
on  the  side  are  included  in  the  first  lobe,  while  in  the  Liineburg 
specimens  the  hack  is  so  much  broader  that  the  first  lobe  fails  to 
reach  so  far  as  the  knobs,  and  the  second  saddle  is  as  it  were  drawn 
off  the  side  towards  the  hack,  and  it  therefore,  instead  of  the  fint 
lobe,  thus  includes  the  knohs.  Von  Buch's  drawings,  however, 
though  otherwise  most  careful,  and  in  this  case  professedly  made 
from  the  same  specimen,  do  not  agree  with  one  another  (see  "  iiber 
Ceratiten,"  Plate  I.  fig.  1,  and  Plate  n.  fig.  1.)  in  this  very  respect 
of  the  relation  of  the  knobs  te  the  lobes  and  saddles ;  and  so,  in 
regard  to  this  particular  point,  nothing  can  be  made  of  them. 
Further,  it  appears  that  in  all  young  specimens  the  hack  is  rela- 
tively narrow,  and  the  first  lobe  extending  round  the  comer  of  the 
back  at  that  period  of  life  reaches  the  knobs  on  the  aide;  but  in- 
variably, as  the  shell  increases  with  age,  the  back  becomes  relatively 


DvGooglc 


84  Proceedirufs  of  the  Boyal  Society 

brokd«r,  aDd  then  it  is  only  the  Becond  gtuldle  iuBteod  of  the  first 
lobe  which  indndea  the  knobs.  Th«  only  peculiarity  then  of  the 
Lnnebnrg  epecimeDB  ib  precisely  what  in  other  caaea  wonld  be 
called  ■  dwarfing — >'.«.,  the  signs  of  age  appearing  in  coDnection 
with  smallness  of  size;  which  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
rarity  of  this  fossil  in  the  Lanebuig  beds,  probably  points  to  the 
exiBtuice  of  climatic  or  other  ciroumstaDces  unfavourable  to  the  life 
of  this  cephalopod. 

The  other  question,  that,  namely,  of  the  lapse  of  time, — in  other 
words,  whether  the  Liinebnig  strata  are  Lettenkohl  or  not, — mast  be 
settled  OD  its  own  merits.  Admitting  the  Lettenkohl  as  a  distinct 
subordinate  formation  later  than  the  Muscbelkalk,  then  it  appears 
that  the  Myophoria  Pea  awens  is  lare  in  the  Unschelkalk,  abun- 
dant in  the  Lettenkohl,  and  abnndant  at  Luneborg ;  its  eridenoe 
therefore  points  to  the  identity  of  the  Luneborg  strata  with  the 
Lettenkohl.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Oeraiitei  nodotut  is  frequent 
in  the  Mnschelkalk,  but  hitherto  nnknown  in  the  Lettenkohl;  its 
eridence  therefore,  unlike  the  other,  rather  coaneote  the  Liiaebnrg 
beds  with  the  Muscbelkalk.  In  other  words,  the  Myoj^ioria  Pt» 
onterit  proves  that  these  strata  are  not  Hnschelkalk  but  Lettenkohl, 
while  the  Cemtitet  nodotut  shows  that  they  lie  nearer  the  Uusohel- 
kalk  than  any  Lettenkohl  strata  yet  found. 

As  logardB  the  underlying  gypseous  limestone,  this  concluaicm 
determines  its  age  as  greater  than  that  of  part  of  the  Lettenkdil. 
That  it  is  much  older  is  not  likely ;  and  the  existence  elsewhere  in 
the  Lettenkohl  of  similar  formations,  accompanied  as  here  by  salt, 
indicates  that  the  KalkbergofLiineberg  belongs  to  the  Upper  Trias, 
and  probably  to  the  Lettenkohl  itself. 

Curiously  enough,  this  conclusion  dissociates  Likneburg  from 
Oermany,  where  the  Lettenkohl  is  not  at  all,  or  but  very  slightly, 
saliferouB, — the  saline  deposits  of  Grermany  being  found  in  the  lower 
Hnschelkslk, — and  connects  it  with  France,  Switserland,  and  Eng- 
land, where  it  is  in  the  Lower  Eenpei  distinctively  that  aalt  is 
richly  p 


2.  On  the  Occunence  of  Stratified  Beds  in  the  Boulder  Clay 
of  Scotland,  and  on  the  Light  which  they  throw  upon  the 
History  of  that  i>epOBit    By  Alex.  Gkikie,  Esq.,  F.O.S. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaion  1862-63.  85 

The  following  OentlemeD  were  admitted  Fellows  of  the 
Bocietj ; — 

The  Bight  Eon.  Loid  DDBnHKLtira, 

WiLLiAit  Jahzsom,  Esq..  Surgeon-Mftjor  H.H.  Bengal  Medicftl  BtaS, 

and  Saperinttudent  of  the  Botanic  Qarden,  SahanmpoTe. 
William  Bbakd,  W.3. 
HrasAi  Thoxbok,  H.D. 

The  followiug  Dou&tione  to  the  Library  were  laid  on  the 
Table  :— 

Hootbly  Report  of  the  Births,  Deatha,  and  MariiageB  tegieteied  ifi 

the  Bight  Principal  Towhh  of  Scotland,  December  1862.    8yo, 

— From  the  Hegittrar  Qerttral. 
Quarterly  Seport  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of  Scotland.     8to. 

From  the  Society. 
Abstracts  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Londoo. 

Noe.  88,  89,  and  ^O.—From  the  Society. 
TransactionB  of  the  Eoyal  Scottifih  Society  of  Arts.     Vol  VI. 

Part  U.     evo.—From  (Ae  Society. 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society.    Yol.  XXIII. 

No.  2.     Sto. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horiicultural  Society.  No.  I.,  1863.   8vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society.    Vol  XII.,  No.  52.    8vo.— From 

the  Society. 
TraDBactions  of  the  Botanical  Society.    Vol.  VII.,  Part  U.    8vo. 

— From  the  Soei^y. 
The  Aflsuianoe  Magazine,  ice,  January  1863.    8vo, — From  the  In- 

aUtule  ofAclvariee. 
The  North  Atlantic  Sea-bed :  comprising  a  Diaiy  of  the  Voyage 

on  board  H.M.S.  BuUdog  is  1860.    By  G.  C.  WaUicfa,  H.D., 

&0.    Part.  I.    4to. — From  the  Lard$  Conminioneri  qf  the  Ad' 

miralty. 
H^moiies  de  la  Soci6t£  de  Physique  de  Gendre.    Tome  XVI., 

Seconde  Fartie.    4to. — From  the  Society. 
Annual  Beport  of  the  Board  of  Begents  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution for  1860.    8vo. — From  tho  Board  of  Begentt. 


saovGoOglc 


86  Proceedmga  of  the  Royal  Society 

Finetum  Britannicum,  a  DeBcriptive  Account  of  all  Hardy  Treee 
of  the  Fine  Tribe  cultivated  in  Great  Britain,  with  Fac- 
similes of  the  otiginal  Drawings  made  for  the  work.  Fart  I. 
Picea  nohilis.  By  Messrs  Lawsons  and  Soa.'—Fretented  by  Iht 
Bight  Hon.  CharUt  Lavxtm,  Lord  Provott  of  Edinburgh. 

Monday,  2d  February  1863. 
The  Hon.  LORD  NEAVF38,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Oommnnications  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Influence  of  Weather  upon  Disease  and  Mortality. 

By  R.  E.  Scoresby-Jackson,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.R.C.P., 

Lecturei  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics  at  Surgeons' 

Hall,  Edinburgh. 

In  the  early  part  of  thia  paper  the  author  adveits  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  reaearches  into  the  causal  relatione  of  health  and  mor- 
tality. Nevertheless,  long  as  these  have  been  the  subject  of 
inquiry,  the  literature  of  medical  meteorology  is  meagre  in  the 
extreme ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  time  and  labour  bestowed  upon 
the  many  other  branches  of  medical  science,  this  department  may 
justly  be  regarded  as  having  met  with  unmerited  neglect.  Ra- 
fereuce  is  made,  however,  to  the  names  of  many  eminent  phy- 
siciaas,  whose  lesearcbeB  into  the  influence  of  weather  upon  the 
human  constitution  have  contributed  not  a  little  to  adorn  the 
medica]  literature  of  the  present  century. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  influence  of  ext«mal  agencies  upon 
health  difiers  materially  with  locality,  so  that  the  author  feels  him- 
self at  liberty  to  make  such  investigations  into  the  subject  of  his 
paper  as  he  may  think  sufficient  to  ascertain  approximately  the 
relationship  subsisting  between  the  weather  and  mortality  in  Scot- 
laud,  without  particular  reference  to  the  works  of  authors  on 
kindred  subjects  in  other  countries.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
resnlts  evoked  by  Caspei  in  Berlin,  Quetelet  in  Brussels,  Boudin  in 
Paris,  Emerson  in  Philadelphia,  Farr  or  Guy  in  London,  and  l^ 
Stark  in  Edinburgh,  may  difier  widely  in  many  of  the  leading 
features  of  the  hiquiry,  and  yet  the  inferences  of  each  be  correct  in 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  87 

themselree.  The  author  therefore  believed  that  it  would  be  mncli 
more  to  the  ioterest  of  ecieooe  to  pnisae  fais  researches  inde- 
pendently of  all  previous  inqnuy,  diyeeting  bimeelf  of  all  foregone 
ooDcIneions,  and  making  the  facts  which  be  has  collected  speak  for 
themselves.  By  following  this  plan  he  derives  two  advantages: 
finUif,  that  of  avoiding  a  tedions  recapitulation  of  the  facts  and 
deductions  to  be  found  in  other  works;  and,  ttcotiJhf,  that  of 
drawing  an  unbiassed  opinion  npon  the  subject,  which  ma;  the 
more  confidently,  on  that  account,  be  employed  in  comparison  with 
results  obtained  in  other  localities. 

The  difficulties  attending  inquiries  into  the  infiuenoe  of  weather 
upon  mortality  are  manifold  and  intricate.  All  other  causes,  to 
which  might,  altogether  or  in  part,  be  due  the  facts  observed,  must 
be  abstracted  and  carefoUy  weighed  before  the  true  balance  of 
meteorological  influence  can  be  justly  ascertained ;  and  when  this 
is  done,  there  still  remains  a  deduction  to  be  made  for  error  arising 
from  the  nnequal  distribution  of  meteorological  phenomena  even 
over  an  area  so  limited  as  that  of  a  single  city.  Whether  de- 
pendence can  be  placed  upon  the  accuracy  of  tho  returns  of  the 
causes  of  death  made  to  the  Begistrar- General  is  another  question 
of  serious  importance  in  such  investigations.  These  and  many 
other  obstacles  arise  to  bar  logical  exactness ;  but  where  the  aim  is 
simply  to  obtain  an  approximate  knowledge  of  the  subject,  the 
author  believes  his  data  are  abimdantly  accurate. 

The  meteorological  data  are  taken  from  the  collected  returns 
from  all  the  stations  of  the  Ueteorological  Society  of  Scotland,  as 
reduced  by  the  Astronomer-royal.  The  stations  have  a  mean  lati- 
tude of  56°  30^  N.,  mean  longitude  of  3°  4'  W.,  and  a  mean  ele- 
vation of  222  feet  nearly. 

The  mortality  tables  are  constructed  from  the  returns  made  by 
the  Begistrar-General  for  Scotland  respecting  the  eight  larger 
towns.  The  period  over  which  the  investigations  extend  ie  six 
years — namely,  from  1857  to  1862  inclusive.  The  meteorological 
data  did  not  admit  of  extension  over  a  longer  period.  The  author 
regrets  that  he  is  unable  to  include  ozone  and  electricity  in  his  Id- 
vestigations.  With  respect  to  electricity,  he  has  no  data  applicable 
to  the  places  and  period  under  examination  ;  and  with  reference  to 
ozone,  be  submits,  that  until  the  chemistry  of  that  subtile  agency 


DvGooglc 


88  Proceedings  of  the  Boyai  Society 

ia  better  establUhed,  its  influence  upon  the  humui  frame  cannot 
be  determined.  The  grand  total  of  deaths  from  all  oaases  under 
coneideTation  during  the  six  years  was  14S,249,  and  the  average 
population  867,313.  The  corrected  population  for  each  year  ia 
employed  as  the  atandard  of  leference  for  each  year's  mortality. 
The  inquiry  is  led  into  the  ioflneiice  of  weather  upon  mortality 
from  individual  diseasee,  aud  the  sereral  classeB  of  disease,  aa  well 
aa  into  the  mortality  from  all  cauiea.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
inferences  deduced  by  tbeee  inTeedgationi  would  involve  the  repro- 
duction of  a  series  of  tables  and  diagrams  for  which  the  Society's 
PrticeedingB  are  not  available,  and  all  of  which  will  be  found  in  the 
extended  paper. 

2.  History  of  Fopalai  Literature,  and  its  Influence  on  So- 
ciety.   By  Wm.  Chambers,  Esq.,  of  Glenonniston. 

Having  introduced  the  subject,  Mr  Chambers  referred  to  tbe 
earliest  examples  of  popular  literature  in  tbe  reign  of  Elizabeth ; 
they  were  embelished  with  wood  engraviogs,  believed  to  be  executed 
in  Qermany.  Such  was  the  origin  of  those  very  curious  tracts 
known  aa  "  chap  books,"  now  very  rare,  and  much  prized  by  biblio- 
graphic amateurs,  Tbe  subjects  of  these  books  resembled  the  Folk- 
Iiore  of  the  Germans,  and  were  the  embodiment  of  the  supentitions, 
fancies,  and  traditions  of  a  much  earlier  period ;  the  least  excep- 
tionable being  the  ballads  of  a  heroic  and  tender  kind.  Xext  was 
traced  the  rise  of  newspapers,  and  the  importance  they  began  to  as- 
sume in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  a  period  also  aigaalised  by  the 
popular  writings  of  Steele,  Addison,  and  Defoe.  The  imposition  of 
tbe  Btamp-duty  in  1712  checked  this  sudden  rise  of  popular  litera- 
ture ;  and  various  cireumstanoes  postponed  its  reappearance  until 
the  leigDS  of  George  IV.  and  William  IV.,  by  which  time  great 
advances  had  been  made  in  education  and  in  a  general  taste  for 
literature, — the  writings  of  Cowper,  Bums,  Campbell,  Wordsworth, 
Scott,  Byron,  and  others,  along  with  the  influence  of  certain  reviews 
aud  magazines,  having  latterly  given  much  impetus  to  thought 
Ur  Chambers  then  spoke  of  the  origin  of  Chambers'  Journal  in 
February  1832,  the  Fenny  Magazine  in  the  subsequent  March,  and 
other  cheap  prints,  devoted  in  an  espeoial  manner  to  popularise 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  89 

)it«ratuie.  Finally,  lie  drev  attention  to  the  abolition  of  fieoal 
datiei  on  the  products  of  the  press, — the  prodigious  copionanees  of 
cheap  popular  sheets,  cheap  nevspapers  included, — and  the  capacity 
of  modem  machinery,  moved  by  steam-power,  for  their  rapid  pro- 
duction. On  inTeatigatioD,  he  found  that  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  whole  was  of  an  immoral,  or  otherwise  objectionable  kind ; 
much  of  the  writing  in  this  popular  department  of  literature  being 
by  authors  of  repute,  to  whom  large  sums  were  paid  for  their  services. 
He  estimated  that  there  were  not  fewer  than  three  hundred  millions 
of  newspapers  now  circulated  per  annum  in  the  United  Kingdom  ; 
while  the  quantity  of  cheap  literary  sheets  issued  pet  annnui 
amounted  to  144,000,000.  He  concluded  by  referring  to  the  highly 
improved  tone  in  all  departments  of  the  press,  not  the  least  of  the 
beneficial  efiects  of  modem  popular  literature  being  the  eztinotion 
of  what  was  worthless  and  pernicious.  On  concluding  hia  paper, 
Ur  Chambers  laid  on  the  table  a  quantity  of  copies  privately  printed 
for  distribution  among  the  members  present. 

The  following  note  from  Principal  Sir  David  Brewster 
waa  read  by  Professor  Tait : — 

"  I  send  you,  for  the  Boyal  Society,  six  of  my  best  specimens  of 
I^composed  Gloss.  In  presenting  them,  perhaps  you  might  men- 
tion the  disappearance  of  all  colour,  by  introducing  a  drop  of  water, 
and  the  passage  of  a  prismatic  line  dtbt  each  film,  owing  to  the 
water  entering  more  quickly  between  some  of  the  elementary  films 
than  between  others.  These  may  be  found  by  using  a  balsam  that 
will  quickly  indurate." 

The  following  announcements  were  made  from  the 
Chair  :— 

1.  The  Council  have  awarded  the  Neill  Prize  for  the  Triennial 
period  1859-62  to  Robert  Kaye  Greville,  LL.D.,  for  his  contribu- 
tions to  Scottish  Natural  History,  more  especially  in  the  department 
of  Cryptogamic  Botany,  including  his  recent  papers  on  Diatomacesa. 

2.  The  Council  have  resolved  that  a  Conversazione  shall  take 
place  in  the  Society's  room,  on  Wednesday,  25th  February,  at 
8p.H. 


DvGooglc 


90  Froceedittgs  of  the  Royal  Society 

The  following  Gtentlemen  were  elected  Fellowa  of  the 
Society : — 

JoEK  TouKQ,  H.D^  AMiBtaat  Qeologut,  Qeological  Borrej 

of  Qiaat  Britain. 
David  Paob,  Eaq.,  F.G.S. 

The  following  Bonationa  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 
Ebb&tb  from  the  "  Quarterly  Review."    By  James  Hannay,  Esq., 

F.R.S.E.,  Author  of  ■■  Satire  and  Satirists,"  &o.     8vo.— i>Vom 

the  Author. 
Sitzuugeberichte  der  kbuigl,  bayer.  Akademie  der  WiBsenBcbaften 

zu  UiinchQn.    1862.     I.  Heft  i,  und  II.  Heft  1.    8vo.— JVrm 

the  Academy. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  ImpSriale  des  NaturalieteB  de  Hobcou.  Ann£e 

18S1.     Nob.  I.,  II.,  III.,  et  IV.     8yo,— From  (he  Society. 
The  Journal  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  Nob.  26,  27,  28.   8to. — 

From  the  Society. 
Historical  Sketch  of  Popular  Literature,  and  its  Influence  on  So- 
ciety.   By  Wm.  Chambers,  Esq.  of  Crlenormiston. — From  the 


Monday,  \Uh  February  1863. 

De  OHBISTISON,  Vioe-Prealdent,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Communications  were  read : — 

1.  Sketch  of  the  Hecent  Progress  of  Sanskrit  Literature. 
By  John  Muir,  D.C.L,,  LL.D.  (This  Paper  was  given  at 
the  request  of  the  Council.) 

After  giving  a  sketch  of  the  first  beginnings  of  these  studies  in 
India,  and  their  further  prosecution  in  Europe,  the  author  adverted 
to  the  relations  of  Sanskrit  with  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic 
languages,  and  showed  how  this  affinity  established  the  common 
origin  of  the  nations  by  which  these  languages  have  been  spoken. 
He  then  proceeded  to  give  an  account  of  Indian  Uterature,  com- 
mencing with  the  hymns  and  other  constituent  parts  of  the  Vedaa, 
and  then  proceeding  to  the  principal  systems  of  Indian  pbiloeaphy. 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinhargh,  Session  1862-63.  91 

of  which  he  funuBhed  an  outline.  He  then  gave  &  short  statement 
of  the  rise  and  progieae  of  Saddhiam,  and  concluded  b;  merely  re- 
ferring to  the  later  developmentB  of  Indian  religion  and  literatnre, 
and  to  the  Tersatility  of  the  Indian  intellect  as  evinced  by  the 
variety  of  its  literary  piodnctions. 

2.  On  a  Pre-Brachial  Stage  in  the  DeTelopment  of  Coma- 
tula,  and  its  importance  in  Belation  to  certain  Aberrant 
Forma  of  Extinct  Grinoids.    By  Professor  AUman. 

The  author  described  a  stage  in  the  development  of  Comattiia 
snbseqnent  to  the  free  stage  of  the  larva,  and  anterior  to  that  in 
which  it  acquires  arms.  He  believed  that  the  snbject  of  the  paper 
was  of  much  interest  in  afibrding  a  key  to  the  nature  of  certain 
aberrant  forms  of  extinct  Crinoidea,  such  as  Saploerinut,  St«pkaw)- 
erimu,  &c.,  for  the  peculiarities  of  these  genera  were  for  the  most 
part  exhibited  in  tbe  young  Comatula,  where  they  admitted  of  an 
easy  determination  as  elements  in  the  composition  of  tbe  Crinoid. 

The  following  GeotlemeD  were  admitted  Fellows  of  the 
Society : — 

J.  G.  WiLSOH,  M.D.,  F.RC.8.E, 
James  HATTBBwa  Duncak,  U.D. 
OcosoB  R.  UArrUHD,  W.8. 

W.  DlTTMAB,  Esq. 

The  foUowiDg  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

Explication  de  la  Carte  Geologiqne  des  parties  de  la  Savoie,  du 
Pi6mont,  et  de  la  Saisse.  Far  A.  Favre.  8vo. — From  iJu 
Avihor. 

Beport  of  the  Commissioners  of  Patents  for  the  year  1661.  Agri- 
culture.    8vo. — From  the  American  Oovtmmmt, 

Library  Catalogue  of  the  Boyal  College  of  FbysicianB.  4to. — From 
th6  CoUege. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Fhilosophical  Society.  Vol.  XII., 
Part  II.     i^.—From  the  Soeietj/. 

SitzuDgsberichte  der  konigl.  bayer.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 
zn  Mfinchen.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


92        Proceedings  oflhe  Soyal  Society  o/Edinburgh. 

Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Societ;.    Vol.  XH.,  No.  63.    6to.— 

From  the  Society. 
ProceedingB  of  the  Boyal  6«ognphicai  Society  of  London.    Vol. 

Til.,  So.  1.     8to.— ^roffi  Uu  Soettty. 
Jonnial  of  the  Chemical  Society.     Febntaiy  1863.     8to. — I^vm 

the  Society. 
Victorian  Exhibition,  1861.    Beport  on  Class  HI.:  Indigenona 

Tegetable  Subetances.     8to. — From  the  Qovemment. 
Tenth  Annual  Beport  oftheTniBteesof  the  Public  Library,  Boston. 

Koremher  1862.     8vo. — Frtm  the  Trudees. 
Annnal  Beport  of  the  Geological  Surrey  of  India  for  1861--62.    Bvo. 

— From  the  Qovemment. 
ProceedingB  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.    Yot.   IX., 

No,  67.     8to.— JVwn  the  Boddy. 
ProceedingB  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.    February  1863. 

— From  ihe  Society. 
Uemobs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.     4to. — From  Dr  Old- 

MemoiiB  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.    II.    1  and  2,    4to. — 

From  the  same. 
Qefichichte   dar  PhyBischen    Greographie  der  Schweiz.      Ton  fi. 

Studer,     8yo.— From  the  Author. 
Natuurknnde  Terhandelingen  van  de  Hollandscfae  Maatschappij 

te  Haarlem.    XVII.  Deel,  and  XIX.  Deel,  Eersto  Stuk.    4to. 

— From  the  Associalicn. 
PreiBschriften  gekront  und  herausgegeben  von  der  fiirstlich  Jab- 

lonowski'Bchen   GeBellecbaft   zu   Leipzig.      4to. — From    the 

Society. 
The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.    No.  102.    Svo. — 

From  the  Condvetori. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Mondaif,  2d  March  1863. 

Principal  Sir  DAVID  BREWSTER,  Vice-President, 
in  the  Chair. 

In  presenting  the  Neitl  Prize,  the  Chairman  made  the 
following  remarks : — 

Before  presenting  the  Neill  Medal  to  Dr  Crreville,  in  conformity 
with  the  decision  of  the  Council,  it  may  be  propet  for  the  informa- 
tiou  of  etrangere,  and  even  of  many  Fellows  of  the  Society,  to  give 
a  brief  notice  of  the  beqaeat  to  science  which  was  made  by  the  late 
l)r  Patrick  Neill. 

Although  Dr  Neill  was  a  member  of  this  Society,  he  never  took 
an  active  part  in  its  proceedings,  and  I  believe  never  communicated 
any  paper  to  its  Traosactions.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Wemerian  Society,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  its  Secretary  during 
the  thirty  yeaiB  of  its  existence  under  the  able  presidency  of  Pro- 
feesor  Jameson.  The  WerDsrian  Society  was,  indeed,  the  rival  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  its  seven  volumes  of  Trans- 
actioDB  contain  many  papers  by  distinguished  writers  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  communicated  to  this  Society. 

Dr  Neill's  first  publication  appeared  in  180G,  and  was  entitled 
"  A  Tour  through  some  of  the  Ishinds  of  Orkney  and  Shetland." 
In  1829  he  published  hia  "  Horticultural  Tour  in  Flanders,"  and  in 


DvGooglc 


94  Proceedings  oflhe  Royal  Society 

1845  bis  "  Fruit,  Flower,  and  Kitchen  Garden/'  which  was  & 
republication  of  the  article  "Horticulture"  in  the  Edinbargh 
£nc;clopiedia.  Dr  Neill  communicated  only  two  papers  to  the 
Wernerian  TiaosactionB,  one  entitled  "  A.  List  of  Fishes  in  the 
Forth,  and  Lakes  and  Rivers  near  Ediubnigh,"  and  another  "On 
the  Fossil  Remains  of  the  Beaver  in  Perthshire  and  Berwickshire." 

Dr  Neill  died  in  1851,  aud  bequeathed  to  the  Boyal  Society  of 
Edinburgh  the  sum  of  L.600,  "the  interest  of  which  was  to  be 
applied  in  furnishing  a  medal  every  second  or  third  year  to  any 
distinguished  Scottish  Naturalist,  to  be  adjudicated  by  the  Council 
of  the  Society." 

In  fulfilling  this  trust,  the  Council  wisely  adopted  the  triennial 
in  place  of  the  biennial  period,  and  the  first  adjudication  of  the 
prize  was  made  to  l)r  Lauder  Lindsay  fot  bis  researcheB  on  the 
structure  of  lichens. 

The  second  adjudication  was  made  to  Dr  Bobert  Eaye  Greville 
"  for  his  contributions  to  Scottish  Natural  History,  more  especially 
in  the  department  of  Cryptogamic  Botany,  including  his  recent 
papers  on  Diatomaceee." 

Dr  Greville's  contributions  to  Natural  History  have  been  both 
numerous  and  valuable,  and  their  merits  bavo  been  recognised  by 
the  most  distinguished  Botanists  of  the  age.  His  "  Scottish  Cryp- 
togamic Flora "  was  published  between  1823  and  1828.  His 
"Flora  Edinensis"  appeared  in  1828.  His  "Algse  Britannice, 
or.  Description  of  Ifarine  and  other  Inarticulated  Plants  in  Britain 
belonging  to  the  order  Algee,"  was  published  in  1830,  and  he  has 
inserted  in  the  "  Uicroscopical  Journal "  no  fewer  than  twelve 
papers  on  the  Diatomacete,  an  interesting  subject  which  still 
occupies  bis  attention. 

But  Dr  Greville's  services  to  science  have  not  been  limited  by  his 
writings.  He  has  been  an  ardent  collector  of  plants  and  other  objects 
of  natural  history;  and  his  complete  herbarium  of  Phanerogamous 
and  Cryptogamous  plants,  as  well  as  his  collection  of  insects,  have 
been  placed  in  the  Uuseum  of  our  University.  He  has  also  made 
a  collection  of  land  and  fresh-water  moUusca,  which  is  the  finest 
in  Scotland. 

These  various  contributions  to  natural  history  have  been  highly 
appreciated  both  in  this  and  in  foreign  countries.    In  1824  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinhurgh,  Session  1862-63.  95 

Univeraity  of  (rlasgow  coDferred  npou  Dr  Greville  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Laws,  aod  many  of  the  Natural  History  Societies  in 
Europe  and  America  have  received  bim  among  their  correBpouding 
or  honorary  members. 

Though  somewhat  foreign  to  the  present  uccasioo,  the  Society 
will,  I  trust,  excuse  me  for  adding,  that  Dr  Greville  has  taken  an 
active  part  in  those  interesting  questions  of  philanthropy,  on  the 
solution  of  which  the  happiness  and  security  of  society  depend. 
He  has  felt,  as  I  am  sure  most  of  us  here  feel,  that  there  is  some- 
thing greater  than  science,  and  something  higher  and  more  endur- 
ing than  fame;  and  it  is  no  slight  ground  of  congratulation,  that 
eome  of  those  who  have  been  commissioned  by  their  Uaker  to 
study  His  works,  and  to  sound  the  depths  of  Hie  wisdom  and  His 
power,  hare  shunned  the  fatal  course  which  others  have  pursued, 
of  sapping  the  foundations  of  that  faith  and  hope  which  science  is 
so  able  to  sustain. 

Dr  Gbxville,  In  the  name  of  the  Council  I  now  beg  to  present 
to  yon  the  Neill  Medal,  and  to  congratulate  you  on  this  honour, 
which  you  have  so  well  merited. 

The  following  CotnmuuicatioDS  were  read : — 

1,  Letter  from  Sir  D.  Brewster  relative  to  the  specimens 
of  Topaz  with  Pressure  Cavities  preseoted  by  him  to 

the  Museum  of  the  Society. 

Dear  Professor  Balfour, — In  vol.  xvi.  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,"  I  have  described  and  given  drawings 
of  the  pressure  cavities  which  I  discovered  in  topaz ;  and  in  vol, 
xxiii.,  just  published,  I  have  pointed  out  the  geological  relations  of 
these  cavities. 

As  the  specimens  of  topaz  containing  them  are  so  rare  that  I 
have  found  only  five  out  of  many  hundreds  which  I  have  examined ; — 
as  the  existence  of  such  cavities  with  a  polarising  structure  around 
them,  proving  that  the  topaz  was  in  a  soft  or  plastic  state,  will 
hardly  be  admitted  by  those  who  believe  that  the  topaz  was  formed 
by  aqueous  deposition ; — and  as  it  is  quite  possible  that  other  speci- 
mens containing  such  very  minute  cavities  may  never  be  found, 


DvGooglc 


96  Proceeditigs  of  the  Boyai  Society 

even  when  diligently  searched  for,  I  thiDk  it  right  to  present  to  tlie 
Society  foT  preeerv&tion  the  five  topaiee  in  which  the  cavitiea  were 
fonnd. — I  am,  ever  most  truly  yours. 

(Signed)        D.  BsawBTKB. 
Allksli,  fa.  T.  1868. 

2.  On  the  Polarization  of  Bough  Surfaces,  and  of  Substances 
that  reflect  White  or  Coloured  Light  from  their  Interior. 
By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S. 

3.  On  a  Clay  Deposit  with  Fossil  Arctic  Shells,  recently 
observed  in  the  Basin  of  the  Forth.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Brown,  F.B.8.E. 

The  author  having  stated  the  circumstances  which  led  to  his 
discovering  this  bed  with  its  fossils  near  the  harbour  at  EUe,  re- 
ferred to  a  drawing  of  the  section,  and  explained  the  position  and 
contents  of  the  different  strata. 

Specimens  of  the  shells  were  exhibited,  as  named  by  Dr  Otto 
Torrell  of  Lund,  who  bad  supplied  important  information  as  to  their 
distribution.  They  are  all,  without  exception,  now  living  in  the 
Arctic  Seas.  A  majority  of  them  are  exclusively  Arctic.  Several 
are  new  to  the  British  glacial  deposits — viz.,  Tkraeia  myopiu, 
Peclen  groenlandicut,  CreneUa  decutsata,  G.  lavtgaia,*  TurrileUa 
erosa.t  and  a  new  Yoldia  found  in  Spitzbergeu  in  80°  north  lati- 
lude.t  It  was  shown  how  strongly  this  evidence  goes  to  prove  the 
former  existence  of  a  Boreal  or  Arctic  climate  in  Scotland. 

The  shells  seem  also  to  indicate  some  considerable  rise  in  the 
level  of  the  land.  They  are  deep-water  species — some  of  them  very 
markedly  so.  Four  distinct  series  of  facts  appear  to  show  that 
they  have  not  been  washed  up  and  transported,  but  are  lying  in 
the  clay-bed  where  they  originally  lived.  As  the  deposit  is  now 
rather  above  high-water  mark,  the  fair  inference  would  seem  to  be 

"  "  Most  probabl;,  but  much  injnied." 

t  "  Almost  certainly  this  species,  jei  cannot  be  positivelj  asaerted." 

I  The  other  species   aie—Saxieava  nigom,   large  fonn,   Telliita  proxima, 

AUartt  eomprata,  Leda  Inmrata,  L.  pygmaa,  Natica  grotniandica,  large  Tonn. 

Fragments  also  occur  which  sofem  to  belong  to  Cypraia  lilandica  and  Mya 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinbttrgh,  Session  1862-63.  97 

that  the  whole  Bea-bed  of  the  Firth  must  have  bean  conaideiabty 
raised. 

Beference  vas  made  to  the  discovery  of  the  glacial  beds  of  the 
Clyde  byMr  Smith  of  Jordanhill.  They  had  been  looked  for  on  the 
Forth,  but  without  success.  Dr  Fleming  struck  the  first  trace  of 
them  at  Tyrie,  bnt  it  was  faint,  there  being  only  two  or  three 
specimens  of  the  shells,  and  these  he  was  led  to  think  not  indigen- 
ous. In  the  £lie  clay  the  same  two  species  occur  rathet  abundantly, 
along  with  others,  all  evidently  iu  the  clay-bed  where  they  had 
lived.  The  group  is  so  characteristic  that  there  need  be  no  ques- 
tion DOW  as  to  the  occurrence  of  the  true  old  glacial  beds  with 
Arctic  sheila  in  the  basin  of  the  Forth. 

Various  reasons  were  stated  for  holding  that  this  bed  is  very 
closely  connected  with  the  boulder  clay,  being  nut  improbably  a  sea- 
formation  contemporaneous  with  some  portion  of  that  deposit. 

It  was  shown,  that  the  facts  brought  to  light  in  this  section  give 
us  some  glimpse  into  the  circumstances  under  which  the  period  of 
Arctic  cold  passed  away. 

The  submerged  forest*  of  the  Fifeshire  coaat  were  referred  to  in 
connection  with  the  informatioo  which  this  section  seems  to  famish 
as  to  the  somewhat  obscure  question  of  their  true  stratigraphical 
position. 

4.  On  the  Remarkable  Occtirrence  of  Grraphite  in  Siberia. 
By  Thomas  C.  Archer,  Esq. 

The  author  in  this  paper  gives  the  localities  of  three  large  mines 
of  this  mineral.  The  Srst  situated  in  the  Semipalatinsk  district. 
Western  Siberia,  between  47°  and  60°  N.  Lat.,  and  in  80°  E. 
Long,  from  Greenwich,  on  the  Kirghesian  Steppe.  The  locality 
of  the  mine  is  remarkably  barren,  and  upon  digging  down  a  few 
feet,  the  graphite  is  found  lying  in  a  continuous  stratum  which  has 
been  ascertained  to  extend  over  a  space  of  2100  acres.  This  im- 
mense deposit  belongs  to  Uesara  Samsonof  and  Mamontof  of  Ser- 
nopol,  and  is  worked  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  second  deposit  is  of  a  similar  character  as  to  it«  stratification  1 
but  instead  of  being  covered  with  a  bed  of  peaty  soil,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  former,  it  has  overlying  it,  a  stratum  of  spathose  iron  ore  of 


DvGooglc 


98  Proceedings  of  the  RoyiA  Society 

ft  Teiy  pecDliar  textuie,  being  close  grained  and  black,  and  break- 
ing witb  a  remarkable  conchoidal  fracture.  This  mine  is  sitnated 
in  Eastern  Siberia,  on  the  Lower  Tunguska,  about  240  miles  from 
its  confluence  with  the  Ye-oee-sey,  its  geographical  position  being 
between  50°  and  65°  N.  Lat.,  and  in  102°  £.  Long. 

The  bank  of  the  river  for  1960  feet  is  formed  entirely  by  a  sec- 
tion of  the  graphite  stratum,  varying  from  35  inches  to  5  feet  in 
thickness,  and  above  it,  often  receding  several  feet,  the  etratnm  of 
spathoee-iron  ore,  also  about  5  feet  in  thickneae.  These  beds  of 
graphite  and  iron  ore  being  washed  by  the  river  floods,  are  quite  bare 
for  from  30  to  105  feet  inland,  where  a  bank  begins  to  rise,  formed 
by  the  detritus  of  a  mountain  side ;  one  of  the  chain  of  Alexyef, 
which  iteelf  is  placed  about  1800  feet  from  the  shore.  This  moun- 
tain is  composed  of  gneiss,  and  it  has  not  been  ascertained  whether 
either  of  the  strata  above  mentioned  pass  into  the  mountain,  but 
they  have  been  traced  nearly  to  the  haae  by  borings,  and  have  been 
found  to  extend,  without  varjring  very  much  in  tbicknesa,  over  a 
space  of  about  1960  aqnare  feet,  computed  to  contain  12,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  graphite. 

The  author  believes  that  no  similar  beds  or  strata  of  graphite 
have  ever  been  discovered,  this  mineral  usually  being  in  imbedded 
masses,  rarely  very  large,  or  in  large  nodnles  in  pockets  formed  in 
trap  and  other  igneotiB  rocks. 

The  third  mine  described — namely,  that  of  M.  Alibert — is  of 
this  character.  It  is  also  in  Eastern  Siberia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Balagool,  98°  30'  E.  Long.,  by  52°  20"  N.  Lat.,  200  miles  west 
from  Irkutsk.  Mount  Balagool  is  composed  chiefly  of  sienite, 
and  it  is  by  laborious  operations  that  the  graphite  is  raised  to  the 
surface.  The  mines  are  worked  by  the  half-wild  Buriates  of  the  dis- 
trict; but  the  quality  of  the  graphite  is  so  remarkably  fine  that  it 
amply  repays  tbe  labour,  L.1200  worth  having  being  raised  in  the 
flret  four  months. 

The  author  called  attention  to  these  mines,  because,  from  their 
vaetness,  as  compared  with  other  graphite  deposits,  they  assume  a 
geological  importance,  and  are  rendered  peculiarly  interesting  by 
the  facts  lately  stated  by  Dr  Fauli  respecting  the  development  of 
plumbago  in  the  process  of  manufactnring  caustic  soda  on  a  large 
scale. 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  99 

The  following  gentleman  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society : — 

R«T.  BOBKXT  NiSBBT,  D.D. 

TLe  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

Proceedings  of  the  Britieli  Ueteorological  Society.    Vol.  I.  Noe. 

1-4.     8vo, — From  (A«  Society. 
List  of  Uembers  of  tbe  British  Meteorological  Society.    1862. 

August. — From  the  lame. 
Catalogue  of  Books  io  the  Library  of  the  British  Ueteorological 

Society.     August,  1862,    8vo. — From  the  wme. 
Eleventh  Beport  of  the  Council  of  the  British  Meteorolo^pcal  Society 

for  the  year  1861.    8to. — From  the  tame. 
The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.  January,  1863.  8ro. — 

From  the  Conduclare. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.     Tol.  IX. 

No.  68.    8vo.~From  the  Sbeieiy. 
The  Journal  of  Agriculture.     March  1863.     8yo.— From  the  ffigh- 

land  and  Agrieuhttral  Soeiett/. 
Quarterly  Return  of  tbe  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered 

in  the  Divisions,  Counties,  and  Districts  of  Scotland.    No. 

XXXII.  8vo. — From  the  Begiitrar-Oeneral. 
Supplement  to  the  above.  8vo, — From  the  »ame. 
DenkschrfftsD   der   kaiserlicben  Akademie   der   WlBseuschaften, 

FhiloBophisch-historische  Classe.    Zwolfter  Band.   4to. — From 

the  Academy. 
Sitznngsberichte  der  kaiserlicben  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften. 

XXXIX  Band,  ii,  iii,  iv,  u.  v,  Heft ;  u.  XI  Band.  i.  a.  ii, 

Heft.     (Philoeophisch-historiBohe  Classe.)     8vo.— from  the 

Sitznugshericbte  der  kaiserlicben  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 
Matbematiscb-naturwiHsenscbaftliche  Classe  XLV  Band,  iii, 
iv,  a.  V,  Heft  (Erate  Abtheilung),  u.  v,  Heft  (Zweite  Ahthei- 
Inng);  n.  XLVI  Band,  i,  n.  ii,  Heft  (Zweite  Abtheilung). 
8vo. — From  the  same. 

The  Plants  ludigeDQUs  to  the  Colony  of  Victoria,  described  by 


j.Googlc 


100  Proceedings  of  Me  Boyal  Society 

FerdinBDd  Mueller,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  &v.    Vol.  I.  Thalamiaons. 
4tO, — From  tht  A  ulkor. 
Maps  of  the  Ordinance  Sarve;  of  Scotland.    With  CataUgue. — From 
Colimtl  Sir  Henry  Jama. 


Monday,  16/A  March  1863. 
Dr  OHRISTISON,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Commanications  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Polarization  of  the  Atmoepbere.    By  Sir  David 

Brewster,  K.H.,  P.E.S. 

2.  Concluding  Note  on  the  Star  Observations  at  Elchies. 

By  Professor  C.  Fiazzi  Smyth. 

In  the  former  paper,  read  in  December  1862,  the  author  had 
detailed  the  points  of  interest  that  had  been  found  in  discussing  the 
anglee  of  position,  distances,  and  magnitudes  of  certain  double 
stars  which  he  observed  at  Elchies  with  Ifr  Grant's  fine  telescope 
in  last  September ;  and  be  now  treated  similarly  the  observations  of 
the  colours  of  the  stars  then  and  there  observed.  The  chief  point 
to  notice  being,  that  in  certain  cases  the  colours  undergo  periodi- 
cal variations ;  with  the  star  "  95  Heronlis"  in  twelve  years,  almost 
exactly  within  the  tenth  part  of  a  year,  if  older  records  can  be 
trusted  to  implicitly  ;  and  such  periodical  change  the  author  con- 
sidered a  new  feature  in  this  branch  of  astronomy,  and  one  of  a 
most  important  and  hopeful  character  for  observers  to  follow  up  in 
future. 

The  paper  concluded  with  a  well-merited  tribute  of  praise  to  Mr 
Grant  of  Elchies,  for  his  services  to  science,  in  planning,  causing 
to  be  made,  and  then  erecting,  his  large  equatorial  telescope ;  and 
with  sincere  condolence  for  his  subsequent  long  illness,  "which 
alone  is  the  cause  that  he  himself  has  not  been  the  first  to  contri- 
bute to  a  learned  Society  observations,  and  perhaps  discoveries, 
made  by  himself  with  the  said  telescope." 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seavion  1862-63.  101 

3.  Od  a  new  fosBil  OpMuridan,  from  Post-plioceue  strata  of 
the  vallej  of  the  Forth.     By  Professor  Allman. 

I  am  indebted  to  one  of  onr  UniTeisity  etadents,  Mr  Petei 
LawBon,  foi  a  specimen  of  ft  star-fish,  vhiob  be  inforoied  me  had 
been  found,  along  with  many  others,  in  a  deposit  of  brick-clay  neai 
Dunbar.  The  interest  of  this  fact  was  a  sufficient  inducement  to 
canse  me  at  once  to  visit  the  locality  where  the  atar-fiah  was  ob- 
tained, and  where,  by  the  kindness  of  Mr  France,  the  proprietor  of 
the  brick-works,  I  succeeded  in  obtaining  good  specimens  of  the 
fossil. 

Notwithstanding  some  Tory  marked  characters,  which  might 
possibly  be  regarded  as  possessing  higher  than  specific  value,  I  pre- 
fer referring  the  star-fish  of  the  Dunbar  brick-clay  to  Miiller  and 
Troschel's  genus  OphioUpU,  rather  than  encumbering  the  existing 
nomenclature  with  a  new  and  doubtful  generic  name.  The  species, 
which  is  very  distinct  from  every  other  described  member  of  the 
genus,  may  be  defined  by  the  following  diagnosis : — 

OphioUpu  gradlii  (mihi),  nov.  spec. 

Upper  surface  of  the  disc  covered  with  imbricated  plates,  a  singit; 
circular  plate  occupying  the  centre,  and  with  the  radial  shields 
large,  and  having  their  opposed  edges  in  contact  for  tbeii  entire 
length.  Dorsal  shields  of  the  arms  about  twice  as  broad  as  long 
near  the  disc,  and  thence  with  their  breadth  gradually  decreasing 
in  proportion  to  their  length,  until  towards  the  distal  extremity  of 
the  arm  tbey  become  longer  than  broad ;  tbey  cover  the  wliole 
dorsal  surface  of  the  arm,  and  have  their  adoral  and  aboral  margins 
transverse  and  parallel.  Ventral  sbields  of  the  arms  very  minute, 
and  allowing  the  lateral  shields  of  one  side  to  meet  those  of  the 
opposite  side  in  the  inferior  median  line  of  the  arm.  Aboral  edge 
of  each  lateral  shield  with  a  notch  for  the  exit  of  a  cirrus.  Spines 
about  once  and  a-bolf  as  long  as  the  breadth  of  the  arms.  Arms 
about  five  times  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  disc,  and  gradually 
tapering  to  a  fine  point, 

The  size  of  the  largest  specimens  obtained  is  about  four  inches 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  arms. 


DvGooglc 


102  Proceedings  of  the  BoycA  Society 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  present  species  is  the 
rudimenlal  condition  of  the  ventral  shields  of  the  anne;  these 
shields  being  much  smaller  thau  iu  Ophiolqait  ciliaia  (Uiil.  and 


KosaU  in  brick-clay  of  tbe  Post-pliocene  age,  new  Dunbar.  Scotland. 


Ophiol^i*  graeilit — (A)  viewed  from  the  dorsal  side,  sltglitlj  enlarged : 
(B)  ventral  wall  of  one  of  the  arma  ttill  more  enlarged  viewed  from  within ; 
showing  the  lateral  shields  BlighU;  Bepatated  from  one  another  along  tbe 
mesial  line,  where  the  minute  ventral  sbielde  are  introdaced  between  their 
angles.  The  spertutea  for  the  exiC  of  the  Rmbulacrtd  cirri  are  seen  near  the 
outer  edges  of  the  lateral  shields. 

TroBch.),  where  they  are  exceptionally  small  among  the  Ophiurida, 
and  where  the  lateral  shields  bear  only  short  papilliform  spines 
instead  of  the  long,  highly -developed  spines  of  0.  gracilU.     It  w»* 


DvGooglc 


o/EdiiJmrgh,  Semoa  1862-63.  103 

only  after  having  sought  in  vain  for  the  ventral  shields  in  some 
dozena  of  npeoimena  that  I  ancceeded  in  detecting  them  in  a  single 
ioBtance.  In  this  case  they  appeared  in  a  view  of  the  internal  sur- 
face of  the  ventral  wall  (fig.  B)  as  very  minute  rhombic  pUtes 
lying  along  the  mesial  line,  where  they  were  interposed  between 
the  angles  of  the  lateral  shields.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
ventral  plates  are  more  fully  displayed  upon  the  outer  surface  of 
the  wall,  but  in  no  case  did  I  find  this  surface  sufficiently  exposed 
to  enable  me  to  obtain  a  view  of  them ;  while  the  inner  surface, 
on  the  contrary^  was  frequently  well  exposed  by  the  disappearance 
in  the  fossil  of  the  dorsal  shields,  and  of  the  series  of  vertebra-like 
osBLolee,  which,  in  the  living  Ophiurida  occupies  the  axis  of  the 
arms.  In  most  of  the  specimens  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  afi'ord 
a  view  of  the  ventral  walls  of  the  arms,  the  lateral  shields  were 
seen  to  be  slightly  separated  from  one  another  along  the  ventral 
suture,  leaving  here  a  distinct  but  narrow  fissure,  which  was  not 
interrupted  even  by  the  intervention  of  the  minute  ventral  plates, 
which  had  in  almost  every  case  disappeared.  In  some  instances, 
however,  the  lateral  shields  escaped  displacement,  and  the  two 
series  were  then  in  contact  withoneanotheraloDgthe  line  of  suture. 
The  notch  forthe  exit  of  the  cirri  or  tentacular  ambulacra,  situated 
on  the  aboral  edge  of  every  lateral  plate,  is  very  distinct,  and  is 
completed  into  an  entire  aperture  by  the  adoral  edge  of  the  plate 
next  in  succession.  The  spines  along  the  sides  of  the  arms  are 
long  and  slender ;  in  no  case,  however,  could  I  satisfy  myself  that 
more  than  a  single  spine  was  borne  by  each  lateral  shield ;  but  the 
condition  of  the  specimens  does  not  justify  our  thus  limiting  the 
number  of  those  spines.  Neither  was  I  able  to  discover  in  the 
specimens  any  evidence  of  scales  over  the  apertures  for  the  cirri. 

The  deposit  in  which  Ophiolepii  gracilis  occurs  is  a  fine  dense 
tenacious  blue  clay  of  Post-pliocene  age.  It  is  situated  upon  the 
shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  about  two  miles  to  the  west  of  Dunbar, 
and  is  largely  worked  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks.  It  lies  low ; 
and  were  it  not  for  an  artificial  embankment,  would  be  flooded  at 
high  tide. 

In  this  deposit,  at  about  five  feet  from  the  surface,  is  a  horizontal 
bed,  where  the  star-fishes  are  found.  They  occur  in  great  numbers 
upon  the  surface  of  the  bed,  which  is  occasionally  separated  from 

o2 


DvGooglc 


104  Proceedioffs  of  the  Boi/tU  Society 

the  bed  above  it  by  a  thin  parting  of  fine  sand.  They  are  remark- 
able for  their  nnmutilated  condition,  lying  there  with  their  slender 
arms,  even  to  the  extreme  points,  in  the  position  whiah  they  most 
have  naturally  held  dnring  life,  thos  showing  an  entire  absence  of 
that  BpontaDeoufi  diBmemberment  which  is  bo  oharacteristic  of  the 
OjAiurida  when  dying  under  any  prolonged  irritation,  and  indicat- 
ing Bome  Budden  c&UBe  of  deprivation  of  life,  such  as  we  may  enp- 
poB6  to  resnlt  from  an  irruption  of  fresh  wat«r  into  the  part  of  the 
sea  inhabited  by  them. 

None  of  the  specimeuB  I  obtained,  however,  i[ere  Bnfficiently 
well  preserved  to  enable  me  to  make  ont  all  their  chacacten  as 
completely  as  I  could  have  wished,  the  nature  of  the  clay  in  which 
they  were  imbedded  being  apparently  not  suited  to  the  preservation 
of  the  more  delicate  structures.  The  oral  surface  of  the  disc,  espe- 
cially, was  in  no  case  retained  so  perfectly  as  to  allow  of  the  mouth 
or  the  dispoBition  of  the  plates  of  this  part  of  the  animal  being 
observed.  It  was  only  in  some  instances  that  traces  of  the  spines 
were  visible,  and  then  almost  the  only  indications  left  were  their 
impressions  in  the  surrounding  clay. 

It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  fact,  that  not  only  did  all  the 
specimens  found  belong  to  a  single  species,  but  that  not  a  vestige 
of  a  shell,  or  of  any  other  organism,  could  be  detected  in  any  part 
of  the  clay  which  I  bad  an  opportunity  of  examining. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  admitted  Fellows  of  the 
Society : — 

The  Hon.  Lord  Obiudale. 

Joseph  D.  EnsBTr,  H.A.,  ProfeMor  of  Hsthem&tice  ud  NttanI 
PhilMopliy,  King's  College,  WindaoT,  Nova  Bcotia, 

The  following  donationB  to  the  library  were  announced : — 

Almanaque  N&utico  para  1864,  calculado  de  6rden  de  S.  St.  en  el 

Obeervatorio  de  mattua  de  Is  ciudad  de  San  Fernando.    Cadiz: 

1862.  8vo.— from  the  Director  o/ike  OhervaUtry. 
Proceedings  of  the  Linnean  Society.     Vol.  VII ,  No.  25.     8vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.     February, 

1863.  8vo.— from  the  Canadian  Intlitute. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  106 

ProceediDgs  of  tfae  Horticultural  Society.     March  1663.     6to.— 

From  the  Society. 
Transactions  of  tbo  Hietoric  Society  of  Lancashire  and  Cheebire. 

New  Series.     Vol.11.     9i\o.—  Fnm  the  Society. 
Pioceediigs  of  the  Boyal  Institution.    Vol.  I.     8vo.— JVom  the 

IiulittUion. 
HoBtbly  Noticesof  the  Royal  Astionomical  Society.     Vol.  XXIII. 

No.  4.     8vo. — From  the  Society, 
AbatractB  of  the  Froceedinga  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London. 

-No.  91.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
The  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.    Nob.  II.  and  III.    8ro. — 

From  the  Society. 
Monthly  Retnm  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uamages  registered  in 

the  Eight  Principal  Towps  of   Scotland.      February,  1863. 

8vo. — From  ike  Begiitrar-Qtneral, 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London.    March  1868.    6vo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Filote  Francaise.— /Vom  the  Depot  de  la  Marine. 


Monday,  Uh  AprU,  1863. 

pRorBSSOR  KELLAND,  Yice-President,  in  the  Gliair. 

Mr  J.  D,  Marwick  presented,  through  Frofessor  Smytb,  epecimens 
of  lead  from  the  lOof  of  the  lower  storey  of  Neleoo'e  Monument,  on 
the  CaltoD  Hill,  injured  by  lightning. 

The  following  CommuDications  were  read  : — 

1.  AccompaDying  Note  to  FortioDS  of  Lead  from  the  Boof 
of  the  Lower  Storey  of  Nelson's  Monument,  injured  by 
Lightning  on  the  evening  of  4th  Fehniaiy  1863.  By 
Professor  C.  Piazzi  Smyth. 

The  portionsof  sheet-lead  ahove  mentioned  badattracted  my  atten- 
tion on  the  days  following  the  4th  of  Fehruary,  when  engaged  in  re- 
pairing some  damage  which  had  then  occurred  to  tbe  electric  wires 
connecting  the  Nelson  Monument  and  the  Observatory;  and  finding 


DvGooglc 


106  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

that  plumbers  (employed  by  the  Towd-GoudcU)  were  removing  tlie 
old  lead  and  Bubstitntitig  oew  in  its  place,  and  being  also  eneouiaged 
by  Frofegsor  P.  O.  Tait,  who  with  me  rieited  the  spot,  to  believe 
that  the  markinga  which  bad  been  diecorered  were  electrically  of 
unnaual  interest,  I  lost  no  time  in  applying  to  Mr  J.  D.  Marwick, 
town-clerk,  for  those  portions  of  the  leaden  covering  which  con- 
tained the  marks  in  qnestion,  with  the  view  of  presenting  tbem  to 
the  Boyal  Society. 

Mr  Marwick  was  as  obliging  aa  prompt  in  responding  to  such  a 
request,  and  sent  me  the  required  specimens  next  day,  accompanied 
by  the  enclosed  memorandum  written  by  Mr  H.,  asaistant  to 
Mr  Cousin,  city- architect. 

lOlA  FOniary  186S. 

"  The  accompanying  pieces  of  lead  were  taken  from  the  north- 
west side  of  the  lead  platform  on  the  roof  of  the  lower  part  of 
Nelson's  Monument. 

"  The  distance  between  the  holes  was  about  nine  feet  six  inches. 

"  Both  holes  were  immediately  over  a  block-tin  gas-pipe,  whiob 
is  here  carried  under  the  lead  and  boarding  of  the  platform,  and 
which  was  found  melted  the  whole  length  between  the  two  holes, 
and  a  foot  beyond  the  north-east  hole. 

"  These  holes  in  the  lead  were  evidently  direclly  caused  by  the 
burning  gas  from  the  pipes  underneath. 

Fig.  1. 


"  The  sketch  shows  section  through  the  platform  between  the 
two  holes  A  and  B.  CD  shows  the  gaa-pipe  under  and  between 
them. 

"  From  this  sketch  we  might  naturally  expect  a  hole  melted  in 
the  lead  at  A,  the  pipe  being  here  at  its  highest  level  immediately 
under  the  boarding,  only  one  inch  from  the  lead. 

"  The  pipe  between  C  and  D  would  very  quickly  be  melted  by 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Semwn  1862-63.  107 

the  buraing  gas,  as  it  lies  horizoDtally  and  can  be  more  easily  acted 
OD  by  a  flame  iaaniiig  from  it. 

"  At  D  tlie  pipe  dips  veitically  about  eighteen  inches. 

"  It  IB  evident  that  the  vertical  length  of  pipe  DE  would  not 
be  readUy  melted  by  the  etiong  flame  baming  at  D. 

"  The  boarding  and  lead  at  B,  immediately  over  D,  would  there- 
fore be  exposed  to  the  flame  of  the  gaa  for  a  mnch  longer  time 
than  any  part  between  A  and  B.  And  here  we  might  expect  what 
we  find,  a  large  piece  of  the  boarding  burnt,  and  the  larger  of  the 
two  holes  in  the  aocompanying  pieces  of  lead. 

"  How  the  gas  was  at  firat  ignited  remains  to  be  shown. 


The  above  memorandum  gives  an  excellent  matter-of-fact  de- 
scription of  what  chiefly  remained  to  be  seen  at  the  time  when 
it  was  written,  but  it  does  not  mention  what  had  mnch  struck  me 
several  days  previously,  when  I  first  caught  sight  of  the  small  and 
neat  oblong  hole  in  the  roof  at  A ;  and,  on  subsequently  pulling 
up  the  leads,  which  at  that  time  bad  not  been  disturbed  at  that  place 
aince  the  storm,  I  found  the  under  surface  of  the  metal  strangely 
burred  and  scored  around  the  aperture,  and  also  perceived  small 
globnles  of  melted  lead,  driven  away  apparently  by  some  radiating 
force  from  the  hole,  until  caught  and  jammed  between  the  remain- 
ing uninjured  lead  and  its  wooden  surface  of  support.*  Neither 
does  the  memorandum  account  for  the  first  igniting  of  the  gas, 
but  expressly  says,  that  what  may  have  caused  that  "  remains  to 
be  shown." 

This  is  in  truth  the  most  important  part  of  the  whole  affair,  and 
which  I  will  now  endeavour  to  describe, 

The  evening  of  the  ith  of  February  1863  ushered  in  one  of  the 
most  violent  storms  of  thunder  and  lightning  that  has  been  ex- 
perienced in  Edinburgh,  and  perhaps  in  most  parts  of  Scotland,  for 
many  years,  and  its  violence  was  all  the  more  remarkable,  inasmuch 
as  the  month  of  February  is  near  the  minimum  of  the  year  for 

*  Theie  globnleB  had  Ter?  Imperfect  odlieBfon,  and  had  mostly  dropped  off 
whan  Oie  plate  wu  ptMented  to  the  R07&I  Socjet; ;  but  aome  few  of  the  more 
distant  ones  rtiU  remained,  and  all  the  otbera  had  left  marks,  mDall;  of  a 
yedofwiah  colour,  showing  their  former  positions,  sizes,  and  shapes. 


j.Googlc 


108  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

electrical  monifeBtations  id  the  shape  of  thnnder-Btonus.  This  point, 
not  yet  geneTall;  ackaowledged,  is  indicated  pretty  certainly  by  the 
following  numbers,  extracted  from  the  Registrar- General's  printed 
Beportfi  for  Scotland ;  they  are,  in  fact,  the  deductions  prepared 
for  that  officer  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Edinbui^h,  from  the 
schedules  of  Bfty-five  obeervers  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of 
S<>ot!aQd,  and  give,  for  the  means  of  three  years,  as  follows : — 


Number  of  Sbtioiui 
at  whi(^  LigbUiiiig 

Mean  Number  of 

Times  at  each 

Station. 

JanuaiT,    .    .    . 
FebruaiT, .    .    . 
Mareh,.    .    .    . 

34 
U 
43 

4 
S 
3 

X; :  :  :  : 

Jan.,    .... 

86 
85 

4 
0 
7 

July,    .... 

91 
M 
31 

7 
3 
3 

October,    .    .    . 

November,     .    . 
December,     .    . 

60 
30 
37 

6 
4 
4 

The  storm,  theUjirBS  anomalous  in  its  season  of  occurreuce,  and 
in  its  violence ;  also,  as  it  would  appear  from  the  newspaper  accennta, 
by  the  regularity  and  broad  spread  of  its  passage  over  the  country 
from  west  to  east,  occurring  nearly  an  hour  earlier  at  Greenock  than 
at  Aberdeen  or  Edinburgh.  In  Glasgow  and  ita  neighbourhood 
several  buildings  were  struck,  a  tall  chimney  and  a  church  entirely 
ruined ;  a  lodging-house  of  operatives  injured  in  every  floor ;  and 
a  large  number  of  the  telegraph  instruments  of  the  Private  Tele- 
graph Company  thrown  out  of  order, 'and  one  clerk  rendered 


This  storm  began  in  Edinburgh  about  7*  p.m.,  and  laeted  nearly  an 
hour ;  it  came  with  very  strong  west  wind,  and  accompaniments  of 
rain  and  hail ;  and  it  was  described  to  me  by  Mr  Wallace,  who  was 
on  the  Calton  Hill  at  the  time,  as  being  most  remarkable  for  ths 
slanting,  almost  horizontal,  direction  of  the  lightning,  as  well  as 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgli,  Session  1862r63.  109 

its  greeniBh-blue  colour.  The  thunder  was  at  the  same  time  deafen- 
ingi;  loud,  and  OD  one  occasion  apparently  coincident  with  tbefiaeb; 
shaking  the  house  he  was  in  (the  old  ObserratoTy  Tower),  and 
giving  the  idea  that  either  that  building,  or  tbe  Boyal  ObserratoTy, 
must  have  been  struck.  Going  oot  immediately  to  see  what  might 
have  happened,  he  met  tbe  seTvant  at  tbe  door,  who  spoke  of  the 
flash  of  lightning  having  enteied  tbe  lowest  room  of  that  tower, 
"  gone  half  way  across  tbe  floor,"  and  left  an  overpowering  amell 
of  "  brimstone"  behind ;  and  also  called  his  attention  to  Nelson's 
Monument,  about  200  yards  east-soutb-east  of  them,  being  appa- 
rently on  firej  because  sparks  were  issuing  from  tbe  roof  of  one  of 
the  low  rooms  at  its  foot,  on  the  western  side. 

Now,  at  tbe  winter  period  of  the  year,  it  seems  that  the  tenant 
there  (Mrs  ■  )  finding  tbe  above  monumental  bnilding  very 
cold,  prefers  to  live  in  a  wooden  bouse  close  by,  and  on  tbe  evening 
uf  tbe  4tb  of  February  she  was  in  that  house  ill  and  in  bed ;  but 
when  tbe  particular  flash  occurred  which  bad  been  so  much  noticed 
by  Mr  Wallace  and  tbe  Observatory  servant,  it  seemed  close  to  her 
.  also,  filled  her  house  with  tbe  brimstone  odour,  and  so  firmly  im- 
pressed her  with  tbe  belief  that  the  Monument  bad  been  struck, 
that  she  sent  out  her  servant  "  to  see  if  the  time-hall  was  still  at 
the  top  of  the  building ;"  believing  that  if  mischief  had  occurred 
anywhere  from  lightning,  it  would  be  near  the  summit  of  the 
structure.  Tbe  answer,  however,  brought  back  was,  that  the  time- 
ball  was  quite  safe,  but  that  sparks  were  coming  out  of  the  roof  of 
tbe  low  west  room.  The  policeman  of  the  hiU  was  likewise  on 
tbe  ground  almost  immediately  after  the  flash,  and  testified  both 
to  tbe  then  sudden  appearance  of  sparks  issuing  from  the  roof  of  the 
uninhabited  room,  and  its  accompaniment,by  tbe  traditional  sul- 
phurous smell  in  the  air  of  strong  lightning,  or  "  ozone." 

The  door  of  the  Monument  was  then  speedily  opened,  access  to 
the  roof  obtained,  and  tbe  new-lit  fire,  caused  by  the  burning  of  gas 
and  wooden  rafters,  speedily  extinguished.  In  this  manner  tbe  gas, 
no  doubt,  after  it  was  set  on  fire,  did  much  mischief  to  both  leaden 
roof  and  wooden  rafters,  especially  at  the  place  on  tbe  sketch 
marked  B,  which  contains  big  and  rather  confused  holes;  hut  if 
any  one  still  asks  what  first  set  tbe  gas  on  fire,  I  think  there  is 
equally  little  doubt  that  we  may  answer  "  it  was  that  particular 


DvGooglc 


110  Pro^eedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

Blanting  flash  of  local  and  ozone- producing  lighttiiDg  which  excited 
the  reHidentH  on  the  hill  so  muoh  at  the  time." 

We  may  probably  lAao  aaaume  that  the  lightDing  Btrook  at  the 
poiDt  A.     I  had  already  been  directed  to  that  point  from  the 

Fig.  2. 


Tha  hole  at  "  A,"  bb  it  appean  on  the  under  inrfkce  of  tha  lead ; 
carefully  drawn  full  size  bj  Mr  J.  H,  Comer,  wood-engiaver. 

Bimilnrity  of  the  hole  there,  to  a  lightning  hole  in  sand,  hut  could 
not  imagine  why  the  fluid  should  have  pierced  a  bole  through 
a  good  conductor,  viz.,  a  sheet  of  lead.  Ou  mentioning  this  difB- 
culty  to  ProfesBor  Tait,  be  remarked,  "  that  if  the  hole  was  due  to 
the  immediate  action  of  the  spark,  I  might  be  quite  sure  that  there 
was  a  conductor  below,  which  the  lightning  was  trying  to  get  at 
and  pass  off  by,"  and  afier  that  opinion  had  been  so  expressed,  the 
lead  was  lifted  at  the  place  (it  had  previonsly  only  been  raised  at 
B),  and  the  gas-pipe  was  fonnd  precisely  there  at  its  closest  point 
of  approach  anywhere  to  the  roof,  as  may  be  seen  clearly  repre- 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  Ill 

aented  in  tb«  aaaietaDt  srchitect'e  Bubeeqnent  and  independetit 
drawing.* 

However  aoomalona,  theiefore,  the  caee  ma;  appear  at  fint,  Bome 
tbeoretioal  priDolples  are  remarkably  borne  oat  by  it ;  and  that  tbe 
foot  of  the  building  shoold  bave  been  strack,  and  not  the  top,  seeniB 
to  follow  from  tbe  low,  level  and  almoet  horizontal  direction  in 
which  the  lightning  was  senaibly  observed  to  come,  and  with  the 
wind  and  rain,— causing  thereby  the  windward  foot  of  the  tall 
building  to  become  for  that  occasion  the  shortest  passage  for  the 
fluid  to  reach  the  ground  by. 

In  such  a  case,  though,  it  may  be  suggested,  that  tbe  long  bori- 
zoDtal  wire  extending  through  a  length  of  4000  feet  between 
the  Nelson  Uouument  and  the  castle  for  the  service  of  the  time- 
gun,  should  have  been  most  abundantly  charged  by  iudaction. 
That  is  true ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  said  wire  was 
copiously  filled,  and  might  have  produoed  dangerous  efiects,  bad 
it  not  been  furnished  at  either  end  with  large  copper  plates  in 
close  proximity  to  many  pronged  conductors  ending  in  wet  earth, 
which  led  away  innocuously  the  greater  part  of  tbe  charge.  Enough 
however  still  remained  to  do  some  singular  damage  to  tbe  eleo- 
trioally  controlled  clocks  at  either  end  of  the  line.  Thus,  tbe 
members  of  one  of  the  bundles  of  permanent  magnets,  near  tbe 
pendulum-bob  of  the  caatle  clock,  bad  their  poles  changed  and 
their  new  attraction  made  rather  stronger  than  their  old;  the 
members  of  a  similar  bundle  in  tbe  Observatory  window-clock 
had  their  poles  partially  changed ;  and  in  tbe  interior  of  tbe 
Normal  Mean  Time  clock  one  of  the  gold  contact  points  was 
partially  fused,  and  spattered  on  its  steel  spring,  which  was  blued 
at  that  part  as  though  by  beat. 

The  gold  contact  point  thus  treated,  it  will  be  understood,  was 
in  direct  metallic  connection  at  the  instant  with  the  long  open-air 
wire;  and  tbe  magnets  that  were  altered  were  in  indirect  conneo- 

*  FrofeasoT  Tail  has  also  remaiked,  and  it  Menu  vail  worth;  to  be  ooted 
sa  a  memorandum  for  an;  (utiue  occaaion,  that  it  would  bavu  been  advisable 
to  havB  preearred  tbe  boarding  at  "  A,"  na  veil  as  the  lead ;  for  the  manner 
of  action  and  of  piercing  throngh  wood  by  lightning  ie  very  different  to  tbe 
burning  action  of  flame;  and  thick  wooden  planking  mat  everywhere  loler- 
poaed  between  the  gM-pipe  and  the  leaden  roof. 


DvGooglc 


112  Proceedings  o/ihe  Jtoyal  Society 

tioD,  or  rather,  in  inductive  position,  for  they  were  eurroiiDded  at 
the  time  by  the  wire  coil  of  the  peodulombob,  whose  composing 
wire  is  a  cooiiected  cootiDuation  of  the  long  opea-air  wire. 

To  this  it  only  remaina  to  add,  that  these  lightning- made  mag- 
nets at  the  Castle  clock,  when  duly  replaced  in  the  handle  truitabl; 
with  their  new  poles,  have  given  the  most  steady  and  satisfactory 
Insults  in  working  the  control  of  the  clock  ever  since. 

2.  Note  OD  the  Aoatomical  Type  in  the  Funis  TTmbilicalis 

and  Placenta.    By  Professor  Simpson. 

3.  On  Earth-Cuirents  during  Magnetic  Calnos,  and  their 
Connection  with  Magnetic  Changes.  By  Balfour  Stewart, 
Esq.,  M.A.,  F.'R.S,     Communicated  by  Professor  Tait. 

In  two  previous  commanications  made  by  the  author  to  the 
Boyal  Society  of  London,  it  had  been  endeavoured  to  show  that 
earth- currents  and  auioree,  which  occur  simultaneously  with  mag- 
netic storms,  are  secondary  cnrrents  due  to  the  small  but  abrupt 
changes  in  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  which  such  storms  denote. 
Earth' currents  also  occnr  during  periods  of  magnetic  calm,  but  they 
can  then  be  rendered  visible  only  by  means  of  a  delicate  g^- 
vanometer. 

Such  has  been  constructed  by  tiz  C.  \.  Walker,  who  has  by  its 
means  registered  those  earth -currents  which  occurred  during  the 
three  last  months  of  1861,  a  period  of  magnetic  oalm, 

The  object  of  the  present  communication  is  to  discuss  those 
observations  of  Mr  Walker  in  connection  with  the  simultaneons 
changes  which  took  place  in  the  values  of  the  declination  and 
the  horizontal  force  component  of  the  earth's  magnetism,  these 
changes  being  famished  by  means  of  continuoasly  acting  nagneto- 
giaphs  at  Eew  Observatory.  By  this  method  Mr  Walker's  obser- 
vations were  divided  into  three  classes, — 

lU  e{au.  ObservatioDS  during  moments  of  magnetic  calm. 
2d      „      Observations  during  minor  magnetic  disturbances. 
Sd     „     Observations  during  greater  magnetic  disturbs  ncea. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Sessim  1862-63.  118 

Id  the  first  of  these  olasBeB  a  law  of  hoars  waa  manifeBtljr  ob- 
served, the  values  of  the  eartb-canento  for  the  hours  of  the  eight 
being  extremeljr  small.  But  in  the  second,  and  especially  in  the 
third  clsflB,  the  lav  of  hours  was  ob»rved  to  fail ;  and  in  the  latter 
of  these  classes  the  peculiar  action  of  disturbances  was  very  mani- 
fest, the  tendency  of  such  disturbances  being  to  create  very  strong 
earth-currents  at  the  moment  of  their  occnrrence;  and  it  is  notice- 
able that  these  earth-  currents  were  ae  often  positive  as  negative. 

It  was  remarked  by  the  author,  that  the  very  great  strength  of 
those  earth -currents,  which  take  place  at  the  moments  of  disturb- 
ance, is  in  favour  of  the  theory  of  induction,  since  the  peculiarity 
of  a  disturbance  is  not  so  much  a  very  great  as  a  very  rapid  and 
abrupt  departure  of  the  magnet  from  the  nonnat  position ;  and 
since,  on  the  theory  of  induction,  the  corresponding  earth-current 
will  be  due  to  abruptness  of  magnetic  change,  we  thus  obtain  an 
explanation  why  the  currents  which  accompany  disturbances  are  so 
very  powerful,  and  also  why  these  are  as  often  positive  as  negative. 

With  regard  to  the  first  class  of  earth-current  observations,  or 
those  which  occurred  during  magnetic  calm,  the  author  believed 
the  daily  range  indicated  by  these  observations  to  be  the  induction 
effect  of  the  daily  magnetic  change,  on  which  hypothesis  the  small 
value  of  the  currents  for  the  night  hours  might  be  accounted  for 
by  the  corresponding  fact  that  during  these  hours  the  magnetic 
change  is  exceedingly  small. 

i.  Note  on  a  Piotish  InMription  in  the  Charchyard  of 
St  Vigeans.    By  Professor  Simpson. 

Dr  Simpson  considered  the  inscription  to  be  "  Drosten,  Son  of 
Voret,  of  the  family  of  Fergus." 

5.  On  Eome  Kinematical  and  Dynamical  Tlieorems.     By 
Professor  W.  Thomson.     (Abstract  by  Professor  Tail.) 

In  the  course  of  investigationa  which  the  author  had  been  led  to 
make  in  connection  with  a  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy  which 
he  and  Professor  Tait  are  about  to  publish,  he  met  with  some 
remarkable  theorems,  which  appear  to  bo  new  and  of  considerable 


DvGooglc 


114  Proceedings  o/the  Royal  Society 

import&noe.    As  the  details  of  the  inveBtigatioDB  will  boou  be  pub- 
lifihed,  a  very  brief  sketch  ODly  is  given  here. 

I.  Twiti  of  a  wire.  If  «  etiaight  wire,  of  uniform  section,  have 
a  sido  line  of  refeience  traced  on  its  surface  parallel  to  its  axis ; 
and  if  a  perpendicular  to  this  line  frem  any  point  of  the  axis  be 
called  a  trantvene,  the  amount  of  toision  or  twist  of  the  wire,  when 
bent  into  any  form,  may  be  determined  by  the  following  con- 
struction :— 

Parallel  to  the  tangent  to  the  axis  of  the  wire,  at  a  point  moving 
along  it,  let  a  radius  of  an  unit  sphere  be  drawoj  catting  the 
spherical  suiface  in  a  curve.  From  points  of  this  curve  draw 
parallels  to  the  transveTees  at  the  coriespondlng  points  of  the  bar. 
The  excess  of  the  change  of  direction  from  one  point  to  the  other 
in  the  curve,  above  the  increase  of  its  inclination  to  the  transverse, 
is  equal  to  the  twist  in  the  corresponding  part  of  the  wire. 

From  this  some  very  curious  consequences  follow,  of  which  one 
is  as  follows : — If  a  wire  be  bent  along  any  curve  on  a  spherical 
surface,  so  that  a  side  line  of  reference  lies  all  along  in  contact 
with  the  sphere,  it  acquires  no  twiet ;  so  that  when  an  apple  (sup- 
posed spherical)  is  peeled,  there  is  no  twist  in  the  peel. 

Again,  if  an  infinitely  narrow  ribband  be  laid  on  a  surface  along 
a  geodetic  line,  its  twist  is  at  every  point  equal  to  the  tortnoaity  of 
its  axis. 

II.  Given  any  material  syHtem  at  rest,  and  subjected  to  an 
impulse  of  any  given  magnitude  and  in  any  specified  direction,  it 
will  move  off  so  as  to  take  the  greatest  amount  of  kinetic  energy 
which  the  specified  impulse  can  give  it. 

Cjor.  If  a  set  of  material  points  be  struck  independently  by 
impulses,  each  given  in  amount,  more  kinetic  energy  b  generated 
if  the  points  are  perfectly  free  to  move  each  independently  of  all 
the  others  than  if  they  are  connected  in  any  way. 

III.  (riven  any  material  system  at  rest.  Let  any  parts  of  it 
be  set  in  motion  suddenly  with  given  velocities,  the  otber  parte 
being  influenced  only  by  their  connections  with  those  whioh  are 
set  in  motion,  the  whole  system  will  move  so  as  to  have  less 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-63.  115 

kinetic  energy  tbau  belongs  to  any  other  motion  fulfilling  the  given 
velocity  conditions. 

6.  Note  on  a  Quaternion  Transformation.     By  Prof.  Tait. 

The  following  paper  gives  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  physical 
applications  of  quaternions  to  which  I  referred  in  a  previouH  note 
(^Proceedings,  April  1862),  but  which  other  avocatious  have,  as  yet, 
prevented  me  from  developing  into  a  form  and  bulk  suitable  for 
publication  in  the  Society's  Transactions.  The  equatioDa  I  now 
give  form  the  bati$  of  the  investigations  in  question,  which  I  hope 
to  present  to  the  Society  in  detail  on  some  future  occasion. 

I.  If  the  vector  of  any  point  he  denoted  by 

p-ix+jj,  +  k», (1) 

there  are  many  interesting  aud  important  transformations  depend- 
ing upon  the  effects  of  the  quaternion  operator 

'"'k*>iy*'% (^' 

upon  various  functions  of  f>.  When  the  function  of  p  is  a  scalar, 
the  effect  of  4  is  to  give  the  vector  of  most  rapid  increase.  Its 
effect  on  a  vector  function  is  indicated  briefly  in  my  former  note. 


II.  I  shall  commence  with  one  or  two  veiy  simple  examples, 
which  are  not  only  interesting,  but,  as  we  shall  see,  very  useful  in 
subsequent  transformations. 

''''-(*s+*''){"+*°)--' w 

<l(Tp)"=n(Tp)"T'.aTp-n(Tp)"-'p (5) 

and,  of  course,  "^(Tp)"  ^  "  (T^+»  '^^^' 

.he.«,  irp-i.--^. C) 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


116  Proceedings  o/the  Royal  Society 

and,  of  course,  "^  T"  ~  ~"^  iv"'' ^®^' 

Also,  <ip=  -3  =  Tp«l  Up+  <Tp.  Up=Tp<i  Up-  1, 

■■■^Up=-| (7) 

111.  By  the  help  of  the  above  reeulte,  of  which  (ti)  ie  eapecially 
useful  (though  obvioaa  on  othei  groands),  aud  (4)  aud  (7)  veij 
remarkable,  we  may  eefliljr  fiod  the  effect  of  <l  upon  more  complex 
fnactioriB. 

Thus,  <lSap=  -  «1(aa:  +  &c.)=  -«  (8j 

<  \ap=  ~<Vpa=  -<l(po-a«p)  =  3«-a  =  2a (9J 

Vop      2o      SpVop           2ap'  +  3pVap     ap*-3pSap  -. 

Hence  <1^  =  ^.-^^^ -^^i = ^^^ (10) 

Hence  S  .8p<l  ^  ='''^■^1^^°''^^^- -  ^  -  j%^ 

ip  Ip  Jp  ip 

--'^ ■ <") 

Tbie  is  the  principal  transformation  alluded  to  in  the  title  of  thia 
note.  By  (6)  it  can  be  put  in  the  sometimes  more  conrenient 
form 

S.^<l^.8S..<.i^ (12) 

And  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  as  may  easily  be  seen,  S  may  be 
put  for  y  in  the  left  band  member  of  the  equation. 
We  have  also 
<lV.A>y=<{/5Sip-pSft.+yS/3p}=-yi8+3S/3y-^y-S/3y.  (13) 
Hence,  if  ^  be  any  linear  and  vector  function  of  the  form 

^  =  o+2V.(Spy  +  «lp (14) 

then  <|^=2S/3y-3m=BCalar (14)' 

Hence,  an  integral  of 

<]<r  s  scalar  constant,  is  cr  =^ (15) 

If  the  constant  value  of  <  o-  contain  a  vector  part,  there  will  be 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1662-63.  117 

torme  of  the  fonn  Vcp  in  the  expreBsioD  for  tr,  which  will  then 
express  a,  distortion  accompanied  by  rotation. 

Also,  a  solution  of  <\q=a  (where  q  and  a  are  quaternions)  is 

It  may  be  remarked  also,  as  of  considerable  importance  in  phy- 
sical applications,  that,  by  (8)  and  (9),  <|  (S  +  J'NOofi—O,  but  I 
cannot  enter  at  present  into  details  on  this  point. 

IV.  In  this  brief  note,  I  shall  not  give  any  more  of  these  trans- 
foimatioDS,  which  really  present  no  difficnlty;  but  I  shall  show 
the  ready  applicability  to  physical  questions  of  one  or  two  of  those 
already  obtained,  a  property  of  great  importance,  as  it  may  now 
be  asserted  that  the  next  grand  extensions  of  mathematical  physics 
will,  in  all  lihelihood,  be  furnished  1^  quaternions. 

Thus,  if  en  be  the  Tector-displacement  of  that  point  of  a  homo- 
geneous elastic  solid  whose  vector  is  p,  we  have,  p  being  the  con- 
sequent pressure  produced, 

«Jp+<'<r-  =  0 (16) 

whence      S£p<  V=  —  38f)<ip=Sp,  a  complete  differential....  (16)' 
Also,  generally,  p=AS<io-, 

and  if  the  solid  be  incompressible 

S«)<r-=0 (17) 

Thomson  has  shown  (Camb.  <£  Dub.  Math.  Journal,  U.  p  62),  that 
the  forces  produced  by  given  diBtributione  of  matter,  electricity, 
magnetism,  or  galvanic  currents,  can  be  represented  at  every  point 
by  displacements  of  snch  a  solid  producible  by  external  forces.  It 
may  be  useful  to  give  hie  analysis,  with  some  additions,  in  a 
quaternion  form,  to  show  the  insight  gained  by  the  simplicity  of 
the  present  method. 


This  gives 

the  vector-foice  exerted  by  one  particle  of  matter  or  free  electricity 
on  another.    This  value  of  en  evidently  eatisfies  (16)'  and  (17). 


DvGooglc 


118  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

AgaiD,  if 

S .  Sp<  IT-  =8  J^,  either  is  eq,aal  to 

-8.8p<i^byCU). 

Here  a  particular  caae  ia 

o-  =  -  -5^    which  (Quarterly  MtMth.  Journal,  vol.  iii. 

p.  338)  ifl  tbe  vector-foice  exerted  by  an  element  a  of  a  cnrrent 
upon  a  particle  of  magDetiem  at  p. 

AIbo,  by  (10),  4  it^^^— ir4^>  •"d  ^^  B«me  paper  ahovrt 
that  this  ia  the  vectoi-force  exerted  by  a  small  plane  current  at  the 
origin  (its  plane  being  perpendicular  to  a)  upon  a  magnetic  particle, 
OF  pole  of  a  Bolenoifl,  at  p.  This  expression,  being  a  pure  vector, 
denotes  an  elementary  rotation  caused  by  the  distortiou  of  the 
solid,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  above  value  of  <r-  satisfies  tbe  equa- 
tioDS  (16)',  (17),  and  the  distortion  is  therefore  producible  by 
external  forces.  Thus  tbe  effect  of  an  element  of  a  current  on  a 
magnetic  particle  is  expressed  directly  by  the  displacement,  vhile 
that  of  a  small  closed  current  or  magnet  is  represented  by  the 
vector-axis  of  the  rotation  caused  by  the  displacement. 

Again,  let 

It  ifl  evident  that  r-  aatisfies  (16)',  and  that  the  right-band  aide  of 
the  above  equation  may  be  written 


Hence  a  particular  case  is 

',  and  this  satisfies  (17)  also. 


Hence  the  corresponding  displacement  is  producible  by  external 
forces,  and  4  r-  is  the  rotation  axis  of  the  element  at  p,  and  is 
seen  as  before  to  represent  the  vector-fotce  exerted  on  a  portiole  of 
magnetism  at  p  by  an  element  a  of  a  current  at  the  origin. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-«3.  119 

interesting  to  observe  that  a  particular  value  of  a--  in  this 


as  may  easily  be  proved  by  subetitntion. 
Again,  if  - 

we  have  evidently 


Now,  as  =^  is  the  potential  of  a  email  magnet  a,  at  the  origin,  on 

a  particle  of  free  magnetism  at  p,  tr-  is  the  resultant  magnetic  force 
— and  represents  also  a  poeaible  distortion  of  the  elastic  solid  by 
external  forces,  since  <  o-  =  «]  *ir-  =0,  and  thus  (16)'  and  (17)  are 
both  satisfied. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  duly  elected  Fellows  of 
the  Society ; — 

The  Hod,  Oborob  Waldeobavb  Leblib. 

The  Hod.  Chableb  Baillib  (Lord  Jervibwoode). 

James  Sahdbbrom,  Esq.,  Surgeon-Hajor  Madnu  Medical  BtafF. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 
Abbandlangen  herausgegeben   von  der  SenclcenbergischeD  natnr- 

forschenden  Gesellscbaft.    Vierten  Bandes  zweite  Liefening. 

4to. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.    Noe.  95  and  96. 

8vo. — From  Ike  Society. 
Lea  Grandes  UBines  de  France.    4  Parts.    Svo. 
Natural  History  of  New  York.     Vol.  III.,  Part  6,  on  Palraonto- 

logy,     2  Vols.     4to. — From  the  American  OovemmetU. 
Natural  History  of  New  Tork.    Part  5,  on  Agriculture.    4to. — 

From  the  tame. 
'IinroKpaTtnn  kcu  S^Xim'  tarpHi'  iraAoiui'  Ktdlrava.     Edtdit  Franciscus 

Zachariaa    Ermerins.       Volumen    Secundum.       Trajecti    ad 

Rbenum,  1862.     4to, — From  the  Ihttch  Oovtrnment. 
Verslagen   en    Mededeelingen   der    Eoninktijke   Akademie    van 


DvGooglc 


120  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Wetenschappen.       Afdeeling    Natuurknude.      Dertiende    et 

viertieDde  Deel.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Verelagen   en   Mededeelingen   der   Eoninklijke   Akodemie    van 

Wetenechappen.    Afdeeling  Letterkunde.    Zeede  Deel.    8vo. 

— From  lite  Mfiw. 
Jaarboek   van   de   Eoninklijke   Akademie   van   Wetenscbappen 

gevistigd  te  Ameteidam  voor  1861.     8vo. — From  (Ae  tame. 
Verhandelingeu  der  Eoninklijke  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen. 

Achste  Deel.     ito.—From  the  tame. 
Journal  of  the  AbibIIc  Society  of  Bengal.    New  Seiiee.    No.  113. 

8vo. — From  the  Secretaries. 
Beport  of  the  Royal  CommisBion  on  the  Operation  of  the  Acts 

relating  to  Tnwling  for  Herring  on  the  Coasta  of  Scotland. 

Folio, — Frvm  the  Britieh  Qovemment. 
The  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society.     No.  73. — From 

the  Society. 
Transactione  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  Loudon.    Volume  XXIT. 

Part  1.     ibo.— From  the  Society. 
Materiaux  pour  la  Carte  Geologique  de  la  Suisse  publi€e  par  la 

CommiBaion  Oeologiqne  de  la  Soci^t^  Helvetiqne  des  Sciences 

Naturelles  aux  frais  de  la  Confederation.    Premiere  Livnuson. 

With  Chart.     ito.—From  the  Society. 
Oversigt    over   det   Eongeltge   danske   VidenskaberaeB   Selskabe 

Forhandlingei  og  deta  Uedlemmers  Arbeider  i  Aaret  1861. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Det  Kongelige  danske  VidenekabemeB  Selskabe  Sktifter  femte 

Baekke.      Naturvidenskabelig   og   Mathematisk    Afdeeling. 

Femte  Binds  andet  Hefte,     ito.—From  the  Soei^y. 
ProceedingH  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XII.    No.  54. 

8vo. — from  the  Society. 
lustructiouB  Nantiques  but  les  mers  de  I'lnde,  par  James  Horsburgh ; 

tradnites  de  I'Anglais  par  U.  le  Predour.    II*.  Parti6.    4to. — 

From  the  DepSt  Qinirat  de  la  Marine. 
Annuaire  des  MarSes  des  CStes  de  France  pour  I'an  1864  pax  M. 

GauBsin.     I2mo. — From  the  tame. 
Pablications  dn  d£p6t  des  Cartes  et  Flans  de  la  Uarine.    Nos. 

37-43  et  46-49.     8vo.— /fwm  the  tame. 
Seventy-Fifth  Annual  Beport  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of 

the  State  of  New  York.     8vo. — From  the  Univereity. 


Sle 


o/Edinbttrgh,  Session  1862-63.  121 

Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Begents  of  the  UDivoreity  of  the 
State  of  New  York  on  the  Condition  of  the  State  Cabinet  of 
-     Natural  History.     Bvo.—Fivm  the  tame. 

Scheikundige  Yerhandelingen  en  Onderzoekingen  uitgegeven  door 
G.  J.  MuUer.  Derde  Deel.  Tweede  Stuk.  8vo.— i^rom 
Ike  Author. 


Monday,  20(A  April  1863. 
Principal  FORBES.  Vice-PresideDt,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Communications  were  read : — 

1,  On  the  Conservation  of  Energy.    By  Profeaeor  Tait. 

(Abstract.) 

(Z^M  Lecture  uxu  given  at  the  requett  of  the  Council.') 

What  Matter  or  Force  may  he,  we  have  not  as  yet  the  fllightest 
idea.  Hatter  is  only  known  to  ub  by  the  forcea  it  exerta  or  resists. 
It  is  possible  that  there  may  be  but  one  species  of  nltimate  parts 
(molecules  oi  atoms  7)  of  matter ;  but  in  the  present  state  of  chemical 
science,  it  is  more  philosophical  to  reason  as  if  the  ultimate  parts 
of  the  various  elementary  bodiea  are  diatinct.  However  this  may 
be,  a  particle  of  hydrogen,  oxygen,  sodium,  or  gold,  exerts  certain 
definite  forces  upon  other  particles ;  which  forces,  we  have  every 
reaaon  to  believe,  will  remain  for  ever  tiDcbanged,  unless  the  so- 
called  element  should  at  some  future  time  be  decompoged. 

Now.  for  such  elementary  particles,  change  of  position  (grouping) 
or  motion  (relative)  is  the  only  affection  we  can  conceive ;  and  we 
must  endeavonrto  deduce,  from  the  relation  between  forces  and  the 
motions  they  produce,  all  the  phenomena  of  nature,  except  .perhaps 
some  of  those  exhibited  in  living  structures. 

Ail  that  is  necessary  for  such  an  inquiry  has  been  most  distinctly 
laid  down  by  Newton  in  his  Axiomata,  and  the  Scholia  appended 
to  them.  A  brief  resumS  of  what  Newton  has  there  done  will  lead 
UB  easily  and  naturally  to  the  Conaervation  of  Energy — though 
stated  for  visible  motions  only,  and  without  reference  to  the  ener- 
gies of  heat,  electricity,  && 


DvGooglc 


122  Proceedings  of  the  Boj/al  Society 

I.  The  motion  of  a  body  ie  unifonn  if  no  force  act  on  it, 

II.  Change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  force  producing  it, 
and  takes  place  in  the  direction  in  which  the  force  is  exerted. 

From  this  it  follows  at  once,  that  force  is  med&ured  by  the  ratt 
of  change  of  motion  it  produces;  in  other  words,  by  the  product  of 
the  mass,  and  the  acceleration  of  its  velocity. 

This,  combiued  with  purely  geometric  ideas  aa  to  motion  in  the 
abstract,  leads  directly  to  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  and  through 
it  to  the  subjects  of  the  Statics  and  Kinetics  of  a  tingU  particle. 
In  order  to  extend  our  investigations  to  a  hody,  or  a  system  of 
bodies,  we  require  the  additional  law, 

III.  To  every  action  there  is  an  equal  and  opposite  reaction. 
Newton,  shows  tfaat  there  are  ttoo  ways  in  which  this  actum  may 

be  measured,  tbe  third  law  being  true  for  either.  These  lead  to 
two  classes  of  important  dynamical  theorems. 

(a)  Kutual  pressures,  tensions  of  rods  and  cords,  attiactions, 
stresses  in  solids  or  liquids,  &c,  &c.,  form  one  class  of  Actions  and 
Beactions.  We  have  thas,  as  immediate  consequences,  "  Conser- 
vation of  Uomeutum,"  and  "  Conservation  of  Areas."  From  this 
point  of  view,  we  have  also  the  general  statement,  by  what  is 
commonly  called  "  D'Alembert'e  Principle,"  of  the  equations  of 
equilibrium  and  motioi^,  and  therefore  the  mathematical  expres- 
sion of  tbe  circumstances  of  any  dynamical  problem. 

(b}  But  Newton  goeafarther,  and  points  out  anofAer  kind  of  action 
and  reaction,  ruled  by  the  third  law.  His  words  are, — at  (alime- 
tur  agentii  actio  ex  ejui  vi  el  veloeilate  conjunctim,  et  similiter  retit- 
tentit  reactio  mttmefur  conjimettm  ex  ejntpartiwn  gingvlarttm  veloei- 
ttUibus  et  viribui  reitgtendi  ah  eamm  attritione,  cohoaitme,  pondere,  et 

accelei^ione  oriundii ;  eruni  actio  el  reactio ribi  invicem 

temper  agualei.  The  Actio  here  spoken  of,  the  product  of  a  force 
by  the  rate  of  motion  of  its  point  of  application,  is  now  known  as  the 
rate  of  doing  work,  or  tbe  horse-power  of  the  prime  mover.  We  notice 
amongst  tbe  various  forms  of  the  coireeponding  Reactio,  the  rate<^ 
lonnjT  uwnb  by  tbe  reaistanees,  such  as  friction,  cohesion,  and  weight ; 
but  we  also  have  as  a  reaction,  the  resistance  due  to  the  acceleration 
of  the  various  parts  of  Ibe  system ;  and  in  this  statement  (made  by 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1862-3.  123 

Newton  with  reference  to  machines  and  their  visible  motiona  only, 
but  now  extended  to  all  the  phenomena  of  physical  Bcienoe)  con- 
sists the  "  Conservation  of  Energy." 

It  wonld  be  easy  to  give  the  general  investigation,  bnt  for  an 
elementary  lecture  like  this  a  Tery  simple  example  will  sufBco, — 
the  case  of  a  particle  moving  in  a  straight  line,  and  acted  on  by  a 
force  whose  direction  coincides  with  the  line  of  motion. 

If  «  be  the  space  passed  over  in  time  t,  and  v  the  velocity,  geome- 
trical ideas  lead  at  once  to 

"^Tt 


,..(1) 


"     The  ttccnd  law  of  motion  (above)  gives,  if  f  be  the  force,  and  m 
the  mass  of  the  particle, 

"-^ w 

This  is  the  ordinary  equation  of  motion. 

Bnt  Nevrton's  second  form  of  action  and  reaction,  as  connected  by 
the  third  law,  givee  at  once  for  the  action  of  the  force  F^  and  for 

the  reaction  of  the  particle  due  to  acceleration  we  have  m-^  multi- 
plied by  V.    Hence 

dl    ""'dl W 

which,  as  we  see  by  (1),  is  merely  the  equation  (2),  with  the 
additional  factor  u,  or  -^,  in  each  member. 
While  the  integrated  form  of  (2)  is 


>-/■" 


showing  that  the  momentum,  or  quantity  of  motion  is  increased  in 
any  interval  by  the  product  of  that  interval  by  the  average  value 
of  the  force,  the  integral  form  of  (3)  is 


^^ 


-C3)' 


DvGooglc 


124  Proceedinga  of  the  Boyal  Society 

expresaiDg  that  the  iiKange  of  vi»  viva  is  measnred  by  the  amcNuit 
of  work  dtme  hy  ihe  forte.  What  is  expended  in  toork  in  therefore 
stored  up  as  vm  viva.  (This  is  given  generaltj  for  a  single 
particle  by  Newton  ;  Prtnc^>ta,  Section  YIII.,  Prop.  XL.) 

A  simple  cose  is  that  of  a  weight  raised,  or  falling,  Id  a  vertical 
line.  Here  the  work  expended  in  raising  it  ia  so  many  foot 
pounds,  each  being  the  work  employed  to  raitie  one  pound  a  foot 
high.     And  in  fact,  by  the  ordinary  fermulte  for  piojectilss, 

or  the  vit  viv&  acquired  by  falling  through  a  space  >,  is  equal  to 
the  work  lost  in  falling,  or  required  to  restore  the  body  to  its 
original  position.  Now,  the  rused  weight,  in  virtue  of  it*  potition, 
has  a  power  of  doing  work  which  it  does  not  possess  when  lying 
on  the  ground;  this  is  an  example  of  what  is  called  Potential 
Energy.  As  it  loses  this  in  falling,  it  gains  an  exact  equivalent  in 
vit  viva,  which  is  what  is  called  Kinetic  Energy.  In  this  example 
we  see  that  the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic  energiet  u  eondant ; 
and  the  same  is  tme  in  other  common  cases,  such  as  the  potential 
energy  of  a  drawn  bow  aod  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  arrow,  the 
potential  energy  of  compressed  air  in  the  reservoir  of  an  air-gun 
and  the  kinetic  eneigy  of  the  bullet,  and  so  on.  It  is  true  even 
in  such  a  case  as  the  potential  enei^  <^  a  distorted  tuning-fork 
and  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  sound  it  produces,  if  we  include  in 
the  latter  the  vm  vivo  of  the  vibrations  communicated  to  surround- 
ing bodies. 

It  is  easy  to  give  a  general  proof,  that  if  the  particles  of  any 
system  act  each  on  another  with  forces  which  are  in  the  direction 
of  the  line  joining  tbem,  and  dependent  on  the  mutual  distance 
only,  in  such  a  system  the  •um  <flht  potofUtoI  and  kinetic  energiet 
cannot  ie  aUered  except  by  external  forces;  and  therefore,  if  ike  intro- 
ductory ttatementa  about  matter  be  true,  and  phyticai  phenomena  aucA 
eu  heat,  eleetridtyy  Se.,  be  r^erred  to  moti<m  of  matter,  there  can  be  no 
aUeration  in  the  turn  of  the  energiet  of  the  univerte.  This  is  the 
general  statement  of  the  Conservation  of  Enei^. 

From  this  we  at  once  dedace  a  proof  of  the  impossibility  of  pro- 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaion  1862-63.  125 

cnrmg  perpetual  motion  (i.e.,  a  machine  which  not  only  keeps  up 
its  motion  but  does  eztemal  woik)  by  meauB  of  auy  of  the  known 
forces  of  ntfure;  and  vice  vend,  taking  this  impoeeibilit;  for 
gnsted,  we  may  show  that  the  forces  exerted  by  two  material 
particles  on  each  other  must  be  in  the  direction  of  the  line  joining 
the  two,  and  most  depend  on  their  distance  only. 

The  first  of  the  physical  eaergies,  distinct  from  visible  motions, 
which  was  shown  to  be  subject  to  the  law  of  "  conBerration,"  was 
Heat.  Bacon,  Locke,  and  others,  long  ago  regarded  heat  in  a 
material  body  as  a  species  of  motion ;  but  it  was  not  proved  to  be 
BO  till  a  comparatively  recent  period,  when  Davy  showed  it  conclu- 
siyely  by  melting  pieces  of  ice  by  rubbing  them  together  in  an 
enclosure  cooled  below  the  freezing  point.  Davy  says,  "The 
immediate  cause  of  the  phenomenon  of  Heat  is  motion,  and  the 
laws  of  its  communication  are  the  same  as  the  laws  of  the  com- 
munication of  motion."  Take,  in  connection  with  this,  Newton's 
second  form  of  Action  and  Beaction,  and  we  have  the  Dynamical 
Theory  of  Heat ;  requiring,  of  conrae,  experimental  data  to  connect 
the  two  forms  of  Energy  quantitatively.  Bumford,  by  measuring 
the  heat  produced  in  boring  cuinon,  and  comparing  it  with  the 
work  expended,  made  a  near  approach  to  the  value  of  the  mechani- 
cal equivalent  of  heat — i.e.,  to  an  answer  to  the  question,  "  How 
much  work  is  required  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  kinetic  energy 
in  the  form  of  heat?"  Other  thinkers  and  esperimenteis  made 
more  or  less  accurate  and  useful  advances,  but  in  a  very  am  all  way, 
till  Joule,  about  twenty  years  ago,  made  the  experimental  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  his  own.  He  showed  by  vtuied  yet  accordant 
experiments,  that  772  foot  pounds  of  mechanical  enei^  are  equi- 
valent to  the  additional  kinetic  energy  which  a  pound  of  water 
must  acquire  to  raise  its  temperature  from  60°  F,  to  61°  F.  He 
has  extended  his  experimental  work  to  others  of  the  physical  ener- 
gies, and  arrived  at  many  most  startling  results,  several  of  which 
I  intend  to  show  to-night. 

The  science  of  Thermodynamics,  in  which  Camot  and  Clapeyron 
made  great  steps  before  the  immateriality  of  heat  was  generally 
recognised,  has,  since  Joule's  experiments  were  made,  received 
enormous  developments  from  Clausius,  Bankine,  Thomson,  and 
others;  and  Hebnholz,  in  an  admirable  essay  {Ueber  die  Erhaltuny 

TOL  V.  4 


DvGooglc 


126  Proceedings  o/ihe  Boyal  Society 

der  Kraft')  published  in  1847,  has  extended  moBt  ingenioiiBly  the 
application  of  the  principle  of  "  conservation  "  through  the  whole 
range  of  physica,  bringing  out,  from  &e  principles  aliead;  stated 
iu  this  diaconrBe,  the  explanation  of  eleotrodynamic  induction,  See., 
besides  various  lavre  of  transformatioD  of  energy,  already  empirically 
determined  from  experiment. 

[The  lecturer  then  performed  an  extensive  eeries  of  experiments, 
involving  transformations  of  various  forms  of  energy,  pointing  out  in 
each  case  the  separate  portions  into  which  the  original  energy  wu 
broken  np.    It  is  not  necessary  to  describe  these  experiments  here.] 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  all  these  experiments  heat  has  been 
pointed  out  as  the  ultimate  form  taken  by  the  original  energy. 
This  is  a  general  law  of  nature, — All  energt/  uUimatelt/  becomei  heat. 
Also  heat,  by  oonduction,  radiation,  or  convection,  tends  nltim&tely 
to  be  uniformly  diffused  through  the  matter  in  the  universe ;  and 
when  uniformly  diffused,  cannot  be  made  available  for  the  prodnc- 
tion  of  any  other  form  of  energy,  since,  for  the  transformation  of 
heat  into  any  other  form  of  energy,  bodies  of  dijkrent  temperatures 
are  required.  Uniformly  diffused  heat,  then,  as  far  as  we  can  see 
at  present,  is  the  inevitable  ultimate  transformation  of  all  the 
energy,  potential  or  kinetic,  in  the  universe. 

[The  lecturer  went  on  to  consider  at  some  length  the  gravitation 
theory  of  the  origin  of  the  sun's  energy,  and  various  connected 
Bubjeotfl,  which  are  to  a  certain  extent  already  popularised.] 

2.  On  Fagnani's  Theorem.     By  H.  F.  Talbot,  LL.D. 

3.  On  the  Theory  of  Parallel  Lines.    By  H.  F.  Talbot,  LKD. 

The  following  Address  to  His  Boyal  Highness  the  Prince 
of  Wales  was  adopted,  and  ordered  to  be  forwarded  to  the 
Duke  of  Aigyle  for  presentation : — 

TO  HIS  ROYAL  HIGHNESS  THE  PRINCE  OF  WALES. 
jtfay  it  please  your  Boyal  nighnesi, — 

We,  the  President  and  Fellows  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh, desire  humbly  to  approach  your  Boyal  Sighness  with  the 
expression  of  our  dutiful  and  heartfelt  congratulations  on  your 
Royal  Highness's  marriage. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Sesaion  1862-63.  127 

Ever  ready  to  rejoice  at  whatever  affoids  a  prospect  of  inoreaaed 
happineBs  to  jour  Royal  HighnesB,  and  a  further  security  for  the 
continued  Bway  of  a  Boyal  Hoaae  which  haa  cooferred  on  this  realm 
eo  many  benefits  and  blessings,  we  hail  with  especial  interest  and 
gratification  the  union  of  your  Boyal  Highness  with  a  daughter  of 
an  ancient  nation,  distinguished  at  all  times  for  noble  and  generous 
qualities,  and  which  holds  a  high  place  among  the  countries  of 
Europe  in  literature  and  science ;  and  above  all,  we  regard  it  as  an 
unspeakable  boon  that  the  Royal  Lady  whom  we  now  welcome  to 
our  shores  is  endowed  with  atl^those  nrtnes  and  attractions  which  are 
beet  calculated  to  bless  and  adorn  domestic  life,  to  assist  in  cheering 
the  widowed  solitude  of  oar  beloved  Sovereign,  and  to  sustain  in 
nnsnllied  Instie  the  honour  and  dignity  of  the  British  Court. 

We  earnestly  hope  and  pray  that  this  auspicious  alliance  may 
be  productive  of  all  the  happiness  with  which  we  desire  to  see  it 
attended. 

The  following  GrentUmen  were  elected  Fellows  of  the 
Society ; — 


The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced ; — 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Oeographical  Society  of  London.     Vol. 

VII.  No.  2.     Bvo.—Fnm  the  Society. 
Qnarterly  Report  of  the  Meteorological  Socie^  of  Scotland,  for  the 

quarter  ending  Slst  Ceoember  1862.    8vo. — From  the  Soci^. 
Uonthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society.  Vol.  XXIII. 

No.  6.     8vo, — From  the  Socielg. 
Kotioe  snr  la  vie  et  les  travanz  de  P.  L.  A.  Cordler,  Uembre  de 

rinstitut,  Ac.  &o.     8vo.—From  the  Author. 
FrooeediDgB  of  the  Boyal  Horticnltoral  Society,    April.    8vo. — 

From  the  Soci«ty. 
Hoatbly  Betum  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages,  registered 

in  the, Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland,    March.    8vo.— 

From  the  Segittrtlr-Qeneral. 
Jonntal  of  the  Chemical  Society.    April.    8vo. — From  the  Society. 
ProoeediDgs  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society.    Tol.  I.  No.  5. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 


:6ovGoog\c 


128       Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinhurgh. 

Die  Fortachritte  der  Physik  im  j'ahre  1860.    XVI.    Jahrgang. 
I.  Qnd  II.  AbtheiluBg,    8vo. — From  the  Phytieal  Soeitty  i4 

Uemoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.    II.    S.    4to. — From 

Dr  Thotnat  Oldham. 
The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arte.    Vol.  XXXV.     No. 

104.     8to. — From  the  Condiidon. 
Atti  deir  Imp.  Beg.  Istituto  Veneto  di  Scienze,  Letters  ed  Arti 

dal  Novembre  1861  all'  Ottobre  1862.    Tomo  VII.,  eerie  iii-, 

dispenea  4-10;  e  tomo  VIII.,  serie  iiL,  dispenea  1-3.     6to. 

— Frrnn  the  Indiivte. 
Bulletin  de  la  3oci£t6  de  G^graphie,  cinqni^e  tbna.    Tome  IV. 

8to. — Frort^  the  Society. 
On   the  Forcee  concerned  in  prodnoiDg  Magnetic  Disturbances 

(Proceedings  of  the  Boyal   Institution  of   Great    Britain). 

Balfour  Stewart,  Esq.,  F^.S.    Svo.^From  the  Author. 
Catalogue  of  the  Uinerals  containing  Cerium.    By  Dr  William 

Sharswood.    8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Description  of  a  New  Genus  (Trypanostoma)  of  the  family  Hela- 

nidto,  and  of  forty-five  New  Species,  Ac.     By  Isaac  Iiet, 

LL,D.     8vo. — From  Iht  Author. 
Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 

Nob.  VII.-XII.     Svo.—From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natoral  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 

New  Series.     Vol.  V.,  Part  3.     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
M£moires  de  I'Acadimie  dee  Sciences  de  I'lnstitut  Imperial  de 

France.     Tome  XXXIII.     4to.— JVom  the  Academy. 
Cercles  Ghiomatiquea  de  M.  E.  Ghevreul.     4to. — From  the  Atitkor. 
On  the  Law  of  Expansion  of  Superheated  Steam.    By  W,  Fair- 

baim,  LL.D.,  and  Thomas  Tate,  Esq.    iio.— From  the  Author*. 
Bakerian  Lecture.     Experimental  Besearches  to  determine  the 

Density  of  Steam  at  DifTeieut  TemperatniOB,  and  to  determine 

the  Law  of  Superheated  Steam.    By  WiUiam  Fairbaim,  Esq., 

LL.D.,  and  Thomas  Tate,  Esq.    ito.—From  Ae  Authors.  ' 
Biblical  Natural  Science,  being  the  ExplanafioB  of  all  Beferences 

in  Holy  Scripture  to  Geology,  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Physical 

G«(%raphy.    By  the  Bev.  John  DnDB,  FJa.S.E.    Farts  1  to  4. 

8to. — From  the  Avihor. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


EOYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 

VOL.  V.  1863-64  No.  62. 

EiGHTT-FiBST  Ssssicat. 
Monday,  2M  November  1863. 
Dr  Chbibtibon,  V-P.,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Council  were  elected : — 

His  Gkaoi  Thk  DTTKE  or  AROTLL,  E.T. 

FvM-iVuideiUt. 
Sir  David  Bbxwstkr,  K.H.  |         Hon.  Lord  Nbates. 

Dr  Cheistison.  Principal  Forbes. 

pK^eaeta  Kbujid.  \         Professor  Ihrbb. 

Om«raI  Swretary, — ^Dr  John  HnrroH  Bauobb. 

Seerftariu  to  the  Ordinary  Mettmgt, 
Dr  Ltov  Platfair,  C.B, 
Dr  Geobox  Jamu  Asamab. 

TrtMurar,-— David  Shuh,  Etq. 
Ourator  of  Library  and  JIfuwumy— Dr  Dodolas  ^Amlxoas. 


E.  W.  Dallas,  Esq. 
Bev.  L.  S.  Okdk. 
FroftHor  Tait. 
A.  Campbell  Swikton,  Esq. 
Dr  William  Bobkbtboh. 
Dr  E.  EovAuis. 

VOL.  T. 


T.  C-  Abcbbr,  Esq. 

W,  P.  Bxtm,  Esq. 

A.  Keith  Joevoton,  Esq. 

Rev.  Dr  Stbtkhson. 

Dr  Stevkmoit  Mauadak. 

Hon.  LOKD  JntviswooDB. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 


Monday,  7th  December  1863. 

Professor  Iniies,  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents,  delivered  the 
following  Opening  Address ; — 

Gentlbukn, — The  opeDing  of  our  Seesioo  requiiee  that  I  shonld 
la;  before  you  the  state  and  proepecto  of  our  Society,  which  I  hope 
may  to  some  extent  be  conaidered  the  criteria  of  the  state  and 
prospects  of  the  Bciences  which  it  caltivatee. 

The  Society  has  lost  Bioce  the  commencement  of  last  SesBion  by 
death,  six  Fellows,  viz.,— Robert; AU an,  Esq.,  Beriah  Botfield,  Esq., 
Dr  James  Eeith,  Dr  David  Eoawell  Beid,  Professor  Connell  of 
St  Andrews,  Professor  Uitecherlich  of  Berlin ;  and  by  resignation, 
two,  the  Rev.  G.  V.  Faithful!  and  D.  R.  Hay,  Esq. 

In  room  of  whom  the  Society  has  elected  twenty-five  new  Fellows, 
viz.,— Professor  Blackie,  William  Brand,  Esq.,  W.S.,  Robert  Gamp- 
bell,  Esq.,  advocate,  Dr  Hngh  F.  C.  Cleghoni,  India,  Charles 
Cowan,  Esq.,  W.  Dittmar,  Esq.,  Dr  J.  Matthews  Dnncan,  the 
Bight  Hon.  Lord  Dunfermline,  Professor  Everett,  Nova  Scotia, 
James  Hannay,  Esq.,  William  Jameson,  Esq.,  India,  Hon.  Lord 
Jerviswoode,  Charles  Lawson,  Esq.,  Hon.  G-.  Waldegrave  Leslie, 
G.  R.  Maitland,  Esq.,  W.8.,  Edward  Meldrum,  Esq.,  Rev.  Dr 
Neabit,  Hon.  Lord  Ormidale,  David  Page,  Esq.,  Dr  A.  Peddie, 
James  Sanderson,  Esq.,  Deputy-Inspector  of  Hospitals,  Dr  John 
A.  Smith,  Dr  Murray  Thomson,  Dr  J.  G-.  Wilson,  Dr  John  Yonng. 

Our  roll,  therefore,  stands  thus  : — The  number  of  Fellows  in 
1862  was  258,  of  which  we  have  lost  by  death  6,  by  resignation  2=8, 
leaving  250.  To  which  add  the  new  Fellows,  25,  making  the 
whole  number  of  the  Fellows  of  our  Society  275,  a  larger  number 
than  has  appeared  on  the  list  for  many  years. 

I  am  enabled,  chiefly  through  the  active  kindn^s  of  onr  Secre- 
taries, to  offer  a  few  notices  of  the  members  we  have  lost,  during 
the  past  Session. 

RoBZBT  Allan,  son  of  Mr  Thomas  Allan,  a  banker  in  Edinburgh, 
a  Fellow  of  the  Society,  and  for  many  years  Curator  of  its  Museum 
and  Library,  and  well  known  as  an  early  and  successful  collector  of  a 
fine  cabinet  of  minerals,  was  bom  in  1806,  and  educated  at  the  High 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinlnayh,  Sesaioa  1S63-64.  131 

School  and  TTaiveraity  of  Edinbargh.  He  iDherited  bis  f&ther'a  taste 
for  minerals,  and  wbile  etill  a  joatb  followed  out  the  study  in 
extended  travels  in  company  with  Professor  Hcudluger,  wbo  intro- 
duced bim  to  tbe  acquaintance  and  to  the  cabinets  of  all  tbe  chief 
foreign  mineralogists — among  otbere,  Berzelius  and  Mitscbeilich. 

Hi  Allan  passed  advocate  in  1829,  but  never  practised,  and  was 
admitted  a  Fellow  of  this  Society  in  1832.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  tbe  Geological  Society  of  London. 

Mr  Allan  published  in  1834  a  Manual  of  Uineialogy,  the  classi- 
fication founded  on  the  external  character  or  natural  hiBtorical 
arrangement. 

In  1837  he  edited  a  fourth  edition  of  "  Phillips'  Mineralogy," 
in  which  be  added  notices  of  150  new  minerals. 

On  bis  return  from  an  excursion  to  tbe  volcanic  district  of  Italy 
and  Sicily,  Mr  Allan  presented  to  this  Society  a  set  of  specimens 
of  volcanic  rocks  of  the  Lipari  Isles,  with  a  descriptive  notice, 
an  abstract  of  which  b  in  our  Tr^isactions,  of  date  16th  Jan- 
uary 1831. 

He  commnnicated  an  account  of  a  visit  to  tbe  Geysers  and  Hecla 
to  tbe  British  Association  at  Glasgow,  in  1855. 

Mr  Allan  died  in  consequence  of  a  fall  in  his  garden. 

BntiAH  fioTYiBLn  was  of  a  Shropshire  family,  in  which  county 
his  grandfather,  Thomas  Botfietd,  made  his  large  fortune  as  a 
manager  and  lessee  of  the  Dawlay  Collieries.  Thomas's  third  son 
inherited  Norton  Hall,  near  Daventry,  in  Northamptonshire,  and 
lived  the  life  of  an  English  sporting  squire.  He  married  Charlotte, 
daught«r  of  William  Withering,  M.D.,  F.S.S.,  tbe  author  of  "  The 
Botanical  Arrangement  of  British  Plants."  The  only  child  of  that 
marriage  was  Beriah,  the  subject  of  tbe  present  notice,  who,  in 
addition  to  bis  father's  property,  inherited  tbe  estates  of  both  bis 
uncles,  and  had  become  before  his  death  a  man  of  very  large  fortune. 

Beriah  was  born  5tb  March  1807,  and  succeeded  bis  father  in  1 813. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Christ  Church,  where  he  took 
his  Bachelor's  degree  in  1 828. 

After  leaving  Oxford  he  made  a  tour  in  tbe  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, a  journal  of  which  he  printed  for  private  circulation, — printed 
at  Norton  Hall,  1830,  12mo. 


DvGooglc 


132  Proceedinga  of  the  Boyai  Society 

He  was  High  Sheriff  of  Northamptonabire  in  1831. 

In  1840  he  vas  elected  Member  for  Ludlow,  and  again  in  1841. 

In  1847  he  was  beaten  by  the  Whig  candidate. 

In  1857  he  was  eoUoited  to  stand  again,  and  he  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment for  Lndlow  for  the  rest  of  hia  life. 

Mr  Botfield  was  a  member  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London, 
the  Boyal  Geographical  Society,  Boyal  Inetitntion,  Society  of  Arts, 
of  the  Antiquaries  of  London,  Scotland,  and  Copenhagen,  of  the 
Boyal  Irish  Academy,  I'lnstitut  d'Afrique,  and  of  all  the  principal 
Societies  in  the  Kingdom,  and  of  a  great  nnmber  of  literary  ClubSf — 
as  the  Boxbnrgbe,  Bannatyne,  Uaitland,  Spalding,  SurteeB,Abbota- 
ford,  Oamden,  Percy,  jElfric,  Haklnyt,  Cheetham ;  to  most  of 
which  he  gave  valuable  contributions,  bis  pait  being  generally  to 
defray  the  expense. 

In  addition  to  these,  and  some  smaller  tracts  printed  for  private 
circulation,  Mr  Botfield  published  "  Kotes  on  the  Cathedral 
Libraries  of  £ngland,"  from  a  personal  examination,  1849 ;  "  Pre- 
faces to  the  First  Editions  of  the  Creek  and  Boman  Classics,  and  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,"  1S61.    Large  4to. 

Another  work,  for  which  he  was  making  coUeotioDS  when  he 
died,  and  which  woald  have  been  of  great  interest  and  value,  was 
intended  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  old  monastic  libraries  of 
England.  A  collection  of  the  extant  catalogues  and  inventories  of 
these  was  already  in  type,  to  which  be  meant  to  add  the  catalogues 
of  other  Middle  Age  libraries.  His  collections,  made  for  these 
objects  will,  it  is  feared,  be  lost  to  the  worid  by  bis  death.  He 
had  previously  edited  (in  1838),  for  the  Snrteee  Society,  catalogues 
of  the  Library  of  Durham  Cathedral,  at  various  periods. 

In  18SS,  Mr  Botfield  printed,  for  private  circulation,  Stemmaia 
BoteuiUiana,  a  large  volume  illustrating  the  descent  and  anti- 
qnities  of  all  the  Bottevilles,  Thynnes,  and  Botfields. 

He  was  a  liberal  collector  of  pictures,  and  was  also  known  aa  a 
zealous  book-hunter. 

Mr  Botfield  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Sir  Baldwin  Leighton, 
Bart.,  but  left  no  family;  and  has  entailed  a  considerable  port  of 
bis  property  on  the  second  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Bath,  in  respect 
of  a  very  old  but  perhaps  real  oonoexion  between  his  family  and 
the  Thynnes. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edaibvrgh,  Semoa  1863-64.  133 

JuuB  Emith,  second  bod  of  WUlitun  Keith  of  Corstorphine  Hill, 
KccoantaDl  in  Edinburgh,  was  bom  29th  November  1783,  and  vaa 
educated  at  the  High  School  and  UniTorBit?  of  Edinbnigh.  He 
was  apprentice  to  Hesere  Bell,  Wardiope,  and  Buseell;  went  to 
London  in  1804^  and  attanded  the  London  Hospital  and  Gny's. 
Was  Burgeon  of  the  Berwickeliire  Uilitia  for  two  or  three  years, 
which  he  resigned  on  entering  into  p&rtnerahip  vith  Dr  Andrew 
Wardrope,  which  connection  terminated  by  Dr  Wardiope's  death 
in  1822. 

Mr  Eeith  took  the  degree  of  U .D.  in  the  Unirersity  of  Edin- 
bnrgh  in  1804,  and  be  became  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Surgeons 
in  1810.  He  was  physician  to  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution  for 
many  years.  From  the  extreme  shyness  of  his  disposition,  his 
worth  and  ability  were  known  only  to  a  limited  circle  of  intimate 
friends.  He  died  12th  May  1863.  His  widow  and  two  bods  sor- 
Tive — William  Alexander,  U.A.  Ozon.,  and  Choiles  Uaitland. 

David  Bobwill  Bzid  was  the  second  son  of  Dr  Peter  Bold,  phy- 
sician in  Edinburgh.  His  mother,  Christian  Amot,  was  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Hugo  Amot  of  Balcormo,  advocate  and  antiquary, 
well  known  to  the  last  generation  by  bis  book  on  the  history  of 
Edinburgh  and  his  collection  of  Scotch  ciiminal  trials— and  per- 
haps still  better  by  the  extraordinary  attenuated,  almost  skeleton, 
figure  of  the  old  gentleman  preserved  to  us  in  Eay's  Portraits. 
Dr  Peter  Reid  (whose  mother  was  a  Boswell  of  the  Balmuto  family) 
was  the  editor  of  Dr  OuUen's  "  First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of 
Physic,"  1802.  A  new  edition  was  published,  with  supplemea- 
tary  notes,  in  1810.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  little  duodecimo 
volume,  entitled  "Letters  on  the  Study  of  Medicine  and  on  the  Medi- 
cal Character,  addressed  to  a  Student,"  Edin.,  1809.  Besides  the 
subject  of  my  present  notice,  Dr  Peter  B«id  bad  two  boqs, — Dr 
William,  a  lecturer  in  Edinburgh  on  the  practice  of  Medicine,  and 
Dr  Hugo,  well  known  as  the  author  of  several  popular  works,  the 
last  of  which  is  a  modest  and  temperate  memoir  of  bis  distin- 
guished brother,  to  which  I  beg  to  acknowledge  my  obligation. 

David  Boswell  Seid  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  Dni- 
versity  of  Edinburgh.  At  the  former,  Mi  Pillans,  the  rector,  has 
mentioned  him  as  "  among  the  head  bo^  of  the  Sector's  class." 


DvGooglc 


134  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

While  a  medical  atudeDt  lie  became  a  member  of  the  Bojal  Medi- 
cal Society,  of  which  he  was  choaen  senior  president  in  1826-27,  hiB 
junior  being  James  Kay,  now  Sir  James  Eay  Shnttleworth. 

Id  1827,  Mr  David  Beid  oommenced  a  course  of  practical  che- 
mistry, which  was  very  useful  and  very  popular.  He  aimed  at 
enabling  each  student  to  familiarise  himself,  by  experiments  made 
under  the  directions  of  a  teacher,  with  the  properties  of  the  chief 
chemical  enbetaDCes,  and  the  phenomena  attending  their  action  on 
each  other. 

After  much  approval  in  his  extra-mural  lecture-room,  he  joined 
Dr  Hope  in  the  College,  and  was  again  quite  saccesBful  in  the  object 
of  his  course.  But  the  Frofessor  and  Assistant  had  some  misunder- 
standings, which  led  Mr  Keid  to  leave  the  College,  and  renew  his 
independent  lectures,  which  were  highly  appreciated — attended 
by  all  claflses, — the  young  ambitious  student, — the  veteran  philoso- 
pher and  man  of  science, — the  man  of  intelligence  feeling  the 
want  of  science.  On  his  benches  met  Dr  Chalmers  and  Sir  John 
Leslie,  Professors  George  Joseph  Bell  and  Fillaus,  Sean  Bamaay 
and  Mr  Combe. 

After  the  burning  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  in  contem- 
plation of  a  new  building,  when  a  committee  of  the  Commons  was 
inquiring  on  the  subject  of  its  ventilation  and  acoustics,  Dr  Beid 
was  examined  as  a  witness,  from  having  devoted  much  attention 
to  those  subjects,  and  having  shown  excellent  exampleaof  his  skill, 
first  in  his  own  lecture-room,  and,  later,  in  the  great  temporary 
edifice,  erected  15th  September  1834,  in  the  High  School  ground, 
for  the  Edinburgh  dinner  to  Lord  Qrey,  at  which  2768  persons 
were  present,  and  240  ladies  in  the  gallery,  and  each  individual 
speaker  was  distinctly  heard,* 

The  result  of  his  examination  was,  that  Dr  Beid  was  employed 
to  direct  the  ventilation  and  acoustics  of  the  temporary  House  of 
Commons  in  1836.  It  is  not  pretended  that  his  plans  gave  uni- 
versal satisfaction  to  the  700  members,  each  of  whom  had  a  dif- 
ferent notion,  and  of  course  a  peculiar  constitution  of  body  to  be 
suited.  But,  after  ten  years'  experience,  in  1846,  a  fair  committee 
of  the  House  reported  as  to  "  the  great  improvement  effected,"  and 
"  concurred  in  the  general  opinion  in  its  favour." 

•  The  FavUion  wu  118  feet  in  length  bj  101  fset  in  breadth. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1863-64.  135 

In  1840  amngemente  were  mode  for  Dt  Beid  settliDg  in  London, 
and,  while  taking  charge  of  ventilating  the  temporary  House  of 
Commons,  superintending  also  the  ventilation  of  the  new  build- 
ing then  in  progress.  This  brought  Dr  Beid  necessarily  into  close 
contact  with  the  architect  of  the  new  palace,  Mr  Bany,  and  anfor- 
tonatelj  they  did  not  agree.  The  difference  got  worse  and  worse, 
till  in  1815  they  were  no  longer  on  speaking  terms,  and  every  de- 
tul  of  finch  extensive  operations  bad  to  be  settled  by  correspond- 
ence,— a  state  of  things  which  oonld  not  be  allowed  to  last.  The 
quarrel  broke  out  in  some  strong  expressions  of  Dr  Beid, — a  prose- 
cution for  libel  by  Mr  Barry, — a  pretty  general  attack  on  Dr  Beid 
by  the  publio  press,  and  a  Beply  by  him  to  "  The  Times"  news- 
paper [1845-47J. 

In  1852  a  negotiation  was  entered  into,  by  whioh  the  Govern- 
ment proposed  to  secure  Dr  Beid's  services  permanently,  and  to 
throw  the  ventilation  of  the  whole  buildings  of  the  Houses  under 
his  charge,— one  part  of  which,  the  House  of  Lords,  had  hitherto 
been  managed  by  Mr  Barry  on  a  different  fiystem,— but  "  these 
negotiations  were  abruptly  broken  off."  In  fact,  Dt  Beid  was 
turned  off,  after  sixteen  years  successful  service,  and,  as  his  brother 
tells  us,  "  a  small  sum  was  given  to  him  as  some  compensation  for 
the  loss  which  be  bad  sustained.  His  friends  who  knew  his  whole 
career,  and  the  proceedings  connected  with  his  removal  to  London, 
to  take  the  charge  of  ventilating  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  were  of 
opinion  that  the  sum  awarded  was  totally  inadequate  to  compensate 
for  the  sacrifices  he  had  made." 

Dr  Beid  went  to  New  York  in  1855.  He  delivered  lectures  in 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  there,  and  at  Boston.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  this  year  (1863),  be  received  the  appointment  of  Inspector 
of  Military  Hospitals,  but  soon  after,  while  engaged  in  an  ofBcial 
journey,  he  died  suddenly  at  Washington,  on  5th  April  1863. 

Dr  Beid'a  system  of  ventilating  great  buildJDgs,  where  crowds 
habituaUy  assembled,  consisted  in  forcing  in  a  cnrrent  of  air  by 
means  of  a  powerful  engine— the  air  being  previously  washed  to 
free  it  from  dust  and  to  give  it  the  requisite  moisture.  Some  of 
bis  experiences  are  curious. 

"  The  house  is  heated  to  62°  before  it  is  opened,  and  maintained 
in  general  at  a  temperature  between  63°  and  70°,  according  to  the 


DvGooglc 


136  Proceedingg  of  the  Soyal  Society 

velocity  vith  which  the  air  is  penuitted  to  paea  through  the  houae. 
This  velocity  is  necessEtrily  regulated  by  the  numhera  present, 
the  temperature  to  which  the  air  can  be  reduced  in  wann  weatber, 
and  the  amount  of  moiBtnie  which  it  may  contain  when  the  qnan- 
tity  is  exceasive.  Some  members  are  much  more  affected  by  an 
excess  oi  deficiency  of  moietnie  than  by  alterations  of  temperature. 
In  extiemely  warm  weather,  by  increasing  the  velocity,  air  even  at 
75°  may  be  rendered  cool  and  pleasant  to  the  feelings." 

He  goes  on  to  say — "  The  temperature  may  always  be  advan- 
tageously increased  and  the  velocity  diminished  before  the  aanal 
dinner  hour.  After  dinner,  other  circumstances  being  the  same, 
the  temperature  should  be  diminished,  the  velocity  increased,  and 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  reduced.  During  late  debates, 
as  they  advance  to  two,  three,  four,  or  five  in  the  morning,  the  tem- 
perature should  be  gradually  increased  as  the  constitution  becomes 
more  exhausted,  except  in  cases  where  the  excitement  is  extreme." 

Next  to  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  Dr  Reid's  greatest  and  meet 
euccessful  undertaking  of  ventilation  was  the  St  George's  Hall  at 
Liverpool,  in  which  immense  building,  on  some  occasions,  there  have 
been  as  many  as  4500  persons  for  about  ten  hours ;  the  air  dnring 
all  that  time  having  been  supplied  to  all  that  multitude  in  a  pore 
state,  and  in  a  comfortable  and  agreeable  condition  as  to  tempera- 
tuie  and  moisture. 

Dr  Beid  superintended  while  in  this  country  the  arrangements 
for  ventilating  the  royal  yacht,  "  The  Victoria  and  Albert,"  and 
the  steamships  used  in  the  expedition  to  the  Kigei,  in  both  in- 
stances to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  his  employers ;  and  since  going 
to  America,  he  was  empbyed  in  the  ventilation  of  a  Bussian  frigate, 
"  The  Qrand  Admiral,"  built  at  New  York 

Abthvb  Gohioxl,  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Oonnell,  Judge  of 
the  Admiralty  Court,  and  author  of  a  well  known  work  on  the 
Law  of  Scotland  respecting  Tithes,  entered  the  High  School  of 
Edinburgh  in  1804,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1808, 
where  he  studied  under  Playfair,  Leslie,  Dngald  Stewart,  and  Hope. 
From  Edinburgh  Mr  Connell  went  to  Glasgow  College,  where  he 
studied  under  Jardine  and  Tonng,  and,  having  obtained  a  Snell 
exhibition,  went  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1812. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbuirgh,  Seaaioa  1863-64.  137 

la  1817  Hr  Gonnell  pwsed  advocate  at  the  Scotch  Bar,  but  he 
had  from  boyhood  a  remarkable  tnm  for  science,  especially  botany 
and  chemifltiy,  and  he  ultimately  devoted  himself  exclualTely  to 
the  latter  icience. 

In  1840  he  waa  presented  to  the  Chair  of  Chemietry  in  the  Uni- 
venity  of  St  Andrews. 

In  1843  Mr  Connell  wae  candidate  for  the  Chemistry  Chair  at 
Edinburgh,  vacant;  by  the  death  of  Dr  Hope,  and  thoagh  not  suc- 
ceesful,  produced  a  collection  of  testimonials  of  the  highest  charac- 
ter. Most  of  these  were  the  more  worthy  of  attention  as  not 
made  for  the  occasion  and  so  in  some  degree  influenced  by  private 
friendship.  They  are  for  the  most  part  notices  in  the  published 
works  of  eminent  chemists  and  in  soientifio  journals,  of  Mr 
Connell's  chemical  labours,  and  the  papers  in  which  these  were 
announced  and  described. 

Having  failed  in  thia  object  of  bis  ambition,  Mr  Connell  con- 
tinued to  study  and  teach  his  favourite  science  at  St  Andrews  till 
1856,  when  the  fracture  of  a  limb,  and  its  effects  upon  a  constitu- 
tion, already  long  enfeebled,  completely  incapaciteted  htm  from 
active  duty. 

Mr  Connell  became  a  member  of  this  Society  in  1829,  from  which 
time  till  1843  he  contributed  to  the  Transactions,  or  published  in 
the  pages  of  the  "  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,"  memoirs  to 
the  number  of  29. 

His  chief  merit  lay  in  his  still  and  unrivalled  accuracy  as  a 
mineral  analyst.  To  him  we  are  indebted  for  several  new  mineral 
species — for  the  discovery  in  the  minerals  Btewsterite  and  Harmo- 
tome  of  the  earth  barytes  in  combination  with  silicic  acid — that 
earth  previously  having  been  found  combined  only  with  the 
sulphuric  and  carbonic  acids ;  while  his  ascertaining  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  mineral  Grreenockite,  on  one  grain  of  the  substance, 
displayed  a  dexterity  seldom  if  ever  surpassed. 

Mr  Connell  also  engaged  in  somewhat  more  ambitions  researches 
on  the  voltaic  decompositions  of  alcohol,  ether,  and  otherliquids,  and 
has  presented  ns  with  an  instmment  for  ascertaining  the  dew  point, 
superior  in  several  respects  to  that  generally  nsed. 

Mr  Connell  was  of  a  very  retiring  nature,  modest,  gentlemanly,  and 
gentle  in  dispoeition.    He  expired  peacefully  on  Slst  of  October  last. 


DvGooglc 


188  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

EiLABD  MireoHXHUOH,  born  Tth  Janaaxy  1794,  at  Necrede,  in 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburgh,  where  hia  father  was  a  minister 
of  the  Lutheran  Chnich,  was  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Paris, 
and  studied  afterwards  at  GSttingen,  His  first  objects  of  etndy 
were  language  and  ethnology.  Later  in  life  he  devoted  himself 
more  to  natural  science,  and  especially  chemistry.  He  asaisted 
BerzeliuB  at  Stockholm  for  some  years. 

In  1821  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin,  and  attached  to  the  Friedrich  Wilhelm  lastitnt. 
HtB  lectures  were  held  in  high  estimation,  and  attended  by 
numerous  classes  of  students. 

In  1628  be  was  elected  an  Honorary  Kember  of  thiB  Society,  and 
in  1629  was  awarded  a  Medal  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for 
hia  disoourses  "  regarding  the  laws  of  crystallization  and  the  pro- 
perties  of  cryetals." 

In  1852  Mitscherlich  was  elected  an  Associate  Member  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  His  great  European  reputation  is  fonnded  on 
bis  studies  on  crystallization  and  some  ingenious  adaptations  of  in- 
struments for  practical  chemistry.  His  text-booh — Lehrbv/ch  der 
Cn«tnK — has  gone  through  a  great  many  editions. 

Mr  Mitsoherlich  died  in  the  present  year. 

His  experiments  and  disquisitions  tended  to  establish  the  rale 
that  bodies  crystallizing  in  the  same  shape  (isomoiphous)  have  an 
analogous  chemical  composition— throwing  great  light  on  chemical 
classification,  and  giving  us  one  of  the  greatest  generalizations 
(after  the  Atomic  theory)  which  chemistry  has  gained  by  the  re- 
searches of  philosophers. 

When  I  have  laid  before  you  these  slender  memorials  of  out  de- 
ceased brethren,  I  may  claim  to  have  dischaiged  the  real  duty  of  my 
ofQoe  to-night.  If  indeed  I  were  worthy  to  fill  the  chair  in  which 
your  favour  has  placed  me, — if  I  had,  like  some  of  our  distinguished 
Fellows,  a  knowledge  of  all  science,  or  even  a  special  acquaintance 
with  any  one, — it  would  he  my  duty  to  submit  to  you  a  survey,  or  at 
least  some  outline,  of  the  progress  of  soienoe  among  us  and  among 
our  neighbours.  But  for  such  a  task  you  know  me  to  be  ill  qualified.  I 
.  should  not  venture  to  speak  in  the  language  of  science  anywhere,  and 
least  of  all  in  the  presence  of  the  men  whom  I  now  see  around  me. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  18Q^-H.  139 

Tlieie  are  subjects,  however,  in  which  Boientiflo  men  and  men  of 
no  Boienc«  feel  an  equal  interest— which  must  engage  the  attention 
of  every  person  of  common  intelligence. 

Among  these  is  the  great  step  recently  made  in  African  geo- 
graphy— the  discovery  of  the  head  of  the  Nile.  No  other  geogra* 
phical  discovery  can  ever  compare  with  this.  It  is  not  the  solution 
of  &  pozzle  in  the  Geographical  Society.  It  is  removing  the 
"  ImpottibU" — the  very  type  of  impossibilities — from  our  books.  It 
is  opening  to  the  whole  world  the  mystery  which  was  a  mystery 
even  to  the  initiated.  Poets  have  lost  a  topic  I  What  pfailosopbers 
and  historians  gnessed  and  speculated  about,  is  now  written  down 
plain  on  the  map.  That  is  now  clear  whioh  has  been  wondered  at 
since  men  began  to  ask  the  meaning  of  anything.  We  have  lost 
the  oldest  subject  of  curiosity  in  the  world  I 

A  grave,  proaaic  mind  loses  its  equanimity,  and  gives  way  to  the 
charm  of  romanoe  at  the  thought  of  the  veil  being  raised  that 
has  for  so  many  thousands  of  years  covered  the  head  of  the  great 
mysterions  river  which  was  worshipped  of  old — not  more  for  its 
beneficent  overflowings,  regular  as  the  seasons,  yet  unacoouDtafale, 
than  because  of  its  unknown,  unapproachable  source. 

I  do  not  mean  that  the  facts  which  our  travellers  have  brought 
to  light  run  counter  to  the  conclusions  of  former  geographers.  On 
the  contrary,  I  think  the  body  of  history  on  the  one  hand,  the 
specnlations  of  science  on  the  other,  had  prepared  the  world  for 
such  a  discovery.  Glancing  at  the  ancient,  I  mean  the  classical 
authorities,  without  arraying  them  before  yon,  I  may  say  that  among 
innumerable  fables  and  much  unphilosophical  reasoning,  they 
almost  concur  in  giving  the  Nile  its  source  in  a  mighty  loke — some 
say  two  immense  lakes — fed  by  periodical  rains, — fed  also,  say  some, 
by  subterraneous  streams  flowing  from  the  west  (these  subterraneous 
rivers  were  favourites  with  the  wonder-loving  naturalists  of  old). 
This  great  lake  was  further  believed  to  lie  at  the  foot  of  lofty,  snow- 
covered  mountains,  named  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  Herodotus 
indeed  demurs  to  the  snow.  The  Beservoit  Lakes  become  immea- 
surable marshes  in  some  of  the  accounts.  Indeed  I  should  despair 
of  producing  a  catena  of  witnesses  for  any  single  point  of  the  state- 
ment ;  hut  such  as  I  have  described  was  nearly  the  mind  of  ancient 
Greece  and  Home,  speaking  on  the  information  obtained  in  Egypt. 


DvGooglc 


140  Proceedings  of  the  JBoyai  Society 

It  is  more  remarkable  to  find  a  aimilar  ahadow  of  the  truth  from 
a  different  quarter,  and  perhaps  of  an  earlier  date.  The  ancient 
inhabitants  of  India  seem  to  have  felt  the  same  interest,  and  to 
have  had  an  equal  glimmering  of  the  coarse  of  the  Nile,  In  a  well- 
known  paper  hj  Mr  Wilford,  in  the  Asiatic  Besearches,  we  have  a 
sort  of  abstract  of  the  ancient  Indian  belief  concerning  the  Nile, 
drawn  from  the  Pur^as  and  other  Hindu  or  Sanscrit  books. 

The  name  of  the  river  in  those  most  ancient  books  is  Kali, 
black.  (Though  Homer  names  the  river  Aeg^ut,  it  was  known  to 
ancient  Greeks  as  McXas.)  According  to  the  same  authoritiea,  that 
famous  and  hoi;  river  takes  its  rise  from  the  lake  of  the  goda, 
tbence  named  Amara  or  Deva,  Sarfivera  in  the  region  of  Sbarma  or 
Sharmasthao,  between  the  mountains  of  Ajagara  and  Sitanta,  part 
of  Soma-giri,  or  the  Mountains  of  the  Hoon,  the  country  ronad 
the  lake  being  called  Chandristhan  or  Moon-land.  The  Hindas 
believed  in  a  range  of  enow-covered  hills  in  Africa. 

From  thence  the  Eali  flows  into  the  marshes  of  the  Fadma-van, 
and  through  the  Nishada  Mountains  into  the  land  of  Barbara ; 
whence  it  passes  through  the  mountains  of  Hemacfita;  then  enter- 
ing the  forests  of  Tapas  (or  Thebais)  it  runs  into  Eantaka-desa,  or 
Mitha-sthan,  and  through  the  woods  emphatically  named  Aranya 
and  Atavi  into  Sanchahdhi  (or  our  Mediterranean). 

From  the  country  of  Pushpavereba,  it  received  the  Nanda  or 
Nile  of  AbyBsinia,  the  Asthimati  or  smaller  Krishna,  which  is  the 
Takazzi  or  little  Ahay,  ajid  the  Sauchanaga  or  Mareh. 

The  Ajagara  Mountains,  which  run  parallel  to  the  eastern  shores 
of  Africa,  have  at  present  the  name  of  Lupata,  or  the  back -hone  of 
the  world.  Those  of  Sitanta  are  the  range  which  lies  west  of  the 
lake  Zambre  or  Zaire,  words  not  improbably  corrupted  from  Amara 
or  Sura.  This  Lake  of  the  Grods  is  believed  to  he  a  vast  reservoir 
which,  threugh  visible  or  bidden  channels,  supplies  all  the  rivers 
of  the  country. 

The  Hindus,  for  mythological  purposes  (says  Mr  Wilford),  are 
fond  of  supposing  subterranean  communications  between  lakes  and 
rivers,  and  the  Oreeks,  we  know,  had  the  same  leaning. 

We  really  had  made  little  progress  beyond  these  ancient  guesses, 
till  in  the  year  1858  Captains  Speke  and  Burton  saw  and  sailed 
upon  the  great  lake  Tanganyika,  600  miles  from  the  coast  at 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbitrgh,  Session  1863-^4.  Ill 

ZauzibftT.  The  Uke  ie  nanow,  but  300  miles  long,  and  1800  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Very  soon  after,  Captain  Speke  alone 
had  the  glory  to  see  and  bear  witness  to  the  great  inland  sea  which 
he  baa  named  Victoria.  Having  onlj  seen  this  mighty  lake,  and 
being  obliged  to  leave  it  unexplored,  Captain  Speke  made  haste  to 
return  to  it,  and  this  time  in  company  with  his  old  comrade  and 
brotber-in-arms  Captain  Ckant,  and  through  toila  and  dangen 
which  men  like  these  love  almost  for  tbeii  own  sake,  they,  together, 
reached  in  1861  the  Victoria  Lake,  which  Speke  had  discovered 
three  years  earlier. 

It  happened  (and  such  coincidences  are  frequent  in  science)  that 
at  the  very  time  when  Speke  and  Grant  were  fixing  the  bearings 
and  heighta  of  the  great  lake  and  its  mountains.  Baron  von  Decken 
and  Ur  Thornton  measured  and  estimated  the  altitude  of  Kilima 
Nearo,  one  of  a  mountain  range  to  the  eastward  of  our  travellers' 
route,  at  20,000  feet,  while  the  snow  line  descended  below  16,000. 

At  present  our  information  is  necesaarily  meagre,  but  on  the 
testimony  of  these  two  veteran  travellers,  furnished  as  they  were 
with  instruments  for  obaervation,  we  have  some  actual  certainty, 
and  room  for  infinite  speculation. 

The  Victoria  Sea  of  freah  water  is  about  150  miles  sqnare.  The 
equator  line  runs  through  it,  though  nearer  its  north  shore.  Its 
watere  are  3563  feet  above  the  sea  level.  It  is  skirted,  if  not  quite 
surrounded,  by  ranges  of  mountains  of  10,000  feet  high.  Without 
farther  evidence,  independent  even  of  the  high  authority  of  Captain 
Speke's  opinion,  we  receive  aa  certain  that  in  the  Victoria  great 
lake  is  the  source,  or  rather  the  great  reservoir  of  the  Nile,  for  of 
course  the  lake  is  fed  by  numerous  streams,  in  fact  by  a  stream 
from  every  valley  among  the  surrounding  mountains,  and  then  it 
follows  that  the  White  Nile,  not  the  Blue  Nile  as  Bruce  believed, 
is  the  chief  of  the  two  streams  that  join  at  Kartom,  lat.  15°  30'. 

Thus  was  the  mystery  cleared  up  tbat  had  defeated  the  ingenuity 
and  enterprise  of  philosophers  and  travellers,  of  kings  and  Ctesars, 
since  the  days  of  Herodotus. 

Captain  Speke  thinks  very  highly  of  the  country  he  has  explored 
in  a  commercial  and  agricultural  view.  He  found  the  people  not 
all  savage,  but  capable  of  intelligent  interest  and  quite  awake  te 
kindness  and  friendship.    But  the  country  is  everywhere  thinly 


DvGooglc 


142  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

peopled,  and  productive  nmoh  beyond  the  wants  of  the  population. 
Along  the  equator,  at  heights  varying  from  6000  to  12,000  feet,  the 
tiaveUera  fonnd  a  delicions  climate,  with  abundance  of  water,  and  no 
excessive  beat,  ftill  of  cattle  and  com.  In  the  kingdom  of  Karagw6 
(lat.  1°  40',  elevation  5100  feet),  the  teraperatnire  for  five  months 
ranged  fiom  60°  to  70°  at  9  morning.  From  what  they  could  learn 
of  the  country  to  the  westward  of  the  lake,  it  preserves  the  same 
character  for  several  hundred  miles,  and  I  know  that  Captain 
Speke  believes  there  is  a  continuancg  of  that  which  he  calls  the 
Fertile  Zone  almost  to  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  He  tells  bis 
friends  he  has  "diBcovered  a  great  fertile  zone  there,  caused  princi- 
pally by  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  situated  close  to  the  equator, 
in  the  midst  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  These  are  great  rain 
condensers.  Round  them  are  the  sources  of  several  rivers,  the  Nile 
on  one  side,  the  Tanganyika  and  the  Congo  on  the  other.  The 
rains  falling  all  round  make  that  a  fertile  zone — the  most  fertile  in 
the  world.     There  is  nothing  in  India  or  China  to  equal  it." 

It  is  in  that  direction  the  indefatigable  traveller  propoees  to  moke 
hie  next  expedition,  and  let  us  hope  that  in  two  years  more  we  shall 
welcome  Captain  Speke  returning  from  the  mouths  of  the  Congo. 

I  know  not  whether  to  congratulate  or  condole  with  the  Society 
upon  another  advance  in  science,  or  whether  that  is  to  be  called  an 
advance  which  some  consider  a  double  trespass,  a  breaking  down  of 
tbeboundaries  between  geology  and  archteology,  and  overleaping  the 
ancient  landmarks  which  divided  natural  science  from  sacred  history. 

Certain  well-known  discoveries  of  hand-shaped  weapons  and 
implements,  found  along  with  the  remains  of  some  extinct  animals, 
in  undisturbed  beds  of  a  very  ancient  alluvial  deposit  both  in  France 
and  in  England,  led  the  antiquary,  whose  department  is  limited  to 
the  human  period,  to  eeek  to  extend  that  period  into  what  bad 
hitherto  been  the  exclusive  province  of  the  geologist;  and  the 
geologist  again,  driven  to  admit  that  these  flint  spear-points  have 
been  shaped  by  man's  hand,  and  used  upon  (or  among)  the  Elephai 
primigeniva,  the  BMnoceros,  and  other  extinct  animals  whose  teeth 
and  bones  now  bear  them  company,  has  to  seek  for  an  extension  of 
the  period  hitherto  allotted  for  the  operations  and  deposits  which 
the  race  of  man  has  witnessed. 


^aovGoOglc 


o/Edinbiayh,  Seaaion  1863-64.  143 

This  onl;  brought  oot  more  palpably  what  geologista  had  foi 
some  time  taught — had  taught  indeed  almost  as  early  ae  geology 
took  the  dimenBionB  of  a  science — that  the  globe  itself  was  im- 
measurably older  than  the  age  asaigned  for  mao. 

That  period — the  creation  of  man — the  age  of  man  on  the  globe — 
had  been  early,  and  nearly  unanimously  fixed,  by  calculations  based 
upon  the  data  afforded  by  the  Mosaic  books. 

Such  calculations  were  necessarily  more  or  less  conjectural, 
fou&ded  on  interpretations  of  archaic  forms  of  language,  and  of 
words  which  might  have  different  meanings.  Numbers  and  figures 
were  to  be  read  in  varying  manuscripts,  often  from  faulty  copies ; 
and  although  great  men  like  Newton  had  satisfied  themselves  that 
the  received  age  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants  was  the  true  one, 
new  facts,  of  a  science  unknown  to  Newton,  had  shaken  that 
opinion,  and  it  seemed  probable  that  the  Biblical  scholar,  the  stu- 
dent of  sacred  history,  in  the  view  of  geological  facts,  would,  in  the 
first  place,  abandon  the  position  that  the  age  of  the  creation,  the 
sntiqnity  of  the  earth,  was  to  be  determined  by  the  interpretation 
of  the  Uosaical  books ;  and,  ucondly,  that  he  would  not  shut  his  eyes 
to  new  evidence  offered  npon  the  questions,  whether  the  Uosaical 
books  intended  toaffirmtbeageof  man  upon  theglohe,  and  whether 
the  interpreters  of  those  books  had  accurately  and  precisely  and 
definitely  ascertained  their  meaning  and  intention  in  that  matter. 

I  should  perhaps  do  better  in  using  the  terms  of  the  latest 
authority  on  this  subject,  which  comes  with  "Oxford"  on  its  title 
page  to  vouch  its  orthodoxy,  and  with  the  sound  sense  of  our  friend 
Dr  Hannah  to  commend  it  to  onr  acceptance : — * 

"  It  is  surely  mere  misappTcbenBion  to  suppose  that  the  reve- 
lation with  which  Moses  was  really  entrusted  could  traverse  the 
path  of  the  modem  geologist,  or  contain  any  thing  that  would 
either  confirm  or  contradict  his  readings  of  those  buried  rocks. 
From  whichever  side  the  error  comes,  we  are  bound  to  shake  our- 
selves free  from  it,  not  by  sajring  with  some  that  God  cared  not 
though  His  instruments  should  make  mistakes  on  scientific  subjects, 
but  by  pointing  out  that  there  can  be  no  error  where  there  is  no 
assertion,  and  that  a  purely  theological  revelation  contains  no 
assertion  which  falls  within  the  proper  sphere  of  science." 
*  Dr  HaDnab's  Bamptan  Lectures.    Oxou.,  1868. 


DvGooglc 


144  ProceetUnga  of  the  Boyal  Society 

I  B&y  then  the  two  partiee,  the  scientific  inquirer  and  the  Ho- 
saical  scholar,  both  eamoBt  for  truth,  would  have  come  to  some 
nndeistanding,  not  surely  to  conceal  oi  shut  out  the  truth,  bat  to 
give  each  full  lioesBe  to  inqniie  and  experiment,  and  to  draw  all 
legitimate  inferences  from  facts  discorered ;  for  after  all,  the  dis- 
putes between  theologians  and  geologists  relate  rather  to  inferences 
from  facta  than  to  the  reality  of  the  facte  themselves.  The  theo- 
logian infers  certain  traths  from  the  words  of  the  first  chapter  of 
Genesis  ;  the  geologist  infers  certain  notions  from  what  he  sees  in 
an  open  quany.  The  inferences  are  mutually  contradictory ;  but 
as  the  theologian  and  the  geologist  are  both  capable  of  drawing 
false  inferences,  such  inferences  may  be  contradictory  and  neither 
may  be  true.  A  new  light  on  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  Day  " 
in  the  Mosaic  language  might  end  the  controyersy ;  so  might  some 
evidence  that  the  best  instances  of  hand-formed  iQint  implements 
found  in  ancient  drift  were  fictitious  sjid  fraudulent. 

We  must  suppose  that  a  candid  student  of  the  Divine  books  will 
take  what  help  is  in  his  power  for  explaining  their  difficulties,  and, 
be  sure,  he  will  not  neglect  the  testimony  of  the  rocks — tbehisttoy 
of  creation  written  in  other  letters  hut  by  the  same  Author.  So  a 
candid  geologist,  who  reflects  that  the  purpose  of  Moses  was  clearly 
not  to  teach  natural  philosophy,  but  to  inculcate  and  enforce  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  will  acknowledge  that  the  order  of  creation 
given  in  Crcnesis  does  agree  marvellouflly  with  the  inverse  order  of 
the  fossils  actually  found — plants,  marine  or  aquatic  animals,  birds, 
mammals,  man. 

I  say  these  disputants  might  have  come  to  tenns — explaining 
the  Scripture  history  of  the  creation  by  the  help  of  a  careful  and 
reverent  study  of  the  created  universe.  But  a  third  party  has 
lately  rushed  among  the  combatants,  and  now  fight  with  two-edged 
weapons.  These  are  theologians  too — at  least  they  are  churchmen, 
and  Hebraists,  and  mighty  arithmeticians;  but,  with  a  singular 
view  of  their  duty  to  their  Church,  they  cavil  at  the  foundations  of 
its  history  and  doctrine,  and  think  it  necessary  to  tell  the  world  so. 
These  critics  insist,  that  no  interpretation,  oonstming  of  a  phrase, 
word,  or  numeral  of  the  Mosaical  books  shall  he  admitted — that  all 
shall  stand  or  fall  together;  and  then,  having  picked  out  some 
words,  especially  some  numben,  which  they  judge  erroneous — 


DvGooglc 


qfEdinhurgk,  Session  1863-64.  145 

though  not  affecting  a  single  point  of  doctriae  or  morak,  ot  the 
essentials  of  history — they  say  the  books  ascribed  to  Moses  aie 
devoid  of  authority,  and  must  he  abandoned  I 

That  is  not  the  way  in  which  we  are  accustomed  to  read  any 
ancient  history;  and,  though  different  canons  are  used  for  criti- 
cising the  inspired  writers  from  those  applied  to  other  historians, 
yet,  as  to  the  mere  text,  the  boobs  of  Moses  are  entitled  beyond 
others  to  a  fair  and  liberal  construction,  as  the  most  ancient  books 
in  the  world,  and  as  having  passed  through  an  infinite  number  of 
transcriptions  and  translations. 

But  I  must  declare  my  entire  concurrence  with  Dr  Hannah,  that 
"  it  is  a  dangerous  and  mistaken  policy  to  raise  these  disputes  to 
adventitious  importance,  by  treating  tbem  as  though  they  neces- 
sarily involved  the  issue  of  our  highest  interests." 

For  the  persons  of  tender  conscience,  who  feel  themselves  cod- 
stiained  "  to  build  up  those  scattered  fragments  of  difficulty  into  a 
coherent  edifice  of  doubt,"  they  would  themselves  surely  feel  easier, 
as  it  wonld  be  a  relief  to  the  world,  who  are  judging  in  the  quarrel, 
if  they  could  cease  to  be  members  of  a  Church  which  founds  so 
confidently  on  the  Mosaical  history.  They  would  asmil  with  more 
satisfaction  if  they  had  not  promised  to  defend. 

For  the  geologist,  if  my  voice  were  wanting  to  encourage  him, 
I  would  bid  him  go  forward,  cautiously,  reverently,  yet  without 
fear.  Let  him  test  the  evidence  with  all  care  before  publishing  a 
discovery.  He  must  consider  be  has  everything  to  prove,  and  he 
should  assert  nothing  without  evidence,  and  take  nothing  for 
granted.  We  want  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Drift-deposit,  and 
of  the  fossils  contained  in  it  belonging  to  the  extinct  animals 
named.  We  want  proof  that  the  flints  are  hand-wrought,  and  not 
chipped  accidentally  in  the  rolling  drift.  Uuch  more,  we  desire 
proof  that  they  were  found  there,  and  not  placed  to  be  found  by 
some  cunning  quarryman.  It  is  not  only  the  flint  iostrument  but 
its  manufacture,  its  chipping  into  shape,  that  must  be  tested.  Is 
the  fracture  of  the  flint  such  that  it  might  have  been  made  many 
thousand  years  ago  ? 

Farther,  the  geologist  should  publish  to  the  world  the  evidence 
of  his  facts ;  for  the  inquiry  is  one  that  concerns  the  public,  and  in 


DvGooglc 


146  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

which  the  public  take  an  interest.  But  why  should  I  intrnde  raj 
advice  upon  men  who  hare  bIiowd  they  know  well  what  is  reqaiied 
at  their  hands  in  a  momentons  inquiry  ?  Nine  of  the  most  emineDt 
geologiste  of  Fraoce  and  England  met  in  friendly  conference  at 
Paris,  and,  later,  at  Abbeville,  to  compare  specimens,  to  test  the 
evidence,  to  do  everything  foi  ascertaining  the  truth ;  and  they 
pablished  the  proeit-verbal  of  their  proceedings  in  the  "  Natural 
Histoiy  Review"  of  last  August,  with  the  sanction  of  Dr  Falconer's 
name,  andothersequally  well  known.  It  seems  hardly  to  be  doubted, 
that  numerous  frauds  have  been  perpetrated  upon  the  naturalists. 
When  specimens  are  well  paid  for,  they  become  plentiful,  both  in 
England  and  in  France,  but  there  may  be  means  of  detecting  the  im- 
positions, and  these  means  our  geologists  are  using  with  all  caie. 
The  iion  horse-shoe,  lately  put  forth  among  the  primeval  relics,  has 
been,  as  I  understand,  withdrawn ;  the  bones  of  elephant  and  other 
animals,  bearing  marks  of  human  hands,  are  not  yet  accepted  by 
these  naturaliets.  As  to  the  Abbeville  jaw-bone  of  a  man,  whose 
jaw  must  have  ceased  chewing  long  before  the  flood,  there  is  but 
one  opinion  in  England,  which  I  am  informed  by  Mr  Evans  ia  also 
gaining  groond  in  France — that  the  whole  thing  was  an  impudent 
imposition.  Mr  Prestwich,  who  was  once  a  believer,  published  bis 
recantation  in  the  last  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society. 
It  may  be  permitted  me,  perhaps,  as  one  of  the  public,  to  offer 
one  more  advice  to  the  naturalist.  He  must  take  care  not  only 
that  his  reasoning  is  logical,  his  inferences  cautious  and  careful, 
but  he  will  do  well  to  avoid  even  the  appearance  of  disputing  for 
victory.  Science  has  no  enemies  if  its  votaries  do  not  raise  them 
up  by  indiscretion  and  intemperance. 

I  have  to  apologise  for  occupying  so  much  of  your  time,  and  for 
venturing  rashly  beyond  the  boundaries  of  my  own  line  of  study. 


The  following  Grentlemen  were  duly  elected  Ordinary 
Fellows : — 

Alexahdib  Cbvu  BaowH,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.Sc. 
Alkxamdkb  Wood,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.E. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaeion  1863-64.  147 

The  followiDg  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Abhandl.  der  konigl.  G«sellschaft  der  Wissenschaflen  za  Gcettin- 

gen.     9ter  u.  lOter  Bands  1860-2.     ita.—FTom  ike  Society. 
Nova  Acta  Academiro  Ctesareie  Leopoldino-Garolinfe  natnrffi  Curio- 

sorum.     Vol.  XXVI,  pare  posterior,  1858.    ito.— From  the 

Society. 
Sitzangsberichte  der  kaiserL  Academie  der  WissenBchaften  zu 

Wien — Mathematisch-DaturwiBaenachaftliche  Elaaae.     Jahr- 

gang,  1862,  Bands  XLVI.-VII.;   und  PhiloBOphiBoh-hUto- 

rische  Elasse,  Bands  XL.-I,  nsbst  Begistei  zuBanden  XXXI.- 

XL. — From  the  Academy. 
Denkscbriften  der  kaiserl.  Academio  der  Wissenschaften — Mathe- 

matisch-naturwiasenflchaftlicbe  Elasee.     XXIter  Band.    4to. 

— From  the  aame. 
Societit  reale  di  NapoU :  rendiconto  dell'  academia  dells  Scisozs 

fieiche  e  mathematiche.    Anno    Imo.  fascicoH  1-8.    Anno 

Ildo.  faBcicoli  1-3;  s  rendiconto  dells  scisnze  moral!  e  politicbe. 

Anni  1862-3.     ito.— From  the  mme. 
Foeitionea  mediae  stellarum   fixarum  in  zonis  regiomontanis  a 

Besaolio  inter  +  15°  et  +  45°  dsclinatioiiia  obeervatanim  ad 

annum  1825  redactte,  stc.  auctore  Maximiliano  WeisBe.    4to. 

— From  the  Imperial  Academy  of  St  Petersburg. 
ObBervations  mettorotogiquea    faites  &    Nijn£-Tagui1sk,    ann^es, 

1861-2.     8vo. — From  the  Bunian  Oovemment. 
Transactiona  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  for  18fil.     Part 

III. ;    and  1862,  Parts  I.,  II.,  and  III.      4to.— From   the 

Society. 
Proceedings  of  tbe  aame.     Vol.  IV.,  Part  7 ;  and  Vol.  V.,  Parts 

I.  and  II.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London  for 

1862.     Parts  I.  and  II.     4to.— Jrom  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  same  for  1863.     8yo.— from  the  eame. 
Extension  of  tbe  Triangulatioo  of  the  Ordnance  Surrey  into  Franco 

and  Belgium,  <tc.     By  Col.  Sir  H.  James,  E.B.,  &c.     4to. — 

From  the  Author. 
Memoirs  of  tbe  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.    New 

Series.     Vol.  VIII.,  Part  II.     4to.— from  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


148  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

FroceediDgB  of  the  eame.    Conclusion  of  Vol.  V.  and  commeDce- 

ment  of  Vol.  yi.—From  (he  miM. 
Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  ScieDces  of  Philadelphia.    Vol. 

v.,  Part  III.     4to.— From  the  Academt/. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.    Vol.  VIII., 

1861-2.     Vol.  IX.  1862-3.     Sjo.—From  the  Society. 
Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History.    Vol.  VII.  Nob.  1,  2,  and  3. 

8vo. — Front  (he  tame. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.    Vol.  IX., 

No.  69.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  same.  Part  I.  8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Transactions  of  the  same.     Part  III.,   Art.   IV.,  "  Intellectual 

Symbolism."     By  P.  E.  Chase,  M.A.     ito.— From  the  same. 
Astronomical  and  Meteorological  Observations  at  the  TJ.  S.  Naval 

Observatory  during  1861,     4to. — From  the  Obaervalttry. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 

Zoology.     1862.     8vo.— fVwn  the  Tmtleet. 
Report  of  Lieut. -Col.  J.  D.  Oraham  on  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Observations  on  the  Genus  Unio.    By  Di  Isaac  Lea.    Vol.  IX. 

4t0. — From  the  Author. 
Discussion  of  the  Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observations  at 

Gerard  College  Observatory  from  1840-5.     Second  Section, 

comprising  Parts  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.     Horizontal  Force.     By  Dr 

A.  D.  Bache.    4to. — From  the  Author. 
Appendices  XVI.  and  XXIII.  to  the  above.    4to. — Prom  the  lame. 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  U.S.  Coast  Survey  for  1869 

and  1860.     2  vols.     4to.— J^rom  the  same. 
Ohio  Agricultural  Report  for  1861.     Second  Series.     Svo. — From 

the  Smithtonian  Inttitution. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 

1861.     8vo.— i^rom  the  same. 
On  the  Syllogism.    No.  V.    By  A.   Do  Morgan,  F.R.A.S.  and 

C.P.S.,  &c.     ■ito.—From  the  Author. 
Archaeologia.    By  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London.    Vol. 

XXXIX.     ito.— From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the   Royal   Institution    of  Great   Britain.      Nos. 

37  and  38.    8vo.— .From  the  Ifutilutim. 


DvGooglc 


o/EdinbvTffk,  Sessim  1863-64.  149 

Scheikundige  Verhaadelingen,  tweede  Deel,  tweede  Stuk  door  G.  J. 

Mulder.    8vo. — From  the  Avihor. 
Muir'e  SaDBcrit  Texts.     Vol.  IV.— JVom  ihe  Auilwr. 
BeobacbtuDgen  des  Alars  urn  die  Zeit  der  Opposition,  1862,  tod  Dr 

A.  WiDnecke.    4to. — /"rom  the  Author, 
Obeervations  de  la  grande  N^ebuleuse  d'Onon  faites  i  Cazaa  et  & 

Poulkova.     Par  0.  Struve.     4to. — From  the  Author. 
Proceedings  of  the  Uedico-Cbirurgical  Society  of  London.    Vol, 

IV.,  Nob.  3  and  4.    8m.— From  the  Sodely. 
Atti  dell'  imp.  reg.  Istituto  Veneto  di  Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Aiti  dal 

Novembre  1662  all'  Ottobre  1863.    Tomo  ottavo;  Serieterza. 

Dispense  quarta-nona.    8vo. — From  the  IiutitiUe, 
Du  Climat  de  GenfeTo.    Par  E.  Plantomour.  4to. — From  the  Author. 
BesumS  Mfit&jrologiquo  de  I'Ann^  1861  pour  Genfeve  et  le  Grand 

S.  Bernard.     By  the  same.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Biblical  Natural  Science.    By  Rev.  John  Duns.    Parts  VI.-XIII. 

8ro. — From  the  Author. 
Traforo  dell'  Alpi  tra  Bardonfcche  e  Modane,  1863.    4to. — From  the 

Ilalian  Qovemment. 
Uemoire  sut  la  loi  du  rSfraidtBsemeiit  des  Corps  Sph^riques,  etc. 

Par  J.  Plana,  Turin.     4to. — From  ihe  Author. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  II.  4,  and  II.  5.    4to. 

—From  Dr  Oldham. 
Catalogus  Lichenum  quos  in  Provincia  Sondriensi  et  circa  Novum 

Comum  collegit,  etc.    Presbyter  Uartinus  Anzi.     Svo. — From 

T.  C.  Archer,  Esq. 
Annales  hydrographiques.  Nob.  350-5.    8vo. — From  ihe  Dipot  de 

la  Marine. 
fioUetiu  de  la  Soci6t6  de  Geographie.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Cartes  de  la  Pilote  Fran^aise. — From  the  same. 
Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Hist.  Society  of  Dublin.     Vol.  III.,  Parts 

I.  and  n.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
On  the  Generative  System  of  Selix  aeperta  et  hortentis.     By  Dr  H, 

Lawson.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Jahrbuch  der  kaiserl.  konigl.  Goologischen  Beichs  Anstalt.    XII. 

No.  4,  and  XIII.  Nos.  1  and  2.    Mit  General  Register  der 

ersten   10  Biinde.      8vo. — from  the  Archivar  of  the  Bcieht- 

Atulall. 


DvGooglc 


150  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

Biblioth&qne  de  M.  le  Baron  de  Stoseart  16ga£e  i,  rAcademie  Boyale 

de  Belgiqne.     8to. — From  the  Academy. 
Sveriges  Geologiska  Undeisokuiug.    1-5.    With  Uap§.     8to.— 

From  the  Swedish  OovemTneTtt. 
ProceediDgs  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society,    May  to  November 

1863.     Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
MemolTs  of  the  Boyal  Aetronomical  Society.     Vol.  XXXI.     4to. 

— From  the  Society. 
Annales  de  I'ObBervatoire  Koyal  de  BruxelleB.    Tome  XV.    4to. — 

From  M.  QueteUt. 
Note  sur  les  B^sultate  foumis  par  une  enqudte  relative  &  Tautheo- 

ticitfi  de  1b  d^couverte  d'nne  machoire  humaine  et  des  baches 

en  eilex  dane  le  terrain  diluvien  de  Houlin-Quignon.    Par  M. 

Milne- Ed warda.     4to. — From  the  Author. 
Ueber  die  Saurodipterinen,  Dendrodonten,  Glyptolepiden  u.  Cheiro- 

lepiden  des  Dovouischen  Systeme  von  Dr  C.  H.  Pander.     With 

17  Plates.     4to. — From  the  Russian  Qovemment. 
Mouatsberichte  der  konigl.  Preuss.  Akademie  der  Wisseuschaften 

zu  Berlin.     Aus  dem  Jabre  1862.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Uittheilungen  der  naturforschenden  Gesellschaft  in  Bern.    Nos. 

497-530.     ZsQ.—From  ike  Society. 
The  Weetminster  Coufession  of  Faith  critically  compared  with  the 

Holy  Scriptures  and  Found  Wanting.    By  James  Stark,  M.D., 

&c.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Pinetum  Britannicum.    Part  IV.    Abies  Hookeriana;  Abies  Pat- 

toniana.     Folio. — From  Charles  Lawson,  Esq. 
Journal  of  Agriculture  j  July  and  October  1863.     8vo. — From  the 

Highland  Society. 
Report  on  the  Madras  Military  Fund,  containing  New  Tables  of 

Mortality,  Marriage,  &c.,  from  1808  to  1858.     8ro.—From 

Samuel  Brown,  Esq. 
Proceedings  of  the  Eoyal  Meteorological  Society.    Vol.  I.,  Nos. 

6-8.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Proceediogs  of  the  Linneon  Society.    Vol,  VII., 

Nos.  26,  27.     Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
The  Canadian  Journal   of  Industry,   Science,  and  Art.      Nos. 

44-47.     8vo.—From  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinbwgh,  Session  1863-64.  151 

Journal  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society.    No.  29.    8vo.— Fwm  the 

Society. 
JouTnal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Dublin.    Vol.  X.    Part  I. 

Svo.— From  th«  Society. 
Uonthly  Returns  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uaniages  Registered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland  for  1863.     8vo.— 

From  the  Begistrar-Qeneral. 
Quarterly  Returns  of  the  above  Registered  in  the  DiviBions,  Coun- 
ties, and  Districts  of  Scotland  for  1863.     8to. — From  the  same. 
Quarterly  Reports,  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of  Scotland  for 

1863.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Nyt  Magazin  for  NaturvideneBkabeme.     Twelfth  Volume,  Parts 

I.-III.     8vo.—From  theEditon. 
Norek-rorfatter  Lexicon,   1814-56.    Af  Jena  E.  Kraft.     Sjette 

Heft.     8vo.— From  the  Editor. 
Norake  Vaegtiodder  fra  fjortende  aarhundrede  beskrevene.     Af  C. 

A.  Holmboe.     ita.— From  the  Avthor. 
Taiidermi.     For  the  use  of  the  University  of  Christiania.     8to.^ 

From  the  Univenity. 
Peter  Andreas  Munch.  Ved  Paul  Botten  Hansen.    Svo. — From  the 

Fredie  Aars-Beretning  om  Fantesolket.    Ved  Eilert  Sundt.    Svo. 

— From  lite  Author. 
Udsigt  over  Mineral  Gabinett  Opstilling  og  Storrelse.    Af  givet 

som  Indberetning  for  1861  fra  Bestzreren.    Svo.— fn»n  the 

Forhandlinger  i  Vide nskabB-Selsk abet  i  Christiania   Aar,   1862. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
^gyptische  Chronologie.  Von  J.  Lieblein.  Svo. — From  the  Author. 
Det  Eongelige  Norske  Frederlks  Universitets  Aarsberetning  for 

Aaret  1861.     8vo.—From  the  Univeraity. 
Aperpu  des  diff^rents  M6thodes  de  Traitement  employees  &  I'hd- 

pital  de  I'Universitu  de  ChriBtiania  contre  la  Syphilis  consti- 

tutionelle.     Par  J.  L.  Bidenkap.     Svo. — From  the  same. 
Committee-Beretning   Angaaende    Syphilieationen  ved    StefTens, 

Egeberg  et  Voas.     Svo. — From  the  tame, 
Det  Eongelige  Frederiks  TlniverBitets  Halvbundredaars-fest.   Sept. 

1861.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 


DvGooglc 


1 52  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

ScfarifleudeTTTniversitatEO  Kiel.  Ausdem  Jahre  1862.    fiaudlX. 

4to. — From  the  Uitivenity. 
AbhandlnDgen  der  philoBOph.-philologischen    Classe   der  konigl. 

bayerischen  Akademie  der  WisseoBchaften.    9teD  Bandes  3te 

Abtheilung.     4to. — Frwn  the  Academy. 
Matbematisch-physikaliBche  Glaase  von  deiselben.    9ten  Bandes 

3te  AbtheiluDg.     4to. — From  the  tame. 
Denkrede  auf  Job.  Andreas  Wagner,  von  Br  C.  F.  F.  von  Martine. 

4to. — From  the  tame. 
Rede  in  der  offentllcben  Sitzung  der  k.  Akademie  der  Wissen- 

echaften  am  28  Uarz  1663.    Yon  Justus  Freiherrn  von  Liebig. 

ito.— From  the  tame. 
Ueber  die  deutscben  Embeits-beetrebnngen  in  16  Jahrhundert,  too 

dem  konigl.  Universitats  Professor  Dr  GornesJas.   4to. — F^om 

the  tame. 
Sitznngsbericbte  der  Iconigl.  bayer.  Akademie  dei  Wissenscbaften 

2U  Miinohen,  1862,  II.  Heft.  3,  4,  and  1863,  I.  Heft.  1-3. 

8vo. — From  the  same. 
Borichte  iibei  die  Verbandelungen  der  lonigl.  sacbsiscben  Cieeell- 

Bchaft  der  Wissenscbaften  zn  Leipzig;  mathematiEcb-pbysiBche 

Classe,  1862,  und  philologiscb-bistorische  Classe,  1862.    8vo. 

From  the  Society. 
Die  Scblocbt  von  Warschau,  1856.     Voa  Job.  G-ust.  Droyeen. 

No,  4.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Ueber  den  Ban  von  Angiopteris,    Von  G.  Mettenius.    8vo. — From 

the  tame. 
TiansactioDB  of  tbe  Botanical  Society,  Vol.  VII.  Part  III.    8vo. — 

From  the  Society. 
Pbeuomena  attending  the  Fall  of  Meteorites  on  the  Earth.    By 

W.  Haidinger,  For.  Mem.  R,S.  L.  and  K,  Ac.     Svo.—From 

the  AiUhoT. 
Du  Progi^s  dans  les  langues  par  une  direction  nouvelle  donnto  aux 

travaus  des  Philolognes  et  des  Academies.     8vo. — From  the 

Author. 
Scientific  Papers.     By  John  Hogg,  M.A.,  F.B.S,,  •be.     8to. — 

From  the  Author. 
On  tbe  Origin  and  Distribution  of  the  Regum  or  Black  Cotton  Soils 

of  India.     By  Captain  A.  Aytoan.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 


j.Googlc 


o/Edinburgk,  Session  1863-64.  153 

On  the  Phenomena  of  the  Glacial  Drift  of  Scotland.     By  Archibald 

Geikie,  Esq.     8vo, — From  the  Author. 
BulletiDB  de  I'Academie  Boyale  dea  Sciences,  dcs  Lettresi,  et  dee 

Beaux-Arta  de  Belgiqne.    Tomes  XIll.  et  XIV.    Svo.— f rom 

the  tame. 
M^moiree  Couioon^,  etc.,  pnblife  par  rAcod^mie  Eoyate  de  Bel- 
giqne.    8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Annnairee  de  rAcad^mie  de  Belgique.     1863. — From  Ike  mme. 
Annuairede  I'ObseiratoireEoyale  de  Bnixelles.  Par  M.  A.  Quetelet. 

16nio, — From  the  Author. 
Bolide  observue  dans  la  soir6e  du  4  Mara  1863.     Par  M.  A.  Quetelet. 

8vo. — From  the  tame, 
Etoilee  filantee.     Oragee  dea  moia  d'Aoflt  et  Septembre   1862. 

Direction  des  CouniDts  flectriqnes  dans  iee  corps  des  auimaux. 

Par  M.  A.  Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  same. 
Sur  lee  £toiles  filant«B.     Par  G.  Herrick  et  Ad.  Quetelet.     8vo. — 

From  Ike  same. 
Difference  des  temps  entre  Bnixelles  et  Vienna  pout  lea  ^poquea 

critiques  dee  Plantea  et  des  Animanx.     Par  M.  A.  Quetelet. 

8vo. — From  the  tame, 
Sur  lea  N^bulensea,  etc.    Par  M.  A.  Quetelet.    8vo. — From  the 

same. 
Aurora  bor^alis  du  14  an  15  D6cembre  1862.     Par  M.  A.  Quetelet. 

8vo. — From  the  tatne. 
De  la  Variation   annuelle  de  I'incUnaiaon  et  de  la  dgclinaison 

magnetique,  etc.     Par  M.  A.  Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Climat  de  la  Belgiqne.      Par  M.  A.   Quetelet.     4to.— JVom  the 

same. 
Etoiles  filantes  de  periode  du  10  Aoflt  1863.    Par  M.  A.  Quetelet. 

8vo.— JVom  Ike  tame. 
On  Time-Boundaries  in  Geological  History,  &c.    By  J.  D.  Dane, 

Esq.    8vo.— JVom  the  Author. 
System  der  deutscben  Eatarakten  insbesondere  Bayem's.    u.  s.  v. 

Von  Dr  Job.  Gistl.     Bvo.—From  the  Author. 
Syatema  Inaectorum  secundum  Classes,  Ordinea,  Genera,  Species, 

scripait  Dr  Job.  Gistl.    Tome  I.,  Fasc.  I.    8vo. — From  the 

same. 
Melanges  Hath^matiques  et  Aatronomiquea,  tir68  du  Bulletin  de 

VOL.  V.  D 


DvGooglc 


154  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

)'Acad£mie  Imp^riale  des  Sciences  de  S.  PeterBbouig.    Tome 

III.     /?ji|1[2,  1862.     8vo.— Frwt  the  Academy. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci^t^  Imp^riale  des  Natandietee  de  Moscou.    Nos. 

II.,  III.,  &  IV.     8vo.— From  (Ae  Society. 
Suez  Canal.    Report  of  John  Hawkshaw,  F.B.S.,  to  the  Egyptian 

Government.    8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Reise  der  oesterreichiachen  Fregatte  Novara  um  die  Erde.    Nau- 

tiscli-phyaikaliBcher  Theil.  lite.  Abtheilung.     4to. — From  the 

Austrian  Oovemment. 
OoireBpondenz-blatt  dee  Vereins  fiir  Naturknnde  zu  Preeburg,    I. 

Jahrgang.     1862.     8vo.— From  Prof.  E.  Mack. 
Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Regents  of  the  Univeraity  of  the 

State  of  New  York,  on  the  Condition  of  the  State  Cabinet  of 

Natural  History.     8vo. — Frvm  the  U.S.  Oovemment. 
Report  of  the  CommisBioner  of  Patents  for  1860.     Vols.  I.  and  II. 

8vo. — From  She  U.S.  Government. 
Address  to  the  Royal  Physical  Society  of  Edinbui^h  on  the  Opening 

of  the  Ninety-second  SeBsion.     By  Alexander  Bryson,   Esq. 

8vo. — From  the  Author, 
Klein  on  Foretelling  the  Weather  in  Connection  with  Meteoro- 
logical Observations.     Translated  from  the   Dutch  by  Dr 

Adriani.     8vo. — From  the  Tranilator, 
Catalogue  des  Objets  d'Antiquit^  etc.  de  Feu,  M.  Jomard.    8to. — 

From  the  Author. 
Proceedings  and  Transactions  of  the  Meteorological  Society,  of 

Mauritius.     Vol.  V.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society  for  1862. 

8vo.—From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XXVI.     Parts 

II.  and  III.     Sva.^From  the  Society. 
Nederlandsch  £ruidkundig  Archief  onder  redactie  van  W.  F.  R. 

Sunngar  en  H.  J.  Cop.     Vifde  Deel.  Derde  Stnk.     8vo.— 

From  the  Editors. 
Schriften  dei  konigl.  physikaliscb-dkonomischen  Gresellschaft  zu 

Eouigeberg.  Drittei  Jahrgang  1862,  le  u.  2te  Abtheil.    4to. 

— From  (A«  Society. 
Kesultate    magnetiscber  u.  meteorologischer  Beobachtungen  auf 

einer   Reise   nach   dem   ostlichen   Sibirien   in   den    Jabreu 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  155 

1828-30.     Von  Prof.  Haneteen  n.  Lieutenant  Due.    4to.— 

from  the  Auiltort. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Physical  Society  of  Edinburgh.    SeseionB 

1858-62.    8vo.— from  the  Society. 
TraBSBctioDS  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London.     Vol.  XIV. 

8vo. — from  the  SocUiy. 
Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society.     No.  76. 
Compte  Rendu  de  la  CommiBsion  imp£riale  aichtologique  pour 

I'ann^e   1861    (avec  un    Atlas).      4to.  — from  the    Rxustan 

QoMmment. 
Greenwich  Obeervations  for  1861.      4tci. — from  Ike  Aatronomer- 

Edinburgh  Astronomical  OhserTatioDS.  Vol.  XII.  8vo. — Fnan 
Prof.  Smyth. 

Jahresbericht  uber  die  Fortschritte  der  Chemie,  etc.  Von  H.  Kopi' 
u.  H.  Will,  fur  1861.  2to  HiLlfte.  Gieesen  1863.  8vo.~ 
From  the  Editori. 

Memoiree  de  SociStg  imp^riale  dee  Sciences  natuiellea  de  Cher- 
bourg.    Tomes  VI.- VIII.     8vo. — frowi  ths  French  Coruul. 

Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society.  Vol.  VII.  Nob. 
III.,  IV.,  and  V.     8vo.— from  the  Society. 

Monday,  21at  Becember  1863. 
Db  CHEISTISON,  Vice-President,  iu  the  Chair. 
The  following  CommuDicatioDB  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Morphological  Belationships  of  the  Molluscoida 
and  Ccelenterata  and  of  their  leading  memhers,  infer  se. 

.  By  John  Denis  Macdonald,  B.N.,  F.Ii.S.,  Surgeon  of 
H.U.S.  "  IcaniB."    Communicated  by  Professor  Maclagan. 

2.  On  the  External  Anatonky  of  a  New  Mediterranean 
Fteiopod.  By  John  Denis  Macdonald,  B.N.  Communi- 
cated by  Professor  Maclagan. 

3.  On  the  Limits  of  oui  Knowledge  respecting  the  Theory  of 

Parallels.    By  Professor  Kelland. 
The  Author  has  in  this  paper  traced  to  its  consequeocee  the 


DvGooglc 


156  Proceedings  of  the  Jioyai  Society,  1863-64. 
asBumption,  as  if  it  were  an  axiom,  of  the  propoeitioo  "  That  the 
angloB  of  a  triaogle  are  together  less  than  two  right  angleB."  The 
results  as  regards  the  theory  of  parallels  are  such  as  to  imply  that 
such  lines  would  have  most  of  the  properties  of  equal  circles  ex- 
terior to  one  another. 

Professor  Tait  reminded  the  Society  that,  at  the  close  of  last 
Heasion,  he  and  Balfour  Stewart,  F.B.S.,  of  the  Kew  Observatory,  had 
deposited  with  the  Secretary  a  sealed  packet  containing  the  coin- 
cident results  of  certain  invest^tions  which  they  had  separately 
carried  on  from  totally  distinct  points  of  view,  and  which  appeared 
to  lead  to  »  new  principle  in  Natural  Philosophy. 

Experimental  attempts  at  verifications  of  this  principle  have 
since  been  made  by  them  in  various  ways,  and  others  are  in  pro- 
gress. Meanwhile,  the  anthois  desire  to  put  on  record  that  it 
appears  probable,  from  their  experiments,  that  the  viscosity,  &c.,  of 
air  are  not  the  only  causes  of  the  increased  radiation  from  a  moving 
body.  (Compare  Joule  and  Thomson,  Phil.  Trans.  1860.)  A 
vacuum  apparatus  now  in  course  of  construction,  will,  it  is  hoped, 
lead  to  decisive  results. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  elected  Fellows  of  the 
Society : — 

Ahdrkw  Wood,  M.D.,  F.B.C.S.E. 
RoBEBT  William  Tuousok,  Esq.,  C.E. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Monthly  Return  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  Begiatered 

in  the  Four  Principal  Counties  of  Scotland.     October  1863. 

8vo. — From  the  Segistrar-Oeneral. 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society.    No.  82,    8vo. — From 

the  Sodety. 
Transactions  of  the  Lionean  Society.  Yol.  XXII.,  Part  IL  4to, — 

From  the  tame. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.     No.  12.     8vo. — From  the  tame. 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Literature.    Vol.  VII.,  Part 

III.     8vo.— /Vom  the  same. 
Americao  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.     No.  108.     6vo. — Prom 

the  Editors. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Monday,  ith  January  1864- 
PaorBBsoB  KELLAND,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Commonications  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  great  Drift-Beda  with  Sheila  in  the  South-west  of 

Arran.    By  the  Rev.  Robert  Boog  Watson,  B.A.,  F.B.S.E., 

Hon.  Mem.  Naturw.  Ver.  Liinehurg. 

Theee  beds,  ob  examined  by  the  author,  lie  in  tbe  Torlin  or  Eil- 
morie  Bnm  basin,  in  the  Sooradale  or  Slidry  Water  basin  (more 
strictly  in  the  first  north  or  north-weat  tributary  of  each,  reckoning 
upwards  from  the  sea),  and  in  the  Clachan  Qlen, — all  in  the  south- 
west of  Arran.  They  ar»  of  great  extent  and  depth ;  at  certain 
points  they  contain  boreal  shells  in  considerable  nnmbere.  They 
are  diviaible  into  two  claeaoa,  (1.)  underlying  fine  dark  sands  and 
clays ;  and,  (2.)  overlying  coarse  red  clay  with  striated  stones,  pro- 
bably boulder  clay. 

They  are  interesting,  because, 

1.  They  present,  in  a  striking  forin,  proof  of  the  immense 
destruction  of  the  surface  of  the  land. 

2.  They  afford  unusually  good  sections,  from  the  rock  on  which 
they  rest,  upwards. 

3.  They  throw  some  light  on  the  formation  of  tbe  boulder  clay. 

4.  They  present  sea  shells,  at  oue  point  land  plants,  and  also  at 
one  point  a  later  lake  basin. 

TOL.  T,  :( 


DvGooglc 


1 58  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

The  special  information  they  give  is, — 

1.  That  all  the  latest  geological  changes  have  not  materislly 
afTected  the  lelatione  of  hill  and  valley. 

2.  That  the  valleys  were  largely  escATated  by  ice. 

3.  That  the  ice  covered  the  land  till  it  was  submerged. 

4.  That  the  depression  of  the  land  below  the  sea  was  con- 
tinnouB,  and  ultimately  attained  1000  feet  at  least. 

6.  That  the  deprosaion  was,  at  one  point  at  least,  sudden. 

6.  That  this  sudden  fall  did  not  begin  later,  at  least,  than  the 
time  at  which  the  present  90  feet  line  above  the  sealevel  reached 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

7.  That  this  sudden  snbsidence  could  not  have  amounted  to  less 
than  200  feet. 

8.  That  it  could  not  have  mnch  exceeded  300  feet. 

9.  That  under  obvious  limitations,  the  beds  which  lie  wartat 
the  tea-level  and  deepest  helow  the  »urface,  are  the  oldest,  and  that 
those  are  contempoTary  which  occnpy  the  vune  relative  position  to  the 
aea-level  and  the  underlying  rock. 


2.  On  the  Agrarian  Law  of  Lycurgus,  and  one  of  Mr  Grote'a 
Canons  of  Historical  Criticism.    By  Professor  Blackie. 

3,  On  the  Occurrence  of  AnKshiform  Protoplasm  and  the 
Emission  of  Fseudopodia  in  the  Hydroida.  By  Professor 
Allmaa. 

The  author  described  the  contents  of  the  email  tnbnlai  appen- 
dages, named  Nematophores  by  Busk,  which  are  developed  upoo 
certain  definite  points  of  the  hydrosome  in  the  PlumttlaridtK. 
These  contents  were  shown  to  conaist  of  a  granalar  protoplasm, 
with  occasionally  a  clnstei  of  targe  thread-celle  embedded  in  it. 

The  protoplasm  has  the  property  of  emitting  pseudopodia,  which 
are  very  extensile  and  mutable  in  shape,  and  exactly  resemble  tho 
pseudopodial  prolongations,  whose  occurrence  among  the  Bhitopoda 
is  BO  eminently  charaotetistic  of  this  group  of  Protozoa.  The  con- 
tents of  the  nematophores,  indeed,  except  alone  in  the  preeence 
of  thread-cells,  are  iDdistinguisbable  in  structure,  and  in  the  phe- 


DvGooglc 
( 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaton  1863-f)4.  159 

DomeDa  preseoted  by  them  from  the  sarcode  or  protoplasm,  which 
forms  the  substance  of  an  amcaba,  a  difBugia,  or  an  arcella. 

The  following  (rentlemui  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society ; — 

Javes  David  Haswics,  Esq. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 

Joamai  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  Loudon.     December  1863 

(with  General  Index).     8vo. — From  ihe  Society. 
Uonthly  Notices  of  the  Astronomioal  Society.   Vol.  XXIV.,  No.  1. 

8to. — From  the  Society. 
Monthly  Betum  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  KarriBges  Begistered  in 

the  Four  Principal  Counties  of  Scotland.     November  1863. 

8vo. — From  the  Regittrar-Qeneral, 
Abhandlungec  herausgegeben  von  der  Beuckenbergtschen  natur- 

forachendec  Gesellschaft.    Vierten  Bandes,  dritte  u.  vierte 

Liefenuig.     4to.— Jrt»n  ike  Society. 
Histcria  e  Memorias  da  Academia  real  das  Scieucias  de  Liaboa. 

Claase  de  Scienciae  Moraes,  Politicas  e  Bellaa  Lettras.    Nova 

Serie.     Tomo  II.,  Parte  11.    4to. — From  tiie  Academy, 
SitzuDgaberichte  der  kiJnigL  bayer.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 

zn  Miinchen.     Jahigang  1863,  I.  (Doppel)  Heft  IV.    8vo. 

— From  the  Academy. 
Kongliga  Svenska  Vetenskaps-Akademiens  Handlingar.    Ny  Foljd, 

Fjerde  Bandet,  Forata  Haftet.     1861.    ito.— From  the  Aea- 

Ufversigt  af  Eongl.  Ve teuskaps- Akademie ns  Forbandlingar.  Nit- 
tonde  Argangen.  1862.  Meteorologiska  Jakttagelser  i  sverige 
utgifaa  af  kongl.  SvenBka  Vetenskapa-Akademien,  bearbetade 
af  Er.  Bdlund.  Fredje  Bandet.  1861.  Oblong  6vo.—From 
Ae  eame. 

The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.  No.  48, — 
From  the  Ediicn. 

TraDsactions  of  the  Eoyal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts.  Vol.  VI. 
Part  III.     8to. — From  the  Society. 

The  Journal  of  Agriculture.  January  1864.  Svo. — Prom  tA«  High- 
land and  AgricuUvral  Society. 


DvGooglc 


160  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

The  Jonrnftl  of  tho  Royal  Geographical  Society.     Vol.  XXXII. 

8vo.— From  ih«  Society. 
Jahrbuch  der  kaigerlich-koniglicheii  geologiechen  Beicbs-Anatalt. 

1863.     XIII.  Band.     Svo. — From  iha  Atutrian  Oovfrnment. 
Memoires  de  rAcadSmio  Imp^riale  dea  Scienoea  de  St.  Fetera- 

bonrg.    VII*  Serie.    Tome  IV.,  Noa.  10  et  11.    4to.-~Fnm 

the  Academy, 
liulletin  do  rAcademie  Imperials  des  Soisnoes  de  St.  Feterabourg. 

Tome  IV.,  Nob.  7-9.    Tome  V.,  Nob.  1  et  2.    ito.—Fnm  rt« 

Academy. 
Tables  of  Heighta  in  Sind,  the  Punjab,  Norih-weateni  Provincei, 

and  Central  India,  determined  by  the  great  Trigonometrical 

Survey  of  India,  Trigonometrioally  and  by  Spirit- Level  ling 

operations.    8vo. — From  the  ZHredor  o/lhe  Suroey. 

Monday,  l^th  January  1864. 
Ilie  Grace  the  Duke  of  ABGYLL,  Preeident,  in  the  Chair. 
Tho  following  Commanications  were  read : — 

1.  DeecriptioQ  of  the  Lithoscope,  an  iDstniment  for  dis- 
tinguishing  Precioua  Stones  and  other  bodies.  By  Sir 
David  BrewBter,  K.H. 

The  Inatrument  was  exhibited. 

2.  On  the  Temperature  of  certain  Hot  Springs  in  the  Py- 
renees.   By  E.  E.  Scoekbbt-Jackbon,  M-D.,  F.a.C.P. 

In  the  year  1835,  Principal  Forbes  very  carefully  observed  the 
temperatures  of  certain  springs  in  the  Pyreoees,  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  changes  of  temperatuio  occur  in 
them.  Observations  previously  made  were,  for  several  reaeone,  of 
uncertain  worth,  and  Principal  Forbes  was  desirons  of  then  fixing 
"  data  for  future  observers  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  hitherto  ns- 
attempted." 

The  author  having  determined  to  spend  his  autumn  holidays  in 
the  Pyrenees,  believed  that  a  careful  repetitiou  of  such  observa- 
tions, after  the  lapse  of  tweuty-eiglit  years,  would  afibrd  resulte  of 


DvGooglc 


o/Edihburgh,  Seasion  1863-64.  161 

Bome  mtereat.  He  fiirniBbed  himBelf  with  accurate  tbermometera 
made  for  the  purpose,  and,  dnring  the  month  of  Augaet,  carefully 
obBerved  the  temperatures  of  eeveral  of  the  epriDgs  visited  by 
Principal  Forbes  in  1835.  In  the  tables  vhlch  are  distributed 
through  the  paper,  the  temperatures  of  the  springs  are  given  as 
recorded  b;  different  observers  at  various  periods  between  the 
years  1635  and  1863.  From  these  records  it  would  appear  that 
whilst  there  is  perhaps  in  no  instance  a  general  or  permanent 
change  of  temperature,  neither  is  there  in  any  an  undeviating 
temperature.  It  is  probable  that  the  temperatures  of  the  springs 
in  the  interior  of  the  globe  have  undergone  no  change,  and  that 
the  changes  observable  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  due  to 
superficial  causes,  such  as  external  temperature,  the  infiltration  of 
cold  sarface  water,  &c.  To  a  certain  extent,  an  allowance  must 
be  made  for  inaccuracies ;  for  it  is  scarcely  to  be  supposed  that  all 
the  observers  dipped  their  thermometers  exactly  at  the  same  points, 
nor  does  the  author  know  that  in  all  cases  the  instrdments  em- 
ployed were  without  errors. 


3.  Ou  Human  Crania  allied  in  Anatomical  Characters  to 
the  Engis  end  Neanderthal  Skulls.  By  Wm.  Turner, 
M.B.,  Senior  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy  in  the  University. 

The  Author  compared  the  above  crania  with  various  human 
skulls  which  had  come  under  his  observation.  He  exhibited  a 
skull  brought  by  Mr  Henry  Duckworth,  F.G.S.,  from  St  Acbeul 
near  Amiens,  which  in  its  general  contour  presented  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  Engis  skull.  The  St  Acheul  skull  was  somewhat 
smaller,  being  probably  that  of  a  female.  It  might  almost  have 
been  regarded  as  a  reduced  copy  of  the  Engis  skull.  There  was  no 
evidence  that  the  skull  from  St  Acheul  was  of  an  earlier  date  than 
the  Gallo-Boman  period  of  French  history.  The  Neanderthal 
skull  was  compared  with  several  modem  crania,  mostly  British, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  projection  of  the  supra-orbital 
ridges,  the  retreating  forehead,  and  the  slight  convexity  of  the 
occipital  region.  He  exhibited  several  skulls  which  were  closely 
allied  to  it  in  one  or  other  of  these  features.     It  was  shown  also  that 


DvGooglc 


162  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

the  Neandertbal  sknll,  although  below  the  European  meau  in  its 
iateraal  capacity,  yet  exceeded  the  ditneusioiiB  of  Bome  normal 
modern  Bluiopcan  crania  which  had  been  oarefnlly  meaeored — ita 
large  transveree  parietal  diameter  «ompeneating  for  the  brain  space 
lost  by  the  retreating  forehead  and  flatteoed  occiput- 

Aa  the  history  and  geological  age  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  were 
both  unknown,  and  aa  many  of  ita  most  striking  anatomical 
characters  were  closely  paralleled  in  eome  modern  European 
crania,  the  Author  ccaeidered  that  great  caution  ought  to  be 
exercised  in  coming  to  any  concIUHion,  either  as  to  the  pithecoid 
affinities  or  psychical  endowments  of  the  mac  to  whom  it  originally 
appertained. 

4.  Notice  of  a  Simple  Method  of  Approiimatiug  to  the 
Boote  of  any  Algebraic  Equation.    By  Edward  Sang,  Esq. 

U.  Lagrange,  on  applying  the  method  of  oontinued  fractions  to 
the  resolution  of  nnmerical  equations,  discovered  that,  for  those  of 
the  second  degree,  the  quotients  recur  periodically.  From  this, 
combined  with  the  previously  well  known  fact  that  all  periodic 
chain  fractions  belong  to  quadratics,  he  inferred  that  periodicity  is 
exclusively  confined  to  equations  of  Ihia  order. 

In  January  1858, 1  showed  to  the  Royal  Society  that  the  series 
of  approximating  fractions  obtained  by  M.  Lagrange  can  he  con- 
tinued in  the  opposite  direction,  and  that  the  convergence  then  is 
to  the  other  root ;  and  enunciated  the  general  theorem,  that  if  any 
two  fractions  be  assumed,  and  if  a  progression  be  formed  from 
them  by  combining  fixed  multiples  of  their  members,  this  pro- 
gression, which  I  called  dtuerr  oi  two-headed,  may  be  continued 
in  either  way,  and  gives  on  the  one  band  the  one,  on  the  other 
band  the  other  root  of  a  quadratic. 

This  would  seem  to  confirm  Lagrange's  view  of  the  limited 
application  of  periodicity. 

However,  we  may  observe  that  our  attention  has  been  restricted 
to  one  kind  of  periodicity;  there  may  be  recurrencea  of  higher 
orders  which  may  belong  to  equations  of  higher  degrees.  Thns  if, 
instead  of  beginning  with  two  fractions,  we  had  asanmed  three,  and 
formed  the  progression  by  combining  specified  multiples  of  the  last, 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  163 

the  penult  and  the  antepenult,  the  terms  of  the  pro^reseion  would 
approach  to  some  limit  which,  not  being  the  root  of  a  quadratic, 
may  be  the  root  of  a  cubic  oi  of  some  higher  equation  ;  such  a  pro- 
gression may  be  extended  backwards,  giving  on  approximation  to 
another  root ;  and  we  may  etill  farther  complicate  the  Tccurrenco 
by  using  four,  five,  or  any  number  of  fractions. 

While  engaged  in  csamining  the  nature  of  such  progressions, 
and  seeking  for  a  demonstration  of  some  general  properties  which 
they  seemed  to  possess,  I  came  upon  a  very  simple  theorem,  which 
gives  great  facility  in  the  search  for  the  roots  of  equations. 

If  we  put  an  algebraic  equation  in  the  usual  form — 

(m"+&i:"— •+ px+q=o, 

multiply  each  term  by  its  exponent ;  thus, 

nax"+n— 16a!»-i+   ....  p+0, 
and  divide  the  expression  so  obtained  by  the  original  polynome, 
developing  the  quotient  according  to  the  descending  powers  of  x, 
the  resulting  series  takes  the  form 

«+Aa;-»  +  Ba-*  +  Cx-»  +  Da!-*+  &o. ; 
or  if  we  develop  the  quotient  according  to  the  ascending  powers  of 
X,  and  change  the  signs,  we  have,  writing  from  right  to  left, 

+  &c.  +&e*  +Y»?  +(&*  +ax, 
and  these  two  series  conjoined  make  a  duserr  progression  ;  thus, 
+&c.  +Sie*+ya»+^+ax+n+Ax-^+Bx-'+Cx-^  +'Dx-*  +  &C., 
approaching  on  either  side  to  a  geometrical  progression,  the 
common  ratio  of  which  is  a  root  of  the  equation ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
we  divide  the  coefficient  of  any  term  by  that  of  the  term  to  its  left, 
we  shall  have  an  approximation  to  a  root  more  and  more  close  the 
farther  we  proceed  along  the  series.  The  approximation  on  the 
right  hand  is  to  the  root  farthest  from  zero,  that  on  the  left  bond 
to  the  root  nearest  to  zero. 

If  the  equation  aBS-llie>  +  13x-3  =  0  were  proposed,  we  should 
form  from  it  the  expression  6a:*  — 22ib*+I3k  — 0,  and,  by  division, 
thence  form  the  progression 

„     11       69        609      3937     30901  ,  2436S7     , 


DvGooglc 


164  Proceedings  of  the  Boyol  Society 

which  ehows  that  the  fractions 

11      69       509      3937      30901      243657 
2-3  '  211 '    2-69'   2-509'   2  3937'    2-30901' 

cODVei^  to  the  greatest  root  of  the  eqa&tion.  Or,  performing  the 
division  from  the  right  hfUid,  observiDg  to  change  the  signs,  we 
have 


showing  that  tbe  fractions 

.       3-91913     39367     3964     3-103      3-13 
'  898034  '    91913  '    9367  '     964  '    T03" 
converge  to  the  least  root  of  the  equation. 
Id  this  case  wo  have  the  duserr  progression, 
.       9367    964     103     ^     „     H      69     509     3937 
*'=■'     3*    '    3»    '  3"    '    3        '    2    '  2»"  '    2»   '      2*  '        ' 
of  which  the  centre  term  3  is  the  indez  of  the  order  of  the  equa- 
tion, and  of  which  if  we  take  any  four  consecntiTe  terms,  which 
we  may  denote  by  P,  Q,  B,  S,  we  have  the  equation 

2S-11B  +  13Q-3P=0, 
by  help  of  which  we  can  readily  continue  tbe  progression  either 
way ;  thus, 

-    3P-13Q+11R     „    8Q-13E+11S     . 

^ 2 '  ^ 2 ■  *"• 

for  the  progress  to  the  right  hand ;  or, 

4c    0-13P-11Q+2B,  p_18Q-llK+23 

without  the  necessity  of  going  through  tbe  details  of  the  division. 

If  we  denote  by  r, ,  r, ,  r, ,  ito.,  tbe  roots  of  the  equation,  the  co- 
efficients of  the  powers  of  x  in  the  duserr  progreBsion  are  the  Bums 
of  the  powers  of  r^  rj,  Ac.  inversD  of  the  power  of  « ;  that  is  to 
say, 

A-S(r')i  B=SCO;  C-SCr^,  &e.;  while 
a  =  SCr-i);  /S=5(r-S);  y-S(r-»),&c. 

Now  if  we  have  a  number  of  unequal  quantities,  r^,  r,,  r,,  and  take 
their  Buocessive  powers,  the  power  of  the  largest  of  them  may  be 
mads  to  exceed  tbe  sum  of  the  conespondiog  powers  of  all  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbttrgh,  Session  1863-64.  165 

othen  in  any  required  proportion,  bo  that  if  B  denote  the  greatest 
of  all  tha  roots,  the  latio  B" :  S  (H")  may  be  brought,  by  taking  m 
BofBciently  great,  as  nearly  to  a  ratio  of  equality  as  wo  desire  i  of 
necessity,  the  ratio  R"+i :  2  (r*^')  will  be  still  more  nearly  that  of 
equality ;  wherefore  the  quotient 

s  (>-»■) 

may  be  made  to  approximate  to  the  value  of  B  within  any  pre- 
Bcribed  degree  of  ueamesa. 

Similarly,  on  taking  the  succeesive  iDTeTse  powers,  those  of  the 
greater  diminish  much  more  rapidly  than  those  of  the  smaller 
quantities ;  wherefore  we  may  continue  the  progression  towards  the 
left  hand  until  the  sum  J  (r—")  may  have  to  the— m">  power  of  the 
least  root,  p,  a  ratio  differing  from  that  of  equality  as  little  aa  may 
be  desired,  in  which  case  the  two  ratios 

S(r-"-0:S  (»■-"),  andp-^-'ip-™ 
will  be  nearly  alike;  that  is  to  say,  the  quotient  <  /     m— n^'^* 

differ  frem  the  smallest  root,  p,  by  an  imperceptible  quantity. 

The  chief  use  of  this  approximation  will  probably  be  found  in 
practice  to  be  to  give  a  starting  point  for  the  more  rapid  methods 
already  known,  which  methods  are  only  rapid  when  the  root  has  to 
be  approached  from  a  small  distance.  Yet,  having  obtained  a 
pretty  close  approximation,  a,  to  some  root,  we  have  only  to  make  the 
substitution  x  —  »=y,  to  obtain  a  new  equation,  having  one  root 
very  small  in  comparison  with  the  others,  and  to  which,  therefore, 
the  approximation  by  this  method  will  be  very  rapid. 

When  the  root  B  ia  positive,  the  signs  of  the  quantities  A,  B,  C, 
kc.  become  continuous  and  +  ;  if  B  be  negative,  they  most  be 
Edtemate ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  if  the  coefficients  of  the 
even  powers  of  x  become  negative,  the  root  must  be  imaginary. 
Also,  if  there  should  be  two  roots,  B  and  -  B',  nearly  equal  to 
each  other,  the  coefGcients  of  the  odd  powers  will  become  small  in 
comparison  with  those  of  the  even  powers,  in  which  case  it  may  be 
convenient  to  take 

a  the  formula  for  approximation. 


-/?- 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 


5.  Notice  of  the  State  of  the  Open-Air  Vegetation  in  the 
Edioburgh  Botanio  Garden,  during  December  1863. 
By  J.  H.  Balfour,  A.M.,  M.D.,  F.E.S.,  F.L.S. 

The  atate  of  the  vegetation  iu  tbe  open  groTmd  of  the  Botanic 
Garden  dnriug  the  month  of  December  1863  was  so  very  remark- 
able that  I  have  been  induced  to  submit  a  notice  of  it  to  the  fioyal 
Societj.  Tbe  nnmber  of  phanerogamous  epecieB  and  Tarietiee  in 
flower  during  the  month  amounted  to  245 ;  of  these  S5  were  spring- 
flowering  plants  which  had  anticipated  their  period  of  flarescence, 
while  tbe  rest  were  enrnmer  and  autumn  flowers  which  had  pro- 
tracted their  flowering  beyond  their  usual  limits. 

The  following  are  the  details  as  given  by  Mr  M'Nab : — 

Plants  In  flower  in  the  Boyal  Botanic  Garden,  Edioburgh,  from 
let  to  Slat  December  1863. 

Annual  plants,  chiefly  summer  and  autumn  flowering 
species  and  varieties, 36 

Perennial  plants,  chiefly  summer  and  autumn  flowering 
BpecieB  and  varieties, 133 

Trees  and  ehmbs,  chiefly  autumn  flowering,         ,        .        41 

Spring-flowering  trees,  ehrnbe,  and  perennial  herbace- 
ous plants, 35 

Total  flowering  plants,  .      215 

I  have  drawn  up  a  list  of  all  the  plants  in  flower  during  Decem- 
ber, arranged  according  to  their  natural  orders ;  and  I  have  also 
requested  Mr  Jamei;  Tod,  one  of  my  assistants,  to  dry  a  complete 
series  of  tbeplante,  and  to  exhibit  them  in  one  view  on  pasteboard. 

In  looking  at  tbe  list  we  shall  find  that  tbe  following  spring- 
flowering  plants  developed  flowei-buds  and  blossoms ; — 

List  of  Spring-Flowering  Plants  picked  in  flower  in  Dec.  1863. 

Enntliii  hyemoUa  i        Hepatica  triloba 
HeU^boroi  abtcbaiicot  Aubrletia  gnndiflora 

olympicns  Draba  vema 

purpnrucem  |        Iberia  aempervirena 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinimrgh,  Seaaion  1863-64. 


VioU  odonta 
Orobui  ejsneni 

Cfdonia  jsponioa 
Potentilla  FrBgariaatrBm 
Dondia  Epipaotii 
DoTonieum  oaneaiicam 
PeUaitei  fngniu 

Erica  herbacea 
Rhododendron  strorireiu 

Nobleannm 
Oeoti&na  aeanlii 
Phlox  veniR 


Anchuaa  cemperrireDi 
Omphalodes  tstoa 


taaricmn 
Frimila  denticulata 

eUtior  oad  vara.  (Poly- 
anthus) 

CoTjlni  Arellana 
Siiyrioehinm  grandiflorum 
Q^tuithua  nivalis 
Haaoari  racematnm 
Knappia  sgrottidea 


The  foUowing  Is  a  complete  list  of  the  FlaDta  in  flower  during 
December  1863  :— 


RAKUNCULAOSf  : 

Eranthia  hjemilis 
Helleborui  abtehaiioaa 
fotidiu 
nigar 

oljnipiciis 


Bebbi>:daoe«  : 

Berberii  Darwinii 

Eptmedinm  vioUoeam 

Mahooia  Aquifoliun 
Fdmabuok^  : 

Fumaria  offioinalit 
Cbocifk&s  : 

AljuQin  nzatila 

Arabii  albida 

proonneai 

Aubrietia  daltoidea 

grandi  flora 

Capaella  Biuva-paataris 

Cheiranthna  Cheiri 

oohroteuciu 

Coronopn*  didynta 

Koniga  maritima 

Draba  rema 

BrTairaum  bipinnatifidiun 


CauciFaa^ : 


Iberi«  gibraltarioa 

semperrireDl 
Lepidiom  procumbens 
Lunaria  biennis 
Uatthiola  incana 

POLYOALACEA  : 

Polygala  Cbamnbuiui 
RsBsnicRA : 

Reseda  Luteola 

ViOLicix : 

Viola  odorata 

tricolor 


Dianthns  Carjopliyllui 
chineniia 

Ljohnia  dinma 

FloB-enanli 
vetpertina 

Silene  italics 

miucipnla 

Spergnla  aiveiuia 

Stellaria  madia 
Htpkkicaoks  : 

Hyperioiuu  AndroMeinui 


,,.,  Google 


Proceedinga  of  the  Soycd  Society 


Gbbaniaok*  : 

UuBELLH^EOf  : 

Apiuin  graveolena 

Astrantia  major 

phKum 

Dondia  Epipactis 

Myrrhia  odorata 

Okalidaob^  : 

Torilii  nodosa 

R(7TA0B£  : 

Ahaliacex  : 

Ruta  graveoleiH 

Hedera  Helix 

Rhamnacbx  : 

Capri FDLiAOBA : 

Vibontim  LanUna 

LEGimiHosx : 

Tinua 

Coronillft  Emeraa 

LoKANTHACBiB  I 

Indigofen  uutralu 

Yiscuni  album 

LathTitu  odorattu 

Valekianaces  : 

LupinuB  Mnmjsnua 

DlPSACAOE*: 

Medioago  arborea 

Orobua  oyaneni 

cauouica 

cUiata 

ROBAOBS  ; 

Hylvstiok 

Cokpobita;  : 

Aohillea  MillefoUom 

pabeeoens 

Authemia  Cotola 

nobilis 

arvensis 

Asler  foliosiw 

YolgariB 

nOTK-auglin 

Aremonia  agrimonioides 

novi-belgii 

Cydonia  japonics 

rigidulM 

Gaum  eoccinemn 

Bellii  peretinU 

Calendula  offloinalia 

pjTenaicum 

Calimeria  hiiplda 

PoteutiUa  alba 

Centanrea  numtana 

alpertrii 

Fragariastnim 

DoToniciun  caneaiicuni 

Eurybia  Gnnniana 

Bplendeni 

Oaiania  rigena 

itriota 

Rwa  gallica 

Helichryram  arenuiom 

Sibbaldia  maxima 

lieontodon  Taiaxaenm 

Spinea  Filipendnla 

Matricaria  inodora 

Mtriaoe^  : 

Partheniwn 

Petatitei  fragrani 

M  jrtui  oommoiiii 

niveui 

Ohaohaoex  : 

pjrrathram  carneum 

Fnohiia  gtadli* 

PORTDLACACSS  ! 

CUjtoQia  perfoliata 

ainenae 

Hanamelidaoba  : 

Tdgam 

...  Google 


0/  Edinburgh,  Seesum  1863-61, 


COHFOIIT-C  : 

Lima  BIX : 

Solidftgo  Mmperriren* 

Penlstonon  gentianoide* 

nodoH 

Campahuucb^  : 

TerualU 

■UkTwlstU 

Veronica  agrestu 

EucAOKJi: 

areregata 

AndoTMnii 

polifolU 

Buxbaumit 

Calluiift    Tnkuu  (ruhra    et 

pXba 

montaaa 

Dabfflda  polifiilia 

■alieifolia 

Erica  oilimrw 

Labiai*  : 

oinerea 

Lamium  albom 

berbacM 

iKvigatDin 

•tricta 

Tfltnlix 

NepeUCataria 

TagMii 

PbjUodooe  oorolea 

Micromeria  gr»ca 

empetrifonaia 

Prunella  origanifolia 

Salvia  obovata 

Sideritis  ifriaca 

Teuerium  Arduini 

Ilex  AquifoUnm 

Soorodonia 

Jabmiracba  : 

PuxiJUCES  : 

Jaaminnm  nndiflonuD 

Primula  Auricula 

Apoctvacea  : 

denticulata 

Vines  IMJOT 

elatiorandTara.^ 

minor  fin^h  and  double 

anthiu) 

Qentiaiiagea  : 

Toria 

Tulgarii 

PoLaMOMIACB:^  : 

Verbwaom  : 

Leptoiiphon  aadroMcena 

Verbena  Tweediana 

Phlox  Drunmondu 

Plumb AOi  HIDE  :B  : 

Anneria  pMndo-anneria 

pubMcena 

BoBAOtFAoaA : 

Statioe  latifolia 

AneluiM  •emperrireiii 

PoLtooRACEA  : 

acutni 

bturicum 

Tbtmblaaces  : 

SCKOPHUUSIACES  : 

Dfqihne  pontioa 

Anttirhinatn  mijiu 

EuPKoaaiiois : 

Buiui  lempervirena 

Linuia  Cjmbalaria 

Linarut  trutia 

renieolor 

Ubtioacex  : 

UrtieauNu 

..,  Google 


Proceedings  of  the  SoycU  Society 


170 

CoKTLACBS  : 

AIdiu  cordifoliA 
Corjlut  AralUna 

OlBRTACEJt  ; 

Oarrfs  ellipUoa 

Cryptomerik  japimiaa 

CupreMiu  Lanoniank 

Thaja  plicata 
Taxacbx  : 

Cephalotazoa  Fortnni 

Taina  baocata 
laiDAOBS : 

Iru  tenax 

Siajrincbiom  anoepa 

grandidomm 
AHASTUiiuomji ; 

Oalanthna  niralu 

AlitRuueoia  anrantiacft 


The  following  Fems  were 
ABpIeninm  Ratft-mararia 
Bleohnnm  boreale 
Laatraa  dilatata 

Fillz-naa  oriatate 
rigida 


LiLucBx : 


Triloma  media 
Naiabaom  : 

Apont^toD  diitachjum 
CrpiaACKA: 

Carex  mnrieata 
paniculata 

Scirpui  Holoaohoeniu 

Arrhenathenun  aTeaaceum 
Ojneriotn  argeDteuni 
Holcos  lanatnt 
Knappia  agnwtidea 
LaguTBi  ovatna 
Loliom  peranne 
Panicam  eapillara 
Foa  annua 

neinoTalii=245 


aleo  in  fructification  : — 

Polypodiom  Tn]gar« 
Poljatichnm  acnwticboidea 

Lonobitia 
Soolc^>endriiim  Tnlgara  ^  9 


plkatut.     nth  Febrnaij—ZMie^'iBa  m 

The  state  of  Tegetadon  in  December  was  mnch  inflnenoed  by  the 
Batnre  of  the  weather  dnring  tbe  precediog  months  of  October  and 
November.  No  marked  check  was  given  to  it  dnring  these  months, 
and  the  tempeiatnie  was  such  u  to  stimoUte  the  action  of  the  cells 
and  vesseb  of  the  plants.  In  December  the  compantiTel;  high 
temperature  oontinaed.  I  have  asked  my  friend,  Ur  Alexander 
Bnchan,  Secretary  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  to  draw 
np  for  me  a  tabular  view  of  the  temperature  of  the  three  months 
during  the  last  seven  years.  I  have  supplied  the  lowest  daily  tem- 
peratures, as  obsecred  in  the  Botanic  Garden ;  and  for  want  of  enffi- 
oient  data  in  the  garden,  he  has  selected  for  the  other  data  a  sta- 
tion in  Fife  (Balfour)  where  the  temperatures  in  general  resemble 
much  those  noticed  at  the  Botanic  Qarden.  (I  hope  to  he  able  to 
make  arrangements  in  future  for  a  full  series  of  thermometrical, 
barometrical,  and  hygrometrical  observations  being  made  at  the 
Botanie  Garden.) 


DvGooglc 


o/Edii^rgh,  Session  1863-64. 


171 


1.  Mean  TemperalUTei  at  Bal/ow,  in  Fife,  in  the  montht  of  October, 
November,  and  December,  during  teven  yeara  ending  with  1663. 
A  compariton  of  1863  tmtA  the  Meant  of  the  previout  tie  yean 
is  alio  given. 


Ootoskr. 

NOTKUSKB. 

Dbcembsb. 

Htu 

HMD 

Ueu 

"r 

Hon 

K«= 

Ueu 

SS. 

1857 

D.T. 

HlibL 

DtT 

Klibl. 

D.T. 

MlfrHL 

M-0 

41-8 

4711 

36'0 

48-0 

487 

300 

43-8 

1858 

BO-8 

38-3 

44-5 

4ft-n 

3a'8 

3ft4 

4:13 

33  0 

38-fi 

1859 

fil-7 

ano 

4B-8 

4«-H 

327 

37-8 

an-ft 

344 

1860 

52-7 

421 

47-4 

42'ft 

37-fi 

40-() 

3B-3 

29-1) 

321f 

1861 

Bfi-4 

43-7 

4»-fl 

437 

341) 

:iH-8 

41-2 

;wH 

3711 

1862 
Mean  of  1857-62 

64-3 

411 

477 

42-» 

30-tf 

3«-8 

46-2 

38-6 

42-4 

53-2 

41-1 

47-9. 

44-2 

34-1 

3fll 

42-3 

34-0 

361 

1863 

fi3-« 

4*r< 

48-0 

4tt-4 

37-3 

4;t-4 

46  ■« 

3«-5 

41-6 

Enoi  of  18SS  oter  tlie\ 

l>-4 

l'4 

O-H 

ft-« 

3« 

4-« 

4-3 

2'ft 

3-6 

II.  The  BigheH  Temperature  of  the  Day  oUerved  at  Sayiw,  in  Fife, 
ineaeh  week  of  the  three  montht  October,  November,  and  December, 
dwing  teven  years  ending  mth  1863. 


OCTOID. 

N<™»™. 

1 

8 

U 

Hit 

89 

B 

12 

Itf 

IH 

S 

lU 

17 

84 

Oet 

Not 

l)v. 

M-B 

4»« 

iwa 

«o 

„ 

M-O 

M4 

M-0 

17-1 

M-0 

"* 

M-O 

Mfl 

MO 

Mfl 

M-6 

«^ 

«<. 

»-> 

III.  7^  Xotoest  Temperature  of  (U  Night  ahaerved  at  Bal/a 
—     ■  ■        -to/ the  An  ■     - 


Fi/e. 

December,  during  n 


montht  October,  Novejnher,  a 
yeart  ending  with  1863. 


0CTO«1. 

NoTimnt. 

D«„„. 

1 

s 

IB 

28 

6 

18 

le 

86 

3 

10 

17 

84 

Oct. 

Noi 

M^ 

ta-n 

Ml) 

«» 

■a-o 

w* 

BfO 

nil 

«h, 

w» 

1M9 

M4 

U-t 

«, 

M-0 

»■» 

M« 

M« 

M« 

SOD 

HO 

na 

•" 

M-. 

- 

w* 

MS 

DvGooglc 


172  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

IV.  Ifmtiier  o/Nighti  each  Week  on  which  the  Thermometer,  expoaed 
in  the  Botanic  Garden,  four/tet  above  the  groand,  /sU  tofreaing 
(32-0).  An  asterisk  (*)  is  put  to  indicate  the  nighU  on  which  it 
feU  to  at  leoit  6'0  below  freeing. 


rmiiL 

Oc«.™ 

b™^       I 

1 

s 

IS 

» 

80 

» 

IS 

19 

S8 

s 

W 

17 

M 

1867 

1 

1 

2 

3 

1858 

i 

2 

8 

IBW 

5 

S 

5 

I 

3 

8 

« 

1860 

2 

5 

% 

s 

? 

1881 

2 

» 

5 

1 

1 

J 

1882 

2 

% 

18«S 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

I 

S 

% 

^TTi^":^} 

^ 

40-0 

!! 

Sl-0 

280 

Z3'G 

27-0 

S2-0 

2S'0  30'0 

ss-o 

25-0 

1»0 

Report  on  the  Weaiher  cf  October,  November,  and  December  1863,  (u 
compared  with  the  previoia  Six  Tears.   Sy  Ur  Alixandir  Bdohan. 

The  firat  three  tables  present  a  detailed  Btatement  of  the  tem- 
perature in  October,  November,  and  December,  during  the  seven 
years  ending  with  1863,  as  observed  at  Balfonr,  near  Maikinch,  in 
Fife,  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society.  It 
is  the  nearest  station  to  Edinburgh  at  which  full  and  well-antben- 
ticated  observations  on  temperature  have  been  made  for  so  long  a 
period,  and,  besides,  its  position  is  such  as  to  represent  fairly  both 
sides  of  the  Forth. 

Table  I.  gives  the  mean  monthly  temperature  of  the  day  and  of 
the  night,  and  the  mean  temperature  of  these  months  for  the  past 
seven  years,  and  a  comparison  T)f  1863  with  the  means  of  the  pre- 
vious six  yeais.  From  this  Table,  we  learn  that  the  peculiar  features 
of  the  weather  of  October,  November,  and  December  last,  as  respects 
temperature,  were  as  follow  :— 

In  October,  the  mean  temperature  was  nearly  a  degree  (0'''8)  above 
the  average  of  the  month ;  hut  whibt  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
day  was  less  than  half  a  degree  (0°'4),  that  of  the  night  was  about  a 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Seseton  1863-64.  173 

degree  and  a-half  (1'''4)  above  the  average,  thus  indicating  a  cloudy 
ekj  aud  comparatire  abseoce  of  frost.  At  the  Botanic  Gardeo,  the 
thermometer  fell  only  three  timeB  to  freezing,  the  lowest  being  28'''0 
on  the  night  of  the  6th.  Thia  frost  cootiDiied  bnt  for  a  abort  time, 
and  very  little  damage  was  done  except  to  Heliotropes;  dahlias 
were  only  slightly  affected. 

In  November,  the  mean  temperature  was  4°'2  above  tiie  aver^ie, 
which  increase  was  very  unequally  distributed  between  day  and 
night, — the  mean  temperature  of  the  day  being  5'%  and  of  the 
night  only  3°'2  above  the  mean  of  the  month.  This  temperature 
is  not  only  greatly  above  the  average,  but  it  is  also  about  a  degree 
and  a-half  higher  than  any  previously  recorded  November,  and  6°'6 
higher  than  the  November  of  1862. 

In  Deeemier,  the  mean  temperature  was  S^'S  above  the  average, 
and  the  manner  of  its  distribution  between  day  and  night  similar 
to  November, — the  mean  of  the  day  being  4°'2,  and  of  the  night 
2°'5  above  the  average. 

Hence  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  weather  of  this  period  is 
the  iinpieoedentedl;  high  temperatnre  during  the  day  in  Novem- 
ber and  December, — a  point  to  which  special  attention  is  directed. 
Table  II.  gives  the  highest  temperature  of  the  day,  and  Table 
III,  the  lowest  temperature  of  the  night,  in  each  week  of  the  period 
under  consideration. 

Table  IT.  gives  the  number  of  nights  each  week  on  which  the 
temperature  at  the  Botanic  Qaiden  fell  to  freezing  or  lower,  and 
an  aaterisk  is  put  to  mark  those  cases  when  it  fell  to  at  least  C'O 
below  freezing. 

These  tables  furnish  the  data  from  which  an  explanation  may 
be  had  of  the  remarkable  vegetation  of  December  last,  in  so  far  as 
that  depended  on  the  character  of  the  then  current  weather.  The 
explanation  is  twofold— /inf,  the  high  temperature  during  the  day 
in  November  and  December;  and,  teecmdly,  the  comparative  absence 
of  frost  daring  the  night. 

This  remarkably  high  temperatnre  was  preceded  by  a  period  of 
cold  weather,  extending  from  the  29th  of  October  to  the  12th  of 
November,  during  which  frosts  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  At 
Balfour  the  thermometer,  four  feet  above  the  ground,  and  pro- 
tected, fell  to  26*'5 ;  and  at  the  Botanic  Garden,  four  feet  above 

VOL.  T.  s 

D,mi,..^.,  Google 


174  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

the  ground,  but  exposed,  it  fell  to  23°-5,  ftnd  indicated  beezing  on 
ten  nights.  Though  dahlias  and  other  plants  were  destiojed,  yet 
many  eurriTed,  owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  the  remarkably  dry  state  of 
the  weather,  and  to  the  very  brief  periods  daring  which  the  severity 
of  the  cold  in  each  instance  luted.  This  cold  period  also  con- 
tributed to  the  remarkable  growth  which  followed,  since  by  playinj^ 
the  part  of  winter,  though  in  a  modified  degree,  it  arrested  the  vital 
functions,  and  gave  plants  the  benefit  of  a  fresh  start  with  the 
warmth  which  succeeded. 

The  nnpiecedentedly  high  temperature  began  on  the  13th  of 
November,  and  continued  witb  scarcely  any  interruption  till  Christ- 
mas :  see  Table  II.  Of  this  period  the  warmest  part  extended  from 
the  13th  of  November  to  the  end  of  the  month,  daring  which  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  day  was  &2°-5,  or  9°'0  above  the  average. 
This  day  temperature  usually  prevails  about  the  end  of  April  or 
beginning  of  May,  when  the  temperature  of  the  night  is  much  lower 
than  obtained  in  November  last. 

In  the  end  of  November  and  beginning  of  December  (see  Tables 
III.  and  IV.),  the  temperature  of  the  night  declined  occasionally 
to  freezing.  At  Balfour  it  fell  to  30°-0,  and  at  the  Botanic  Garden 
(exposed)  to  26''-0, — a  degree  of  frost  insufficient  to  damage  those 
autumn  flowers  which  had  stood  the  more  severe  frost  in  the  begin- 
ning of  November,  or  check  the  growth  of  the  spring  flowers  rapidly 
coming  into  bloom. 

This  anomalous  weather  Bofficieotly  accounts  for  the  strange 
spectacle  of  nxet  ptai  and  Bepaliau  blooming  together. 

The  foUowing  Candidates  were  then  balloted  for,  and 
elected  Fellows  of  the  Society : — 

Bev.  Danibl  P.  3andfoxd. 
HoBssT  S.  WvLD,  Esq..  W.S. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

A  Brief  Memoir  of  the  late  Mr  Thackeray.  By  James  Uannay, 
EiM].,  author  of  "Singleton  Fontenoy,  B,N.,"  "  Essays  from 
the  Quarterly,"  &c,     8vo. — From  Ae  Author. 

Conspectus  oriticus  Diatomacearum  Danicarum,    Eritisk  ovenigt 


DvGooglc 


ofEdit^vrgh,  Sestion  1863-64.  175 

over  de  Danske  DUtomeer  af  Bi  Phil.  F.  A.  C.  Heibei^.' 

8vo.-^From  the  Author. 
UoDthI;  Notices  of  tlie  Astronomiol  Society.     Vol.  XXIT.  No.  2. 

8to. — From  the  Soeiety. 
The  Journal  of  the  Chemioftl  Society.    December  1863,  January 

1864.— ^rom  the  Society. 
Leeds  Fbiloeophical  and  Literaty  Society.     Annual  Beport  for 

1862-3.     870.— from  th»  Soeietj/. 
Uonthly  Return  of  the  Births,  Marriages,  and  Deaths  rogistered  in 

the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland.     December  1863. 

8vo, — From  the  Begutrar-Oenerat. 
The  BelatioDS  of  Science  to  Modem  CiTilisation.    By  Professor  H. 

Hennessy.     6vo. — From  the  Author. 
Jahreebericht  fiber  die  Fortsohritte  der  Ohetnie,  etc.    Von  H.  Eopp 

u.  H.  Will,  fiir  1862.  Erstea  Heft.  8vo.— f  rom  the  Aathon. 
Fioceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.    January  1864- 

8  TO. — From  the  Society. 
Essays  on  Digestiou.     By  Dr  J.  Carson.     8vo. — from  tAe  Author. 
Memorie  Botaniche.    Presentate  alia  B.  Accademia  delle  Scienzn 

Fisico-Matematicbe,  anno  1862.     4to. — from  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society.    Vol.  XIII.    No.  69.    8vo.— 

from  the  Society. 
Edinbmgh   ABtronomical   Observations.     Vol.  XII.     4to. — From 
the  Soyal  Obeervatory  ;  forwarded  b^  the  Aitronomer-Boyal  for 

Scotland. 

Monday,  15M  February  1864. 
Db  CHEISTISON,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Commanicationa  were  read : — 
1.  On  the  Influence  of  the  Refracting  Force  of  Calcareous 

Spar  on  the  Polarization,  the  Intensity,  and  the  Colour  of 

the  Light  which  it  Reflects.  By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H., 

FJ1.S. 

In  the  "  Pbiloflophioal  Transactions  "  for  1819,  the  author  had 
shown  that  the  doubly  refracting  force  of  calcareona  gpar  extended 
beyond  the  sphere  of  the  reflecting  force,  prodocing  a  change  ia 


17t>  Procee^uf»  of  the  Boy(d  Society 

the  polorisiDg  angle  wying  with  the  iDclioBtion  of  the  incident 
n,y  to  the  axia  of  the  crystal,  and  piodncing  a  deviation  of  the 
plana  of  polarisation  from  the  plane  of  incidence  and  refiexioo, 
when  the  reflecting  force  of  the  crystal  was  reduced  by  contact 
with  oil  of  ousiA  and  other  oils.  These  experimeate  were  made  on 
the  face  of  the  primitive  rhomb. 

In  the  present  paper,  the  author  gives  an  accoont  of  the  results 
which  ha  obtained  upon  other  natural  and  artificial  faces  of  cal- 
caieOQB  spar,  inclined  0°,  5}°,  12°,  22%',  67}°,  and  90°,  to  the  axis 
of  the  crystal.  On  all  Hiese  sujfacee,  when  the  refleoting  force  is 
reduced  by  contact  with  oil  of  cassia  or  other  oils  and  fluids,  the 
intensity  and  colour  of  the  reflected  pencil,  and  the  deviation  of 
the  plane  of  polarisation  from  the  plane  of  reflection,  experiences 
remarkable  changes,  depending  on  the  inclinatioc  of  the  incident 
ray  to  the  axis  of  double  refractioo. 

2.  On  the  Most  Volatile  CoDBtitneDts  of  American  Petro- 
leum.   By  Edmund  Konalds,  Ph.D. 

It  was  shown  by  this  paper  that  the  gases  dissolved  in  American 
petroleum,  and  which  gave  to  it  such  a  high  degree  of  inflamma- 
bUi^,  were  composed  of  the  lower  members  of  the  marsh  gas 
series,  having  the  geneial  formula, 

C,  Ui»f  1,  H, 
and  to  which  the  liquid  products  have  already  been  referred. 

The  gases  evolved  from  the  Pennsylvanian  oil  were  collected  at  a 
temperature  of  - 1°  Gent.,  as  the;  floated,  mixed  with  air,  over  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  casks  in  which  it  is  imported  into  this 
country  and  the  hydrocarbons  were  shown  by  eudiometrical  analysis 
to  have  the  composition  of  a  mixture  in  nearly  equal  proportions 
of  the  hydrides  of  ethyl  and  propyl. 

The  first  portions  of  iocondensible  gas  evolved  on  wanning  the 
most  volatileproductof  the  distillation  of  petroleum  on  a  manufac- 
turing scale  were  also  found  to  contain  a  mixture  of  these  hydrides, 
while  portions  of  gas  collected  at  a  later  period  of  the  operation 
t^proocbed  more  closely  to  the  oompositiDn  of  pure  hydride  of  pro- 
pyl, or  were  mixtures  of  the  hydrides  of  propyl  and  butyl ;  the  last 
gas  collected  being  nearly  pure  hydride  of  butyl. 


j.Googlc 


o/Minbiffgh,  Sesaion  1863-64.  177 

The  liquid  coodeDsed  by  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  during  the 
coUectioa  of  these  gaaes  gave,  upon  redigtUlatioD,  a  oonsiderable 
poitioQ  boiling  between  0°  and  i*  Gent ;  this,  as  well  aa  that  which 
paaaed  over  ae  high  as  6°  Gent.,  was  shown  hj  analysiB  to  be  nearly 
pnie  hydride  of  butyl  having  the  composition  G^Ht,  H. 

This  liquid  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0-600  at  0°  Gent. ;  it  is  con* 
seqnently  the  lightest  liquid  known.  Its  vapour  density  was  by 
experiment  found  to  be  2-11.  It  is  colonilees,  possesses  a  sweet, 
agreeable  smell,  is  solnble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  not  in  water. 
Alcohol  of  98  per  cent,  dissolves  between  11  and  12  times  its  volume 
of  the  gaa  at  21°  Cent,  The  liquid  and  the  gaa  are  not  preceptibly 
affected  by  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  nor  by  bromine ;  mixed  with 
twice  its  volume  of  chlorine  in  difi^ue  daylight,  the  gas  is  con- 
verted into  liquid  chloride  of  butyl,  while  the  original  three  volumes 
become  condensed  into  two  volumes  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

3. — On  the  Action  of  Tetchloride  of  Phosphorus  on  Aniline. 
By  Magnos  M.  Tait,  F.C.&. 

More  than  a  year  since  my  attention  was  directed  to  a  statement  of 
Hofmaun's,  that  the  action  of  teichloride  of  phoEpborus  on  aniline 
yielded  a  white  substance  of  crystalline  character,  as  the  investiga- 
tion of  this  compound  so  produced  seemed  likely  to  be  of  interest, 
I  began  its  examination,  but  circumatances  prevented  me  from 
completing  it  at  that  time.  The  publication  of  Schiff's  papers, 
however,  on  the  metal- (uiilides  again  diow  my  notice  to  the  subject, 
and  I  considered  it  a  doty  to  myself  to  publish  the  results  of  my 
experiments,  more  especially  as  the  reaction  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  this  paper  appears  to  have  escaped  the  attention  of  that 
chemist. 

Terchtoride  of  phosphorus  was  added,  drop  by  drop,  to  the  ani- 
line, which  required  to  be  kept  cool  by  ice,  as  the  reaction  tenda  to 
be  of  a  rather  violent  character,  great  heat  being  produced.  In  a 
short  time  the  whole  solidified  into  a  soft  granular  mass,  which  dis- 
solved leadUy  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  The  mass  was  dissolved 
ID  hot  water,  and,  on  cooling,  the  excess  of  aniline  tobo  to  the  sur- 
face as  an  oily  layer,  and  was  separated  by  passing  it  through  a 
moistened  filter.    The  watery  solution  was  evaporated  at  ordinary 


DvGooglc 


178  Proceedings  of  the  Boi/al  Society 

temperatorefl  over  sulphuric  acid,  and  wheo  it  fatd  reached  a  synipy 
coaaUtence  it  eloirly  solidified  into  «  maea  of  fioe  Doedlfi-shaped 
cryBtols,  which  were  the  bydrochlonte  of  a  new  base,  to  which  I 
give  the  Dune  of  Fhoaphutiliue. 

The  CTjetaln  were  well  presaed  between  folds  of  filt«r  paper,  and 
then  being  placed  on  a  filter,  were  washed  with  a  very  small  quantity 
of  alcohol  and  ether ;  again  diasolved,  and  evaporated  as  before,  the 
cryitale  were  pnre.  The  substance  so  obtained  dissolves  easily  in 
water,  alcohol  and  ether,  and  is  oentrol  to  test-papers.  Gently  heated, 
it  sublimes,  and  gives  fine  prismatic  crystals.  Treated  with  solo- 
tioD  of  potash  it  is  decomposed.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  eipels 
hydrochloric  aoid,  and  gives  a  oolaurless  solntion.  Nitric  acid 
oxidises  it,  and  gives  a  coloured  solution. 
On  onalysia,  it  yielded  the  following  reeulta : — 

1.  II.  Theory. 

Cubob,         .  4612  ...  44-68 

Hydrogen,    . 

Pboapbonu, 

Nitrogen,     . 

CUorine,      .  24-62  26-89  2640 

This  analysis  shows  that  the  substance  is  produced  by  the  direct 
anion  of  the  chloride  of  phosphorus  and  aniline.  It  ia,  however, 
a  hydrochlorate,  and  is  formed  from  three  equivalents  of  aniline, 
in  which  three  equivalents  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  pboepborus: 
thus— 

C.H.^  .N^ 

C.H,  [-  P~  -]  N  [.+  3HCI 
C,  H,  J  (.  N  J 

C,.  H„  PN,+3HCI. 

PlatifuKhhride  of  PhotjAanitine. — A  portion  of  the  original  salt 
was  dissolved  in  water,  the  solntion  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  bichloride  of  platinum  added,  in  a  short  time  crystals  began  to 
appear ;  these,  after  a  sufficient  quantity  had  formed,  were  placed 
on  a  filter  and  washed  with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  and  ether, 
and  dried  over  strong  sulphuric  acid,  until  their  weight  was  con- 
stant. They  were  in  the  shape  of  small  granular  crystals  of  a  light 
yellow  colour,  aoluble  in  alcohol  and  water,  but  not  in  ether.  On 
analysis,  the  following  numbers  were  obtained : — 


DvGooglc 


of  Ldinbargh,  Session  1863-64. 


Hfdragan, 

PhoBphonu, 


Platiiimn,  ...  82^  82-78  81-98 

The  platmnm  in  the  thiid  column  vsa  estimated  by  direct  igni- 
tion, the  high  result  obtained  was  probably  owing  to  the  fonnatiou 
of  a  little  phosphide  of  platinum. 

The  analysis  corresponds  with  the  following  fonnula  : — 

0„  H„  F"  N,  3HCI+3PtCl, 
Ziiieoehloridg  of  Photphaniline. — Hydrochloric  acid  was  added 
to  a  portion  of  the  solution  of  the  hydiochlorate  in  water,  and  then 
eome  fragments  of  pure  zinc  were  thrown  in.  Alter  the  zinc  had 
dissolved  the  fluid  was  evaporated  at  a  gentle  heat  (about  200° 
Fabr.),  and  filtered  from  a  few  greenish  flakes  which  had  formed, 
OS  even  that  low  temperature  appears  to  decompose  the  salt  The 
clear  fluid  was  then  put  over  sulphuric  acid  and  left  for  some  days, 
when  crystab  of  a  zinc  salt  were  obtained,  but  under  the  same 
conditions  as  the  bydrochlorate,  as  the  Bolution  was  very  concen- 
trated before  the  salt  appeared,  and  then  it  solidified  completely. 
The  crystals  were  pressed  between  folds  of  filter  paper,  and  washed 
with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ethet,  and  dried  in  vacuo  over  strong 
sulphuric  acid.  They  were  white  needles,  slightly  deliqueecent, 
and  soluble  in  alcohol.  In  ether  it  does  not  dissolve,  but  it 
becomes  liquid,  having  the  same  appearance  as  a  drop  of  oil  in 

The  chlorine  only  was  estimated,  the  analysis  gave — 

I.  Theory. 

Chlorine 81-57  S4-2S 

which  i^ees  with  the  following  formula  :— 

2  (C„  H„  F"  N,  3HC1)  3Zn"  CI, 
Bromine  water  immediately  precipitates  a  brownish -coloured 
substance  from  an  aqueous  aolutiou  of  the  bydrochlorate.  This 
precipitate  was  washed  with  water,  and  a  portion  of  it  boiled  for 
some  time,  and  found  to  be  iDsoluble  in  water;  but  a  substance 
appeared  to  have  volatilized  along  with  the  vapour  of  the  water,  as 


DvGooglc 


180  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

tbe  neck  of  the  fluk  and  a  glass  rod  which  waa  held  over  the 
mouth  of  it  were  covered  with  white  featheiy  cryetalB.  The  fluid 
was  filtered,  and,  after  drying  the  biown  renidae,  it  was  put  into  a 
beakei  coTered  with  filter-paper,  and  left  over  a  water-bath,  when 
it  neail;  all  sublimed  in  crystals  oorrespouding  to  those  obtained 
when  attempting  to  dissolve  it.  A  few  of  these  Grystals  were  dis- 
solved in  alcohol  and  bichloride  of  platinum  added,  but  no  preci- 
pitate was  fonned,  and  on  evaporation  the  original  substance 
crystallized  out.  These  circumstanceB  indicated  the  body  to  be 
Tiibromanilins.  The  filtrate  from  the  brown  fmbstance  obtained 
originally  waa  treated  with  bichloride  of  platioum  also,  but  no  pre- 
cipitate forming,  it  was  presumed  no  bromaniline  or  bibromamline 
hod  been  formed. 

Cadmium  iSaU.^^hlorlde  of  cadmium  gives,  with  strong  solutions 
of  the  hydroohlorate,  scaly  cijrstols  of  a  double  salt,  moderately 
soluble  in  water. 

Copper  Salt. — On  adding  chloride  of  copper  to  a  solution  of  the 
hydrochlorate,  and  evaporating  over  sulphuric  acid,  small  granular 
crystals  of  a  beautiful  green  colour  are  obtained. 

Mercury  Salt. — If  a  strong  Bolution  of  chloride  of  mercury  is 
added  to  a  concentrated  solution  of  the  hydrochlorate,  beautiful 
white  scaly  crystals  precipitate  oat  immediately ;  but  if  the  solu- 
tions are  dilute  no  precipitation  tabes  place,  if  the  solution  is  now 
wanned,  a  crystalline  substance  is  thrown  down.  This  appears  the 
more  curious,  when  it  is  known  that  the  other  salts  cannot  be 
heated  without  decompositiou. 

When  the  hydrochlorate  is  heated  with  potash  the  phosphaniline, 
at  the  moment  of  separation,  appears  to  undergo  decomposition,  for 
the  smell  of  aniline  is  apparent  even  in  tbe  cold,  but  no  precipita- 
tion takes  place,  bo  that  phosphaniline  must  be  itself  soluble  in 
water.  An  attempt  waa  made  to  obtain  it  in  the  separate  state  by 
acting  on  the  hydrochlorate  with  oxide  of  silver,  a  precipitate  of 
chloride  of  silver  was  formed  immediately.  The  filtered  flnid  was 
alkaline  to  test  paper ;  it  clearly  contained  phoephaniline,  but  on 
evaporating  the  fluid  it  became  coloured,  owing  to  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  base,  which  is  very  changeable,  and  cannot  be  obtained 
in  tbe  pure  state. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbitrgh,  Seasion  1863-64.  181 

4.  On  FermafB  Theorem.    By  Profeaeor  Tait. 
The  author  stated  that  in  consequence  of  Legendre's  work,  the 
proof  of  Fermat's  Theorem  is  reducible  to  showing  the  impossi- 
bilitj  of 

when  tn  is  ao  odd  prime,  x,  y,  z  being  integers. 

~  Talbot  has  shown  that  in  this  case  x,  y,  s  are  necessarily  com- 
potke  nnabers. 

The  author  shows,  among  other  results  of  very  elementary  pro- 
cesses, that  if  numbers  can  be  fonnd  to  satisfy  the  above  equation, 
X  and  y  leave  the  remainder  1  wheo  divided  by  m ;  and  that  0 
has  m  as  a  factor.  Many  farther  limitations  are  given  on  possi- 
ble values  of  x,  y,  c — the  process  being  based  on  the  consideration 
of  their  prime  factors,  and  on  Fermat's  Elementary  Theorem 
N--N-Nm. 

5.  Professor  Archer  called  attention  to  a  carious  binocular  tele- 
scope, bearing  the  following  inecriptioD  :— 
PETRVS  PBTR0NV8 
SAO  :  CJES*  ET  CAT* 
uaies*?  ofticus 
UEbLaNI  1726 
The  eye-pieces  and  object-glaesee,  each  in  a  separate  tube,  worked 
in  a  case  15^  inches  in  lesgth  by  5  inches  in  breadth,  and  2  in 
depth,  forming,  with  the  bevelled  comers,  a  flat  octagon,  covered 
with  a  species  of  shagreen,  and  mounted  in  silver.    An  exceedingly 
simple  and  ingenious  arrangement,   consisting  of  a  double  screw 
working  four  small  arms  of  brass,  was  placed  at  each  end  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  the  distances  between  each  pair  of  glasses, 
and  silver  dial  plates  enabled  the  operator  to  set  the  instrument 
according  to  his  ascertained  requirements.  The  instrument  belongs 
to  the  Boyal  Institution  of  Liverpool,  and  is  supposed  tc  have  been 
part  of  a  collection  of  rarities,  made  by  Wm.  Eoecoe,  in  Italy. 
As  a  telescope,  it  is  of  great  power ;  the  focus  is  adjusted  by  one 
portion  of  the  case  acting  as  a  draw-tube  within  the  other  part. 

The  following  Greotleman  waa  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 

Society : — 

William  Wallace,  Ph.D.,  F.C.S. 
VOL.  V.  2  a 


DvGooglc 


182      Proceedings  of  the  Roycd  Society  of  Etlmburgh. 
The  following  Donations  to  the  Librarywere  announced: — 

Astronomical  and  Ueteorological  Obserrationa  made  at  the  Bad- 

cliffe  ObeeiTatoiy,  Oxford,  in  the  year  1861.    Vol.  XXI. 

8^fo.—From  the  Badeliffii  Tnuteei. 
ProceedingB  of  the  lloyal  Society  of  London.   Vol.  XIII,    ISo.  60, 

8to. — From  tJte  Society. 
The  ClasBifioation  of  Animals  based  on  the  Principle  of  Gephaliza- 

tioD. — On  Fossil  Insects  from  the  Carboniferous  Formation 

in  Illinois.     By  James  D.  Dana.     8to. — From  the  Author. 
Die  FortBchritte  d&i  Phyaik  in  1861  daigestellt  von  der  pbTsikal. 

Gesellsch.  zq  Berlin,  XVII  Jabrgang.  Ite  u.  2te  Abtheil. 

8  TO, — From  the  Society. 
Sitznngsbericbte  der  konigl.  bayer.  Academte  dei  Wiasenaohaften 

zu  Munohen.     186S.     II.     Heft  I.  and  II.  8vo, — From  the 

Academy. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Dublin  Society.    No.  XXX,    870, — From 

the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Asiatic  Society.    Vol.  XX.    Parts  3  and  4. 

8to. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society.    Jan.  1864  (New 

Series).     8vo. — From  the  Society, 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  February  1864.    8yo. — From  the 

Society, 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society.    Vol.  XXIV. 

No.  3.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticulture  Society,    Feb.  1864.    8vo. 

— From  the  Society, 
Abstracts  of  Proceedings  of  the  Gkologioal  Society  of  London. 

Nos.  lOS  and  106.~From  the  Society. 
Otago  Provincial  QoTemmeot    Gazette.      Vol.  VI.      No.  274. 

Small  folio.    Containing  Beport  by  Dr  James  Hector,  on  the 

Creological  Ezpedition  to  the  West  Coast  of    Otago,  New 

Zealand. — From  the  Provincial  Government. 
Nova  Acta    Begiee    Societatis  Scientiarum   npsaliensia.     Seriei 

Tertiee.    Vol    IV,  Faac.  II.  1863.    ito.— From  the  Soeieiy, 
Abhandlungen  der  konigL  Academie  der  WisseDschaften  zu  Ber- 
lin,   Ana  dem  Jahre  1862.     4to, — From  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


EOTAL  SOCIETT  OP  EDINBURGa 


Monday,  7th  March  1864. 
Pbofebbob  KELLAND,  Vice-PreBident,  in  the  Chair. 

The  follo'wiQg  CommTmications  were  read  : — 
1.  Od  the  Gods  of  the  Bigreda.  By  John  Mtur,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

After  some  preliminary  remarks  on  the  common  origin  of  the 
Indians,  Greeks,  and  Romans, — on  the  expectation  thereby  raised 
that  we  should  find  in  the  earliest  literatures  of  these  nations  some 
remains  of  the  primeral  mythology  whioh  their  ancestors  must  origi- 
nally hare  posBessed  in  common, — on  the  partial  fulfilment  of  this 
expectation  by  an  examination  of  these  literatnres,— and  on  the 
greater  light  throvn  by  the  Bigreda  than  by  any  other  monument 
of  ancient  poetry  on  the  genesis  of  mythology, — the  author  adverts 
to  the  various  theories  of  creation  which  would  naturally  be  formed 
by  simple  men  in  the  earlier  ages  of  tbe  world,  to  the  manner  in 
wbich  the  varioas  great  phenomena  of  nature  would  come  to  be 
ascribed  to  different  deities,  and  to  tbe  diTerse  aspects  in  which 
tbe  grander  objects  of  creation,  such  as  heaven  and  earth,  were 
viewed,  sometimes  as  inanimate,  sometimes  as  animated  and  divine. 
The  chief  deities  mentioned  in  the  Bigveda  are  then  passed  under 
review,  and  theit  most  remarkable  characteristics  are  described ; — 
viz.  ZTyoiit  and  PritA*W (Heaven  andBartb),  ^dttt'and  tbe^dityiu, 
Varuna  and  Mitra,  Indra,  Tdyu,  the  Marutt,  Bvdra,  Vuhmt, 
Tvcuhlri,  Agni,  the  Atvini,  Soma,  Yama,  and  the  various  goddesses, 

VOL.  V.  2  b 


DvGooglc 


184  Proceedinge  of  the  Royal  Society 

UAai,  Sarasvatt,  &<:.  &c.  The  writer  then  sums  ap  the  ingtoncefi  of 
well  establiabed  comcidence  between  the  Indian  and  the  clusical 
deitiee,  which  he  consideis  to  be  few  in  number ;  and  concludes  by 
noticing  bow  the  most  prominent  gods  of  the  Bigyeda  lost  much  of 
theii  importance  in  the  later  lOTthology  of  India,  while  two  of  the 
deitiee  who  hold  only  a  sabordinate  rank  in  the  Veda — viz.  Vuktui 
aud  Stidra — were  aflerwatda  exalted  to  the  highest  positi^D. 

2.  On  the  Diffraction  Bands  produced  by  Double  Striated 
Surfaces.    By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.RS. 

Having  observed  a  series  of  serrated  fringes  in  examining  the 
colours  prodnced  by  the  fibres  of  the  ciystolline  lens  of  fishes,  the 
author  was  led  to  imitate  them  by  the  oombination  of  grooves 
upon  glass  and  steel  Hurfsces,  or  of  grooves  taken  from  these  sur- 
faces upon  isinglass  or  gums. 

The  interference  bands  thus  produced  were  serrated  or  rectilineal, 
sometimes  parallel  and  sometimes  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  grooves,  and  varying  in  their  magnitude  and  character  ac- 
cording as  they  were  exhibited  on  the  colourless  im(^,  or  on  the 
diffracted  spectra,  or  as  they  were  produced  at  different  angles  of 
incidence,  or  at  different  distances  of  the  grooved  surfaces,  or  by 
different  numbers  of  reflexion,  or  by  different  nnmbers  and  combi- 
nations of  refracting  and  reflecting  surfaces. 

The  grooves  on  glass  employed  by  the  author  were  executed  by 
the  late  Sir  Qeorge  Dollond,  and  those  on  steel,  varying  from  315 
to  10,000  in  an  inch,  by  the  late  Sir  John  Barton. 

3.  An  Essay  on  the  Theory  of  Couuuensurables.  By  Edward 
Sang,  Esq. 

The  snbject  of  this  eesay  may  be  described  as  an  ^plication  of 
the  Theory  of  Number  to  Geometry,  its  principal  or  characteristio 
problem  being  to  determine  under  what  conditions  the  sides  or  sur- 
faces of  figures  may  be  represented  by  uiteger  numbers. 

Like  all  other  inquiries  into  the  properties  of  integers,  it  is  rather 
speculative  than  practical,  and  yet,  perhaps  on  that  very  account, 
is  more  apt  to  engross  the  attention  of  its  oultivators  than  almost 
any  otter  department  of  pure  mathematics.  It  seems,  indeed,  to 
he  of  very  little  moment  whether  we  can  demonstrate  that  the  sum 


DvGooglc 


of  Ediaintrgh;  Seeeion  1863-64.  185 

of  two  cubes  never  can  be  a  cube ;  and  yet  one  after  anotber  of  tbe 
most  eminent  mathematiciane  have  tried,  and,  though  foiled,  have 
i^ain  and  again  eesajed  the  proof  of  Format's  negation.  So  it 
may  also  appear  to  be  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  or  not  we 
can  coDBtmct  a  foor-sided  figure  which  may  have  its  four  sides, 
and  also  its  two  diagonals,  all  integer  multiples  of  the  linear  unit ; 
and  yet  snoh  inquiries  present  to  the  mathematician  attractionB 
Bofficiently  powerful  to  balance  thoee  of  more  practical  investi- 
gations. 

Nor  is  the  labour  bestowed  on  the  cultivation  of  such  subjects 
altogether  or  in  any  degree  lost,  since  the  various  branches  of 
science  are  so  interwoven,  that  we  cannot  improve  our  acquaintance 
with  one  without  augmenting  our  knowledge  of  those  allied  to  it. 

The  first  part  of  the  paper  is  occupied  with  the  subject  of  the 
orthagonal  trigon,  and  is  a  collection  of  previously  known  proposi- 
tions, tbe  novdty,  if  any,  being  in  the  arrangement. 

Tbe  second  powers  of  nnmbers  form  the  only  exception  to  Fer- 
mat's  Theorem;  the  sum  of  two  squares  may  be  a  square  number; 
that  is  to  say,  the  equation 

is  possible  in  integer  numbers ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  altitude,  the 
base,  and  the  bypotennse  of  a  right-angled  trigon  may  all  be  ex- 
pressed in  integers. 

Among  the  remarkable  properties  of  these  Pythagorean  numbers, 
as  they  are  often  colled,  are  that,  when  in  the  lowest  terms,  one  or 
other  of  the  two  sides  is  divisible  by  3 ;  that  one  or  other  of  the 
.  two  sides  is  divisible  by  i ;  and  that  one  of  the  three  is  divisible 
by  5.  These  three  propositions  are  all  exemplified  in  the  well- 
known  solution, 

3' +4' =  5=. 

It  is  also  a  very  singular  property,  that  the  bypotenusal  number 
oan  never  be  a  multiple  of  7,  of  II,  of  19,  or,  in  general,  of  any 
prime  number  of  the  form  4»  —  1,  unless  the  other  also  be  so ;  and 
thns  that  no  prime  number  of  that  form  can  ever  be  a  divisor  of 
the  hypotenuse  when  the  trigon  is  in  its  lowest  terms. 

And  as  a  companion,  we  have  this  other  property,  that  every 
jffime  number  of  the  form  4n-f  1,  and  every  prodact  of  such  prime 
factors,  may  be  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  trigon. 


DvGooglc 


186  Proceedings  of  the  Moyal  Society 

This  put  of  the  subject  is  completed  by  a  table  ebowing  every 
form  of  rigbt-angled  trigon,  baving  its  aides  ezpresBed  in  integer 
nnmbeis,  witb  tbe  hypotenuse  under  1000. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  paper,  the  properties  of  the  angles  of 
Buoh  right-angled  trigons  are  investigated  r  to  tbeee  angles  the 
name  muarif  is  given,  and  their  values  are  entered  opposite  eacb. 
of  tbe  trigons  in  the  above-mentioned  table.  Muarif  angles  are 
defined  to  be  those  wbicb  have  tbeii  sines  and  cosines  rational ;  and 
it  is  ehovn  that  tbe  sines  and  cosines  of  the  sum,  or  difference  of 
two  muarif  angles,  are  also  rational,  tbis  property  being  analogous 
to  the  aritbmetical  proposition,  that  tbe  product  of  the  sum  of  one 
pair  of  squares  by  tbe  sum  of  another  pair,  is  also  the  sum  of  two 
squares. 

Tbis  property  of  muarif  angles  is  tbsn  applied  to  tbe  demonBtT&- 
tion  of  various  theorems,  and  to  tbe  solution  of  several  problems. 
In  tbe  first  place,  it  is  sbowntbat  if  a  trigou  be  constructed  witb 
two  of  its  angles  muarif,  tbe  three  sides,  the  three  altitudes,  the 
radius  of  tbe  circumscribing  circle,  and  the  radii  of  the  four  circles 
of  contact,  are  all  commensurable,  while  tbe  area  also  is  commen- 
surable with  their  squares. 

This  proposition  is  then  extended  thns :  that  if  at  tbe  ends  of 
any  line  assumed  as  a  base,  muarif  angles  (in  any  number)  be 
made,  tbe  sides  of  these  extended  indefinitely  intercept  aegments, 
which  ore  all  commensurable  witb  tbe  base,  and  include  areas 
wbitihare  all  commensurable  with  tbe  square  of  tbe  base. 
'  And,  farther,  that  tbe  same  property  is  extended  to  tbe  sides  of 
all  muarif  angles  made  at  any  of  tbe  intersectiouE  of  the  above- 
mentioned  lines. 

Also,  it  is  shown  that  if  a  straight  line  be  drawn  to  toncb  a 
circle,  and  if  at  the  point  of  contact  any  number  of  muarif  angles 
be  made,  if  the  extremities  of  the  chords  thus  formed  be  joined, 
and  if  tangents  be  applied  at  those  extremities,  all  the  tines  being 
continued  indefinitely,  then  all  tbe  intercepted  distanoes  are  com- 
mensnrable  witb  tbe  diameter,  and  all  tbe  areas  witb  the  square  of 
the  diameter. 

It  is  then  shown  bow  to  construct  a  muarif  angle  wbicb  may  ap- 
proximate witb  any  required  degree  of  precision  to  a  given  angle,  and 
thence  bow  to  find  a  rational  trigon  approximating  to  a  given  shape. 


DvGooglc 


o/Bdinburgk,  Seaeum  1863-64.  187 

The  solatioQ  is  also  extended  to  this  more  general  problem : 
baviDg  given  any  polygon  inscribed  in  a  circle,  to  find  another  ap- 
ptoximating  to  it,  and  having  its  sides  commensurable  with  the 
diameter,  and  its  area  with  the  squate  of  the  diameter. 

Afterwards,  it  b  shown  how  to  constnict  a  trigon  having  its  sides 
and  the  lines  bisecting  its  angles  all  rational. 

In  the  third  port  of  the  paper  the  oonstmctioa  of  polygons 
having  their  sides,  and  also  the  ordinates  of  their  comers  integer, 
is  discnssed. 

The  only  regular  polygons  which  can  be  used  to  cover  surface 
are  the  trigon,  the  Mragon,  and  the  hexagon.  Of  these  the  regular 
tetragon  or  sqnare  is  the  one  in  common  use  for  the  measurement 
of  surface ;  but,  viewing  the  matter  abstractly,  we  may  as  well 
measure  surface  by  triangular  inches  as  by  square  inches.  Since 
the  regular  hexagon  contains  exactly  six  regnlar  trlgons,  it  follows 
that,  as  far  as  the  doctrine  of  commensurables  is  concerned,  there 
are  only  two  possible  systems  of  surface  measurement, — viz.,  That 
with  the  square,  and  that  with  the  equilateral  trigon  as  the  auper- 
fioial  unit. 

The  fourth  section  of  the  paper  is  occupied  in  discusBing  the  tri- 
gonal system  of  measurement.  Just  as  the  right-angled  trigon  is 
the  guide  to  the  theory  of  tetragonal  commensurables ;  the  trigon 
having  an  angle  of  120°  is  the  guide  to  the  theory  of  trigonal  com- 
mensurables. The  leading  property  of  such  a  trigon  is,  that  the 
square  of  the  subtense  exceeds  the  squares  of  the  two  containing 
sides  by  their  rectangle ;  but  this  is  an  enunciation  in  tetragonal 
Uoguage :  stated  appropriately  it  is  this,  that  the  equilateral  trigon 
constructed  on  the  subtense,  is  equivalent  to  those  on  the  two  sides 
together  with  the  original  trigon ;  for  in  this  system,  the  surface  of 
an  equilateral  trigon  represent  the  second  power  of  a  number,  and 
that  of  a  trigon  of  120°  (or  60°)  the  prodnctof  two  numbers.  The 
arithmetical  representative  of  such  a  trigon  is 
a"  -H  at  +  6»  =  c. 

When  the  trigon  is  in  its  lowest  terms,  that  is,  when  a,  i  and  c 
have  no  common  divisor,  c  cannot  be  divisible  by  2,  by  8,  by  5, 
by  11,  01  in  general  by  any  prime  number  which  is  not  of  the  form 
6n-t- 1)  and  conversely,  it  is  shown  that  every  prime  number  of  the 


ovGooglc 


TS8  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

form  6fl  +  l,  Emd  evei;  product  of  eaoh  piimee,  m».j  repreeeut  tlie 
Bobtense  of  120°,  the  other  Btdee  being  ntional. 

It  u  worthy  of  remark,  aa  a  notable  relation  between  tlie  proper- 
ties of  numbers  and  those  of  gnrface,  that  4  and  6  ore  the  only 
modnli  whioh  aeparato  prime  namberB  into  two  claasea ;  all  primeB, 
with  the  exception  of  2,  being  of  one  or  other  of  forms  4n  —  1  and 
4n+l  ;  while,  excepting  2  and  3,  all  belong  either  to  the  form 
6n=laTto&n-i-l.  Four  squares  may  lie  round  a  point,  and  the 
form  4n  + 1,  includes  all  the  hypotenuses  of  right-angled  trigons ; 
six  eqnilatend  trigons  lie  round  a  point,  and  the  form  6»-f  1  con- 
tains all  the  subtenses  of  120°  or  of  60°. 

A  list  is  given  of  trigons  of  120°,  in  the  lowest  terms,  of  which 
the  subtense  does  not  exoeed  1000,  accompanied  by  the  value  of 
the  smaller  angle. 

This  leads  to  the  reoognition  of  tiwtmf  angUa  of  the  trigonal 
system,  poeseBsing  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the  common  or 
tetragonal  system. 

Thus,  if  at  the  extremities  of  any  base  trigonal  mnarif  angles  be 
made,  all  the  segments  into  which  the  sides  of  these  angles  cut  each 
other  are  oommensurable  with  the  base,  and  all  the  areas  with  its 
equilateral  trigon. 

And  similarly,  if  at  the  point  of  contact  of  a  straight  line  and 
nircle,  trigonal  muanf  angles  be  made,  if  the  extremities  of  the 
chords  be  joined,  and  if  tangents  be  applied  at  those  extremities, 
all  the  segments  so  formed  are  commensurable  with  the  side,  and 
all  the  areas  with  the  area  of  the  ciicnmscribed  regular  trigon  ;  and 
it  may  be  remarked  that  in  the  Agonal  system,  the  inscribed  trigon 
is  commensurable  with  the  oircumscribed,  whereas  the  insoribed 
square  is  incommensurable  with  the  cironmsoribed. 

The  existence  of  these  two  distinct,  yet  analogons  systems  of 
mnarif  angles,  naturally  suggests  the  inquiry,  whether  thero  may 
not  be  other  Hystems  as  well. 

The  fifth  section  of  the  paper  treats  of  mnarif  systems  in  general ; 
it  shows  that  if  a  trigon  be  constructed  with  sides,  proportional  to 
any  three  integers  whatever,  its  angles  belong  to  a  system  of  mnarif 
angles  possessing  properties  analogons  to  those  of  the  two  preced- 
ing systems,  the  asanmed  trigon,  or  any  other  one  of  the  system, 
becoming  the  unit  of  snrface. 


DvGooglc 


o/EdinMirgh,  Sesaion  1863-64.  189 

It  is  also  BhowD  that  so  angle  of  one  can  be  equal  to  that  of  any 
olhei  muarif  SfBtem,  with  the  exception  of  180°  which  belcmgs  to 
all  Bfatema. 

The  general  chaiacter  of  a  mnatif  angle  is,  that  its  ooeine  is 
rational ;  the  value  of  its  sine  may  or  may  not  involTe  the  eqnare 
toot  of  an  nnequare  numher ;  if  the  sine  be  rational,  the  angle  be- 
longs to  the  tetragonal  system  ;  but  if  otheiwise,  the  irreducible  surd 
invalved  in  the  expression  for  the  sine  becomes  the  modvlui  or 
matlar  of  the  system,  and  all  aDgles  having  the  same  irreducible 
sard  in  the  values  of  theb  sines,  the  cosines  being  rational,  belong 
to  the  same  system. 

The  modulus  of  the  common  or  tetragonal  system  is  thus  VI, 
that  of  the  trigonal  system  is  V3  ;  while  the  modnlna  of  any  other 
system  is  the  irrednoible  sard  in  the  common  expression  for  the  area 
of  any  trigon  belonging  to  it. 

The  sixth  and  last  section  of  the  paper  contains  a  few  miscellane- 
ons  propositions.  The  first  group  of  problems  are  cases  of  this 
general  one,  "  To  constract  a  trfgon,  of  which  the  three  aides  and 
the  lines  dividing  one  or  more  of  the  angles  into  equal  parts  may 
be  all  commensurable." 

When  only  one  angle  is  proposed  to  be  divided,  or  when  two 
angles  are  to  be  divided,  we  can  assume  these  as  the  proper  malti- 
ples  of  muarif  angles  of  any  system  whatever ;  but  when  the  three 
angles  are  to  be  divided,  we  find  ourselves  lestricted  in  the  choice 
of  the  system. 

Thus,  if  we  wish  that  the  lines  bisecting  each  of  the  angles  be 
rational,  we  must  use  the  common  or  the  tetragonal  system,  because 
the  half  of  180°  belongs  to  it.  While,  if  we  wish  that  the  lines 
trisecting  the  three  angles  be  all  rational,  we  must  take  the  trigonal 
system,  because  the  third  part  of  180°  is  among  its  angles. 

And  it  is  remarkable  that  we  cannot  construct  a  trigon  or  which 
the  sides  and  the  lines  dividing  its  angles  into  any  other  numher 
of  equal  parts  than  two  and  three,  may  be  all  rational,  because  no 
aliquot  part  of  the  half  revolution  except  the  half  and  the  third  can 
belong  to  any  muarif  system. 

F.S. — Since  the  paper  was  read,  a  treatise  by  Professor  Qill  of 
New  York,  on  the  "  Application  of  the  Angular  Analysis  to  the 


DvGooglc 


190  Proceedings  of  the  Boyd  Society 

SoIatioDof  Indeterminate PioblemB,"  has bdenahown  tome.  Id  this 
excellent  work  the  properties  of  the  mnanf  anglee  of  the  tetragonal 
system  are  given ;  and  as  there  is  no  bint  concerning  the  higher 
systems  of  these  angles,  my  impression  is  confirmed  that  this  part 
of  the  subject  is  entirely  new. 

4.  On  Superposition,  No.  II.    By  Professor  Kelland. 

5.  On  Gentrobaric  Bodies.    By  Professor  W.  Thomson. 
(Abatract  6y  Pfofenw  To**.) 

This  is  an  abstract  of  an  inveBtigation  which  will  be  pnbliahed 
in  full  in  "  Thomson  and  Tait's  Natural  Philosophy."  It  contains 
the  application  of  Qreen's  wonderful  results  regarding  the  potential 
to  the  determination  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  system  when 
there  is  such  a  point.  Some  of  the  more  remarkable  propoaitions, 
which  are  thus  esteblished  ate  as  foIlowH : — 

If  th^  action  of  terrestrial  or  other  gravity  on  a  rigid  body  is 
reducible  te  a  single  force  in  a  line  passing  always  through  one 
point  fixed  relatively  to  the  body,  whatever  be  its  position  relatively 
to  the  earth  or  other  attracting  moss,  that  point  is  called  its  eentrt 
of  gravity,  and  the  body  is  called  a  centrobaric  body. 

If  a  body  ia  centrobaric  relatively  to  any  one  attracting  mass, 
it  is  centrobaric  relatively  to  every  other ;  and  it  attracts  all  matter 
external  te  itself  as  if  its  own  mass  were  collected  in  its  centre  of 
gravity. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  a  centrobaric  body  necessarily  lies  in  its 
interior ;  or,  in  other  words,  can  only  be  reached  from  external  spooe 
by  a  path  cutting  through  some  of  its  mass. 

No  centrobaric  body  can  consiat  of  ports  isolated  from  one  an- 
other, each  in  spaoe  external  to  all ;  in  other  words,  the  outer 
boundary  of  every  centrobaric  body  is  a  single  closed  surface. 

A  given  quantity  of  matter  may  he  distributed  in  one  way,  bnt 
in  only  one  way,  over  any  given  closed  surface,  so  as  te  constitute  a 
centrobaric  body  with  its  centre  of  gravity  at  any  given  point 
within  it. 

Matter  may  be  distributed  in  an  infinite  number  of  ways  through- 


DvGooglc 


ofEdvaimrgh,  Seaeim  18(i3-64.  191 

out  a  given  oloaed  apace,  to  constitnte  a  centToboric  body  with  its 
centre  of  gravity  at  any  given  point  within  it. 

The  momeDts  of  inertia  of  a  centrobaric  body  are  equal  round 
all  axes  through  its  centre  of  inertia.  In  other  worda,  all  these 
axes  are  principal  axeB,  and  the  body  is  kinetically  symmetrical 
round  its  centre  of  inertia. 

The  following  Gentleman  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society : — 

Pnifeiaol  Bobibt  Dvcb,  H,D„  Aberdeeo. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 
Insanity  and  Crime :    a  Medico- Legal  Commentary  on  the    Case 

of  Qeorge  Victor  Townley,    By  the  Editore  of  tbe  Journal  of 

Uental  Science.     8vo.— JVom  the  Authori. 
Finetum  Britanaicum.     FartV.     Picea  JpoQinu^  Pinvt  Jeffreyii. 

Folio. — From  Gharla  Lawson,  Etq. 
Boyal  Greogiaphicftl  Society's  Fiooeedings.    Vol.  VIIT.     No.  1 

8vo. — jFron*  the  Society. 
Monthly  Betnm  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages,  registered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland.    January  1664. 

(With  SupplemMit  for  1863.)    8yo.—Ftvm  the  Segittrar  Ge- 
neral. 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society.    Nos.  3  and  4.    1863.    8vo — From 

ihe  Society. 
Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society.    No.  77.    8vo. — 

From  ihe  Society. 
Verhandlungen  der  echweizerischen  naturforsohenden  Gesellsohaft 

bei  ihren  Veraammlung  zu  Luzem  den  23,  24,  u.  26.     Sept. 

1862.     8to.— From  the  Sodely. 
Quarterly  Betum  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages,  registered 

in  the  Di vision B,'_CouDties,  and  Districts  of  Scotland.     No.  36. 

(With  Supplement.)     8vo. — From  the  Segittrar  General. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.     Vol.  IV.     Noe. 

2-4.     (With  Index  to  Vol.  III.)     8to.— from  ihe  Sodely. 
Proceedings  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Liverpool. 

No.  17.    &vo.—From  the  Society. 
VOL.  V.  2  c 


DvGooglc 


192  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

Journal  of  Agriculture.    March  1864.    6to. — From  tA«  Sigiltmd 

and  AgricuUurat  Society. 
American  Journal  of  Arte  and  SoieDcea.    Jan.  1664.     Sto. — From 

At  C(mdvct4)r*. 
Proceedinge  of  the  Royal  Society.    No.  61.    8vo.— from  ih»  So- 

Ifognetical  and  Meteorological  ObservatioDs  made  at  the  Gi^Teni- 
ment  ObMrvatory,  Bombay.    1861.    4to. — From  the  Qovtm- 

AbhandlUDgen  heransgegebea  tod  der  seDckenbergischen  Datar- 
forsGhenden  Geselachaft.  Band  V.  Heft.  1.  4to. — From 
the  Society. 

Sitznogeberiohte  der  kooigl.  bayer.  Akademie  dei  Wisaenschafteti 
zu  Munchen.  1863.  II.  Heft.  III.  8to.— JVwn  the  Aka- 
demie. 

Bndapesti  Szemle,  Szerkeezti  6e  Biadja  Cseogeiy  Antal.  XLI— 
LVII  Fazet.    8vo.— Ffwn  the  Society. 

Magyar  Akademiai  ^rtesitd.  II.  and  III.  1-3.  9vo.—From  the 
Academy. 

Mathematikai  b  TennSszettndom&nyi  Eozlem^nyek  Vonatkoz6!ag 
a  Hazai  Viazonyokra.     II.     8to. — From  the  tamt. 

De  Finibus  nltimia  Nervorum  MuBcularium.  Antore  Th.  Marg6, 
Frofesfiore  UniversitatiB  Pestanaa.     4to. — From  the  tame. 

PhteDomena  oootiuentalis  elevatlonis  et  depreesionis  partis  Europn 
inter  Orientem  et  Meridiem  eitn  in  Epocha  G^logis  "deln- 
riali "  dicta.  Antore  Josepho  Szab6,  Frofeesore  UniTerntatis 
^estanfe.     4to.— JVom  the  tame. 


Monday,  21fii  March  1864. 
The  HoK.  Lord  NEAVES,  Vice-President,  in  the  Ohair. 

The  Secretary  annoonoed  that  the  Council  bad  awarded  the  Keith 
prize  for  the  biennial  period  1861-63,  to  FiofeBaor  William  Thom- 
son, of  QlaBgow,  for  hiB  communication  entitled  "  On  some  Eine- 
matical  and  Dynamical  Theoroma." 

The  following  Communicationa  were  read  :— 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbtirgh,  Sesaion  1863-^.  193 

1.  On  the  Anatomy  aad  Fhysiology  of  the  Mitral,  Tricus- 
pid, and  Semilimai  Valves  in  Mammals,  Birds,  Reptiles, 
and  Fishes.  By  James  B,  Pettigrew,  M.D.,  Edinburgh  ; 
Assistant  in  the  Museom  of  the  Boyal  College  of  Sur- 
geons of  England.    Oommunicated  by  Wm.  Turner,  M.B. 

The  writer  begina  bia  communication  by  giving  a  brief  de- 
scription of  the  Btructutea  in  which  valves  are  fonnd,  and  takea 
occaaioa  to  comment  on  the  nstuie  and  properties  of  the  veins  and 
arteries,  and  on  the  arrangement  of  the  muscular  fibres  in  the 
ventricles,  as  these  necessarily  influence,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  the  action  of  the  valves.  He  also  adverts  at  some  length 
to  the  shape  of  the  venous,  arterial,  and  auriculo-ventricular 
orifices,  and  to  the  fibra-cartilaginoos  rings  by  which  the  latter  are 
Burrounded ;  as  well  as  to  the  dilatations  or  sinuses  which  are  found 
behind  or  to  the  outside  of  the  segments  constituting  the  semilunar 
'  valves  in  the  veins  and  arteries,  and  to  the  shape  of  the  ventricular 
cavities,  which,  as  he  points  out,  bear  an  important  relation  to  the 
valves,  inasmuch  as  they  determine  the  direction  in  which  the 
blood  acts  upon  them ;  precise  information  on  these  points  being, 
according  to  the  author,  indispensable  to  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
subject  under  investigation. 

The  object  of  the  Memoir  is  to  prove  that  in  the  valves,  as  in 
other  structures  where  modifications  occur,  we  rise  from  the  simple 
to  the  more  complex ;  in  other  words,  that  the  valves  form  a 
difi'erentiated  and  gradually  ascending  series. 

In  the  veins,  e.  g.,  the  valve  consists  of  a  doubling  of  the  delicate 
membrane  lining  the  vessel,  containing  some  fibro-cellular  and 
elastic  tissue,  the  distribution  of  which  in  the  horse  can  be  readily 
made  out.  The  segments  of  the  valve  are  semi-transparent,  and,  as 
a  rule,  semilunar  in  shape.  They  are  further  placed  obliquely,  one 
only  being  present  in  the  smallest  veins,  two  iu  the  middle-sized 
ones,  and  three  in  the  largest.  Behind  each  segment  there  is  a 
dilatation  or  bulging  of  the  vessel,  which  projects  nearly  as  far  in 
an  outward  direction  as  the  segment  extends  inwardly,  and  gives 
to  the  latter  the  requisite  degree  of  curvature.  As  the  dilatation 
referred  to  enables  the  lining  membrane  which  forms  the  segments 


DvGooglc 


194  Proceedings  of  ike  Royal  Society 

to  project  boldlj',  and  almost  transTersel;,  into  the  vein,  it  follom 
that  the  free  margins  of  the  BOgments  run  for  a  certain  dietance  in 
a  nearly  parallel  direction,  the  paralleliBin  being  maintained  by  tbe 
presence  of  a  fibrous  structure,*  whioh  projects  from  the  wall  of 
the  vessel,  and  not  oul;  supports  tbe  free  margins,  but  cairies  them 
fairly  away  from  the  sides  into  the  interior.  This  relation  of  the 
dilatations  to  the  segments,  and  of  tbe  segments  to  each  other,  has 
not  hitherto  been  recognised,  and  shows  that  the  union  between  the 
Iatt«i  is  not  one  of  the  margins  simply,  as  has  been  supposed,  but 
of  tbe  margins  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sides;  the  sides  of 
tbe  segments,  on  account  of  the  angle  at  which  they  are  set  with 
reference  to  each  other,  being  more  and  more  iDToIved  in  proportion 
to  the  amonnt  of  ptesanre  which  b  brought  to  bear  upon  them. 
The  object  of  tbe  dilatations  is  evidently  threefold — l«t  (as  has 
been  stated),  To  allow  the  free  margin  of  tbe  segments  to  project 
into  tbe  interior,  and  maintain  a  position  with  reference  to  each 
other  which  neceBsitates  their  coming  rapidly  and  naturally  to- 
gether; 2dly,  To  increase  the  space  occupied  by  the  blood,  and 
thereby  extend  the  area,  and  the  amount  of  pressure  to  which  the 
segments  are  subjected  ;  and,  Mly  (whioh  is  the  most  important). 
To  determine  the  direction  in  which  the  blood  shall  act,  that  being 
from  above  downwards,  and  from  without  inwards.  Tbe  effect  of 
tbia  arrangement  ou  the  segments  is  very  ohvions;  these,  when 
two  exist,  being  forced  together  in  the  mesial  plane  of  the  vessel, 
where  they  mutually  support  each  other;  and  when  three  are 
present,  in  tbe  axis  of  tbe  vessel.  In  tbe  latter  case,  tbe  segments 
(from  tbe  more  or  less  conical  shape  assumed  by  their  free  mar- 
gins while  in  action,  and  from  tbe  fact  of  their  apices  being  free 
to  move)  rotate  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  while  in  the  act  of 
fixing  or  closing— the  closure  being  effectod  by  a  combined  wedge 
and  spiral  movement.f  In  tbe  veins  the  closing  of  the  valves  may 
be  regarded  as  purely  mechanical,  this  being  due  not  to  any  active 
power  residing  in  the  segments,  but  to  the  pressure  exerted  upon 
them  by  the  blood,  and  to  the  vital  contractility  residing  in  the 

*  The  etructuio  ndverletl  to  ia  very  wullsruQ  in  tbeaiteiiol  aemilimai  valvea. 
t  The  spiral  n^tdgtag  inoTeiii«iit  j>  Mpeciall;  diatiDct  in  tbe  aegmenla  of 
the  orlerikl  aemilDnat  TslTei. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Sessvm  1863-64.  195 

veins,  vhich  tends  to  nrge  the  segments  together,  wliile  it  assifltB 
the  onward  flow  of  the  blood.  In  the  Arteries,  as,  e.  g.,  at  the  origin 
of  the  pulmonary  artery  and  Aoita,  the  segments  of  the  valve  are 
of  a  semilunar  shape,  and  always  three  in  number.  They  consist 
of  a  doubling  of  the  lining  membrane,  and  contain  within  theii 
fold  ceriAin  tendinous  bands  which  run  in  well-marked  directions ; 
the  straotnre  closely  resembling  that  met  with  in  the  auriculo- 
ventricular  or  highest  form  of  valve.*  The  cusps,  moreover,  are 
semi-opaque,  stronger,  and  more  ample  than  in  the  veins. 

In  the  arteries  the  dilatations  behind  the  segments,  commonly 
called  the  Sinuses  of  Valsalva,  are  very  large,  and,  as  the  author  has 
ascertained,  curve  towards  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  ensures 
that  the  blood  will  act  upon  the  segments  only  in  certain  direotioos ; 
in  fact,  that  they  will  be  urged  by  it  towards  each  other,  and  fixed  by 
a  distinctly  spiral  wedging  movement ;  the  margins  of  the  segments 
flattening  themselTes  against  each  other  whilst  in  action,  and  form- 
ing an  inverted  tripartite  dome,  the  strength  of  which  is  limited 
only  by  the  strength  of  the  materials  used  in  its  construction. 
The  action  of  the  arterial  semilunar  valves  may  also  be  considered 
mechanical,  the  inconvenience  which  might  be  supposed  to  result 
from  an  excess  of  vital  contractility  in  the  arteries  and  ventricles, 
between  which  the  valves  are  situated,  being  counteracted  by  the 
-  existeDce  at  this  point  of  comparatively  unyielding  fibro-cartila- 
ginons  rings.  Strongly  contrasting  with  the  arterial  semilunar 
valves  in  mammals  whose  area  of  activity  is,  so  to  speak,  circum- 
scribed, are  the  semilunar  valves  situated  within  the  bnlbos  arteri- 
osus of  fishes,  which  is  an  actively  contracting  structure.  In  these 
cases  the  segments,  as  a  rule,  are  more  numerous  than  in  the  veins 
and  arteries,  and  arranged  in  tiers,  so  that  the  blood  which  is  not 
caught  by  one  tier  falls  into  and  is  supported  by  the  next.  The 
number  of  segments,  moreover,  obviates  the  evil  effects  which  might 
accrue  from  the  displacement  to  which  they  are  subjected  by  the 
contraction  of  the  bulb. 

Id  the  semilunar  valves  of  fishes  we  find  the  first  trace  of  what 
may  be  regarded  as  chordte  tendiuete,  in  the  shape  of  tendinous 

'  Tbe  ariaogetnent  of  the  teudiuuua  baudii  id  the  Mmilunu'  and  anricalu- 
veutrionlar  voItm,  and  the  Blructure  f^enerallT,  is  deactibod'tit  leugtli. 


DvGooglc 


196  Proceediaga  of  the  Soyal  Society 

tMndi  vhiob  ran  between  the  Mgmentg  and  affoid  «  certain  degree 
of  BUpport.  The  actioB  of  the  valves  in  fiahea  is  partly  mechanical 
and  partly  vital,  for  we  mnat  regard  the  oontiaction  of  the  bnib  as 
contributing  to  the  closure.  In  the  anricolo- ventricular  valves  of 
mammali,  biida,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  ve  have  a  great  variety. 
These  vatvea  are  charaeterised  by  the  presence  of  tendinous 
chords  {ohoid»  tendineie)  which  connect  them  with  actively  om- 
tracting  muscular  strnotniee ;  as,  the  interior  of  the  ventricles 
or  the  Btruetuies  arising  therefrom-'-viE.,  the  camete  colnmnse  and 
mnscnii  papillares.  They  therefore  differ  from  the  Bemilnnar 
valves  proper.  In  the  auricnlo-yentricnlar  valves  there  is  also  gra- 
dation. In  some  instances,  e.g.,  there  is  only  one  semilunar  fli^ 
or  segment ;  in  a  second  there  are  two  flaps  or  segments,  so 
arranged  that  their  hng  diameteri  correipond  to  the  direction  of  tta 
mvacuUtr  fibru  mih  which  they  are  cormeckd  directly.  In  s  third, 
the  two  segmente  are  attached  to  the  interior  of  the  ventricle  bg 
mdimcntary  chorda  tendineee.  In  a  fourth,  two  accessory  or 
smaller  segments  are  added  to  the  two  principal  ones,  the  whole 
heing  attached  by  weU'developed  chorda  tendinea  to  rvdimentary 
musculi  paptilara.  In  a  fifth,  which  is  the  most  perfect  form  of 
valve  as  it  exists  in  man,  and  in  the  higher  mammalia,  the  seg- 
ments are  from  foar  to  six  in  number,  moet  eas^itttety  and  lymme- 
Uricaily  formed,  and  attached  hy  minutely  graduated  chorda  tendinete 
to  highly  developed  camea  columita  and  mtuadi  papiVaret ;  the 
latter  being  distinctly  spiral. 

The  action  of  the  auriculo  ventricnlar  valves  is  varied,  and 
depends  on  the  circulation,  on  the  confignration  of  the  ventricles, 
and  the  shape  of  the  ventricnlar  oavities,  which  adapt  and  monld 
the  blood,  and  cause  it  to  act  in  a  definite  or  given  direction.  In 
the  Fish,  the  ventricle  and  the  ventricular  cavity  are  pyramidal  in 
shape,  the  ventricular  fibres  being  so  arranged  that  the  organ  eon- 
bacts  and  dilates  very  much  as  one  vould  shut  and  open  the  hand. 
As,  moreover,  the  circulation  is  languid,  the  segments  of  the  valve, 
when  two  exist,  are  forced  towards  each  other,  by  the  contraction  of 
the  ventricle  and  by  the  blood,  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  by 
which  the  segments  of  the  bisemilunar  venous  valves  are  approxi- 
mated, by  the  retrogressive  movements  of  the  slowly  advancing 
Tenons  blood,  asaisted  tp  a  alight  extent  by  the  vital  contractility 


DvGooglc 


of  Ediahwrgh,  Session  1863-64.  197 

of  the  veseelB.  Id  the  Beptile,  where  the  circulation  ia  also  Ian- 
gaid  or  bIow,  the  shape  of  the  ventricle  or  veutriclea,*  and  of  the 
ventricular  cavity  or  oavitjes,  is  conical ;  the  cone  b€ing  slightly 
twisted  upon  itself.  As  the  muscular  fihree  forming  the  ventricle 
pnrBQo  a  more  or  less  spiral  course,  and  this  arrangement  extends 
to  the  valves,  their  action  may  be  aptly  compared  to  that  vhich 
obtains  in  Uie  valves  of  the  largest  veins,  and  in  those  of  the 
arteries.  It  is,  however,  in  the  anricnlo- ventricular  valves  of  the 
Bird  and  Uammal  that  the  spiral  action  of  the  segmenta  hecomes 
most  conspicuous ;  the  nature  of  the  action  being  unavoidably  de- 
termined by  the  spiral  arrangement  of  the  mnecnlai  fibres  forming 
the  ventricles,  and  by  the  spiral  nature  of  the  mnscnli  papillares 
and  ventricular  cavities.  As  the  two  spiral  muscuU  papillares 
project  into  the  spiral  ventricolar  cavities,  it  folloira  that  between 
them  there  exist  two  spiral  grooves  or  depressions,  and  in  these 
the  blood  is  arranged,  on  its  entrance  into  the  ventricles,  in  two 
spiral  columns ;  that  fluid,  towards  the  end  of  the  diastole  and 
the  beginning  of  the  s}rstoIe,  advancing  on  the  segments  of  the 
anricnlo  ventricular  valves  in  spiral  waves,  from  below  upwaids, 
and  wedging  and  screwing  them  into  each  other  in  an  upward 
spiral  direction ;  the  musculi  papillares,  by  contracting,  dragging 
the  segments  towards  the  end  of  the  systole,  by  means  of  the 
chordn  tendinen,  in  an  opposite  or  downward  direction,  to  form  a 
spiral  dependent  cone,  the  apex  of  which  points  to  the  apex  of  the 
heart.  The  action  of  the  auriculo  ventricnlai  valves  is  partly 
mechanical  and  partly  vital,  the  mnscnli  papillares  and  analogous 
structnies  exercising,  through  the  chordes  tendines,  at  one  time  a 
restraining  influence  to  prevent  retroversion  and  regurgitation,  at 
another  wielding  a  direct  power  for  approximating  and  applying 
them  accurately  to  each  other.  The  paper,  which  is  baaed  on  an 
extensive  series  of  dissections,  is  illustrated  by  upwards  of  50 
photographs  and  drawings,  showing  the  stmotnre,  relations,  and 
action  of  the  valves. 

a  divides  the 


DvGooglc 


198  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

2.  On  aoma  points  in  the  Metrology  of  the  Qreat  Pyramid. 
By  ProfesBor  C.  Piazzi  Smyth,  Astronomer  Koyal  for 
Scotland. 

This  paper  was  an  attempt  to  submit  to  a  Bevsre  and  Beaiohing 
ezaminatioD,  the  very  new  and  apparently  important  ideaa  con- 
tained in  the  work,  published  four  years  ago  by  Mr  Jobn  Taylor  of 
London,  and  entitled  "  The  Great  Pyramid ;  why  was  it  Built  ?  "  To 
thiB  end,  the  original  anthoritiea  for  measures  of  the  Pyramid,  had 
been  ezteaeivety  referred  to,  from  Professor  John  Greaves  in  the 
17th  century,  down  to  Colonel  Howard  Vyee  and  Dr  Lepsins  in  the 
19th ;  and  their  various  and  sometimes  conflicting  numerical  state- 
ments had  been  computed  with  all  due  attention  to  scientific 
accuracy,  as  well  as  every  endeavour  to  eliminate  both  personal 
and  other  aonices  of  error  in  the  observationB. 

The  result  of  this  proceeding  has  been  most  eminently  favour- 
able to  all  the  more  important  and  cogent  of  Mr  Taylor's  conclu- 
sions ;  not  only  as  to  the  probability  of  a  common  origin  in  pre- 
historic times  for  the  hereditary  weights  and  measures  of  all 
nations,  but  as  to  there  having  been  something  more  than  mere 
human  intelligence  concerned  in  their  establishment ;  and  also,  to 
the  Great  Pyramid,  besides  having  been  earlier  in  date,  being,  in 
all  the  spirit  of  its  construction,  completely  separated  from  alt  the 
other  Pyramids,  as  well  as  from  everything  usually  thought  typical 
of  Egypt,  or  peculiar  to  the  Pbaraonic,  or  any  other,  dynasty  of 
the  Egyptians ;  and  entirely  devoid,  in  its  finished  parts,  of  even 
the  remotest  and  most  distant  allusion  to  any  form  of  idolatrous 
worship  ever  practised  by  any  nation  of  antiquity  whatever. 

The  calculatioDH  were  prepared  in  fall,  and  aa  astonishing  series 
of  coincidences  upon  coincidences  given,  both  as  to  the  relations 
tmly  connecting  the  dimensions  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  with  the 
latest  geodesically-determined  numbers  forthe  size  and  figure  of  the 
earth  ;  to  the  original  founding  of  the  standard  of  that  P3'ramid'B 
linear  measure  on  the  one  and  only  absolutely  correct  scientific  re- 
ference which  the  earth  contains — viz,,  the  axis  of  rotation ;  to  the 
connecting  of  its  ancient  measures  of  capacity  and  weight  with  the 
weight,  or  what  goes,  with  the  size,  to  make  the  weight,  of  the 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  199 

earth ;  and  to  the  ideotiflcation  of  the  very  conyenient  divisor 
typical  to  the  Pyramid,  even  in  the  temperature  eeoured  for  its 
standard  B. 

There  then  followed  a  compariBon  of  the  ancient  Pyramid- 
measureB,  in  lengthj  surface,  capacity,  and  weight,  with  the  Eng- 
lieh  hereditary  meaBuiee  still  in  existence  among  ob  ;  and  it 
showed,  first,  the  extreme  closeness  of  the  two  systemB,  especially 
ill  the  smaller  units  employed  chieHy  by  the  working  and  poorer 
classes  of  our  country ;  and  then,  the  remarkable  convenience  for 
scientific  purposes  and  questions  of  the  present  day,  of  the  larger 
Pyramid-units;  of  which,  not  the  least  striking  example  is,  that 
the  large  Ordnance  map  of  Great  Britain  recently  commenced,  and 
DOW  being  rapidly  pushed  on  by  the  Qovernment,  on  a  scale  of 
x^^th  of  nature,  the  largest,  best,  and  most  expensive  map  of  onr 
country  which  has  ever  yet  been  attempted,— but  which  does  not 
fit  into  the  present  British  measares  at  all,  requiring  long  and 
annoying  fractions  both  for  the  mile  and  the  acre,  to  the  plague 
of  every  BritiBb-born  working-man  who  uses  it,— fits  in  precweiy 
to  the  ancient  Pyramid  meaBores  of  4300  years  ago,  and  represents 
their  mile  and  their  acre  true,  in  inches,  without  the  smallest 
fraction  of  an  inch  left  over  or  under. 

3.  The  Decimal  Frobleoi  Solved.  By  James  Alexander,  Esq. 
Communicated  by  B.  Sang,  Esq. 
The  author  having  had  experience  of  the  simple  duodecimal 
monetary  system  of  Portugal,  which  is  accumulated  by  multiplica- 
tion from  a  decimal  minimum  unit,  proposes  to  apply  the  same 
principle  to  the  British  coinage.  Having  also  discovered,  while  in 
Canada,  that  the  difference  betwixt  the  British  coinage  and  a 
decimal  position  or  charaoter,  is  20  per  cent,  over  all,  he  proposes 
to  overcome  this  by  altering  the  valne  of  the  present  farthing,  by 
this  rate,  making  it  the  fifth,  instead  of  the  fourth  of  the  penny — 
the  penny  of  5  farthings  wonld  then  become  the  duodecimal  mul- 
tiplier of  all  the  coins,  making  the  shilling  60  farthings  instead  of 
48,  and  the  pound  1200  instead  of  960,  and  each  intermediate  coin 
would  be  represented  by  one  of  the  digits  and  one  or  two  ciphers, 
while  the  pound,  being  represented  by  12,  the  highest  single 


DvGooglc 


200  Proceedings  of  the  RoyvA  Society 

divisor  or  multiplier,  could  be  kept  out  ob  the  m&ximnm  unit. 
This  would  introdace  the  decimal  principle  into  the  coinage,  with- 
out sacrificing  either  the  ponnd  or  the  penny,  which  it  has  hitherto 
been  declared  impossible  to  do,  while  it  would  completely  revolu- 
tionise our  arithmetic,  and  bring  our  money  into  accord  with  the 
whole  world.  By  this  slight  alteration,  making  no  disturbance  in 
the  names  or  values  of  the  coinage — affecting  nobody  injuriously, 
but  everybody  beneficially — a  change  of  notation  from  the  present 
£  t.  d.  is  made  imperative  upon  no  one  who  prefers  it ;  but  the 
great  mass  of  traders  may  at  once  keep  their  accounts  in  pounds 
and  1200ths,  while  the  larger  merchants  and  bankers  may  keep 
them  in  pounds  and  I20th8,  greatly  to  the  diminution  of  figuring 
and  arithmetical  labour,  while  the  conversion  of  the  decimal  into 
f.  and  d.  is  the  simplest  mental  operation. 

4.  On  the  Elevation  of  the  Earth's  Snrface  Temperature 
produced  by  TJnderground  Heat.  By  Professor  W- 
Thomson,  F.II.S.,  F.E.S.E. 

Peclet  found,  by  his  own  experiments,  that  a  body  with  any 
common  unpolished  non-metallic  eurface,  kept  by  beat  from  within 
at  1°  higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  air  and  other  objects  round 
it,  loses  heat  from  each  square  metre  of  surface  at  the  rate  of  about 
nine  kilogram  me- water  thermal  units  per  hour,  or,  which  is  the 
same,  xsVr^''  °^  "  gramme-water  unit  from  each  square  centimetre 
per  second.  The  mean  conductivity  of  the  three  Edinburgh  strata, 
in  which  Principal  Forbes's  unde^round  thermometers  were 
placed,  is  2}  grain-water  units  per  second  per  square  foot  per  1° 
per  foot  rate  of  variation  of  temperature,  aa  I  have  shown  pre- 
viously.* 

That  of  the  Greenwich  stratum  is  2'6,  in  terms  of  the  same  units, 
according  to  Frofessor  Everett's  recent  reductions;  and  that  of 
certain  strata  (clay  and  sand)  in  Sweden  is  1*61,  according  to 
Angstrom  (Poggendorff'a  AnnaUn,  last  volume  of  1861).  The 
mean  of  these  three  numbers  is  2'33,  which,  reduced  to  the  unit 

"  Trans.  B,BJ:„  April  186D,  "  On  the  Seduction  of  Obserrationa  of  Undei- 
gronnd  Tempemtore,"  {  42. 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Seaaim  1863-64.  201 

oF  conductivity  founded  on  tlie  gramme  -  water- eecond-centunetre 
units,  is  '005.  Taking  this,  therefore,  as  an  average  conductivity 
iu  the  earth's  upper  cruet,  we  find  that  if  the  temperature  in' 
creased  downwards  at  the  rate  of  1°  per  20  centimetres,  the 
quantity  of  heat  bst  by  conduction  outwards  would  be  ^dVif'^^  i  *^^ 
therefore,  according  to  Peclet'e  result,  this  would  keep  the  surface 
just  1°  warmer  than  it  would  be  if  there  were  no  conduction  of 
beat  from  within.  Hence,  to  warm  the  surface  to  10°  Fahr,  above 
what  it  would  be  if  there  were  no  conduction  from  within,  the  rate 
of  rise  of  temperature  must  be  1°  Fahr.  per  2  centimetres,  or  '0656 
of  a  foot  (which  would  probably  destroy  the  roots  of  any  large  tree 
or  plant),  but  at  all  events  could  not,  as  1  have  shown,*  be  the  real 
condition  of  the  earth  at  any  time  later  than  about  180  years  after 
even  a  greater  heating  (7000°  Fahr.)  of  the  whole  globe  than  the 
greatest  we  can  suppose  it  at  all  probable  the  earth  ever  ex- 
perienced. Hence  it  is  certain  that  the  climate  can  never  have 
been  sensibly  influenced  from  the  earliest  "geological"  era  by 
underground  heat.  This  conclusion  was  stated  in  §  17  of  the 
paper  already  referred  to  "On  the  Secular  Cooling  of  the  Earth," 
as  rendered  certain  by  a  rough  general  knowledge  of  the  circum- 
stances, without  any  approach  to  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  ab- 
solute amount  of  radiation. 

We  now  see,  farther,  that  the  present  rate  of  underground  rise 
of  temperature,  estimated  at  1°  Fahr.  per  SO  feet,  is  only  ^th  of 
that  which  is  required  to  warm  the  surface  by  1°.  Hence  the 
surface  is  only  about  ^th  of  1°  Fahr.  warmer  at  present  than  it 
would  be  if  there  were  no  supply  of  heat  from  within. 

Tlie  following  Donatiooa  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science  and  Art,    No.  49,  8vo. 

—From  the  Canadian  ImtituU. 
De  rOrigine  dea  lacs  Suisses,  par  M.  B.  Studer.     8vo. — From  (Ae 

Author. 
Froceedinge  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society.    Vol.  VIII.    No. 

2.    8vo.— jFVom  Ote  Sociely. 

*  TranB.  B.8  Jl.,  April  1862,  "  On  the  Secular  Cooling  of  the  Earth,"  (  IB. 


DvGooglc 


202  Proceedings  o/ the  Royal  Society 

Journal  of  the  Cbemical  Society.     March  1864.    8vo.— from  ihe 

Soeieltf. 
Monthly  Betiim  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Kairiages  registered  id 

the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland,  &c.     February  1864. 

8 TO. — From  the  Begitlrar-Oeneral, 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society.    Vol.  XXIV. 

No.  4,     Bto. — From  tlte  Society. 
Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  Grfeigraphio.     CinquiSme  S^riS.     Tome  VI. 

8vo. — From  Ike  Society. 
SitzuDgsbericlite  der  kiinig.  bayer.  Akademie  der  Wisaenscbaften 

zu  MiincheD.     II.     Heft  V,     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Memoires  de  TAoad^mie  des  Sciences  de  I'lnstitut  Imperial  de 

France.     Tome  XXVI.     4to. — From  Ike  Academy. 
Extraits  de  Gfiologie  pour  I'annfo  1861,     8to.— From  M.  Delete, 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.    Vol,  IV.    Maich 

1864.     Svo.—From  the  Society. 


Monday,  4fA  April  1864. 

Fbofbssor  INNES.  Vice-PreBident,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  counDunicatioDB  were  read  : — 

I.  Od  the  Celtic  Languages  in  their  Relation  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  Teutonic  Dialects.    By  W.  P.  Skene,  Eaq. 

(Tkit  paper  uxu  given  at  the  request  of  the  Covneil.') 
Mr  Skene  in  bis  paper  gave  a  sketch  of  the  various  views  which 
bad  been  entertained  regarding  the  Celtic  languages,  and  advocated 
the  opinion  that  these  languages  belonged  properly  to  the  Indo- 
European  class.  He  gave  an  outline  of  the  distinctive  peculiarities 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  Celtic  languages,  the  Welsh  and  the 
Claelic,  and  discussed  the  leading  theories  regarding  the  lost  Pictish 
language,  only  five  words  of  which  were  now  extant.  Mr  Skene 
had,  as  the  result  of  his  investigations,  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  Pictish  language  occupied  a  place  between  the  Welsh  and 
the  Gaelic — that  it  was  a  Gaelic  dialect  partaking  largely  of  Welsh 
forms. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64. 


2.  On  the  Proteotion  of  Vegetation  from  Destructive  Cold 
every  night.    By  Professor  W.  Thomson. 

The  effect  of  dew  in  protecting  vegetation  every  clear  etill  night 
of  eummet  was  long  ago  pointeil  out  by  Dr  Wells  j  the  coirectnese 
and  acutenesa  of  whose  viewa  on  this  subject  have  been  generally 
recognised.  The  hypothesis  recently  put  forth  by  Dr  Tyndall,  that 
absorption  of  radiant  heat  by  aqueous  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  is 
an  effective  defence  against  destructive  degrees  of  cold,  and  the 
ready  acceptance  yielded  to  it  by  some  of  our  highest  authorities 
in  the  popular  promulgation  of  the  truths  of  science,  seem  to 
render  it  necessary  to  recall  attention  to  Dr  Wells'  admirable  work. 
In  the  first  place,  when  Dr  Tyndall  announces,  as  a  result  of  his 
esperiments  on  radiant  heat,  that,  "  It  is  perfectly  certain  that 
more  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  terrestrial  radiation  from  the  soil  of 
England  is  stopped  within  10  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  soil,"  by 
the  absorption  it  suffers  from  aqueous  vapour ;  it  must  be  remarked 
that  this  absorption  cannot  go  on  at  the  same  rate  through  any 
great  thickness  of  ait.  For  at  the  same  rate  half  the  radiant  beat 
would  be  absorbed  in  70  feet^  j  in  140  feet;  J  in  210  feet,  and  so 
on,  which  is  inconsistent  with  known  facts;  as,  for  iustance,  the 
influence  of  clouds  on  terrestrial  radiation.  Hence  the  quality  of 
rays  which  passes  through  the  lowest  10  feet  of  air  suffers  loss  than 
ten  per  cent,  of  absorption  in  the  next  10  feet;  and  it  is  quite 
certain  that  after  passing  through  several  times  10  feet  of  air,  the 
radiant  heat  must,  by  having  been  deprived  of  the  part  of  it  liable 
to  absorption  by  aqueous  vapour,  be  in  a  condition  in  which  not 
one  per  cent,  is  absorbed  from  it  in  its  passage  through  10  feet  of 
clear  air.  Whatever  influence  true  vapour  of  water  really  does 
exercise  in  checking,  by  its  absorption,  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation 
from  the  earth's  surface,  it  is,  even  in  the  most  humid  conditions  of 
optically  clear  atmosphere,  insufficient  to  prevent  heavy  dews ;  far 
less  than  the  latent  beat  of  which,  taken  from  the  blades  of  grass, 
or  other  finer  parte  of  plants,  would  leave  them  destroyed  by  frost. 
In  point  of  fact,  therefore,  beat  aclually  it  radiated  away  into 
v?ry  high  terrestrial  atmosphere  and  distant  iutemtellar  air  or 


DvGooglc 


204  Proceedinga  of  the  Soyal  Society 

eether,  from  the  upper  and  finer  parte  of  living  plants,  in  so  great 
amount  every  clear  night  of  Bummer,  that  destruction  bj  frost 
could  not  be  delayed  for  many  honrB  after  suaset  without  a  com- 
pensating supply  of  heat  from  some  extraneous  source.  This  source, 
ou  windy  nights,  is  the  thermal  capacity  of  the  air  whirled  about, 
up  and  down,  and  among  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  plants.  On 
still  nights  it  is  the  latent  heat  of  the  vapour  condensed  into  dew. 
This  vapour  is  taken  chiefly  from  the  air  engaged  among  the  stems 
and  leaves,  which,  in  the  case  at  least  of  fine  grass,  is  all  nearly 
at  the  same  temperature  as  the  leaves;  the  temperature  of  the 
surface  of  these  beiug  of  course  rigorously  the  same  as  that  of  the 
air  in  contact.  Thus  the  temperature  of  the  leaves  can  never  go 
beU>w  the  deto-poirU  of  the  air  touching  them,  and  any  cooling 
which  they  experience  after  dew  begins  to  de[>osit  upon  them  is 
only  equal  to  the  lowering  of  the  dew-point,  occasioned  by  the 
amount  of  drying  experienced  by  the  air  in  consequence  of  the 
condensation  of  vapour  out  of  it. 

Clouds,  as  remarked  first  by  Prevost,  being  practically  opaque, 
prevent  the  surface  of  the  earth  from  tending  by  radiation  to  a 
lower  temperature  than  their  own,  which,  unless  they  are  very 
high,  is  generally  not  much  colder  than  the  dew-point  of  the  lower 
air,  but  is  at  all  events  in  general  sufficiently  warm  to  prevent  the 
finest  blades  of  grass  from  acquiring  any  very  sensible  dew,  or  to 
allow  the  general  temperature  of  grass  and  the  air  engaged  among 
it,  even  on  the  stillest  night,  to  sink  as  low  as  the  dew-point. 
Thus,  either  clouds,  by  their  counter- radiation,  or  wind,  by  mixing 
a  comparatively  thick  stratum  of  air  with  that  next  the  earth,  keep 
the  glass  and  delicate  parts  of  other  plants  from  sinking  to  the 
dew-point ;  or,  when  there  is  not  enough  of  clouds  and  wind  to 
afford  this  degree  of  protection,  dew  begins  to  form,  and  by 
preventing  the  temperature  of  any  leaf  or  flower  from  sinking 
below  the  dew-point,  saves  them  all  from  deatructioa,  unless,  as 
when  boar-frost  appears,  the  dew-point  itself  is  below  the  freeziug 
point. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  205 

The  following  DonatioDS  to  the  Lihrar;  were  laid  on  the 
Table  :— 

Catalogue  of  the  Advocates  Library.    Part  I.    A — AZZ.    4to. — 

From  the  Librarian. 
CenBUB  of  Scotland,    Population  Tables  and  Report  1861.    Vols.  L 

and  II.,  folio. — From  the  Rtgittrar-Oeneral. 
Annual  Detailed  Beports  of  tbe  Births,  DeathSj  and  Harriages  in 

Scotland,     Vols,  I.-V.     8vo. — From  the  tarM. 
The  Battle  of  the  Standards,  the  Ancient  of  four  thousand  years 

against  the  Modem  of  tbe  laat  fifty  years — the  less  perfect  of 

the  two.     By  John  Taylor,  Esq.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Dana  on  the  Classification  of  Animals  on  the  Principle  of  Cepha- 

lization,  &c.     8to. — From  the  Author. 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society.    March  1861.    Svo.—From  the 

SodHy. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,   2.6.3.1.   4to. — 

From  Dr  Oldham. 
Turgan,  Les  Grandes  Uaines  de  France,  P^pinittres  d'Andid  Leroy 

&  Angers.     Svo. — From  the  AiUhtv. 
Premium  Beport  on  tbe  Progress  of  tbe  more  recently  introduced 

Coniferae.   By  Bobort  Hutchison,  Esq.    8vo.— /Vom  the  Author. 
Beale  Institute  Lombardo  di  Scienze  e  Lettere,    Bendiconti :  Classe 

di  Scienzo  Matematiche  e  Naturali.    Yolume  I.    Ease.  I.  e 

II.    Gennaio — Febbraio.    8vo. — FVom  the  Inttitute. 
Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  1863.    8vo. — From  Lord  Monck. 
Proceedings  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society.    Vol.  II.    No. 

10.     8vo. — From  the  Soeiett/. 
Bicerche  Storiche  sulla  legatura  delle  Vene  e  delle  Arterie  da  Celso 

a  Dionia  per  Giuseppe  Lougo  da  Oaearano.     8vo. — From  the 

The  Shorter  Catechism  with  proofs,  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac.  By  the 
Bev.  H.  S.  M'Zee,  D.D.,  LL.I>.  Killimane.  24m6.  1864.— 
From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 


Monday,  18/A  April  1864. 
Sir  DAVID  BKEWSTER,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

Id  presentJDg  the  Keith  Medal  to  ProfesBor  William  Thohson 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  Sir  David  Briwstek  made  the  follow- 
ing remarks : — 

It  is  now  nearly  half  a  centniy  since  the  late  Ur  Keith,  of 
DunottoT,  intimated  to  me  his  intention  to  hcqueath  L.IOOO  for 
the  promotion  of  Science  in  Scotland,  and  to  appoint  me  one  of  the 
Troateea  for  the  administration  of  the  Fund.  I  cheerfully  accepted 
the  trust,  and  pointed  out  to  Mr  Keith  the  manner  in  which  the 
fund  might  be  most  ai] vantage ously  employed. 

In  conformity  with  this  plan,  the  sum  of  L.600  was  presented  to 
the  Royal  Society,  "  to  form  a  biennial  prize  for  the  moat  important 
discovery  in  Science  made  in  any  part  of  the  world,  but  communi- 
cated by  its  author  to  the  Society,  and  published  in  its  Transac- 
tions." The  rest  of  the  Fund,  which  had  increased  consider- 
ably, was  subsequently  presented  to  the  two  Societies  in  Edin- 
burgh, which  had  been  institnted  for  the  promotion  of  the  Fine  and 
the  Usefnl  arts. 

Agreeably  to  the  regulations  adopted  by  the  Council,  the  Keith 
Prize  for  1862  and  1863  fell  to  be  allotted  to  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  Physical  Science,  made  during  these  two  years.  In 
deciding  upon  its  adjudication,  the  task  of  the  Council  was  as  easy 
as  it  was  agreeable.  Professor  William  Thomson,  who  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  1847,  had,  during  the  last  seventeen 
years,  communicated  many  valuable  papers  to  the  Society,  which 
added  greatly  to  the  value  of  its  Transactions.  These  papers,  and 
others  elsewhere  published,  relate  principally  to  the  Theories  of 
Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Heat,  and  evince  a  genius  for  the 
mathematical  treatment  of  physical  questions,  which  has  not  been 
surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  that  of  any  living  phUosopher. 

In  studying  the  mathematical  theory  of  Electricity,  he  greatly 
extended  the  general  theorems  demonstrated  by  onr  distinguished 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  186a-64.  207 

conntryroan,  Mr  Gieen,  and  waa  led  to  the  principle  of  "  EUelrical 
Imaget,"  by  which  he  waa  enabled  to  solve  many  prohlema  respect- 
ing the  distribution  of  electricity  on  condnctors,  which  had  been 
regarded  as  alrooet  hopeless  by  the  most  eminent  mathematicians 
in  Europe. 

In  his  researches  on  Thermo- dynamics,  Profeesor  Thomson  haa 
been  equally  successful.  In  his  paper  "  On  the  Dynamical  Theory 
of  Heat,"  published  in  our  Transactions  for  1851,  he  has  applied 
the  fundamental  propoaitiouB  of  the  theory  to  bodies  of  all  kinds, 
and  has  deduced  many  curious  and  important  reaults  regarding  the 
specific  heats  of  bodies,  which  have  been  completely  verified  by  the 
accurate  experiments  of  Mr  Joule. 

No  lees  important  are  Professor  Thomson's  reeeatohes  on  Solar 
Heat,  contained  in  his  remarkable  paper  "  On  the  Mechanical  Energy 
of  the  Solar  System ;"  his  researches  on  the  Conseryation  of  Energy 
Bs  applied  to  organic  as  well  aa  inorganic  processes ;  and  his  fine 
thooiyof  the  Dissipation  of  Energy,  as  given  in  his  paper  "On  a  Uni- 
versal Tendency  in  Nature  to  tlie  Dissipation  of  Mechanical  Energy." 
To  these  we  mayadd  his  complete  Theory  of  DJamagnettc  Action,  and 
his  investigations  relative  to  the  Secular  Cooling  of  onr  Crlohe,  and 
the  influence  of  Internal  Heat  upon  the  temperature  of  its  surface. 

The  value  of  labours  like  these  could  not  escape  the  notice  of 
the  Council  of  this  Society,  and  they  would  have  entitled  their 
author  to  the  Eeith  Prize,  had  they  not  been  presented  to  the 
Society  when  the  Prize  was  devoted  to  other  branches  of  Science. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  for  these  researches  and  discoveries  that  the 
Keith  Medal  has  been  awarded  to  Professor  Thomson,  but  for  the 
very  interesting  and  important  discovery,  in  Abstract  Dynamioe, 
which  he  has  communicatedtothe  Society  during  the  biennial  period 
appropriated  to  Physical  Science. 

By  the  previous  researches  of  Euler,  Lagrange,  Delannay,  and 
Sertrand,  it  had  been  established  that  when  any  system  of  bodies, 
connected  by  any  invariable  kinematic  relations,  is  stnick  with 
impulses  of  any  kind,  the  kinetic  energy  thus  developed  is  a 
maximnm.  This  remarkable  principle  is  of  very  great  use  in  the 
investigation  of  certain  complex  dynamical  problems,  but  in  many 
important  cases  it  is  inapplicable.  In  the  motion,  for  example,  of 
an  incompressible  liquid,  contained  in  a  vessel  whose  form  is  suddenly 

VOL.  V.  2  b 


DvGooglc 


208  Proceedinga  o/  the  Soyal  Society 

altered,  it  is  not  the  impulse  on  the  liqnid  which  is  given,  but  de- 
finite kioematic  lelatioDS  are  laid  down  to  vhich  the  impnleive 
motion  must  be  subject.  In  snoh  a  case,  Profeeeoi  Thomson  has 
shown  that  the  kinetio  energy  which  has  been  thus  generated  is 
a  minimum  ;  and  it  is  for  this  theorem  that  the  Prize  has  been 
awarded, — a  theorem  which  not  only  affords  a  direct  and  simple 
mode  of  dealing  with  questions  of  more  than  ordinary  difQculty, 
but  which  is  itaelf  an  extremely  singular  and  valoable  property  of 
Motion. 

The  rssearobes  of  Frofeaeot  Thomson,  to  which  we  have  referred, 
are  of  too  recondite  a  nature  to  be  generally  appreciated.  The  re- 
suite  of  abstract  Science  have  ever  failed  tu  excite  the  notice,  or 
call  forth  the  gratitude,  of  the  State.  The  question  of  practical 
use — the  cui  bono  of  ignorance — is  put  svery  day  by  educated  men 
in  high  ami  responsible  positionH,  to  whom  are  confided  the  mightiest 
interests  of  the  nation.  History  and  experience  might  have  taught 
them,  had  they  been  capable  of  learning,  that  abstract  Science  is 
the  life  and  soul  of  Industry,  and  that  its  successful  cultivator!  are 
the  true  benefactors,  not  of  their  country  only,  but  of  their  species. 
The  discoveries  of  our  eminent  colleague,  and  even  the  very  abstract 
property  of  motion,  to  which  we  have  attached  so  special  a  value, 
must,  like  all  similar  revelations,  find  invaluable  applications  to  the 
material  interests  of  society. 

I  should  be  doing  injustice,  however,  to  Professor  Thomson  wer« 
I  to  characterise  his  researehes  as  wholly  abstract  and  transcen- 
dental. The  important  conclusions  which  he  obtained  from  the 
Theory  of  Induction  in  submarine  Telegraphs,  have  found  a  valu- 
able practical  application  in  the  Patent  Instruments  for  reading 
and  receiving  messages,  which  he  so  successfully  employed  on  the 
submarine  cable  across  the  Atlantic ;  and  when  that  great  work  is 
completed,  his  name  will  be  associated  with  the  noblest  gift  that 
Science  ever  offered  to  Civilisation.  By  his  delicate  ISectrometers, 
his  Electric  Spark  Becorder,  and  his  Marine  and  Land  Beflection 
dalvanometera,  he  has  provided  the  world  of  thought  with  the 
finest  instruments  of  observation  and  research  ;  and  the  world  of 
action  with  the  means  of  carrying  the  messages  of  commerce  and 
civilisation  which  have  yet  to  cross  the  nncahled  oceans  that  sepa- 
rate  the  families  of  Uie  earth. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1863-64.  209 

EDtertaining  theaa  views  or  the  servioefl  which  my  dietinguifihed 
friend  has  peifoimed  to  Science  and  the  Arte,  I  have  much  pleasure 
in  expressing  the  same  sentiments  on  the  part  of  the  Society,  and 
in  being  their  organ  in  delivering  to  him  the  Prize  which  be  haa  ho 
justly  merited. 

In  discharging  this  duty,  I  am  proud  to  think,  and  I  am  sure 
that  all  here  will  participate  in  the  sentiment,  that  Scottish  Science 
has  such  a  representative  in  the  University  of  the  West,  while,  in 
QUI  own,  it  has  one  of  kindred  genius  and  power. 

Professor  Thomson,  I  now  beg  to  present  to  you  the  Eeith  Medal, 
and  to  congratulate  you  on  the  honour  which  you  have  so  justly 
deserved. 

1.  On  Vital  Agenoy  ^th  reference  to  tbe  Correlation  of 

Forces.    By  William  Seller,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Fellow  of  the 

Royal  College  of  Physiciane  of  Edinburgh. 

In  this  paper  there  is  presented  a  series  of  charactenatic  examples 
of  vital  agency,  followed  by  some  considerations  bearing  on  the 
extent  to  which,  in  a  physiological  point  of  view,  it  can  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  physical  forces,  under  exchangeable  forms,  ue 
concerned  in  organic  phenomena.  At  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
particular  objects  of  inijuiry  is,  whether  there  be  ground  for  the 
belief  that  vital  agency,  being  not  a  force  but  a  directive  principle, 
may  accomplish  all  the  parts  assigned  to  it,  solely  by  means  of 
the  physical  forces  variously  modified  through  organic  structure. 

It  is  laid  down  among  the  preliminaries,  that  no  foots  bitJierto 
discovered  bring  the  origin  of  organic  life  within  the  pale  of  in- 
ductive  inquiry;  that  the  transmutation  of  species  by  natural 
selection,  though  a  brilliant  conception,  holds  as  yet  no  foundation 
of  an  inductive  character  ;  that  it  remains  therefore  a  fundamental 
fact  in  physiology,  admitting  of  no  explanation,  that  all  species 
have  their  commencement  in  original  parentage ;  and  further,  that 
it  is  thence  correct  in  principle  to  maintain  that  all  the  multiplied 
phenomena  in  the  life  of  a  species,  of  whatever  extent,  derive  their 
source  from  the  poteutiidity  of  the  reproductive  cells  in  the  pri- 
mordial parent  or  parents  of  that  species. 

It  is  also  taken  for  granted  that  such  a  directive  priitclplc,  as 


DvGooglc 


210  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

that  already  indicated,  muat  act  through  the  organism  and  the 
orgaoio  floids  which  take  their  first  origin  in  this  manner. 

The  character  of  nutrition  thionghont  organic  nature  is  then 
dwelt  OD,  with  the  purpose  of  showing  that  it  is  everywhere  under 
the  control  of  more  or  less  perfect  organic  (physiological)  atoms ; 
that  CTsn  reproduction  of  species  is  nutrition  of  a  more  special 
kind,  the  oiganio  atoms  supplied  by  each  sex  being  thrown  off  only 
when  the  individual  or  individnala  whence  tbey  are  derived  have 
attained  a  very  perfect  maturity. 

The  mainteaance  of  heat  in  organic  bodies,  and  particularly  in 
animals  of  perfect  type,  is  next  pointed  out  as  probably  indicating 
the  true  nature  of  the  connection  between  vital  agency  and  the 
physical  forcea,  since  in  every  case  the  higher  temperature  has  a 
purely  physical  source,  while  it  is  nev^theless  under  the  control 
of  vital  agency. 

A  rapid  view  is  next  taken  of  acts  of  relation  in  the  animal 
,world,  as  more  immediately  proving  the  necessity  for  a  directive 
principle  to  explain,  in  any  degree,  the  reference  of  euch  acts  to 
physical  forces. 

Finally,  the  interference  of  a  directive  principle  is  represented 
as  essential  to  show  wby  vital  agency  at  last  pats  a  limit  to  its  own 
operations,  even  when  the  material  supplied  its  in  abundance,  first 
building  up  the  springs  of  growth  and  limiting  the  size  of  each 
individual  over  which  it  presideH,  in  accordance  with  the  rule  of 
the  species ;  next  building  up  the  springs  of  reproduction  earlier  in 
the  one  sex  than  in  the  other ;  and,  lastly,  building  up  the  springs 
of  life  itself,  and  terminating  the  career  of  its  own  individual 
existence  in  a  manner  even  less  intelligible  to  finite  under- 
standings than  any  of  the  most  wonderful  of  its  acts  of  workman- 
ship in  the  greatest  vigour  of  its  power. 

A  few  passages  are  then  devoted  to  the  exhibition  of  views  taken 
by  Carpenter,  Leoonte,  also  by  Thomson  and  Tait,  in  speaking  of 
organic  phenomena  with  reference  to  the  correlation  of  phyeioal 
forces  or  to  the  conservation  of  energy. 

AtBnity  and  aggregation  are  next  reviewed  at  some  length,  with 
the  view  of  showing  that  there  ia  no  essential  difference  between 
affinity  in  inorganic  nature  and  Ihat  affinity  which  builds  up  and 
repairs  organic  structures  when  the  agency  of  a  directive  principle 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  211 

is  admitted  ;  that  that  directive  piinciple  operates  through  organic 
stmcture  and  the  piotoplaema  in  vegetalile  bodies,  both  of  which 
owe  their  origin  in  unvaried  Bucceesion  to  the  original  parents  of 
the  species ;  that  all  organic  structure  at  present  in  existence  may 
be  traced  back  to  the  state  of  vegetable  protoplasma;  that  the 
protopluma  in  the  cells  of  the  green  parts  of  plants  becomes  aug- 
mented by  the  assimilation  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  particular, 
derived  from  the  carbonic  acid  and  water  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
that  this  operation  is  purely  chemical,  aided  by  the  merely  physical 
agency  of  light ;  that  the  presence  of  water  in  so  large  proportion 
thronghout  the  living  solids,  pervading  their  atoms  and  ioteTstioes 
like  an  almost  incompressible  atmosphere,  accounts  for  many  of 
the  pecnliatities  of  organic  af&nity,  and  among  others  for  the 
apparent  antagonism  between  the  attraction  which  holds  together 
the  living  solids  and  that  which,  on  the  failure  of  vital  action,  so 
quickly  reduces  them  to  the  state  of  purely  mineral  matter — the  case 
being  exactly  parallel  to  that  of  water  cont^ning  salts  io  dilute 
solution,  the  concentration  of  which  is  followed  by  the  precipitation 
of  such  insoluble  salts  as  can  arise  out  of  the  constituents  of  the 
ealta  originally  dissolved  in  the  fluid — finally,  that  the  beat  which 
attends  the  exercise  of  snch  affinities  as  produce  water  and  carbonic 
acid  is  due  to  the  rapid  movement  of  the  strongly  attracted  atoms, 
that  being  to  a  far  greater  degree  than  in  the  exercise  of  the 
organic  afOnitJes. 

It  is  next  considered  how  far  electricity  is  to  be  regarded  as  con- 
cerned under  a  directive  principle  in  the  phenomena  of  life,  and 
particularly  in  the  exertion  of  animal  power. 

The  facts  ascertained  with  respect  to  electrical  fishes  are  pointed 
to  as  sufScient  proof,  that  animals  nourished  and  constituted  like 
vertehrated  animals  can  generate  a  great  amount  of  electrical  force, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  electrical  fishes  being  in  fact  inconsider* 
able,  when  compared  with  the  effects  produced.  It  is  further  noticed, 
that  the  general  result  of  the  many  experiments  made  by  recent 
electro-physiologists  is  to  show,  that  during  life,  hardly  any  two 
parts  of  the  animal  body  are  in  electric  equilibrium.  From  all  which, 
and  many  other  facts,  there  appears  to  be  nothing  improbable  in 
tbe  idea  that  electricity  is  an  active  agent  in  the  phenomena  of  life, 
more  especially  in  those  of  the  nervous  apparatus  and  the  muscular 


^aovGoOglc 


212  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

s;at«m.  Sfoieover,  from  what  appears  to  be  the  fact,  that  electricity 
is  develcf«d  along  with  beat  in  the  eremacausiB  oi  organic  decom- 
poeition  nnder  the  influence  af  oxygen  attendant  on  the  occurrence 
of  vital  phenomena,  while  the  living  body  esiets  in  each  a  non- 
conducting medium  as  air;  the  uneolved  question  already  pieBents 
itself — What  becomes  of  that  electricity  ?  At  the  same  time,  how- 
ever, it  is  acknowledged,  that  as  respects  physiology,  electricity  is 
full  of  promise  rather  than  of  actual  reeults.  It  is  shown  that  the 
namerons,  and,  in  some  respects,  contradictory  ezperimentB  of  Da 
Bois  Reymond  and  Matteucci,  prove  that  electricity  exists  in  living 
bodies,  but  do  not  conclusively  indicate  what  it  does  or  can  perform. 

The  question  of  most  immediate  intereet  at  present  in  conneo- 
tion  with  the  correlation  of  physical  forces,  is  whether  electricity 
or  heat,  ot  partly  the  one,  partly  the  other,  be  tbe  representative  of 
animal  power  in  muscular  exertion. 

If  vital  agency  be  assumed  to  he  not  a  force — that  is,  not  an  im- 
mediate source  of  motion — but  only  a  directive  principle  analc^ua 
to  man's  intelligence  when  it  compels  the  properties  of  bodies  and 
tbe  laws  of  nature  to  minister  to  tbe  fulfilment  of  ends  sug- 
gested to  him  by  bis  appetites,  desires,  and  capacities  of  enjoyment, 
then,  to  avoid  the  alternative  of  representing  force  as  springing  ont 
of  nothing,  animal  force,  as  manifested  in  muscular  action,  must  be 
considered  as  metamorphosed  from  affinity,  electricity,  or  heat.  In 
continuance,  a  muscle  can  be  conceived  to  be  so  built  up  by  affinities, 
as  tbat  it  sball,  under  certain  conditions,  shorten  itself  and  produce 
a  mechanical  effect ;  but  such  an  effect  can  take  place  in  this  man- 
ner only  once — to  ccntract  again  and  again  in  quick  succession 
by  the  expenditure  of  affinity,  it  would  require  to  l>e  rebuilt  after 
each  contraction,  which  seems  next  to  impossible.  A  muscle,  there- 
fore, after  one  contraction,  is  in  the  same  predicament  as  a  weight 
that  bas  fallen  from  a  height  to  the  ground,  wbicb,  to  produce  the 
same  effect  a  second  time,  must  be  raised  to  the  same  elevation  as 
before.  Is  it,  then,  electricity,  or  beat,  or  partly  tbe  one  partly  the 
other,  which  produces  tbe  renovating  effect  on  the  muscle  7  One  of 
the  illustrations  on  this  point  is  tbe  following : — Some  physiologists 
regard  a  muscle  as  being  in  its  natural  or  spontaneous  state  when 
in  complete  contraction,  believing,  that  when  tbe  body  is  at  rest, 
the  molecular  structure  of  the  muscle  is  kept  by  some  kind  of  force 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semon  1863-64.  213 

in  a  Ep«cieB  of  con etnint— that  od  tbe  discharge  of  this  foKe  tbe 
muBCular  fibril  contraots,  and  tbat  the  constraiiiiDg  foice  is  immedi- 
ately renewed.  It  has  been  Bupposed  tbat  the  force  here  operative 
is  heat,  jet  electricity  seems  better  fitted  for  the  purpose.  In 
snpport  of  this  view  ie  cited  tbe  analogy,  indicated  by  some  autbo- 
ritiee,  between  the  stmctore  of  tbe  muscular  system  and  tbal  of  the 
electric  organs  in  the  gymnotns  SBd  torpedo. 

If  such  a  view,  under  whatever  modification,  be  rejected,  heat  must 
be  resorted  to  aa  the  source  of  animal  power. 

To  prove  beat  to  be  tbe  source  of  animal  power,  it  must  be  shown 
tbat  tbe  products  of  eremacansis,  nnder  forcible  muscular  exertion,  , 
both  account  for  tbe  whole  temperature  manifested  in  the  mean- 
time, and  leave  a  surplus  sufficient  to  be  metamorphosed  into  the 
calculated  equivalent  of  the  mechanical  efi'ect  produced  by  the 
entire  amount  of  that  exertion. 

Chemists  pronounce  that  the  amount  of  heat  in  tbe  combustion 
of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  whether  slow  or  rapid,  is  exactly  propor- 
tjoned  to  the  products  iu  water  and  carbonic  acid ;  neverthelese,  it 
may  be  doubted  if  two  circumstances  have  b^en  taken  into  account 
in  their  estimate  as  respects  the  living  body,  viz.,  the  disturbance 
of  electric  equilibrium  iu  such  combustion,  and  the  reciprocal  con- 
vertibility of  heat  aud  electricity,  so  tbat  it  may  turn  out  that,  with 
the  same  amount  of  material  products,  there  may  be  room  for  a 
reciprocal  variation  in  the  proportions  of  these  forces  developed. 

Whence,  though  tbe  product  in  carbonic  acid  and  water  be  in 
exact  proportion  to  a  given  exertion  of  animal  power,  the  question 
appears  to  be  still  unsolved,  Whether  heat,  or  electricity,  or  both 
jointly,  represent  the  equivalent  of  mechanical  force  put  forth  in 
such  exertions. 

2.  On  Sue  Spots,  and  their  connection  with  Planetary  Con- 
figurations. By  Balfour  Stewart,  Esq.  Comrounicated  by 
Professor  Tait. 

The  author  was  led  to  examine  the  sun  pictures  taken  by  the 
Kew  Photoheliograph,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  if  any  con- 
nection exists  between  the  behaviour  of  sun  spots  and  planetary 
configurations. 


DvGooglc 


214  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

It  wat!  found,  tliat  when  any  portion  of  the  snn'a  disc  recedes  b; 
virtae  of  rotation  from  the  neighbonihood  of  Tenne,  it  acquires  a 
tendency  to  break  out  into  spota,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
each  approaches  Tenns,  there  is  a  tendeocy  towards  the  healing  np 
of  spots.  Carrington's  obBerrations  were  then  discuBsed,  which  seem 
to  show  that,  on  the  whole,  the  snn's  surface  is  fullest  of  spots  when 
Jupiter  is  furthest  from  our  luminary,  and  freest  from  spots  when 
he  is  nearest.  This  action  of  Jupiter  is  not,  however,  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  rotation  of  onr  Inminary,  perhaps  because  the  snn's 
diameter  is  small  compared  with  the  distance  of  that  planet.  The 
mode  of  action  of  Venus  and  Jupiter  may  hoth  be  expressed  by  the 
following  law: — "  When  the  Bun's  disc,  or  part  of  it,  approaches  a 
planet,  or  when  a  planet  approaches  the  sun's  diee,  there  ia  an 
absence  of  spots,  or  a  tendency  to  luminosity  produced." 

It  was  then  shown  that  this  law  was  sufficient  to  explain  the 
phenomena  of  Tariable  and  of  temporary  stars ;  and,  in  conjunction 
with  Professor  Tait,  the  author  BUggested  that  it  might  be  aaalogouB 
to  that  in  virtue  of  which  two  atoms  rushing  together  give  rise  to 
radiant  light  and  heat. 

3.  Biographical  Sketch  of  Adam  Ferguson,  LL.D.,  F.R.aE., 
Profeeeor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  Univereity  of  Edin- 
burgh. By  John  Small,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Librarian  to  the 
TJniveraity  of  Edinburgh.  Communicated  by  Professor 
Fraser. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  anoounced ; 

Almanaqne  Nfintico  para  1865,  Calculado  de  €rden  de  S.M;.,  en  el 

Ofaservatorio  de  Carina  de  la  Cindad  de  San  Fernando,  8vo. 

From  the  San  Fernando  Obtervaiory. 
Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Linnean  Society.     Vol  VU., 

No.  28.    Bvo.—From  t}ie  Society. 
Monthly  ^tum  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Carriages  roistered  in 

the  Eight  principal  Towns  of  Scotland — March  1864.    Sto— 

Frvm  the  Btgiitrar-General. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.    April  1864.    Svo. — From  the 

Soeieli/, 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  21S 

Uontbly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Aatrononucal  Society.   VoL  XZIV. 

No.  5.     870. — From  fA«  Soeietj/. 
Proceedings  of  tbe  Royal  HoTticultarftl  Society.    Vol.  TV.  No.  6, 

8vo. — From  the  SociHy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society.    Vol.  XIII.  No.  62.    8vo.— 

From  ihe  Soei^. 
On  the  Vertebioid  Homologies  of  tbe  Cranium  in  Vertebralia  or 

Osteozoa,  and  tbe  Analogons  Homologies  of  the  Annulozoa  or 

Artiealata.   By  William  Maodonald,  UJ).,  F3.3.E.,  &c.    8to. 

— From  (Ae  Author. 

Monday,  2d  May  1864. 

PBOFKSSOB  LYON  PLATFAIR  in  the  Chair. 

Some  of  (he  f {Mowing  GommunicciMons  were  read  \ — 

1.  tJnpubliBhed  Letter  of  the  late  Professor  Dagald  Stewart.  ■ 

Transmitted  by  John  Small,  M.A.,  Librarian  to  the  TJni- 

Tereity.     Communicated  by  the  Kev.  Dr  Stevenson. 

The  letter  which  Mr  Small  has  sent  to  the  Boyal  Society,  and 

which,  at  the  request  of  the  Council,  I  have  the  honoor  of  bringing 

under  the  notice  of  the  meeting,  was  acquired  hy  the  University 

in  1861,  at  the  sale  of  the  US3.  of  the  late  Very  Bev.  PHnoipal 

Lee.    It  is  hy  no  means  destitute  of  historical  importance,  though 

its  main  value  for  us  may  rest  on  the  consideration  that  it  was 

written  directly  from  the  scene  of  the  convulsion  which  it  describes, 

by  Professor  Dugald  Stewart  to  the  Bereiend  Archibald  Alison. 

As  a  zealous  student  of  political  philosophy,  Mr  Stewart  took  a 

lively  interest  in  the  early  stages  of  the  French  Revolution,    He 

accordingly  visited  Paris  both  in  1788  and  in  1789;  and  while 

there  he  maintained  an  active  correspondence  on  tbe  subject  which 

engrossed  him,  with  his  fnend  Mr  Alison.    Of  this  correspondence 

'five  letters,  unconnected  with  one  another,  have  been  printed  in 

the  Appendix  to  Fiofesaor  Veitcb's  Memoir,  which  forms  tbe  first 

article  in  the  tenth  volume  of  Stewart's  collected  works.    These 

five  are  dated,  27th  August  1788,  10th  May  1789,  30th  May  and 

tih  June  1789,  27tb  June  1789,  and  17tb  September  1789. 


DvGooglc 


216  Proceedings  oftke  Royal  Society 

The  letter  now  brought  to  light  by  Mr  Small,  the  most  iuterest- 
ing  of  tbe  seriee,  ho  far  as  it  ib  kn^own  to  have  been  preBeired,  i« 
dated  2d  July  1789,  and  is  distinctly  connected  with  that  already 
printed,  of  date  27th  June,  In  the  latter  the  writer  says : — "  My 
Dear  Arcby^I  had  begun  a  very  long  letter  for  you,  which  I  find 
I  cannot  possibly  get  ready  for  yon  till  next  post.  I  must  there- 
fore content  myself  at  present  with  mentioning  to  yon,  that  the 
day  before  yesterday,  i.e.  25th  June,  the  king  sent  a  letter  to  tbe 
clergy  and  noblesse,  desiring  them  by  every  consideration  of  regard 
for  bis  pereoD,  and  of  attachment  to  tbeir  country,  to  unite  them- 
selves instantly  with  tbe  Tiers  Etat,  which  they  did  that  very  day." 
That  the  document  now  before  us  is  the  "  very  long  letter"  thus 
referred  to,  becomes  obvious  from  tbe  facts,  that  it  takes  np  the 
narrative  of  events  at  the  22d  of  the  month,  and  that,  towards  the 
close,  it  mentions  the  union  of  tbe  clergy  and  noblesse  with  the 
Tiers  Etat,  in  nearly  the  precise  words  quoted  above. 

On  the  17tb  of  June,  the  Tieie  Etat  had  declared  tbemselvea  a 
"  National  Assembly,"  in  consequence  of  which  bold  step,  it  was 
determined  by  the  Court  party  to  close  the  hall  of  the  said  Tiers 
Etat  till  June  23.  On  tbe  20th,  proclamation  to  this  effect  was 
made  by  the  Herald- at- Arms ;  but  tbe  "  Assembly,"  excluded  from 
tbeir  own  hall,  met  in  the  Tennis-Court,  and  then  took  tbe  famous 
Tennis-Court  oath — with  only  one  dissentient.  On  the  22d,  no 
fewer  than  148  of  the  clergy  joined  tbe  Commons  or  Tiers  Etat, 
now  assuming  to  itself  tbe  unusual  name  and  the  boundless  powers 
of  "  L'Assemblfie  Katiouale."  On  tbe  next  day,  tbe  23d,  came  tbe 
Sconce  Royale,  according  to  previous  proclamation ;  and  here  the 
letter  of  Mr  Stewart  takes  up  the  narrative. 

"  Mt  Dxab  Akohv, — My  last  letter,  if  I  recollect  right,  was  dated 
on  Sunday,  2lBt  Jane,  at  which  time  everything  here  was  in  the 
utmost  confusion.  On  Monday  morning,  notice  was  given  in  Faiis 
that  the  Sianee  Soyale  would  not  take  place  till  Tuttday ;  and  in 
tbe  meantime  copies  were  distributed  of  a  letter  from  M.  Necker 
to  M.  De  Orosne  (who  has  the  charge  of  tbe  police  in  Paris),  tend- 
ing to  quiet  tbe  apprehensions  of  the  people  about  the  dissoluticm 
of  tbe  States  General,  and  assuring  them  that  tbe  E.  was  doing 
everything  in  his  power  to  conciliate  the  different  orders.     Oo 


DvGooglc 


of  Edmfmrgh,  Session  1863-64.  217 

Tuesday  forenoon  I  went  to  Teisaillee,  chiefly  from  a  desire  of 
getting  the  eorlieat  intelligence  of  the  result  (for  I  had  heard  before 
that  no  Btrangerg  were  to  be  admitted  into  the  ABsemblj),  and  I 
arrived  jnst  after  the  time  the  Stance  Eoyah  was  ended.  Every- 
bodj  seemed  to  be  in  the  greatest  consternation,  for  the  King  had 
gone  to  the  SaUt,  loithout  M,  Seeker,  accompanied  by  the  Garde  de* 
Seeaux  and  the  other  miniaterB.  The  noblesBe  had  retired  with  the 
King,  together  with  a  great  part  of  the  clergy ;  bnt  the  Deputies  of 
the  people  were  still  sitting,  althongli  the  K.  had  given  them  posi- 
tive orders  to  separate  immediately,  and  to  assemble  again  the  day 
fallowing.  At  that  time  everybody  believed  that  M.  Necker  was 
ont  of  office,  and  it  was  generally  supposed  that  the  Prince  of  Conti 
would  be  at  the  head  of  the  new  ministry. 

"  The  principal  objects  of  the  King's  speech  were,  to  annul  all 
the  arrdtea  of  the  Tiers  Etat,  from  the  time  that  they  had  constituted 
themselves  into  the  National  Assembly,  and  to  establish  the  mode 
of  voting  par  ordre,  agreeably  to  the  wishes  of  the  majority  of  the 
noblesse  and  a  great  party  among  the  clergy.  It  contains  likewise 
a  variety  of  most  important  concessiona  in  favour  of  the  people, 
which  I  have  not  time  to  mention  to  you  at  present,  and  concludes 
in  the  following  worda  (for,  unfortunately  for  Hia  Majesty,  the 
speech  was  immediately  printed)  :— 

" '  Yous  venez,  Messieurs,  d'entendre  le  resultat  de  mes  disposi- 
tions et  demos  vues  :  ellea  eont  conformes  an  vif  desir  qui  j'ai 
d'operer  le  bien  public ;  et  si  par  une  fatality  loin  de  ma  pense£, 
vous  m'abandonniez  dans  une  si  belle  entreprise  aenl  je  ferai  le 
bien  de  mes  peuples,  seul  je  me  consideral  comma  leur  veritable 
representant ;  et  connoissant  vos  cahiers,  connoissant  I'accord  parfait 
qui  exiete  entre  le  voeu  le  plus  general  de  la  nation  et  mes  intentions 
bien  faiaantes  j'aurai  toute  la  confiance  qui  doit  inepirer  une  si  rare 
harmonie,  et  je  mare?ierai  ven  le  but  nujueJ  je  veux  atUindre  avec 
tout  le  courage  et  la/ermeli  qu'H  doit  m'irupirer  I 

" '  fieflechissez,  Uessieurs,  qu'ancien  de  vos  piojets,  aucnne  de 
vos  dispoflilions,  ne  pent  avoir  force  de  loi  sans  mon  approbation 
epeciale.  Ainsi  je  snis  le  garant  naturel  de  nos  droits  respectife,  et 
tone  les  ordres  de  I'ftat  peuvent  se  leposer  sui  mon  equitable  impar- 
tiality. Toute  defiance  devotre  part  seroit  une  grande  injustice.  C'eat 
moi  jusqiJ'jL  present  qui  fait  tout  pour  le  bonheur  de  mes  peuples,  et 


DvGooglc 


218  Proceedings  of  the  Boycd  Society 

il  est  rare,  peutStre,  que  I'tiniqne  ambition  d'un  SonTenun  Boit  d'oh- 
tenir  de  see  Hujets;  qu'ita  a'entendeiit  enfin  pour  accepter  sea  bienfaits. 

"  '  Je  vouH  ordonne,  Ueeeieure,  de  toub  eeparer  tout  de  snite, 
et  de  vonB  reudre  demaiu  matin,  chaoun  daue  les  Chambrea  ap- 
pret^ee  a  votte  oidie,  pour  y  reprendre  vob  elances.  J'ordonne  ea 
coDBeqaeDCe  au  Grand  Uaitre  deB  CeTemoniea  de  fure  preparer  lea 
Bailee.' 

"  After  tbe  King  had  retired,  be  sent  two  separate  meesageB  to 
the  Deputiee  of  the  people  to  separate,  and  received  for  answer  that 
nothiDg  but  force  should  determine  them  to  leave  the  SaUe,  or  to 
interrupt  their  deliberations.  They  then  proceeded  to  pass  a  varioiy 
of  resolutions,  the  chief  of  which  were  to  persist  in  all  their  former 
arrStes,  and  to  continue  their  meetings  as  before,  under  the  title  of 
AmemhUe  Nationale. 

"  In  the  afternoon  a  great  crowd  assembled  before  the  ^>art- 
mente  of  M.  Neckei  (among  whom  were  some  hnndreds  of  the 
Deputies  of  the  people,  and  many  people  of  very  high  rank),  re- 
qiieating  him  not  to  abandon  them  at  bo  critical  a  juncture ;  and 
about  five  o'clock,  the  very  day  that  the  above  speech  wtu  pronoiuieed, 
he  received  a  message  from  the  King  and  Queen.  He  remained 
with  them  a  considerable  time,  and  at  last  came  out  and  told  the 
people  he  was  to  continue  in  office ;  for,  in  their  anxiety  to  know 
the  reBult,  an  immenae  crowd  had  forced  their  way  into  the  apart- 
ments of  the  palace.  He  made  an  attempt  to  return  to  his  own 
apartments  by  a  private  passage  from  the  King's  closet,  but  he  was 
forced  out  of  doors  by  the  people,  and,  I  am  told,  was  carried  home 
through  a  crowd  who  pressed  forward  to  kiss  his  clothes.  The 
same  evening  fireworks  were  thrown  before  bis  windows,  and,  it  is 
said,  continued  the  greater  part  of  the  night.  I  called  accidentally 
next  morning  on  a  gentleman,  who  was  in  U.  Necker's  apartment 
during  the  whole  of  the  buainesB.  It  is  supposed  that  this  very 
extraordinary  revolution,  which  took  place  so  suddenly  in  the  plans 
which  the  Sing  aeemed  to  have  formed  in  the  morning,  proceeded 
from  a  discovery  of  the  general  dispositions  of  the  army,  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  Guards. 

"  Nothing  of  much  consequence  took  place  at  Versailles  the 
three  following  days.  The  Deputies  of  the  people  continued  their 
Sianea,  under  the  title  of  AuenMie  Rationale,  and  those  of  the 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  219 

otbei  two  oidfiia  in  theii  own  chunbere.  Od  the  Wednesday 
(24th  June),  a  considerable  nnmber  of  the  noblessB,  who  had  been 
testrained  hitherto  by  the  instructiona  they  had  leceived  from  their 
oonatitaentfl,  decUied  their  resolution  to  unite  themselves  to  the 
National  Assembly,  and  the  day  following  abont  fifty  actually 
joined  the  Deputies  of  the  Commons.  Among  these  were  the  Dnke 
of  Orleans,  the  Comte  de  Montmorency,  the  Due  de  la  Bochefoucanlt, 
the  Due  d'Aiguillon,  the  Comte  de  Clermot  Tonerie,  and  a  nnmber 
besides  of  the  very  first  names  in  Fiance. 

"  Detpremenil,  and  some  others,  particnlarly  of  the  new  noblesse, 
were  still  blustering  in  their  own  chamber.  It  is  cnrions  that  Det- 
premenil,  who  was  a  TOturier,  and  who  has  not  yet  held  his  office  the 
complete  term  of  years  necessary  to  confer  nohleiM,  shonld  have 
been  on  thb  occasion  the  great  champion  of  his  order,  although  he 
was  frequently  reminded  of  the  history  of  his  family  by  some  of  his 
brethren,  in  terms  abundantly  humiliating.  Tt  is  said,  in  partionlar, 
that  the  Due  de  Liancourt  told  him  one  day,  in  the  Chamber  of  the  . 
Noblesse,—'  II  faut  avouer.  Monsieur,  que  votre  zele  pour  la  no- 
blesse Boit  bien  desinteness^  car  il  tous  manque  encore  six  mois 
d'etre  Gentilhomme,'  During  this  time  the  desertions  of  the  clergy 
from  their  own  Chamber  to  that  of  the  Tiers  Etat  were  continuing, 
insomnch  that  the  President  found  one  morning  a  bit  of  paper  tied 
abont  the  tongue  of  his  bell  (the  Presidents  of  all  the  three  orders 
have  a  small  heU  before  them  on  the  table,  which  they  ring  when 
they  wish  to  establish  order  in  their  Assembly),  with  the  following 
inscription, — Vox  clamaru  in  detetio. 

"  At  last,  on  Salurday,  the  King  sent  a  letter  to  the  Ghambere 
of  the  Clergy  and  the  Noblesse,  desiring  them  to  unite  themselves 
without  delay  to  the  National  Assembly,  which  they  accordingly 
did  that  very  day. 

"  Since  that  time  nothing  of  consequence  has  been  done,  as  the 
Assembly  has  been  wholly  occupied  in  verifying  the  powers  of  the 
.  new  members,  and  in  some  other  preliminary  business. 

"  I  requested  of  yon  in  a  former  letter,  to  take  the  trouble  of 
mentioning  the  principal  contents  of  my  letters  to  D.  Bannatyne 
and  Mr  Millar.  Both  of  them  will  naturally  expect  that  I  should 
have  written  to  them  from  time  to  time,  and  you  will  easily  see  the 
absolute  impossibility  of  my  doing  so.    I  must  therefore  at  present 


DvGooglc 


220  Proceedings  of  the  Boytd  Society 

cany  on  my  correepoiideDce  with  them  in  this  indirect  manner,  far 
which  I  beg  yon  will  make  my  apology.  Bemembei  me  aleo  to  all 
my  frieads  in  Edinr., — to  whom  I  conaidei  myself  as  writing  when 
I  address  my  letters  to  you.  Best  compts.  to  Mrs  Alison,  &.Q.  &o. — 
I  ever  am,  dear  Arcb^,  yours  sincerely, 

"  D.  S. 
"  July  2." 

2.  The  Law  of  Aeriform  Volumes  extended  to  dense  bodies. 
By  J.  G.  Macvlcar,  A.M.,  D.D.  Commumcated  by  Pro- 
fessor Lyon  Playfair, 

In  this  commnnication  the  author  proceeds  to  show  that  when 
dense  bodies,  whether  liquids  or  solids,  are  regarded  as  consisting 
of  certain  molecules,  the  rolnmes  of  these  molecules  are  either 
equals,  halves,  or  doubles,  &a,,  as  in  aeriforms. 

This  he  proves  by  showing  that  the  densities  of  bodies  in  gene- 
ral, as  determined  by  the  balance,  are  proportional  to  the  numbers 
which  express  the  weights  of  their  molecules. 

The  author's  theory  of  molecules  is  based  on  the  following  reaaon- 
ing.  By  the  general  consent  of  men  of  science,  nature  is  a  dyna- 
mical system — a  system  of  applied  mathematics.  The  molecules 
of  bodies  are,  when  compared  with  the  other  properties  of  bodies, 
very  stable  clusters  of  atoms.  In  their  structure,  therefore,  they 
may  be  expected  to  display  in  a  high  degree  the  geometrical  tmd 
the  dynamical,  that  is,  the  mechanical  conditions  of  stability. 
These  conditions  Id  reference  to  individualised  objects,  each  hav- 
ing but  one  centre,  that  is,  in  reference  to  such  structures  as  tbe 
molecules  of  bodies,  are  most  perfectly  fulfilled,  when  the  group 
of  their  parts  or  particles,  regarded  geometrically,  is  reducible  to 
one  or  other  of  the  regular  polyhedrons.  These  polyhedrons  are 
five  in  number ;  and  of  these,  three  (tbe  tetrahedron,  octahedron, 
and  icosahedron)  are  of  the  same  order,  all  having  triangular  faces ; 
and  all  the  three  may  be  regarded  as  culminating  in  the  last  named 
and  most  perfect  of  the  three,  viz.,  the  isocahedron.  But  the 
icosahedron,  in  its  turn,  is  most  intimately  related  to  the  dode- 
cahedron, each  under  the  application  of  the  law  of  symmetry 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaaim  X863-64.  221 

deTelopiug  the  other,  each  iaacribing  aud  circnmBcribing  the  other, 
giTiog  hotb  as  alternate  FormB,  as  tbe  radius  lengthens  or  shortens. 
The  remaining  polyhedron,  tiz.,  the  tube  or  hezabedron  stands 
oat  from  alHhe  othets,  and  is,  in  fact,  singular,  inasmuch  as  it  has 
no  proper  poles,  and  seems  nnsnited  for  polarized  action. 

The  author  therefore  fis»  upon  the  dodecahedron  and  the 
icosahedron  as  the  geometrical  types  of  the  molecules  of  bodies. 
He  conceives  that  their  molecules  may  possibly  conaiBt  of  12  or 
of  20  chemical  elements  or  nnits,  either  Bingle  units,  binary  anits, 
ternary  units,  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be.  And  be  proceeds  to  calcu- 
late solely  from  atomic  weights,  and  without  any  reference  what- 
ever to  atomic  volumes,  the  densities  of  liquids  and  solids  on  tbis 
hypothesis. 

But  previously  to  entering  npon  details,  he  finds  it  necessary  to 
allude  to  the  law  of  molecular  differentiation.  Not  that  there  is 
anything  new  in  this  law ;  for  it  is  merely  the  further  operation, 
when  the  stability  of  a  molecule  is  threatened  by  heat  or  otherwise, 
of  the  grand  principle  of  all  chemical  synthesis,  viz.,  the  concur- 
rence and  apposition  of  dissimilar  particles;  but  it  modiSes  the 
number  of  elements  in  a  molecule  according  to  the  risks  which  that 
molecule  has  run ;  and  conaequently  it  modifies  also  the  specifio 
gravity  of  the  mass.  Thus  taking  X  to  represent  any  chemical 
element ;  instead  of  simple  dodecatoms  X„  or  icosatoms  X„,  both  of 
which  are  isometrical  as  well  as  homogeneous,  we  may  have  a 
composit«  molecule,  X[,X,|,=X„,  consisting  of  both,  the  one  difie- 
lentiating  the  other,  and  thus  securing  a  greater  stability  for  both. 
Similarly  single  elements  of  X  may  differentiate  both  X„  and  X^ 
giving  X*X„X  =  X„  and  X  Xj^  =  Xj,.  And  these  two,  in  their 
turn,  may  differentiate  each  other,  giving  X  X„X,  X  X^gX  =  36X. 
And  here  one  of  the  Limits  of  the  theory  as  a  method  of  reaching 
the  construction  of  molecules  presents  itself.  Thus  the  compound 
undifferentiated  dodecatom  (X,^,,,  occupying  four  volumes,  must 
give  the  same  specific  gravity  as  X  X,^X  X^  «  86X,  occupying 

.     12xl2X_ORY 
one  volume;  for  — 3 oda. 

To  obtain  densities  in  the  familiar  form  of  specific  gravities  the 
molecule  or  unit  yalume  of  water  requires  to  be  determined.    And 


DvGooglc 


222-  Proceedinge  of  the  Jtoyail  Society 

this  the  author  finds  to  be  a  dodecatom  (or  rather  an  isobaric  mole- 
cule), each  confititiieut  element  of  which  is  3H0 

=  36  aq=AQ=36  x  9  =  324  when  H:=1. 

He  then  proceeds  to  deduce  theoretically  the  epeoific  gntTities  of 
between  seventy  and  eighty  of  the  most  inteTeHtiog  and  abundant 
of  natural  and  chemical  BubHtancee,  aomewhat  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  treated  in  chemical  works. 

A  composite  molecule,  consisting  of  the  tno  isometrical  mole- 
cnles  X^  and  X^  differentiating  each  other,  and  giving  X,jX„=X„ 
gives  the  idea  of  great  molecnlar  perfection  and  stability— as,  for 
instance,  repose  in  the  presence  of  oxygen,  &c.  He  finds,  ac- 
cordingly, that  snch  is  the  molecnle  of  the  precious  metals,  or  metals 
that  remain  pure,  and  the  diamond ;  gold  and  silver  having  normal 
or  aqueous  volumes,  platinum  and  aluminium  half,  and  bismuth 
and  antimony  double  volumes ;  the  platinnm  and  antimony  mole- 
cules being  also  differentiated,  and  therefore  their  molecuUr  struc- 
tures equivocal.    Thus — 


2(Ali,AlJ_2<13-76  x  12+20 
~      AO 


AJnminiumG^''^^;g"'*°^="^^"";""^"".=  2-7.  Expt.2-6.27. 


The  diamond,  by  the  greater  openness  of  X.  than  X^,  (when  both 
are  formed  of  pentagonal  elements),  and  its  more  ready  combusti- 
bility, almost  enables  us  to  demonstrate  analytically  this  composite 
molecnle  of  X^^X^.  In  so  light  an  element  aa  carbon,  however, 
when  constructed  by  nature,  it  is  not  the  single  element  C„0„  hut 
the  dodecatom  (C„C„)u  that  is  in  relation  with  the  unit  volume  of 
water.  Thus- 
Diamond  G=^^^=^^^Y;^32^^'^--°=3-55.    Eipt.  3-55. 

Coke  and Graphite?G=^^'-^|^^j|^=222.  Expt.  1-8 . . 2-3. 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


of  Edint/argk,  Session  1863-64.  223 

P  P 
Similarly  with  pboaphorus.    White  or  old   o'ao""^^^'     ^*''** 

2P  P 

combuBtible  ^^'  =  2  29.     Moat  combuBtible -rg- 1-913. 

Tlie  doclecatom  generally  has  bair  the  volume  of  the  icosatom  of 
the  same  eubetance.  When  mercury  eolidifies,  it  appeani  to  change 
from  the  more  open  to  the  more  compact.    Tliua 

j'?<g)_.?(mi?2).,3.58.  Exp..l3  59{..Zer,.) 
Mercury  fi- "  I 

[i».'(lMxl2)=„.8.    Expl.l*4.    (Solid.) 

Lithium,  Bodium,  [lotasaium,  arc  X  X„X;  sodium  occupying  a 
Dormal  volume;  lithium,  calcium,  magnesium,  a  half;  and  potassium 
double  volume. 

Lithium  ^^^  =  ^^^y^  =  -60.     Expt.  -59. 


AQ         324 
Potassium  ^=|^=-84.'Expt. -86. 
And  80  on. 

BiomiDe  Xo'^"l§4~  °  '^'^^^     ^''''*'  ^'^^" 
T.bl,S.l.ggi--'^'-g+^°-216.    E.pl.215. 
Quartz  ?(^..?2^).2-59.    E.pt.  25  .  .  .  28. 
Sulphur^. -j5|?. 1-975.    Expt.  1-98. 


VOL.  T. 


DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


224  Proceedings  of  the  Soyai  Society 

Most  stable  hydrate  1  „     2(HCl  +  16aq)     ,  ,,,      p„»  i.ni 
of  eWorhydrio  acid,  J  ^=         324 "  ^  "^-    "P*'  '  *^  * 

AJl  molecnles  determiced  by  hydrogen  and  Bulphttr  are  icofl&toms, 
others  very  generally  are  dodecatoms. 
And  BO  on,  with  betweeu  70  and  80  familiar  BubBtincee. 
Potass-Eoda  febpar  is  a  dodecatom  of  Potaea  felepar,  viz. 

(KOAl,O,(8iO0u  O^IjOK)^, 

in  which  in  the  two  polar  elements,  EO  ia  eubstitnted  by  SaO ; 
occupying  eight  normal  volumes  as  such  highly  composite  molecnles 
usually  do. 


144  SiO. 

Theory. 
430O         6514 

Abieb. 
65-72 

24A1.0. 

1248         18-82 

18-57 

From 

20  KO 

940         1417 

1402 

Baveno. 

4NiO 

124           1-25 

1-25 

&=8x 

324)6632(255.    The 

balance  gives  2  5552 

See  Milhr't  Mine 

.,  p.  367. 

3.  On  the  Freezing  of  the  Egg  of  the  Common  Fowl,    By 
John  Davy.  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Lond.  and  Edin. 

The  author,  preparatory  to  stating  the  experiments  which  he  has 
made  on  the  freezing  of  the  egg  of  the  common  fcwl,  referred  to 
the  early  ones  of  Mr  Hunter  on  the  same  subject,  and  to  the  later 
ones  of  Hr  Paget,  both  these  inquirere  agreeing  as  to  the  lesullB, 
bat  differing  in  their  conclusions,  Hunter  attributing  the  resistance 
which  the  egg  offers  to  freezing  to  a  supposed  vital  principle,  Hr 
Paget  attributing  it  to  the  peculiar  viscid  state  of  the  albumen. 

The  author,  from  his  results,  infers  that  two  causes  are  mainly 
operntive  in  protecting  the  egg ;  one,  the  cellular  filamentous  struc- 
ture in  which  the  albamen  is  contained ;  the  other,  the  peculiar 
composition  of  the  contents  of  the  egg,  and  especially  their  saline 
elements.  He  concludes  by  proposing  some  queries  respecting  life, 
whether  it  can  exist  without  action,  and  whether,  provided  the 
organic  structure  is  not  injured,  congelation  can  take  place  without 
the  death  of  the  part  froEen. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinlmrgh,  Session  1863-64. 


4.  On  the  Variations  of  the  Fertility  and  Fecundity  of 
Women  according  to  Age.    By  Dr  J.  Matthews  Duncan. 

This  papei  waa  divided  into  four  parts.     In  the  first  part  it  was 

1.  Tliat  the  actual,  not  the  relative,  fertility  of  our  female  popu- 
lation, as  a  whole,  at  difTereut  agee,  increases  from  the  commence- 
nient  of  the  child-bearing  period  of  life  until  the  age  of  30  is 
reached,  and  then  decliDes  to  its  extinction  with  tlie  child-bearing 
faonlty. 

2.  That  the  actual  fertility  is  much  greater  before  the  climax, 
80  years,  is  reached,  than  after  it  is  passed. 

S.  That  at  least  three-fifths  of  the  population  are  recruited  from 
women  not  exceeding  30  years  of  age. 
In  the  second  part  it  was  shown  : — 

1.  Tbat  comparative  fertility  increases  gradually  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  child-bearing  period  of  life  until  about  the  age  of 
30  years  is  reached,  and  that  then  it  still  more  gradually  declines. 

2.  That  it  is  greater  in  the  decade  of  years  following  the  climax 
of  about  30  years  of  age  than  in  the  decade  of  years  preceding  the 
climax. 

In  the  third  part  it  was  shown  : — 

1.  That  the  fecundity  of  the  mass  of  wives  in  our  population  is 
greatest  at  the  commencement  of  the  child-bearing  period  of  life, 
and  after  that  epoch  gradually  diminishes. 

2.  That  the  fecundity  of  the  whole  wives  in  our  population  in- 
cluded within  the  child-bearing  period  of  life  is,  before  30  years  of 
age  is  reached,  more  tbon  twice  as  great  as  it  is  after  that  period. 

3.  That  the  fecundity  of  the  wives  in  our  population  declines 
with  great  rapidity  after  the  age  of  40  is  reached. 

In  the  fourth  part  it  was  shown  : — 

1.  That  the  initial  fecundity  of  women  gradually  waxes  to  a 
climax  and  then  gradually  wanes. 

2.  That  initial  fecundity  is  very  high  from  20  to  34  years  of  age. 

3.  That  the  climax  of  initial  fecundity  is  probably  about  the  age 
of  25. 


DvGooglc 


226  Proceedings  of  the  Soyai  Society 

5.  On  tha  Chemical  and  Phyaicol  PrincipleB  in  Connection 
with  the  Specific  Gravity  of  Liquid  and  Solid  SabBtances. 
By  Otto  Richter,  Ph.  D.  Communicated  by  Professor 
Uaclagan. 

The  Bubject  of  this  paper,  ib  of  a  oatore  to  find  favour  with  all 
those  chemiBtB  who  are  diBpoBed  to  recog:niBe  in  the  fast  acctiinalat- 
ing  evidence  of  a  new  and  remarkable  order  of  ohemical  phenomena 
rich  and  valuable  materiala  for  the  conBtrnction  of  a  eouader  and 
more  comprehenBive  chemical  theory.  Thie  new  order  of  pheno- 
mena appears  to  me,  nevertheless,  but  imperfectly  appreciated 
and  understood,  even  on  the  part  of  oar  most  distinguished  eiperi- 
mentaliats.  Thns,  for  instance,  Monsieur  Fastenr,  the  illustrious 
French  philosopher,  and  with  him  a  host  of  other  eminent  thinkers, 
is  of  opinion,  that  matter  is  indebted  for  its  chemical  and  physical 
properties  mainly  and  exclusively  to  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
the  atoms  are  grouped  together.  In  alluding  to  the  probable 
cause  of  circular  polarisation,  Monsieur  Pasteur  considerB,  that 
this  singular  property  ought  to  be  referred  to  the  nmsymmetrical 
diaposition  of  the  constituents,  and  that  the  reBtoration  of  the 
chemical  symmetry  must  at  the  same  time  obliterate  every  trace 
of  circularly  polarising  power.  Again,  in  order  to  account  for  the 
fact,  that  certain  salts,  for  instance  the  chlorate  of  eoda,  cease  to 
exhibit  circular  polarisation  so  Boon  aa  they  are  made  to  pasa  from 
the  solid  into  the  liquid  state,  he  ventures  even  a  step  farther. 
According  to  him  these  optical  phenomena  are  really  due  to  two 
distinct  cAuecB,  either  to  the  dissymmetrical  distribution  of  the 
atoms  within  the  limits  of  each  Individual  molecule,  or  to  the 
spiral  form  of  aggregation  impressed  upon  entire  masses  of  mole- 
cules, although  these  latter  may,  as  individuals,  exist  in  a  state 
of  chemical  Bymmetry  and  optical  neutrality.  Monsieur  PaBtetir 
adopts  the  following  mode  of  reasoning : — The  chlorate  of  soda 
owes  its  optical  activity  mainly  and  exclusively  to  the  spiral  form 
of  aggregation ;  and  being  destitute  of  that  property,  so  far  as  its 
individual  molecules  are  concerned,  it  follows,  that  the  deBtruction 
of  the  spiral  arrangement  during  the  proceBS  of  solution,  must  leave 
the  chlorate  of  soda  optically,  because  constitutionally,  passive. 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinbwgh,  Session  186J-64.  227 

This  aignmeBt,  which  prima  fade  aeems  bo  ingenious  and  plansible, 
is,  nevertheless,  is  my  opinion,  void  of  fonndfttioD,  because  it  rests 
on  premises  wliich  are  empirically  and  philotophicaUy  inadmissible. 
In  the  first  place,  empiricaily,  because  the  hypothesis  postulates, 
that  a  lay  of  light  is  propagated,  both  within  and  beyond  the  polar- 
isiog  medium,  in  the  form  of  a  spiral ;  whereas  Monsieur  Fresnel, 
another  distinguished  French  philoaopher,  has  clearly  proved,  both 
experimentally  and  mathematically,  that  the  plane  of  polarisation 
assumes  this  twisted  form  in  virtue  of  the  mutual  interference  of 
two  pencils  of  light,  into  which  the  original  beam  has  resolved 
itself,  and  the  particles  of  which,  instead  of  vibrating  as  formerly 
in  straight  lines,  are  henceforth  made  to  vibrate  in  the  direction 
of  a  curve,  and  across  two  opposite  regions  of  the  influencing 
molecule.  In  the  second  place,  philosophically,  because  the  hypo- 
thesis places  us  between  the  horns  of  the  following  dilemma ; 
either  to  make  the  optical  change  dependant  upon  a  pnrely  me- 
ehanieal  cause,  namely,  upon  the  asBumption  of  a  pre-existing 
spiral  form  of  arrangement,  in  consequence  of  which  a  beam  of 
light  is  noletu  volejit  compelled  to  travel  along  the  solid  walls  of  a 
winding  tunnel,  or  (o  make  the  optical  change  dependant  upon  a 
pnrely  dytuimical  cause,  namely,  upon  the  assumption  of  a  pre- 
existing unsymmetrical  disposition  of  the  atoms  within  the  limits 
of  each  individual  molecule ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  mole- 
cule is  supposed  all  at  once  to  acquire  the  power  of  turning  the 
luminous  particles  from  their  rectilinear  course. 

Now,  it  is  a  well  known  axiom  of  cosmical  economy,  that,  in  try- 
ing to  interpret  facts,  we  ought  not  to  multiply  causes  unneces- 
sarily, and  that  one  and  the  same  class  of  phenomena  ought,  if 
possible,  to  be  referred  to  one  cause  only ;  but  when,  as  in  the  case 
before  us,  these  causes  are  so  essentially  distinct,  both  in  their 
form  and  in  their  mode  of  action,  the  arguments  employed  by 
Monsieur  Pasteur,  unsupported  as  they  are  by  either  experiments 
or  calculations,  appear  to  me  no  longer  tenable,  and  it  behoves  us, 
therefore,  to  search  for  a  more  consistent  and  comprehensive  ex- 
planation. In  reviewing  the  new  order  of  phenomena  above 
alluded  to,  and  which  embraces  the  followiog  principal  physical 
properties  of  matter, — viz.  specific  gravity,  specific  volume,  allo- 
tropism  and  polymorphism,  fusing  and  boiling  points,  crystalline 


DvGooglc 


228  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

form,  optical,  electrical,  BDd  magnetic  polarity,  ice,  the  general 
aspect  of  this  order  of  facts  seems  to  me  so  marked  and  pecoliar, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  unchemical,  that  I  consider  myself  justi- 
fied in  Tindicating,  for  their  scientific  conception  and  interpretation, 
the  existence  of  a  principle  tut  generit, — a  principle  which,  in 
virtue  of  its  characteristic  mode  of  action,  I  hold  to  be  capable  of 
modifying  the  chemical  and  physical  energies  of  every  part  of  a 
^ven  atomic  system,  and  all  this,  he  it  nell  observed,  with  the 
entire  preservation  of  the  original  arrangement.  Let  me,  in  illus- 
tration of  my  meaning,  aseumB,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  so-called 
atoms, — B  definite  number  of  which  I  conceive  to  be  always  and 
inseparably  nnited  according  to  some  fixed  principle  of  grouping, 
and  thus  to  constitute  an  elementary  atomic  system  or  mole- 
cule,— are  endowed  with  repulsive  energies  directly  proportional  to 
the  range  and  intensity  of  their  own  vibratory  movements,  which 
latter  may  bo  supposed  to  consist  in  a  series  of  periodical  expan- 
sions and  contractions  of  each  spheroidal  atom  ;  let  me  sssume,  in 
the  second  place,  that  under  the  influence  of  a  certain  physical 
agent  the  whole,  or  a  given  portion,  of  the  atoms  composing  a 
molecule  may  experience  a  suspension  or  restoration  of  their  vi- 
bratory movements ;  and  let  me  assume,  in  the  last  place,  that  the 
specific  volumes  of  substances  in  the  liquid  and  solid  state  depend 
upon  and  correspond  to  the  degree  of  repulsive  energy  thus  deve- 
loped in  contiguous  conflicting  molecules ;  then,  by  means  of  these 
three  assumptions,  we  have  established  a  necv«  eatualia  between  the 
variations  in  the  speciGc  volume  of  dense  molecules  and  between 
the  intensity  of  their  repulsive  energies.  Nov  it  seems  to  me  very 
clear  that,  so  long  aa  the  peculiar  force,  which  causes  these  varia- 
tions, and  which  I  will  provisionally  distinguish  by  the  tfiTia  paralytic 
force,  happens  to  induce  precisely  the  same  changes  upon  any  two 
opposite  sides  of  a  given  atomic  system,  the  pliysical  symmetry 
of  that  system  will  not  be  disturbed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that, 
when  these  changes  difier,  physical  symmetry  can  no  longer  exist, 
and  that  the  natural  result  will  be  the  formation  of  an  ethereal 
current  from  the  etrongei  towards  the  weaker  side  during  the  act 
of  atomic  expansion,  and  of  another  current  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion during  the  act  of  atomic  contraction.  Applying  this  view  to 
the  phenomena  of  circular  polarisation,  I  have  no  hesitation  in 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  229 

mBiuttuQiDg,  tbat  tliejr  have  their  origin  in  pliyeical  diaeymmetry 
only,  and  that  the  exietence  of  the  vaunted  chemical  dieeymmetty 
ia  at  least  very  problematical.  The  reason,  therefore,  why  chlorate 
of  eoda  and  its  congeoerB  lose  the  property  of  circular  polariaation 
during  the  act  of  Bolntion  must  be  sought  in  differences  of  tempera- 
ture and  the  altered  state  of  aggregation,  both  of  which  conspire 
in  restoring  the  physical  symmetry,  while  the  process  of  crystalti- 
sation  tends  to  produce  the  opposite  effect.  I  may  add,  moreover, 
that  the  discovery  of  a  substance  exhibiting  tbe  same  optical  de- 
portment as  chlorate  of  soda,  white  these  physical  processes  are 
reversed,  would  prove  a  powerful  argument  in  support  of  my  view, 
but  utterly  subversive  of  Monsieur  Fasteur'a  mode  of  reasoning. 

The  theory  here  advocated  naturally  leads  us  to  suspect  the 
existence  of  another  set  of  equivalents,  namely,  the  volume  equi- 
valents ;  theit  numerical  expression  would  correspond  to  the 
highest  degree  of  repulsive  energy,  and  to  tbe  greatest  amount  of 
vibratory  movements,  of  which  the  various  species  of  elementary 
molecules  are  susceptible.  They  would,  however,  differ  materially 
from  the  weight  equivalents,  which  are  constant,  whereas  they 
would,  on  the  contrary,  be  subject  to  a  peculiar  law  of  variations, 
which  enables  them  to  pass  through  a  series  of  values  from  a  given 
maximum  down  to  zero.  I  am  not  at  present  prepared  to  enter 
into  details,  but  a  careful  comparison  of  facts  has  convinced  me 
that  tbe  variations  in  the  specific  volumes  of  the  molecules,  or, 
what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  the  variations  in  the  volume-equi- 
valents of  their  component  elements,  are  genetically  connected,  uid 
nin  parallel  with  the  modifications  of  their  various  physical  pro- 
perties. If,  then,  all  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  matter 
are  dae  to  the  simultaneous  agency  of  two  essentially  distinct 
principles,  it  follows  tbat  chemistry,  both  as  an  art  and  as  a 
science,  rests  not  on  a  simple  but  on  a  complex  foundation.  On  the 
one  hand,  it  is  tbe  purely  chemical  principle  which  determines  the 
various  forms  of  molecular  arrangement,  and  it  is  the  ponderable 
portion  alone  of  the  various  kinds  of  atoms,  which,  in  their  con- 
stant weight-equivalents,  furnishes  the  basis  of  calculation.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  the  purely  physical  principle  which  deter- 
mines the  specific  volume  of  the  molecules,  and  it  is  the  imponder- 
able portion  alone  of  tbe  various  kinds  of  atoms,  which,  in  their 


DvGooglc 


230  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

variable  voltime-equivalents,  furnishes  the  hasU  of  calculation. 
Accordingly,  our  tree  of  chemical  knowledge  splita  up  into  two 
main  braDcbeB,,to  wbich  we  might  apply  the  terms  Pondo-che- 
mistry  and  Inipondo-chemialry.  I  beg  to  remark,  in  conclusion, 
that,  having  resolved  upon  a  minnte  and  thorough  investigation 
of  this,  no  doubt  Tery  intricate,  subject,  I  was  surprised  to  find,' 
after  examining  all  the  principal  sonrces  of  information,  that  a 
complete'and  trust-vorthy  catalogue  of  the  leading  physical  pro- 
perties of  matter  was  still  a  desideratum,  but  more  particularly 
that  the  determination  of  the  specific  gravitiea  of  Buhstancea  in 
the  liquid  and  solid  state  had  been  much  neglected.  With  the 
moat  ample  resources  at  my  disposal,  I  have  at  length  succeeded 
in  composing  a  catalogue  of  these  latter.  The  number  of  lona 
fide  cases  entered  therein  amounts  to  about  1800  ;  but  this  number 
is  after  all  a  mere  fraction,  in  comparison  with  the  hundreds  of 
thouBands  of  non -determined  bodies.  I  may  also  state,  that  should 
a  systematic  revision  of  this  most  needful  portion  of  our  science 
be  resolved  upon,  I  shall  feel  great  pleasure  in  presenting  my 
catalogue,  such  as  it  is,  to  the  parties  entrusted  with  its  execu- 
tion. 


6.  On  the  Theory  of  Isomeric  Compounds.     By  Dr  A.  Crum 
Brown. 

In  this  paper  only  those  bodies  are  considered  which  are  "  abso- 
lutely isomeric,"  that  is,  which  have  not  only  the  same  composition 
per  cent,  and  the  same  molecular  weight,  but  also  the  same  constitu- 
tional formula.  As  the  constitutional  formula  of  comparatively 
few  substances  is  known,  this  class  is  as  yet  a  small  one. 

The  following  pairs  of  substances  are  probably  absolutely  iso- 
merio. 

1.  The  alcohol  radicals  and  the  hydrides,  as  methyl  gas  and  the 
hydride  of  ethyl. 

2,  Chloride  of  ethyl  and  the  product  of  the  action  of  chloriiifi  on 
hydride  of  ethyl. 

3.  Chloride  of  vinyl  and  chloracet<>ne. 

4.  Fiiraaiic  and  maleic  acids. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  231 

5.  firomomaleic  and  iBobromomaleic  acids. 

6.  The  two  bibromoBaccinic  ncida. 

7.  The  two  varietiea  of  malic  acid. 

8.  The  two  varieties  of  aspartic  acid. 

9.  Two  of  the  varieties  of  tartaric  acid. 

10.  Two  of  the  dehydrogenates  of  pyrotartaric  acid. 

11.  Two  of  the  three  bibiomopjiotartaric  acids. 

The  following  are  shown  to  be  probably  metameric, — 

1.  The  compounds  of  ethylene  and  of  ethylidene. 

2.  The  aloobols'  proper  and  the  hydrates  of  the  olefines. 

3.  Lactic  and  paralactic  acids. 

The  next  point  considered  is  the  influence  which  the  existence 
of  such  pairs  of  substances  has  on  the  tbeoiy  of  atomicity,  and 
particularly  on  the  question  whether  all  the  equivalents  of  a  multe- 
quivalent  atom  are  of  the  same  chemical  nature. 

The  consideration  of  absolutely  isomeric  bodies  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  there  is  a  difference  among  the  equivalents  of  the  same 
atom,  and  that  this  difference  is  not  entirely  due  to  the  structnre 
of  the  molecule  of  which  the  atom  forms  a  part.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, possible  as  yet  to  apply  this  principle  to  the  explanation  of 
particular  case  a. 

The  remarks  of  Professor  Keknie  on  the  isomerism  of  the  dehydro- 
genates  of  succinic  and  of  pyrotartaric  acids,  and  those  of  Professor 
Bntlerow  on  the  iBomerism  of  methyl  gas  and  hydride  of  ethyl,  are 
then  considered  in  detail,  and  Butlerow's  hypothesis  compared  with 
the  views  of  Eolbe  aa  to  the  chemical  nature  of  carbon. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Boycd  Society 


7.  Od  the  Bhombohedral  System  in  Ciystallograph;.  B; 
Alfred  E.  Catton,  B.A.,  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Fellow  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  So- 
ciety.    Communicated  by  ProfesBOr  Tait. 

1.  The  science  of  Crystallography  bae  for  its  object  the  classifi- 
catioD  of  crystalline  forms. 

The  principles  which  must  guide  ns  in  attempting  to  arrive  at  a 
natnral  classification  of  cryatala  are  the  same  as  those  wbich  hare 
been  so  succesBfullj  applied  to  the  formatioD  of  a  natural  classifi- 
cation of  plants  by  Bay  and  JuBsieu,  and  of  animals  by  Cuvier. 

By  the  application  of  these  principles  it  has  been  fonnd  that 
crystals  aie  formed  on  six  different  types  or  plans  of  stmcture,  and 
in  consequence  crystals  have  been  arranged  in  six  primary  classeB, 
termed  crystallograpbic  systems.  They  are  named  the  cubic,  pyra- 
midal, rhombohedial,  prismatic,  oblique,  and  anorthic  systems. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to  show  that  the  type  on  which 
crystals  of  the  rhomhohedral  system  are  constructed  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  prismatic  system. 

The  establishment  of  this  proiiosition  neceraitates  the  abolition 
of  the  rhombobedral  system,  and  all  crystals  hitherto  included  in 
it  mnst  in  future  be  referred  to  the  prismatic  system. 

2.  In  order  to  establish  this  proposition  it  ia  necessary  to  show, 
(1.)  That  three  axes  of  symmetry  can  be  found  at  right  angles 

to  each  other,  such  that  for  them  tbe  cryataUographic  para- 
meters become  unequal. 
(2.)  That  the  laws  of  symmetry  of  crystalH  of  the  rhombo- 
hedral  ayatem  are  the  same  as  thoae  of  the  prismatic  sys- 
tem. 
Now  it  ia  easily  seen  that  the  three  straight  lines  perpendicular 
to  the  planes  101,  12T,  and  111  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

For  the  forms  101  and  211  differ  only  in  position,  the  one  being 
the  same  as  the  other  turned  through  an  angle  of  30*  about  the 
optic  axis. 

Also  the  faces  of  the  form  111  are  perpendicDlar  to  the  faces  of 


DvGooglc 


of  Ediaburgh,  Setfioa  1863-64.  283 

esdi  of  the  above  forms.  The  three  etr&ight  lines  perpendicular 
respectiTely  to  the  faces  101, 121,  and  111,  are  taken  as  the  new 
axea  of  symmetry ;  the  parameters  correspondieg  to  them  being 
a,  b,  e,  respectively,  it  is  shown  in  a  later  part  of  the  paper  that  a,  h,  c, 
are  nneqnal. 

3.  The  paper  then  proceeds  to  show  that  the  laws  of  symmetiy 
of  crystals  of  the  rhombohedral  system  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
prismatic  system. 

This  is  done  by  taking  each  simple  form  separately  and  finding 
what  the  indices  of  its  faces  become  when  referred  to  the  new 
axes ;  it  is  then  found  that  the  new  indices  for  all  the  simple  forms 
follow  the  laws  of  symmetry  of  crystals  of  the  prismatic  system. 

The  same  process  is  followed  with  the  hemihedral  forms. 

4.  In  order  to  find  the  indices  of  a  given  face  referred  to  the  new 
axes,  it  is  necessary  to  solve  the  following  problem  :— 

"  Given  the  indices  and  parameters  of  any  face  of  a  crystal  when 
referred  to  given  axes,  to  find  its  indices  and  also  the  new  patame- 
ters  when  referred  to  any  other  axes  originating  in  the  same  point." 

This  problem  is  solved  in  the  paper,  but  the  solution  is  too  long 
to  be  here  given. 

For  the  poipoees  of  this  paper  only  a  partioular  case  of  the  gene- 
ral problem  ie  required. 

For  in  the  rhombohedral  system  the  axes  make  equal  angles  with 
each  other,  and  the  parameters  are  equal.  Let  u  be  the  angle  be- 
tween the  rhombohedral  axes,  and  a  the  magnitude  of  each  of  the 
equal  parameters.  Let  hkl  be  tfae  symbol  of  a  face  of  a  crystal 
belonging  to  the  rhombohedral  system,  and  k'k'l  the  indices  of 
this  face  when  referred  to  axes  perpendicular  respectively  to  the 
faces  101,  121,  111,  a',  b', e,  the  new  parameters. 

Then  the  formnln  obtained  in  the  general  case  become,  in  this 
instanoe, — 


(1.) 


Th«M  expreestons  give  the  new  indices. 


DvGooglc 


!34  Proceedinga  of  the  Roytd  SocUiy 

The  new  pftnmeterB  are  ^ven  b;  the  following  ronnal». 

a'ie  =  8in  \  lat 

Nhvn  z  is  a  constant. 

5.  Let  a  be  the  "  angalar  element"  of  a  ciTstal  of  the  rhombo- 
ledral  ayetem,  i.e.  the  angle  between  normals  from  the  origin  to 
he  faoee  100  and  111. 

Then  it  is  shown  in  the  paper,  that  the  expressions  for  the  new 
wrameteis  beoome, — 

„■„(_»-.  )4 

\   4  +  tan'aJ 

{4  +  tan*a} 
tana 

Hence,  a',  A',  <f,  are  respectively  proportional  to  -JZ,  1.  tan  s; 

V3~l~tanai  '■   •* 

Henoe,  given  the  angular  element  and  the  indices  of  a  face,  the 
ratios  of  the  new  parameters  are  determined  by  the  formnlse  (2.), 
ind  the  new  indices  by  the  formulce  (1.) 
.Er.— Find  the  new  indices  of  the  faces  Oil,  131. 
a.  The  face  Oil. 

i'_0  +  l     .._2-0  +  l   «^0  +  l-l 

=*  =\  =0 

.'.  the  new  symbol  is  110. 
(5.  The  face  131 


=  1  =1  =1. 

.'.  the  new  symbol  is  111. 

6.  Also,  given  the  symbol  of  a  simple  form  belonging  to  the 
rhombohedral  system,  and  also  the  angular  element,  the  indioes 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaeion  1863-64.  235 

of  its  Beveral  faces  when  referred  to  the  Dew  asei  can  be  detenu ined, 
and  also  the  ratJoe  of  the  oew  parameters. 

The  simple  forme  of  the  rhombobedral  sjrstem  are  then  taken  in 
succession,  and  the  indices  of  their  faces  when  referred  to  the  new 
axes  are  found.  It  is  then  seen  that  the  new  indices  follow  in  all 
cases  the  laws  of  symmetry  of  the  prismatic  system. 

This  is  done  at  length  in  the  paper.  The  general  process  is 
exemplified  here  hy  its  application  to  one  or  two  simple  forms 
only. 

7.  The  simple  form  101,  consists  of  the  following  faces. 
101        Oil        TlO 

ioi      oil      no 

By  theformulffi  (1.),  it  is  found  that  the  new  indices  are,  respectively, 

100       110       no 

100       110        ilo 

These  indicai  are  divisible  into  two  groups, 

f 110        TlO 

tilO        110 

^•"^  {too 

Now,  it  will  he  observed  that  in  the  first  group,  the  indices 
always  occur  in  the  order  1,1,0;  and  that  the  symbols  of  the  faces 
consist  of  every  possible  arrangement  of  the  symbols  del,  dbl,  0,  in 
which  unity  occupies  the  first  and  second  places,  and  zero  the  last. 
The  facee  of  the  first  group,  therefore,  follow  the  law  of  sym- 
metry of  the  prismatic  system,  and  belong  to  the  form  110. 
Similarly,  the  faces 

100 
100 

belong  to  the  form  100. 

Hence,  the  form  lOFof  the  rhomhohedral  system,  is  a  combina- 
tion of  the  forms  110  and  100  of  the  prismatic  system. 

In  a  similar  mauner  it  can  be  shown,  that  the  form  211,  is  a 
combination  of  the  forms  910  and  010. 


j.Googlc 


23f{  Proceedktgao/the  Royal  Society 

8.  The  form  hkl,  where  one  of  the  indices  is  an  arithmetical 
mean  between  the  other  two,  is  a  doable  eix-faced  pyramid,  whoae 
base  is  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis. 

First,  l&t  ^h^kJrl,  01  h~k-l-h. 

The  faces  ma;  be  arranged  in  the  following  two  gronpa : — 
hlk        ikh        klh        m     i 

u&     M     M     m    \ 

M      m  f       •     ■      ■ 

Let  the  new  indices  of  the  face  hlk  be  a/Sy. 

Then  «=*ri=,  ^=?[z*::^    „  =  A+£+A. 


(A.) 
(B.) 


Now, 


2l-h-k    4A-2k-h-k    h-k 


And  A+t  +  i,A  +  2A     . 

3         ~3~ 

Hence  the  face  hik  becomeB  aah,  where  a-^^.~^ 
2   ■ 
Again,  let  the  new  indiow  of  the  face  Ikh  be  o'/yy. 
Then  a'=i-*.ff  =  2ft-i-A      .      l+k-t-h 

_h-k  k-k  . 

2  ==~2~  -*■ 

Hence  the  face  tkh  becomes  aah. 

Similarly,  the  new  indices  of  the  faces  Aft,  Ail  are  iJl  and  ii* 
respectiTely. 
Hence  tlio  group  of  faces,  (A),  becomes 

ooA,  aah,  aah,  oaAl  , 

ooA,  aah,  aah,  aahi 
where  as-g-;  if  h-k  be  odd,  each  of  the  indices  in  (A')  mnet 
be  multiplied  by  two. 
Again,  let  the  new  indices  of  the  face  Ihk  be  if^y, 
Then«'=l^,^=a*zlz*   vJ+*±* 

a  >  p       6      '  ^       3 

=A-i      .0  =A. 


■aovGoOglc 


en 


ofJEdif^mrgh,  Seaeion  1863-61. 
Hence  the  face  Ihk  becomes  2a  o  k. 
Similailf ,  the  face  khl  becomes  2a  o  h. 
Hence  the  gronp  of  faces  (B)  becomes, 
2aoh,2aoh\ 
2koh,Zaoli) 

Now  it  vill  be  obseired  that,  in  the  group  (A'),  the  indices  always 
occnr  in  the  order  ooA ;  and  that  the  sTmbols  of  the  faces  consist 
of  every  possible  anangement  of  the  iDdices=b(i,=l=a,=tA,  in  which 
«  occupies  the  first  and  second  places  and  k  the  last.  The  faces  of 
the  group  (A')  are  therefore  subject  to  the  law  of  symmetry  of  the 
prismatic  syttem,  and  belong  to  the  form 

Similarly  the  faces  of  the  group  (B)  belong  to  the  form 

2aoh. 

Hence  the  form  UI  of  the  rhombohedral  system,  where  2h=k+l 

is  a  combination  ofthe  forme  ooA  and  2a  o  A  of  the  prismatic  system, 

.  h-k 

wherea=— 5-. 

If  2k=l  +  h,  it  can  be  shown  in  a  eimilar  manner  that  ftil  is  a 

combination  of  the  forme  yS^j;  and  2fiok,  where /9-~^  , 

Andif  21= A+ it,  a  combination  of  the  forms  yyl  and  2yo2,  where 

£x. — Transfer  the  forms  131  and  175  to  the  prismatic  system, 
a.  The  form  IST. 

Here  A- 1,  k=  - 1, .-.  "=|  =  1, 
.'.  131,  is  a  combination  of  111  and  201. 
p.  The  form  175. 

HereA  =  l,A=-5,  .■.a-?-t^  =  3, 
.'.  175  is  a  combination  of  331  and  601. 

9.  The  results  of  the  examination  of  the  other  simple  forms  of 
the  rhombobedral  system  will  be  given  without  demonstration. 


DvGooglc 


238  Proceedings  of  the  Boyai  Society 

Tbeform  &^{,  whereA+A^-l-J-i)  is  a  twelve-aided  priam,  vboae  axis 
ia  parallel  to  the  optic  axis. 
It  is  a  combinatioQ   of  the  followiiig  forms  of  the  prismatic 

ByBtem  : — 

-j8,o,  a^fi,   »^fi, 


_2k-l-h. 

~'      6 
2l-h-k 


Ex.—The  form  312  is  a  combination  of  210,  130,  510. 

10.  The  form  hkk  is  a  rhombohedron. 
It  can  be  shown  that  the  rhombobedra 

hklc, 
Audik-h,  2fi+fc,  2fc  +  i, 
are  inverse  with  respect  to  each  other. 

A  combinatioa  of  these  rhombohedra  is  a  combination  of  the 
following  forms  of  the  prisniatic  Bjatem — 

wheTQa=h-k    ^•=2k+h. 

Ex. — A  comhinatioD  of  the  rhombohedra  100  and  122  (which  are 
inverse  with  respect  to  each  other),  is  a  combination  of  the  forms 
312  and  Oil  of  the  priEmatic  systera. 

The  rhombohedron  hltk  itself  is  a  combination  of  two  hemihedral 
forms  with  parallel  faces,  viz., — 

ir8aa2;S  and  roaff, 

where  a  and  j8  have  the  same  values  as  above. 

11.  The  form  hkl,  where  h,k,l  are  connected  hy  none  of  the  pre- 
ceding relations,  is  sometimes  termed  a  scale nohedron. 

It  can  be  shown  that  the  following  acalenohedra  are  inverse  with 
respect  to  each  other,  viz., — 

m 

and  2i  +  2i  -  h,  21  +  2/.  -  k,  2h  +  2A  -  / 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinbwrgh,  Se^ion  1863-64.  239 

A.  oombuuttion  of  theee  scaleoohedia  is  a  combiD&tioii  of  the 
foilowiog  forms  of  the  priamatto  s;^tem, — 

%^iy.  'Ay>  "j^sTi 
k~l    „       2k-k-l 


wiiei 


t~h    „      2k-l~A 


i-k   .      2l-h~k 

-,=  ^.A 6 — ■ 

h+k  +  l 

Ex. — The  Bcalenohedra  161  and  352,  which  occur  in  apatite,  are 
inverge  with  respect  to  each  other. 

A  combination  of  these  scalenohedra  is  a  combination  of  the  forms 
122,  534,  714  of  the  prismatic  Bystem. 

The  Bcalenohediou  hid  iteelf  ia  a  combioation  of  three  hemihedral 
forms  with  parallel  facee,  viz., — 

"■"Ay.  ""AYi  «^Ti 
where  a,0,,  eg?,,  a^,,  and  y  have  the  same  values  as  above. 

12.  The  simple  forms  of  the  rhombohedral  system,  therefore,  with 
the  exception  of  the  rhombohedron  hkk,  and  the  ecalenobedron  hkl, 
follow  tbe  law  of  symmetry  of  the  holohedial  forms  of  the  prismatic 
system.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  hemihedral  forms  also,  derived 
from  these  simple  forms,  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  symmetry  of  the 
hemihedral  forms  of  the  prismstio  system. 

Since  tbe  rhombohedron  and  scalenobedron  are  themselves  com- 
binations of  hemihedral  forms  with  parallel  faces  of  the  prismatic 
system,  it  follows  that  the  hemihedral  forms  derived  from  the 
rhombohedron  and  scalenobedron  are  combinations  of  Utartokedral 
forms,  with  inclined  and  parallel  faces,  derived  from  the  hemihedral 
forms  with  parallel  faces  of  the  prismatic  system. 

These  tetartohedral  forms  with  inclined  and  parallel  faces,  de- 
rived from  the  hemihedral  forms  with  parallel  faces,  may  be  denoted 
respectively  by  the  symbols  kwIM  and  nwUI. 

The  tetartohedral  form  mthkl  cannot  obvionsly  exist ;  and  it  is 
easily  seen  that  the  form  kkJiM  is  included  in  Kwhkt.    Hence  the 

VOfcT.  2  I 


j.Googlc 


240  Proceedings  of  the  Boyd  Society 

'  only  tetartottedral  forma  are  mrUJ  and  mhH, — i.e.,  they  are  all  de- 
rived from  the  hemihedral  forms  with  poialiel  faces. 

Also  -Birhkl  can  only  exist  when  all  the  iadices  h,  h,  I  are  finite,  and 
(orMi  can  only  exist  when  all  the  indices  are  finite  or  one  zero. 

When  hkl  are  all  finite,  snrWJ  consiata  of  any  pair  of  parallel 
faces  of  the  form  Ail  and  kicJM  of  any  pair  of  inclined  faces  of  the 
form  hM.  When  one  of  the  indices  is  zero,  mrhkl  consiets  of  any 
single  face  of  the  form  hM. 

13.  Hemihedral  forms  with  inclined  faces,  derived  from  the 
rbomhohedron  or  scalenohedion,  have  only  been  observed  in  the 
following  minerals, — 

Cronstedtite. 
Fhenakite. 
Pyrai^yrite. 
Quartz. 
Tourmaline. 
In  these  minerals  alone,  therefore,  do  the  tetartohedral  forms 
Kirhkl  occnr. 

Hemihedral  forms  with  parallel  faces,  derived  from  the  scaleno- 
hedion, have  only  been  observed  in  the  following  minerals, — 
Dolomite. 
Dioptase. 
Fhenakite. 
The  tetartohedral  forma  withkl  occur,  therefore,  only  in  these 
minerals. 

Hemihedral  forms  with  parallel  faces,  derived  from  scaleno- 
bedra,  occur  also  in  apatite.  But  In  this  mineral,  two  scalenohedra, 
inverse  with  reapect  to  each  other,  always  occar  together  on  the 
same  specimen,  and  when  one  ecalenohedion  is  hemihedral  the 
.  other  is  so  also.  Hence  the  hemihedral  forms  in  this  mineral  cor- 
respond to  hemihedral  and  not  to  tetartohedral  forme  in  the  pris- 
matic system. 

11.  Let  «,,  a,,  a,  be  the  new  angvlar  element*  of  crystals  of  the 
rbombobedral  system  when  transferred  to  the  prismatic  system. 
Let -,=  100,110;  .,-010,011;  a, -001, 101. 


Then  tan  a,  =  cy      tan  a,  • 


DvGooglc 


o/Edwhurgh,  Session  1863-64. 
And  by  the  formulte  (2),  Art  5. 


^3     1     tan* 

tail 

«--V3, 

tan 

■'=ti^==<'^ 

tan 

«.=  i=tan«. 

The  other  aogulai  element  a,  is  given  by  equation  (a.) 
Hence  one  of  the  angular  elements  is  always  equal  to  60". 

15.  The  results  of  this  investigation  may  therefore  be  summed 
up  by  the  following  statement : — All  ciystals  included  in  the  rhom- 
bohedral  system  aie  merely  the  particular  forms  which  crystals  of 
the  prismatic  system  assume  when  one  angular  element  is  equal 
to  GO". 

16.  Tables  are  given  in  the  paper  containing  the  symbols  of  the 
forms  of  the  prismatic  system  corresponding  to  the  forms  observed 
in  the  various  minerals  belonging  to  the  rhombohedral  system. 

The  following  is  an  example  selected  from  the  tables : — 
Apatite, 

Angular  elements — 

100,110=60=;  010,  011  =  34"  20";  001,  101  =  40°  13'. 

Simple  forms — 

100,  010,  001,  Oil,  101,  110,  111,  012,  021,  102,  201,  310,  112, 
114,  311,  312,  314. 

The  following  forms  are  always  hemihedral  with  parallel  faces— 

210, 130,  320,  350,  610,  910,  121,  122,  532,  634,  712,  714,  615, 
3  7  10,  9  5  10. 

Cleavage— 

100,  001,  110. 

001  not  BO  easily  obtained  as  100,  110.  The  angles  between  the 
faces  are  of  course  the  same  whatever  be  the  symbols  used  to  re- 
present them.  For  Apatite  they  are,  therefore,  those  given  ou  p. 
485  of  Miller's  "  Mineralogy." 


DvGooglc 


242  Proceedinge  of  the  BoyaZ  Society 

17.  The  angular  elementa  of  Calcite  are — 

100,  1 10  -  60° ;  010,  Oil  =  45°  23'-4 ;  001,  101  =  29°  40'. 
Those  of  AragoDite  are — 

100, 110  =  58°  5";  010,  Oil  =  40°  50' ;  001, 101=35°  47'. 
These  angular  elements  differ  conaiderally.     Aragonite  and 
Galcite  will  therefore  cootinue  to  form  distinct  miDeral  species. 

18.  The  author  hopea  bodd  to  be  able  to  publish  the  results  of 
iQTestigations  which  appear  to  Bhow  that  the  crystals  included  in 
the  oblique  and  anorthic  Bystems  are  formed  by  the  combination  of 
hemihedral  and  tetartohedial  forma  of  the  prismatic  system. 


8,  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Connection  between  the  Fonn 
and  Optical  Properties  of  Crystals.  By  Alfred  R  Catton, 
B.A.,  F.C.P.S.,  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 

1.  It  is  the  object  of  this  note  to  give  an  account  of  the  results 
of  investigationB,  which  have  hod  for  their  object  the  discovery  of 
the  oonnection  between  the  form  and  optical  propertieB  of  crystals. 

It  is  believed  that  in  the  results  here  given,  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal difficulties  of  this  important  problem  have  been  overcome. 

2.  The  first  step  towards  the  solution  of  this  problem  was  made 
by  Sir  David  Brewster  in  1818.  He  discovered  that  cryatals  be- 
longing to  the  prismatic,  oblique,  and  anorthic  Bystems,  are  biaxal ; 
those  belonging  to  the  pyramidal  and  rhombohedral  systems  uniazal, 
while  crystals  of  the  cubic  flystem  do  not  possess  double  refraction 
(a  fact  which  had  been  previously  afated  by  Hauy). 

In  the  prismatic  system,  the  optic  axes  always  lie  in  a  plane 
containing  two  of  the  cryBtallographic  axeB,  and  make  equal  angles 
with  each  of  these  axes. 

Now  the  theoretical  investigatioDB  of  Fresnel  have  shown  that 
the  optic  axes  lie  in  a  plane  containing  the  axes  of  greatest  and 
least  elaBticity,  and  make  equal  angles  with  each  of  theae  axes. 

Hence  it  follows,  that,  in  the  prismatic  system,  the  axes  of  elas- 
ticity coincide  with  the  ciyetallographic  axes. 

In  the  oblique  system,  one  axis  of  elasticity  coincides  with  that 
crystallographic  axis  which  is  at  right  angles  to  each  of  the  otliei 


DvGooglc 


of  Edivimrgh,  Sesaion  1863-64.  243 

Id  the  anorthic  sjBtem,  the  position  of  the  axes  of  elasticity  ia 
subject  to  DO  koown  Uw. 

3.  These  facts  show  that  there  is  a  fundamental  connection  be- 
tween crystalline  form  and  optical  properties.  Of  late,  nevertheless, 
many  eminent  physicists,  following  the  views  of  Db  Seneirmont,  have 
doubted  the  existence  of  such  a  connection.  We  shall,  therefore, 
show  hereafter  that  the  experiments  of  De  Senarmont  as  well  as 
those  of  Des  Gtoizeanz  are  not  at  all  opposed  to,  but  important 
confirmations  of,  the  views  here  adopted,  which  are  founded  on  the 
facts  stated  above,  and  in  addition  on  the  remarkable  relations  that 
have  been  observed  between  hemihedral  forms  and  rotatory  polarisa- 
tion in  quartz,  and  dextro-  and  Isevo-  tartaric  acids. 

4.  In  this  note  we  shall  consider  in  detail  the  connection  between 
the  form  and  optical  properties  of  crystals  belonging  to  the  pris- 
matic system.  For  crystals  belonging  to  the  oblique  and  anorthic 
systems,  the  investigation  is  still  in  progress. 

5.  We  proceed  to  consider  the  following  problem. 

"  Given  the  angular  elements  of  a  crystal  belonging  to  the  pris- 
matic system,  to  find  the  angle  between  the  optic  axes." 

We  have  before  observed,  that,  in  the  prismatic  system,  the 
optic  axes  always  lie  in  a  plane  containing  two  of  the  crystallo- 
graphic  axes,  and  make  equal  angles  with  each  of  these  axes. 

First,  let  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  containing  the  para- 
meters c  and  a,  and  each  make  an  angle  u,  with  the  axis  c.  Our 
object  is  to  find  an  expression  for  some  function  of  m,,  say  tan  w,, 
in  terms  of  the  parameters  a,  b,  c. 

Now  crystals  belonging  to  the  pyramidal  system  have  only  one 
optic  axis,  which  coincides  with  the  axis  c,  if  a=b.  Hence,  when 
a  =  h,  the  angle  which  each  optic  axis  makes  with  the  axis  e 
vanishes;  or,  in  other  words,  both  optic  axes  coincide  with  the 
axis  c. 

Hence,  a,  and  .*.  tan  ut,  vanishes  when  a  =  h. 
.'.  tan  lo,  is  divisible  by  a  —  6. 

6.  In  an  abstract  of  a  paper  on  the  "  fihombohedral  System, " 
published  in  the  present  number  of  the  "  Proceedings, "  it  is  shown 
that  the  crystals  hitherto  included  in  the  rhombohedral  system  are 
merely  the  paritcular  forms  which  crystals  of  the  prismatic  system 
assume  when  one  angular  element  is  equal  to  60°. 


DvGooglc 


244  Prooeedinga  oflKe  Royal  Society 

But  GiystalB  belonging  to  the  rhombohedral  system  have  only 
one  optic  axis,  and  ttia,  bs  is  shown  in  the  paper  referred  to,  coin- 
cides with  the  axis  c  if  the  angnlar  element  100,  110  =  60*;  i.e^  if 

Hence  when  a  =  h  V3,  the  angle  which  each  optic  axis  makes 
with  the  axis  e  vanishes. 

Hence,  w,  and  .*•  tan  u,  vaniaheB  when  a=i  V3. 
.'.  tan  u,  is  divisible  by  a  — fi  V3. 

But  we  have  before  shown  that  it  is  divisible  hy  a  —  6. 
.■.  tan  01,  is  divisible  by  (a  - 1)  (a  -  6  v'3). 

But  all  uniaxal  crystals  belong  either  to  the  pyramidal  or  rhom- 
bohedral  systems. 

Hence  these  are  the  only  factors  containing  a  and  (,  by  which 
tan  a.  is  divisible. 

7.  Again,  if  u,=  k,  the  optic  axes  coincide  with  the  axis  a. 

But  when  this  is  the  case,  by  the  same  reasoning  as  before, 
either  i»c,  or  ftscv'S;  .-.  u,  must  =q,  or  tan  u,  must  become  in- 
finite when  h—c=o,  or  6-c  •JZ=o. 

Hence  the  expression  for  tan  tu,,  in  terms  of  a,  h,  c,  must  be  a 
fraction,  the  denominator  of  which  contains  the  factors  fi—c  anil 
b  —  c/h;  and,  for  the  same  reason  as  before,  these  are  the  only 
factors  in  the  denominator  containing  b  and  c. 

Hence,  sinoe  tan  w,  is  of  no  dimensions,  the  expression  for  tan  at, 
in  terms  of  a,  i,  c,  must  be  of  the  form 

«..^„-Cf'-W«-W3)- 
'     A(fc-c)-(6-c%/3)" 

where  C  is  independent  of  a  and  6,  and  A  of  b  and  c. 

8.  Crystals  belonging  to  the  cubic  system  do  not  possess  double  re- 
fraction ;  in  other  words,  they  have  an  infinite  number  of  optic  axes. 

Hence,  tan  u,  ought  to  become  indeterminate,  when  a~b=oa.ai 
b—c^o,  which  is  the  case  with  the  above  expression. 

9.  We  have  shown  from  physical  considerations,  that  the  factors 
A  — (,  anda-W3,  must  enter  into  the  expression,  for  tan  a,  at 
least,  to  the  first  degree ;  there  is,  however,  no  physical  reason  fur 


j.Googlc 


of  Bdinbtm/k,  Session  1863-64.  245 

SDpposiDg  that  these  factors  enter  to  a  degree  higher  than  tbe  first, 
and  we  are  thererore  led  to  assume  that  they  enter  to  the  first  degree 
only.    Hence  the  ezpresBion  for  tan  u,  becomes 
tan..^C(a-i)(,-6V3) 

A(6-c)(6-cV3)        *■    ■" 

Similarly,  if  tbe  optic  axeg  He  in  the  plane  containing  the  axes  a 
and  (,  and  if  u.  be  tbe  angle  vbich  each  makes  with  tbe  axis  a, 

'^^-■^m^, (^o 

Also,  if  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  containing  tbe  axes  b  and 
e,  and  if  u,  be  the  angle  which  eacb  makes  with  the  axis  b, 

^         B(c-.)(c-aV3) 

We  shall  show,  by  the  comparison  of  these  formnbe  with  obser- 

,.       ,.   .  A    B     C 
vation,  that  — =-t-^  — . 

10.  These  formnUe  can  be  easily  expressed  in  terms  of  tbe  angular 
elemental «,,  a,,  a,. 

For  tan  0,=^     tan  «,=-      tan  «.=- 


Hence,  putting  ^=ii  tbe  formula  (2.)  may  be  written  in  the 
form, 

tan  a>  -  (cot  S  -  cot  45°)  (tan  «,  -  tan  60°) 
'    (cot  o,  -  cot  45°)  (tan  Oj  -  tan  60°) 
and  so  for  the  others. 

11.  The  angular  elements  of  a  crystal  ate  to  a  certain  extent  arbi- 
trary; thus  tbe  parameters  may  be  changed  from  a,  b,  e,  to  pa,  qb, 
re — where  p,  j,  r  are  positive  integers  none  of  which  are  zero — 
provided  tbe  symbols  of  the  simple  forms  are  altered  accordingly. 

With  the  new  parameters  formula  (2.)  becomes 

tan  __^?''(g^-")fgi-'^3j 
36  (rc-pa)(rc-paV3) 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  finite  and  integral  valaes  of  p,  q,  r 
may  be  found  soch  tbat,  with  the  angular  elements  ^ven   in 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


240  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

Miller's  "  Uinaialogy,"  or  elsevhere,  the  calculated  agrees  with 
the  observed  angle  between  the  optic  axes. 

We  proceed  to  the  comparison  of  these  fonnuhe  with  obserration. 

12.  Chrytoleryl. — In  this  mineral,  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane 
6c,  and  make  angles  of  13°  5S',  with  axis  c. 

Let "  be  this  angle. 

Then  tan  •=cot»».-  -f- ^ ^  by  formnU  (3.) 

Angular  elements,— 

100,  no -64' 49';  010,  011  =  39"  1';  001,  101  =30°  T. 
.-.    -=cot64'49'-'4702. 

--tanSO"   r=-5801. 
.    f.«„-'S298x-1866     C  .    , 


■4199  X  1152  "B ^  *-' 

=  ■20326  if  ^--1. 

On  this  BuppofiitioD,  «  is  somewhat  less  than  11°  30,  which 
differs  by  2°  25'  from  the  observed  value  of  13°  55' ;  this  difference 
is  too  great  to  be  ascribed  either  to  enors  in  the  determination  of 
the  angular  elements,  or  of  the  angle  between  the  optic  axes. 

The  value  of  —  must  be  such  that  the  value  of  «  given  by  equa- 
tion (a)  is  equal,  ot  nearly  so,  to  13°  S5'. 
We  find  this  to  be  the  case  on  trial,  if  ~  =£. 

For  cbrysoberyl  |=cot  39''l'=l-2337. 

Hence,  equation  (a)  becomes 

tan  «» ■20326x1-2337. 

=  ■2507. 
.■•  «=14°4-5; 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  247 

which  only  differe  from  13°  55'  by  ff-S,  a  difference  quite  within  the 
limits  of  errors  of  observation. 

Hence,  from  the  optical  properties  of  ohrysoberyl,  we  deduce 
that,  if  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  be, 

i...>.+'('-°)"-.ia. 

The  sign  ±  is  used,  for  in  the  reasoning  by  which  the  above 
formula  has  heen  dednced,  there  is  nothing  to  show  whether  the 
factor  corresponding  to  a  =  ciB  a  —  c,  ore  — a,  or  that  correspond- 
ing to  c=aV3,  e-a^3,  ora^/3-c,  &c. 

13.  AragoniU — 

In  this  mineral  the  optic  axee  lie  in  the  plane  at,  and  for  the 
fixed  line  B  make  angles  of  9°  2'  41'-5  with  the  axis  c,  and  of 
9°  2ff  20'  for  the  fixed  line  H* 

Hence  hy  formula  (1.), 

tan    ^(y-g^Jfy-gV^)  r? 

''       (36-rc)(fffi-rcV3)  P" 
Angular  elements — 

100,  110=58°  5';  010,  011  =  40°  6ff;  001,  101=35'"  47'. 

-•.5=1.6055    1=11671    -=-72078. 
boa 

In  the  ahove  formula  put  p=q=  1  and  r^  2. 
The  form  denoted  in  Miller's  "  Mineralogy"  by  the  symbol  201  is 
thus  taken  as  the  form  101. 


~  2~3142  X  30084 
=  -110106x2x-72078 
=  -15872 
.-.  »,=9°  2' nearly, 

which  differs  from  KirchhoS's  determination  for  mean  rays,  viz., 
9°  9'  35'  by  7  35'. 

14.  Kantenite  (Anhydrite). — Optic  axes  in  plane  ah,  and  make 
angles  of  20°  18''S,  with  axis  b.    Here, 

"  Kitchhoff  iPogj.  ArmaloL  eviii.  (1859).  p,  674). 
VOL.  V.  2  K 


D.q,i,zedj.Googlc 


248  Proceedinga  of  the  Soyal  Society 

..-       B    6 
puttmg  j=-- 

Angolat  elementB, — 

010,  Oil  -  42°  17' ;  001,  101  =  H"  25'. 
If  these  be  altered  thns, — 

010, 011-42° 30*  (diff.  of  130 ;  001, 101  =  44° (diff.  of  25), 
we  hme  tao  «» -37134 

.■.  ■=  20°  30'  nearly,  wMch  diffeis  by  11'5  from  the  ob- 
served Talue. 

15.  Nitre. — Optic  axes  id  plane  ea,  and  make  angles  of  abont  3° 
with  axis  c. 

Angnlar  elementB, — 

100,  110=69°  25* ;  010,  Oil  -  40°  S. 
If  tbeae  be  altered  thns, — 

100,  110=69"  4ff  (diff.  of  W) ;  010,  011=40°  (diff.  of  8-). 
The  value  of  «  given  by  the  formnla, 

tan--±(^Z^)^::W3)c 
(i-c)(6-cV3)« 
is  3°  20*  nearly,  differing  by  about  20'  from  the  observed  angle. 

16.  Ceruuite. — In  this  mineral  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  he, 
and  make  angles  of  4°  8*  with  axis  c 

Angnlar  elements, — 
100,  110=68°  Sff-G;  010,  011  =  40°  ff-B;  001,  101  =  36°  Sy. 

.-.   -=6102     l  =  -723      f=l-1851. 
a  a  0 

Hence  eqaation  (3.)  becomes 


=  4°  36'  nearly,  which  differs  by  2S  from  the  observed  vklne. 
If  ^=^=11851,  the  eqaation  becomes, 

tan.  =  08xll851=0948. 
=5°  24',  which  differs  from  the  observed  value  by  V  Iff. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seeaim  1863-64.  249 

17.  By  m&king  small  alteratiooB  in  the  angular  elementa  of  Q-laae- 

rit«,  Biookite,  Epsomite,  GrOBlarite,  Cordierite,  the  calculated  ma;  be 

made  to  agree  with  the  obaerred  angle  within  the  limits  of  errors  of 

obseTvation. 


nation  of  the  optic  axes  to  the  crystallogiaphic  axes  e,  a,  b,  when 
they  lie  in  the  planes  ea,  ab,  be,  respectively,  agree  with  observa- 
tioD,  in  some  cases,  without  making  any,  or  only  slight  changes, 
in  the  angular  elements;  but  in  other  cases  it  is  necessary  to  make 
considerable  changes.  It  is  therefore  important  to  consider  whether 
the  changes  required  are  greater  than  the  possible  errors  in  the 
angular  elements. 

19,  Now,  the  meaeniements  of  the  angles  between  the  faces  of 
different  specimens  of  the  same  mineral,  by  the  same  or  by  dif- 
ferent observers,  often  vary  very  considerably,  sometimes  as  much  as 
1°  or  2°.  In  Karatenite,  for  instance,  the  angle  between  the  faces 
of  the  form  110,  which  are  truncated  by  the  face  010,  is  variously 
stated  as  96°  36'  or  98°  54',  which  differ  by  2°  18'.  This  difference 
is  too  great  to  be  ascribed  to  errors  of  observation.  It  only  appears 
possible  to  account  for  these  differences  in  the  measuiements  of 
the  same  or  of  equally  accurate  observeis,  by  supposing  that  the 
angular  elements  of  a  given  mineral  are  liable  to  vary  slightly  in 
different  specimens.  The  question  is,  to  what  causes  is  this  varia- 
tion due?  Now,  in  isomorphous  substances,  the  angular  elements 
often  differ  by  a  degree  oi  more.  For  instance,  the  angular  ele- 
ments of  the  minerals  isomorphous  with  Aragonite  are, — 


100,100 

010,  Oil 

Aragonite,  .     . 

.     68°  5' 

40°  50' 

Geruseito,    .     . 

.     58°36'fi 

40°9'-6 

Strontianite, 

.   58°  as' 

40°  6' 

Witherite,  .     . 

.    53°  16' 

38°  45- 

Alatonite,    .    . 

.    59°  26' 5 

88°  39' 

It  will  be  observed  that 

respectively  by  l°20'-fi  and  2°  11'  from  those  of  Aragonite,  those  of 
the  other  minerals  differing  by  less.  Now  Alstonite  may  be  con- 
sidered as  Aragonite,  in  which  half  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  replaced 
by  carbonate  of  baryta.    Hence  we  may  say,  that  when  half  the 


DvGooglc 


250  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

lime  in  Aragonite  is  replaced  by  barytaj  the  angular  elementa  of  the 
latter  are  altered  from  SS'"  S  and  40°  Sff  to  59°  26'-5,  and  38"  39- 
respectively. 

Beasoning  of  a  Bimilar  kind  may  be  applied  in  a  number  of  other 
cases. 

Hence,  we  conclude  that  the  angular  elements  of  a  mineral  vary 
when  the  normal  conBtituents  are  replaced  by  isomorphous  snb- 
stances. 

20.  Again,  all  crystals,  except  those  of  the  cnbic  system,  expand, 
in  general,  differently  in  different  directions  under  the  action  of 
beat.  This  is  alvays  the  case  ia  crystals  belonging  to  the  pris- 
matic, oblique,  and  anorthic  systems. 

Hence  a  change  of  temperature  alters  the  angles  between  the 
faces,  and  therefore  the  angular  elementa,  of  crystals  belonging  to 
these  systems,  and  the  angular  elements  will  in  general  be  per- 
manently altered  if  the  temperature  be  sufficiently  raised. 

Hence  the  angular  elements  of  a  mineral  depend  upon  the  tem- 
perature to  which  it  is  or  has  been  exposed. 

21.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  angular  elements,  instead 
of  being  constant  in  all  specimens  of  the  same  mineral,  vary  within 
narrow  limits,  according  to  the  amount  of  isomorphous  replace- 
ment and  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  or  has  been  exposed;*  and 
further,  that  the  amount  of  this  variation  is  quite  as  great  as  the 
differences  which  must  be  made  in  the  angular  elements,  given  in 
Miller's  "  Mineralogy,"  in  order  to  make  the  calculated  agree  with 
the  observed  angle  between  the  optic  axes.  It  is  possible  that,  in 
a  number  of  cases,  the  angular  elements  of  the  crystal  employed 

*  Many  appaie&t  cases  of  dimorphism  may  posaiblj  be  henoe  eipUined. 
Thus,  Aragonite  is  not  pnre  carbonate  of  lime,  but  is  always  associated  with 
variable  qoantitiee  of  the  carboBates  of  ationtia,  lead,  or  manganese.  Colcita 
sometimes  contains  a  considerable  qnantily  of  foreign  sabetanceB, — tacb  as 
pTotocubonate  of  iron,  oxide  of  zinc,  &e.  Hence,  if  iaomorphoos  replacement 
produces  changes  in  the  angolar  elementa,  these  differences  in  the  compodtian 
of  Oaldte  and  Aragonite  woold  be  snlBcient  to  account  for  the  differences  in 
their  angular  elements  (supposing  them  both  refarred  to  the  pramatie  sjetem). 
Graphite  sometimes  contains  as  inucb  as  10  per  cent,  of  iron ;  titanic  acid  ia 
always  associated  in  anataae,  rntile,  and  brooUte,  with  vaiiable  qnantiliee  of 
seaqnioiide  of  iron.  Differences  in  the  angular  elements  may  also  be  due  to 
diffcreneee  in  the  temporatnre  at  which  the  crjretala  were  formed. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1863-64.  251 

for  detenmning  the  augle  betveen  the  optic  axes,  were,  from  the 
causes  mentioaed,  different  from  those  given  by  Professor  Uitler. 

22.  But  if  the  angular  elements  of  a  mineral  vary  within  certain 
limits,  the  angle  between  the  optic  axes,  calculated  by  the  for- 
mula given  in  this  note,  must  also  Tar;  within  correaponding 
limits.*' 

The  causes,  therefore,  which  produce  in  a  given  mineral  the 
variations  in  the  angle  between  the  optic  axes  are  the  same  as 
those  which  produce  the  vorialionB  in  the  angular  elements.  That 
the  angle  between  the  optic  axes  of  a  crystal  varies  by  isomorphous 
replacement,  is  established  by  the  experiments  of  De  Senarmont;t 
that  it  varies  with  the  temperature  to  which  the  crystals  are  or 
have  been  exposed,  is  oBtablished  by  those  of  Des  Cloizeaux.t 

The  existence  of  this  variation,  therefore,  far  from  being  opposed 
to  the  existence  of  a  connection  between  the  form  and  optical 
properties  of  crystals,  as  argued  by  De  SeDarmont,§  ia  strongly  in 
support  of  it. 

23.  Suppose  that  from  either  of  the  causes  mentioned,  the  para- 
meters a,  6,  c,  become  a -|-i^,  6+ y,  c+z,  where  z,  y,  z,  are  small  quan- 
tities. Let  the  optic  azee  lie  in  the  plane  ca,  and  make  an  angle  m 
with  the  axis  e,  and  let  «'  be  the  angle  corresponding  to  the  new 
[larameters.     It  is  easily  seen  that 

a~b    b~e    a-bJA     hj-c^3 

neglecting  — r— 

Hence,  if  100, 110  be  nearly  46°  or  60°,  andie— y  not  very  small 
in  the  former  case,  nor  «-yV3  in  the  latter,  while  010,  Oil 
differs  considerably  from  45°  or  60°,  tan  •('-tan  •  will  be  large. 
In  this  case,  therefore,  the  angle  between  the  opiic  axes  will  vary 
considerably. 

■  Topaz  aod  mica  are  well  known  examples  of  thia  variation  of  the  angle 
between  tbe  optio  axet. 

t  ADnales  (le  Cfaemie,  third  sericB,  ixiiii.  p.  891. 
I  ADnalce  dee  Hinea,  sixth  eeriea,  ii.  p.  327. 
i  Ibid.,  p.  48S, 


DvGooglc 


252  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

If  010,  Oil  bcDeariy  IS^orfiO",  andy-jnot  reiy  small  in  the 
former  caae,  nory-sVS  in  the  latter,  while  100,  110  differs  con- 
siderably from  45°  or  60°,  the  value  of  tan  i'  —  tan  u,  though  con- 
siderable, will  not  be  so  great  as  before. 

If  100,  010  and  010,  Oil  are  both  nearly  equal  to  45°  or  60*, 
tan  a/ will  differ  very  little  from  tan  u,  except  when  a;— y  andy— s, 
oTX—y/Z  aaty-WZ  differ  considerably, 

Hence  are  explained  the  Tariationa  of  the  angle  between  the 
optic  axes  produced  by  an  increase  of  temperature  in  Brookite  and 
Ghrjrsoberyl,  as  observed  Ly  Dea  Clotzeaux, 

24.  We  find  that  the  expression  for  tan  «,  in  terms  of  a,  h,  c,  con- 
tains the  factor  — .  For  the  existence  of  this  factor  no  d  priori  phy- 
sical reason  can  be  assigned.  Now  c  -  o  represents  an  infinite  plane, 
containing  the  crystallographic  axes  a  and  h,  and  tan  «,  vuiishee 
when  e=o.  The  physical  interpretation  of  this  factor  therefore 
is,  that  such  an  infinite  plane  has  only  one  optic  axis  which  coin- 
cides with  the  axis  c.  We  may  compare  this  result  with  the  fact, 
that  ifarey  of  light  is  incident  on  a  crystal  of  the  prismatic  system, 
in  the  direction  of  one  of  the  principal  plan^,  one  of  the  refracted 
rays,  which  is  polarised  in  that  principal  plane,  follows  the  ordi- 
nary law  of  refraction. 

25.  Again,  the  expression  for  tan  u,  becomes  indeterminate  if 

a-h=o,  Aadb'-ej3=o; 
QT,  b-c=o,  &ad  a-h;J3=o; 
or,  o-W5=o;  and  6-c^3=o. 

Henoe,  if  the  angular  element  of  a  crystal  of  the  pyramidal  sys- 
tem were  equal  to  60°,  it  would  not  possess  double  refraction ;  the 
same  would  be  the  case  if  one  of  the  angular  elements  of  a  crystal 
of  the  rbombohedral  system  were  equal  to  60°. 

26.  If  a',  b'l  d  be  the  optical  constants  in  descending  order  of  mag- 
nitude, and  «  the  angle  which  each  optic  axis  makes  with  the  axis 
of  least  elasticity,  we  have. 


Asimniing  Fresnel's  expression  for  ihe  angle  between  the  optic  axe» 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


0/  Edinburgh,  Seseioa  1863-64.  253 

in  tenna  of  the  optical  coDstctnts;*  but  if  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the 
plane  ea,  we  have  also, 


Ca--by(a-W3)V     (J-c)'(6-<:^/3)'a" 
which  ie  a  relatioa  between  the  optical  and  crjBtallographic  con- 
stants. 

Similarly,  if  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  aJ>,  and  Ac' a'  be  in 
descending  order  of  magnitnde, 

f'-e'*  ^  e''-a'' 

(6-c)'(6-cV3)V    (c-af(c-as/zyb'' 
and  if  the  optic  axes  lie  in  the  plane  be,  and  e'a'b'  be  in  descend- 
ing Older  of  magnitnde, 


(c-a)'(c-aN/3)'6'     (a  -  fc)- (o  -  W3)'c* " 
27.  A  serions  objection  may  be  made  to  formnln  such  as  the 
above,  expressing  relations  between  a",  &,  e^,  and  a,  h,e. 
In  the  formula 

fc''-c'>°(fe-e)'(6-cV3/a' 
for  instance,  the  left  side  of  the  equation  is  a  function  of  the  wave- 
length. 

Bat  since  a,  h,  c  depend  only  on  the  angles  between  the  faces  of 
crystals,  which  aie  of  oonrae  invariable,  the  right  side  of  the  equa- 
tion is  independent  of  the  wave  length. 

The  only  way  of  overcoming  this  difficulty  appears  to  be  by  sup- 
posing that  the  apparent  angles  between  the  faces  of  crystals  of 
the  prismatic  system,  as  determined  by  the  reflective  goniometer, 
may  vary  witb  the  kind  of  light  employed.    Some  experiments 

*  The  iDMmrem«ntB  of  Eirclihoff  (Ibid.)  bava  diown  that  tbi»  fonnaln 
agrees  doeely  with  oburration  in  the  csm  of  Amgonite. 

Alao,  if  a'=  ('  the  crjital  becomes  uninial,  and  tlie  optic  axes  coincide  with 
azii  (/ ;  hence  tan  '•  onght  lo  vsnieh  when  0*=  f. 

If  y=:  €  the  optie  axes  cofacide  with  axis  al  -,  hence  tan  *m  ought  to  bo- 
come  iofiuite  when  6*:=  €.    Fresnel's  exprsMJon  Mfils  tbeee  conditions. 


DvGooglc 


254  Proceedmga  0/ the  Boyat  Society 

of  Sir  David  BrewBter  oq  crTstalliae  reflexion  appear  to  connten- 
aDce  such  a  fiuppoeition ;  bnt  the  problem  of  crjetalline  refl«xioa 
is  involved  in  obscurity. 

28.  Since  all  the  properties  of  crystalB,  aa  the  values  of  the  prin- 
cipal tefraotive  indices,  the  wave  velocities,  the  form  of  the  wave 
surface,  &c.,  depend  on  the  values  of  a',  b',  c,  it  follows  that  the 
complete  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  connection  between  the 
form  and  optical  properties  of  crystals  consists  in  detennining 
a',  b,  e'  as  functions  of  a,  b,  c. 

Let    °"  ■=   ^"  ^  '" 
/[Oftc    f^xbc    ffibc 

where  a'  b'  c  are  in  descending  order  of  magnitude, 

then        Jflbc -ffibc=  (o -If  (a- bJZy  c» 

ffihc  -f^abe =Q>-ef(b-  cV5)'  o' 


■  (a-i)'(o-fiV3)'c*+C6-c)'(6-eV3ra'+/,afe 


Hence  only  one  function /^atc  remains  to  be  determined.  Sym- 
metry would  suggest  the  value  (c— a/ (c-a^S)"*  6'  for^ofic.  We 
have  not  as  yet,  however,  attempted  to  determine  the  value  oif/xbe 
by  the  comparison  of  this  formula  with  observation. 

29.  The  investigation  of  the  optical  properties  of  crystals  belong- 
ing to  the  oblique  system  is  still  in  progress.  The  following  is  ttte 
method  employed  in  this  in veB ligation.  Each  crystal  is  referred  to 
three  rectangular  axes,  one  axis  being  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
the  optic  axes,  the  other  two  being  the  internal  and  external 
bisectors  of  the  angle  between  the  optic  axes.  The  new  parameters 
are  calculated  by  means  of  formulea  investigated  in  a  paper  on  the 
"  Ehombohedral  System ; "  and  thence  the  angle  between  the  optic 
aies  is  found,  as  if  the  crystal  belonged  to  the  prismatic  system, 
by  means  of  the  formulee  given  in  this  note.  The  angle  between 
the  optic  axes  of  one  mineral  belonging  to  the  oblique  system  has 
been  calculated  by  thip  process ;  and  the  calculated  has  been  found 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Beaaion  1863-64.  2S5 

to  agree  approximately  with  tbe  observed  angle.  If  this  ahoold 
prove  to  be  geDerally  the  caae,  It  will  not  only  be  a  Bolution  of  the 
problem  which  forme  the  Bubjeot  of  this  note  for  crystala  of  the 
oblique  aystem,  but  it  will  prove  that  these  oiystala  are  formed 
according  to  the  same  lawB  of  cymmetiy  bb  cryBtals  of  the  prismatic 
ayvtsm, 

9.  A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Oxides  of 
Manganese.    By  W.  Dittmar,  Esq. 

It  is  known  that  oxides  of  manganese,  when  ignited  in  air,  either 
abeorb  or  lose  oxygen,  until  they  attain  the  composition  expressed 
by  the  fonnula  Mn,  0^.  Schneider  found  that  when  they  are 
heated  in  pure  oxygen,  they  leave  the  oxide  Un,  0,. 

This  Utter  result  is  not  what  one  might  have  expected,  for  we 
know  of  no  positive  action  exerted  on  manganese  oxides  or  on  pure 
oxygen  by  nitrogen.  Thus  air  should  act  like  dihite  oxygen,  pro- 
ducing the  same  oxide. 

To  explain  Schneider's  result,  we  must  sappose  either  that 
artificial  oxygen  diftera  frem  that  contained  in  air,  or,  what  is  more 
likely,  that  the  amount  of  oxygen  which  any  given  quantity  of 
manganese  can  take  np  when  heated  in  it,  depends  not  only  on  the 
temperatoie,  but  also  on  the  iention  of  the  ocofgen  employed. 

If,  then,  it  is  true,  that  at  a  ted  heat,  in  presence  of  oxygen  of 
the  tension  of  one  atmosphere,  Hn,  0,  is  a  stable  compound,  while 
the  same  oxide,  exposed  to  the  same  temperature  in  picsence  of 
oxygen  of  the  tension  of  one-fifth  of  an  atmosphere,  is  reduced  to 
Mn,  0^,  the  question  naturally  arises,  What  oxides  will  be  formed 
in  presence  of  oxygen  of  different  tensions  from  those  two  above 
mentioned  7  Is  there  a  continuons  series  of  oxides  corresponding 
to  a  continuous  series  of  oxygen-tensions  under  which  they  have 
been  formed  7 

These  questions  seemed  to  me  to  merit  investigation,  especially 
as  their  results  would  form  an  addition  to  our  very  imperfect  know- 
ledge of  the  influence  of  physical  conditiona  on  chemical  reactions. 

In  the  first  series  of  experiments,  pure  peroxide  of  manganese, 
in  a  poTcelun  or  platinum  boat,  was  placed  in  a  porcelain  tube, 
kept  at  a  bright  red  heat,  while  a  current  of  nitrogen  or  oxygen, 
or  of  a  mixture  of  these  two  gases,  was  passed  over  it.     The 


...Google 


256  Proceedings  of  the  Roycd  Society 

resulting  oxide  was  weigbed  and  anatyaed  by  determioiDg  the 
quantity  of  protoxide  it  yielded  wben  heated  in  a  carrent  of 
hydrogen.  Host  of  the  experiments  were  carried  on  nnder  ordi- 
nary atmoBpheric  pressure ;  but  in  a  few  cases,  the  tension  of  the 
gae  was  made  less  than  one  atmosphere  by  connecting  the  exit  end 
of  the  porcelain  tube  with  a  large  bell-JBT,  within  which  the  pres- 
sure was  diminished,  and  kept  constant  by  means  of  an  air-pump. 
Eighteen  experiments  gave  the  following  results. 
In  all  cases,  either  black  Un,  0,,  or  brown  Mn,  0^  was  obtained ; 
no  intermediate  oxides  were  formed. 

Id  all  the  cases  in  which  Mn^  0,  was  obtained,  the  partial  tensiou 
of  the  oxygen  lay  between  0  and  0'21  atmospheres  (the  latter 
tension  being  that  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere).  In  all  the 
experiments  in  which  Mn,  0,  was  obtained,  the  partial  tension  of 
the  oxygen  lay  between  0'25  and  one  atmosphere. 

Oxygen  tensions  intermediate  between  021  and  0-25  did  not 
occur  in  the  series ;  but'  in  spite  of  this  gap,  the  results  obtained 
render  it  highly  probable  that  the  function  expressing  the  relation 
between  the  composition  of  an  oxide  of  manganese  which  is  formed 
at  a  red  heat  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  and  the  tension  of  that 
oxygen  ia  discontinuous,  so  that  Mn,Oj  is  formed  whenever  the 
tension  exceeds,  and  Mn^  0,  whenever  it  is  lelow  a  certain  definite 
limit. 

To  determine  whether  such  a  point  of  diBcontinuity  really  exists, 
and  if  so,  its  position,  a  second  series  of  experiments  was  per- 
formed, which  were  made  as  nniform,  and  therefore  comparable, 
as  possible.  In  all  cases,  tbe  Mn  0,  was  heated  in  mixtures  of 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  of  exactly  known  composition,  kept  at,  or 
very  near  to,  the  tension  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  per- 
centages of  oxygen  in  those  mixtures  were  so  chosen  as  gradually 
to  inclose  the  value  sought  for  within  narrower  and  narrower  limits 
In  each  experiment,  the  height  of  tbe  barometer  was  determined, 
in  order  to  know  exactly  the  partial  tension  of  the  oxygen  in  the 
mixture. 

Eleven  experiments  were  made  in  all.  In  eight,  tbe  oxides 
obtained  were  either  pure  Mn,0„  or  Mo^O,.  In  three,  the  oxides 
were  obtained  together,  not  mixed,  but  as  it  were  side  by  side, 
and  occupying  difleront  parts  of  the  boat.   In  those  cases,  in  which 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semon  1863-C4.  257 

Hd,  0,  was  obtaiDed  alone,  or  at  least  in  which  it  predominated, 
the  partial  tension  of  the  oxygen  (when  measared  by  the  heigbt  of 
the  equivalent  column  of  mercury)  did  not  exceed  7*07  inchee. 

In  those  cases  in  which  Mn,  Oj  was  obtained,  or  at  least  pre- 
dominated, the  partial  tension  of  the  oxygen  was  equal  to,  or 
greater  than,  6-9  inches.  Thus  the  point  of  discontinuity  lies 
between  the  two  limits  69  and  7'07  inches. 

Within  theso  two  tensions,  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes 
the  other  oxide  was  obtained.  This  fact  does  not  speak,  however, 
against  the  existence  of  some  definite  point  of  discontinuity,  as  the 
composition  of  the  resulting  oxide  depends  on  the  temperature  at 
which  the  experiment  is  performed,  as  well  as  the  tension  of  the 
oxygen  employed.  A  diminution  of  temperature  is  probably  of 
the  same  effect  as  an  increase  in  the  tension  of  the  oxygen,  and 
vice  vena.  Thus,  if  the  tension  of  the  oxygen  in  a  given  mixture 
of  that  gas  and  nitrogen  is  just  equal  to  that  corresponding  to  the 
point  of  discontinuity,  for  a  definite  temperature  t,  a  temperature 
slightly  above  that  will  cause  the  formation  of  Muj  Ou  and  one 
slightly  below  will  produce  Mn,  0,. 

In  one  experiment  I  succeeded  in  producing  the  two  oxides  by 
means  of  the  same  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  only  the 
tension  being  slightly  varied.  Mn^O^,  heated  in  this  mixture  at 
the  atmospheric  pressure  of  29'9  inches,  remained  unchanged, 
while  at  the  tension  of  29-5  it  was  reduced  to  Un,  0^.  This  is 
quite  within  the  limit  of  ordinary  barometrical  variations. 

10.  Notice  of  Glacial  Clay,  witli  Arctic  Sheila,  near  Erxol,  on 
the  Taj.  -By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Brown,  F.R.S.E. 

The  anthoi  refened  to  the  paper  on  the  Elie  Glacial  Clay,  with 
Shells,  read  by  him  on  the  2d  of  March  1863.  During  the  succeed- 
ing summer  he  learned  from  Dr  M'fiain,  that  shells  had  been  found 
in  a  brickfield  near  Errol,  hat  so  badly  preserved,  that  none  of  the 
species  had  teen  determined.  During  the  autumn,  while  staying 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Perth,  he  took  occasion  to  visit  the  Errol 
brickfield,  and  found  that  the  sheila,  which  occur  in  considerable 
abundance,  ore  precisely  the  same  group  with  those  at  Elie.  The 
Leda  inmcata,  for  example,  which  is  the  characteristic  shell  of  the 


..,  Google 


268  Proeeedinge  of  tte  Boy(A  Sodeiy 

deposit  at  Elie,  is  yet  more  abundant  at  Enrol,  aloog  with  Uie 
Pedtn  Orcenlawliciu,  and  most  of  the  peculiar  Arctic  shelle  of 
the  deposit.  Some  intereating  additione  to  the  list  of  Arctic  species 
were  obtained  at  EiroL  The  skeleton  of  a  seal  was  also  found  ; 
but  the  description  of  these  fossils,  as  well  as  the  obsorrations 
made  on  the  nature  of  the  deposit  and  its  stiatigraphical  lelationa, 
were  reserved  for  a  future  occasion.  The  author  merely  wished  to 
direct  attention  to  the  fact,  that  those  glacial  clay  bods  of  the  Forth 
aie  found  also  in  the  Tay. 

11.  Notea  on  the  Boulder-Clay  at  Greenock  and  Port^Qlas- 
'  gow.     By  the  Eev.  R.  Boog  Wataon,  B.A.,   F.I1.8.E., 
Hon.  Mem.  Nat.  Ver.  Liineburg. 

Li  Greenock,  excavations  have  lately  been  made  for  a  new  gaso- 
meter. The  works  are  now  completed,  but  the  superintendent,  a 
most  int«lligeDt  man,  took  me  to  the  place,  and  totd  me  what  they 
had  found  in  the  course  of  digging. 

The  site  of  the  excavation  is  close  to  the  shore,  and  very  little 
above  the  tide-maik. 

At  the  south-east  comer  of  the  works,  i.e.,  most  remote  from  the 
sea,  the  workmen  reached  the  rock  at  a  depth  of  20  feet.  It 
was  a  soft  shale,  and  I  could  not  ascertain  that  any  stiiationH 
were  observed  on  it.  Probably  there  were  none  preserved  on  snch 
material.  Its  upper  surface  was  flat.  Towards  the  sea,  or  north 
and  west,  the  rock  sloped  downwards  very  steeply,  and  this  sea- 
ward face  was  covered  by  a  great  bed  or  bank  of  sand,  that  sloped  up 
from  the  edge  of  the  rock,  and  as  it  receded  rose  higher  as  a  bank. 

The  fiat  surface  of  the  rook  was  covered  by  from  6  to  12  inches 
of  a  fine  soft  clay  without  stones.  I  could  not  learn  whether  this 
clay  overlay  or  dipped  under  the  sand-bank,  or  whether  it  simply 
disappeared  altogether  at  the  edge  of  the  rock,  where  the  sand- 
bank began.    The  last  altemolive  seems  the  most  probable. 

Above  the  clay  lay  from  18  to  20  feet  of  boulder-clay,  a  little 
thinner,  of  course,  over  the  back  of  the  sand-bank.  The  boulder- 
clay  was  dark  in  colour,  sandy,  and  full  of  stnated  stones,  some  of 
which  were  of  considerable  size — in  short,  exactly  similar  to  what 
we  have  at  Leith  and  Newhaven. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesnon  1863-64.  269 

The  interest  of  this  section  lies  in  tho  fact  of  its  proving,  that 
the  boQldei-clay  id  this  case  was  deposited  in  water.  This  is  oh- 
viouB,  not  only  from  the  sodimentaTy  character  of  the  underlying 
olay  and  sand,  with  which  the  boulder-cla;  is  here  assooiated,  hat 
also  from  the  soft  natDTe  and  exposed  condition  of  these  underly- 
ing beds  which  could  not  poesihly  have  resisted  the  presanre  of  ice. 
The  bonldei-clay  aeema  here,  therefore,  to  have  been  dropped  from 
ander  the  edge  of  the  ice-cake  covering  of  out  land  just  where  it 
began  to  float  at  the  shore  line,  and  thus  quietly  to  have  buried  the 
true  marine  deposits  now  underlying  it. 

Another  locality,  where  I  recently  examined  the  boulder-clay,  is 
in  the  cutting  of  the  New  Wemyss  Bay  Bailway,  where  it  ap- 
proaches its  junction  with  the  present  Greenock  Bailway,  just  be- 
low Port-Glasgow.    The  new  railway  cutting  here  runs  at  a  height 
of  60  feet  above  the  sea,  along  the  edge  of  the  sleep  slope,  the  base 
of  which  is  the  flat  known  as  the  40-fbot  sea-beach.    The  old  rail- 
way runs  here  along  this  flat ;  and  it  was  in  this  neighbourhood 
that  the  shell-bed  described  by  Mr  Smith  of  Jordauhill  occurs  in 
a  bed  of  sand  overlying  the  boulder-elay.      The  boulder-clay  is 
>      somewhat  redder,  but  otherwise  exactly  like  that  in  the  railway 
'      catting  which  is  now  being  made  between  Newhaven  and  Leith. 
It  is  dark,  sandy,  and  full  of  striated  stones.    Through  it  there 
i      runs  horizontally  a  well  marked  stratum  of  fine  sand  and  clay 
I      about  two  inches  thick,  which  I  traced  for  several  yards,  till  it  was 
I     lost  in  the  debris  of  the  cutting     In  the  midst  of  this  boulder-clay 
;.    at  a  height  of  about  GO  feet  above  the  sea,  I  found  several  frag- 
;     menta  of  shells,  one  or  two  of  which  seemed  to  belong  to  an  astmrte  ; 
the  others  were  unrecognisable.     Under  the  boulder-clay  the  rock 
has  been  laid  hare,  and  both  its  seaward  face  and  upper  surface  are 
well  seen.    It  is  a  coarse  sandstone ;  its  upper  surface  ia  very 
strongly  striated  and  well  rounded. 

flere  then,  as  in  the  former  case,  we  have  evidence  that  the 
bouldar-clay  was  deposited  in  the  sea.  It  was  land  ice  which  formed 
the  materials  of  the  bouldei-clay,  and  consolidated  them  by  its  pres- 
sure. This  is  now  generally  admitted,  but  the  presence  of  the  shells 
and  the  existence  of  the  stratum  of  sand  and  clay  indicate  that  these 
materials  were  deposited  on  a  surface  covered  by  the  aea.  But 
there  are  indicatione  here  of  a  still  more  interesting  fact.    The 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


260  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Soctety 

Bteep  bank  oi  cliff  vliich  pretty  generally  along  our  cotais  rises 
from  a  flat  elevated  about  40  feet  above  the  sea,  baa  always  been 
spoken  of  as  a  beach  formed  by  the  sea,  aad  not  a  few  calculations 
have  been  roada  to  determine  from  a  compariBon  with  our  existing 
sea-beach  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  sea  must  have  stood 
at  the  higher  level,  in  order  to  its  having  eroded  our  land  in  the 
very  marked  way  which  the  upper  or  40-foot  terrace  presents. 
But  plainly,  before  any  such  calculations  are  legitimate,  it  ought 
to  be  proved  that  the  40-foot  terrace  is  realty  the  work  of  the  sea. 
Now,  this  seems  to  have  been  somewhat  hastily  assumed.  Unde- 
niably, the  sea  does  act  powerfully  on  the  shore,  cutting  out  a  step 
01  forming  a  beach  line  along  its  margin  ;  further,  it  is  obvious, 
that  that  margin  was  at  one  time  40  feet  higher  along  our  coasts 
than  now,  and  the  inference  has  been  jumped  at,  that  the  terrace 
which  does  certainly  exist  at  that  level  was  formed  by  the  sea.  In 
other  words,  a  coonection  of  proximity  between  the  sea  and  the 
40-foot  terrace  being  proved,  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect  has 
been  assumed.  But  is  the  assumption  legitimate?  Now  this  cutting 
at  Fort-Q-toegow  shows  that  the  40-foot  terrace  exists  not  merely 
on  the  external  surface,  but  in  the  rock  beneath.  The  supeifici^ 
deposits  are  merely  the  clothing  of  a  rocky  skeleton  beneath,  and 
the  terrace  which  we  can  trace  on  the  surface,  we  find  existing  in 
the  rock  below.  What  then  gave  its  form  to  that  rocky  skeleton 
below?  Was  the  sea  the  agent  which  cut  the  terrace  there? 
Plainly  not,  for  when  the  sea  beat  on  the  shore  40  feet  above  its 
present  level,  the  rock,  in  its  present  form,  was  buried  even  deeper 
than  now  under  that  mass  of  boulder-clay  which  still  covers  it,  and 
which  the  sea,  at  this  particular  spot  at  least,  and  at  many  others, 
was  not  able  to  penetrate.  But  was  the  boulder-clay  already  there  ? 
Admitting  what  is  obvious,  that  ^  there,  it  alone  and  not  the  nn- 
derlying  rock  could  be  fashioned  by  the  sea,  are  we  sure  that  it 
really  was  already  deposited,  or  may  it  not  rather  have  been  depo- 
sited at  the  very  time  we  are  speaking  of,  when  the  land  iu  its  up- 
ward progress  still  stood  40  feet  lower  than  now? 

Now,  of  this  earlier  presence  of  thebonlder-clay  we  have  abundant 
proof.  The  rock  surface  here  and  elsewhere  on  our  coasts  is  sharply 
striated.  The  striating  agent,  it  is  now  generally  admitted,  was 
land  ice  in  the  form  of  a  thick  glacier  cake,  grinding  downwards. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semion  1863-64.  261 

and  pressing  outwards  towards  the  sea.  This  glacier  coke  mnst 
Iiave  been  slowly  floated  off  b;  the  gradual  subBidence  of  the  land. 
As  it  floated  off  the  boulder-clay  was  deposited  under  the  edge  of 
the  ice-foot  on  the  freshly  striated  Burface  of  the  rock,  protecting 
it  at  once  from  the  action  of  the  surf,  consolidated  under  the  pres- 
enre  of  the  ice-cake,  but  showing  traces  in  its  shells  and  its  strati- 
fied layers  of  the  presence  of  the  sea.  There  on  the  surface  of  the 
rock  the  bonlder-clay  has  rested  throughout  the  long  period  during 
which  the  land  subsided  to  a  depth  of  1500  or  1700  feet  or  more, 
and  again  re-emerged  till  it  approached,  under  an  ever  softening 
climate  and  with  a  more  temperate  fauna,  to  almost  its  present  level. 
In  short,  the  40-foot  beach  terrace  owes  its  configuration  not  sa 
much  to  the  external  action  of  the  sea,  as  to  the  internal  contour 
of  the  rock.  That  contour  was  derived  from  the  grinding  agency 
of  the  ice-cake  covering,  and  between  the  period  when  that  contour 
was  given  to  it,  and  the  presence  of  the  sea  at  the  40-foot  beach- 
line,  there  have  intervened  all  the  countless  ages,  with  their  mani- 
fold changes,  of  the  subsidence  and  le-elevation  of  our  land. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  Fellows  of  the 
Society : — 

Abthus  Abney  Walkbb,  Esq, 
Jobs  Foolbbtoh,  U.D. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Librarywere  announced: — 

Memorie  della  leale  Accademia  delle  scienze  di  Torino.     Serio 

seconda  :  tomo  XX.     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  May  1864.     8vo. 

— From  the  Societtf. 
Nova   Acta  Academin  CieBarea  Leopoldino-Carolinse  Germanica; 

Natune  Curioeorum.      Tomus   Triceeimus.      4to. — From   the 

Academy. 
Abhandlungen  dor  konigl.    Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschafteu  zu 

Gijttingen.    Xlter  Band,  von  den  Jabren  1862  und  1863. 

4to. — Frrnn  Ike  Society. 
Nachrichten  von  der  Georg- Augusts- Univerei tat  zu  Guttingen. 

Nr.  1-21.     Nebst  Register.     8vo. — From  the  Univeratly. 
M^moiree  do  la  Societe  do  Physique  et  d'Uistoire  naturelle  du 


DvGooglc 


262         Proceedings  of  the  Hoyal  Society,  1863-64. 

Genfivo.     Tome  XVII.    PremiJre  PwUe.     4io.—Fmm  Oe 

AoDalen  der  konigl.  Stemwarte  bei  Hfinchen  IV.  Supplement  band. 

8vo. — JVwn  the  Obaervalory. 
Scbeikandige  VerhandeliDgeu  en  onderzoekiDgen  uitgegeven  door 

G.  J.  Mulder.    Derde   Deel— derde  atnk.    8vo. — From  At 

Author. 
Jonrnal  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  April  1864.    9n. 

— fiwit  the  Society.  ' 
Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Nat.  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 

Nos.  3-7.     1863.     8vo.— fVwn  &e  Academy. 
ObaerratioiiB  on  the  Genns  TJnio.    By  Isaac  Lea,  LL.D.     Tol.  X. 

4to. — From  the  Author. 
Jonmal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Scienoes  of  Philadelphia. 

Vol.  V.    Part  IV.     ito.—From  tkt  Academy. 
Yorkshire  PbiloBOphical  Society  Annnal   Beport  for  1863.    Svo. 

— From  the  Society. 
Afltionomical  and  Meteorolt^cal  Observations  made  at  the  tl.S. 

Naval  Obserratory  during  1862.     4to.— i*Vom  the  US.  Navd 

Obiervatory. 
Abstracts  of  Magnetical  Observations  made  at  the  Magnetical  Ob- 
serratory,  Toronto,   during   1856-62,    and   during   parts  of 

1853,  1854,  and  1855.     ito.—Frvm  the  Obtervatory. 
Observations  of  the  Spots  on  the  Sun  from  November  9,  1853  to 

March  24,   1861,  made  at  Bedhill  by  Bichard  Ohriatophei 

Cairington,  F.R.S.     4to. — From  the  Author. 
Jahresbericht  uber  die  Fortecbritte  der  Ohemie  beransgegeben  von 

H.  Kopp  u.  H.  Will,  fiir  1862.    Zweites  Heft.    8to.— JVom 

the  Author*. 
Oomptes  Eendua  for  1863.     4to. — From  the  Academy  ofSdencet. 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  1863.    8yo.~From  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


HOYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBUKGH. 


Eiqhtt-Secohd  Seb&iok. 

M<mday,  28(A  November  1864. 

His  Gkacb  THE  DUKE  OF  ARGYLL,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Council  were  elected : — 

PretidaU. 
PttlNQFAL  Sib  DATID  BREWSTER,  E.H.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 


Dr  Christiboh,  I         Principal  Forbes. 

Professor  Esluitd.  Professor  Ikkbs. 

Hod.  Lobd  Neatbb.  |         Prof.  Ltoh  Platfaib,  C.B. 

Qtnetal  •'kcretary, — Br  John  Hutton  Bauxiur. 

Seertianti  to  the  Ordinary  Mettingi. 
Dr  Gkoboe  Jambs  Allman. 
Professor  P.  Gutbmb  Tait. 

TreatuTtr, — Datid  Smith,  Esq. 
OuraloT  of  Librarti  and  Mvsmm, — Dr  Douqlas  Maclaoak. 

CoundUoTt. 

Dr  WiLLiAii  RoBBRTSOH.  Dt  Stktenbov  Macadau. 

J>t  E.  RoKALDS.  Hon.  Lord  Jirviswoodi. 

T.  C  Arcber,  Esq.  Jameb  T.  GiBeoH-CiiAio,  Esq. 

W.  F.  Skenb,  Esq  Edward  Saho,  Esq. 

A.  Erth  JoHHsroM,  Esq.  Sir  Jauks  Cou,  MJ). 

Ber.  Dr  StEVBHEOif.  Rev.  Dr  Blaikie. 
TOL.  r.  2  H 


D.q,i,zeajvGoOglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 


Monday,  5th  December  1864. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  at  the  reqaest  of  the  Council, 
delivered  the  following  Opening  Address : — 

Ih  opening  this  Session  of  the  Boyal  Society  or  Edinbnrgb,  at  the 
close  of  my  tenure  of  the  Presidency,  I  must  express  my  sincere 
regret  on  account  of  the  small  amount  of  attendance  which  it  has 
been  in  my  power  to  give.  I  can  only  assnre  you  tliat,  if  I  had  had 
the  opportunity,  my  attendance  would  have  heen  far  more  regular ; 
und  that  nothing  but  the  impossibility  of  reconciling  this  with 
other  duties  has  prevented  my  occupying  this  chair  as  often  as  the 
honour  you  have  done  me,  and  not  lesa  my  own  inclination,  would 
have  led  me  to  do. 

During  the  years  which  have  elapsed  since  I  first  had  the  honour 
of  addressing  you  from  this  chair,  science  has  been  enriched  by 
an  accumulated  store  of  facts  in  many  branches  of  inquiry,  and 
by  not  a  few  of  those  discussions  which  so  often  promote,  quite  as 
much  as  actual  discovery,  the  advance  of  knowledge.  Our  own 
Society  has  not  heen  idle.  Valuable  papers  have  been  communi- 
cated on  a  great  variety  of  subjects;  and  when  we  look,  not  merely 
at  the  number  and  variety  of  these,  but  at  the  detailed  character  of 
many  of  them,  and  remember  the  number  of  Societies  which  are 
specially  devoted  to  special  subjects,  it  is  impossible  not  to  be  im- 
pressed with  the  immense  scope,  as  well  as  with  the  laborious  minute- 
ness, of  modem  investigation.  But,  divided  and  subdivided  as  the 
natural  sciences  have  come  to  be,  they  all  touch  each  other  at  innu- 
merable points;  and  there  are  some  questions  t«iiching  the  shadowy 
line  that  connects  rather  than  separates  the  physical  and  the  meta- 
physical, on  which  almost  alt  the  sciences  are  found  to  have  a 
common,  and  often  an  unexpected  bearing.  Such,  for  example,  is 
the  subject  with  which  Geology,  and  Paleontology,  and  Compara- 
tive Anatomy,  and  AnshsBology,  and  the  mental  sciences,  have  all 
been  of  late  years  so  busy,  and  on  which  difierent  schools  of 
thought  are  now  disputing  every  inch  of  ground.  That  subject  is 
the  history  of  Organic  Life;  and  tbe  question,  whether  in  that 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Seeston  1864-65.  266 

liietory  we  can  trace  anything  beyond  a  aeries  of  diecosuBcted  facts, 
— aDjtbing  ID  the  nature  of  a  Lair. 

I  piopoGe  in  this  paper  to  make  6ome  obaervatiouB  upon  this  Bub- 
ject,  in  tvo  of  its  moat  general  aepecta — 

1.  Upon  the  idea  of  "  Creation  b;  Law,"  how  we  should  define 
it,  and  in  what  light  we  sbonld  regard  it. 

2.  On  the  bearing  which  existing  theories  on  the  "  Origin  of 
Species"  have  upon  our  knowledge  and  coiioeption  of  Grealion  by 
Law. 

The  word  "  Law"  is  very  often  bo  loosely  used  that  it  is  absolutely 
neceBsary  to  begin  any  discussion  on  this  subject  by  defining  the 
sense  in  which  it  is  to  be  understood.  Uuctt  dispute,  in  science  as 
Well  as  in  other  matters,  may  often  be  avoided  by  a  simple  defini- 
tion. If  Law  be  nndeiBtood  to  mean  nothing  more  than  an  "  ob- 
served Older  of  facts,"  there  need  be  no  discussion  at  all  on  "  Crea- 
tion by  Law."  There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  there  is  an 
"  observed  order  "  in  the  forms  of  organic  life.  They  are  all  allied 
to  each  other  after  an  order  and  gradation  which  is  as  certain  as  it  is 
mysterious.  But,  assuredly,  this  is  not  the  sense  in  which  creation 
by  law  is  so  eagerly  affirmed  by  some,  and  as  jealously  contested 
by  others.  "  Law,"  however,  generally  means  not  merely  the 
"  observed  order  of  facts,"  but  some  Force  which  ia  its  compelling 
cause.  Force  is  the  root  idea  of  Law  in  its  scientific  sense.  The 
law  of  gravitation,  which  is  the  purest  example,  is  not  merely  the 
"observed  order"  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies  move,  but  it  is  the 
force  which  compels  those  movements,  and  (in  a  sense)  explains 
them.  The difTerence between  "law"  in  the  narrower,  and  "law" 
in  the  larger  sense,  may  be  roughly  illnstrated  by  the  "  Three 
special  Laws"  discovered  by  Kepler,  as  compared  with  the  one 
universal  Law  discovered  by  Newton.  The  Three  Laws  of  Eepler 
were  simply  and  purely  "  an  observed  order  of  facts,"  in  ri-spect 
to  the  planetary  orbits.  They  stood  by  themselves— disconnected 
— their  cbueo  unknown.  But  the  higher  law  discovered  by  Newton 
revealed  their  connection  and  their  cause.  The  "  observed  order" 
which  Eepler  had  discovered  was  simply  a  necessary  consequence 
of  the  law  of  gravitation.  In  its  light,  the  three  laws  of  Kepler 
have  been  merged  and  lost. 
It  is  true,  indeed,  that  Law,  in  the  narrower  sense,  auggests 

.,..,  Google 


266  Proceeding*  o/the  Royal  Society 

and  implies  the  existeDce  of  Lav  in  the  wider  sense.  Ao  obeerrei] 
order  of  f&ct^— ussnmiiig,  of  course,  that  the  order  is  conetuit 
ODdei  the  same  conditions — implies  the  action  of  some  Torce  of 
which  that  oidei  is  the  index  and  the  resalt.  But  the  mere 
general  idea  that  »omt  force  is  at  the  bottom  of  all  phenomen* 
which  are  invariably  consecutive,  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
knowing  what  that  force  is,  in  respect  to  the  nilo  or  measare  of  its 
operatirai.  It  is,  indeed,  the  great  object  of  pure  science,  to 
ascertain  the  measures  of  force.  Mr  Lewes,  in  the  very  curioua  and 
interesting  work  which  he  bas  lately  published  on  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle,  has  tnaintaiued  that  the  knowledge  of  measure — or 
what  he  calls  the  "verifiable  element"  in  our  knowledge — is  the 
element  which  determines  whether  any  theory  belongs  to  science, 
or  to  metapbysioB ;  and  that  any  theory  may  he  transferred  from 
metaphysics  to  science,  or  from  science  to  metaphysics,  simply  by 
the  addition  ot  withdrawal  of  its  "  verifiable  element."  In  illos- 
tration  of  this  be  says,  that  if  we  withdraw  the  formula  "  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  dietance,  and  directly  as  the  mass,"  from  the  law 
of  nniversal  attraction,  "  it  becomes  pure  metaphysics."*  If  this 
means  that,  apart  from  ascertained  numerical  relations,  our  concep- 
tion of  law  loses  all  reality  and  distinctness,  I  do  not  agree  in 
the  position.  I  think  the  idea  of  natural  forces  is  quite  sejiarate 
from  any  ascertained  measurement  of  their  energy ;  that,  for 
esample,  the  knowledge  that  all  the  particles  of  matter  exert  an 
attractive  force  upon  each  other,  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  true  physical 
knowledge,  even  though  we  did  not  know  tbe  farther  truth  that  this 
force  acts  according  to  the  numerical  rule  ascertained  by  Newton. 
That  matter  attracts  matter  is  a  definite  idea, — although  it  is  less 
definite,  or  less  complete  than  tbe  idea  that  the  measure  of  that 
attraction  is  "  directly  as  tbe  mass,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance."  This  is  undoubtedly  tbe  highest,  or  perhaps  I  ought 
to  say,  the  ultimate,  conception  of  a  scientific  "  law," — force 
ascertained  according  to  some  method  and  measure  of  its  operation. 
But  DOW  we  must  go  a  step  farther.  What  is  force  ?  What  is 
our  conception  of  it  ?  What  idea  can  we  form,  for  example,  of  tbe 
real  nature  of  that  force,  the  measure  of  whose  operation  has  been 


•  Arittotle.     By  Q.  H.  Uwm.     P.  84. 


DvGooglc 


o/  Edinburgh,  Seanon  1864-65.  267 

•0  exactly  asoertaioed— the  force  of  gniTitatioD  ?  It  is  inTisible, 
— impoudeiable.  All  our  vorde  for  it.  are  but  circumlocutiona 
to  express  its  phenomena  or  its  effects.  There  are  many  kiadH 
of  force  in  nature— vhicb  we  distinguish  after  the  same  fashion — 
according  to  their  effects,  or  aucording  to  the  forms  of  matter  in 
which  they  become  cognisable  to  us.  Bnt  if  we  trace  up  our  con- 
ceptions on  the  nature  of  force  to  their  foau tain-Lead,  we  shall  pro- 
bably find  that  they  are  connected,  more  or  less  directly,  with  our 
own  conscioueness  of  living  effort,^-of  that  force  which  has  its 
seat  in  onr  own  vitality,  and  especially  with  that  kind  of  it  which 
can  be  called  forth  at  the  bidding  of  the  will.  If  we  Can  ever 
know  anything  of  the  nature  of  any  force,  it  ought  to  be  of  this 
one.  And  yet  the  fact  ia  that  we  know  nothing.  The  vital  forces 
which  work  in  our  organisation,  work,  for  the  most  pait,  entirely 
independent  of  our  will,  and  even  of  our  consciousness.  ThoBe  of 
them  which  are  at  the  bidding  of  will  are  subject  to  it  only  through 
an  elaborate  machinery ;  and  if  that  machinery  be  damaged,  we 
know  too  often,  by  sad  experience,  that  their  connection  with  the  will 
is  broken.  .  If,  then,  we  know  nothing  of  that  kind  of  force  which  is 
ao  aear  us,  and  with  which  our  own  intelligence  is,  so  to  speak,  in 
such  close  alliance,  much  less  can  we  know  the  nltimate  nature  of 
force  in  its  other  forms.  I  dwell  on  this  because  I  think  that  both 
the  aversion  with  which  some  men  regard  the  idea  of  creation  by 
Law,  and  the  eagerneeB  with  which  some  others  hail  it,  are  founded 
on  a  notion,  that  when  we  have  traced  any  given  phenomena  to 
what  are  called  natural  forces,  we  have  traced  them  farther  than 
we  really  have.  We  know  nothing  of  the  nltimate  seat  of  force. 
Science,  in  the  modern  doctrine  of  the  Conservation  of  Energy  and 
Oonvertibility  of  Forces,  is  already  getting  eomething  like  a  £rm 
hold  of  the  idea,  that  all  kinds  of  force  are  but  forms  and  mani- 
festations of  some  one  central  force,  issuing  from  some  one  fountain- 
head  of  power.  Sir  John  Hersobel  has  not  hesitated  to  say,  that 
"  it  is  but  reasonable  to  regard  the  force  of  gravitation  as  the 
direct  or  indirect  result  of  a  consciousDess,  and  a  Will  existing  some- 
where."* And  even  if  we  cannot  assume  that  force,  in  all  its  forms, 
ia  due  to  the  direct  working  of  the  Creator,  at  least  let  us  not 


*  OntUnet  of  Aatronoiny.    8d  «d.  p.  S 


DvGooglc 


268  Proceedingt  ofth&  Royal  Society 

assume  tbe  contrary, — let  ua  not  speak  or  think  as  if  the  forces  of 
nature  were  either  independent  of,  or  even  separate  from,  His  power. 
The  idea  of  Creation  by  Law  leaves  these  questions  exactly  where 
it  found  them.  It  has  no  adverse  bearing  on  theology  -,  and  those 
who  prize  it  under  the  notion  that  it  has  this  bearing,  as  well  as 
those  who  dread  it  on  the  same  account,  are  equally  forgetful  of 
what  "  Law,"  in  a  scientific  sense,  must  be  defined  to  be. 

But  there  is  still  another  sense  in  which  the  word  "Law"  ia 
habitually  used  in  science ;  and  this  is  perhaps  the  most  common 
and  the  most  important  of  all.  It  ia  used  to  designate  not  merely 
an  observed  order  of  facts — ^not  the  bare  abstract  idea  of  force — not 
mere  individual  forces,  according  to  ascertained  measures  of  opera- 
tion— but  forces  as  combined  with  each  other,  and  fitted  to  each 
other  for  the  attainment  of  special  ends.  The  whole  science  of 
mechanics,  for  example,  deals  with  Law  in  this  sense — with 
natural  forces  as  related  to  purpose  and  subservient  to  intention. 
And  here  we  come  upon  "  Law  "  in  a  sense  which  is  more  per- 
fectly intelligible  to  us  than  in  any  other ;  because,  although  we 
know  nothing  of  the  nature  of  force,  even  of  that  force  which  is 
resident  in  ourselves,  we  do  know  for  what  ends  we  exert  it,  and 
what  is  the  "  law"  governing  our  devices  for  its  use.  That  law  is— 
combination  for  the  accomplishment  of  purpose.  The  universal 
prevalence  of  this  idea  in  nature  is  indicated  by  the  irresistible 
tendency  which  we  observe  in  the  language  of  science  to  personify 
the  forces,  and  the  combinations  of  force,  to  which  all  natural 
phenomena  are  in  the  first  instance  due.  It  is  a  great  in- 
justice, too  often  committed,  to  suspect  scientific  men  of  unwill- 
ingness to  accept  the  idea  of  a  personal  Creator,  merely  because 
they  try  to  keep  separate  the  language  of  science  from  the 
language  of  theology.  The  separation  may  sometimes  be  due 
to  such  unwillingness,  but  quite  as  often — I  hope  much  oftener 
— it  is  a  separation  which  is  maintained  for  other  and  better 
reasons,  fint  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  the  attempt  breaks 
down, — that  is,  how  impossible  it  is,  in  describing  physical  phe- 
nomena, to  avoid  the  phraseolt^y  which  identifies  them  with 
the  phenomena  of  mind,  and  is  moulded  on  our  own  conscious 
personality  and  will.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  this  language, 
simply  because  no  other  language  conveys  the  impression  which 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  lS&i~S5.  269 

innumerable  sttuctureB  leave  upon  the  mind.  Take,  for  ex- 
ample, the  word  "  ContriTance."  How  could  science  do  without 
it?  How  conid  the  great  subject  of  aoimal  mechanics  be  dealt 
with  BcientificftUj  without  continual  reference  to  Law  as  that  by 
which,  and  througli  which,  special  organs  are  formed  for  the  doing 
of  special  work.  What  is  the  very  deSnition  of  a  machine  ? 
Afachinee  do  not  increase  force,  they  only  adjust  it.  The  very 
idea  and  essence  of  a  machine  is  that  it  is  a  contrivance  for  the 
distribution  of  force  with  a  view  to  its  bearing  on  special  purposes. 
A  man's  arm  is  a  machine  in  which  the  law  of  leverage  is  supplied 
by  the  vital  force  for  the  purposes  of  prehension.  A  bird's  wing  is 
a  machine  in  which  the  same  taw  is  supplied,  under  most  com- 
plicated conditions,  for  the  purposes  of  flight.  It  is  impossible  to 
describe  the  facts  we  meet  with  in  this  or  in  any  other  branch  of 
Bcience,  without  investing  the  laws  of  nature  with  something  of  that 
personality  which  they  do  actually  reflect,  or  without  conceiving 
of  them  aa  partaking  of  those  attributes  of  mind  which  we  every- 
where recognise  in  their  working  and  results.  If  any  one  imagines 
that  the  idea  of  Creation  by  Law  casts  out  the  idea  of  creation 
under  the  enpreme  control  of  purpose,  let  him  read  one  of  the 
later  works  of  Mr  Darwin, — I  refer  to  his  most  curious  work  on 
"  The  Fertilisation  of  the  Orchids."  In  investigating  the  laws 
which  determine  the  form  and  the  propagation  of  this  strange 
order  of  plants,  Hi  Darwin  finds  it  impossible  to  describe  them 
without  exhausting  all  the  forms  of  language  in  which  we  can 
express  the  workings  of  intention  and  of  mind  in  the  determina- 
tion of  physical  results. 

I  am  afraid  that  to  some  this  discussion  may,  at  first  sight, 
appear  irrelevant.  But  I  am  sure  this  impression  will  be  removed 
in  those  who  recollect  how  powerfully  ambiguity  of  language 
reacts  upon  the  progress  of  knowledge.  Words  which  should  be 
the  servants  of  thought  are  too  often  its  masters ;  and  I  know  of 
DO  word  which  has  been  used  more  ambignously,  and  therefore  more 
injuriously,  than  the  word  "  Law."  I  do  not  mean  that  it  may  not 
be  legitimately  used  in  several  different  senses.  It  is  in  all  cases, 
as  applied  in  science,  a  metaphor,  and  one  which  has  relation  to 
many  different  kinds  and  degrees  of  likeness  in  the  ideas  which  are 
compared.    It  matters  little  in  which  of  these  senses  it  is  used. 


DvGooglc 


270  Proceedings  o/tke  Royal  Society 

provided  the  diBtioctions  between  them  are  kept  clearly  is  view, 
and  provided  we  watch  agaiust  the  fallacies  which  most  arise 
when  we  paae,  in  its  uee,  from  one  meaning  to  another.  There 
are  at  least  four  different  senseB  which  mnet  be  caretuU;  distin- 
guished— 

1.  We  have  Law  as  applied  eimply  to  "  an  observed  order  of 

facts." 

2.  To  that  order  as  involving  the  action  of  some  forco  or  forces, 

of  which  nothing  more  may  be  known. 

S.  As  applied  to  individual  forces,  the  measure  of  whose  opera- 
tion has  been  more  or  lese  defined  and  ascertained, 

4.  As  applied  to  those  combioatioiu  of  force  which  have  aSet- 
ence  to  the  fulfilment  of  purpose  or  to  the  discha^  of 
function. 

Now,  in  which  of  these  senses  does  science  justify  ns  in  enter- 
taioing  the  idea  of  "  Creation  by  Law?" 

First,  it  is  certain  that  there  is  an  "  observed  order  of  facts  "  both 
in  the  organic  and  in  the  inorganic  world,  I  mean  to  speak  in  this 
paper  of  the  organic  world  alone,  and  chiefly  of  those  higher  fmrms 
which  are  the  seat  of  animal  life.  In  these  there  is  an  observed 
order  in  the  most  rigid  scientific  sense,  that  is, — phenomena  in  uni- 
form connection,  and  mutual  relations  which  can  he  made,  and  are 
mode,  the  basis  of  systematic  classification.  These  clsssifi cations  are 
imperfect,  not  because  they  are  founded  on  ideal  connections  where 
none  exist,  but  only  because  they  fail  in  representing  adequately  the 
subtle  and  pervading  order  which  binds  together  all  living  things. 
But  the  order  which  prevails  in  the  existing  world  is  not  the  only 
order  whioh  has  been  recognised  by  science.  A  like  order  has  pre- 
vailed through  all  the  past  history  of  creation.  Nay,  more ;  it  has, 
I  think,  been  clearly  ascertained,  not  only  that  relations  similar  to 
those  which  now  exist  have  existed  always  among  all  the  animals 
of  each  contemporary  creation,  but  that  order  of  a  like  kind  has 
connected  with  each  other  all  the  different  creations  which  were 
successively  introduced.  In  almost  all  the  leading  types  of  life 
which  have  existed  in  the  different  geological  ages,  there  is  Bit 
orderly  gradation  connecting  the  forms  which  were  becoming  ex- 
tinct with  the  forms  which  were  for  the  first  time  appearing  io  the 
world.    It  is  still  disputed  by  some  geologists,  whether  we  havs 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Seasion  1864-65.  271 

certain  evidence  that  this  gradation  has  been  the  gradation  of  a 
rising  scale — of  progressive  creations  from  lower  to  higlier  types. 
But  this  dispute  is  maintained  only  on  the  ground,  that  ve  cannot 
safely  trust  to  negative  evidence.  It  is  an  unqneationable  fact,  that 
BO  far  as  this  kind  of  evidence  can  go,  it  does  testify  to  the  suc- 
cessive introduction  of  higher  and  higher  forms  of  Life.  Very 
recentlj,  a  discovery  has  been  made,  to  whii-h  Mr  Darwin  only  a  few 
years  ago  referred,  as  "  a  discovery  of  which  the  chance  is  very 
small,"  viz.,  of  fossil  organisms  in  beds  far  beneath  the  lowest 
Silurian  strata.  This  discovery  has  been  made  in  Canada — in 
beds  far  down,  near  the  bottom  even,  of  the  rocks  hitherto  termed 
"  Azoic."  But  what  are  the  forme  of  life  which  have  been  found 
here?  They  belong  to  the  very  lowest  of  living  types, — to  the 
"  Bhizopods,"  So  far  as  this  discovery  goes,  therefore,  it  is  in 
strict  accordance  with  all  the  facts  previously  known, — that  as  we 
go  back  in  time,  we  lose,  one  after  another,  the  higher  and  more 
complex  orgasiBma, — first,  the  Ifammaiia;  then,  the  Vertebrata; 
and  now  lastly,  even  the  Mollusca.  It  is  in  accordance,  too,  with 
another  fact  which  has  been  observed  before,  viz.,  that  particular 
forms  of  life  have  attained,  at  particular  epochs,  a  maximum  de- 
velopment both  in  respect  to  size  and  distribution, — the  favourites 
as  it  were,  of  Creation  for  a  time.  These  earliest  Khizopods  seem 
to  have  been  of  enormous  size  and  developed  on  an  enormous  scale, 
since  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  beds  of  immense  thick- 
ness are  composed  of  their  remains.  All  that  is  new  in  this  dis- 
covery is  the  vast  extension  which  it  gives  in  time  to  the  same  rules 
which  had  been  already  traced  through  ages  which  we  cannot  num- 
ber. The  facts  of  creation,  tlierefore,  do  range  themselves  in  an 
observed  order,  and  in  this  sense,  at  least,  it  may  Ik  said  with  truth 
that  creation  has  been  "  by  Law." 

And  now  we  advance  one  step  farther.  Every  observed  order  in 
physical  phenomena  does  suggest  irreBiatihly  to  the  mind  the 
operation  of  some  physical  cause — the  working  of  some  force  or 
forces,  of  which  nothing  more  may  be  known  than  these  their 
visible  effects.  This  is  the  second  of  the  four  senses  in  which  I 
have  said  that  "  Law  "  is  frequently  used.  We  say  of  an  observed 
order  of  facts  that  it  must  be  due  to  some  "  Law,"  meaning  simply 
that  all  order  involves  the  idea  of  some  arranging  cause,  the  work- 

vot.  V.  2  N 


..,  Google 


272  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

ittg  of  some  force,  whether  it  be  one  whicli  we  can  trace  and  de- 
fiDeornot.  In  these  two  sensen,  then,  both  somewhat  va^e,  it  can- 
not be  doubted  that  Creation  baa  been  by  Law. 

The  nest  queation,  however,  is  the  main  one— la  the  obeerved 
order  w1)ich  prevails  in  nature,  and  especially  in  the  organic  world, 
an  order  of  which  we  can  even  guess  the  physical  canse  ?  Is  it  an 
order  which  containa  within  itself  any  indications  of  the  force  or 
forcea  which  have  been  concerned  in  producing  it? 

In  consideriDg  this  question,  there  is  one  thing  to  be  observed  at 
the  outset.  It  is  certain  that  nothing  is  known  or  bas  been  even 
gaesaed  at,  in  respect  to  the  hiatory  and  origin  of  Life,  which  cor- 
responda  with  Law  in  ita  strictest  and  most  definite  aenae.  We 
have  DO  knowledge  of  any  one  or  more  forces — such  as  the  force  of 
gravitation,  or  of  mt^etic  attnAction  and  Tepulsion-7-to  which  any 
one  of  the  phenomena  of  Life  can  be  traced.  Far  less  have  we 
any  knowledge  of  any  aocb  lawa  which  can  be  connected  with 
the  anecesaive  creation  or  development  of  new  organiams.  Pro- 
fessor Huxley,  in  a  recent  work,*  has  indeed  spoken  of  "that  com- 
bination of  natural  forces  which  we  term  Life."  But  this  language 
ia  purely  rhetorical.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  Life  may  not  be 
defined  to  be  a  kind  of  force,  or  a  combination  of  forces.  All  I 
mean  ia,  that  we  know  nothing  of  any  of  theae  forcea  in  the  same 
sense  in  which  we  do  know  something  of  the  force  of  gravity, 
or  of  magnetism,  or  of  electricity,  or  of  chemical  affinity.  Thcsa 
are  all  more  or  leas  known,  not,  indeed,  in  respect  to  their  ultimate 
nature,  hut  in  respect  to  certain  methods  and  measures  of  their 
operation.  No  such  knowledge  exists  in  respect  to  any  of  tbe 
forcea  which  have  been  concerned  in  the  development  of  Life.  No 
man  has  ever  pretended  to  get  such  a  view  of  any  of  these  as  to 
enable  him  to  apply  to  them  the  instruments  of  hie  analysis,  or  to 
trace  in  their  working  any  of  thoae  definite  relations  to  apace,  or 
time,  or  number,  which  ate  alwaya  the  ultimate  quest  of  science, 
and  the  discovery  of  which  ie  her  great  reward. 

Since,  then,  laws,  in  this  moat  definite  sense  of  the  word,  have 
not  been  discovered  in  tbe  existing  phenomena,  or  in  the  past 
history  of  organic  life,  let  ns  look  a  little  closer  at  the  ideaa  which 

*  Elementaof  CoinpKratiT«Atutani7,  p.  2. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seemon  1864-«5.  273 

these  pheaomeaa  have  auggeated  to  the  mind  of  those  who  have 
speculated  on  the  origin  and  development  of  species. 

There  ie  one  idea  which  has  been  common  to  all  theories  of 
development,  and  that  is  the  idea  that  oidinary  generation  has 
somehow  been  producing,  ftom  time  to  time,  extiaordinaij  effects, 
and  that  anew  species  is,  in  fact,  simply  an  unusual  hirth.  It  is 
worthy  of  obseryation,  thst  the  earlier  forms  in  which  the  theory 
of  development  appeared,  did  suggest  something  more  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  a  law  of  creation  than  ia  contained  in  the  later  form 
which  that  theory  has  assumed  in  the  hands  of  Mr  Darwin.  The 
essential  idea  of  the  theory  of  development,  in  its  earlier  forms, 
was,  that  modifications  of  structure  arose  somehow  by  way  of 
natural  consequence  from  the  outward  circumstances  or  physical 
conditions,  which  required  them,  and  from  the  living  effort  of  organ- 
isms sensible  in  some  degree  of  that  requirement.  Now,  inadequate 
and  even  grotesque  though  this  idea  may  be  as  explaining  the 
origin  of  new  species,  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  it  makes  its  appeal 
to  a  process  which,  at  least  to  a  limited  extent,  does  operate  in  pro- 
ducing modifications  of  organic  structure.  For  example,  the  some 
epeoies  of  mollusc  has  often  a  shell  comparatively  weak  and  thin, 
or  a  shell  comparatively  robust  and  strong,  according  as  it  lies 
in  tranquil  or  in  stormy  water.  The  shell  which  is  much  ex- 
posed needs  to  be  stronger  than  the  shell  which  is  less  exposed. 
.  But  the  merefactof  the  need  cannot  supply  the  thing  needed,  unless 
by  the  adjustment  of  some  machinery  for  the  purpose.  Uow  the 
vital  forces  of  the  mollusc  can  thus  be  made  to  work  to  order, 
under  a  change  of  external  conditions,  we  do  not  know.  But  we 
do  know,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  the  shell  is  thickened  and 
strengthened,  according  as  it  needs  resisting  power.  This  result  does 
not  appear  to  arise  from  any  differenoe  in  the  amount  of  lime  held 
in  solution  in  the  water,  but  upon  some  power  in  the  secreting 
organs  of  the  aDimal  to  appropriate  more  or  less  of  it,  according  to 
its  own  need.  The  effects  of  this  power  are  seen  where  there  is  no 
difference  of  condition  except  difference  of  exposure.  I  have  seen 
it  slated,  that  they  are  observable  in  the  shells  which  lie  on  the 
different  sides  of  Plymouth  breakwater,— the  sheltered  side  and  the 
exposed  side.  The  same  power  of  adaptation  is  seen  in  many  other 
forms.     Trees  which   are  most  exposed  to  the  blast  are  the  most 


DvGooglc 


274  I'roceedings  of  the  iioyal  Society 

strongly  anchored  in  the  eoil.  Limbs  which  are  most  used  are  the 
moat  developed.  All  these  results  arise  hy  way  of  natoral  coose- 
qnence.  How  shall  we  describe  them  ?  Shall  we  say  that  they  are 
the  result  of  Law  7  We  may  safely  do  so,  remembering  only  that 
by  Law,  in  this  sense,  we  mean  nothing  but  the  co-operation  of  dif- 
ferent natural  forces,  which,  under  certain  conditions,  work  together 
for  the  fulfilment  of  an  obvious  intention.  Of  the  nature  of  thostt 
forces  we  know  nothing ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  conceive  how  they 
have  been  so  co-ordinated  as  to  produce  effects  fitting  with  snch 
esuctness  into  the  conditions  requisite  for  the  preservation  of 
organic  life.  If  there  were  any  evidence  that  by  the  same  means 
new  forms  of  life  could  be  developed  from  the  old,  I  cannot  see 
why  there  should  he  any  reluctance  lo  admit  the  fact.  It  would 
be  different  from  anything  that  we  see ;  but  I  do  not  know  that 
it  would  be  at  all  more  wonderful,  or  that  it  would  bring  us 
much  nearer  than  we  now  stand  to  the  great  mystery  of  creation. 
I  look  upon  the  adaptation  and  arrangement  of  natural  forces, 
which  can  compass  these  modifications  of  animal  structure,  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  need  of  them,  as  an  adaplation  and  arrangement 
which  is  in  the  nature  of  creation.  It  can  only  be  due  to  the 
working  of  a  power  which  is  in  the  nature  of  creative  power.  We 
are  so  accustomed  to  these  and  other  similar  phenomena,  and  Lo 
hide  our  own  ignorance  of  their  cause,  by  describing  them  as  the 
result  of  "  Law,"  that  we  forget  what  a  multitude  of  natural  forcea 
must  be  concerned  in  their  production,  and  what  complicated  ad- 
justments of  these  amongst  each  other  for  the  accomplishment  of 
purpose.  It  is  purely,  therefore.  In  my  view,  a  question  of  evi- 
dence, whether  this  particular  law  of  adaptation  has  or  has  not 
been  the  means  of  introducing  new  forms  of  life.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  it  has.  So  far  as  we  know,  this  power  of  self-adap- 
tation, wonderful  as  it  is,  has  a  comparatively  limited  application  ; 
when  that  limit  is  outrun  by  changes  in  outward  conditions,  which 
are  too  great  or  too  rapid,  whole  species  die  and  disappear.  Never- 
theless, the  introduction  of  new  species  to  take  the  place  of  those 
which  have  passed  away,  is  a  work  which  has  been  not  only  so  often, 
but  so  continuously  repeated,  that  it  snggests  the  idea  of  having 
been  brought  about  through  the  instnimentality  of  some  natural 
process.    But  we  may  say  with  confidence,  that  it  must  have  been 


DvGooglc 


o/Sdinburgh,  Seasim  1864-65.  275 

a  proceBB  differeDt  from  an;  that  we  yet  know— a  proceefl  not  the 
same  as  that,  obscure  aa  this  ia,  which  produces  the  tesaer  modifi- 
oationa  of  organic  forma. 

It  has  not,  I  think,  been  sufficiently  ohaerred,  that  the  theory  of 
Mr  Darwin  does  not  addresa  itself  to  the  same  question,  and  doea 
not  eren  profess  to  trace  the  origin  of  new  forms  to  any  definite 
law.  His  theory  gives  an  explanation,  not  of  the  processes  by  which 
new  forms  first  appear,  but  only  of  the  processes  by  which,  when 
they  have  appeared,  they  acquire  a  preference  over  others,  and  thus 
become  estahlbhed  in  the  world.  A  new  species  is,  indeed,  accord- 
ing to  his  theory,  as  well  aa  with  the  older  theories  of  development, 
simply  an  unusual  birth.  The  bond  of  connection  between  allied 
tipeoific  and  generic  forms,  is  in  hia  view  simply  the  bond  of  in- 
heritance. But  Mr  Darwin  does  not  pretend  to  have  discovered  any 
law  or  rale  according  to  which  new  forma  have  been  born  from  old 
forma.  He  doea  not  hold  that  outward  conditiona,  however  changed, 
aro  sufficient  to  account  for  them.  Still  leaa  does  he  connect  them 
with  the  effort  or  aspirations  of  any  organism  after  new  faculties  and 
powers.  He  frankly  confeesea  that  "  our  ignorance  of  the  laws  of 
variation  ia  profound ;"  and  says,  that  in  speaking  of  them  as  due 
to  chance,  he  meana  only  "  to  acknowledge  plainly  onr  Ignorance 
of  the  cause  of  each  particular  variation."*  Again  he  saya — "  I 
believe  in  no  law  of  neocHsary  deve]opment."t  This  distinction  be- 
tween Mr  Darwin'a  theory  and  other  theories  of  development,  has 
not,  1  think,  been  sufficiently  observed.  Hia  theory  seems  to  be  far 
better  than  a  mere  theory — to  be  an  establiahed  scientific  truth — 
ID  so  far  aa  it  acoounte,  in  part  at  least,  for  the  succeaa  and  estab- 
lishment and  spread  of  new  forma  vAen  they  have  ariten.  But  it  doea 
Dot  even  suggest  the  law  under  which,  or  by  which,  or  according  to 
which,  such  new  forme  are  introduced.  Natural  selection  can  do 
nothing  except  with  tho  materials  presented  to  its  hands.  It  cannot 
select  except  among  the  things  open  to  selection.  Natural  selection 
can  originate  nothing ;  it  can  only  pick  out  and  choose  among  the 
things  which  are  originated  by  soma  other  law.  Strictly  speaking, 
therefore,  Mr  Darwin's  theory  is  not  a  theory  on  the  origin  of 
species  at  all,  but  only  a  theory  on  the  cauaea  which  lead  to  the 

•  Origin  of  SpecJM,  p.  181  (Ut  •ditioo).  t  Ibid.  p.  Sfil. 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


276  Proceedinga  of  the  Soyal  Society 

lelative  euccesB  or  failure  of  euch  new  fortnB  as  may  be  born  into 
the  woild.  It  is  the  more  important  to  lemember  this  distiiiotion, 
because  it  seema  to  me  that  Mr  Daiwin  hiniBelf  frequently  forgeU 
it.  14'ot  only  doee  be  speak  of  natural  selection  "producing"  this 
and  that  modification  of  structuie,  but  be  undertakes  to  affirm  of 
one  class  of  changea  that  they  can  be  produced,  and  of  another 
class  of  changes  that  they  cannot  be  produced,  by  this  process.* 
Now,  what  are  the  changes  for  the  preservation  of  which  his 
theory  does,  in  some  sense,  account  ?  They  are  euch  changes,  and 
these  only,  as  are  of  some  direct  use  to  the  organism  in  the 
"  struggle  for  existence."  Any  change  which  has  not  this  direct 
value,  is  not  provided  for  in  the  theory.  AH  structures, 
therefore,  are  unaccounted  for — not  only  as  respects  their  origin, 
but  even  as  respects  their  preservation — in  which  the  variatioDB 
have  no  other  value  than  mere  beauty  or  variety.  Accordingly, 
Mt  Darwin  ie  tempted  to  deny  that  any  snch  structures  exist  in 
iiatnre.  Now,  I  hold  that  any  theory  of  which  this  denial  is  really 
a  necessary  part,  is  self-condemned.  Tet  a  theory  may  be  good  as 
acoonnting  for  the  preservation  of  some  structures,  although  it  faib 
to  account  in  this  respect  for  others.  And  so  the  fact  that  natural 
selection  cannot  have  operated  on  structures  of  mere  beauty  and 
variety  is  no  proof  that  the  theory  of  uatural  selection  is  false, 
but  only  that  it  is  incomplete.  It  does  not  account  for  the  origin 
of  any  structure ;  and  it  accounts  for  the  preservation  of  only  a 
certain  number.  Surely,  then,  Mr  Darwin  aasigne  to  his  "law" 
of  natural  selection  a  range  far  irider  than  really  belongs  to  it,  when, 
on  the  strength  of  it,  he  denies  that  beauty  for  its  own  sake  can  be 
an  end  or  object  in  organic  forms.  He  says — "  This  doctrine,  if 
true,  would  be  absolutely  fatal  to  my  theory."  Why  shonid  this 
be  fatal  to  his  theory,  except  on  the  supposition  that  Natural 
Selection  gives  a  complete  account  both  of  the  origin  of  new  forms, 
of  which,  in  reality,  it  gives  no  account  at  all,  and  of  their  preser- 
vation, of  which  it  does  give  some  account,  but  one  which  is  only 
partial  ?  I  dwell  on  this,  because  it  lies  at  the  very  root  of  the 
question  how  far  Ur  Barwin's  theory  can  be  said  to  sug^;eet  any- 
thing in  the  nature  of  a  creative  law  of  a  kind  to  explain  the 

•  Origin  of  3peciM,  p.  200  (Ist  edition). 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinbargh,  Session  1864-65.  277 

method  which  has  been  followed  io  the  introduction  of  Dew  forme, 
liet  UB  teat  this  question  by  bringing  to  bear  upon  it  aome  particu- 
Iftr  example  of  ipecifio  variation.  I  select  for  thJB  parpoee  one 
example  to  which  ray  attention  baa  been  lately  directed,  wbicb 
will  illustrate  what  I  mean  better  than  nuy  abstract  discuBflion. 
It  is  the  case  of  the  Humming- birds. 

This  group  of  birds  seems  to  me  to  exhibit,  in  the  most  etrikiog 
form,  not  a  few  of  those  mysteries  of  creation  which  at  once  tempt 
us  to  specnlate  on  the  origin  of  species,  and  at  the  same  time  con- 
foond  every  endeavour  to  bring  it  into  relation  with  any  process 
which  we  know  or  can  conceive.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  sharply 
defined  from  all  other  forme  in  that  class  of  the  animal  kingdom  to 
which  they  belong.  It  is  most  difficult  to  say  what  ia  their  nearest 
Affinity,  and  the  nearest,  when  it  is  found,  is  very  distant.  Secondly, 
they  are  abeolntely  confined  to  one  continent  of  the  globe.  In 
the  third  place,  the  various  speciea  as  amongst  themselveB  are 
very  closely  united,  ranging  indeed  over  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
bnt  for  the  most  part  connected  with  each  other  by  very  nice  grada' 
tione.  In  the  fourth  place,  there  are,  ho  to  speak,  some  gaps  in  the 
scale,  which  suggest  that  some  species  have  either  been  loat,  or 
have  not  yet  been  discovered.  In  the  fifth  place,  each  of  these 
species,  however  nearly  allied  to  some  other,  appears  to  be  absolutely 
fixed  and  constant,  there  being  not  the  slightest  indication  of  any 
mixture— of  any  hybrid  forms.  In  the  sixth  place,  there  is  the  moet 
wonderful  adaptation  of  epecial  organs  for  the  performance  of 
special  functions,  and  for  the  relation  of  these  organe  to  particular 
structures  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  the aeventh place,  there  in 
8  development,  for  which  in  extent  and  variety  there  is  no  parallel 
in  the  world,  of  stmctarea  designed  for  mere  ornament,  and  entirely 
separate  from  any  other  known  or  conceivable  nse. 

A  few  words  on  some  of  these  characters  will  show  their  separate 
Mid  joint  bearing  on  the  idea  of  Creation  by  Law. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  the  absolute  diatinctiveness  from  all 
othera  of  this  family  of  birds,  coupled  with  its  immense  extent, 
gives  the  idea  of  some  common  bond,  some  physical  cause,  to  which 
such  an  identity  in  physical  characters  must  be  due.  This  identity 
prevails  not  only  in  such  esaential  matters  as  the  structure  of  the 
bill  and  tongue,  in  the  form  of  the  feet  and  of  the  wings,  in  the  habits 


DvGooglc 


278  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

of  flight,  in  the  nature  of  the  food,  but  nins  also  into  some  very 
cnriouB  details,  aa  forexample,  in  the  number  of  feathers  in  the  tail 
and  in  the  winga,  which  are  constant  numbers — adhered  to  even 
when  some  of  the  feathers,  not  being  used  even  for  ornament,  are 
reduced  almost  to  rudiments.  But  under  degrees  of  development 
which  are  very  variable,  the  number  is  invariable.  This  identity  of 
structure  is  the  more  remarkable  from  the  immense  extent  of  the 
group  which  it  characterises.  There  are  now  known  to  science  no 
less  than  41 6  different  species  of  humming-bird  ;  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  many  more  remain  to  be  disqpvered  among  the  im- 
mense forests  and  monntain  rangee  of  Central  America. 

Now,  what  is  the  bond  which  unitee  so  closely,  in  «  common 
structure,  all  the  forms  of  this  great  family  of  birds  ?  We  think  it  a 
BuESdent  explanation  sometimes  of  the  likeness  of  things,  that  they 
are  made  for  a  common  purpose.  And  so  it  is  an  explanation  in  one 
sense,  but  not  in  another.  It  gives  the  reason  why  likeness  should 
he  aimed  at,  but  not  the  cause  through  which  it  has  been  brought 
about.  Sameness  in  the  purpose  for  which  things  are  intended,  ia 
a  reason  why  those  things  should  be  made  alike;  bnt  it  is  no  ex- 
[)Ianation  of  the  process  to  which  the  common  aspect  is  due.  It  ie 
anexplanationof  the"why  ;"but  it  is  no  explanation  of  the  "how." 
Purpose  is  attained  in  nature  through  the  instrumentality  of  means ; 
and  community  of  aspect  in  created  things  su^j^ests  the  idea  of 
some  common  process  in  the  creative  work.  The  likenees  which 
is  dne  to  common  parentage  serves  the  most  important  purposes ; 
bat  it  is  not  the  less  the  result  of  a  physical  cause,  out  of  which  it 
arises  by  way  of  natural  consequence.  The  likeness  of  the  Hnm- 
ming-birds  to  each  other  suggests  this  kind  of  cause.  It  is  trae 
that  the  organs  which  it  principally  affects  are  specially  adapted 
for  a  special  habit  of  life.  They  are  fitted  to  enable  the  bird  to 
feed  on  the  nectar,  and  the  insects  which  frequent  the  nectar  of 
flowers.  But  there  are  flowers  in  abundance  in  other  quarters  of 
the  globe  where  there  are  no  Humming-birds.  And  here  we  come 
on  the  curious  facts  of  geographical  distribution, — a  clnss  of  facts 
which,  as  much  as  any  other,  suggest  some  specific  methods  as 
having  been  followed  in  the  work  of  creation.  Humming-birds 
are  absolutely  confined  to  the  great  continent  of  America  with 
its  adjacent  islands.    Within  those  limits  there  is  every  range 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburyh,  Seiaion  1864-65.  279 

of  climate,  and  there  are  particular  speciei  of  HummiDg<bird 
adapted  to  ever;  region  where  a  Sowering  vegetation  can  snb- 
Biet.  It  is  therefore  neither  climate  nor  food  which  confines  the 
Humming-birds  to  the  N^ew  World.  What  is  it,  then?  The  idea 
of  "centres  of  creation"  is  at  once  suggested  to  the  mind.  It 
seems  as  if  the  Humming-birds  were  introduced  at  one  spot,  and 
as  if  they  had  spread  over  the  whole  continent  which  was  ac- 
cessible to  them  from  that  spot,  They  are  absent  elsewhere, 
simply  because  from  that  spot  the  other  continents  of  the  world 
were  inaccessible  to  them.  But  if  tbeae  ideas  are  suggested  to  the 
mind  bj  the  general  aspect  of  this  family  as  a  whole,  they  are 
strengthened  by  some  of  the  facts  which  we  discoTer  when  we 
examine  and  compare  with  each  other  the  genera  and  species  of 
which  it  is  composed.  There  is  a  beautiful  gradation  between  the 
different  genera  and  the  different  species,  so  much  so,  tbat  it 
has  been  found  impossible  to  divide  the  Humming-birds  into 
more  than  two  sub-families,  Item  the  absence  of  sufficiently  well- 
muked  divisions.  And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  they  cannot  be 
arranged  in  anything  like  a  continuous  series,  because  some 
links  appear  to  be  missing  in  the  chain. 

fiat  these  general  facts  terminate  in  nothing  more  definite  than 
a  vague  surmise.  When  we  enter  farUier  into  details,  we  feel  at 
once  bow  little  they  agree  with  any  physical  law  which  is  known  or 
even  conceivable  by  us.  If  the  likeness  which  prevails  in  the 
whole  group  reminds  us  of  the  likeness  which  is  due  to  community 
of  blood,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  differences  between  the  species 
are  totally  distinct  both  in  kind  and  degree  from  the  variation 
which  we  ever  see  arising  among  the  offspring  of  the  same  parents. 
Let  OB  look  at  what  these  differences  are.  The  generic  and 
specific  distinctions  between  the  humming-birds  are  mainly  of 
two  kinds, — Itt,  Differences  in  the  form  of  essential  organs,  such 
as  the  bill  and  the  wings ;  2ti,  Differences  in  those  parts  of  the 
plnmage  which  ore  purely  ornamental.  Now,  of  these  two  kinds  of 
variation,  the  only  one  on  which  the  law  of  natural  selection  has 
any  hearing  at  all,  is  the  first.  And  on  that  kind  of  variation,  the 
only  bearing  whieb  natural  selection  has  is  this — that  if  any 
Humming-bird  were  born  with  a  new  form  of  bill,  or  a  newform  of 
wing,  which  enabled  it  to  feed  better  and  to  range  farther,  that 

VOL.  ▼.  2  o 


j.Googlc 


2S0  Proceedings  of  the  Boyol  Society 

improved  bill  and  wing  would  naturally  tend  to  be  perpetuated  bjr 
ordinaiy  generation.  This  ie  unqueetionably  tiue  ;  bnt  it  really  doeB 
not  touch  the  facte  of  the  case.  The  bille  and  wings  of  the  difTerent 
genera  do  not  diflfer  from  each  other  in  respect  of  any  comparative 
advantage  of  this  kind,  but  simpl;  in  respect  to  variety  correspond- 
ing with  the  variety  of  certain  vegetable  forme.  One  form  of  bill  is 
OB  good  as  another,  but  some  forms  are  adapted  io  some  special 
clasE  of  flower,  gome  bills,  for  example,  are  formed  of  enormous 
length,  specially  adapted  to  obtain  accees  to  the  nectar  chambers  of 
long  tubular  flowers,  such  as  the  Brugmansia.  Some,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  if  to  show  that  the  eame  end  may  be  attained  by 
difierent  means,  obtain  access  to  the  same  flowers  by  a  shorter  pro- 
cess, and  pierce  the  bases  of  the  corolla  instead  of  seeking  acoess  by 
the  mouth.  Some  have  bills  bent. down  wards  like  a  sickle,  adapted 
to  searching  the  bark  of  palm-trees  for  the  insects  hid  under  the 
seal;  covering;  others  have  bills  curved  in  the  opposite  direotioD, 
fitted,  apparently,  to  the  curious  constmction  of  some  of  the  great 
family  of  Orchids  so  immensely  developed  in  the  forests  of  Central 
America.  Some  have  bills  equally  well  adapted  for  searching  a 
vast  variety  of  flowers  and  blossoms,  and  these,  accordingly, 
migrate  with  the  flowering  season,  and  issuing  from  the  great 
stronghold  of  the  family  in  tropical  America,  spread  like  our  own 
summer  birds  of  passage,  northwards  to  Canada,  and  soutliwards  to 
Cape  Horn,  in  the  corresponding  seasons  of  the  year.  In  contrast 
with  these  species  of  extended  range,  there  are  many  species  whose 
habitat  is  confined,  perhaps,  to  a  single  monntaiD,  and  there  are 
some  which  never  have  been  seen  beyond  the  edges  of  some  extinct 
volcano,  whose  crater  is  now  filled  with  a  special  flora.  Many  of 
the  great  mountains  of  the  Andes  have  each  of  them  species 
peculiar  to  themselves.  On  Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi,  and  other 
summits,  special  forms  of  Eumming-bitds  are  fonnd  in  special 
zones  of  vegetation  even  close  up  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow. 
Again,  many  of  the  islands  have  species  peculiar  to  themselvee. 
The  little  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  300  miles  from  the  main- 
land, has  three  species  peculiar  to  itself,  of  which  two  are  so  distinct 
from  all  others  known,  that  they  cannot  for  a  moment  be  con- 
founded with  any  of  them.  It  is  impossible  not  to  see,  in  such  com- 
plicated facts  as  these,  that  the  creation  of  new  species  has  followed 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  281 

Eome  plan  in  which  mere  variety  has  beeo  in  itself  an  object  and 
an  aim.  The  divergence  of  form  is  not  a  divergence  which  can 
have  arisen  by  way  of  natural  consequence,  merely  from  compara- 
tive advantage  and  disadvantage  in  the  struggle  for  esietence. 
Sills  highly  specialised  in  form  are  certainly  not  tliose  which 
woald  give  the  greatest  advantage  to  birds  which  have  equal 
access  to  the  abundant  flora  of  an  immense  continent.  Some  form 
of  bill  adapted  to  the  probing  or  piercing  of  all  flowers  with 
almost  equal  ease,  would  be  the  form  most  favourable  to  the 
multiplication  and  spread  of  Humming-birds.  Continued  approxi- 
mation to  some  common  type  would  seem  to  be  quite  as  natural, 
and  a  much  more  advantageous  kind  of  change  as  regards  advantage 
in  the  struggle  for  existence,  than  endless  divergence  and  special 
adaptation  to  limited  spheres  of  enjoyment.  At  all  events,  we 
may  safely  say  that  mere  advantage,  in  Mi  Darwin's  sense,  ie  not 
the  rule  which  has  chiefly  guided  creative  power  in  the  origin  of 
these  new  species.  It  seems  rather  to  have  been  a  rule  having  for 
its  object  the  mere  multiplying  of  life,  and  the  fitting  of  new  forms 
for  new  spheres  of  enjoyment,  according  as  these  might  arise  out  of 
corresponding  changes  in  other  departments  of  the  organic  world. 
If,  now,  we  turn  to  the  other  kind  of  specific  distinction  between 
Humming-birds,  viz.,  that  which  consists  in  differences  in  the  mere 
colouring  and  disposition  of  the  plumage,  we  shall  find  the  same 
phenomena  still  more  remarkable.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  to  be 
observed  of  the  whole  group  that  there  is  no  connection  which  can 
be  traced  or  conceived  between  the  splendour  of  the  Humming- 
birds and  any  function  essential  to  their  life.  If  there  were  any 
Buch  connection,  that  splendour  could  not  be  confined,  as  it  almo.^t 
exclusively  is,  to  one  sex.  The  female  birds  are  of  course  not 
placed  at  any  disadvantage  in  the  struggle  for  existence  by  their 
more  sombre  colouring.  Here  utility  in  this  sense,  therefore,  can 
have  had  no  share  in  determining  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
the  characteristics  of  this  family  of  birds.  Those  who  by  special 
study  have  laid  their  mind  alongside  of  the  mind  of  Nature  in  any 
one  of  its  departments,  have  generally  imparted  to  them  a  true 
sense,  so  for  as  it  goes,  in  the  interpretation  of  her  mysteries.  Let 
ns  then  hear  what  Mr  Gould  says  on  this  point : — "  The  members  of 
most  of  the  genera  have  certain  parts  of  their  plumage  fantastically 


j.Googlc 


282  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

decoTated  ;  and  in  moDy  inatances  most  resplendent  in  colour.  Hj 
own  opinion  is,  that  tbia  gorg«ona  colouring  of  the  bumming-birdt 
bas  been  given  for  the  mere  purpose  of  ornament,  and  for  no  other 
pnrpoBe  of  special  adaptation  in  their  mode  of  life  ;  id  other  words, 
that  ornament  and  beauty,  merely  as  anch,  was  the  end  proposed."* 
Different  parte  of  the  plumage  have  been  selected  in  different 
genera  as  the  principal  subject  of  oroainent.  Id  some,  it  is  the 
feathers  of  the  crown  worked  into  different  forms  of  crest ;  in  some, 
it  is  the  feathers  of  the  throat,  forming  gorgeta'  and  beards  of  many 
shapes  and  hues;  in  some,  it  is  a  special  development  of  neck 
plumes,  elongated  into  frilla  and  tippets  of  extraordinary  form  and 
beauty.  Id  a  great  number  of  geneia  the  Featbers  of  the  tail  are  the 
apecial  aubjectB  of  decoration,  and  this  on  every  variety  of  plan  and 
principle  of  ornament.  In  some,  the  two  central  feathers  are  moat 
elongated,  the  others  decreasing  in  length  on  either  aide,  bo  as  to 
give  the  whole  the  wedge  form.  In  others,  the  converse  plan  is 
pursued,  the  two  lateriil  feathers  being  most  developed,  so  that  the 
whole  is  forked  after  the  manner  of  the  common  swallow.  In 
others,  again,  they  are  radiated,  or  pointed  and  sharpened  like  thorns. 
In  some  genera  there  is  an  eitraordinary  development  of  one  or 
two  feathers  into  plumes  of  enormous  length,  with  flat  or  spatulose 
terminations.  Mere  ornament  and  variety  of  form,  and  these  for 
their  own  sake,  is  the  only  principle  or  rule  with  reference  to  which 
Creative  Power  seems  to  have  worked  in  these  wonderful  and  beau- 
tiful birds.  And  if  we  cannot  acootint  for  the  differences  in  the 
general  style  and  plan  of  ornament  followed  in  the  whole  group, 
by  referring  them  to  any  sort  of  use  in  the  struggle  for  existence, 
still  less  ia  it  possible  to  account,  on  this  principle,  for  the  kind  of 
difference  which  separates  frem  each  other  the  different  species  in 
each  of  the  genera.  These  differences  are  often  little  more  tban 
a  mere  difference  of  colour.  The  radiance  of  the  luby  or  topaz  in 
one  species,  is  replaced  perhaps  by  the  radiance  of  the  emerald  or  the 
sapphire  in  another.  In  all  other  respects  the  different  epeoiee  are 
sometimes  almost  exact  counterparts  of  each  other.  As  an  ex- 
ample, let  me  refer  to  the  two  speoies  figured  by  Kr  Gould  as  the 
Blue-tailed  and  the  O-reen-tailed  Sylphe;  and  also  to  two  species 

•  Qould'a  "  TruobilirtiB,"  Introductiou. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgk,  Session  1864^65.  283 

of  the  "  CometB,"  in  whieh  two  different  kinds  of  Inminona  reds  or 
crimsons  are  nearly  all  that  serve  to  distinguish  the  species. 

A  similar  principle  of  variation  applies  in  other  genera,  where 
the  amount  of  difierence  is  greater.  For  example,  one  of  the  most 
singalor  and  beautiful  of  all  the  tribe  ie  comprised  vithin  the 
genus  "  Lophomis,"  ot  the  "  CoqnetteB."  The  principle  of  orna- 
ment in  this  genua  is,  that  the  different  species  are  all  provided 
both  with  hrilliant  crests,  and  with  frills  or  tippets  on  the  neck. 
The  feathers  of  these  parts  are  generally  of  one  colour,  ending  in 
spots  or  apanglee  of  another;  the  spangles  being  generally  of 
metallic  lustre.  There  seems  to  be  a  rule  of  inverse  proportion 
between  the  two  kinds  of  ornament.  The  species  which  have  the 
neck  plumes  longest  have  the  shortest  crests,  and  vice  vend.  In 
the  shape  and  stractare  of  all  essential  organs  there  is  hardly  any 
difference  between  the  species.  T  need  not  multiply  instances 
farther,  since  many  others  of  the  same  kind  wUl  be  observed  in  Hr 
Gould's  splendid  work.  Now,  what  explanation  does  the  lav  of 
natural  selection  give — I  will  not  say  of  the  origin,  bat  even  of  the 
continuance  and  preservation — of  such  specific  varieties  as  these? 
None  whatever.  A  crest  of  topaz  is  no  better  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  than  a  crest  of  sapphire.  A  frill  ending  in  spangles  of 
the  emerald  is  so  better  in  the  battle  of  life  than  a  frill  ending  in 
spangles  of  the  mby.  It  is  impossible  to  bring  such  varieties  into 
relation  with  any  physical  lav  known  to  as.  It  has  relation,  bow- 
ever,  to  a  purpose,  which  stands  in  close  analogy  with  our  own 
knowledge  of  purpose  in  the  works  of  man.  Mere  beauty  and  mere 
variety,  for  their  own  sake,  are  objects  which  we  ourselves  seek 
when  we  can  make  the  forces  of  nature  subordinate  to  the  attain- 
ment of  them.  There  seems  to  be  no  conceivable  reason  why  we 
should  doubt  or  question,  that  these  are  ends  and  aims  also  in  the 
forms  given  to  living  organisms,  when  the  facts  correspond  with 
this  view,  and  with  no  other.  In  this  sense,  we  can  trace  a  crea- 
tive law, — that  is,  we  can  see  that  these  forms  of  life  do  fnlfil  a  pur- 
pose and  intention,  which  we  can  appreciate  and  understand. 

But  then  it  may  be  asked,  has  this  purpose  and  intention  been 
attained  without  the  ose  of  means?  Have  no  physical  laws  been  used 
whereby  these  new  forms  of  beauty  have  been  evolved,  the  one 
from  the  other,  in  a  series  so  wonderful  for  its  variety  in  unity,  and 


DvGooglc 


284  Proceedings  of  the  SoycU  Society 

ita  unit;  io  variety  7  I  am  Dot  now  seeking  to  answer  this  question 
in  the  negative.  All  I  aay  is,  that  the  physical  laws  which  are 
made  eubsemetit  to  this  purpose  are  entirely  unknown  to  as.  That 
particular  combination  of  a  great  many  natnral  laws,  which  Hr 
Darwin  groups  under  the  name  of  Natnral  Selection,  does  not  in  the 
least  answer  the  conditions  which  we  seek  in  a  law  to  account  for 
either  the  origin  or  the  spread  of  such  creatures  as  the  varioas 
kinds  of  Uumming-birde.  On  theotherhand,  if  I  am  asked  whether 
I  believe  that  every  separate  species  has  been  a  separate  creation 
— not  bom,  but  separately  made~~I  must  answer,  that  I  do  not 
believe  it.  I  think  the  facts  do  suggest  to  the  mind  the  idea  of 
the  working  of  some  creative  law,  almost  as  certainly  as  they  con- 
vince us  that  we  know  nothing  of  its  nature,  or  of  the  conditions 
under  which  it  does  its  glorious  work.  Our  experience  of  the 
existing  order  of  nature  is,  that  the  young  of  each  species  repeat 
the  form  and  the  colours  of  tbeir  parent,  and  that  even  where 
variations  occur,  tbey  are  inconstant,  and  tend  to  disappear.  We 
have  no  knowledge,  for  example,  that  from  the  eggs  of  the  Blae- 
tailed  Sylph  a  pair  of  Gieen-tailed  Sylphs  can  ever  be  produced. 
We  have  no  leason  to  believe  that  a  species  of  "  Lophomie,"  with  a 
tippet  of  emerald  spangles,  can  ever  hatch  out  a  pair  of  young 
adoined  with  spangles  of  some  other  gem.  And  yet  wo  cannot 
assert  that  such  phenomena  are  impossible,  nor  can  it  be  denied 
that,  as  a  matter  of  speculation,  this  process  is  natural  and  easy 
of  conception,  as  compared  with  the  idea  of  each  species  being 
separately  called  into  existence,  out  of  the  inorganic  elements  of 
which  its  body  is  composed.  Such  new  births^^if  they  do  take 
place — would  peri'ectly  fulfil,  I  think,  the  only  idea  we  can  ever  form 
of  new  creations.  For  example,  it  would  appear  that  every  variety 
which  is  to  take  its  place,  as  a  new  species  must  he  bom  male  and 
female ;  because  it  is  one  of  the  facte  of  specific  variation  in  the 
Humming-birds,  that  although  the  male  and  female  plumage  is 
generally  entirely  different,  yet  the  female  of  each  species  is  as 
distinct  from  the  female  of  every  other,  as  the  male  is  from  the 
male  of  every  other.  If  therefore,  each  new  variety  were  not  bom 
in  couples,  and  if  the  divergence  of  form  were  not  thus  secured  in 
the  organisation  of  both  the  sexes,  it  would  fail  to  be  established, 
or  would  exhibit  for  a  time  the  phenomena  of  mixture,  and  termi- 


DvGooglc 


o/  Edinburgh,  Session  1864t-65.  285 

nate  in  reTeision  to  the  original  type.  Now  here  again  we  have 
the  emphatic  declaration  of  Ur  Gonld,  that  among  the  thousands 
of  specimens  which  have  passed  tbrongh  hia  hands,  from  all  the 
genera  of  this  great  family,  he  has  Qever  seen  one  case  of  mixture 
or  hybridism  between  any  two  species,  however  nearly  allied.  But 
this  passage  is  so  Important,  that  I  quote  it  entire.  "  It  might  be 
thought  by  some  persons  that  four  hundred  species  of  biids  so  dimin- 
utive in  size,  and  of  one  family,  could  scarcely  be  distingnisbed 
from  each  other ;  bnt  any  one  who  studies  the  subject,  will  soon  per- 
ceive that  such  is  not  the  case.  Even  the  females,  which  assimi- 
late more  closely  to  each  other  than  the  males,  can  be  separated 
with  perfect  certainty  ;  nay,  even  a  tail-feather  will  be  sufficieut  for 
a  person  well  versed  in  the  subject  to  say  to  what  genus  and  species 
the  bird  from  which  it  has  been  taken  belongs.  I  mention  this 
fact  to  show  that  what  we  designate  a  species  has  really  distinctive 
and  constant  characters ;  and  in  the  whole  of  my  experience,  with 
many  thousands  of  humming-birds  passing  through  my  bauds,  I 
have  never  observed  an  instance  of  any  variation  which  would  lead 
me  to  suppose  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  union  of  two  species.  I 
write  this  without  bias,  one  way  or  the  other,  as  to  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  species.  I  am  desirous  of  representing  Nature  in  her 
wonderful  ways  as  she  presents  herself  to  my  attention  at  the  close 
of  my  wofIe,  after  a  period  of  twelve  years  of  incessant  labour,  and 
not  leas  than  twenty  years  of  interesting  study."* 

If,  therefore,  new  species  are  born  from  the  old,  it  is  not  by  acci- 
dental mixture ;  it  is  not  by  the  mere  nursing  of  changes  advan- 
tageous in  the  battle  of  life ;  it  must  be  from  the  birth  of  some  one 
couple,  male  and  female,  whose  organisation  is  subjected  to  new 
conditions  corresponding  with  each  other,  and  having  such  force  of 
self- continuance,  as  to  secure  it  agunst  reversion.  It  matt«rB  not 
how  small  the  difference  may  be  from  the  parent  form ;  if  that 
difference  be  constaut,  and  if  it  be  associated  with  some  difference 
equally  constant  in  the  female  form,  it  becomes  at  once  a  new 
species.  There  are  some  cases  mentioned  by  Kr  Gould  which  may 
possibly  be  examples  of  the  first  fouuding  of  a  new  species.  In 
the  beautiful  genus  "  Cynantbus,"  be  tells  us  that  there  are  some 

•  Gould's  "  TrochilidiB,"  Introduction. 


DvGooglc 


28rt  Froceedinge  of  the  Soyal  Society 

local  T&rietieH  ueai  Bogota,  Id  which  the  ornament  is  partiall; 
chaaging  from  blue  to  green ;  and  it  ie  a  onrione  fact,  that  tbia 
variation  appears  to  be  taking  effect  under  the  direction  of  some 
definite  rule  or  "  law," — inasmuch  as  it  is  only  the  eight  central 
feathers  of  the  tail  which  are  tipped  with  the  new  colour.  Mt 
Gould  expressly  Bays  of  one  suck  variety  from  Ecuador,  that  it 
poBsesses  characters  so  distinctive  as  to  entitle  it,  in  his  opinion, 
to  the  rank  of  a  separate  species.  The  very  discuasion  of  such  a 
question  shows  the  possibility  of  new  births  being  the  means  of 
introdncing  new  species.  But  my  object  here  is  simply  to  point 
out  that  Mr  Darwin's  theory  offers  no  explanation  of  such  births, 
either  as  respects  their  origin  or  their  preservation,  neither  does  it 
even  t^proach  to  tracing  these  births  to  any  physical  law  whatever. 
It  fails  also  to  recognise,  even  if  it  does  not  esclude,  the  relation 
which  the  birth  of  new  species  has  to  the  mental  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing mere  beauty  and  mere  variety.  Nevertheless  it  may  he 
true  that  ordinary  generation  has  been  the  instrument  employed 
but  if  BO,  it  must  be  employed  under  extraordinary  conditions,  am 
directed  to  extraordinary  results. 

The  only  senses,  therefore,  in  which  we  get  any  glimpse  ol 
creation  by  law  are  these — Itt,  That  the  close  physical  connec- 
tion between  diSerent  specific  forms  is  probably  due  to  the  opera- 
tion of  some  force  or  forces  common  to  them  all ;  2d,  That  these 
forces  have  been  employed  and  worked  with  others  equally  un- 
known, for  the  attainment  of  such  euds  as  the  multiplication 
life,  in  forms  fitted  for  new  spheres  of  employment,  and  for  the 
display  of  new  kinds  of  beauty. 

Is  there  anything  in  this  conclusion  to  conflict  with  such  know- 
ledge as  we  have  from  other  sources  of  the  nature  and  working 
of  creative  power?  I  do  not  know  on  what  authority  it  is  that 
we  BO  often  speak  as  if  creation  were  not  creation,  unless  it  works 
from  nothing  as  its  material,  and  by  nothing  as  its  means.  We 
know  that  out  of  the  "dust  of  the  ground,"  that  is,  out  of  ths 
ordinary  elements  of  nature,  are  our  own  bodies  formed,  and  the 
bodies  of  all  living  things.  Nor  is  there  anything  which  should 
shock  US  in  the  idea  that  the  creation  of  new  forms,  any  more 
than  their  propagation,  has  been  brought  about  by  the  use  and 
instrumentality  of  means.    Tn  a  theological  point  of  view  it  mattem 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1861-65.  287 

nothing  what  those  means  have  been.  I  ^ree  witb  Mons.  Gnizot 
vben  he  sayB  tbat  "  Those  only  wonld  be  serious  adversaries  of 
the  doctrine  of  Creation  who  could  affirm  that  the  universe— the 
earth  and  man  upon  it — have  been  from  all  eternity,  and  in  all 
respects  just  what  they  aie  now."*  But  this  cannot  be  affirmed 
except  in  the  teeth  of  facts  which  Science  has  clearly  ascertained. 
There  baa  been  a  continual  coming-to-be  of  new  forms  of  life.f 
This  is  Creation,  no  matter  what  have  been  the  laws  or  forces 
employed  by  Creative  Power,  The  troth  ia,  that  the  theory 
which  fixes  upon  inheritance  as  the  canee  of  organic  likeness, 
startles  ne  only  when  it  is  applied  to  forms  in  which  unlikeness  is 
more  piomineDt  than  resemblance.  The  idea,  for  example,  tbat 
the  different  kinds  of  Pigeon,  or  of  Humming-birds,  have  all  de- 
scended through  successive  variation  from  some  one  ancestral  pair, 
whether  it  be  true  or  not,  would  not  startle  any  one.  Yet,  if  this 
be  true,  we  must  be  prepared  for  the  same  surmise  extending 
farther.  The  advocates  of  development  arge  that  time  is  a  power- 
ful factor.  They  say  that  if  small  changes,  but  constant  enough, 
and  definite  enough  to  constitute  new  species,  can  and  do  arise  out 
of  bom  varieties,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  limits  of  divei^nce 
which  may  be  reached  in  the  course  of  agos.  Tet  it  surely  does  not 
follow  that  there  is  no  such  limit  because  we  cannot  fix  it.  It  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  becanse  we  admit  the  idea  of  tbe  Bock- 
dove,  and  the  Turtle-dove,  and  tbe  Bing-dove  being  all  descended 
from  one  ancestral  Pigeon,  we  are  bonnd  to  accept  tbe  idea  of 
the  Whale,  and  the  Antelope,  and  the  Monkey  being  all  descended 
from  some  one  primeval  mammal.  Hr  Darwin  says,  truly  enough, 
that  inheritance  "  is  that  cause  which  alone,  as  far  as  we  positively 
know,  produces  organisms  quite  like,  or  nearly  like,  each  otbei." 
But  this  is  no  reason  why  we  should  conclude  tbat  inheritance  is 
the  only  cause  which  can  produce  organisms  quite  nnlike,  or  only 
very  partially  like,  each  other.  We  are  surely  not  entitled  to 
assume  that  all  degrees  and  kinds  of  likeness  can  only  arise  from 
this  single  cause.    Tet  until  this  extreme  proposition  be  proved, 

*  HMilations  inr  I'Eaaence  de  la  fieligioD  ChifitleDoe.  p.  49. 

t  "  We  discern  no  evidence  of  a  pause  or  intarmiiuion  in  the  creatioD  oi 
comJQg-to-be  of  now  plants  and  animals." — Intlaiuti  ijf  th4  Pomtr  of  Oed  at 
mani/ul*d  in  Bi*  Animal  OmImo,  bj  Piofessor  Owen. 

VOL.  V.  2  f 


D,„i,:.d.,  Google 


288  Proceedings  of  the  RoyeA  Society 

01  rendered  probable,  we  have  a  sound  scientific  basia  for  doubting 
tbe  application  of  the  theory  precisely  in  proportion  to  the  nnlike- 
nesB  of  the  animals  to  which  it  is  applied.  And  this  is  tbe  grotind 
of  reuouing,  besides  the  ground  of  feeling,  on  which  we  revolt 
from  the  doctrine  as  applied  to  Man.  We  do  so  because  we  aie 
conscious  of  on  amount  and  of  a  kind  of  difi'eienco  between  our- 
selves and  the  lower  animals,  which  is,  in  sober  truth,  immeosur- 
ahle,  in  spite  of  the  close  afBnitiea  of  bodily  structnre.  But  the 
closeness  of  these  affinities  is  a  fact,  Man,  ax  Archbishop  Wbately 
bss  said,  besides  being  mau,  is  also  an  animal.  Science  will  ask, 
even  if  she  never  gets  an  answer,  What  is  the  common  cause  of 
this  common  structure  ?  The  fact  which  it  haa  always  appeared  to 
me  most  difScult  to  disengage  from  the  theoty  of  development,  is 
the  existence  of  rudimentary  or  aborted  organs ;  the  existence  of 
teeth,  for  example,  in  the  jaws  of  the  Whale — teeth  which  never 
eut  the  gum — and  which  are  entirely  useless  to  the  animal.  We 
have  an  inherent  conviction  that  this  must  have  some  use  in  the 
future,  or  it  must  have  had  it  in  the  past.  Whether  we  look  at  it 
in  the  light  of  history,  or  prefer  to  regard  it  in  the  light  of  prophecy, 
it  points  to  the  existence  of  some  derivative  form  in  which  these 
teeth  have  been,  or  are  to  be,  turned  to  use.  There  is  one  sug- 
gestion on  this  subject  which  I  cannot  accept.  When  men  were 
yet  nnwilling  to  admit  the  existence  of  life  and  death  upon  the 
globe  BO  long  before  the  creation  of  man,  it  used  to  be  said  that 
fossils  were  only  "  sports  of  nature,"  So  in  our  own  day,  I  have 
heard  it  said  that  rudimentary  organs  are  merely  intended  to  satisfy 
that  condition  of  our  finite  minds,  in  virtue  of  which  we  are  unable 
to  conceive  creation,  except  in  connection  with  some  history  and 
method  of  growth.  And  so,  as  a  condescension  to  this  weakness, 
aborted  members  are  given  to  suggest  a  history  which  was  never 
tme,  and  a  method  which  was  never  followed  I  Now,  of  one  thing 
I  feel  as  sare  as  I  can  be  of  any  truth,  viz.,  that  there  are 
no  fictions  in  natnie,  and  no  jokes.  Whatever  natural  things 
reaUy  point  to,  they  point  to  faithfully;  and  the  ccmclusionB 
really  indicated  are  never  false.  Abortive  organs  mean  some- 
thing, and  they  mean  it  truly.  Still,  there  is  no  proof  that  in- 
heritance is  the  only  cause  from  which  such  stmctnres  can  arise. 
In  the  inorganic  world  we  know  that  not  mere  similarity,  but 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  289 

absolute  identity  of  form,  as  in  ciyBtols,  is  the  result  of  laws 
which  have  nothing  to  do  with  inheritance,  but  of  forces  whose 
nature  it  is  to  aggregate  the  particles  of  matter  in  identic  shapes. 
It  is  impossible  to  say  faow  far  a  similar  unity  of  effect  may  have 
been  impressed  on  the  forces  through  which  vital  oi^anisms  are 
first  started  on  tbeii  way.  There  are  some  essential  resemblances 
between  all  forms  of  life  which  it  is  impossible  even  in  imagina- 
tion to  connect  with  community  of  blood  by  descent.  For  ex- 
ample, the  bilateral  arrangement  ia  common  to  all  organisms, 
down  at  least  to  the  Badiata.  Again,  the  general  mechanism 
of  the  digestive  organs  by  which  food  is  in  part  assimilated 
and  part  rejected,  is  also  common  through  a  range  of  equal  ex- 
tent. These  are  fundamental  similarities  of  plan,  depending  pro- 
bably on  the  very  nature  of  forcea  of  which  we  know  nothing,  but 
which  we  have  not  the  slightest  reason  to  sappoae  are  due  to  in- 
heritance. Other  Bimilarities  of  plan  may  depend  on  the  same 
laws,  equally  unconnected  with  inheritance  by  descent.  Indeed, 
inheritance  has  been  suggested  as  the  cause,  mainly  because  there 
is  a  difficulty  in  conceiving  any  other.  But  there  is  at  least  an 
equal  difficulty  in  conceiving  the  applicability  of  this  cause  to  Uan. 
Mods.  Guizot,  in  the  work  already  quoted,*  lays  it  down  as  a 
physical  impossibility  that  Han — the  human  pair— can  have  been 
introduced  into  the  world  except  in  complete  stature — in  the  fnll 
poBsesaion  of  all  his  fecalties  and  powers.  He  holds  it  as  certain 
that  on  no  other  condition  could  Man,  on  his  first  appearance,  have 
been  able  to  survive  and  to  fonnd  the  human  family.  Even  those 
who  distrust  this  argument  as  entitled  to  the  rank  of  a  self-evident 
physical  truth,  must  admit  that  it  is  at  least  quite  as  good  as  the 
opposite  assertion,  that  any  origin  except  the  origin  of  natural  birth 
it  inconceivable.  Where  our  ignorance  is  so  profound  no  reasoning 
of  this  kind  is  of  much  value ;  bnt  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  support 
of  Mons.  Guizot's  position.  Certainly,  Man  as  a  mere  animal  is  the 
most  helpless  of  all  animals.  His  whole  frame  has  relation  to  his 
mind,  and  apart  from  that  relation,  it  is  feebler  than  the  frame 
of  any  of  the  brutes.  Yet  in  its  plan  and  stmctnre  it  is  homo- 
logically,  that  is  ideally,  the  same  as  theirs — organ  answering 

*  H&litatiout  wm  rEaaeDeu  de  la  Religion  Chritienne,  p.  22. 

Digitized  DvGoOglc 


2iK)  Prooeedinga  of  the  Hot/al  Society 

to  organ,  and  bone  to  bone.  "Adherence  to  Type"  are  words 
expieBsire  of  an  idea,  of  a  pnrpoBe,  which  we  see  fulfilled  id 
organic  forma.  But  this  purpose  must  have  Bought  its  own  accom- 
plishment by  the  use  of  means,  and  the  question  of  science  always 
is,  what  were  thesef  Love  of  beauty  is  equally  a  purpose  which 
we  see  fulfilled  in  nature,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Humming- 
liirds  this  has  been  accomplished  by  giving  to  their  plumes  the 
structure  of  "  thin  plates,"  which  decomposes  light  and  flings 
hack  its  pnsmatic  colours  to  the  eye.  Fitness  and  special  adap- 
tation is  anotherof  the  purposes  of  creation,  bat  this  also  is  attained 
through  the  careful  arrangement,  and  pliability  to  use,  of  pbysicsl 
laws.  In  like  manner,  "  Adherence  to  Type"  is  the  expreaeion 
of  a  fact,  or  the  statement  of  a  puipose,  which,  like  all  the  other 
purposes  fulGlled  in  nature,  invites  to  an  investigation  of  the  in- 
strumentality employed.  We  see  the  purpose  hut  we  do  not  see 
the  method.  We  see  the  purpose,  for  example,  in  the  wonderful 
adaptability  of  the  verttihrate  type  to  the  infinite  Tsrieties  of  life  to 
which  it  serves  as  an  organ  and  a  home.  There  is  at  least  one 
conclusioii  which  I  bold  to  be  certain,  namely,  this— that  no  theory 
in  respect  to  the  means  and  method  employed  in  the  work  of  crea- 
tion, can  have  the  slightest  eflect  in  removing  that  work  from  the 
relation  in  which  it  stands  to  the  attributes  of  creative  Will. 

We  cannot  too  completely  shake  off  the  notion  that  things  which 
happen  hy  way  of  "  natural  consequence"  are  thereby  removed  from 
being  the  effect  of  purpose  and  the  work  of  Will.  We  forget  that  ait 
our  own  works  are  works  done  through  the  use  and  instrumentality 
of  natural  forces,aDd  it  is  knowledge  and  intelligence  alone  which  en- 
able nsto  combine  these  forces  for  the  accomplishment  of  ourdesigns. 
All  that  we  do,  or  can  eSeci,  a  brought  abont  by  way  of  natural 
consequence.  The  steam-engine  works  by  way  of  natural  conse- 
quence ;  so  does  Hr  Babbage's  calculating  machine, — so  does  the 
electric  telegraph, — so  does  the  solar  system.  Everything  that  is 
done  in  nature,  as  well  as  everything  that  is  done  in  art,  seems  to 
be  done— as  it  were — by  knowing  how  to  do  it.  Whatever  may  be 
the  u1timat«  seat  of  the  elementary  forces  of  nature,  they  can  only 
produce  the  effects  which  we  desire  to  attain  by  being  combined 
under  the  control  gf  mind.  They  appear  to  be  used  in  the  works 
of  nature  precisely  on  the  same  principle  on  which  they  are  used 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  291 

hy  mail.  The  fewer  those  elementary  forces,  the  greuter  must  be 
the  mental  power,  and  skill,  and  knowledge,  under  which  they  are 
yoked  to  such  varions  use.  And  it  is  apparently  out  of  a  email 
number  of  elementary  forces,  having  fixed  rules  too,  limiting  their 
combination,  that  all  the  infioite  varieties  of  organic  and  inorgauio 
matter  are  built  up  by  means  of  nice  adjuatmeut.  As  all  the 
faculties  of  a  powerful  mind  can  utter  their  voice  in  language 
whose  elements  are  reducible  to  twenty-four  letters,  so  all  the 
forms  of  uature,  with  all  the  ideas  they  express,  are  worked  out 
from  a  few  simple  forces,  having  a  few  simple  properties. 

And  here  I  cannot  help  saying  that  I  do  not  share  in  the  im- 
pression which  is  felt  by  many,  that  the  progress  of  modem  in- 
vestigation is  in  a  direction  tending  to  materialism.  Of  course  I 
am  not  speaking  of  what  may  be  the  tone  of  individual  minds. 
But  I  do  speak,  and  with  strong  conviction,  of  the  general  bearing 
of  scientific  truth.  I  not  only  do  not  share  in  that  impreeeion, 
but  I  entertain  an  exactly  opposite  belief.  Nothing  is  more  ce- 
markahle  in  the  present  state  of  physical  research  than  what 
may  be  called  the  transcendental  character  of  its  results.  And 
what  is  transcendentalism  but  the  tendency  to  trace  up  all  things 
to  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  abstract  ideas  7  And  what 
is  this  but  to  bring  all  physical  phenomena  nearer  and  nearer  into 
relation  with  the  phenomena  of  mind  7  Is  this  materialism  7 
Some  of  the  ablest  writers  who  have  incurred  reasooable  suspioioa 
us  to  the  drift  of  their  teaching,  nevertheless  give  witness  most  em- 
phatically to  what  I  would  call  the  purely  mental  quality  of  the 
ultimate  results  of  physical  inquiry.  Mr  Lewes,  whose  work  on 
Aristotle  I  have  already  quoted,  says,  "  The  fundamental  ideas  of 
modem  science  are  as  transcendental  as  any  of  the  axioms  in 
ancient  philosophy."*  And  this  is  true.  Let  us  look  for  a  moment 
on  the  light,  smalt  as  it  may  be,  which  physiology  has  cast  on  the 
great  mystery  of  Life.  We  never  see  Life  separate  from  some  ma- 
terial organisation.  Yet  what  is  the  doctrine  proclaimed,  I  believe, 
first,  by  the  great  John  Hunter,  and  now  emphatically  repeated  by 
men  like  Professor  Huxley  and  Br  Carpenter  7  It  is  that  organisa- 
tion is  not  the  cause  of  Life,  but  Life  is  the  cause  of  organisation. 


•  I*wc»'  Aiiatotle,  p.  66, 


DvGooglc 


292  ProceedingB  of  the  Royal  Society 

Material  oig&ns  are  mere);  the  special  fonns  built  up  aod  fashioned 
by  the  vital  foices,  whatever  these  may  be,  for  the  discharge  of 
special  functiona.  And  it  is  well  worthy  of  lemaik,  that  some  of 
the  moBt  clear  and  striking  illttstrations  of  this  tmth  aio  to  be 
found  in  eome  of  the  lowest  forms  of  life,  revealed  to  ns  only  by 
tlie  miciDscope.  PiofeMor  Huxley  and  Dr  Carpenter  both  refer  to 
the  Foraminifera,  in  which  the  most  beautiful  and  complicated 
foims  of  shell  are  evolved  by  the  vital  force  working  in  creatures 
composed  of  simple  jelly,  without  parts,  without  structure,  witfaont 
orgaue  of  any  kind.  Thus  the  deeper  we  go  in  science,  the  more 
certain  it  becomea  that  all  the  realities  of  nature  are  in  the  region 
of  the  Invisible ;  so  that  tbe  saying  is  literally  true,  that  the  things 
which  are  seen  are  temporal,  and  that  it  is  only  the  things  which  ant 
not  seen  that  are  eternal.  Surely  if  this  is  materialism,  it  is  ma- 
terialism spiritual ised.  These  doctrines  seem  to  me  rather  to  bring 
into  the  strict  domain  of  science,  ideas  which,  in  the  earUer  stages 
of  hnmao  knowledge,  lay  wholly  within  the  region  of  faith  or  of 
belief  For  example,  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrem 
specially  declares  that  it  is  by  faith  that  we  understand  *'  that 
the  things  which  are  seen  were  not  made  of  things  which  do 
appear,"*  Tet  this  is  now  one  of  the  most  assured  doctrinea  of 
science,  that  invisible  forces  are  behind  and  above  all  visible  phe- 
nomena, moulding  tbem  in  forms  of  infinite  Tariety,  of  all  which 
forms  the  only  real  knowledge  we  possess  lies  in  car  peroeption  of 
their  beauty  and  their  fitness — in  short  of  their  being  all  the  work 
of  "  Toil  oo-cperant  to  an  end."  Creation  by  Law  means  nothing 
but  Creative  Force  directed  by  Creative  Knowledge,  worked  nnder  the 
control  of  Creative  Fewer,  and  in  fulfilment  of  Creative  Purpose. 

During  the  past  year  there  have  been  more  deaths  than  ngusi 
among  the  members  of  the  Society.  Of  Foreign  Honorary  Fel- 
lows we  have  lost  one,  Baron  Plana  of  Turin.  On  onr  home  list 
we  have  to  lament  the  loss  of  10  of  our  Ordinary  Fellows,  some  of 
whom  had  attained  the  full  term  of  human  life,  while  others  have 
been  cut  off  in  their  prime.  Their  names  are — Leonard  Homer, 
Professor  Miller,  Bobert  Morrieson,   Dr  Newbigging,  Professor 

*  Fide  intelllgiiniu  aptata  esse  bscuIr  mbo  Dei ;  ut  ex  invinbilibiu  Tiii- 
bilia  flerent.—  VtilgaU. 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1864-65.  293 

Pillans,  Dr  Archibald  Bobertson,  Dr  Smyttan,  Lieut.- G«neral 
Sffinbume,  Dr  E.  D.  Thomson,  and  Lord  Wood. 

To  replace  these  we  reckon  16  new  Fellowa, — viz.,  Dr  A.  Cmm 
Brown,  Prof.  Bobert  Dyoe,  Dr  John  FonlertoD,  Eev.  John  Hannah, 
Kobert  HutcbiHOn,  Wm.  Lindsay,  Peter  U'Lagan,  J.  D.  Marwick, 
Eev.  D.  r.  Sandford,  Prof.  Sellar,  B.  W.  Thomson,  Arthur  Abney 
Walker,  Dr  William  Wallace,  Dr  Alex.  Wood,  Robert  S.  Wyld. 

Our  roll,  tberefore,  stands  thus:— The  number  of  Fellows  in 
1863  was  274  (omittiiig  Dr  William  Somerville,  bom  at  Hinto  in 
Boxburgbshire,  22d  April  1771,  and  died  at  Florence,  21th  June 
1860,  whose  name  by  mistake  had  been  oontinued  in  the  last  list). 
Of  these  271  we  have  lost  by  death  10,  and  by  resignation  1,  making 
in  all  11,  thus  leaving  263.  To  which  add  the  new  Fellows,  16, 
making  the  whole  namber  of  Fellows  of  the  Society  at  the  com- 
mencement  of  this  session  279,  a  larger  number  than  has  been  on 
our  list  for  many  yeara. 

Baron  Giotanhi  Plana  was  born  abont  1790.  After  studying  at 
the  Polytechnic  School,  he  was  made  Professor  of  Uathematics  in  the 
Military  School  of  Alexandria,  and  then  Frofessoi  of  Mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Turin.  In  1820  the  King  of  Sardinia  directed 
him  to  erect  the  observatory  at  Turin,  of  which  he  was  made  Director 
in  1822.  He  became  Director  of  the  Military  School,  Member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Turin,  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
president,  Chevalier  of  the  Iron  Crown,  and  of  the  Civil  Order  of 
Savoy,  and  member  of  various  foreign  academies.  He  was  elected 
a  CorreBpondlng  Member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  in  1860  one 
of  the  eight  foreign  AssociateB  of  that  body.  In  1820  he  received 
from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  the  groat  mathematical 
prize  for  his  "  Theory  of  the  Lunar  Motions."  He  was  elected  an 
Honorary  Fellow  of  this  Society  on  19th  January  1835. 

He  married  the  niece  of  the  celebrated  Lagrange.  H«  died  at 
Turin  on  20th  January  1861. 

He  is  the  author  of  many  celebrated  memoirs  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Turin  Academy.  The  most  important  of  them  relate  td  the 
Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere  and  Astronomical  Refraction,  the 
Theory  of  Distribution  of  Electricity,  the  Theory  of  the  Moon's 
Motion,  and  the  Perturbations  of  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 


DvGooglc 


2y4  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

LaoNARD  HoRNBK  was  born  in  £Uinbnrgh  on  tlie  17tb  Janoary 
1785.  He  WAS  the  third  and  yonngest  non  of  John  Horaer,  a 
merchant  and  linen- man nfactnrer,  who  long  resided  in  George 
Sqaare,  Edinburgh,  and  was  a  citizen  of  marked  ability,  poe- 
seBsing  much  infoTm&tton,  aud  full  of  anecdotes  of  old  times. 
Leonard's  mother  vm  Joanna  Baillie  of  the  family  of  Baillies 
of  Dochfour,  InvernesH- shire.  .  he  waa  sent  to  school  at  the 
age  of  seven,  and  when  he  was  nine  years  old  he  entered  the 
High  School.  His  brother  Francis  was  also  a  pupil  of  the  same 
school,  which  at  that  time  was  presided  over  by  its  celebrated 
rector  Dr  Adam.  He  was  a  lively,  but  rather  careless  boy,  and  did 
not  display  the  diligence  or  perseverance  of  hia  brother.  His 
amiable  manners,  however,  made  him  a  great  favourite  with  all. 
He  displayed  at  first  a  fancy  for  a  sea-faring  life,  but  the  idea  vaa 
afterwards  abandoned.  On  leaving  the  High  School  he  entered 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  attended  the  lectures  on  mathe- 
matics by  Flayfair,  and  those  on  moral  philosophy  by  Dugald 
Stewart,  and  in  1802  he  beoame  a  pupil  in  the  chemtstry  clan 
taught  by  Dr  Hope,  At  this  time  mineralogy  occupied  a  share  of 
his  attention,  and  he  began  to  form  a  collection  of  minerals.  This 
early  taste  was  developed  in  his  after  life. 

Abont  the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  to  London  with  hia  father, 
and  there  the  family  resided  for  many  years.  At  the  i^e  of 
twenty-one  he  married  Miss  Lloyd,  daughter  of  a  landed  proprietor 
in  Torksbire.  He  now  entered  with  devotion  into  the  study  of 
science,  and  was  received  into  eminent  literary  and  scientific 
society  in  London.  The  intercourse  which  existed  between  his 
grandfather's  family  and  Dr  Hutton  seems  to  have  operated  on  the 
mind  of  young  Homer  in  inspiring  him  with  a  taste  for  geology.  He 
entered  the  Geological  Society  in  1808,  the  year  after  its  formation. 
He  was  one  of  its  earliest  secretaries,  and  be  continued  to  the  last 
to  take  a  warm  and  active  interest  in  its  proceedings.  Circum- 
stances connected  with  the  linen-trade  obliged  him  to  return  to 
Edinburgh  in  ISIS  in  order  to  attend  to  busiscES.  In  1816  be 
became  a  Fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  con- 
tributed a  paper  on  the  occurrence  of  Megaliehthys  Ilihbtrti  in  a 
bed  of  cannel  coal  in  Fifeshire.  Soon  after  this  the  premature 
death  of  his  brother  Francis,  who  was  rising  into  eminence  as  a 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgk,  Seaaioa  1864-65.  299 

stkteem&D,  cut  k  glooot  over  his  spirit.  His  brother  died  in  the 
y«ai  1817,  at  Piss,  vhere  he  had  gone  for  the  Bake  of  his  health. 
XieoDard  Homer  left  his  family,  and  aceompuiied  hia  brother  to 
Fiea,  and  was  with  him  at  his  death.  A  monuiuent  was  erected  to 
Francis  Horner  in  WeHtminatei  Abbey. 

£dinbargb  at  this  time  posBesaed  m&ay  eminent  Whig  lawyen, 
who  didtinguisbed  tbemfielvea  iu  politics  and  literature.  Horner 
warmly  joined  th«m  from  congeniality  of  opinious  and  eentimeDta, 
and  hy  biaactive  and  methodical  habits  be  became  tlie  chief  organiser 
uf  their  political  meetings.  In  1825  be  acted  as  chairman  at  the 
dinner  given  to  Joseph  Home.  He  bad  a  deep  sympathy  for  those 
who  had  been  exiled  from  their  coontiy  on  account  of  liberal  opi- 
nions. Several  of  the  Italian  emigrants,  Ugoni,  Demarcbi,  ArriTa- 
bene,  Castiglione,  and  others,  shared  bis  hospitality.  To  this  is 
perhaps  due  that  Iotc  for  Italy  which  the  family  of  Leonard  Horner 
have  always  maintained.  One  of  bis  danghterB  has  translated  the 
Lirtoiyof  Colletta,  has  written  a  short  histoiy  of  Naples,  and  a  few 
days  before  her  father's  death  published  a  book  on  the  poet  Giusti, 
all  which  aie  works  of  much  value. 

He  also  espooaed  with  eoineatness  the  cause  of  the  working 
men,  whose  edncation  he  considered  as  having  been  neglected  on 
all  hands.  Id  1821  he  founded  the  School  of  Arts  in  Kdinburgh, 
for  the  instruction  of  mechanics,  and  he  never  ceased  to  contribute 
to  its  velfaie.  This  school  has  gone  on  prosperously.  The  average 
attendance  for  the  last  four  years  has  been  700  annually.  No 
similar  institution  in  the  empire  has  been  so  saccessful.  This  suc- 
cess is  owing  to  the  soundness  of  its  constitution,  which  was  entirely 
the  work  of  Hr  Homer.  The  students  have  no  connection  with  its 
managemeaL  The  Directois  have  the  sole  superintendence,  and 
tbey  are  elected  by  the  subscribers  out  of  tbeii  own  body,  and  are 
always  men  of  good  position  and  of  education.  Females  ore  not 
allowed  to  attend.  There  are  a  given  number  of  subjects,  each 
taught  by  able  and  permanent  lecturers.  No  casual  or  itinerant 
lecturers  are  employed.  Mr  Horner  acted  as  honorary  secretary  till 
he  went  to  London  in  1828.  He  founded  a  permanent  prize  of  three 
guineas,  to  be  awarded  by  competitive  examination  in  the  classes  of 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  and  chemistry,  in  succession. 

Desiring  to  promote  classical  education  among  the  middle  classes 

VOL.  T.  2  4 


DvGooglc 


296  Froceedimga  of  the  Royal  Society 

in  Edinburgh,  be,  along  with  Lord  Cockburu,  set  sbont  the  eeU- 
blishiuent  of  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  which  has  continued  to 
flourish  since  its  foundation.  Mr  Horner  visited  the  Academy  on 
man;  occasions  even  after  he  left  Edinburgh,  and  the  last  time  he 
did  BO  was  in  July  1863.  On  the  same  occasion  he  visited  the 
High  School,  in  which  he  had  been  a  pupil,  and  he  was  present  at 
the  distribution  of  prizes,  and  gave  an  excellent  address. 

In  1827  he  became  Warden  of  the  London  University.  This 
office  he  cesigned  after  four  years,  and  retired  to  Bonn,  where 
he  remained  for  six  years  with  his  family.  In  1833  he  accepted 
the  office  of  Inspector  of  Factories,  and  did  his  duty  most  faith- 
fully and  philantb Topically.  By  his  labours  great  improvements 
took  place  in  the  mills  and  mines,  more  especially  in  regard  to  the 
employment  of  women  and  children.  He  earned  the  respect  and 
the  goodwill  of  the  operatives,  and  this  is  evinced  by  the  memorial 
presented  to  the  Misses  Homer  after  his  death  by  the  operative 
cotton 'Spinners  of  Lancashire,  in  which  they  express  their  feelings 
of  heartfelt  sorrow  and  regret,  as  well  as  of  profound  sympathy,  od 
the  death  of  Ur  Horner,  their  father.  They  apeak  with  grateful 
recollections  of  his  unremitting  laboars  in  the  cause  of  justice  and 
humanity,  his  impartiality  in  the  administration  of  the  laws  made 
for  the  protection  of  their  wives  and  children,  and  his  firmness  in 
their  vindication. 

He  was  assiduous  in  his  attendance  at  the  Royal  and  Geo- 
logical Societies  of  London.  He  entered  the  former  on  lltb 
November  1813,  and  he  was  subsequently  one  of  the  Vice-Presi- 
dents of  the  Society ;  of  the  latter  he  was  twice  chosen  President. 
Hia  efforts  were  directed  to  the  better  organising  of  these  Societies, 
and  he  was  successful  in  adding  materially  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
Royal  Society  as  regards  the  election  of  members  and  the  conduct 
of  business.  In  1861  he  delivered  his  last  address  as  President  of 
the  Geological  Society.  He  had  likewise  published  a  memoir  of 
his  brother  Francis,  in  two  large  volumes,  and  had  translated  a 
work  by  Cousin  on  education  in  Germany. 

In  1851  Mr  Homer  saggested  a  series  of  investigations  aa  to 
the  deposits  of  the  Nile.  These  were  conducted  by  an  Armenian 
officer  of  engineers,  Hekekyan  Bey.  These  researches  seemed  to 
snpport  the  view  then  propounded  as  to  the  great  antiquity  of  man 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  287 

and  his  woiks.  Tlie  resalte  were  given  to  the  Boyat  Society  in 
1855.  The  experimenls  thus  inatitated  id  the  hope  of  obtaining  an 
accurate  chronometriG  Bcale  for  testing  the  age  of  a  given  thicknegs 
of  Nile  sediment,  are  not  considered  hy  experienced  Egyptologiets 
to  be  satiafactory. 

After  acting  for  thirty  yeara  as  Inspector  of  Factoriee,  he  re- 
signed his  ofGce,  and  devoted  hia  attention  principally  to  geology, 
classifying  and  arranging  with  great  patience,  perseverance,  and 
flkill,  the  foreign  collection  of  the  Geological  Society  In  Somerset 
House,  In  1861  be  visited  Italy,  and  resided  for  eight  months  at 
Florence.  There  he  met  with  a  sad  bereavement  in  the  death  of 
Mrs  Homer,  hia  companion  for  fifty-six  years.  She  was  a  most 
attractive  lady,  with  a  highly  cultivated  mind.  From  the  shock 
of  this  event  Horner  never  recovered  completely,  and  it  threw  a 
ehade  over  his  declining  yews.  When  at  Florence  he  translated 
with  happy  fidelity  Villari's  "  Life  of  Savonarola,"  which  be  after- 
wards published  with  notes.  He  continued  to  work  to  the  end, 
and  he  died  on  5th  March  1864,  at  60  Montagu  Square,  London, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-nine. 

A  correspondent  in  America  says  of  Homer — "Among  us  in 
the  United  States  not  a  few  knew  and  valued  him  as  the  biographer 
of  his  brother,  Francis  Homer,  a  statesman  whose  early  death  is 
still  to  be  counted  among  the  misfortunes  of  his  country,  and  whose 
life,  lepuhlisbed  here  in  1853,  has  served  to  join  and  strengthen 
the  principle  of  many  an  aspiring  young  jurist  in  the  United  States, 
OS  it  has  in  England,  from  its  first  appearance  there.  Others  on 
our  side  of  the  Atlantic  have  known  Mr  Horner  as  a  naturalist, 
who  was  at  one  time  President  of  the  Geological  Society,  and  who 
contributed  many  valuable  papers  to  its  '  Transactions.'  Others 
again  have  known  him  personally  as  the  father  of  Lady  Lyell,  to 
whom  and  her  eminent  hut^band  so  many  Americans  became  at- 
'  tached  during  their  visit  to  the  United  States,  and  who  were  always 
pnmd  to  present  to  their  distinguished  father  the  frienda  from 
abroad  who  visited  them  in  London."  It  has  been  well  remarked, 
that  Mr  Horner  was  one  of  the  living  links  which  bonnd  the  pre- 
sent race  of  geologists  to  the  fathers  and  founders  of  British  geo- 
logy. His  recollections  went  bock  to  the  latt«r  part  of  last  century, 
and  he  used  to  tell  anecdotes  of  the  days  of  Hutton,  and  Playfair, 


DvGooglc 


298  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Md  Hall — Minei  to  which  we  now-B-dayi  look  througfa  encli  a  long 
TJita  of  ;e«n,  crowded  with  discovery,  that  they  aeein  to  Btand  far 
away  amid  the  halo  of  an  early  heroic  life. 

James  Millbe  was  bom  at  tlie  Manae  of  Eaesie  in  Forfarehiie,  on 
the  22d  of  April  1S12.  He  was  the  third  bod  of  the  Rev.  Jamet 
Killer,  minister  of  the  parish,  and  his  wife  Elizabeth  Hartiii, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr  Martin,  minister  of  Kirkcaldy,  in  Fife. 

At  Eassie  Mr  Miller  received  his  early  training,  and  till  he  went 
to  College  at  St  Andrews  he  was  constaatly  under  the  parental 
eye;  for  his  father,  aided  by  teachers  and  tutors,  conducted  th> 
education  of  hie  own  family,  along  with  the  sons  of  seTeral  neigb- 
bonring  proprietors.  Snnonnded  by  home  infltiences,  Mr  Uillei 
received  the  early  training  which  fitted  him,  when  a  lad  of  only 
twelve,  for  the  Literary  and  Arte  claeses  of  the  University  of  St 
Andrews.  Here  it  was  he  first  began  to  show  bis  great  int«llectnal 
facility,  taking  bursaries,  and  distinguishing  himself,  more  pir- 
ticularly  as  a  scholar  in  classics  and  metaphysics,  in  competition 
with  lads  considerably  older  than  himself. 

After  three  years  spent  at  St  Andrews,  he  repaired  to  Edinburgh 
in  1827,  and  commenced  his  medical  studies,  not  only  undei  the 
distinguished  professors  of  medicine  who  Ihen  adorned  our  TJoi- 
veisity,  but  also  under  the  late  Mr  Liston,  who,  as  a  private 
lectniernnconnect^d  with  the  University,  had  at  that  time  taken  the 
whole  country  hy  surprise  as  a  teacher  and  practitioner  of  sni^ry. 

In  1828  Mr  Miller  became  a  pupil  of  Listen's,  and  nnder  that 
tutelage  there  grew  up  between  the  master  and  student  an  affection 
and  mutual  regard,  which,  though  interrupted,  so  far  as  daily  per- 
sonal intercourse  was  concerned,  by  Listen's  removal  to  London, 
and  finally  eclipsed  hy  the  premature  death  of  that  illustrious  man, 
remained  throughout  life  as  one  of  the  tenderest  and  warmest 
emotions  of  Mr  Miller's  inmost  feelings.  It  was  about  this  time 
that  Mr  Miller's  anatomical  skill  led  to  his  selection  bj  Professor 
Monro  tertiua  as  his  demonstrator  of  anatomy ;  and  in  the  dis- 
charge of  the  duties  of  that  responsible  office,  he  acquired  both  that 
familiarity  with  normal  texture  and  diseased  structure,  as  well  u 
that  facility  of  description  and  easy  diction,  which  were  eminently 
characteristic  of  him  throughout  bis  after  life. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  186i-66.  299 

It  was  daring  this  period  that  his  tnt  efeays  in  writing  for  the 
press  commeDced,  Dr  Muaro  haviog  largely  made  uw  of  his  resdy 
pen  in  preparing  for  pubticatioD  his  famous  work  upon  Hie  Gullet. 

Id  1832,  having  taken  his  diploma  as  sargeon,  he  commenced 
practice  ae  Listen's  resident  assistant ;  and  during  tlie  two  succeed- 
ing years  immediately  preceding  Liston's  i^moTsl  to  London,  Hi 
Hiller  not  only  acted  in  his  absence,  but  largely  relieved  him  in 
the  daily  press  of  busineBs,  while  his  evenings  were  occupied  in 
re-writiug  and  preparing  Mr  Listen's  Practical  Surgery  for  pub- 
lication. 

When  Liston  went  to  London,  Kr  Miller  commenoed  practice  on 
his  own  account,  and  during  the  succeeding  eight  years  continued 
to  make  a  growing  reputation,  and  to  acquire  a  large  circle  of 
attached  friends — a  reputation  not  only  as  a  practitioner  and 
teacher  of  surgery  in  the  extra-academical  school,  but  aa  a  grace- 
fa)  pnblic  speaker,  and  as  an  attractive  lecturer  t«  art  students  npon 
pictorial  anatomy. 

In  1840  he  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Collej|;e  of  Surgeons, 
and  was  shortly  afterwards  elected  surgeon  to  the  Boyal  Infirmary, 
In  1842,  when  the  Chair  of  Surgery  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh became  vacant,  by  the  death  of  Sir  Charles  Bell,  Ur  Miller 
was  unanimously  elected  to  the  Frofeesorship  by  the  Town  Council, 
who  thm  exercised  the  patronage  over  all,  except  the  Crown  ap- 
pointments. At  this  period  he  was  only  thirty  years  of  age.  From 
that  time  to  this,  for  twenty-two  sessions,  Mr  Miller  nninter- 
mptedly  leetnred  to  overflowing  classes  of  attentive  and  admiring 
students. 

It  was  daring  the  first  year  of  his  University  course  tliat  a  duo- 
decimo edition  of  his  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Messrs  Black — a  work  which,  passing  through  four 
editions  in  octavo,  acquired  a  world-wide  reputation,  and  of  which 
the  fifth  edition,  under  the  title  of  "  A  System  of  Surgery,"  had 
only  been  completed  a  few  months  before  his  last  fatal  illness 
muiifeeted  itself. 

It  was  in  1842,  shortly  after  becoming  Professor  of  Systematio 
Surgery,  that  Mr  Hiller  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society 
of  Edinbaigh. 

His  printed  works  and  papers  amount  to  upwards  of  thirty,  and 


DvGooglc 


300  Proceedings  of  the  SoyaZ  Society 

are  by  do  means  coDfioed  to  purely  profesBioual  mattere,  hie  worm 
intereet  and  zeal  in  social  and  religioua  queetions  leading  him  to 
spend  much  time  in  giving  his  eujiport  to  whatever  views  his  con- 
victioDB  eapoused.  The  same  conscientious  love  for  the  snccees  of 
truth  stole  away  many  an  hour  from  the  but  limited  leisure  which 
his  professional  avocations  afforded  him,  and  induced  him  to  ap- 
pear in  public  and  advocate  from  the  platform,  to  eagerly  attentive 
audiences,  the  same  views  to  which  his  pen  lent  go  ready  and 
powerful  a  support. 

Outhel7thof  June,  after  an  illoeBB  of  only  three  weeks' duration, 
which  at  first  created  no  serious  anxiety  in  the  minds  of  hie  medical 
attendants,  James  Utller  passed  away  from  amongst  us,  in  the  fifty- 
Becond  year  of  his  age,  and  the  twenty-second  of  his  Professorship. 

BoBiRT  HoBsiBsoN  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  tbe  18th  January 
1787,  and  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  University  there. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  obtained  a  surgeon's  diploma  at  the  early 
age  of  nineteen.  His  intentions  were  to  proceed  to  India  at  once 
in  a  medical  capacity,  but  he  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by  a 
regulation  of  the  Court  of  Directors  requiring  medical  ofScers  to  be 
of  the  age  of  twenty-two.  Mi  Morrieson,  however,  received  from 
bis  nncle,  Sir  Hugh  Inglis,  a  direct  civil  appointment,  and  he  pro- 
ceeded to  India  in  1806  as  a  civil  servant,  although  very  reluctant 
to  give  up  tbe  profeBBion  he  had  early  cboeen,  with  tbe  benevolent 
purpose  of  doing  good  to  his  fellow-creatures.  He  found,  however, 
afterwards  many  opportunities  of  gratifying  this  desire,  and  em- 
ployed hie  medical  skill  among  the  poor  natives  of  India.  He 
remained  a  considerable  time  at  Beerbhoom  under  bis  own  brother, 
and  rose  to  be  Judge  and  Magistrate  there.  Afterwards  be  became 
one  of  the  Judges  of  tbe  Circuit  Court  at  Moorshedabod,  in  which 
office  be  continued  till,  owing  to  the  state  of  his  health,  he  re- 
turned to  Scotland  iii  1S29 ;  and  till  his  death  on  the  10th  Novem- 
ber 1864,  he  has  chiefly  resided  at  bis  house  No.  6  Heiiot  Bow, 
Edinburgh,  and  at  Harvieston  in  Mid-Lothian.  He  became  « 
Fellow  of  tbe  Boyal  Society  in  1822. 

Mr  Morrieson  was  certainly  one  of  those  who,  while  they  exercise 
no  small  influence  among  the  men  and  moTements  of  their  day, 
are,  by  reason  of  their  retiring  modesty,  comparatively  unknown 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  301 

to  almoet  all  bejrond  the  circle  of  admiring  and  attached  frienda 
whom  they  invariably  attract  to  thetDselvee.  That  he  had  not 
merely  a  large  heart,  inclining  him  to  consider,  sympathise  with, 
and  assist  whatever  justly  claimed  his  sympathy,  hut  also  a  ready 
and  liberal,  thongh  discriminating  hand,  is  attested  not  only  hy  his 
cordial  support  of  the  institutions  and  schemes  of  the  Church  with 
which  he  was  connected,  but  hy  the  spirit  and  manner  in  which  he 
aided  other  enterprises  of  benevolence  and  usefulness.  From  hid 
extensive  connection  with  the  management  of  trusts,  which  as  a 
friend  he  had  undertaken,  he  was  brought  largely  into  contact  with 
young  people.  To  their  instmctton  and  enjoyment  few  could  give 
themselves  with  greater  geniality  and  success.  He  took  a  lively 
and  active  interest  in  the  great  questions  and  movements  of  his 
times,  especially  those  involviug  or  in  any  way  affecting  the  prin- 
ciples of  Divine  Revelation  or  the  cause  of  Protestantism.  It 
might  well  have  been  supposed  that  when  nearly  sixty  years  of  age, 
Mr  Morrieson's  days  of  active  study  were  over;  yet  twenty  years 
ago  he  was  among  the  most  regular  attenders  upon  the  prelections 
of  Drs  Chalmers  aad  Cunningham  in  the  Xew  College.  His 
power  and  habits  of  regular  study,  early  formed  and  matured  by 
long  practice,  continued  with  him  to  the  last.  He  devoted  a  fail 
portion  of  time  to  the  consideration  of  scientific  subjects,  on  which 
he  possessed  a  large  and  varied  fund  of  information,  and  to  his- 
torical and  general  literature.  His  latter  end  was  peace.  He  rests 
from  his  labours,  and  his  works  do  follow  him. 

Patrick  Shall  Ekir  Nbwsiggino  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  on 
2d  November  1813.  He  was  the  fifth  son  of  Sir  William  New- 
bigging,  who  for  many  years  practised  medicine  in  Edinburgh  with 
great  success.  Three  of  his  brothers,  William,  Bobert,  and  George, 
studied  medicine;  but  all  of  them,  as  well  as  John,  who  was  a 
writer  to  the  Signet,  died  at  comparatively  early  ages.  Dr  Patrick 
Newbigging  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Edinburgh,  and  graduated 
there  in  1834 ;  his  thesis  being  on  the  Causes  of  the  Impulse  and 
Sounds  of  the  Heart.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  College 
of  Surgeons  in  the  same  year.  During  his  student  life  he  was 
elected  a  President  of  the  Royal  Uedical  Society.  Before  settling 
in  practice  he  spent  some  time  abroad  in  acquiring  additional  pro- 


DvGooglc 


302  Froceedinga  of  the  I^gcU  Society 

feuional  knowledga  at  foreign  Bcboole.  On  his  retom  he  bec«iiie 
aaeociatod  with  his  father  in  practice,  uid  he  joined  the  New  Town 
DispeDBary  as  one  of  its  medical  ofBceia.  The  subject  of  AnBonltA- 
tion  occupied  a  GODsiderable  ebaie  of  his  attentioa,  and  in  1812  hs 
poblishad  a  tianalatiob  of  Barth  aitd  Roger'a  Practical  Treatise  on 
fhat  subject.  He  commuDicated  a  paper  to  the  Bojal  Society  of 
KdiDburgh  os  certaia  cu-camBtances  affecting  the  colour  of  Uood 
duni>g  CDagalation. 

Dr  Newbigging  filled  many  important  sitnations  in  Edinbuigb, 
Bocb  as  Surgeon  to  John  Watson's  Institution,  and  to  GauTin's  Hos- 
pital ;  Medical  Referee  of  the  Life  Assodatim  losurance  CoDifany 
of  Scotland ;  PhyBician  to  the  Sick  Children's  Hospital,  an  inatitB- 
tion  in  the  fonikdation  of  whicb  he  took  a  lively  interest ;  Examiner 
ia  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  President  of  that  body,  1861-fiS,  as 
well  as  President  of  the  'Baj&l  Scottisli  Socisty  of  Arts.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  184£.  For  several  y^m  he  suffered 
from  valvnlar  disease  of  the  heart  and  aneurism  of  the  aorta.  The 
symptoms  were  long  very  obscnre,  and  tbe  existence  of  the  disease 
was  only  known  to  a  very  few  intimate  frieads.  In  spite  of  it  he 
cMitinQed  to  petfonn  efficiently  his  responsible  duties  to  the  last, 
liong  before  bis  death  he  foutid  that  any  exertion,  especially  in 
walking  up  a  liaing  gioniid,  caused  breatblrasness  and  exhansti<a. 
He  did  not  make  this  known,  and  rather  endeavoured  to  conceal  il; 
so  that  few  who  saw  bis  cheerful  and  active  demeanour  could  have 
suspected  that  he  was  labouring  under  a  fatal  disease  which  was 
gradually  undermining  bia  constitution.  The  autumn  before  his 
deatk  be  resided  for  some  time  at  Callander,  where,  by  quiet  and 
relaxation,  be  hoped  to  recruit  his  strength.  Onbisrebim  to  Edin- 
burgh, however,  in  October,  the  •yinptoni&  became  a^ir&vated, 
although  he  was  able  to  visit  his  patients  till  within  three  days  «{ 
bis  death,  which,  took  place  on  the  morning  of  Saturday  lOtb 
January  1864.  Those  who  knew  him  intimately  perceived  a  soft- 
cniug  inflnence  coming  over  faira,  and  an  occasional  solemnity  of 
expressioD  which  betokened  Christian  preparation  for  a  life  beyond 
the  present.  He  was  a  sound,  jndicious,  and  successful  practitioner, 
and  was  much  beloved  by  his  patients.  He  exhibited  on  all  occa- 
sions a  courteous,  cheerful,  and  gentlemanly  demeanour,  and  hia 
amiability  gained  him  many  friends. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh.  Session  1864-65.  303 

Jakis  Pilunb,  M.A,  LL.D.,  FrofeBsor  of  Humtuiity  in  the 
(jDiTerdty  of  Edinburgh,  was  bora  at  Edinburgh  in  1779,  and 
died  on  27th  March  1864,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-five. 
His  father  waa  a  printer  in  Edinburgh,  and  he  was  educated  there. 
Ue  attended  the  High  School  when  Dt  Adam  was  Bector,  and  at 
the  annual  examination  in  1792  he  tanked  next  to  Francis  Homer, 
who  then  carried  off  the  highest  honours.  After  a  distinguished 
career  in  Edinburgh  Univeraity,  he  became  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Mr  Kennedy  of  Dunure,  and  afterwards  in  a  family  in  \orthumber- 
land,  finally  settling  in  Eton  asaprivate  tutor.  On  the  death  of  Dr 
Adam,  in  1809,  Pillaus  became  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Bector 
in  the  High  School,  and  he  was  ably  supported  by  Francis  Horner 
and  other  influential  friends  who  knew  fais  merits  as  a  acholar  and 
a  teacher.  On  the  24th  January  1810,  be  was  unanimously  elected 
to  the  office  by  the  Town  Council.  Hie  long  residence  in  England, 
and  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  course  of  study  pursued  in 
the  great  schools  in  that  country,  rendered  bis  appointment  of  no 
small  importance  to  bis  native  city.  He  continued  to  discharge  the 
daties  of  the  office  for  upwards  of  ten  years  in  so  able  a  manner  as 
to  attract  the  attention  of  educationists  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
During  his  tenure  of  office,  the  numbers  in  the  class  were  doubled. 
The  death  of  Professor  ChristiBon,  in  June  1820,  having  occasioned 
a  vacancy  in  the  Humanity  Chair  of  the  University,  Mr  Pillans  was 
nnanimously  elected  by  the  patrons  aa  his  successor.  For  a  period 
of  more  than  forty  years  he  discharged  the  duties  of  this  office. 
His  advancing  years  called  for  relaxation,  and  he  resigned  his  pro- 
fesBorsbip  in  1863. 

During  the  whole  of  his  long  life,  Ur  Pillans  devoted  himself 
with  all  the  energy  and  fervour  of  his  nature — and  these  were 
great — to  the  elevation  of  the  elementary  and  higher  education  of 
this  country.  By  speech,  writing,  and  example  be  endeavoured 
unceasingly  to  promote  the  views  which  be  had  adopted  or  origin- 
ated ;  and  to  no  man  in  Scotland  is  the  progress  which  has  been 
made  in  rational  methods  of  teaching  and  in  exalted  views  of  school 
discipline  more  indebted  than  to  Professor  Pillans.  During  his 
long  career,  first  as  Bector  of  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  from 
1610  to  1820,  and  afterwards  as  Professor  of  Humanity,  from  1820  to 
1863,  he  is  universally  and  gratefully  acknowledged  to  have  been 

Tot.  T.  2  a 


,d.,  Google 


304  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

signally  snccBBaful  in  his  efforts  to  awoken  the  iut«lligenc«  of  boy- 
hood and  youth — infusing  into  his  papils  much  of  hia  own  ardour  and 
classical  refinement,  and  investing  with  interest  and  charm  studies 
too  often  presented  to  the  minds  of  youth  in  forms  which  perhaps 
justify  their  aversion.  In  noticing,  therefore,  the  death  of  the 
most  venerable  of  our  members— one  who  oonnected  this  Society 
with  three  generations— it  is  due  to  him  to  record  the  eminent 
educational  serrices  which  he  rendered  to  Scotland  at  large,  and  in 
an  especial  manner  to  this  city.  Professor  Pillans  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1863.  He 
entered  the  Royal  Society  in  1611.  Like  bis  friend  Homer  he 
took  a  lively  interest  in  the  School  of  Arts,  and  continued  to  the 
last  to  attend  the  examinations  of  the  -school  of  which  he  had 
been  for  some  time  President.  He  was  for  many  years  senior 
member  of  the  Senatns  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  many 
of  his  former  pupils  were  his  colleagues.  Some  years  ago  a  dinnu 
was  given  to  him  by  bis  pupils,  and  a  very  large  number  of  all 
ranks  and  professions  assembled  to  do  honour  to  their  fonner  in- 
stnictor,  under  the  presidency  of  Lord  Neaves,  one  of  his  former 
duxes.    Among  his  writings  are  the  following : — 

1.  Principles  of  Elementary  Teaching,  chiefly  in  reference  to 
the  Parochial  Schools  of  Scotland;  in  two  letters  to  (his  first 
pupil)  T.  F.  Kennedy,  Esq.,  U.F.  12mo.  Edinburgh,  1828. 
2a  edit.  1829. 

2.  Three  Lectures  on  the  proper  Objects  and  Methods  of  Educa- 
tion, in  reference  to  the  different  orders  of  Society;  and  on  the 
relative  utility  of  Classical  Instruction.     8vo.     Edinburgh,  1836. 

5.  Eclogse  CicerouiaUK  :  A  Selection  from  the  Oratioos,  Epistles, 
and  Philosophical  Dialogues  of  Cicero ;  to  which  are  added  selected 
Letters  of  Pliny  the  younger,  with  a  copious  Preface.  ISmo. 
Edinburgh,  1845. 

4.  Outlines  of  Geography,  principally  Ancient,  with  Introductory 
Observations  on  the  system  of  the  World,  and  on  the  Best  Hannei 
of  teaching  Geography.  12mD.  Edinburgh,  1847.  These  "  Out- 
lines "  had  been  repeatedly  printed,  but  were  not  puhliaked  till  1847. 

6.  Eclogfe  CurtiausB ;  containing  the  Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth 
Books,  with  Extracts  from  the  remaining  Five,  of  Quiotus  Curtins 
Bnfus  de  Gestis  Alexandri  Magni ;  to  whiob  are  added,  an  English 


DvGooglc 


o/L'dinbtargh,  Saturn  1864r-65.  305 

Supplement  to  the  lost  Books,  ukd  a  He^  of  Alexander's  maich ; 
with  a  Discourse  on  the  Latin  Authors  read,  and  the  order  of 
readiDg  them,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  Classical  Discipline.  ISmo. 
Edinburgh,  1847. 

6.  Excerpta  ex  Taciti  Annalibos,  with  a  Frefatorf  Nodes. 
12mo.    London,  1848. 

7.  A  Word  for  the  Universities  of  Scotland,  and  a  Flea  for  the 
Humanity  Classes  in  the  College  of  Edinburgh.  8to.  Edinbnr^, 
1848. 

8.  ContribntioDB  to  the  Canse  of  Edncation,  collected  and 
tunended.    1  vol.    8to. 

Id  addition  to  the  above,  Hr  Fillans  has  contribnted  sevaral 
articks  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Beview,"  chiefly  on  education ;  to  the 
"Encyclopedia  Britannica;"  a  speech  on  Irish  education,  in  1832 ; 
evidence  printed  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  House  of 
CommonB  on  Education,  in  1834 ;  and  a  Paper  to  the  Boyal  Society 
of  Edinburgh  on  the  Origin  of  the  Adjective. 

Di  Abohuald  fioBiBTSOK,  an  English  physician,  died  at  his 
residence  at  Clifton,  on  19th  October  1864,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
four.  He  was  bom  at  CockbumBpath,  near  Dunbar,  on  3d  December 
1789.  He  was  educated  at  Dunse  school,  and  afterwards  by  Hr 
Stracban,  in  Berwickshire.  He  prosecuted  bis  medical  studies  at 
Edinburgh.  He  passed  assistant-snrgeiHi  in  1808,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  Hill  Prison  Hospital  at  Plymouth,  for  French  prisoners. 
In  1809  he  was  appointed  to  the  "  Caledonia,"  Lord  tiambier's  flag- 
ship, Basque  Booda,  when  Lord  Dnndonald  tried  to  bum  the  French 
fleef.  He  served  in  the  Baltic,  and  afterwards  in  the  West  Indies, 
in  the  "  Persian"  and  in  the  "  Cydnus."  He  saw  a  good  deal  of 
boat  service  in  the  attempt  oa  New  Orleans.  At  the  peace  with 
North  America  he  went  on  half-pay,  having  received  a  medal  with 
two  clasps.  He  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  1817 — his  thesis  being 
on  the  Dysentery  of  hot  climates.  He  settled  in  Northampton  in 
1818,  where  he  acquired  a  large  practice.  In  1853  he  retired  from 
active  practice,  and  went  to  Clifton  to  reside.  He  was  a  learned 
and  accomplished  physician,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  most  genial 
and  kind-hearted  gentleman.  He  was  highly  respected  in  North- 
ampton, and  he  enjoyed  axtensive  reputation  as  a  medical  man. 


DvGooglc 


306  Proceedmge  of  the  Boyal  Society 

He  was  for  many  years  Physician  to  the  Northampton  Infirmary, 
to  which  be  was  elected  in  1820.  He  wrote  some  papers  for  Forbes's 
GyolopsBdia  of  Medicine,  and  he  contributed  an  article  on  Fever  to 
the  "  Edinburgh  Beview."  He  also  wrote  on  the  Contagion  of  tbe 
Plague  and  on  the  Quarantine  Laws.  He  reviewed  "  Modem 
Soeptioism,"  "  Peter's  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk,"  Mrs  Bmnton's 
"  Emmeliue."  He  wrote  Lectures  on  CiTilisation,  on  the  Wisdom 
of  God,  and  on  the  Living  Principle  in  Plants,  Animals,  and  Man. 
He  was  an  F.B.S.,  and  joined  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in 
1836.  He  was  Vice-president  of  the  British  Medical  Association 
at  tbe  time  of  his  death,  and  at  the  meeting  of  tbe  Association  at 
yortbampton  in  18U,  be  was  chosen  President.  He  made  a  large 
fortune  by  practice.  He  leaves  one  son,  who  is  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

l)r  Oboroe  Skittak  was  bom  at  Dunkeld  on  17th  June  1789. 
He  received  bis  early  education  at  tbe  grammar-school  of  that 
place,  and  studied  at  the  universities  of  St  Andrews  and  Edinbnrgb. 
He  took  his  diploma  as  enigeon  at  Edinburgh  in  1808,  and  bis 
degree  of  M.D.  at  Aberdeen,  when  home  from  India  on  furlough. 
In  1808  he  went  out  to  Bombay  as  surgeon  in  the  service  of  the 
H.E.I.G.,  and,  including  a  year  or  so  of  furlough,  remained  in 
India  thirty  years,  by  which  time  he  had  risen  to  the  bead  of  the 
Medical  Board.  He  came  home  in  1639,  bearing  with  him  the 
affeotioD  and  esteem  of  a  large  cirole  of  friends  and  associates,  and 
the  gratitude  of  missionaries  and  native  converts,  affecting  testi- 
monies  of  which  have  been  received  since  his  death.  He  was 
spared  to  see  twenty-five  years  in  his  own  country  after  his  return, 
sixteen  of  which  were  spent  in  zealous  activity,  promoting  many 
a  Christian  enterprise,  tbe  remaining  nine  in  the  more  difficult  ser- 
vice of  patient  submission  under  bodily  weakness  and  inaction,  the 
effects  of  a  paralytic  seizure  in  September  1854.  At  the  dismption 
of  tbe  Oborch  of  Sootland,  he  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  tbe 
Free  Gbuicb,  and  to  it  was  thencefortli  devoted  a  large  share  of 
bis  energies  and  his  substance.  In  all  its  schemes  he  took  a  lively 
interest,  especially  in  its  Indian  Missions.  But  his  philanthropy 
was  far  from  being  confined  to  denominational  objects.  Most  of 
the  benevolent  efforts  of  tbe  day  shared  his  liberality.    He  was  a 


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of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  307 

warm  anppiwter  of  tke  Medical-UisBionary  Sociel?,  the  importance 
of  irhioh  hs.was  one  of  the  fint  to  recognise.  While  not  entering 
deeply  into  eoiance,  he  waa  fond  of  the  Btady,  and  attended 
aaetdnoiulf  the  lectures  of  Dr  Fleming.  He  entered  the  Boyal 
Society  in  1841,  and  when  in  health  was  a  regular  attender  of  its 
meetingi.  His  attachment  to  Dnnkeld  vaa  warm,  and  ahowed  it- 
self in  sntetantiaL  kindness.  Srery  Bnmmer  vaa  spent  at  Bimam, 
till  compelled  to  quit  it  in  1854.  In  1860  be  bought  tbe  small 
property  of  Canaan  Park,  where  bia  latter  years  were  tranqiiilly 
passed,  till  Christmas  day  1863,  when  he  died. 

Lientenaiit-G^nenl  Thohas  Bobkxt  Swmuun  was  descended 
from  die  ancient  family  of  the  Sirinbumes  of  Swinburne  Castle,  In 
Korthumberland.  His  grandfather  married  Ifaiy,  coheiress  <tf 
Anthony  Heabnme  of  Fontop  Hall;  his  father  married  Charlotte,  co- 
heiress of  Bobert  Spearman  of  Old  Acres,  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
and  he  succeeded  to  these  properties.  The  estate  of  Uarcns,  io 
Forfarahire,  he  himself  acquired  by  purchase,  (general  Swiabnme 
was  bom  in  1784.  He  entered  the  lat  Foot-Ooards  in  181S,  served 
with  them  in  Holland  under  Lord  Lyuedocb,  subsequently  in  tbe 
PeDinsola  and  South  of  France ;  was  in  the  campaign  of  1815, 
inclsdiDg  the  battles  of  Qaatra  Bras  and  Waterloo,  the  storming  of 
Peronne,  where  be  commanded  a  storming  party,  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  Paris.  He  retired  from  active  service  on  an  unattached 
Majority,  and  came  to  reside  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  had  received 
part  of  his  education.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  in 
1839.  He  rose  through  tbe  various  grades  to  the  tank  of  Hajor- 
General,  which  he  attained  on  4th  June  1857,  and  was  gazetted 
as  Lieutenant-Oeneral  only  a  few  weeks  before  his  death,  which 
took  place  on  29tli  February  1864.  General  Swinburne,  though  in 
DO  respect  a  cultivator  of  science,  was,  as  a  well-educated  gentle- 
man, deeply  interested  in  all  that  concerned  the  progress  of  human 
knowledge,  and  will  long  be  cordially  remembered  by  th<»e  who 
knew  him  for  his  persooal  and  eocial  qualities,  which  made  bim  a 
typical  specimen  of  the  fine  old  English  gentleman. 

BoanxT  DoKois  Thomson,  H.D.,  F.B.S.L.  Se  £.,  was  second  son 
of  the  Rev.  James  Thomson,  D.D.,  minister  of  Ecclea,  Berwick- 


DvGooglc 


308  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

shire,  in  the  maaae  of  which  parish  be  was  bom  on  the  21et  Sep- 
tember 1810,  From  the  Grammar- school  of  Donse  he  proceeded 
to  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where,  after  going  throagh  the 
usual  arts  course,  he  began  the  study  of  medicine.  From  Edin- 
burgh he  went  to  Glasgow,  where  his  uncle,  Dr  Thomas  Thomson, 
woe  then  profeseor  of  chemistry.  He  not  only  made  every  use  of 
the  advantages  which  he  there  enjoyed  of  studying  that  science, 
but  became  so  much  attached  to  it,  that  it  became  the  pursuit  of 

Dr  Thornton  graduated  at  Glasgow  in  1831,  and,  after  a  voyage 
to  India  and  China  in  one  of  the  Company's  ships,  he  settled  in 
London  as  a  physician.  At  the  beginning  of  his  career  there,  he  was 
aseociated  with  several  active  and  zealous  men,  of  his  onm  standing, 
in  establishing  the  Blenheim  Street  School  of  Medicine,  in  which  he 
lectured  on  Chemistry.  For  a  short  time  he  assisted  DrFarr  in  editing 
the  "  Sritish  Annals  of  Uedicine,"  and  about  the  same  time  be  un- 
dertook the  publication  of  the  "  Records  of  Science."  Active,  enthu- 
siastic, and  persevering,  he  had  already  got  over  the  first  difScultiea 
of  a  London  practice,  and  was  becoming  known  ae  a  scientific  phy- 
sician, when  he  left  London  to  take  the  place  of  assistant  to  his 
uncle  at  Glasgow,  whom  advancing  age  compelled  to  relinquish 
first  a  part,  and  soon  after  the  whole  of  the  duties  of  the  Chemical 
Chair.  At  Glasgow  he  was  a  most  successful  teacher,  and  acquired 
the  confidence  and  esteem  of  the  manufacturing  body.  In  1852 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Chair  of  Chemistoy,  which 
then  became  vacant.  He  therefore  returned  to  Loudon,  where  be 
was  appointed  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  St  Thomas'  Hospital.  In 
18SS  he  was  elected  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  the  parish  of  St 
Marylehone.  This  was  a  new  office  just  established  under  Laid 
Llanover's  Act.  It  was  an  office  for  which  bis  chemical,  medical, 
and  local  knowledge  rendered  him  admirably  fitted.  Firm  when 
needful,  and  at  all  times  patient  and  conciliatory,  he  was  able  to 
carry  the  vestry  and  householders  with  him.  The  water  supply, 
the  drainage,  the  food,  and  the  hygiene,  not  only  of  the  private 
houses,  but  of  the  large  public  establishments  of  the  parish,  were 
all  in  their  turn  attended  to ;  and  he  was  able  by  degrees  to  make 
great  improvements  in  the  sanitary  state  of  the  parish.  The 
labour,  however,  was  enormous,  and  began  at  lost  to  tell  on  his 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  309 

once  vigoroQs  coDstitution.  About  two  jreare  ago  hie  friends  began 
to  notice  his  failing  liealth,  bnt  it  was  only  within  the  last  nix 
monthB  tliat  they  became  Beriously  alanned.  Early  in  tlie  snmmer 
of  1861  he  remoTod  to  the  house  of  his  brother  near  Biohmond,  in 
tha  hope  that  change  of  air  might  restore  him.  Unforttinately  his 
illness  made  rapid  progress,  and  he  rested  from  bis  labours  on  the 
17th  August  last,  to  the  inexpressible  regret  of  a  wide  circle  of 
friends. 

Dr  Thomson  was  an  accomplished  chemist.  Hia  elemeotary 
works  on  that  science  ("  School  Chemistry"  and  the  "  Cyclopaedia 
of  Chemistry")  are  of  standard  value,  and  he  has  enriched  it  by 
numerous  detached  papers.  His  labours  in  physiological  chemistry, 
and  on  sanitary  questions,  were  of  the  highest  value.  The  adul- 
teration of  drugs,  the  chemistry  of  digestion  and  of  cholera,  were 
in  turn  skilfully  treated  by  him.  He  investigated  most  ably,  under 
the  orders  of  Government,  the  nutritive  value  of  the  different  kinds 
of  food  for  cattle.  The  question  of  water  snpply  be  made  especially 
hia  own  ;  and  his  monthly  analyses  of  the  waters  of  the  different 
LondoD  compauies,  published  by  the  Eegistrar- General,  were  the 
best  safeguard  of  the  public  He  was  also  an  enthusiastic  meteor- 
ologist, and  at  the  time  of  hia  death  President  of  the  Meteorologi- 
cal Society  of  London.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society 
of  Edinburgh  in  1850,  and  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal 
Society  of  London  on  1st  June  1851.  He  was  also  a  Fellow  of 
the  Chemical  and  Medico-Chirurgical  Societies  of  London,  of  the 
Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  of  the  Berwickshire  Natural- 
ists' Club,  which  be  entered  on  22d  September  1831.  He  con- 
tributed a  paper  on  Tea-oil  to  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

Albxandbr  Wood,  Esq.,  late  one  of  the  Senators  of  tbe  College  of 
Justice,  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  was  bom  in  Edin- 
burgh on  the  12th  November  1788.  He  was  the  son  of  George  Wood, 
U.D.,  and  grandson  of  the  well-known  Alexander  Wood,  surgeon 
in  EdinbuTgh.  Hia  mother  was  Misa  Campbell  of  Glensaddle, 
throngh  whom  he  was  descended  from  the  Earls  of  Crawford. 

He  was  a  pupil  of  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards 
nnder  a  clergyman  in  the  city  of  Durham.  His  later  education 
was  completed  at  the  Univeraity  of  Edinburgh. 


DvGooglc 


310  Froceedings  o/the  Royal  Society 

He  paased  at  the  B&r  in  1811,  and  was  appointed  Stevturt  of 
Eirkcndbright  in  1830.  This  office  he  resigned  upon  his  eledioD 
as  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  on  12th  November  1841, 
which  honourable  poBltioD  he  held  but  a  short  time,  having,  on  2lBt 
November  1842,  been  appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Bdinbnrgh  in 
1826. 

His  learning  and  skill  as  a  counsel  were  universally  acknow- 
ledged, and  his  practice  while  at  the  bar  was  large.  On  the  bench 
he  was  looked  to  by  the  profeBsion  and  the  public  as  eminently 
combining  the  wisdom  of  the  Judge  with  the  polished  courtesy  of 
the  gentleman. 

For  several  of  the  later  years  of  his  life  bis  health  was  delicate, 
and  it  was  only  the  solicitation  of  those  who  knew  and  estimated 
his  high  judicial  qualificatioos  which  induced  him  to  straggle  with 
indisposition  and  continue  his  services  to  the  public.  He  retired 
from  the  bench  in  January  1862,  thus  terminating  a  long  and 
honourable  professional  career. 

But  while  his  duties  in  his  profession  and  on  the  bench  of  course 
occupied  him  for  many  years  almost  ezclueively,  the  short  leisure 
be  could  command  was  most  cheerfully,  though  unostentatiously, 
given  to  the  public,  especially  in  the  cause  of  education  and  in  the 
encouragement  of  art. 

His  refined  and  cultivated  taste  pointed  him  out  as  peculiarly 
qualified  to  promote  the  advancement  of  art  in  Scotland ;  and,  as 
might  be  expected,  he  was  many  years  ago  selected  as  a  member  of 
the  Board  of  Trastees  and  Manufactures  in  Scotland,  to  whose 
proceedings  he  gave  able  co-operation,  taking  a  leading  part  in  the 
remodelling  of  the  School  of  Design,  and  acting  as  the  convener 
of  their  committee  for  the  erection  and  arrangements  of  the  National 
Gallery  and  the  promotion  of  its  collections.  In  early  life,  he 
showed  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  general  education,  by  taking  an 
active  part  in  the  institution  of  the  Edinburgh  Academy. 

Many  years  ago,  the  late  Sir  William  Fettes  nominated  him, 
along  with  others,  incloding  Mr  Butherfurd,  afterwards  Loud 
fiutherfurd,  and  Mr  Corrie,  Manager  of  the  British  Linen  Company 
— all  three  fellow- stn dents  and  intimate  friends  of  his  deceased 
son— to  be  trustees  for  carrying  out  the  Fettes  Endowment  for  the 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Heanon  1864-65.  311 

"  mfuntenanoe,  eduoation,  and  outfit  of  young  people,  whose  parents 
have  either  died  without  leaviag  sufficient  funds  for  that  parpose, 
or  vho,  from  innocent  mbfortune  during  their  own  Uyob,  are  anable 
to  give  suitable  education  to  their  children." 

Mr  Wood  had  for  man;  years  been  the  sole  survivor  of  the 
original  trueteea ;  and,  with  the  aid  of  those  who  were  from  time 
to  time  asBumed  to  fill  ap  the  tiuet,  he  devoted  much  time  towards 
the  execation  of  the  very  ample  powers  conferred  by  the  deed. 
In  this  object  be  took  the  most  lively  interest,  both  from  his 
respect  for  the  venerable  friend  who  had  selected  him,  and  from  bis 
warm  interest  in  the  oauee  of  education.  In  the  careful  manage- 
ment of  the  large  funds,  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  scheme  for 
the  establishment,  and  of  the  rules  for  its  management,  Lord 
Wood's  prudence  and  experience  qualified  him  to  take  the  leading 
change  which  be  did. 

Tbe  guidance  of  his  mature  taste,  also,  was  given  in  the  selection 
of  a  commanding  site  for  the  intended  building,  and  in  superintend- 
ing the  beautiful  plans  prepared  by  Hr  Bryce,  the  architect.  The 
adjustment  of  this,  which  will  ere  long  be  a  most  important  ioBti- 
tution,  was  a  favourite  occupation  of  Lord  Wood  during  what  leisure 
he  could  spare  in  his  professional  and  judicial  life,  and  to  it  he 
gave  even  more  of  his  time  and  thoughts  after  his  retirement.  He 
lived  to  know  that  tbe  foundation  of  the  Feties  Colleye  was  laid, 
although  tbe  state  of  bis  health  prevented  bis  presence  on  the 
occasion. 

Those  who  knew  him  best  are  welt  aware  that  he  would  have 
looked  upon  it  as  one  of  the  most  hononrahle  memorials  of  his 
name,  that  it  shonld  be  remembered  in  connection  with  what  he 
did  for  the  furtherance  and  inteatione  of  bis  old  and  highly  re- 
spected friend  as  to  this  endowment,  which  promises  to  be  one  of 
the  greatest  omomeuts  to  the  city,  and  benefits  to  many  of  its 


DvGooglc 


312  Proceedings  of  the  Royai  Society 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  Honorary  Fellowa, 
having  been  proposed,  viva  voce,  at  the  Meeting  of  the 
Society  on  28th  November : — 

I.  FOEEIQN. 

ROBKBTWlLHBLHBuNaBH,ifdubI£ary.   I  KUDOLP  LSUCKABT,  OtMWn. 

Jean   Berkabd   Leok   Foucault,  \  Thboiwr  Moumskn,  Berlin. 

Parii.  Adolphe  Pictbt,  Otntea. 

EuAB  Fribs,  UptaU.  C^bibtian    Fbibdbich    Schombbih, 

Hesuann  Bblmkolte,  Heiddbery.  \     Ba*U. 

Albbbt  ESlliekb,  Wurt^arg.  !  E^l  Thboijob  von  Sibbold,  JfuntcK. 

BiCHABD  Lbpbius,  Berlin.  | 

U.  BRITISH. 

Ur.ItUi^ 

The  Council  reported  on  the  remit  made  to  them  by  the  Oeneral 
Meeting  of  28tb  November,  in  reference  to  Honorary  Vioe-Fresi- 
dente,  and  recommended  that  thoee  Fellows  who  had  filled  the 
ofBce  of  President  shoald,  on  retiring  from  office,  become  Hono- 
rary Yice-PreBideDts — the  doBignatioa  being,  "Honorary  Vioe- 
Preeident  having  filled  the  office  of  President."  They  also  re- 
commended that  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argyll  shonld  be  elected 
an  Honorary  Vice-President. 

On  the  motion  of  Lord  Neaves,  these  recommendations  were 
unanimously  adopted. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced:— 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  CIiIII.  Fart  II. 

4to. — From  the  Soeidy, 
Proceedings  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London.    Noe.  63-68.    8vo.~ 

From  the  jSociety. 
TraosactionsoftheZoologicalSocietyof London.  Vol.V.  Partlll- 

4to. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.     Parts  I.-III. 

1863.     Zvo.—From  the  Society. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.      Vol.  XXIV.     An- 
tiquities, Parts  I.  and  II, ;  Literalnre,  Part  I. ;  Soienoe,  Part 

III,     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Academy.  Vol.  VIII.  Parts  I.- VI. 

8vo. — From  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  313 

FroceediDgs  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Londou.    Vol. 

VHI.     PartB  III.-VI.     8yo.— /Vom  the  Society. 
Address  at  the  ADuiveisaiy  Ueetiug  of  the  Boyal  Geographical 

Society,  Hay  1864.    By  Sir  Bodeiick  I.  MurchisoD,  K.C.B. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Proceedings  of  the  British  Meteoiolt^cal  Society.   Vol.  II.    Noe. 

11-14.     8vQ.—Frt>m  the  Soeitty. 
Pioceedinga  of  the  Linuean  Society.    Vol.  VIII.     Zoology,  No. 

29  ;  Botany,  Nos.  29,  30.     8vo.~Fnm  the  Societtf. 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.   Nos.  1,  2.  1864.   8vo. — 

From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.     Vol.  XX,     Parts 

II.-IV.     Svo.—From  the  Socitty. 
Address  delivered  at  the  Anniversary  Ueeting  of  the  Geological 

Society  of  London,  19th  February  1864.    By  Professor  A.  G. 

Bauisay.     6vo. — from  the  Author. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Duhlin  Society.    No.  31.    8^0.— From  the 

Society. 
Journal  of  the  Ohemical  Society  of  London.  May  to  October  1864. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London.     Vol.  I.  No. 

8  ;  Vol.  II.  Nob.  1-6.     Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  of  Lou 

don.     Vol.  IV.     Nob.  5  and  6.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Jouraal  of  the    Statistical   Society   of  London.      Vol.    XXVII. 

Farts  II.  and  III.     Svo.—Frmn  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society,  London.    Vol.  IV 

Nos.  8  and  9.     8vo.— J^rom  the  Society. 
American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arte.    Nos.  110-113.     1864. 

8vo. — From  the  Editor*. 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and 

Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland.     July  and  October  1864. 

8vo. — .From  the  Society. 
TranaactiouB  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  New  South  Wales. 

Vol.  I.  Part  II.— From  the  Society. 
Canadian  Journal  of  Science  and  Ait.    Nos.  60,  51,  and  53. 

— From  the  Canadian  Initilute. 
Magnetic&l  and  Meteorological  Observations  made  at  the  GoveTn- 


DvGooglc 


314  Proceedings  o/ the  BoyeU  Society 

meDt  Observatory,  Bombay,  in  1662,  uodei  tb«  Supermt«nd- 

enoe  of  Commander  E.  F.  T.    Fergnsgoo,  I.N.,  F.BXS. 

ito.— From  the  Indian  (jfomntment. 
Sixth  Annual  Beport  of  the  Begietrar-General  of  Births,  Deaths, 

and  MamagM,  in  Scotland.    1864.  8yo.—Fnm  (ie  Begttbw- 

Oeneral. 
Quarterly  Beturn  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages.     Noe.  37 

and  38.     Sto. — From  the  Reffittrar-Oenerai. 
Monthly  Betam  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uarriagee,  April — 

August  1864.     8vo. — From  the  Begittrar-Qeneral. 
LibroB  del  Saber  de  Ajtrouomia  del  Bey  D.  Alfonso  X.  de  Caa- 

tilla,  oopilados,  anotadoa  y  comentadoa  por  Don  Mauuel  Bico 

y  Sinobas.    Tom.  I.,  II.    Fol. — From  the  Academy  qfSdenett, 

Madrid. 
Societa  reale  di  Napoli )  Atti  dell'  Accademia  delle  ScieDse  Fisiche 

e  Matematiche.     Vol.  I.     4to. — .from  the  Academy. 
Societa  reale  di  NapoU ;  Bendioonto  doll'  Aocademia  delle  Soienza 

Fisiche  e  Uatematiche.    Anno  II.    Fbbc.  4^12,    Anno  III. 

Fasc.  1,  2 ;  e  Bendiconto  delle  Scienze  Morali  e  Politicfae. 

April  to  Deoembei  1863.     4to. — From  the  Aeademi/. 
Societa  reale  di  Napoli ;   Beudicouto  delta  reale  Accademia  Aroheo- 

logia,Lettera, e Belle Aiti,  Anno  1863.  4to. — FromtheAcademy. 
Atti  del  reale  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Lettere,  ed  Arti.    T<d. 

III.     Fasc.  5-8  and  15-20.     ito.—From  the  InttUtUe. 
Uemorie  del  reale  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Lett«re,  ed  Arti. 

Vol.  IX.     Fasc.  2,  4,  aud  5.     4to.— fVom  the  IniUtute. 
Natnurknndige  Verhaodlingen  van  de  Hollandsche  Maatscha{^ij 

dei  Wetenscbappeo  te  Haarlem,  XVIII*.  Deel.     4to. —iVom 

the  Academy. 
Verhandelingen  der  £oiiinklijke  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen. 

Tweede  Deel.     Ameteidam,     4to. — From  Ae  Academy. 
Abbaudlnngen  berausgegeben  Ton  der  Senckenbei^ifichen  Natnr- 

forachenden  Gesellechaft.    Band  V.  Heft  2.    Frankfort.    4to. 

—From  the  Bociety. 
Abbandlungen  der  PhUosopbisch-philologiscben  Olasae  der  Eonig- 

licb  Bayeiiachen  Akademie  der  WisBeuBchaften.    Band  VIII. 

Abth.  1.     4tQ. — From  the  Academy. 
Nene  Dankachriften  d«i  AllegemeineD  Schwiezerischen  GeseU' 


DvGooglc 


o/Edivimrgh,  Session  1864-65.  315 

Bchoft  fiir  die  (zosamiateD  Nabtrwiaienschaften.     Nouveuix 

MSmoires  de  la  SociiAA  Helv6tiqiie  des  Sciences  Nfttnielles. 

Band  XX.     4to. — From  the  Society, 
Schrifton  detXoaigliehen  Physikalisch-OkonoiniBt^eii  GoeellBcfaaft 

zu  EonigBbeig.     Abth.  1-2.     1863.     itar—From  the  Society. 
Hemoriaa  da  Academia  Beal  daa  Scieneiaa  de  Lisboa.     Glaase  des 

Sciencias  UatbemBticas,  Fhysicaa  0  Nataraee.    Tomo  III. 

Fart  I.     ito.— From  the  Academy. 
Historia  e  Uemoriaa  da  Academia  Beal  daa  Scienoias  .d«  Lisboa. 

Claaee  de  Scieneiaa  Moraea,  FoLiticas  e  EeUaB-lettraB.    Toolo 

III.  Fart.  I.     ^o.~FTom  the  Academy. 
Memoriae  de  la  Beale  Academia  de  Ciencios  Exactas,  Fisicas  y 

Natoialee  de  Uadrid.    Tomo  II.  Fart  2 ;  Tomo  III.  Fart  3 ; 

Tomo  IV.  Fart  1.     ito^— From  the  Academy. 
Ueber  die  Stellung  und  Bedendnng  der  PathologiBcbeD  Anatomic, 

Ton  Dr  Bnhl.     4to. — From  the  Author. 
Atti  dell'  imp.  Beg.  letitnto  Veneto  di  Scienze,  Lettere,  ed  Arti. 

Tomo  ottaro,  aerie  terza,  diepenea  decima.     1S62-63.    Tomo 

■toao,  Bcrie  terza,  dispensa  pijmia-quinta.     1863-61.    Sto.— 

From  the  Iiutitute. 
Uooatsbericht  dei  Kdniglichea  Preues.  Akademie  der  Wiasens- 

ohaften  zn  Boilin.   Jan.-Doo,  1863.    8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Denkschriften  der  Eaiserlichen   Akademie  der  WiBBenecbaften, 

UatkematiBcb-NatnrwiBaeDBchaftliche  Claeee.    Band  XZII. 

ito. — From  the  Academy, 
Sitznngsbericbte   der  Xaiserl.  Akademie  der  WiBsenscbaften  zu 

Wien,    Mathematisch-Naturwiseenshaftliche    Clasae.     Band 

XL VII.  HefteS;  Band  XLVIII.  Hefte  1-4;  Band  XLIX. 

Heft  1.     Uineralogie,  etc.  Band  XLVII.  Hefte  4^ ;  Band 

XLVIII.  Hefte  1-5;  Band  XLIX.  Heft  1.     Fhilosophiech- 

Historisobe  Classe.  Band  XLII.  Hefte  1-3;  Band  XLIII. 

Hefte  1-2;  Bmd  XLIV.  Hefte  1-3;  Band  XLV.  Heft  1. 

8  TO. — From  the  Academy. 
Almanaoh  dei  Xaieeil.  Akademie  der  WiesenschafteD.   1863.  8vo. 

•~From  the  Academy. 
Veislagen  en  Uededeellngen  dei  Xoninklijke  Akademie  van  We- 

tenachappen,  Afdeeling  Letterkunde.    Deel  VII.    Afdeeliug 

Katunrknnde.    Deel  XV.,  XVI.    8vo.— /Vom  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


316  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Jahrbucli  der  KaiseTlich-KoniglicbeQ  GeologiBohen  BeichsanBtalt. 

Band  XIII.  N  '.  4 ;  Band  XIV.  N".  1.    8vo.— Jrom  the  Ar- 

chivar  o/tht  Beiehtatutalt, 
Bnlletin  de  la  SocifU  Impfiriale  des  Naturalutes  de  Uoscou.   1863, 

Noa.  1,  2.     8to.— Awn  the  Society. 
Annates  dee  Minea.    Tome  V.    LiTrauons  1,  2.    8vo. — From  Ut 

Eeole  dei  Minn. 
SitzuugBberiobte  der  Eiinigl.  bayer.  Akademia  der  Wissenscbaften 

zuKunchen.    Heft  1,  2.    1864.    &-vo.~From  the  Aeadmui. 
Jaaiboek  ran  der  Eoninklijke  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen  ge- 

vestigd  te  Amatetdam,  1862.    Svo.-^fVom  the  Academy. 
ObseivatioDB    USUorologiquee  faites  ft  Nijoe-Toquilak.      Annie 

1863.     8vo. — From  the  Ruttian  OovemmetU. 
Balletin  de  la  Soci6l£  dea  Sciences  Naturellee  de  Nencbate).   Tome 

VI.  Nob.  2,  3.     Sn.—From  the  SoU^y. 

The  /olloming  PvblicalwM  have  been  presented  by  the  Dtpdt  de  la 

Marine,  Parii. 

Cartes  de  la  Filote  Fran^aiae,  MSt^iologie  Nantiqne^ Vents  etoon- 

raotB  routes  G^n^rales,  extrait  des  Sailing  Diiectione  deHaniy, 

et  des  Travaux  les  plus  recents,  par  M.  Charles  Floix.  ito. 
Annates  Hydrographiques^  IUcneild'Avis,In8tmctionB,Docuinents, 

et  MSmoireB,  relatifs  i  I'Hydrograpbie   et  i.  la  Navigation, 

publiSe  par  le  D^pfit  dee  Cartes  et  Flans  de  la  Marine.     Faris, 

1863-64.     8to. 
Instructions  Nautiques,  but  la  Mei  Baitique  et  le  Golfe  de  Fiulande, 

par  M.  A.  Le  G-ras.    Faris,  1864.    8to. 
InstmctioDB  Nautiqnee,  hot  les  Cdtes  Est  de  la  Chine,  la  Mer  Jatine, 

les  Golfee  de  Pe-chili  et  de  Sian-Tung,  et  la  Cote  Quest  de  la 

Oor6e,  par  M.  de  Ventre.     Paris,  1863.     8vo. 
Instructions  Nautiques,  snr  les  C6te8  Oocidentales  d'Am§rique  dn 

Qolfe  de  Penas  Jl  la  BiviSre  Tnmbeza,  par  Bobert  Fitzroy ; 

tradnit  de  1' Anglais  par  M.  Mac-Dermott.  Paris,  1863.  8vo. 
Instmctions  Nautiques,  sur  les  G6tes  Oocidentales  d'AmSriqne  de 

la  Bivi^re  Tumbeza  it  Panama,  par  Robert  Fitzro; ;  tradnit 

de  I'Anglais  par  U.  Uac-Dermott.    Paris,  1863.    8vo. 
InstruotioDB  Nautiques,  eur  les  Cfitea  de  la  Patagonie  depnis  la  Terre 

dee  Etate,  it  I'est,  juBqu'au  Cap  Tree  Hontea,  k  I'ouest.  Compris 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seseion  18647-65.  317 

le  Detroit  de  MagellaD,  et  la  C6te  de  la  Teire  de  Feu.  Tta- 
dnitea  de  I'OuTrage  Anglais  du  Capitaines  Farkei,  King,  et 
Bobert  Fitzroy,  pu  U.  Faal  Martin.    PariB,  1863.    8to. 

InBtmctions  Nantiquea,  Bur  lea  CStea  OrieDtales  de  I'AmSrique  dn 
sAd  compriaea  entre  la  Plata  et  le  Detroit  de  Uagellan,  pai  lea 
Capitainea  Philip,  Parker,  Einf;,  et  Bobert  Fitzroy.  Traduites 
de  1' Anglais  pai  HI.  £.  Hamelin.     Paris,  1863.     8to. 

laetmctionH  pour  aller  chercher  la  Pure  de  Bayonne  et  entrer 
dans  la  Bivi^re.     Paris,  1863.     8vo. 

Les  CStes  da  Bresil,  Description  et  Inatructions  Nautiquea,  par  M. 
Ernest  Uonchez.     Paris,  1864.     8to. 

Pilote  de  rile  Vancouver;  rontes  k  enirre  aur  lea  Cdtea  de  I'lle 
TancouTei  et  de  la  Colombia  Anglaiae,  depnia  I'entr^  da 
DStroit  de  Fnca,  jusqu'au  Golfe  Burrard,  et  an  Haare  Na- 
naimo,  par  le  Gapitaine  G«oige  Henry  Bichwda.  Tradnit  par 
H.  Perigot.    Paria,  1863.    8vo. 

Pilote  de  I'lle  G-aemeeey,  public  par  Ordre  de  I'Amirantg  Anglaise 
et  tradnit  par  U.  Massias.    Paris,  1864. 

Bapport  Bur  une  Xouvelle  Bonte  pour  doubler  le  Cap  de  Bonne- 
Esperance  de  Teat  k  I'ouest  pendant  la  saiaon  d'Hiver  de  Uai 
&  Septembre,  proposSe  par  IS..  Bridet.     Paris,  1863.     6to. 

Sur  I'emploi  dn  Compas  Etalon  et  la  Courbe  dea  Seriationa  i,  fiord 
dea  NaviisB  en  Fer  et  autrsa.  Par  U.  B.  Darondeau.  Paris, 
1863.    8to. 

Mei  de  Chine — Bonte  de  Sincapour  k  Saigon.    Paris,  1863.     8to. 

Bensiegneiiieuts  snr  la  Her  Bonge.  Par  H.  Lapierre.  Paris, 
1863.    8vo. 

Formule  O^nfirale  pour  trourer  la  Latitude  et  la  Longitude,  par  les 
HanteurshorsdnM^ridien.  Par  Louis  Pagel.  Paris,  1863.  8to. 

1"  Supplement  an  Catalogue  Cbronologiqne  dea  Cartea,  Plaoe, 
Hdmoires,  et  Instructiona  Nautiquea.    Paris,  1863.    8to. 

Annnaire  dea  Marfea  dea  Gdtes  de  France  poor  I'an  1865.  Par 
U.  GaoBBin.    Paris,  1863.     16mo. 

Beport  of  tbe  Commiaaioner  of  Patents,  Arts,  and  Hauufacturea, 
1861.  Washington,  U.  8.   9,yo.— From  the  V.  8.  Patent  OjSke. 

Annual  Beport  of  tbe  Board  of  fiegents  of  the  Smithsonian  Inati- 
tution  for  1862,    .8to. — From  the  Iruttiution. 


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318  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

Hamorie  della  Aocodemia  delle  Scienze  dell'  Istituto  dl  Bologna. 

Tomo  XU.     Serie  2.    Tomo  I.,  II.    4to.— J'rom  the  Academy. 
Bendiconto  delle  Sewioui  dell' Acoademik  delle  Scienze  dell'  Istituto 

di  Bologna,  1861-62,  1862-68.     S-vo.—From  the  Acadomy. 
Berichte   uber   die  VerhandlungeQ    der  Eoniglich    SschMBchen 

Gesellechaft  doi  Wiaaenscliaften  zu  Leipzig.     Matbematisch- 

FhyBiscbe  Glasse,  1863.  PbUologisch-Hiatoriache  Clwse,  1863- 

1864.     8to. — From  Ihe  SoeUty. 
£IektTod;iiamiBoh6  Uaassbestimnningeii  inebeaondere  iiber  Elek- 

triecbe  SchwingnngeD,     Von  Wilhelm   Weber.     Band   VI. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Darlegnng  der  Tbeoretiachen  Berecbnung  der  in  den  Mondtafeln 

Angewandten  Stiirungsu.    Von  F.  A.  Hansen.     Band  VII. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Orereigt  over  det  £ongeIige  dAaeks  Videnakabemes  Sebkaba  For- 

handlinger  ag  deta  Medlemmen  Aibeider,  1862-63,     8vo. — 

From  the  Academy. 
Report  of  tbe  Superintendent  of  the  U.S.  Coaat  Survey  for  1861. 

4to. — From  the  Survey. 
SmithBonian  GoDtribntiona  to  Enowledge.     Vol.   XIII.     4to. — 

From  the  Smiihtcmian  Institution. 
Beoords  and  Beeults  of  a  Uagnetio  Sarve;  of  FeDDsylvaDia  and 

FartB  of  Adjacent  States  in  1840,  1841,  1843,  and  1862.     By 

A.  D.  Bache,  F.B.S.,  &c.     ito.—From  the  Autkor. 
Journal  of  tbe  Scottisb  Meteorological  Society  for  the  QuarteTs  end- 
ing 3lBt  March  and  30th  June  1864.    8to. — From  the  Society. 
TraDsactiona  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XV. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
List  of  the  Greological  Society  of  London.    1864.    8vo. — From  the 

Society. 
Ligbt-houaes.     By  David  Stevenaon,  F.B.S.E.,  &c.     Edinburgh, 

1864.     8vo.— from  the  Author. 
Smithsonian  UiscellaneouB  CoUectiooa.     Vol,  V.    Bvo-^From  the 

Smiiheonian  Inititution. 
TranHactiona  of  the  Literary  and  Hiatorical  Society  of  Quebec. 

1863-64.     Svo.—From  the  Society. 
Forty-aixth  and  Forty-aeventh  Annual  Reports  of  tbe  Council  of  the 

Royal  Geological  Society  of  Comvall.    8to. — Frwn  the  Sorieiy. 


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of  Edinbwyh,  Session  1864-66.  3iy 

Madraa  Jouroal  of  Literature  and  Science.    Edited  by  tlie  Houo- 

rary  Secretary  of  the  Madras  Literary  Society.     Third  Series 

No.  1.     Svo.— JVom  the  Editor. 
Pore  Logic,  or  the  Logio  of  Quality  apart  from  Quwtity.     By  W. 

Stanley  Jevona,  M.A.    London,  1864.    8vo. — From  the  AiUhor. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Asiatic  Society  of  Grreat  Britain  and  Ireland. 

New  Series.     Vol.  I.   Part  I.     8yo.— From  the  Society. 
Sfemoii  of  Thomas  Thomson,  Advocate,  Edinbnrgli.    1854,    8vo. — 

From  J.  T.  Gib^m-Craig,  Esq. 
On  the  Action  of  Waves  upon  a  Ship's  Keet,  and  the  Computation 

of  the  Probahle  Engine  Power  and  Speed  of  proposed  Ships. 

By  W.  J.  Uaoquorn  Bankine,  Esq.     4to. — FTom  the  Author. 
Determination  Telegrspbiqne  de  la  Difference  de  Longitude  entre 

les  ObeeTTatoireB  de  Giendve  et  de  Ncuchatel.    Par  £.  Planta- 

mouT  et  A.  Hirsch.     1864.     4to.— From  the  Avthora. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Surrey  of  India.    PalsBontologia  Indica. 

Ser.  3.     ito.—From  Dr  Oldham. 
Soci^t^  des  Sciences  Naturellee  du  Qrand  [Duch6  de  Luxembonig. 

Tomes  VI.,  VII.     8vo.— JVwn  the  Society. 
Bulletin  de  I'Academie  Boyale  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  des 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.    Tome  XVIII.    Nos.  7,  8.    8vo.— 

From  the  Academy. 
Beale  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Scieoze  e  Letteie,  Bendicouti  Olaese 

di  Lettere  e  Scienze,  Morali  e  Folitiche.    Vol.  I.    Faso.  1-3. 

8  TO. — From  the  Inelittition. 
Annalen  der  Eoniglichen  Steniwart«  hei  Munchen.    Band  XIII. 

8to. — From  the  Boyal  Obiervatory  of  Munich. 
Mittheiluugen  der  Naturforscbenden  GeseUschaft  in  Bern.  N'  531- 

552.     8yo. — From  the  Society. 
Verhandlangen  der  Schweizerischen  Natutforachenden  Gesellschaft 

bei  ihrer  Versammlung  zu  Samaden,  24-26.     1863.    8to.— 

From  the  Society. 
Jahreehericht  iiber  die  Forteofaritte  dor  Chemie,  Sto.  von  C.  Bobn, 

A.  Knop,  u  H.  Will,  fur  1863.    Heft  I.     Giessen.     8vo,— 

From  the  Editore. 
B^umg  M^t^orologiqne  de  I'Annfe  1862-63,  ponr  Geneve  et  le 

Crrand  St  Bernard.      Par  E.   Plantamour.      8vo. — From  (Ae 

AvihoT. 
VOL.  T.  2  « 


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320         Proceedinga  of  the  Soyal  Society,  1864.-65. 
Journal  of  Natural  History,  contBiDing  Papers  and  CommuDic*- 

tioDS  read  before  the  Boston  Society  of  Natunl  History.   Vol. 

VIII.     No.  4.     Svo.—From  the  Boeiety. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  Hietoiy.    1863-64. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.   1863. 

Svo. — From  the  Academy. 
Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Haa- 

sachusetta,   tJ.S.      Svo. — From  L.   Agattw,   Director  of  the 

Museum. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 

Zoology,  U.S.     1863.     8vo.— JVom  the  Trusteet. 
IntFoductory  Beport  of  the  CommisBioner  of  Fatenta  for  1863. 

6vo.~From  the  U.8.  Patent  Ojgice. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.     Vol.  IS. 

No.  70.     8vo.— from  the  Society. 
Delia  lufezione  Bitiosa  del  Sangue  (Calemia).   Diecoiee  del  dott 

Oiactnto  Namias.     Svo. — .Prom  the  Author. 
A  Contribution  towards  an  Index  to  the  Bibliography  of  the  Indian 

Phibsophical  Systems.     By  Fitzedvrard  Hall,  M.A.    Svo. — 

JTrom  the  Author. 
Note  Bur  la   Succession  des  Mollusques    Gaateropodes  pendant 

rSpoqoe  Or£tac4eQ  dans  la  Begion  des  Alpes  Sntsses  et  dn 

Jura.     Par  F.  J.  Pictet.     8vo.— from  the  Author. 
Tre  Akademiske  Taler  paa  Universitetets  Aarsfest  den  2den  Sep- 
tember.    Af  U.  F.  Monrad.     Svo. — From  the  Academy, 
Resnmen  de  les  Actas  de  la  real  Academia  de  Ciencios  Exoctas, 

Fisicaa,  y  N^li"^^  ^^  Madrid.     1861-62.     Syo.—From  the 

Academy. 
The  Truth  of  the  Bible  upheld,  or  Truth  v.  Science.    By  Lavrenoe 

S.  Benson.    8vo. — from  &e  Author. 
On  Literary  and  Scientific  Studies  in  connection  with  Medicine. 

By  J.  H.  Balfour,  M.A.,  M.D.     8vo.— from  the  Author. 
Catalogue  an  Cabinet  de  Monnaiea  et  Medailles  de  I'Acad^ie 

Boyide  des  Sciences  d'Annfterdam.    Bedig6  par  MM.  A.  J. 

Ensobedfl  et  J.  P.  Six.     Svo. — ^fFi>m  the  Avihon. 


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PROCEEDINGS 

OPTBB 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Mondaif,  l$th  December  1864. 
Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  PreBideat,  in  the  Chair. 

The  PresideDt,  on  taking  the  Chair,  delivered  the  following 
Address : — 

In  taklDg  the  Ohair,  to  which,  hj  your  kindness,  I  have  been  ap- 
pointed, it  may  Dot  be  an  inappropriate  introduction  to  its  duties 
if,  in  congratulating  you  on  the  prosperous  state  of  the  Society,  I 
ehould  refer  to  some  facts  in  ils  history,  not  generally  known,  which 
have  materially  contributed  to  its  prosperity  and  progress. 

In  the  closing  years  of  the  last  and  in  the  first  decade  of  the 
present  century,  the  Society  was  in  a  very  languid  condition.  In 
each  of  the  years  1799,  1802,  1803,  1808,  and  1809,  only  one  of 
the  papers  read  at  its  meetings  was  published  in  the  Transactions ; 
and  in  1801  and  1806,  not  a  single  paper  read  in  these  years  was 
published. 

While  oui  Transactions  were  thus  scantily  supplied  with  papers, 
those  actually  read  were  few  in  number,  and  often  too  abstruse  to 
excite  a  general  interest.  The  regular  meetinga  of  the  Society 
bad  freqaently  no  other  business  than  to  read  the  minutes,  elect 
members,  and  receive  donations;  and  this  was  sometimes  done  in 
the  presence  only  of  a  Secretary  and  one  or  two  members  of 
Council.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  Secretary  summoned  the 
members  by  a  billet,  printed  with  red  ink  when  a  paper  was  to  be 
read,  and  one  in  black  when  he  bod  nothing  to  oommnnicate. 

TOL.  T.  2  v 


D.^,i,zea  ..Google 


322  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

At  this  time  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  Ur  Skene,  Mr  Allan,  and 
myaelf — then  ofSce-bearen  or  membera  of  Council,  made  arrange- 
menta  that  a  paper  of  some  kind  ebonld  be  read  at  every  meeting, 
and  in  this  way  a  more  numerous  attendance  was  obtained. 

This  abnormal  process,  however,  did  not  continue  long.  The 
Hattonian  Theory  of  the  Earth,  which  its  distinguished  anth<^ 
promulgated  in  our  TransaotioDB  for  178S,  had  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  naturalists.  Sir  James  Hall,  then  a  yoang  man,  entered 
with  enthusiasm  into  its  study ;  and  eo  early  as  1790  he  laid  before 
the  Society  certain  views  on  the  fusion  and  subsequent  crystallisa- 
tion of  mineral  substances,  which  seemed  hostile  to  the  opinions 
of  his  master.  Having  proposed  to  confirm  them  by  experiment, 
Dr  Hutton,  as  Sir  James  says,  "  gave  him  little  enconragement ;' 
and,  under  the  influence  of  a  false  delicacy,  he  abstained  from  pro- 
secuting the  subject  during  the  life  of  his  friend.  In  1798,  how- 
ever, after  Dr  Hutton's  death,  he  resumed  and  published  his  ex- 
periments on  the  fusion  of  whinstone  and  lava;  and  was  led  to 
those  admirable  researches  "on  the  effects  of  compression  in  modi- 
fying the  action  of  heat,"  which  he  communicated  to  the  Society, 
and  published  in  1805. 

This  remarkable  paper  having  remoTed  many  of  the  objections 
which  had  been  urged  against  the  Hnttonian  theory,  it  was  eageriy 
embraced  and  defended  by  Professor  Playfair,  Lord  Webb  Seymoor, 
Sir  George  Mackenzie,  Mr  Allan,  Dr  Hope,  and  other  geolt^iists. 
Professor  Jameson  had  about  this  time  returned  from  Freyberg, 
imbued  with  all  the  doctrines  of  the  Weraerian  School,  and  eager 
to  propagate  them  among  his  pupils  and  friends.  Dr  Thomas 
Thomson  and  Dr  Macknight  joined  his  standard ;  and  the  rival 
theories  of  fire  and  water  were  discussed  in  this  Society  ^ith  all 
the  warmth,  I  may  even  say  the  bitterness,  of  political  ot  theolo- 
gical controversy.  Vanquished  by  the  superior  science  of  their 
opponents,  the  Wemerians  quitted  the  field,  and  the  Huttoniao 
theory,  illustrated  by  the  eloquence  of  Professor  Playfair,  attracted 
to  its  study  the  most  distinguished  geologists  of  other  lands,  and 
took  a  high  place  among  the  natural  sciences. 

Several  English  geologists  were  thus  led  to  establish  the  Geolo- 
gical Society  of  London ;  and  though,  with  the  view  of  disarming  the 
prejudices  which  hod  been  exalted  against  the  Huttonian  doctrines 


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of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  323 

they  Ksolved  only  "  to  collect  the  materials  for  future  generaliBa- 
tioDSj"  yet  the  great  truths  which  had  b«eD  eetahliehed  in  Scotland 
were  aooa  accepted  and  confirmed  by  the  most  emioent  of  their 
number. 

If  our  Society  gained  in  popalarity,  and  increased  in  nnmbera, 
dnting  the  coDtroversy  lo  which  I  have  referred,  it  suffered  a  serioas 
loss  by  the  retirement  of  Fiofessor  Jameson  and  his  friends  to 
the  Werneriau  Society  which  be  had  establiBhed  in  180S.  But 
what  was  a  loss  to  us  was  a  gain  to  science.  The  new  Society 
enlisted  in  its  serTice  a  number  of  young  and  active  nalaraliBts, 
who  enriched  its  TranBaotious  with  many  papers  of  great  interest 
and  value. 

If  geology,  as  a  science,  drew  its  first  breath  within  our  walls, 
by  the  active  labonta  of  oui  colleagues,  the  kindred  science  of 
mineralogy  was,  at  the  same  time,  earnestly  studied  and  greatly 
advanced.  Mr  Thomas  Allan,  who  possessed  one  of  the  finest  col- 
lections in  Scotland,  spared  no  expense  in  enriching  it  with  new 
and  rare  minerals.  In  1808,  a  Danish  vessel,  brought  into  Leith 
as  a  prize,  was  found  to  contain  a  small  collection  of  minerals, 
which  was  purchased  by  Mr  Allan,  and  Colonel  Imrie,  a  Fellow  of 
this  Society,  and  a  contributor  to  its  Transactions.  Among  these 
minerals  they  found  a  large  quantity  of  cryolite,  a  substance  so 
rare  that  at  the  market  price  it  would  have  brought  L.5000.  They 
found  also  crystals  of  gadolinite,  sodalite,  and  a  new  mineral,  to 
which  Ur  Thomson,  who  analysed  it,  gave  the  name  of  AUanite. 

These  interesting  minerals  had  been  collected  in  Greenland  by 
Ur  (afterwards  Sir  Charles)  6ieseck6,  during  the  mineralogical 
survey  which  he  had  made  of  that  country  between  1805  and  1813, 
and  were  shipped  by  him  for  Copenhagen  in  1808.  Upon  his 
arrival  at  Hull  in  1813,  with  another  and  a  more  valuable  collection, 
he  learned  the  fate  of  his  former  specimens,  and  immediately  pro- 
ceeded to  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  hospitably  received  by  Mr 
Allan,  Sir  G«orge  Mackenzie,  and  other  members  of  this  Society. 
During  hie  residence  here  he  contributed  papers  to  our  Transactiotis, 
and  acquired  so  high  a  reputation  as  a  mineralogist,  that,  through 
the  interest  of  hie  friends  here,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of 
Mineralogy  in  the  Royal  Dublin  Society. 

While  the  study  of  mineralogy  was  thus  greatly  promoted  by  the 


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324  Protieedinga  o/tlw  Soj/al  Society 

labours  and  liberality  of  Mr  AJlao,  he  bad  the  good  /ortoae,  at  ■ 
later  period,  to  jitring  to  Edinburgh,  aod  receive  tmder  bis  roof  for 
nearl;  foyi  yeare,  a  young  German  mineralogiat  of  ^eiy  uncommon 
acqairemente*.  William  Haidinger,  a  native  of  Vienna,  who  had 
studied  mineralogy  at  Qrats  under  the  celebrated  Frederick  Uohs, 
came  to  Edinburgh  in  1823,  and  resided  with  Mr  Allan  till  1826, 
when  he  returned  to  AuBtria,  where  he  prosecuted  with  aidonr  his 
geological  and  mineralogica]  studies,  and  where  be  now  occnpiei  a 
high  place  in  the  scientific  ioBtitutioDB  of  Vienna. 

During  bis  residence  in  £dinburgh,  be  pablisbed  several  viable 
papers  in  our  Traneactions,  and  delivered  a  iconrse  of  lectarea  on 
crystallography,  at  which  Dr  Edward  Turner  and  other  two  friends 
were  the  audience.  In  claiming  to  have  been  one  of  hie  popils  at 
these  lecturee,  I  cannot  resist  the  gratification  of  claiming  him  as 
a  pupil  in  that  branch  of  optics,  connected  with  mineralogy,  which 
was  then  ardently  studied  in  every  part  of  Europe.  When  Mr 
Haidinger  returned  to  Vienna,  he  prosecuted  the  study  of  pbysicsl 
optics  with  great  zeal  sod  success,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to 
discover  one  of  the  moet  beautiful  facts  in  that  branch  of  science. 
He  was  the  first  who  observed  that  curious  property  of  the  eye  by 
which  it  discovers  polarised  light,  and  even  the  plane  of  its  polari- 
sation, without  any  ipstroment  whatever.  The  cause  of  this  re- 
markable phenomenon,  called  "  Haidinger's  biuHbes,"  has  not  been 
discovered ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  produced  by  a 
structure  in  the  retina,  immediately  behind  tha  foramen  ceniraie. 

Although  the  financial  state  of  the  Society  was  greatly  improved 
by  the  increase  in  the  number  of  its  members,  yet  its  fands  were 
quite  inadequate  to  defray  the  necessary  expenses  of  such  an  in- 
stitotion.  The  annual  grant,  therefore,  of  L.SOO,  given  in  1836  by 
the  G-ovemment  of  Lord  Melbourne,  though  it  enabled  the  Society 
to  pay  the  rent  of  As  apartments,  left  nothing  for  thoee  special 
objects  which  such  institutions  are  expected  to  promote.  When 
we  consider  that  the  Soyal  Society  of  London  baa  an  annual  grant 
of  L.IOOO,  with  free  apartments  in  Burlington  House,  and  a  sum 
for  the  royal  medals,  we  can  hardly  donbt  that  an  earnest  repre- 
sentation to  the  Qovemment  would  obtain  for  us  a  similar,  thougb, 
doubtless,  a  smaller  grant 

One  of  the  meet  effective  means  by  which  a  society  like  onn  can 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbwgh,  Seaaion  1864^65.  32& 

promote  th?  inteiesti  of  science,  is  the  adjudlcatioD  of  prizes  to  its 
aucceseful  cultivators.  The  first  bequest  to  us  for  this  purpose 
was  made  b;  the  late  Mr  Eeith  of  Ravelatou  (long  an  office-bearer, 
and  occasionally  a  contribator  to  oni  Traneactiona),  who  left 
L.600  to  found  a  biennial  prize  "  for  the  most  important  discovery 
in  science  made  in  an;  part  of  the  world,  bat  communicated  by 
its  author  to  the  BoyaJ  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  published  in  its 
TransactioDs." 

Id  1855,  Sir  Thomas  Macdougall  Brisbane,  when  President  of  the 
Society,  gave  L.400  to  found  a  biennial  prize  of  L.30  to  promote 
any  branch  of  science  to  which  the  President  and  Council  might 
devote  it ;  and  in  the  following  year  Dr  Patrick  Neill  bequeathed 
L.500  to  found  a  biennial  or  triennal  prize,  to  be  adjudicated  to 
the  most  distinguished  Scottish  naluralist.  These  prizes  have  been 
gained  by  some  individuals  not  Fellows  of  the  Society,  and  have 
procured  for  our  Transacliona  many  valuable  communications  which 
they  would  not  otherwise  have  obtained. 

Unwilling  to  allow  their  prizee  to  remain  nuappropriated,  it  has 
been  th&practiceof  some  societies  to  adjudicate  them  occasionally, 
contrary  to  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  deed  of  foundation. 
Such  a  proceeding  cannot  be  too  carefully  avoided.  It  is  injurious 
to  the  society,  by  preventing  the  accumulation  of  the  fund.  It  is 
unjust  to  future  cornpetitors,  who  would  otherwise  have  received  a 
richer  prize.  It  diminishes  the  importance  of  the  prize  by  its  too 
frequent  adjudication ;  and  it  prevents  the  wealthy  patrons  of 
science  from  intrusting  money  to  an  institution  that  does  not  re- 
spect the  conditions  upon  which  it  is  given. 

In  calling  your  attention  to  some  of  the  leading  features  in  the 
history  of  the  Society,  I  cannot  avoid  expressing  the  regret  which 
has  been  very  generally  felt  at  the  discontinuance  of  those  bio- 
graphical memoirs  of  distinguished  members,  whicfa,  during  the 
secretaryship  of  Professor  Flayfair,  formed  such  an  interesting  por- 
tion of  our  Transactions.  I  take  to  myself  some  blame,  that 
when  J  held  the  same  office,  no  memoir  of  Dugald  Stewart,  Pro- 
fessor Playfair,  and  Sir  James  Hall  should  have  been  communi- 
cated to  the  Society ;  and  the  only  apology  I  can  offer  is,  that  the 
researches  in  which  I  was  engaged  were  too  engrossing  to.  admit 
of  any  other  occupation.    The  evil,  however,  may  yet  be  remedied, 


DvGooglc 


326  Proceedings  of  the  RoyoA  Society 

and,  as  eug^ated  by  a  fonner  Cooncil,  the  Macdougall  BrUbaoe 
prize  might  he  given  for  important  memoirs,  such  bs  that  of  Fro- 
feBSor  Ferguson,  b;  Mr  Small,  which  has  been  published  in  our 
TransactiouB. 

In  calling  your  attention  to  the  controversy  between  the  Hnt- 
tonian  and  Wemerian  geologists,  as  an  epoch  in  the  history,  ol 
the  Society,  I  referred  to  the  prejudices  vhich  it  avakeued,  and 
the  bitterness  with  which  it  was  carried  on.  The  formula  of  Dr 
Button,  that  "  in  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  there  was  no 
vestige  of  a  beginning,  and  no  prospect  of  as  end,"  alarmed  the 
timid,  and  furnished  bis  opponents  with  a  weapon  which  philo- 
sophers should  disdain  to  wield.  Dr  Hutton  observed,  "  that  the 
Uoeaic  history  placed  the  beginning  of  man  at  no  great  distance, 
and  that  there  had  not  been  found  in  natural  history  any  docu- 
ment by  which  a  high  antiquity  might  be  attributed  to  the  human 
race."  He  held  no  opinions  and  indulged  in  no  speculations  in- 
compatible with  revealed  trntb,  and  his  Scottish  discipleB,  led  by 
Professor  Playfair,  maintained  the  doctrines  of  their  master  with- 
out doing  violence  to  the  serious  convictions  of  their  countrymen. 

It  was  reserved  for  another  school  of  geology  to  array  the  wis- 
dom of  this  world — Science  falsely  so  called — against  truths  eternal 
and  immutable.  It  was  reserved  for  an  nnscmpnlous  philosophy 
to  hold  an  inquest  on  the  origin  of  that  life  which  God  breathed 
into  man  to  make  him  a  living  soul, — to  teach  the  heresy  of  the 
creation  and  government  of  the  universe  by  law ;  thus  hnrliog  the 
Almighty  from  His  throne, — Himself  but  the  first  liuk  of  the  chain 
of  life, — the  sovereign  of  au  empire  without  a  sceptre,— the  Father 
of  a  family,  blind  to  the  tears,  and  deaf  to  the  cries  of  his 
children. 

Such  views  of  the  Divine  Government  will,  I  tmst,  never  find 
acceptance  within  these  walls.  In  the  study  of  naturo  there  is  no 
forbidden  ground.  Into  its  deepest  mysteries  we  are  invited  to 
dive,  and  if  we  make  Reason  our  guide,  and  Imagination  our  foot- 
stool, we  may  rest  assured  that  truths  that  are  demonstrated  will 
never  rush  into  collision  with  truths  that  are  revealed. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Sesaion  lSQir-55.  327 

1.  Od  Variability  in  Human  Structure,  with  illustratioDS 
from  the  Flexor  Muscles  of  the  Fingers  and  Toes.  By 
William  Turner,  M.B.  (Loud.),  DemonBtrator  of  Anatomy 
in  the  University. 

The  author,  after  rererring  to  variations  in  the  external  form,  of 
the  body  in  differeot  iudividualB,  and  to  the  relatione  between  ex- 
ternal form  and  iDteroal  structure,  proceeded  to  discasa  the  subject 
of  variability  id  the  different  organic  syBtemH.  He  showed  that 
internal  stmctural  variations  conferred  upon  the  individual  char- 
acters as  distinctive  as  aoy  peculiarities  id  external  con Bgu ration. 
It  was  argued  that  in  the  development  of  the  individual  a  morpho- 
logical specialisation  occurs,  both  in  internal  structure  and  external 
form,  so  that  each  man's  structural  individuality  is  an  expression 
of  the  sum  of  the  individual  variations  of  all  the  constituent  parts 
of  his  frame. 

The  mnacular  system  was  adduced  as  affording  abundant  illustra- 
tion of  the  specialisation  of  structure  in  the  individual,  and  an 
analysis  was  given  of  a  number  of  dissections  of  the  flexor  muscles 
of  the  fingers  and  toes.  In  the  long  flexors  of  the  thumb  and 
fingers,  not  only  were  variations  in  bulk,  extent  of  attachment,  and 
mode  of  diviaion  described,  but  the  frequent  existence  and  variously 
modified  arrangements  of  bands  connecting  together  not  only  the 
muscles,  or  divisions  of  muscles,  situated  on  the  same  plane,  but 
those  situated  on  different  planes  were  pointed  out.  A  close  ana- 
lysis of  the  arrangementa  of  the  flexor  hallacis  longns,  flexor 
longus  digitomm,  flexor  accessorius,  flexor  brevis  digitomm,  and 
lumbricales,  in  thirty  dissected  feet,  was  then  given,  and  the  extent 
of  variation  which  these  specimens  exhibited  detailed  at  consider- 
able length.  The  necessity  of  dissecting  carefully  the  soft  parts  in 
the  different  races  of  men,  so  as  to  study  the  amount  of  variation 
which  might  occur  in  them,  was  insisted  on  in  the  paper. 

2.  On  the  Principle  of  Onomatopoeia  in  Langnage.    By 

Professor  Blackie. 

Professor  Blackie  read  a  paper  on  Onomatopoeia,  or  the  influence 

of  the  imitative  principle  on  the  formation  of  language.    Without 


DvGooglc 


SSS  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

denying  thftt  a  number  of  words  in  the  later  developmeat  of  lan- 
guage were  purely  notioDal,  that  ib,  intended  to  represent  an  idea, 
not  to  imitate  a  eound,  ho  atrongly  coutended,  that  the  whole  ori- 
ginal Bfock  of  language  was  either  direct  imitations  of  natnral 
sounds,  or  analogical  representations  of  things  visible  and  tangible 
by  thiuga  audible.  As  proofs  of  this  he  adduced  various  illastta- 
tions  from  the  Aryan  and  the  Semitic  languages.  He  showed  spe- 
cially that  most  motions  are  accompanied  by  certain  sounds  or 
noises,  and  these  sounds  are  imitated  more  or  less  perfectly  by  the 
great  family  of  verbs  which  express  motion  in  all  languages ;  that 
objects  which  are  sharp  or  blunt,  rough  or  smooth  to  touch,  are 
ezpresBOl  by  words  which  have  the  same  character  lo  the  organs 
of  speech  and  to  the  eor ;  and  that  there  is  a  distinct  cmrelation 
between  all  outward  Beneuoua  impressions  and  the  emotions  thereby 
excited  in  our  minds  and  nervous  system,  which  necesearily  caoaes 
the  vocal  expression  of  any  feeling  to  bear  a  likeness  to  the  ex- 
ternal impression  from  which  it  proceeded.  He  did  not  consider 
the  scientific  truth  of  this  matter  to  be  in  any  way  affected  by  the 
vexed  questiou,  whether  man  was  created  originally  an  infant  or 
full-grown ;  and  the  disownmeut  of  the  imitative  principle  in  the 
formation  of  langua^  by  Professor  Max  Uiiller,  in  his  recent  work 
on  the  science  of  language,  he  considered  as  the  reeult  of  a  G«rman 
prejudice  against  even  the  appearance  of  sensationalism,  a  fond- 
ness for  the  abstract  in  preference  to  the  concrete  in  philosophy, 
and  a  delight  in  the  mysterious. 

3.  Note  on  the  Phlogistic  Theory.  By  Alexander  Crnm 
Brown,  M.D.,  Ac. 

When  we  consider  that  the  Phlogistic  Theory  formed,  as  it  were, 
the  central  point  round  which  the  facts  of  chemistry  first  cryatallized 
into  regular  scientific  form,  and  that  for  more  than  a  hundred  years 
it  was  recognised  by  all  as  the  foundation  of  the  science,  we  might 
reasonably  suppose  tbat  it  should  contain  at  least  some  germ  of  truth. 

I  think  I  shall  be  able  to  show  in  the  following  note  that  not 
only  is  this  the  case,  but  that  the  theory  itself,  as  stated  by  its 
founders,  Beccher  and  Stahl,  is,  if  not  strictly  true,  a  very  close 
approximation  to  what  we  now  recognige  as  truth. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  329 

According  to  StabI,  all  combuBtibles  contain  one  and  the  same 
■alwtance  in  different  proportioDB,  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
combustibility.  That  snbstance  is  phlogiston  ;  and  when  a  com- 
bastible  is  burnt,  or  a  metal  calcined,  its  pblogieton  is  given  out. 
When  charcoal  or  oil  is  heated  with  a  metallic  calx,  the  phlogiBton 
leaves  tbe  former,  and  is  found  in  combination  in  the  metallic 
regains. 

Now,  if  we  consider  the  facts  of  the  case  in  an  unprejudiced  way, 
we  must  admit  that  a  combnstible  loses  sometfatng  when  it  is  burnt, 
it  loses  combnBtibility,  or  the  capability  of  being  burnt  In  the 
same  way,  in  the  preparation  of  phMphorus,  or  the  reduction  <tf  a 
metallic  calx,  the  charcoal  loses  this  capability,  while  the  phos- 
pboms  or  metal  acquires  it. 

The  capability  of  being  burnt  is  essentially  the  power  of  emitting 
a  certain  quantity  of  heat,  and,  as  we  know  from  tbe  researches  of 
Rnmford,  Davy,  and  ethers,  and  from  the  later  and  more  accurate 
determinations  of  Joule,  that  heat  is  a  particular  form  of  what  has 
been  called  kinetic  energy,  we  can  have  no  difficulty  in  admitting 
that  the  power  of  emitting  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  is  a  particular 
form  of  potential  energy. 

If,  in  the  statement  of  the  phlogistic  theory,  we  read  potential 
energy  for  phlogiston,  and  understand  that  when  phlogiston  is 
Beparated  from  one  body  and  not  taken  up  by  another,  as  in  combus- 
tion, this  potential  energy  is  converted  into  kinetic  energy,  we  hare 
a  tolerably  complete  acoount  of  what  we  now  know  of  the  matter. 

Whether  we  choose,  with  Beccher  and  Stahl,  to  call  phlogiston  a 
substance  or  not,  depends  on  ovr  definition  of  what  a  substance  is, 
If  we  restrict  that  name  to  ponderable  matter,  of  ccnne  it  ia  not  a 
substance,  bat  when  we  consider  that  energy  is  as  indestructible  as 
matter,  that  we  can  trace  it  through  its  various  combinations  and 
double  decora  position  B,  and  that  we  are  in  a  fair  way  to  discover, 
not,  indeed,  its  atomic  weight,  for  it  faaa  none,  but  its  chemical  unit, 
it  does  not  seem  very  absurd  or  unreasonable  to  class  it  along  with 
the  ordinary  chemical  elements. 

It  may  be  objected  to  the  phlogistic  theory,  as  thus  explained, 
that  it  is  not  the  combustible  alone,  but  the  combustible  and  oxygen, 
that  have  potential  energy,  and  that  it  is  only  when  tbe  two  unite 
that  this  potential  energy  is  transformed  into  kinetic.    This  objec- 


j.Googlc 


330  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

tion  is  equally  valid  against  the  Btatement,  that  a  clock,  when  vonod 
up,  contaiDB  poteDtial  ene^y,  it  ia  not  the  clock,  but  the  clock  and 
tbe  earth,  which  contain  this,  and  it  is  transfonned  when  the  clock 
weight  and  the  earth  approach  each  other. 

In  fact,  energy  is  not  coDceivable  without  a  syatem  of  at  least  two 
bodies. 

We  muBt,  of  coune,  recollect  that  the  phlogistic  chemiBte  were 
ignorant  of  the  existence  and  nature  of  oxygen,  and  it  is  to  this 
ignorance  that  we  mnst  ascribe  the  downfall  of  the  theory  of  pblo- 
gistoD.  They  attempted  to  explain,  by  means  of  this  theory,  facta 
(such  as  the  increase  of  the  weight  of  a  combustible  when  bnmt) 
depending  on  a  totally  different  csnse.  They  were  thus  led  to 
modify  the  theory,  and  ascribe  to  pblogieton  negative  weight,  and 
to  identify  it  sometimes  with  carbon  and  sometimes  with  hydrogen 
gM. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  theory,  thus  mntilated,  eboald  have 
been  overthrown,  and  we  have  only  to  regret  that  the  valuable  ttntb 
embodied  in  it  should  have  been  lost  eight  of;  that  the  antiphlo- 
gistio  obemiets,  like  other  reformers,  destroyed  so  much  of  what  was 
good  in  the  old  system,  and  that,  in  consequence  of  this,  we  are  only 
now  beginning  to  see  what  was  obvious  to  such  a  man  aa  Stahl,  that 
oxido  of  iron  does  not  contain  metallic  iron ;  that  no  compound  con- 
tuns  the  EfubstancoB  from  which  it  k  produced,  but  that  it  contuns 
them  minus  something.  We  now  know  what  this  something  is,  and 
can  give  it  the  more  appropriate  name  of  potential  energy;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  iB  what  the  chemists  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  meant  when  they  spoke  of  phlogiston. 

The  following  DonatioDS  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 

Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society,  London.    Vol.  XXIV.    Part 

3.     4to. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society,  London.    Vol.  VIII.    No.  31 

(Botany).     Sm.-~From  the  Society. 
List  of  the  Linnean  Society,   London.    1864.     8vo. — Frwn  At 

Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.     Vol.  XIII.    No. 

69.     8vo.— fVom  tA«  SodHy. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1861-65.  331 

Proceedinge  of  the  Royal  Institation  ol  Great  Britain.    Vol.  IV. 

Forts  3  and  4.    8to. — From  &e  IiutUution. 
Joamal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.    No.  3.     1861.    8to. — 

From  the  Society. 
TroDsoctiona  of  the  Boyal  lledioal  and  ChirorgicRl  Society  of 

London.     Vol.  XLVII.     8vo.—From  the  Society. 
TronsactionB  of  the  Historic  Society  of  Lancaehiie  and  Cheshire* 

New  Series.     Vol.  III.     8-vo.— From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society.    Vol.  XXXIII.    8vo. 

—From  the  Society. 
Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Council  of  the  Boyal  Scottish 

Academy.     1864.     Svo. — From  the  Academy. 
The  Design  and  ConetinctioD   of   Harbours.    By  Thomas  Ste- 

venson,  F.R.S.E.     Sro.— From  the  Author. 
Memoirs  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Suciety.     Vol.  XXXII.    4to. 

— From  the  Society. 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts.    Vol.  VI. 

Part  4.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Quarterly  Return  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uarriages  registered  in 

the  Divisions,  Counties,  and  Districts  of  Scotland,  for  the 

Quarter  ending  30th  September  1864.    8vo.— From  the  Be- 

gietrar-  Oeneral. 
Monthly  Returns  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uarriages  registered  in 

th^  Eight  Principal  Towns  in  Scotland — September,  October, 

and  November  1864.     8vo. — From  the  Segittrar-Oenerat. 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  November 

1864.     8vo.— from  the  Society. 
Entoptics — Letter  to  Dr  lago  from  Dr  Mackenzie.     1864.     8vo. 

— JVofn  the  Author. 
On  the  Distribution  of  Bain  over  the  British  Isles  during  the  years 

1860-63.     By  G.  I.  Symons.     8vo.— Frwn  the  Author. 
Proceedings  of  the   Geologist's   Association.     1863-64.     8vo.— 

From  the  Aeiociation. 
On  the  Wet  Dock  and  other  Works  about  to  be  constructed  by  the 

GommissionerB  for  the  Harbour  and  Docks  of  Letth.     By 

George  Bobertson,  F.R.S.E.,  Ac.     8vo. —JVom  (Ae  Author. 
Geometrical  Disquisitions.     By   Lawrence  S.   Benson  of  South 

Carolina.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


332  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

On  tb€  Circle-Area  and  Heptagon -Chord.   By  g,  M.  Drach,  F.B.A.S. 

8to. — From  the  Atiihor. 
Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Dublin.    Vol.  X.     Psit  2. 

8?o. — F^rom  the  Sodety. 
Journal  of  the  Chemic&l  Society  of  London.    New  Series.    Vol.  II. 

8vo.~From  the  Society. 
Report  read  by  the  ABtronomer-Boyal  for  Scotlfttid  to  the  Special 

Meeting  of  Her  Majesty's  (JoverDment  Board  of  Visitors  of 

the  Boyal  Obeerratory,  Edinburgh,  on  the  4th,  and  issued  on 

the  11th  NoTember  1864.    4to.— From  the  Auth^. 
Bulletin  do  la  Soct^t^  de  O^ograpbie,  Paris.    Tome  VII.     Sto.— 

From  the  SocMiy. 
Bulletins  de  I'Acad^mie  Boyale  de  Belgique.     2"*  Ser.    Tomes 

XV.-XVII.    8to.— fiwn  Iht  Acadmy. 
M&moires  Couronn6a  et  autres  M^moiree  public  par  I'Aoademie 

Eoyole  de  Belgique.     Tomes  XV.,  XVI.    8vo.— Ftwn  tke 

Academy. 
Annales  de  rObeerratoire  Physique  Central  de  Buasie,  publi£es  par 

ordre  de  sa  Majesty  Imp^riale.     Par  A.  T.  Eupffer.    1860, 

1861.     St  Petersburg.     4to.— .Froro  the  ObeervtUory. 
Memoires  de  I'Academie  Boyale  dea  Sciences,  dee  Lettres,  et  dee 

BeauxArtB  de  Belgique.     Tome  XXXIV.     ito.— From  the 

Academy. 
M^moires  Couronn^B  et  M6moireB  dea  Savans  Etrangers,  publiis 

par  I'Academie  Boyale  dee  Sciencea,  dea  Lettrea,  et  dea  Beaux- 

Arts  de  Belgique.     Tome  XXXI.     4to. — From  the  Aoadetny. 
Nova  Acta  Begite  Societatis  Scientiarum  UpsalieUBia.      Vol.  V. 

Fasc.  1.     ito.—From  the  Society. 
AnnaleB  de  I'Observatoire  Royal  de  Bruxelles.    Tome  XVI.    4to. 

— From  the  Observatory. 
Aunuaire  de  I'Obeervatoire  Royal  de  Bmxelles.     1864.    16mi>. — 

From  the  Ohtervatory. 
GloBsaria  Linguanim  Brasiliensium.GloeBariosdediTersaa  lingoaae 

dialectos  que  fallao  oa  ludioB  no  Iniperio  do  Brazil.   Von  Dr  Carl 

F.  Phil.  TOD  Martina.    Eilangen,  1863.    8vo. — From  the  Aulhor. 
Comple-Rendu  de  la  Commiaaiou  Imperiale  Archtologtque  pour 

I'annSe  1862.     With  Atlaa.     St  Petershurg.      4to.— Frrnn  Mc 

fltiBSjnn  Qovemment. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864r-€5.  333 

Annuture  de  rAcadSmie  Rojale  des  Sciences  de  Belgique.     1864. 

16mo. — From  the  Academy. 
L'Homme  Foesile  dee  Cavernes  de  Tombrive  et  de  Thenn,  aveo 

une  lotroductioD  HJstonque  et  Critique.    Far  J.  B.  Barnes, 

F.  Garrigon,  et  H.  Filbol.     1862.    Svo.—From  the  AMhort. 
Etude  Chimique  et  Medicale  des  Eauz  Suirureaees  d'Ax  (AriSge), 

pi€cM6e  d'une  Notice  Historiqne  snt  cette  Yille,  et  sairie  de 

rAualyse  des  Sources  Sulfureusee  Ohandesde  M^teus.    Par 

Felix  Garrigon.     1862.     8vo.— from  the  Avthor. 
Lettre  k  M.  le  Professeur  N.  Joly,  pr^entee  par  lui  k  TAcad^mie 

dee  Scieuces  de  Toalouse,  Par  Is  Doctenr  F.  Garrigon.  1862. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
M^moire  sui  lea  GaTeniea  de  Therm  et  de  Boaicheta  (Ariege). 

Par  le  Docteur  Felix  Garrigon  de  Tarascoo  (Ari4ge).    8vo. 

From  the  Author, 
L'Age  de  le  Pierre  dans  lee  Cayemes  de  la  Valine  de  Tarasoon 

(Arifige).    Par  MM.  F.  Garrigon  et  H.  Filbol.     8vo.— From 

the  Autivyn. 
Note  sur  Deux  Fragments  de  Macboiree  bumaines  tronvfe  dans  la 

Caveme  de  fininique!  (Tarn -et- Garonne).     Par  MM.  F.  Gar- 
rigon, L.  Martin,  et  B.  Tmtal.     4to.— /Vom  tA«  AuOwre. 
Tableau  dea  Donn^  Num^riqnee  qui  fixent  169  Cercles  du  Beseau 

Pentagonal.    Par  M.  L.  Elie  de  Beaumont.   Paris,  1863.  4to. 

—From  the  Author. 
Considerations  sur  la  Prdrision  des  Tempttea,  et  sp£oialement  sur 

cellee  dn  1  an  4  Decembre  1863.     Par  Foidinand   Muller. 

4to. — I^-om  the  Author. 
Bulletin  de  TAcadSmie  fioyale  des  Sciences,  des  Lettree,  et  des 

Beaux-ArU  de  Belgique.    Tome  XVIIl.  Nob.  9, 10, 11.    8vo. 

— From  the  Academy. 
Stattstique  et  Aatronomie — Sur  la  Mortality  pendant  la  Premidre 

Enfance.    Par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
SurleCinqui^me  Congr^de  Statiatiqueteuui  Berlin  du  4au  12Sep- 

tembre  1863.     Par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.     Svo.—From  the  Author. 
Pb^nom^nea  P£riodiqnea — Bee  Phenom^nes  Periodiquee  en  general. 

Par  M,  Ad.  Quetelet.     8to. — From  the  Author. 
Notice  sur  la  Periodicite  des  Etoiles  Filaotea  du  raois  de  Novembre. 

Par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet,    8vo.— .From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


334  Proceedings  of  the  Soyed  Society 

Sur  les  £toilGa  Filaates  et  leurs  lieux  d'ApparitioD.     Par  MM.  Ad. 

Quetelet,  Le  Verrier,  Haidinger,  et  Poey.     8vo. — From  the 

Authon, 
Physique  du  Globe — Etoilea  FiUntea ;  A^rolithe  et  Ouragan  en  De- 

cembre  1863.    Par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.    8to.— JVom  iKe  AvUwr. 
Etoilee  Fil&ntes  de  la  Pgiiode  du  10  Aofit  1663.     Par  M.  Ad. 

Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  AuStor. 
Oroge  du  10  Septembre  1863,  obseird  i  Braxelles.    Pai  M.  Eraeat 

Quetelet.     8to. — From  the  Attthor. 
BeBume  des  Observations  sur  la  M^t^orologie  et  sur  le  Magn^tiBiae 

Terreatre.    Par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet.    4to. — From  the  Author, 
FhyBJquB  du  Grlobe.     Memoire  but  lea  relations  qui  existent  entre 

les  Etoilea  Filantes  lea  balidea  et  les  eaaaims  de  M^tfttriteE. 

Pai  M.  Haidinger,  de  Vienne.    8vo. — From  tht  Author. 
Memoiie  del  Nuoto  Oaeervatoiio  del  CoIIegio  Romano  D.  C.  D.  G. 

dair  Aprile  1656  al  Settembre  1857.  Pubblicate  dal  Direttore 

P.  A.  Seechi,  D.C.  D.G.     iUi.—Fnm  the  Ohtervalory. 
Memorle  dell'  Osservatorio  del  Gollegio  Bomano  D.C.  D.G.     Nueva 

Serie,  1857-59, 1860^68.   PubblicatedalP.  A.  Seechi.    iio.— 

From  the  Obtervatory. 
BuUettino  Meteorologico  dell'  Osservatorio  del  Collegio  Bomano 

con  Conispondenza  e  Bibliografia  per  TAvanzameoto  della 

FiBica  Terrestre,  compilato  dal  P.  A.  Seechi,  D.C.  D.G.    4to. 

— From  the  Ohgervalory. 
MiBura  della  Base  Trigonometrica  eaegiota  Bulla  Via  Appia,  p<^r 

ordine  del  GoTemo  Pontificio  nel  1854^5.    Dal  P.  A.  Seechi, 

D.C.  D.G.     iU3.—From  the  Oltervaiory. 
Sur  le  Mouvementa  propre  de  quelques  Etoiles.   Par  Era.  Quetelet. 

4to, — From  the  Author. 
Compte-Bendu Annuel  adress^i  B.  Exc.M.deBeuteni,  Miniatredes 

Finaacee,  par  le  Directeur  de  I'Observatoire  Physique  Central, 

A.  T.  Kup£Fer,  1861-62.     io.~From  the  Author. 
Schriften  der  Universitat  zu  Kiel  aus  dem  Jabre  1863.    Band  X. 

ito—From  the  University. 
Prenseische  Statistik  die  Witterungserscbeinungen  des  Nordliclien 

Deutecblands  in  Zietraum  tod  1858-63.    Von  H.  W.  Dove. 

4to. — From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaion  1864-66.  335 

Tuesday,  'Sd  Jamuary  1865, 

Professor  CHEISTISON,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Chainnan  delivered  the  Uakdongall-BriBbane  Hedal,  which 
had  been  awarded  to  Mr  J.  Denia  Macdonald,  R.N, 

The  following  CommuDicationa  were  read : — 

1.  A  Map  of  Taraoaki,  Kew  Zealand,  executed  b;  a  Maori, 
was  exhihited,  and  remarks  on  it  b;  Dr  Lauder  Lindeay 
were  communicated  bj  Mr  A.  Keith  Johnston. 

2,  Frofe§sor  Tait  read  a  Dote  on  the  Tarione  investigations  of 
the  Lav  of  Frequenojr  of  £rror ;  in  which  he  pointed  out  that  the 
difficulty  was  really  a  logical,  not  an  analytical  one ;  and  showed 
how  from  d  priori  principles,  somewhat  different  from  those  of 
Laplace,  it  was  easy  to  obtain  the  received  result  without  the 
formidable  analysis  of  Laplace  and  Poisson.  Some  cuiions  con- 
seqaences  were  shown  to  follow  from  tbe  principles  adopted. 

8.  Notice  respecting  Mr  Reilly's  Topographical  Surrey  of 
the  Chain  of  Mont  Blanc.    By  Principal  Forbes. 

On  the  6tfa  February  1843,  or  alm<»t  twenty-two  yeaiB  ago,  I 
bad  the  honour  of  laying  before  this  Society  an  account  of  a  topo- 
graphical survey  of  the  Mer  de  Olace  of  Cfaamouni  and  its  neigh- 
bourhood, together  with  the  detailed  map  founded  upon  it,  being 
[«obab1y  the  first  map  of  a  glacier  on  such  a  scale  ever  constructed. 
Since  that  time  I  have  never  ceased  to  interest  myself  in  the  im- 
provement and  extension  of  this  surrey.  Two  subsequent  editions 
of  the  map  appeared,  containing  the  results  of  my  continued  ob- 
servations with  the  theodolite  in  1843, 1844,  1846,  and  1850.  The 
last  edition  (on  a  reduced  scale),  in  1853,  included  the  whole  of  the 
glacier  of  BosBons  and  tbe  results  of  an  extended  triangulation,  in 
whioh  tbe  Fleg&re  and  the  Breven  formed  the  extremities  of  a  new 
base  connected  with  the  stations  L,  U,  and  I  of  my  former  survey. 

Since  1861  the  state  of  my  health  has  put  a  bar  in  the  way  of 
any  farther  personal  exertions  in  elucidating  the  topography  of  the 


DvGooglc 


336  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Sooiett/ 

chain  of  Mont  Blanc.  But  as  opportunity  served,  I  Lave  not  ceased 
to  urge  the  youuger  generation  of  Alpine  travellers  to  extend  onr 
knowledge  of  its  details,  and,  by  making  the  theodolite  their  com- 
panion, and  multiplyiug  panoramic  views  of  all  intricate  mountain 
groupe,  to  obtain  valuable  topographical  knowledge,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  enjoy  the  luxury  of  Alpine  rambling.  The  soath- 
westem  part  of  the  chain  of  Mont  Blanc,  which  really  was  very  much 
a  terra  incognita  as  to  its  interior  conformation  (though  perpetually 
visited  on  its  outskirts  by  all  who  passed  the  Col  du  Bcnhomme), 
was  partially  explored  and  sketched  by  Mr  Tuckett,  an  active 
member  of  the  Alpine  Club ;  but  the  district  to  the  east  of  the  Mer 
de  Glace,  stretching  towards  the  Col  de  Balme  and  the  Swiss  Val 
Ferret,  remained  a  complete  enigma,  the  intricacy  and  obscurity 
of  which  appeared  more  and  more  as  its  recesses  were  successively 
invaded  by  the  adventurous  inroads  of  membeni  of  the  Alpine  Club. 
For  years  I  had  been  urging  my  mountaineering  friends  to  carry  a 
theodolite  to  the  Bummit  to  the  east  of  the  Jardin,  marked  in  my 
map  as  "Nameless  Peak  A,"  from  whence  I  knew  that  the  de- 
batable land  to  the  eastward  would  probably  be  overlooked ;  but 
it  was  not  attempted  till  1863.  The  year  before,  Sheet  xxii.  of 
the  Swiss  Federal  Survey  had  been  issued,  and  was  looked  for  with 
great  interest  by  myself  and  others  as  likely  to  clear  up  at  least  a 
part  of  the  mystery  of  this  Gordian  knot  of  peaks  and  glaciers.  So 
far  as  it  was  inclndcd  within  the  rigorous  limits  of  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, it  was  as  completely  satisfactory  as  that  survey  baa 
everywhere  else  been  acknowledged  to  be.  But  the  Federal  boun- 
dary once  passed,  it  was  evident  that  the  topography  of  the  ad- 
jacent part  of  Savoy  included  in  the  Swiss  sheet  was  far  less  reliable, 
if  indeed  worthy  of  any  confidence  at  all.  The  persuasion  of  the 
uncertain  state  of  the  geography  of  this  interesting  portion  of  the 
most  important  mountain  group  in  Europe  was  common  to  myself 
and  others  who  had  visited  or  crossed  that  part  of  the  chain. 
Early  in  1863  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  Mr  Beilly,  who  was  already  interested  in  the  problem,  and  who 
shewed  me  panoramic  drawings  of  different  parts  of  the  range, 
executed  with  remarkable  facility  and  correctness.  He  readily 
agreed  to  return  to  the  spot  and  take  a  theodolite  with  him.  The 
map  which  I  now  have  his  permission  to  exhibit  to  the  Sooiety  is 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1864-65.  337 

the  Ksnlt  of  bis  labours  in  1863,  with  some  correotiona  and  addi- 
tions in  1864.  It  starts  fundamentally  as  a  base  with  mj  trian- 
gnlation  of  the  Fleg^re  and  Breven  stations,  and  thus  connects 
itself  immediatelj  and  accurately  with  the  whole  of  my  map  so 
far  as  it  extended,  that  is,  from  the  top  of  Mont  Blauc  to  the 
"  Nameless  Peak  A,"  parallel  to  the  chaiu,  and  from  the  Jorasses 
to  the  Flegdre  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  Mi  Beilly  carried 
forward  the  main  triangulation  up  the  valley  of  the  Arve  to  the 
Col  de  Balme,  and  thence  to  the  very  recesses  of  the  Glacier  da 
Tour,  which  was  the  seat  of  at  least  one  part  of  the  "  Gordian 
knot"  already  referred  to.  He  ^adually  found  himself  led  to  the 
concIuBion  that  the  Sardinian  surveyors,  on  whose  authority  the 
Swiss  map  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Confederation  was  probably 
oonstmcted,  had  made  a  mistake  of  an  almost  incredible  hind, 
representing  one  atui  Ae  tame  motutiain  under  the  namea  of  Aigvffle 
d'Art/nUiin  and  Pointe  dei  Plinea  in  two  different  places  a  mils  and 
■•half  apart,  and  separated  by  a  vast  ice-field  communicating  with 
the  Glacier  du  Taur,  which  ice-field  has  of  course  no  existence,  as 
the  two  mountains,  by  which  it  was  represented  as  being  bounded, 
are,  as  already  stated,  absolutely  identical.  The  portion  of  glacier 
thus  annihilated  was  represented  as  two  and  a  quarter  English 
milea  in  length.  Hr  Beilly,  whose  activity  as  a  pedestrian  is  equal 
to  his  skill  as  a  draughtsman,  put  the  seal  on  his  topographical  dis- 
covery by  passing  for  the  first  time  the  elevated  col  between  the 
Aiguilles  of  Argentibre  and  Ghardoonet,  starting  from  the  side  of 
the  glacier  cf  Argentibre.  Had  existing  maps  been  correct,  he 
would  have  alighted  on  the  glacier  of  Tour  within  the  frontier  of 
Savoy ;  but  in  effect  he  found  himself  on  the  glacier  of  Saleua  in 
Swiss  territory. 

The  western  portion  of  the  chain  of  Mont  Blanc  next  engaged 
his  attention.  He  was  enabled  by  his  extraordinary  activity,  and 
his  skill  in  mountain  drawing,  to  lay  down  with  an  accuracy  for 
beyond  any  thing  previously  attained  in  that  quarter,  the  whole 
wMteni  ood  southeru  faces  of  the  chain,  with  the  numerous  vast 
glaciers  which  intersect  these.  On  the  whole,  the  position  of  about 
200  points  was  fixed  by  the  theodolite,  the  position  of  one  or  two 
fundamental  stations  (especially  of  Mont  Joli)  having  been  ob- 
tained from  the  French  eDgineers. 

VOL.  V.  2  T 


DvGooglc 


338  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

In  the  sammer  of  1864,  Ur  Bailly  revisited  the  ohaiD  of  Mont 
Blano  with  hla  map  and  theodolite,  and  was  able  to  improve  the 
former  at  several  points  formerly  obecure,  particularly  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  southern  glacier  of  Miage,  He  gfuned  great 
additional  insight  into  the  details  of  the  very  heart  of  the  wildest 
parts  of  the  range  by  aecending,  all  for  the  first  time,  three  lofty 
peaks  previously  unattaioed,  the  Aiguille  d'Argenti^re  and  the  Mod- 
delant  to  the  eastward,  and  the  magnificent  Aiguille  ds  Trelat^te, 
which  closely  approaches  Uont  Blanc  on  the  south-west.  In 
addition  to  this,  be  traversed  this  most  diEBcuIt  chain  in  two  new 
direotions  from  the  Jardin  to  the  Glacier  of  Triolet  on  the  Italian 
side,  and  again  from  the  Col  de  Uiage  to  the  glacier  of  Bossons  by 
the  Ddme  de  Qout6. 

Altogether,  Ur  Beilly  has  achieved  the  remarkable  distinction 
of  presenting  for  the  first  time  to  the  eye  of  the  tourist  and  the 
physical  gei^apher  a  correct  and  skilful  delineation  of  the  most 
remarkable  and  most  elevat«d  mountain  chain  in  Europe.  Three 
different  states,  France,  Sardinia,  and  Switzerland,  divide  the 
chain  between  them.  Of  these,  Switzerland  alone  has  given  any- 
thing to  the  world  in  the  least  degree  worthy  of  the  spot,  and  that 
unfortunately  only  embraces  a  secondary  part.  It  is  a  singular 
chance  which  has  enabled  a  British  amateur  to  produce  a  work  so 
creditable  and  so  long  desired.  Let  us  hope  that  no  delay  will 
take  place  in  its  publication. 


4,  On  the  Solution  of  Perigal'a  Problem  concemiog  the 
contact  of  Bpicycloidal  Curves.    By  E.  Sang,  Esq. 

If  the  centre  of  a  revolving  wheel  be  carried  with  a  nniform 
velocity,  along  a  line ;  and  if  a  tracing-point  be  fixed  to  an  arm  of 
the  wheel,  that  point  will  trace  out  a  curved  line;  to  which  the 
general  name  cycloid  or  trochoid  has  been  given ;  the  former  appel- 
lation being  often  restricted  to  those  cases  in  which  the  centre  of 
the  wheel  moves  in  a  straight  line,  while  the  name  ^icycloid  is 
given  when  the  same  centre  moves  along  the  circumference  of  a 
circle. 

When  the  tracing-point  is  placed  very  close  to  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  the  cnrve  is  slightly  undulated ;  the  depth  of  the  waves, 


DvGooglc 


of  EdinhuTgh,  Session  1861-65.  339 

ether  things  remaioing  the  same,  JDcreasea  with  the  diatance  of  the 
trMing-point  from  the  oeotre.  Ad  that  distaDce  is  angmented  the 
onrve  at  last  becomes  onsped  aa  in  the  oommon  cycloid  tnced  hy  a 
nail  in  the  tire  of  a  cart  wheel.  If  the  distance  of  the  ttaciog-point 
be  still  farther  augmented,  the  cycloid  becomes  looped ;  the  loopa 
become  wider,  and  come  each  to  touch  that  loop  adjacent  to  it  on 
either  aide. 

Hr  Perigal's  problem  is,  to  determine  the  conditions  nnder  which 
this  contact  of  the  loops  takes  place. 

If  the  arm  of  the  revolving  wheel  be  stili  farther  lengthened,  the 
loops  come  to  tonch  those  removed  from  them  by  two,  by  three,  or 
by  any  number  of  steps,  so  that  the  problem  may  admit  of  many 
tolutions. 

Hr  Perigal  has  obtained  the  solntton  of  this  problem  in  a  oon- 
atderable  variety  of  cases,  by  help  of  mechanical  appliances,  and 
has  exhibited  them  in  his  beautiful  series  of  machine-engraved  epi- 
cycloids, or  bi-circloida,  as  he  calls  them. 

The  most  compreheoBive  view  of  the  genesis  of  epicyclindal 
ourvee  is  obtained  by  supposing  two  arms,  OA  and  OB,  to  turn  with 
uniform  velocities  on  a  com- 
mon centre  0,  just  as  do  the 
two  hands  of  a  watch,  and 
by  supposing  the  rhomboid 
OAPB  completed  at  each 
instant;  the  point  F  then 
traces  an  epicycloid. 

If  the  angular  velocities  of 
the  two  arms  be  repieeented 
by  B  and  p,  while  the  lengths 
are  A  and  B,  the  directions 
of  these  anns  at  any  instant 
of  time  t,  are  lepresented  by 
lit  and  pt.  It  is  shown  that  ^# 
if  T  be  the  time  cortespond- 
ing  to  the  contact  of  one  loop  with  another,  we  must  have  the  pro- 
portions 

a  ;  )S  ;  :  tan  oT  ;  tan  ;5T 
A  :  R  :  :  sin  |9T  :  sin  oT 


j.Googlc 


310  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

BO  that  the  eolution  of  the  problem  reeolves  iteelf  iuto  that  of  thii 
trigonometrical  question,  "  To  find  imo  oircnUar  am  in  a  given  roiio 
and  of  which  the  tattgtnit  are  in  the  tatne  ratio." 

The  solntion  of  this  queBtion,  again,  lesolves  itaeU  into  that  of 
algebraic  equations  of  the  order  Ka+i3  — 3)  or  ^a-i-$—i},  vhea 
a  and  /3  are  represented  by  integer  numbers  prime  to  each  other. 
A  table  of  the  solutions  for  all  possible  values  of  a  aod  ^up  to  ten 
is  given ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  these  solutions  apply  vbether 
the  motions  of  the  two  arms  be  in  the  same  or  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. 

The  problem  ia  then  extended  to  the  case  of  the  common  cycloid 
in  which  the  centre  of  the  revolving  wheel  moves  along  a  straight 
line.  Here  it  is  shown  that  we  have  to  discover  those  arcs  which 
are  equal  in  length  to  their  own  taugents ;  and  that  the  revolving 
arm  must  be  made  proportional  to  the  secants  of  these  arcs.  A 
table  of  the  first  ten  solutions  is  appended  to  the  paper. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  duly  elected  Ordinary 
Fellows  of  the  Society. 

Alfked  R.  Cattoh,  BJt. 
Rev,  PsANcts  Rkdfobd,  M.A. 

The  following  Donatious  to  the  Library  were  laid  on  the 
table. 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Pathological  Specimens,  contained  in 

the  Museum  of  the  Boyal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England. 

London.    Supplement  II.  4to. — From  the  Council  o/tfieCoUegt. 
The  Stereoscope,  its  History,  Theory,  and  Construction,  with  its 

application  to  the  Fine  and  Useful  Arts,  and  to  Education.    By 

Sir  David  Brewster,  E.H.,  D.C.L.,  &c.    I^ondon,  1856.    8vo. 

— From  the  Author. 
The  Kaleidoscope,  its  History,  Theory,  and  Construction,  with  its 

application  to  the  Fine  and  Useful  Arts.     By  Sir  David 

Brewster,  E.H.,  D.C.L.,  &c.    Second  Edition.    London,  1858. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
A  Treatise  on  New  Philosophical  Instruments  for  various  purposes 

in  Arte  and  Sciences,  with  Experiments  on  Light  and  Colour. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  S41 

By  Darid   Brewster,   LLJ).      2   Vols.     Edinburgh,   1813. 

8to. — From  the  Author. 
Photo-Lithographic  ImpreBsiona  of  Traces  product  Bimultaneously 

by  the  Self- recording  U&gnetograpbs  at  Kew  and  Lisbon 

(Atlas). — From  tha  Royal  Society,  London. 
Proceedings  of  the  British  Ueteorological  Society.    London.    Vol. 

II.  No.  15.     8vo.— fnm  tAe  Soci^. 
The  Journal  of  Agricnltnre,  and  Transactions  of  the  Highland 

and  AgrionUnral  Society  of  Scotland.    Edinburgh.    No.  87. 

January  1865. — From  the  Society, 
The  Canadian  Jonmal  of  Industry,  Scienoe,  and  Art.     Toronto. 

New  Series,  Nob,  53,  54.     8vo. — From  Ae  Canadian  Intiitute. 
Srsrigea  Geologiska  UudBrsokiiing  pa  Offentlig  Bekostnad  TJtford 

nnder  Ledning.    Af  A.  Erdmann.    Nob.  6-13.    Stockholm. 

8to.     With  Atlas.— JVom  the  Avthor. 
Bendicoato  della  Beale  Accademia  di  Aroheologia,  Lettere  e  Belle 

Arti.    Napoli.    Anno  1864.    4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Sitzungsherichte  der  Eonigl.  bayer.  Akademie  der  Wiesenecbaften 

ZQ  miinchen.    Hefte  I.  III.  Y.    8to. — From  the  Academy. 
Bede  gehalten  in  der  Festsitzung  dei  kbnig.  Akademie  der  Wis- 

senschaften  zn  MQncfaen  am  30  Uarz  1664.     Von  T.  t. 

Dollinger.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
UebeiBichten  der  Wittemng  in  Oesterreich  nnd  Einigeos  auswarti- 

gen  Stationen   im  Jahre   1859.     Zusammengestellt  von  C. 

Lanrent.    Wien,  1861.    4to.— i'Vom  the  Author. 


Monday,  Ifith  January  1865. 

Sir  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  id  the  Chair. 

The  following  CommunicationB  were  read : — 

1.  Exhibition  of  Three  Skulls  of  the  Gorilla,  received  from 
M.  Du  Chaillu,  with  Observations  relative  to  their  Ana- 
tomical Features.    By  Dr  Burt  and  Mr  W.  Turner. 

After  placing  on  the  table  a  series  of  three  crania  of  the  gorilla 
{Troglodyte*  gorilla),  which  he  had  a  short  time  ago  received  from 


DvGooglc 


342  Proceedings  of  the  Boytd  Society 

U.  JDu  Ohaillu,  Dr  Burt  proceeded  to  telate  to  the  Society  BeTeral 
facta,  recently  come  to  light,  in  support  of  Torioua  of  the  statementB 
of  th&t  traveller  vhich  had  been  called  in  question.  He  allnded 
to  the  doubts  which  hod  been  cast  on  several  of  the  statements  of 
M.  Du  Ghaillu,  and  to  the  uncourteous  treatment  he  had  leceiTed 
at  the  hands  of  some  of  his  detractors,  and  enumerated  some  of  the 
proofs  since  produced  by  that  gentleman,  which  are  now  to  be 
found  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the  possession  of  men  of 
distinction  in  science,  illustrative  of  the  natural  history  and  the 
habits  of  the  people  of  Equatorial  Africa,  which  confirmed  the 
Teiacity  of  that  gentleman's  observations.  The  last  letters  received 
from  U.  Du  Ghaillu  were  written  from  Femand  Taz  previous  to 
his  departure  for  the  interior. 

Id  giving  an  account  of  the  anatomical  features  of  the  crania 
which  Dr  Burt  had  entrusted  to  him  for  examination,  Iilr  Turner 
stated,  that  as  the  elaborate  memoirs  of  Professor  Owen,  Dr  Wyman, 
MH.  DuTomoy  and  I.  6.  St  Hilaire,  were  within  the  reach  of 
every  comparative  anatomist,  it  was  needless  for  him  to  go  into  any 
detailed  description  of  the  characters  of  the  skull  of  the  gorilla. 
But  as  the  crania  were  those  of  an  adult  male,  an  adult  female,  and 
a  young  female,  it  might  be  interesting  to  record  the  specific  and 
sexual  characters,  and  the  differences  between  the  yonng  and  adult 
forms,  and  so  assist  in  establishing  the  relative  constancy  and 
variability  of  some  of  the  most  important  anatomical  features. 
The  skulls  of  an  adult  male  and  female,  and  a  younger  chimpanzee 
(TroghdyUi  niger),  were  at  the  same  time  exhibited,  and  compared 
with  those  of  the  gorilla.*  The  description,  unless  when  otherwise 
stated,  applied  to  crania  personally  examined. 

In  size,  the  skulls  of  the  adult  male  and  female  gorilla  were 
larger  than  those  of  the  corresponding  sex  in  the  chimpanzee,  and 
the  adalt  female  gorilla  was  larger  than  the  adult  male  chimpanzee. 

*  The  eianla  of  the  adult  male  and  jouDger  ohlmpsiiizee  are  in  the  Anato- 
mical  Hiuenm  of  the  Uuiveratty ;  that  of  the  adnlt  female  is  in  the  powendoD 
nf  Dr  John  Aleiandei  Smith.  To  the  odnlt  and  apparently  aged  chimponxee 
ctaoia  the  antvrM  were  all  oBsilled.  In  the  jontiger  animal,  although  all  the 
permanent  teeth  hod  erupted,  yet  the  eutnree  of  the  cranial  vault  were  anoni' 
fled,  aud  the  bael-oranial  Bynchondtoiis,  though  owiQed.  had  its  position 
marked  by  a  trantvene  bony  lidge. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Station  1804-65.  343 

The  maBBiTeQeu  of  the  supra-  and  inter-orbital  ridgea,  and  their 
greftter  size  even  in  the  female  gorilla  than  in  the  male  chimpanzee, 
and  the  inflaence  which  their  great  elevation  exeroised  in  conceal* 
iog  the  frontal  part  of  the  cranial  vanlt,  Tare  pointed  out :  only 
in  the  young  gorilla,  and  that  very  slightly,  did  the  frontal  vault 
come  into  view,  when  the  skull  was  looked  at  from  befoie;  in  all 
the  three  chimpanzee  cisnta  the  frontal  vault  could  be  seen  from 
that  point  of  view.  The  sagittal  and  occipital  crests  were  abso- 
lutely and  relatively  larger  in  the  adult  male  than  in  the  female 
gorilla.  These  three  maaaive  ridges  mounted  up  and  converged  at 
the  summit  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  cranium.  The  original 
bilaterality  of  the  sagittal  crest  was  marked  in  the  male  by  a  median 
depression  in  its  anterior  third,  subdividing  it  into  two  parallel 
ridgM ;  and  quite  at  its  posterior  end  it  bifurcated,  where  it  became 
continnons  with  the  two  halves  of  the  lambdoidal  crest,  and  when 
seen  fiom  the  basal  aspect,  it  seemed  like  a  beak  in  the  centre  of 
the  rounded  occipital  outline.  The  great  projection  of  the  lambdoidal 
crest  rendered  the  under  surface  of  the  occipital  bone  concave, 
though  it  was  traversed  by  strong  ridgee,  evidently  for  the  attach- 
ment of  powerful  muscles.  The  posterior  margin  of  the  foramen 
magnum  was  3J  inches  from  the  posterior  end  of  the  sagittal 
crest.  In  the  female  the  sagittal  crest  was  very  little  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  conjoined  parietals :  the  lambdoidal  crests 
were  much  smaller  than  in  the  male  gorilla,  but  larger  than  in  the 
male  chimpanzee ;  the  occipital  outline  rounded,  but  with  no  central 
projecting  beak.  In  the  young  gorilla  the  two  temporal  lidges  did 
not  meet  in  the  middle  line ;  at  their  point  of  closest  approximation 
they  were  one  inch  apart ;  hence  there  was  no  sagittal  crest.  The 
occipital  crest  was  feeble,  and  was  joined  somewhat  more  than  one 
inch  to  the  outer  side  of  the  middle  line  by  the  faintly -marked 
temporal  ridge.  Occipital  outline  rounded,  under  surface  of  the  bone 
convex,  approaching  in  form  to  that  of  the  chimpanzee  ;  posterior 
margin  of  foramen  magnum  1'9  inch  from  centre  of  the  occipital 
crest.  In  all  the  three  chimpanzee  crania  the  temporal  ridges 
nevei  coalesced :  in  the  adult  male,  in  which  they  most  closely 
approximated,  their  nearest  points  were  upwards  of  an  inch  apart. 
In  the  adult  male  and  female  gorilla  the  cranial  sutures  wero 
almoat  entirely  obliterated.    In  the  young  animal  they  were  all 


j.Googlc 


344  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

vei;  distinct.  The  ali-apbenoid  was  pointed  Huperiofly,  and  eepa- 
rated  from  the  parietal  b;  the  artionlation  of  the  i^namoua  part  of 
the  temporal  with  the  frontal.  This  arrangement  was  also  traced 
in  the  chimpanzee,  and  seems  to  be  the  rule  ia  the  craaia  of  these 
anthropoid  apes.  In  the  orang,  on  tb«  other  hand,  the  articnlation 
of  the  ali-sphenoid  saperiorly  varied  in  different  specimens.  Of  four 
crania  examined, — in  one  the  ali-sphenoid  on  each  side  articnlated 
with  the  corresponding  parietal;  in  one  a  tongue-sbaped  procesi 
of  the  squamous  part  of  the  temporal  articulated  with  the  frontal, 
and  out  off  the  ali-sphenoid  from  the  parietal ;  whilst  in  the  other 
two  crania,  the  ali-sphenoid  articulated  with  the  parietal  on  ous 
side  of  the  sknll  only,  for  on  the  other  aide  a  tongue-shaped  process 
of  the  temporal  was  intercalated  between  them.  In  two  crania  of 
the  gibbon,  again,  a  well-marked  articulation  existed  between  the 
ali-sphenoid  and  the  parietal  on  both  sides  of  each  skull ;  whilst  in 
a  third,  on  the  left  side,  a  narrow  tongne  of  the  temporal,  reach- 
ing the  frontal,  was  intercalated  between  the  ali-sphenoid  and  the 
parietal,  and  on  the  right  side  the  tongue  of  the  temporal  projected 
into,  but  not  quite  across,  the  ali-sphenoid,  so  that  the  latter  was 
still,  thoogh  slightly,  in  communication  with  the  parietal.  If  the 
tongue  of  the  temporal  had  passed  quite  across  the  ali-sphenoid, 
then  the  upper  end  of  this  bone  would  have  been  cut  off,  and  would 
have  formed  a  triquetral  bone  in  the  temporo-parietal  suture.  In 
man,  the  rule  is  for  the  ali-sphenoid  to  articulate  with  the  anterior 
inferior  angle  of  the  parietal,  and  thus  to  cut  off  the  fronts  from 
the  squamosal ;  but  exceptions  not  nnfrequently  occur,  and  crania 
seen  by  the  author  were  referred  to,  not  only  in  the  N^ro,  Hot- 
tentot, Gaffrc,  Bushman,  Sandwich  Islander,  and  Australian  races, 
but  also  in  Hindoos,  Ceylonese,  and  Europeans  (French,  Scotch^ 
in  which  a  tongue-like  process  of  the  squamosal  passed  between 
the  ali-sphenoid  and  parietal  to  articulate  with  the  frontal.* 

*  Although  it  would  appear  ttom  an  eiamiuatioii  of  a  eoDsiderable  number 
of  crania  of  old-world  maDke;B  that  the  rale  it  in  them  for  a  tongno-sliaped 
piocen  of  the  temporal  to  arlienlate  with  the  fiontal,  and  conseqnentlj  la  cut 
off  the  sli-Bphenoid  from  the  parietal,  jet  sureral  crania  hSTe  been  noted  in 
which  the  ali-aphenoid  and  parietal  had  a  wsU-mftrked  artioulation  with  each 
other.  Bomo  of  these  ikalla  had  nnfortnnatel;  not  been  named,  and  it  wu 
difflcnlt  eiactl;  to  identify  then  ;  but  in  a  akoll  of  StmtiopMtau  ertiiUui,  and 
In  one  of  Maeaeiu  ^noptotgut,  the  ali-apheDoid  articnlated  on  both  aide*  with 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinhirgh,  Semon  1864-65.  345 

In  tbe  young  gorilla,  the  squamous  part  of  the  occipital  bone 
curved  upwards  and  forwuda  for  more  than  one  inch  bejond  the 
radimentary  occipital  crest,  and  contributed  therefore  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  posterior  part  of  the  vault  of  the  skull.  In  the  adult 
animal  the  whole  of  this  part  of  the  bone  was  overlaid  with  the 
boDj  growth  met  with  at  the  junction  of  the  sagittal  and  occipital 
crests.  Tbe  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  two  sides  of  the 
lambdoidal  autnte  was  well  marked  in  the  young  gorilla.  In  the 
younger  chimpanzee  a  email  fontanelle  bone  existed  at  each  of  tbe 
two  eztiemities  of  the  sagittal  snture,*  the  squamous  part  of  the 
occipital  bone  scarcely  extended  above  tbe  rudimentary  oocipital 
crest,  and  the  lambdoidal  sutare  passed  across  the  back  of  the  head 
in  a  line  approaching  much  more  closely  to  the  horizontal  than  in 
the  gorilla.  The  baai-craoial  synchondrosis  was  ossified  in  the  adult 
animals,  but  not  in  the  young  gorilla.  The  zygomatic  arches  and 
mastoid  processes  closely  corresponded  with  the  descriptions  given 
by  Professor  Owen.  In  the  adnlt  male  and  young  gorilla  the  eusta- 
chian process  of  the  petrosal  (marked  «  in  Owen's  figure,  plate 
Iziii.)  was  little  more  than  a  well-marked  tubercle ;  hut  in  the  adult 
female  it  was  prolonged  downwards  for  half  an  inch  as  a  well- formed 
styliform  proccBS. 

the  parietal ;  and  though  lu  two  crania  of  Cyuocepholi  the  temporal  and 
fiontat  articulated,  yet  in  a  third,  whilit  Ibej  articulated  on  tbe  right  aide, 
on  the  left  tbe  ali-aphenotd  joined  the  parietal.  la  crania  of  the  following 
American  monbeja. — Atelea,  CebuB,  Hapale, — the  parietal  bone  not  o&lj  artj- . 
culated  with  tho  ali-sphenold,  but  with  the  protuberant  malar  bone.  Varioua 
anatomista  (Owen,  Humphry,  &c.)  baTe  referred  to  Negro  aud  Australian  crania 
in  vhich  tbe  temporal  and  frontal  articninted,  Barnard  Davis  has  also  figured 
an  Anglo-Saxon  skull  from  Ozingoll,  Kent  (Crania  Britannica,  pi.  88),  in 
which  tbe  same  arrangement  occurred.  From  tbe  number  of  human  crania 
referred  to  in  the  teit  In  which  this  articulation  was  seen,  it  may  apparently 
QKist  [□  the  skulls  of  any  race  aa  ad  individual  peculiarity.  Tbe  triquetral 
bone,  not  nnfreqnently  met  with  in  the  sphenoi do-parietal  suture  by  teparating 
these  bones  from  each  other,  mny  be  regarded  as  an  approximation  to  this 
arrangement.  Tbe  occasional  occurrenoe,  therefore,  of  the  articulation  of  tho 
frontal  with  the  squamous  part  of  tbe  temporal  bone  in  human  skulls,  and 
the  extent  of  variation  the  ali-sphenoidal  articulation  exhibits  in  the  crania 
of  apes,  givea  to  this  featote  but  little  value  in  the  discrimination  of  the  diag- 
nostic characters  between  the  crania  of  men  and  monkeys. 

*  Dr  Traill  and  ProfesBor  Uwen  obserted  in  each  of  the  crania  of  three 
young  chimpanzeea,  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  sagittal  suture,  s 
VOL.  V. 


,,.,  Google 


346  ProceedingB  of  the  Soyal  Society 

The  anterior  noatrils  in  the  gorilla  in  form  approached  a  font-' 
aided  figure,  with  the  angles  rounded  off.  The  boundary  between 
the  nostril  inferiorly,  and  the  alveolsr  part  of  the  premaxilln  was 
not  very  sharply  defined.  In  the  young  gorilla,  also,  the  laterai 
boundaries  formed  by  the  ascendiog  processes  of  the  premaxillse 
were  much  more  rounded  than  in  the  adult.  In  the  chimpanzee  the 
anterior  nares  were  triangular  in  form.  The  difference  rn  shape  in 
these  two  species  of  anthropoid  apes  was  due  to  the  different  mode 
of  termination  of  the  ascending  processes  of  the  premaxillse  si^- 
riorly ;  and  as  this  is  a  character  on  which  Professor  Owea  has  laid 
great  stress,  it  is  as  well  to  note,  that  in  all  these  gorilla's  crania, 
as  in  those  which  he  has  described,  the  upper  end  of  the  ascending 
process  of  each  premaxilla  was  intercalated  as  a  triangular  plate  of 
bone  between  the  nasal  and  superior  maxilla.  This  could  be  readily 
traced  both  in  the  young  skull  and  in  that  of  the  adult  male,  in 
which  the  naso-  and  maxillo-premaxillary  sutures  were  visible,  and 
in  the  adult  female  though  the  sutures  were  ossified,  for  lines  on 
the  bones  indicated  their  original  position.  In  the  skull  of  the 
younger  chimpanzee,  in  which  alone  the  sutures  persisted,  and  that, 
too,  only  at  the  ascending  part  of  the  premaxilla,  the  upper  pointed 
end  of  that  bone  articulated  with  the  lower  end  of  the  naso),  and 
was  not  intercalated  between  it  and  the  superior  masilla.* 

In  the  gorillas'  crania  the  nasal  bones  were  narrow,  compressed, 
and  projecting  superiorly,  and  raised  along  their  line  of  coalescence 
into  a  crest.  In  the  young  animal  it  could  be  seen  that  they  pro- 
jected upwards  into  the  interorbital  process  of  the  frontal;  and 
in  this  specimen  a  line,  looking  at  first  like  a  suture,  bnt  really 
only  a  groove,  probably  for  an  arlei;  or  a  nerve,  seemed  to  cut  off 

*  In  the  crania  of  the  orangsandof  the  gibbona  an  urangementof  the  appei 
end  of  the  preinaiiUn,  cloaelj  aimiliu'  to  that  described  in  the  chimpanzee, 
waa  leen.  In  only  one  akull  of  the  oraug  did  a  linear  process  of  the  pTsmaiilln 
paaa  upwaida  for  i^tha  of  an  inch  between  the  nasal  and  superior  maiilit. 
Hence  the  intercalated  tiiangulaf  plate  at  the  apper  end  of  the  premaxilla  of 
the  gorilla  IB  valnable  as  a  diagnostic  character  to  dislingalsh  the  sknllof  that 
BDimal  not  onlj  from  the  ekull  of  the  chimpanzee,  but  from  those  of  the  olber 
anthropoid  apes.  In  the  mode  of  termination,  however,  of  its  premaxilla 
Bnperiorl;  the  gorilla  cloaety  corresponds  vith  the  arrangement  seen  in  the 
flkullB  of  many  of  the  tailed  apes,  e.  g.,  CjnocephaluB,  Semnopithecus,  Cerco- 
pitbecu*. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  347 

the  moie  expanded  iuteroibital  port  from  tbe  uanower  oreet-like 
portion.*    In  the  chimpaozee  the  nasal  region  was  mnch  flattened. 

The  interorbital  legion  vaa  in  the  gorilla  wider  near  the  floor 
than  the  roof  of  the  orbit,  and  the  foasa  for  the  lachrymal  eac  waa 
directed  forwards.  In  the  chimpanzee  there  waa  little  difTeience 
in  the  width  of  the  interorbital  region  at  the  floor  and  at  the  roof, 
the  foBsa  for  the  lachrymal  eac  wae  directed  outwards,  and  was  con- 
cealed by  the  sharp  edge  of  the  inner  end  of  the  lower  margin  of 
the  orbit.  In  the  gorilla  the  os  planum  of  the  ethmoid  was  an 
elongated  triangular  plate  of  bone :  in  the  young  akull  its  apex  did 
not  reach  the  lachrymal  bone,  so  that  the  orbital  plate  of  the 
superior  maxilla  articulated  with  the  fiontaL  In  the  adult  crania 
tbe  ossa  plana  articulated  with  the  lachrymal  bonee.f 

In  all  the  crania  of  tbe  gorillas  tbe  infra-orbital  canals,  as  was 
first  noticed  by  Agassiz,  shallowed,  and  almost  disappeared  as  they 
approached  the  sphe do- maxillary  fissures :  in  the  chimpanzee  they 
remained  deep  throughout,  and  in  tbe  male  were  quite,  and  in  the 
younger  animal  almost,  bridged  over  by  a  plate  of  bone  posteriorly. 

Owing  to  the  comparative  straightness  of  the  alveolar  portion  of 
the  piemaxill»,  and  tbe  more  elevated  and  elongated  nasal  bones 
of  tbe  gorilla,  tbe  profile  outline  of  its  face  may  be  represented  by 
a  much  more  direct  line  than  is  possible  in  tbe  chimpanzee,  in 
which  the  deep  nasal  depression,  lying  between  tbe  interorbital 
and  alveolar  projections,  gives  a  deeply  concave  character  to  the 
profile  outline.  In  tbe  profile  view  of  all  these  gorillas'  crania,  not 
only  was  the  outline  of  the  nasal  bones  visible,  but  the  lachrymal 
fossa,  and  a  portion  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit  behind  the  fossa. 

In  the  skulls  of  the  gorilla  tbe  emargjnate  form  of  tbe  posterior 

■  Dr  W}[QB.n  Btates  that  in  the  crania  ha  has  eiumined  there  are  iodica- 
tioDB  of  e.  Butnro  sopBrating  the  lower  part  of  the  oaealt  from  the  mter-orbital 
part,  the  latter  of  which  he  looks  upoD  ae  an  additional  oeaeons  element  in- 
tercalated between  tbe  fnintals.  Maf  not  Buch  a  gioove  bb  the  one  described 
in  the  leit  have  been  regarded  ae  a  suture  ? 

t  So  far  as  could  be  judged  from  the  skull  of  the  jounger  chimpanzee,  in 
that  animal  the  ethmoid  did  not  articulate  with  the  lachrymal  b;  its  anterio 
margin,  the  superior  maiillar;  and  frontal  having  processeB  intercalated 
between.  In  the  orangs  and  gibbons,  again,  the  ossa  plana  were  quadrilateral 
plates,  and  articulated  hj  their  anterior  margins  with  the  |iosterior  margins 
of  th.?  lachrymal  bones. 


DvGooglc 


348  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

marfpn  of  the  hard  palate  was  well  seeo.  Id  the  male  gorilla,  Uie 
depth  of  the  poeterior  Dares  was  almost  twice  as  great  as  the  breadth : 
in  the  female  the  vertical  diameter  was  not  so  great  as  the  tnns- 
verse.  In  the  young,  one  diameter  almost  eqn&Ued  the  other.  In 
the  adult  male,  and  jrounger  chimpanzee,  the  breadth  exceeded  the 
depth ;  in  the  female  the  two  diameters  were  equal.  The  ratio  of 
depth  to  breadth  at  these  orifices  was  not,  therefore,  so  definite  ae  in 
the  skulls  described  by  Professors  Owen  and  Wyman. 

In  the  lower  jaws  the  following  leading  characters  were  noted : — 
Absence  of  chin ;  backward  and  downward  slope  of  jaw  from  its 
incisive  margin ;  presence  of  a  stiong  buttress  of  bone  on  the  inner 
aspect  of  sjrmpbysia ;  passage  of  horizontal  into  ascending  ramns 
by  a  gentle  curve ;  alveolar  margins  for  molar  and  premolar  teeth 
almost  parallel ;  long  axes  of  condyles  almost  transverse. 

In  the  skull  of  the  young  gorilla  various  points  itlustratiag  pecu- 
liarities in  the  dentition  were  noticed.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  per- 
manent incisors  had  emerged,  the  central  pair  being  larger  than 
the  lateral  pair.  The  milk  canines  were  ehed,  but  the  apices  of  the 
permanent  canines  bad  only  reached  the  orifices  of  their  alveoli,  the 
teeth  being  still  buried  in  the  jaw ;  the  septum  originally  situated 
between  the  sockets  for  the  temporary  and  permanent  canines  was 
in  a  great  measure  absorbed :  the  diastema  between  the  lateral  in- 
cisor and  canine,  so  strongly  marked  in  the  adult  male  and  female, 
but  more  especially  in  the  former,  had  not  jret  originated ;  the 
septum  between  the  sockets  for  those  teeth  was  but  little  thicker 
than  that  between  the  alveoli  for  the  lateral  and  central  incisor, 
and  the  maxi I lo-prem axillary  suture  passed  along  the  middle  line 
of  this  septum.*  The  premolars  had  each  two  cusps,  the  external 
of  the  anterior,  and  the  internal  of  the  posterior  being  the  larger: 
each  premolar  had  three  fangs,  a  larger  internal  and  two  smaller 

*  Id  the  formatioQ  of  the  diastema  in  the  crania  of  some  apee,  it  woal<l 
appear  as  if  the  premaiilla  and  the  canine  portion  of  the  auperioi  maxiltarj' 
bone  participated  in  an  eqoal  degree,  for  the  maiillo. prem axillary  Butn re  wa* 
mostly  Hituatcd,  in  the  adult  jaw,  about  midway  between  the  canine  and 
lateral  inciaor  teeth.  In  others,  hawever,  e.  3..  several  cynocephali,  the  suture 
vaa  placed  much  nearer  the  canine  tooth,  and  the  interval  waa  occaaioned  by 
an  increased  growth  of  Ihe  prcmaxilla  between  that  suture  and  the  sockel  Tot 
the  lateral  incisor. 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Sesnon  1664-65.  349 

est«mal.  In  the  chimpanzee  CTania  the  faogs  of  the  premolars 
diffeied  eomenhat  from  thoae  of  the  gorilla,  for  though  each  of  the 
first  pair  posiessed  three  fangs,  thoae  of  the  second  had  only  two 
fangs,  an  external  and  an  internal ;  and  in  this  respect,  therefore, 
they  presented  a  closer  approximation  to  the  arraDgement  of  the 
fangs  of  the  premolaiB  in  man  than  did  the  gorilla. 

Id  the  young  gorilla  the  first  and  second  piurs  of  tme  molars 
were  fully  erupted ;  each  tooth  was  quadricuspid  ;  the  anterior  in- 
ternal was  connected  to  the  posterior  external  cusp  by  on  oblique 
ridge.    The  third  true  molars  were  concealed  within  their  alveoli. 

Id  the  lower  jaw  of  the  young  gorilla  the  permanent  incisors 
were  erupted  :  the  left  milk  canine  was  in  its  socket,  and  close  1o 
it,  on  its  lingual  side,  was  a  foramen  which  led  into  a  canal  that 
communicated  with  the  crypt  containing  the  pennaneDt  canine ; 
the  foramen  and  canal  marked  the  position  of  the  gubemaculum.. 
The  right  milk  canine  was  shed,  but  the  permanent  tooth  was  deep 
in  its  alveolus,  and  the  bony  septum  between  the  socket  for  the 
milk  tooth  and  the  gubemacular  canal  was  still  unabsorbed.  The 
diastema  which  existed  on  each  side  of  the  canine,  but  more  espe- 
cially on  the  premolar  aspect  in  the  adult  crania,  had  not  been  de- 
veloped in  the  j'ouDg  skull.  The  first  pair  of  premolars  was  con- 
siderably larger  than  the  second,  each  tooth  possessed  an  anterior 
and  a  posterior  fang.  The  first  and  second  pairs  of  true  molars 
were  erupted,  each  tooth  was  quinquecuspid ;  the  third  pair  of  true 
molars  was  still  concealed  within  the  jaw.  The  eruption  of  the 
permanent  canines  in  the  upper  jaw  precedes,  therefore,  theit  ap- 
pearance in  the  lower  jaw ;  but  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  maxillEB 
the  permanent  caniaes  follow  in  their  eruption  the  fitst  and  second 
pairs  of  true  molars. 

Tbe  internal  capacity  of  the  crania  wos  as  follows : — 


Adult  male  gorilla,     . 
Adult  female     „ 
Young  female  „ 
Adult  male  cbimjianzec, 
Adult  female        „ 
Younger  „ 


Cubic  Inches. 

28- 

265 


DvGooglc 


350  Pfoceedin^s  of  the  Roytd  Society 

Extieme  letigth  between  the  alveolar  margin  of  the  interm^U- 
laiy  suture  and  middle  of  lambdoidal  crest,  measured  in  a  stiaigbt 
line,  was  in  tbe  adult  male  gorilla  10-7  inches ;  in  the  adult  female, 
6-9  inches ;  in  the  young  female,  75  inches.  The  length,  mearared 
in  a  straight  line,  between  the  inteiorbital  ridge  and  the  middle  of 
the  lambdoidal  crest,  was  in  the  adult  male  gorilla  6'9  inches;  in 
the  adult  female,  6  inches;  in  the  young  female,  5'1  inchra. 

2,  Notice  of  a  Bemarkabla  Piece  of  Fosail  Amber.    By  Sir 
David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.It.S. 

Tlie  piece  of  amber,  now  on  the  table,  was  found  in  the  kingdom 
of  Ava,  and  sent  to  me  from  India  by  the  late  Mr  Geoi^  Swinton, 
to  whom  tbe  Society  was  indebted  for  many  interesting  objects  of 
natural  history  from  that  country.  It  weighs  2^  lbs.,  and  in  its 
general  aspect  teems  to  differ  considerably  from  the  ordinary  speci- 
mens of  amber.  The  remarkable  fact,  however,  which  distinguishes 
it  from  all  the  specimens  of  amber  I  have  seen  or  read  of,  is,  that 
it  is  intersected  in  varions  directions  by  thin  veins  of  a  crystallised 
mineral  substance.  These  veins  are  in  some  parts  of  it  as  thin  as 
a  sheet  of  paper,  and  in  other  parts  about  the  twentieth  of  an 
inch  thick.  In  order  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  mineral  I 
extracted  a  portion  of  the  thickest  vein,  and  having  obtained,  by 
cleavage,  a  small  rhomb,  I  succeeded  in  measuring  the  inclination 
of  its  planes,  and  found  it  to  be  carbonate  of  lime. 

Pieces  of  amber  of  2  or  3  lbs.  weight  are  very  rare.  A  specimen 
weighing  1  lb.  is  valued  in  Prussia  at  50  dollars.  The  lai^est  piece 
yet  found  is  in  the  Boyal  Museum  at  Berlin  ;  it  weighs  18  Ihs., 
and  is  said  to  be  worth  upwards  of  7000  dollars. 

3.   On  the  Cause  and  Cure  of  Cataract.     By  Sir  David 
Brewster,  K.H.,  F.K.S.  Lend,  and  Edin. 

The  author's  attention  was  called  to  this  subject  in  consequence 
of  having  had  an  attack  of  incipient  cataract  forty  years  ago.  The 
lamin.-B  of  the  lens  hxd  separated  bo  much  aa  to  exhibit  rays  of 
light,  and  the  prismatic  colours,  round  every  source  of  light.  At  the 
end  of  eight  months  the  lamina;  came  into  optical  contact,  the  ray^ 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-«5.  351 

sod  colonra  dieappeared,  and  the  eye  became  as  perfect  as  the  other, 
— a  proof  that  cataract,  in  its  incipient  stage,  may  be  diecoveied  opti- 
cally, and  may  be  cured.  During  a  Beries  of  experimeDte  on  the 
changes  in  the  cryatalltne  lenses  of  animab  after  death,  the  author 
observed  that  the  capsule  of  the  lens  transmitted  water  into  the 
lens  till  it  burst ;  and  hence  he  concluded  that  cataract  might  arise 
from  an  unhealthy  state  of  the  aqueous  humour, — hard  cataract 
from  too  much  albumen  in  the  aqueous  humour,  and  soft  cataract 
from  too  much  water.  The  aqueous  humour  should  therefore  be 
evacuated,  in  order  that  nature  might  supply  a  more  healthjr 
secretion,  or  an  artificial  aqueous  humour  should  be  injected  into 
the  aqueous  chamber, — operations  that  may  be  easily  and  safely 
performed.  The  evacuation  of  the  aqueous  humour  was  long  ago 
tried  with  safety  forty  times  on  the  same  patient,  in  the  Manchester 
Infirmary,  for  conical  cornea;  and  the  author  of  this  p&pAT  has 
learned,  since  it  was  read,  that  M.  Casimir  Spirone  of  Turin  has 
cured  numerous  cases  of  cataract  by  the  evacuation  of  the  aqueous 
humour,  repeated  thirty,  forty,  and  even  ninety  times. 


4.  On  the  Hill  Forts,  Terraces,  and  other  remains  of  the 
Earlf  Baces  in  the  South  of  Scotland.  By  W.  Chambers, 
Esq.  of  Gleuormiston. 

The  district  referred  to  included  Box  burgh  shire,  Selkirkshire, 
and  Feeblesshiie,  in  which  Mr  Chambers  had  visited  and  examined 
about  200  bill  forts.  These  ancient  works  are  found  on  the  tops 
of  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  and  are  of  different  clasees,  shewing 
a  progressive  improvement  in  construction.  Those  of  the  smaller 
kind  consist  of  one  or  two  concentric  rings  of  earth  and  stone,  with 
a  clear  space  in  the  centre,  and  measure  from  150  to  2S0  feet 
across.  Such  ore  considered  to  be  the  earliest  in  conatruction, 
and  are  at  the  least  2000  years  old,  though  they  may  have  been 
kept  in  use  later.  Their  first  constructors  were  unquestionably  the 
aboriginal  Celtic  tribes,  to  whom  they  served  as  places  of  refuge 
and  defence  in  petty  local  wars,  or  on  the  occasion  of  invasion. 
Originally,  the  entrenchments  or  rings  may  have  been  ten  to  fifteen 
feet  in  height,  but  now  lying  in  ruins  and  covered  with  sward ; 


DvGooglc 


352  Proceedings  o/the  Roycd  Society 

their  height  is  seldom  more  than  four  or  five  feet.  Between  theM 
very  ancient  forts  and  those  in  other  ports  of  Scotland  there  is  so 
little  difference,  that  they  may  all  be  imputable  to  the  eame  earlj' 
racea. 

The  hill  forts  of  a  more  advanced  kind  demonstrate  euch  ekill 
in  construction,  that  tliey  may  fairly  be  referred  to  a  period  coeval 
with  and  subaeqnent  to  the  Soman,  invasion.  Like  the  lesser 
forts,  they  are  all  circular  or  oval  in  form,  but  they  comprehend 
four  or  eves  five  concentric  entrenohments  with  deep  intervening 
ditches,  and  zigzag  entrances,  which  an  enemy  would  find  it 
difficalt  to  penetrate  in  the  face  of  a  body  of  defenders.  The 
height  of  the  still  surviving  rings  in  some  of  these  forts  b  as  much 
as  twenty-five  feet.  When  constructed,  the  walls  would  of  coarse 
be  much  higher,  and  supplemented  with  stockades  of  wood,  wattle, 
and  the  skins  of  animals,  as  was  the  case  with  the  bill  forts  of  the 
Gauls,  described  by  Csesar.  In  several  instances,  Ui  Chambers 
had  found  exterior  defences,  in  the  form  of  high  ramparts, 
making  an  irregular  sweep,  so  as  to  enclose  six  or  seven  acres. 
Such  enclosuiea  were  probably  designed  for  the  reception  of  cattle. 
Two  of  the  more  remarkable  of  these  elaborate  forts  are  Mtlkiston 
Rings,  near  Eddlestoo,  and  Hen  derl  and -hill  Btngs,  pariah  of  New- 
tands  ;  both  had  evidently  been  designed  to  guard  the  great  passes 
from  the  east — that  is,  to  stem  the  tide  of  invasion  of  Angles, 
Frisians,  and  others  approaching  from  the  German  Ocean. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  hill  forts  in  the  Bouth  of  Scotland,  the  pre- 
sent inbabitante  can  give  no  account.  Generally  they  are  spoken 
of  as  being  DaniA — a  curious  error  arising  from  a  misapprehenBion 
of  the  legendary  term  Dt'mu,  which  in  the  original  British  signified 
fortress,  and  is  still  so  applied  in  Wales.  This  word  Dinat  is 
found  under  varying  forms  in  many  ancient  languages,  and  is 
the  original  of  the  names  of  places  in  Scotland  corruptly  called 
Ttnnt'e*.  While  the  forts  in  c[uestion  are  not  Danish,  neither  are 
they  Soman,  as  is  evident  from  their  peculiar  form.  After  com- 
paring them  with  a  Roman  camp — a  ca»tra  iiativa — at  Lyne,  Mr 
Chambers  proceeded  to  describe  the  Catrail,  or  great  barricade 
which  stretches  across  the  country  from  near  Galashiels  to  the 
mountains  of  Northumberland,  a  military  work  also  designed  to 
check  invasion  from  the  east. 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinbwrgh,  Session  1864-65.  353 

He  then  gave  some  acconnt  of  the  hill  terraces  of  the  early  races, 
of  which  there  had  been  numberless  specnlatinnB ;  he  agreed  with 
recent  inquirera  in  thinking  tbat  they  were  simply  designed  for 
horticultural  and  agricultural  purposes.  Mr  Chambers,  lastly, 
drew  attention  to  the  rudely  shaped  monumental  stones  in  the 
Vale  of  Tweed,  on  which  he  had  found  no  elaborate  or  artistic 
sculptures,  such  as  occurred  in  northern  districts.  Beoent  investi- 
gations concerning  npnght  Btones  hare  happily  put  to  flight  a 
variety  of  those  mythic  legends  and  fables  which  were  at  no 
distant  date  the  reproach  and  pollution  of  oar  topographic  lite- 
rature. As  regards  the  whole  of  the  interesting  memorials  of  poet 
times  which  had  been  adverted  to,  Mr  Chambers  trusted  that  the 
Society  would  join  with  him  in  the  wish  that  land  proprietors 
wonld,  as  for  as  practicable,  make  some  effort  for  their  preserva- 
tion. 

[The  paper  was  illustrated  with  a  number  of  large  pictorial 
dravrings.] 


5.  On  the  Molecular  Constitution  of  Organic  Compounds, 
No.  I.  By  Alfred  R.  Catton,  B.A.,  Fellow  of  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy. 

The  author  stated  this  to  be  the  first  of  a  series  of  papers,  in 
which  he  intended  to  develop  in  detail  a  new  theory  of  the  mo- 
lecular constitution  of  organic  and  inorganic  compounds. 

In  this  paper  the  author  considers  the  constitution  of  the  olefines 
C^H^,  aldehyds  C„H^O^,  fatty  acids,  hydrides  of  alcohol  radicles 
C^H;,^,  alcohols  C„H^,0,j  g'yooJs  C^,.+,0,.    (C=6,  0=8.) 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

Jahresbericht  uber  die  Fortschritte  der  Chemie  und  verwandter 
Theile  anderer  Wissenschaften  fiir  1863.  II.  Heft.  Giesaen, 
1864.  Svo.—From  the  Conductors. 

Annual  Beport  for  1864  of  tbo  Geologists'  Association.     London. 
6vo. — From  the  Anodation. 
TOfc.  T.  8  4 


j.Googlc 


354  Proceedings  of  the  Boyol  Socie^ 

Monthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society.     VoL  XXV. 

No.  2.     London.     8vo. — From  the  Sodelt/. 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XXVU.  Part 

4.     LondoD.    8to. — From  the  SocMty. 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Surrey  of  India.     YoL  IIL  Fart  2. 

Vol.  IV.  Part  2.     Calcutta.     Byo.~Fmm  I^omaa  O&ttotn, 

LL.D. 
Annual  Beport  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  and  of  the 

Museum  of  Geology.  Calcutta,  1863-64.  8to. — FnmthiKme. 
Astronomical  ObeeiradoDS  made  at  the  Obeervatoiy  of  Caiii1)ridge< 

£y  the  Bev.  James  Cballis,  MA.,  F.B.S.,  &o.    Vol.  22. 

Cambridge.     4to. — From  the  Ohiervatory. 
Koogliga  Svenska  Vetenskape-AkademieDS  handllngar.     Band  IV. 

Heft  2.     Stockholm,  1862.     ito.—Frvm  the  Royal  Academy 

o/Sciences,  Stockholm. 
Meteorologiska  lakttagelser  Sverige  utgifna  af  EongL  Svenaka  Ve- 

tenskapB-Akademien  Anetallda  och  Bearbetade  under  inwende 

af  Er.   Edlund.     Band  IV.     Stockholm,  1862.    ito.—Fjtim 

the  tame. 
Oefrersigt  af  Kongl.  VeteuBkapa-Akademiens  Forhandlingar.  Band 

XX.  1863.     Stockholm,  1864.     8vo.— From  the  same, 
Memoires  de  I'Acadfimie  Imp6riale  dee  Sciences  de  St  PStersbon^. 

VII'  Serie.     Tome  V.  Noa.  2-9.     Tome  VI.  Nob.  1-12.  St 

Petersburg.     4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Bulletin  de  I'Acad^mie  Imp^rtale  des  Sciences  de  St  Pitersfconig. 

Tome  V.  Noa.  3-8.    Tome  VI.   Nob.  1-5.    Tome  VU,  Nofc 

1,  2.     St  Petershurg.     4to. — From  the  aame, 
Proceediogs  of  the  Royal  Society.     Vol.  XII.    No.  70,    IiOndoD. 

8to. — From  the  Society. 
A  New  General  Theory  of  the  Teeth  of  Wheela.      By  Edwaid 

Sang,  Hon.  r.E.S.S.A.,  &c.    Edinburgh,  1852.    8to.— /Vtwi 

the  Author. 
A  Treatise  on  the  Valuation  of  Life  Contingencies,  arranged  for 

the  use  of  Students.    By  Edward  Sang,  F.H.S.E.   Edinbnrgb, 

1864.     8vo.—From  the  Author. 
Monthly  Return  of  tho  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland,  December  1864. 

8to. — From  the  Regittrar-Oeneral. 


DvGooglc 


c/Edit^mrgh,  Semon  1864-65.  355 

BedevoeriDg  ter  AaDTaarding  van  het  ambt  vem  Buitengewooii 

Hoogleeroar  a«Q  de  Hoogeschool  te  Leiden,  den  Tijf  en  Twin- 

tigsten  September  1863,  uitgeeproken  door  Dr  D.  Biereoa  de 

HaftD.     Deventer,  1863.     8vo.— From  the  Autlior. 
Godefroid  de  Bouillon  i  BoulogDe-sur-mer,  k  Bruxelles,  et  k  Jem- 

ealem — Lettre  k  M.  le  Comte  d'Hericourt,  par  le  Baton  de 

Hody.    Brnwllefl,  1863.    Bvo.—From  the  AutJtor. 
Coup-d'oeil  am  I'Eploitation  da  la  Houille  en  Angleterre  et  bui  les 

demiers  peifectionnements  qui  y  ont  6U  introduite  par  M. 

Gnillauma  Lambert.  BrnxelleH,  1864,  8yo. — From  the  Atithor. 
ProceedingB  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.    VoL  V.    No,  1. 

London,  1865.     Svo. — From  the  Society. 
The  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  London.    Ilec«mber  1864. 

8to. — From  the  Society, 
ProceedingB  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society,  London.   Vol.  IX. 

No.  1.    &vo.—Fnm  the  Sodely. 
Jonnial  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Linnean  Society,  London.    YoL 

Vm.    No.  80,  Zoology.     Svo.— JVwn  the  Society. 


Monday,  Gth  February  1865. 

Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

At  the  request  of  the  Cotmcil  Kr  Geikie  gave  the  following 
Account  of  the  ProgreBS  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  Scot- 
land, illustrated  hy  Maps  and  Sections : — 

The  object  of  the  Geological  Survey  iB  to  aecertain  in  detail  the 
geological  etracture  of  the  United  kingdom,  and  to  publish  the 
results  in  maps,  Bections,  and  descriptive  memoirs.  The  Ordnance 
maps  form  the  groundwork  on  which  these  geological  investigations 
proceed ;  aitd  as  no  district  is  ezamiued  until  tliese  maps  are  ready, 
the  progress  of  the  Geological  Survey  is  guided  in  no  small  degree 
by  that  of  ths  Ordnance  engineers.  In  Scotland,  the  geological 
mf4>ping  has  hitherto  been  conducted  wholly  upon  the  county 
maps  on  the  scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile,  and  the  advantages  of 
BO  large  a  scale  aro  euch,  that  although  the  work  is  finally  reduced 


DvGooglc 


356  Proceedings  of  the  RoytA  Soctely 

and  published  on  the  acale  of  one  inch  to  a  mile,  no  county  is  eor- 
Teyed  until  its  eix-inch  maps  are  ready  for  nae.  By  this  meuu  « 
much  more  detailed  and  accurate  map  ia  given  than  if  all  the 
minutiffi  of  a  difficult  district  had  to  be  surveyed  upon  bo  small  a 
scale  as  that  of  one  inch  to  a  mile. 

The  survey  of  Scotland  was  begun  hy  Professor  A.  C.  Bamuy, 
the  local  director,  towards  the  close  of  1854.  East  Lothian  wu 
selected  as  the  point  of  commencement  best  suited  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  Lothian  coal-fields,  and  the  work  was  carried 
steadily  westward  from  the  older  Silurian  rocks  into  the  coal-baein. 
Much  inconvenience  arose,  however,  from  the  backward  state  d 
the  Ordnance  maps.  In  Haddingtonshire,  all  the  sheets  were  un- 
finished, and  those  of  Berwickshire  were  not  even  engraved. 
Hence  the  map  containing  the  earliest  labours  of  the  survey — the 
geology  of  East  Lothian — had  to  lie  aside  for  several  years  until 
the  Ordnance  sheets  of  Berwickshire  could  be  obtained  to  complete 
it.  The  westward  progress  of  the  survey  was  at  last  abruptly 
stopped  by  the  want  of  the  maps  of  Stirlingshire.  The  work  was 
then  transferred  to  Fife,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  that  county  and 
of  £tnroBS  was  completed  by  the  end  of  the  year  1861.  Bnt  only 
the  eastern  part  could  be  publbhed ;  nor  was  it  until  last  spring 
that  the  sheets  of  Perthshire,  still  far  from  being  complete,  were 
obtained  to  allow  of  the  Fife  work  being  finished.  That  map  is 
now  in  the  bands  of  the  engraver. 

As  no  further  advance  could  be  made  either  to  the  north  or  west, 
the  only  available  direction  was  the  south.  Accordingly,  in  the 
early  part  of  1862,  the  survey  of  Peeblesshire  and  Lanarkshire  was 
begun,  and  at  the  end  of  1863,  an  area  of  432  square  miles  was 
ready  for  the  engraver,  including  Peeblesshire,  with  parts  of  Lanark 
and  Selkirk.  On  application  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  however,  it 
was  found  that  though  all  the  sis-inch  maps  of  the  county  of 
Peebles  had  been  some  time  published,  and  an  outline  map  on  the 
one-inch  scale  was  also  engraved,  the  one-inch  shaded  map,  on  which 
the  geological  information  is  inserted,  would  not  be  ready  for  two 
years.  This  large  area,  therefore,  remains  unpublisbed,  and  cannot 
make  its  appearance  until  the  one-inch  shaded  map  is  completed. 

It  had  been  earnestly  desired  that  the  Burveys  of  the  great 
central  coal-fields  should  first  be  prosecuted,  but  the  delay  in  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  357 

completion  of  the  Ordnance  maps  made  it  at  last  neoeseary  to  stop 
altogether  the  examination  of  the  midland  counties.  The  geo- 
logical survey  wae  then,  in  the  antnmn  of  1863,  transferred  to 
Ayrshire,  of  which  the  county  Ordnance  map  is  published.  Cod- 
eiderable  progress  has  been  made  there,  and  it  is  intended  to  work 
northward  from  the  Silurian  boundary,  so  as  to  complete  the  survey 
of  the  Ayrshire  coal-fields  with  ae  much  speed  as  the  nature  of  the 
work  will  permit,* 

The  staff  of  the  Geological  Surrey  in  Scotland  has  always  been 
very  small.  For  the  first  seven  years,  there  were  only  two  geolo- 
gists, their  labours  being  aided  by  a  yearly  visit  from  Professor 
Bamsay,  and  by  the  occasional  personal  assistance  of  the  palaaou- 
tologiat.  One  of  tbem,  Mr  Howell,  whose  experience,  especially 
in  the  details  of  coal-field  surveying,  was  of  essential  service,  then 
left,  and  three  surveyors  were  successively  appointed.  Some  time, 
however,  had  Decesearily  to  elapse  before  they  were  able  to  carry 
on  independent  work.  This  they  are  now  doing ;  and  as,  in  the 
south- vest  of  Scotland,  the  Ordnance  maps  have  all  been  published, 
it  is  believed  that  the  Geological  Survey  will  now  be  enabled  to 
advance  with  greater  comfort  and  speed,  f 

Notwithstanding  the  hindrances  which  have  impeded  progress 

hitherto,  a  considerable  area  of  the  country  has  been  examined. 

The  state  of  the  survey  at  the  end  of  last  year  was  u  follows : — 

Square  Miles. 

Area  published  on  the  one-inch  scale,        .  963 

Area  engraving  on  the  one-inch  scale,        .  382 

Area  surveyed  but  not  eugraved,        .        .        1169 

Total  area  surveyed,         ,         2514 

*  It  is  right  to  state  that  the  above  remarke  ore  not  iatended  to  iinpate 
aoy  blame  to  the  waj  Id  which  the  OrdDonce  Survey  hu  been  oondncted,  bvt 
rimpl;  to  explain  trh;  the  Oeotogieal  Snrve;  has  hitherto  been  able  to  do  to 
little  in  the  great  coal-fields. 

t  Prom  what  has  been  Boid  iibova  relative  to  the  state  of  the  Ordnanee 
Snrvej,  it  will  be  seen  that  though  the  staff  of  geologiata  hw  been  small,  it 
has  been  quite  large  eaongb  for  the  nnmber  of  maiia  availabls  for  geological 
pOTpoees.  The  geologiats  have  been  all  along  treading  closel;  on  the  heels 
«f  the  Ordnance  Bnrvnyore,  and,  to  have  increased  the  staff,  would  soon  have 
brought  the  Qeological  Sarve;  to  a  stand.  What  has  been  needed  has  not 
been  more  gedogists,  but  more  maps. 


DvGooglc 


858  Proceedinga  o/the  Boyal  Society 

Beeidee  the  one-inch  maps,  however,  theie  hive  heeo  published 
detailed  maps  on  the  scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile  of  the  coal-fields 
of  Edinbni^fa,  Haddington,  and  part  of  Fife,  and  it  Is  intended  to 
continue  the  series  through  the  other  cool-baeint.  Horizontal  sec- 
tions, on  the  same  lai^  scale,  have  likewise  been  issued  ;  one  of 
these  stretches  ftom  Edinhnrgh,  throagb  Arthur  Seat  and  the 
Gailton  Hills,  to  the  coast  near  Dunbar;  two  others  cross  Ud- 
Lotbiau  to  the  Lammermnir  Hills,  showing  the  structure  of  the 
Fentland  Hills  and  of  the  Edinburgh  coal-field.  Descriptive 
memoirs  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  and  of  the  East  of 
Berwickshire  have  been  published  to  illustrate  sheets  32  and  34  of 
the  geological  map,  and  others  of  Fife  and  East  Lothian  are  in 
preparation.  A  large  collection  of  specimens  of  the  rocks  and 
fossils  of  the  Lothians,  Fife,  and  the  south-west  of  Ayrshire  has 
been  made  in  duplicate,  one  series  being  deposited  in  the  Indnstrisl 
Hiiseum,  Edinburgh,  the  other  in  the  Museum  of  the  Geologicsl 
Survey,  London. 

Among  the  scientific  results  of  the  survey,  by  which  fresh  light 
has  been  thrown  on  the  geological  structure  of  Scotland,  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  discovery  of  well-maiked  graptolitee  (ffropCo* 
lithtt  priodon  and  Diplograptvi  prittit)  among  the  Siluiiaii  rocks 
of  the  Lammermnir  chain,  shewing  that  these  strata  are  prob^ly 
the  equivalents  of  the  Llandeilo  and  Caradoc  formations  of  Wales- 
A  considerable  addition  has  likewise  been  made  to  the  known  list 
of  fossils  from  the  lower  Silurian  limestones  and  shales  of  Peebles- 
shire, while  in  Ayrshire,  a  large  suite  of  shells,  trilobites,  corals, 
and  other  organic  remains,  has  recently  been  made  from  the  lower 
and  upper  Silurian  rocks,  and  is  now  under  examination  in  the 
Uuseum,  Jermyn  Street.  The  discovery  of  a  nnmerous  group  of 
well-preserved  fossils  in  the  shales  and  mudstones  of  the  Fentland 
Hills  proved  these  strata  to  be  of  the  age  of  the  Ludlow  rocks,  a 
position  mncb  higher  than  had  before  been  given  to  them. 

In  the  Old  Bed  Sandstone,  much  intereeting  work  has  been 
accomplished.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  this  formation  in  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotiuid  is  capable  of  subdivision  into  three  Eones. 
The  lowest  of  these  is  well  seen  between  Tinto  and  the  confines  of 
Ayrshire,  It  merges  into  the  upper  Silurian  shales  of  Lesma- 
hagowi  and  is  covered  nnconformably  by  all  later  rocks.    Is  tlw 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65, 

Pentlaod  Hills,  the  Upper  SilnTian  beds 
paes  upward  into  certain  red  conglomerates     | 
and  sandstones,  vhicb  are  supposed  to  be     t 
the  base  of  the  Lower  Old  Hed  Sandstone,     t 
This  same  lover  member  of  tbe  formatioD 
occDrs  in  the  east  of  Berwickshire,  where  it 
consists,  to  a  large  extent,  of  volcanic  aeh  and 
conglomerate,  but  it  has  yielded  fragments 
of  Pteryytrfw  and  plants*    The  Ocbil  Hills 
Are  formed  of  a  series  of  felspathic  lava-beds, 
with   interatratificatioDB   of  sandstone  and 
volcanic  conglomerate,  tbe  whole  belonging 
to  tbe  Lower  Old  Bed  Sandstone.    The  struc- 
ture of  tbe  bills,  as  made  out  by  the  Survey,       k 
is  shown  in  tbe  subjoined  sketch  (fig.  l),-!-  ^ 

The  middle  division  of  the  Old  Bed  Sand-        'f 
stone  is  seen  in  the  chain  of  tbe  Fentland        e 
Hills,  where  it  consists  of  a  mass  of  coarse        g 
conglomerate  and  grit,  overlaid  with  a  great        | 
thickness  of  felspathio  lava-form  and  asby        g 
rocks.     It  lies  on  the  worn  edges  of  tbe       % 
UpperSilurian  and  of  tbe  red-coloured  strata,        Z 
which  are  supposed  to  indicate  the  bottom        _g 
of  tbe  Lower  Old  Bed  Sandstone.     No  fossils         | 
have  yet  been  detected  in  any  part  of  it,  so       ""^ 
that  no  means  exist  of  deciding  bow  far       fo 
it  represents  tbe  great  Caithness  flagstone 
series.    On  the  denuded  ends  of  tbe  rocks 
of  this  central  group  come  tbe  conglomeratea 
and  sandstones  of  the  upper  division,  which 
pass  upward  into  tbe  Carboniferous  system. 
In  tbe  accompanying  diagram   across  the 
Cairn  Hills  in  the'Pentland  Chain,  tbe  gene- 

*  See  "  The  O«ology  of  Eastern  Berwicksliire," 
Uem.  Qeol.  Survey,  p.  27. 

t  This  lectioQ  combines  in  a  geneialised  form 
the  TesDlt  of  the  surrey  made  in  concdrt  hj  mj 
coUeagnes,  Dr  John  Yoaug,  Mr  JameB  Qeikie,  ICr 
B.  N.  Peacli,  and  mi^elf. 


P 

h 
It 


.,  Google 


360  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

ral  relation  of  the  locks  between  the  GarboaiferonB  and  Uppei 
Silurian  formations  in  the  middle  of  Scotland  ia  shoini. 

Fig.  2. — Sketch -section  acroaB  the  Calm  HiUa,  PenUanils. 


The  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  has  been  mapped  bj  the  Surrey 
throughout  the  Lothiaas  and  Fife,  and  has  been  traced  southwards 
for  into  Berwickebire,  and  south-westwards  into  the  uplands  of 
Lanark.  Traces  of  contemporaneous  volcanoes  at  the  top  of  the 
Old  Bed  Sandstone  have  been  found  near  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,* 
and  near  Dunnjre  in  Lanarkshire. 

The  mapping  out  of  the  various  subdirisions  of  the  CarboniferooB 
rocke  has  opened  np  some  curious  questions  regardiug  the  ancient 
physical  geography  of  the  couutry,  and  anequal  oscillations  of  level 
during  the  Carboniferous  period.  It  has  likewise  shown  that, 
during  the  earlier  half  of  that  period,  the  basin  of  the  Forth  was 
dotted  over  with  little  volcanic  cones,  which  sometimes  threw  up 
each  its  mound  of  ash  or  current  of  lava,  and  sometimes  coalesced 
to  form  long  banks  of  volcanic  ejections,  over  which  the  limestones 
and  coals  were  slowly  elaborated.  The  subdivisions  of  this  forma- 
tion adopted  by  the  Survey  in  the  districts  yet  examined  are — 

Engtiah  Eqnivfilents. 
Coal-measures 


Millstone  grit,  or  "  Moor  rock' 
Carboniferous  limestone  series. 

group  of  sandstones,  shales,  and 

coals,  with   several  bands  of 

limestone  in  the  upper  part,  and 

some  thicker  beds  below 
Galoiferous  sandstones 

*  I  may  mention  in  puaing,  thai  Babeialnir,  and  perhaps  some  of  tha 
fslspatUo  biUi  of  that  distriat,  seem  to  mark  tha  sile  of  Tolcanoei  c^  tho  tine 


Lower  part  of  English  Coal- 
measures. 
=  Millstone  grit. 

-  Bocks  between  the  mtllatoue 
grit  and  the  lower  lime- 
stone shales. 

:  Lower  limestone  shales. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edii^Tglt,  Session  1864-65.  361 

Uncb  attention  haa  Iwen  paid  to  the  drift  aod  tuperfiowl  depoeita. 
Th«  snbjotDed  table  ibowe  tbe  Babdiviaione  vbich  are  at  proaent 
follow«d  in  mapiHDg  tbeas  fonnaliiMU  on  tbe  gioand  :— 
AlIuTium. 
Blown  Sand. 
Peat. 

Bsieed  Seocb  deposits. 
Old  BiTer-terraces. 

"  Smfaod-wash,"— «  deposit  of  sand,  clay,  gravel,  oi  shingl*, 
frequently  containing  scratcbed  stones,  and  fonnd  on  tbe 
higb  grounds  of  tbe  sontbern  uplands. 
Uontine  rubbisb  of  valley  glaciers. 
Erratio  blocks. 
Be-fonned  Drift.    Sands  aod  gravels  of  the  Kume  or  Esker 

series.    Brick-claya,  with  Arctic  Bbellfl. 
Upper  Boulder-clay. 
Lower  Boulder-clay. 

Boehe*  moutonnits  (etrira  effaced),  are  marked            ^     3 
Do.        do.       striated,  but  not  sbowing  dis- 
tinctly from  wbicb  quarter  the        

ice  moved      ....      C     ^ 

Do.        do.       sbowing  direction  of  ice-flow    .      \^'"" 
Flat  surface  of  striated  rock,  encb  aa  is  often  seen 
under  the  Boulder-clay Q — 


Do.  showing  tbe  direction  of  ice-flow  .        .    ^..Q  . 

The  sabdiviBion  of  the  Boulder-clay  into  two  zooes  was  decided 
apoa  in  the  autumn  of  1863,  and  since  then  the  division  has  been 
carried  out  wherever  practicable.  The  upper  Boulder-clay  is  a 
looser,  more  gravelly  deposit  than  the  lower,  and  seems  to  have 
Bufl'ered  a  greater  denudation.  It  has  usually  a  more  or  leas  obscure 
stratification,  contains  a  considerable  admixture  of  travelled  stones 
with  occasional  fragmentary  shells,  and  is  regarded  as  having  been 
formed  in  the  sea,  a  short  way  off  the  land,  by  bergs  from  a  dis- 
of  tbe  Tlf^r  Old  Bed  Sauiiitoiie.  The  hilla  to  the  aouth-wcst  ot  the  town  of 
Ayr  are  formed  of  felstones  and  why  conglomeiatea,  which  appear  tc  belong 
to  witiie  put  of  the  Old  Bed  Bandstone  period.  Tbejr  are  at  ^eaoit  under 
inveatigBtion  by  the  Goulogical  Survey. 

VOL.  V.  3  B 


j.Googlc 


362  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

tonoe,  as  well  as  by  masses  of  ice  from  tbe  adjacent  Bhores  dropping 
theii  loads  of  mad,  earth,  oud  stonea  to  tbe  bottom.  The  lover 
Boulder-clay  or  tUl,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  have  gathered 
partly  on  the  land,  and  partly  nndei  the  ice-sheet  which  poabed 
its  way  out  to  sea.*  This  took  place  when  the  land  was  under- 
going a  submergence,  so  that  the  lower  Bonldei-clay  might  be 
accumulating  on  the  land  and  along  the  coaet-Une,  while  the  appei 
part  of  tbe  deposit  was  being  formed  from  the  droppings  of  floating 
ice  some  way  further  out  at  sea.  The  following  tables  give  the 
percentage  of  stones  in  tbe  two  clays  on  the  line  of  the  new  rail- 
way near  Newhaven,  and  show  tbe  markedly  local  character  of 
those  in  tbe  lower  zone,  and  the  mixture  of  erratic  boulders  in  the 
upper :— t 

Upper  Budely  Stratified  Clay  {near  Man-Trap). 

From  the  HighluidB,  9  per  cent. 

Percent. 
Mica-schist,       .  .    ' 

Purple  cleaved  sl&to, 
Metamorpbic  grit,      .        .    ! 
From  the  Ochil  HiUs,  16  percent 
Bed  felstone,     .        .        .    ', 


From  the  Caiboniferona  rocki  vt  the 
Basin  of  the  Forth,  68  per  cent 

Percent. 
White  and  grey  sandstone,  25 
Black  shale,     .        .        .8 
Ironstone,        .  .8 


Coal,  ....  6 
Basalt,  ....  2 
Greenstone,     .  .9 

Ash 1 

Cement  stone,  .        .    1 

Cyprid  limeetone(  "  Queens- 
ferry  or  Bardie  House),     1 
Cyprid  sbale,   .        .        ,2 

100 


Fink 

Blue       „  ...    1 

Purple    „  ...     1 

Pink  porphyry,  4 

Purple  „  .  .  .  2 
Green  „  .  .  .1 
Bed  felspathic  sandstone,  .  2 
Felspathic  conglomerate,  .  1 
Doubtful :  either  fiom  the  Oehila 

or  from  the   Lower  Caiboni' 

feroof  recks,  12  per  cent. 
Quartz  pebbles,       .  9 

Qaaitz-rock  pebbles,  .        .    3 

•  This  Tiew  of  the  origin  of  the  till  waa  propoaed  by  ma  In  October  186 
and  published  in  the  following  spring  in  mj  "  Uemoir  on  the  Phenomena  of 
the  Glacial  Drift  of  Scotland,"  and  a  woodcnt  waa  there  given  (p.  W)  to 
show  how  the  depodt  might  contain  the  remains  both  of  land  [dants  and  irf 
sea-shells. 

t  These  percentages  were  taken  in  September  1868,  in  company  with  m; 
coUeagne,  Dr  Yonng. 


DvGooglc 


0/Edivhergh,  Session  1864-65. 

Lower  BoMer-Glay  or  True  Till. 
Per  cent 


White  and  grey  Bandatooe, 
Gorstoiphine  greenstooe,    .  22 
Oommon  greenatoDe,  .         .  12 
Shale  of  the  calciferone  eaod- 

Etone  series,  .  ,  .12 
Basalt,  ....  6 
Qnaitz  pebbles, .  .4 

Gyprid  limestone,  .    4 


Eucritiite  limestone. 

Ironstone, 

Felspatbic  greenstone, 

Greenstone  of  Mons  Hill, 

Cement  stone. 

Ash,        .        .        .        . 


100 


The  list  of  stones  from  the  lower  clay  shews  with  clearaesB  the 
easterly  movement  of  the  ice.  The  most  abundant  are  from  rocks 
that  occur  in  aitu  immediately  to  the  west,  and  the  further  re- 
moved  the  parent  mass,  the  smaller  and  rarer  are  the  fragments  of 
it  in  the  clay.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  the  stones  are  derived 
from  rocks  that  occur  in  the  district ;  even  those  which  have  como 
furthest  need  not  have  travelled  more  than  eight  or  ten  miles.  In 
the  railway  cutting,  this  lower  clay  had  its  upper  limit  marked  off 
by  a  band  of  large  boulders,  chiefly  of  greenstone,  sometimes 
measuring  a  yard  across,  and  occasionally  well  striated.  The  rock 
of  Coretorphine  Hill  was  well  represented  among  these  boulders, 
and  there  were  likewise  blocks  of  porphyritic  felstone  and  cncrioite 
limestone.  Above  the  line  of  boulders  lay  an  extensive  deposit  of 
gravel  and  sand,  which,  eastward,  nearer  the  Man  Trap,  gave  place 
to  an  upper  sandy  clay,  in  which  the  stonea  were  found  to  be  more 
rounded  than  in  the  lower  clay,  comparatively  seldom  striated,  and 
to  bear  evidence  of  having  come  from  longer  distances.  In  the 
list  above  given,  it  will  be  seen  that  more  than  three-fifths  of  these 
atones  come,  like  those  in  the  till  below,  from  the  carboniferous 
rocks  of  the  basin  of  the  Forth ;  that  sixteen  per  cent,  have  tra- 
velled across  that  basin  from  the  chain  of  the  Ochila,  a  distance  of 
at  least  five-and-twenty  miles,  while  a  still  smaller  number,  nine 
per  cent.,  has  been  carried  from  the  flanks  of  the  Highland  moun- 
tains not  less  than  five-and-forty  miles  away.  Where  the  npper 
and  under  clays  came  together  in  the  section,  the  band  of  boulders 
had  disappeared,  and  the  two  deposits  had  no  very  marked  line  of 
demarcation  between. 

Although  the  sands  and  gravels  of  the  Eame  series  have  been 


DvGooglc 


364  Proceedings  o/ the  SojfolSocieti/ 

traced  and  mapped  by  the  Survey  oTer  a  coDsiderable  area,  theii 
origin  is  still  involved  in  great  uncertainty.  In  the  nplanda  of 
Peeblssabire,  beautiful  glacier  moraines  have  been  found,  shewing 
the  existence  in  these  high  gronnds  of  a  group  of  valley- glocien 
after  the  re-elevation  of  the  land.*  Others,  on  a  still  larger  scale, 
occur  among  the  high  grounds  of  the  eoulh-west  of  Ayrshire. 

In  the  coDise  of  the  explorations  of  the  Survey,  proofs  of  Tut 
denudation  have  everywhere  been  met  with,  leading  to  the  coo- 
cluBion  that  the  present  inequalities  of  the  surface— «ur  bills  mi 
valleys,  plains  and  rivei-gorges,  are  not  directly  due  to  upheaval 
and  Bubsideuce,  or  to  fractures  of  the  earth's  crust,  but  must  be 
attributed  mainly  to  the  unequal  wearing  away  of  tbe  rocks  by  the 
sea,  rain,  springs,  streams,  and  glacier-ice. 

This  address  was  illustrated  by  an  exhibition  of  all  tbe  published 
maps,  eactions,  and  memoirs  made  by  the  G^logical  Survey  in 
Scotland,  by  a  large  map,  on  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  mile, 
shewing  all  the  work  which  has  been  done,  both  published  and 
unpublished,  and  by  enlarged  sections  to  explain  the  stiuoture  of 
the  Ochit  and  Fentlaud  Hills.f 

The  following  Ckunmunication  waa  read : — 
On  a  New  Bituminous  Substance,  imported  ander  tbe  name 
of  Coal  from  Brazil.    By  T.  C.  Archer,  Esq. 

This  material  was  brought  from  Brazil  to  Liverpool,  for  tbe  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  its  oommercial  value  in  this  country.  The 
importers  submitted  it  to  Dr  Edwards,  who  reported  tbat  it  yields 
a  much  larger  percentage  of  oil  than  even  tbe  celebrated  ooal  of 
7oTbane  Hill. 

The  crude  oil  of  the  first  distillation  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  -859. 

On  rodistiUation,  a  light  and  heavy  oil  are  obtained  flnm  the 
crude  oil. 

*  The;  hBvs  bssn  carefnllj  examined  by  Dr  Young,  wlio  haa  given  as 
account  of  them  in  the  Qnuteil;  Jonnial  of  the  Qeologtcal  Bodety  for  18U. 

t  It  is  not  ninal  to  pnbliih  the  refnlto  of  tbe  Qeolagleal  Bnrvej  ontU  thay 
appear  in  tbe  snthoilBed  and  offloial  form.  In  the  present  instance,  1  ua 
indebted  to  tbe  conites;  of  the  director-geneTsl,  Sir  Boderiak  I.  Mnrchiaon 
who  at  onoe  moat  ooidiaUjr  gave  hiB  sanction  to  the  pablication  of  tbe  above 
abttract  in  the  Proeaedings  of  tbe  Sooiety. 


DvGooglc 


The  8p.  gr.  of  the  lighter  Is  -768. 
Of  theheayier  „  -858. 

The  lighter  oil,  when  refioed,  is  colourleee,  and  reeeinblea  tha  oila 
obtMBed  from  coal,  petroleam,  dec. 

ItB  sp.  gT.  IB  -753. 

Tho  aabfitanca  itself  reaemblee,  in  general  appearance,  dried  clay; 
but  it  IB  very  light,  being  extremely  hnoyant  in  water.  It  breaks 
with  a  conchoidail  frsotnre,  and  in  some  portions  there  are  bands  of 
tnintite  strin,  iDdicating  Bodimentary  deposition.  Thin  section^ 
trhich-I  hare  prepared  with  difficulty,  shoir  no  trace  of  organio 
stractnre  under  the  miBcroBcope. 

No  information  was  received  irith  it  as  to  the  exact  locality 
whence  it  was  obtained,  bnt  in  the  Exhibition  of  1862  similar  sab- 
stancea  were  shown  in  the  Brazilian  ooUeotion,  under  the  following 
titles  :— 

1.  Schistos  betnminoBoa  calcaraoa — from  tho  Serra  de  Araripe, 
in  the  Province  of  Ceara. 

2.  Schisto  argilo-calcareo  betuminoso — from  Chapad,  in  the  Pio- 
vince  of  Maraaham. 

3.  Schisto  betnminoBo— from  Firapora,  Proving  of  S**  Paulo, 

4.  Schisto  betnminoso — from  the  Uorro  do  Tuo,  Province  of 
■Santa  Catherina. 

5.  Schisto  betnminoso — ftom  Camaragibe,  Province  of  Ahtgoas. 

'  In  all  probability  the  specimen  before  this  Society  is  from  one  of 
these  localities ;  and  the  fact  that  it  is  so  widely  distributed  in 
Brazil  will  atimalate  farther  mqutry  abont  so  valuable  a  substance. 

The  following  Donatioiia  to  the  Library  were  anaoanced: — 

Transactions  of  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinbnrgh.    Vol.  VII. 

Parti.     %n.— From  the  Soddy. 
Qeneral  Index  to  the  first  15  vols,  of  the  Transactions  of  the 

Pathological   Society    of   London,  1664^      Svo. — Fnm  tt« 

Socitty. 
Abstracts  of  the  Meteorological  Observations  made  at  the  Hague- 

tical  Observatory,  Toronto,  C.W.,  during  1864  to  1869.    4to. 

Toronto,  1664. — I^wn  the  OUerwUory. 


DvGooglc 


366      Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  o/ Edinburgh. 

Beflulta  of  the  Meteorological  ObBerrationa  made  at  the  Hagnetical 

Obserrotory,  Toronto,  C.W.,  dnriog  I860,  1861,  and  1862. 

4to.     1864. — From  the  Observatory. 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Toi 

CLIV.  Parts  1  and  2.    4to.    1864.— /Vom  the  Sontty. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.     VoL  XIV.    No. 

71.     8tO. — livm  the  Society, 
Astronomical  Obserrations  made  at  the  Boyal  Obserratory,  G-ieen- 

wich,  1862.     4to.— ^rom  the  Observatory. 
Die  Zeitbestimmnng  Termittebt  des  Tragb&ren,  DnrchgangHinstn- 

ments  im  Yerticale  des  Polarstems,  von  yf.  Dollen.    4to. 

St  Fetershnrg,  1S63.— From  the  Author. 
Pieneaische  Statistik  herausgegehen  in  Zwanglosen  Eeflen,  Tom 

Eoniglicben  Statistischen  Bureau  in  Berlin,  VZ.   4to.    Berlin 

1854.— JVom  H.  W.  Dove. 
Materiaux  poai  la  Carte  Greologique  de  la  Snisae,  pahligs  pai  la 

OommiBBion  G«ologiqae  de  la  Soci6t€  Helvetiqne  des  Sciences 

Ifaturellee  anz  frais  de  la  Confederation,  Denxienio  livnison. 

4to.     Bene,  1864.— ^rom  Oie  Society. 
Jahibuch  der  ICaiserlich-Soniglichsn  Gfiologisohen  Beichaanstalt 

Band  XIV.  N'.  2,  3.     8to.     "Wien,  1864.— JVom  the  Society. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci6te  Imperiale  des  NatorallsteB  de  Moecon,  public 

sons  la  Bedaction  dn  Docteur  Benard.    Nos.  III.  IV.  1863 ; 

No.  1.  1864.     Moscow.     8yo.—From  the  Society. 
The  M&hfibhaahya  of  Pantanjali ;  a  Commentary  on  the  Oiun- 

matical  Aphorisms  of  Panini,  with  the  GMosses  of  Eailjata  and 

NSgDgi  Bhatta.    Tol.~  From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


DvGooglc 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


Monday,  20th  February  1865. 

Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  Preeident,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Commonications  were  read  : — 

1.  Experimental  Inqoiry  into  the  Laws  of  Condnction  of 
Heat  in  Bars.  Part  II. — On  the  Conductivity  of  Wrought 
Iron,  deduced  from  the  Experiments  of  1851.  By  Prin< 
cipal  Forbes. 

This  ia  a  sequel  to  a  paper  read  26th  April  18G2  (See  "  Froceed- 
iDgs,"  ToL  IT.  p.  607),  and  contains  the  T»ult«  of  the  complete 
reduction  of  the  obeerrations  on  the  couductivit;  of  iron,  by  the 
application  of  the  method  there  deEcribed.  The  theimometrio 
readings  are  now  rigorouely  corrected  for  scale  errors,  and  for  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  bulb  and  the  stem. 

The  methods  of  reduotion,  consisting  of  a  combination  of  calcu- 
lation and  graphical  projection,  are  the  same  as  have  been  described 
in  the  first  part  of  the  paper.  But  the  whole  has  beeen  executed 
with  minate  attention  to  accuracy,  and  the  aroidance  of  error  of 
every  kind- 
Three  cases  are  distinguished  in  the  experiments  and  reductions, 
each  complete  in  itself. 

In  Case  I.  a  vronght-iron  bar,  fully  8  feet  long  and  1^  inch 
square,  heated  at  one  end,  had  its  temperature  observed  at  different 
points.     The  surface  was  moderately  polished. 

TOI..  T.  So 


j.Googlc 


370  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

In  Case  II.  the  aame  bar  vas  employed  Id  a  einiilaT  way,  eicept 
that  the  surface  was  coTeced  with  paper,  by  vhich  the  euperficial 
radiation  was  greatly  increased. 

In  Case  III.  an  iron  bar,  one  inch  eqnare,  was  used.  The  iron 
was  from  a  different  manufactory.  The  aarface  was  moderately 
polished . 

The  two  first  cases  correspond  to  those  worked  out  in  the  former 
paper.  ("  Transactions,"  toI.  xxiii.  p.  145.  "  Proceedings,"  vol.  i'- 
p.  609.)  The  resolts  obtained  in  the  present  paper,  after  all  cor- 
rections are  applied,  differ  but  slightly  from  those  previously 
given.  The  conductivities  deduced  from  the  two  firat  cases  coincide 
with  one  another  remarkably  well,  although  the  data  are  perfectly 
distinct.  In  Case  III.,  that  of  the  thin  bar,  the  numerical  values 
of  the  conductivity  are  considerably  smaller  than  in  the  former 
instances,  which  ia  attributed  to  the  different  quality  of  the  iron. 
In  all  the  cases  the  conductivity  diminishes  as  the  temperature  in- 
creases, and  diminiehea  more  rapidly  in  the  lower  part  of  the  scale 
of  temperature.  The  following  numbers  will  be  found  (for  Gases  I. 
and  II.)  to  be  nearly  identical  at  0°  and  150°  with  those  previously 
published  from  less  accurate  data : — 


Ceutigriide. 

Conductivitj  of  Wron^t  Iron.                        ] 

Unita,  the  Foot,  Minute,  and 
Cent.  Degree. 

Units,  theContimatre,  Uinnte, 
and  Cant.  Degnie. 

Comb  I.  and  II. 

Cmo  hi. 

CsM.I.«BdII 

Cmo  III. 

0° 
60 
100 
150 
200 
250 

■01337 
■OHM 

■01012 
■00934 

■00876 
■00826 

■00992 

■00904 
■00835 
■00795 
■00764 
■00736 

12-42 
1063 
9-40 

868 
8^14 

7-67 

9-21 
8-37 
7-76 
7-38 
7-10 
6-84 

2.  On  the  Chemical  CompoBition  of  the  Waters  of  the 
Beauly,  Invemeae,  and  Moray  Firths.  By  Dr  Stevenson 
Macadam. 

These  three  firths  denote  different  ports  of  ut  arm  of  the  sea 
which  has  two  constrictions; — one  between  Graigton  Point  and 
Longman  Point,  and  the  other  between  Fort  George  and  the 


DvGooglc 


o/Edini»ayh,  Seaaion  1864-65.  371 

Cheaoniy  Point.  The  upper  part  is  known  as  the  Beaul;  Firtfa, 
the  intflTmediata  portion  as  the  InvemesB  Firth,  and  the  enter  part 
aa  the  Uoray  Firth.  Two  riveiB  dischaige  their  contents  into  this 
arm  of  tbe  aea;  the  Beauly  Bivei,  which  flows  in  at  the  head  of 
the  Beauly  Firth,  and  the  Biver  Nesa,  which  joins  at  the  head  of 
the  Inveineas  Firth,  The  waters  of  those  liTers  are  comparatively 
fiee  from  saline  matter,  as  during  the  dry  aeaaon  of  the  Bummer 
of  1863  tbe  water  of  the  Ness  contained  only  2*48  grains  of  saline 
matter  dissolved  in  the  imperial  gallon,  and  the  water  of  the 
Beauly  only  yielded  S'76  grains  of  saline  matter.  Besides  these 
•onrcee  of  freeh  water,  there  are  numerous  bums  which  convey 
water,  the  composition  of  which  is  not  essentially  different  from 
that  of  the  Bivers  Nees  and  Beauly. 

Whilst  the  freah  water  flows  in  at  the  upper  parts,  there  is  sea 
water  rolling  in  and  out  at  the  lower  part  during  every  flood  and 
ebb-tide,  and  in  quantity  sufficient  to  give  rise  to  tides  of  the 
average  height  of  eleven  feet  at  certain  parts,  aa  at  the  narrowed 
channel  connecting  the  Firths  of  Beauly  and  Inverness. 

The  special  object  of  inquiry  was  to  learn  the  influence  of  the 
fresh  water  upon  the  salt  water,  and  the  examination  was  restricted 
(o  the  determination  of  three  points : — 

Irt,  The  specific  gravity  or  density  of  the  water,  as  compared 
with  distilled  water,  taken  as  1000-  at  60°  Fahr. 

2d,  The  total  amount  of  saline  matter  dissolved  in  1000  parts  of 
the  water  collected  at  difl'erent  stations ;  and 

Zd,  The  proportion  of  chlorine  present  in  the  various  samples  of 
water. 

The  principal  compound  of  chlorine  pteeeat  in  sea  water  is  the 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  and  there  are  smaller  proportions 
of  chloride  of  magnesium  and  chloride  of  potassinm ;  but,  in  an 
inquiry  as  to  the  relative  saltnesa  of  samples  of  water  from  the 
aame  locality,  it  is  safficient  to  determine  the  amount  of  chlorine, 
and  the  calculation  of  chlorine  into  chloride  of  sodium  afToids  the 
moat  convenient  method  of  recognising  the  relative  amount  of  fresh 
water  which  has  commingled  with  the  sea  water. 

The  samples  of  water  employed  in  these  investigations  were  gene- 
raUy  collected  from  a  depth  of  three  feet  from  the  surface,  but  other 
aamplee  were  taken  from  the  surface,  and  from  a  depth  of  six  feet. 

D,„i,z.dj.Googlc 


372  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

In  leviewiDg  the  resalts  of  the  determination  of  the  specific 
gravities  of  the  samples  of  water,  it  was  obserred  that  the  fresh 
water  supplied  by  the  Ness  and  Beanljr  Bivers  possesses  the  mean 
specific  gravity  of  1000'44 ;  and  the  strongest  sea  watei — viz.,  that 
of  Burghead — shows  a  specific  gravity  of  1025'13.  The  many 
samples  of  water  collected  from  the  Firth  of  Inverness  have  a  specific 
gravity  which  is  considerably  beyond  the  mean  of  fresh  and  salt 
water,  and  in  the  majority  of  instances  closely  approaches  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  sea  water  taken  off  Burghead,  and  which  is 
undoubtedly  sea. 

The  resnlts  of  the  determination  of  the  respective  amounts  of 
saline  matter  dissolved  in  the  various  waters  entirely  corroborates 
the  conclnsions  arrived  at  from  the  consideration  of  the  specific 
gravities, — viz.,  that  each  sample  of  water,  as  collected  from  the 
Firth  of  Inverness,  is  decidedly  more  salt  than  fresb,  and  in  most 
instances  the  water  is  practically  the  strength  of  sea  water.  The 
lowest  pioportioa  of  saline  matter  in  the  wat«r  of  the  Firth  of 
Inverness  is  nearly  eight  hundred  times  the  quantity  found  in  the 
water  of  the  Eiver  Ness. 

The  relative  amount  of  chloride  of  sodium,  as  indicated  by  the 
proportion  of  chlorine  in  the  waters  from  the  Bivers  Ness  and 
Beauly,  is  so  minute  that  it  only  amounts  to  about  half  a  grain 
of  chloride  of  sodium  in  the  imperial  gallon ;  whilst  the  lowest  pro- 
portion of  chloride  of  sodium  (calculated  from  the  chlorine)  which 
is  present  in  the  water  of  the  Firth  of  Inverness  is  eqnal  to  1571 
grains  in  the  imperial  gallon. 

The  water,  therefore,  obtained  from  any  part  of  the  Firth  of 
Inverness,  contaius  more  than  two  thousand  times  the  quantity  of 
chloride  of  sodium,  in  a  given  volume  or  weight,  than  that  which 
is  present  in  the  waters  of  the  Ness  and  Beauly.  In  this  vast 
increase  in  the  proportional  amount  of  common  salt,  there  is  the 
strongest  corroboration  of  the  greater  prevalence  of  salt  water  in 
the  Firth  of  Inverness ;  and,  judging  alike  from  the  specific  gravity, 
the  total  amount  of  saline  matter  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  the 
large  proportion  of  common  salt,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Firth  of  Inverness  is  sea,  and  that  it  will  he  found  by  naturalists 
to  afford  to  marine  flora  and  fauna  all  the  required  strength  and 
chemical  properties  so  essential  for  the  unimpaired  growth,  de- 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1864-55.  373 

velopment,  and  eastained  life  of  marine  vegetable  and  animal 
organiamB. 


3.  On  Hemiopsy,  or  Half  Vision.    By  Sir  David  Brewster, 
KH.,  F.E.S. 

After  describing  the  phenomena  of  hemiopsy,  as  observed  by  Di 
WoUaatoD,  U.  Arago,  and  Mi  Tyrrell,  the  author  remarked  that  no 
attempt  was  made  by  these  writ«rs  to  ascertain  the  optical  con- 
dition of  the  eye  when  it  is  said  to  be  half  blind,  or  to  determine 
the  locality  and  immediate  cause  of  the  complaint.  Having  ex- 
perienced several  attacks  of  hemiopsy,  unaccompanied  with  any 
affections  of  the  head  or  stomach,  the  author  found  that  there  was 
no  insensibility  to  light,  but  merely  an  insensibility  to  the  lines 
and  shades  of  the  object  which  disappeared.  This  insensibility 
commenced  in  both  eyes,  a  little  to  the  left  of  the/oramen  eentrale, 
and  extended  itself  irregularly  to  the  margin  of  the  retina  on  the 
left  side.  The  parts  of  an  object,  or  the  letters  of  a  word  which 
disappear,  are  as  bright  as  the  groand  aioand  them,  and  are  wAtfe 
if  the  ground  is  white,  and  always  of  the  colour  of  the  ground,  ao 
that  the  light  of  the  ground  baa  irradiated  into  the  dark  lines  or 
shades  of  the  picture  on  the  retina,  a  phenomenon  which  can  be 
produced  In  a  sound  eye  by  oblique  vision.*  This  species  of  irra- 
diation, however,  is  merely  a  local  and  temporary  paralysis  of  the 
retina  by  the  continued  action  of  light  upon  the  same  part  of  it ; 
bnt  in  hemiopsy,  the  irradiation  is  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the 
blood-vessels,  which  may  arise  from  various  causes, — from  the  mere 
fatigue  of  the  eye  after  long  reading  or  exposure  to  bright  light, 
or  from  affections  of  the  head  or  stomach.  That  this  pressure  of 
the  blood-vessels  was  the  cause  of  the  hemiopsy  studied  by  the 
author,  was  proved  by  his  going  accidentally  into  a  dark  room  while 
under  its  influence,  when  he  was  surprised  to  observe  that  all  the 
parts  of  the  retina  which  were  affected  were  slightly  luminous— an 
effect  invariably  produced  by  pressure  upon  that  membrane. 

•  Letters  on  Natural  Hagic.    Letter  11.  p.  13. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 


4.  On  tlie  Tertiary  Coals  of  New  Zealand.  By  W.  Lander 
Lindaay,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Philo- 
Bophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  New  Zealand. 

In  1861-62  the  author  visited  and  examined  Bereial  of  the  Ter- 
tiary coal-measureB  of  New  Zealand ;  and  tbe  paper,  of  which  thie 
is  an  abstract,  coutaina,  or  conaists  of,  an  epitome  of  hie  observa- 
tions thereon.  The  collections  of  specimens  made  during  his  excur- 
sioDS,  vith  relative  maps  and  other  iUnatrations,  were  exhibited  to 
the  Society  at  their  Gonreisazione  of  25th  Febmary  1863.  A  suite 
of  ooal  specimens  was  submitted  to  chemical  analysis  by  Professor 
Murray  ThomHon,  the  resulta  of  which  aie  inclnded  in  the  paper. 

The  Tertiary  coale  of  Otago  aie  described  :  as  being  typical  or  re- 
presentative of  those  of  the  other  New  Zealand  provinces.  Their 
charocteiB  or  qaalities  are  contrasted  with  those  of  the 

1.  Tertiary  Coals  of  Auckland  and  Nelson,  New  Zealand. 

2.  Tertiary  CoaU  of  Europe. 
Qlamkohle  of  Germany. 
Broum  CoaU,  ot  lAgnitei,  of 

a.  The  Danube,  Hungary,  and  Tianaylvania. 

b.  Bohemia  and  the  Bhine. 

c.  Bovey-Tracey,  Devonshire. 
Sartwrhrand  of  Iceland. 

3.  Me»ozoie  and  PaUeeaoic  Goah  of  Canterbury  and  Nelson,  New 

Zealand. 
1.  PalBKM»ic  CoaU  of  New  South  Wales  and  Britain. 

I,  Topogra<phy  and  ExlenL — Tertiary  coal  deposits  occur  more 
or  less  abundantly  in  most  of  the  New  Zealand  provinces; 
especially,  however,  in  Ot^o,  Nelson,  Canterbuiy,  and  AnoklaDd. 
Occasionally  they  form  belts  extending  for  great  distances,  some- 
times as  much  as  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles,  along  sea-coaata  or 
river  banks.  More  generally,  they  ore  localised  in  isolated  oi  cir- 
cumscribed inland  basins.  Usnolly  they  occupy  plains  or  valleys  at 
low  elevations.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  to  be  found  at  heiglite 
of  several  hundred,  or  even  thousand,  feet  oq  the  flanks  of  hilU. 


DvGooglc 


0/  Edinburgh,  Seanoa  1864-65.  375 

II.  Origin  i^the  Coal. — In  dlffereDt  localities,  and  nnder  differ- 
eot  circnmstanceB,  it  haa  at  one  time,  apparently,  condeted  of  drift 
wood  and  leaves ;  of  p«at  bog,  marah,  littoral  oi  JortMt  vegetation 
submerged  tn  ntu  and  subsequently  re-elevated ;  or  of  marine  vege- 
tation (kelp)  subsequently  elevated.  It  bas  been  found  mainly  in 
ancient  lakes,  estuaries,  bays,  fjoids,  coasts,  or  seas.  Its  assooiated 
strata  present  frequently,  if  not  nsoally,  alteinations  of  morwM 
(shell  and  kelp  beds)  with  terratriai  deposits  (dicotyledonons  leaf 
or  fern  beds) ;  indicating  the  ocoorrence  of  repeated  and  irregulai 
oscillatioDB  of  the  relative  levels  of  land  and  water  during  their 
deposition. 

m.  Stratigraphieal  Selatiotu, — The  best  class  of  coals  is  refer- 
able to  the  Lower  or  oUUr  group  of  the  Tertiary  system ;  belonging, 
however,  to  different  ages  in  this  group. 

LtgniUi,  jH,  and  fosailiud  wood  occur  also  in  all  the  newer  or 
superjacent  Tertiaries,  as  well  as  the  post-tertiary  strata ;  while  drift 
wood  and  ittbmeryed /oretta  may  be  seen  in  process  of  foesilisation 
at  the  present  day. 

Not  unfrequeutly  the  coal>beda  rest  immediately  on  the  funda- 
mental rock  of  the  country,  which  is  usually  metamorphic  slate, 
(probably  of  Silurian  age),  though  sometimes  granite. 

The  coal  strata  ore  frequently  disturbed  by  eruptive  or  intmsive 
iPrappean  rocks  of  Newer  Tertiary  age,  which  sometimes  tilt  them  up 
vertically,  or  throw  them  completely  over.  They  are  pierced  like- 
wise by  Trap-dgka,  and  characterised  by  faults  or  dislocations  re- 
sembling— save,  perhaps,  as  to  the  scale  on  which  they  occur, — 
those  of  our  own  Faleozoio  coal* measures.  These  Traps  sometimes 
coke  or  cinder  the  immediately  adjacent  ooal;  more  frequently, 
perhaps,  the  lithulogical  character  of  the  latter  is  unaffected. 

TV.  Auodated  Strvta— 

a.  Conglomerate  (locally  known  as  "gravels"  oi  "ce- 
ments"), usually  coarse  and  quartzose ;  frequently  of 
a  plnm-pndding  stone  character ;  generally  ferruginous ; 
passing  into 

b.  Qrita,  which  again  graduate  into  tmtdttona.  Some  of 
the  latter  are  sufficiently  bard  and  pure  to  b«  useful 


j.Googlc 


Proceedings  of  the  BoycU  Society 

building  stones.     Oocaaicmally  they  are  eorbonaceout;  or 
they  are  impregnated,  oi  intennixed,  with    nmgndie 

e.  Clays,  frequently  areuaceoiu  or  carboDaceoiu,  or  both; 
BometimeB  fermginoue;  occasionally  white  and  pure. 
They  iocltide  every  variety  of  kaolin,  plastic  or  potter's, 
pipe,  fire,  and  Irick  clays ;  and  ochres  or  fermginoiu 
earths ;  many  of  which  are  Euitable  for  ntiliBation  in  the 
industrial  arts. 

d.  Shales,  also  generally  arenaceous  or  carbonaceous,  or 
both ;  sometimes  richly  fossiliferous,  containing  espe- 
cially leaves  (of  eiogenons  trees  and  ferns)  besutiTnIly 


The  coal-beds  are  frequently  directly  overlaid  oi  roofed  by  Never 
or  upper  Tertiary  strata;  consisting  usually  of  various  conglo- 
merates or  gravels,  sands  and  clays. 

V.  Contained  Minerals — 

a.  Various  Fossil  Resins,  similar  to  those  which  occur  in 
the  brown  coals  of  Germany.  To  the  settlers  they  are 
generically  known  as  Kauri  gum,  and  are  considered 
identical  with  the  fossil  Tesiu  so  called  in  the  North  Island 
— 'Which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  produce  of  the  exist- 
ing Dammara  australis  Lambert  (N.  0.  Coni/erve).  They 
include  Betinite  and  Ozobertfe. 

h.  Iron  Fj/ritet  (including  MareatiU) ;  Su3phaU  t^lron; 
Clay  Ironstone  nodules. 

c.  Sulphur,  generally  impregnating  saads  or  sandstones; 
clays  or  mudstones. 

d.  Quartz,  as  an  impurity. 

e.  Jet;  and  vegetable  debris  in  the  form  of  Mineral  Charcoal. 

VI.  Liihologieal  orFhyaical  CharaeUn. — Kand- specimens  exhibit 
all  gradations  between  Lignite,  Broun  Co<d,  Filch  Coal,  Cannel  or 
Farrot,  and  Common  British  Domestic,  Coal.  Their  texture,  fracture, 
and  lustre  consequently  vary  extremely.  Generally  they  are  earthy 
and  massive;  occasionally  laminated;  spliuterreadily  on  exposure; 
do  not  o&ke  in  burning;  odour  and  itreoA,  brown  to  blade;  tpeeifie 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinimrgh,  Session  1864-65.  877 

granly,  1250  to  IdOO;  (uAgeneFallyUght  like  that  of  wood;  colovr 
Tuiou  ihadM  of  vhite,  gray  or  buff;  ecAt  dull  to  iridesoent. 


45  peroent. 


VlL  Ohtmieal  0onttitutio».~'Sh9  following,  which  ii  the  mean 
(in  round  nnmhen)  of  nDmerooB  anslyees,  fay  TsriouB  obemiita,  of  the 
Tertiai;  oosla  of  different  parte  of  the  New  Zealand  Iilands,  maj  be 
held  to  lepieeent  their  STerage  compoeitioa  :— 
a.  Proximate  CoiutittiMU — 

Coke,  .... 
Carbon  in  coke  (or  fixed  carbon), 
Volatile  matter  (hydro-cariKiDs),  . 


60  percent. 


(Oomponeuts — Silica,   alamina,  iron, 
magBMia,  and  lime.) 
Water  of  oonstitation, 
G«,  cubic  feet  per  ton, 
Oil,  galloDB  per  ton, 
h  Ultimate 
Carbon,     . 
Hydrogen, 
Nitrogen, . 
Oxygen,    . 
Sulphur,    . 


TnL  Commercial  Falue. — The  following  are  defects  in  most,  if 
not  all,  of  the  Tertiary  oo&Ia  of  New  Zealand  : — 
c  FroportioD  of  wUer  or  moietiiie  they  contain :  frequently 

20  to  30  per  cent. 
b.  Comparatively  large  amount  of  ash. 
e.  Comparatively  large  amonnt  of  tulphvr  (in  pyrites),  giving 

risB  to  a  dieagreeablo  odcwr  during  combustion. 
i.  Occasional  preseoce  of  Ume,  which  gives  the   quality  of 

/iuibility. 

e.  Tendency  to  fall  to  dust  or  "  small "  on  exposure  or  deeiccatioo. 

f.  Bum  well  only  when  associated  with  some  more  inflammable 

fuel,  such  as  wood,  peat,  or  Paleeozoio  coal. 
KeTertheleMS,tn  tie  absence,  orieitha  miscture,  o/Jitel  of  a  superior 
Und,  this  olasB  of  coal  is,  oi  may  be,  used  as  a  domestic  fuel, 
toim  ▼.  8o 


j.Googlc 


378  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

aa  veil  ae  in  yariona  brancbea  of  local  maaufacture,  ench  as  brick 
and  pottery  making,  and  metallnrgic  proceseea.  Its  nse  ie,  and 
is  likely  to  continue,  atrictly  local.  At  present  it  ie  employed  as 
a  domestic  fuel,  mostly  on  the  gold-Gelda,  when  it  abounds,  and 
where  fuel  of  a  better  class  is  scarce,  if  at  all  to  be  bad ;  or,  inter- 
mixed vith  better  fuel,  by  the  poorer  classes  in  large  towns.  It 
cannot  compete,  either  oa  a  domestic,  steam,  or  other  fuel,  with 
New  South  Wales  or  British  coals  (Falraozoio),  which  nniformly 
command  a  higher  price,  and  occupy  a  superior  position,  in  all 
the  New  Zealand  marketa. 

In  all  the  large  towna  of  New  Zealand,  eapecially  in  Dnnedin, 
Christchurch,  Nelson,  and  Auckland,  there  is  now  a  comparatiTely 
good  supply  of  both  local  and  foreign  coals.  The  market  prices  of 
the  former  vary  according  as  they  are  deliTeied  at  the  pit-mouth 
or  in  the  towns ;  and  those  of  the  latter  as  they  are  delivered  in 
the  towns,  or  from  the  shipa'  aides  in  harbours  or  roadateada. 

The  market  prices  of  New  Zealand  Tertiary  coala  vary  from 
7s.  6d.  to  35s. — average,  10a.  to  15b. — ^per  ton,  delivered  at  the  pit ; 
and40B.  to  SOb.— average,  45s. — delivered  in  towns.  Those  of  New- 
castle (New  South  Wales),  or  Newcastle  (English)  coal,  range  from 
403.  to  SOa.  per  ton,  according  as  they  are  delivered  from  the  ship 
01  in  town. 

IX.  Produce  of  the  Collieries. — Aa  yet  labour  is  limited  and  dear, 
and  machinen/  defective;  so  that  the  highest  yield  at  present  is 
100  to  150  tons  per  week  (Fairfield  Colliery,  about  six  miles  south- 
ward of  Dunedin,  Otago) ;  the  average  elsewhere  being  60  to  100 

tons. 

X,  Flora  of  the  Coal  ifeoswrM.— Consists  chiefly  of  the  wood  and 
Uavet  of  exogeruMs  Ireei,  probably  in  great  measure  conifiirout ;  and 
of  femt.  The  leaves  include  those  of  species  of  the  following 
genera; — 

Fagu»,  I  MyHifdium, 

Loranikophyllum,  \  FhyUitia. 

The  general  Tertiary  flora  comprises — 

a.  The  toood  of  varioua  amijen,  perhaps  including  the  Kavri 
pine,  which  still  exiats,  though  within  a  limited  area,  in 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  379 

the  North  Island ;  and  of  other  exogenomti&OB : — frequently 
tilieificd  like  the  fossil  wood  of  Antigna. 
h.  The  have*  of  variouB  exogenous  treea  of  the  orders  appa- 
rently otLauraeem  and  Cycadacea  (genera  allied  to  Launu 
and  Zamia) — frequently,  like  the  wood,  beautifully  silicified 
and  preserved ;  of  eitdogenmu  trees,  chiefly  of  the  family 
PalmaeetB ;  and  of  arborescent  or  large- fioDded.^m<. 
Most  of  the  fossil  plants  of  the  New  Zealand  Tertiaries  are  ap- 
parently extinct  species ;  but,  as  in  the  parallel  case  of  the  fauna,  a 
few  may  be  referable  to  living  forma. 

XL  Fauna  of  the  Coal  Measures, — Mostly  marine,  including — 

a.  Celaeea ;  bones. 

b.  fuA  of  the  lAari  family  (teeth) ;  genera  Lamna,  Cbrchama, 

Oxyrhina. 
e.  Echinodem* :  Brissus,  SehizasUr,  Hemipatagiu. 
d.  Mollvsea  :  species  of  the  following  genera : — 

Ostrea,  Turbo, 

Pecten,  Craasatella, 

Ter^iTatuta,  Denlalium, 

Natica,  StnUhiolaria, 

Voluia,  Scalaria, 

Purpura,  Waldlieitnia. 

Trochita, 

The  general  Tertiary  Fauna  includes  in  addition : — 

Cardium,  t         Cvrena  ,        1  ,     , 

_      „  .;..}■  fresh-water. 

CucuUcea,  Melanta        ) 

Mytihii,  I 

While  the  major  portion  are  extinct  species,  some  are  identical  with 

existing  firms. 

XII.  FossUitation  of  Veg^ation  at  tke  present  day. — Instances  are 
given  of  Tree  Beds  at  various  depths  below  the  soil,  and  at  various 
elevations  on  the  mountains :  of  the  foseilisation  of  drxjl-viood, 
leaves  and  seeds  in  swamp  clays;  of  the  tu&merg'ence  of  Kauri  or  other 
orests — that  are  being,  or  have  been,  converted  into  Lignite  on  the 
ntttem  coasts  (which  are  undergoing  a  process  of  suiisidence): 


j.Googlc 


380  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

and  of  tlie  oTeiwbelmiDg  of  existing  forests  by  seEt-auid  on  tlie 
eaatem  coasts  (which  exhibit  phenomena  of  eZevalton). 

Withia  an  area  of  a  few  hundred  yards  on  the  G^reenisland  oout 
of  Otago,  the  sand-dnnes  may  be  seen  enoroaohing  on  the  forest, 
which  ooDsiats  mainly  of  gigantic  eoniftn :  of  other  exogtmoai  tiees 
of  the  natural  orders— 


Myrtactm, 
AraliaeeoB, 
LeguminottB, 
■  Onagrariee, 
Magnolia 


Violarietg, 

Pitbaporea, 

Malvaeea, 

Tiliaeea!, 

Cornea: 


of  palm-like  and  shmbby  Liliaeete ;  and  of  arboreBcent  Fen* : 
while  they  are  also  covering  in  marshes  and  lagoons,  whose  vege- 
tation oonsistB  chiefiy  of  littoral  Qraaitt  and  Ch/peraeea  :  /nA'tBotir 
a^ualiea  ;  talt-mareh  plattti  :  and  marine  Algce. 

The  foUowiDg  DoDationa  were  laid  on  the  tahle  : — 

Bulletin  de  L'Acad6mie  Boyale  dee  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  des 
Beanx-Arts  de  Balgique,  Nc.  12.  Bruxelles,  1864.  8to.— 
From  the  Academy. 

Natuurkundige  Yerbandelingen  van  de  Hollandaohe  Maatschappij 
der  Wetenschappen  to  Haarlem.  XIX*  Deel,  XXI*  Deel,  1* 
Stak.    4to.    Haarlem,  1664.— From  the  Society. 

Sitzungsbeiicbtd  der  Konigl.  Bayer.  Akademie  der  Wissenschafteo 
.  zn  Uuncbeo,  1864.  II.,  Heft  2.  Unnchen,  1864.  8vo.— 
From  (Ae  Academy. 

Beport  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Geolo^cal  and  Polytechnic  So- 
ciety of  the  West  Biding  of  Torkshiie  for  1863-64.  8to. 
Leeds,  1864.— JVton  the  Society. 

On  the  Early  History  of  Leeds.  By  Thomas  Wright,  Esq.,  MX 
8to.     Leeds,  1864. — From  the  tame. 

Forty-fourth  Beport  of  the  Leeds  Pfailosophioal  and  Literary 
Society.    8to.    Leeds,  1864.— JVffm  fte  Society. 

Thoughts  on  the  Influence  of  Ether  in  the  Solar  System,  its  re- 
lations to  the  Zodiacal  Light,  Comets,  the  Seasons,  and 
periodical  Shooting  Stars.  By  Alexander  Wilcoeks,  HJ>. 
4to.    Philadelphia,  1861.— i^Vmn  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


o/EeUnburgh,  Seseioa  1864^-65.  381 

Die  FowUen  Uolloeken  dee  Teiiuer-BeckenB  Ton  Wien.    Von  Dr 

tf.  Homes.    Band  U.  5,  6.    4b>.     Wien,  lBS5.-~Fnm  tA« 

Avikor. 
Honthlj  Noticea  of  the  B07&I  ABtrononucal  Society,  Vol.  XXV. 

No.  3.     8vo.     London,  1865.— /Vom  &e  Society. 
Letter  from  John  Darj,  M.S.,  F.B.S.,  addiesHed  to  the  editon  of 

the  Fhiloflophioal  Uagszine,  in  reply  to  a  certain  ohaige 

made  by  Charles  Babbage,  Esq.,  F.B.3.,  against  the  late  Sir 

Hamphry  Davy,  when  President  of  the  Bojnl  Society,    Svo. 

— From  Dr  Davy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Dnblin  for  186S-61. 

Vol.  IV.  Part  II.     8to.     Dnblin,  1865.— /V«n  the  Soeitty. 
The  American  Jonmal  of  Science  and  Arts,  Vol.  XXXIX.  No.  115. 

8to.    New  Haven,  1865.— JVom  tht  Editon. 
The  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society,  Vol.  XXL  Part  I. 

8to.     London,  1865.— JVom  the  Society. 
The  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society,  Vol.  VIII.  No.  32,  Bottoy. 

8vo.     London,  1865.— ^rom  the  Society. 
Beale  latitnto  Lombardo  di  Scienze  e  Letters — Bendiconti — Clane 

di  Scienze  Hatematiche  e  Natnrali.  Vol.  I.  Faac.  7,  8.  Olasse 

di  Lettere  e  Scienze  Morale  e  Folitiche.  Vol,  I.  Faso.  7.   Std. 

Milano,  1864.— JVotn  the  Ifutituie. 
Solanni  Adananze  del   Beale   Istitnto  Lombardo  di  Soi«ue  e 

Lettere,  Adananza  del  7  Agoeto  1864.     8vo.    Milano,  1864. 

— From  Ae  ImHtiUe. 
Joomal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  January  1665.    8ro.    London, 

1665.— ^nim  tht  SoetOy. 


Monday,  6th  March  1865. 

Sir  DAVID  BEEWSTER,  President,  in  tbe  Chair. 

1.  On  the  World  as  a  Dynamical  and  Immaterial  World. 
By  Robert  S.  Wyld,  Edinburgh. 

What  is  matter  7  has  been  the  question  of  philosophy  from  th« 
eaiUest  times.    Tbe  author  of  this  paper  referred  to  tbe  specula- 


j.Googlc 


882  Froceedinga  of  the  Boyai  Society 

tioDB  of  Thales  and  other  philoBophere  of  the  Ionic  Bcbool  six 
hundred  years  before  Christ,  and  to  the  more  profound  views  of 
the  Eleatic  school,  which  had  its  origin  about  fifty  years  later,  and 
the  queHtioniug  which  then  arose  regarding  the  reality  of  the  biov- 
ledge  giTon  us  by  the  senses. 
-  Hume,  by  iugenions  argaments,  endeavoured  to  throw  distrust  on 
all  human  knowledge,  and  to  show  that  we  conld  neither  prove  the 
existence  of  power,  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect,  nor  the 
existence  of  an  external  world.  Kant,  roused  by  this,  undertook 
to  prove  that  the  mind  had  certain  judgments  and  beliefs,  irreapec- 
tive  of  those  derived  from  our  connection  with  the  world.  This  set 
the  G«imau  thinkers  upoo  an  exhaustive  examination  of  mental 
phenomena,  and  led  to  the  idealism  so  prevalent  in  German  phi- 
losophy. 

Bisragarding,  however,  the  extreme  views  of  a  numerous  class 
of  idealists,  the  question  etill  remains  open  before  us,  What  is 
Blatter  7 

The  phenomena  met  with  in  prosecuting  chemical  science  are 
frequently  so  marvelloas  and  unexpected  as  to  raise  in  the  mind  of 
an  abstract  thinker  doubts  as  to  the  theory  that  the  atoms  with 
which  lie  is  dealing  are  material  atoms.  The  idea  of  matter  or 
siAstanee  implies  to  every  man  who  considers  it  abstractly  the  po»- 
session  of  certain  qualitiet  inherent  in  each  tuhitanee.  This  idea  is 
found,  however,  to  be  the  reverse  of  a  true  one.  The  most  trifling 
difference  in  the  proportions  in  which  tuhstancei  are  combined  fre- 
quently creates  the  most  entire  change  of  property.  Witness  the 
results  of  the  various  combinations  of  oxygen  with  carbon,  with 
hydrogen,  or  with  nitrogen,  and  witness  the  still  more  surprising  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  productious  which  result  from  the  united  com- 
bination of  these  four  elements — the  oils,  the  gums,  the  dies,  the 
flesh,  the  vegetables,  the  medicines,  the  poisons, — in  fact,  nearly 
the  entire  catalogue  of  animal  and  vegetable  products  and  prin- 
ciples with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Quinine  is  composed  of  seventy 
atoms  of  these  four  elements,  and  so  is  strychnine,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  the  poison  has  two  atoms  more  of  carbon,  and  two 
less  of  hydrogen,  than  the  tonic.  All  such  facta  indicate  that  the 
ultimate  elements  and  their  combinations  act  dynamically,  for  they 
do  not  act  according  to  the  way  we  would  expect  mbetancea  to  act 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  383 

ConsiJei  the  atoma  as  matter,  and  all  seems  coDtradiction ;  coDuder 
them  as  forces,  and  the  phenomena,  we  observe,  become  compara- 
tively easy  to  understand  or  to  conceive. 

For  example,  the  tissues  of  the  animal  frame  are  a  nicely-ba- 
lanced combination  of  elementary  atoma.  All  animal  and  vegetable 
tiBsnes  are  composed  of  clusters  or  groups  of  these  atoms,  and  the 
nature  of  the  gronping  implies,  as  the  organic  chemist  well  knows, 
that  these  forces  are  held  in  comparatively  feeble  combination. 
Wbat  is  flesb  to-day  is  corniption  to-monow,  resolving  itself  into 
new  combinations.  This  is  an  essential  condition,  and  without  it 
nntrition,  assimilation,  and  renovation  would  not  be  possible ;  for 
it  is  only  where  all  is  feebly  held  together  that  a  ready  transfer  of  the 
parts  can  be  effected.  If,  then,  we  regard  onr  bodies,  and  the  sub- 
stances we  take  into  the  stomach,  as  nicely  balanced  collocations 
of  forces,  we  can  understand  how  one  gronp  may  nourish  us,  or 
become  incorporated  with  onr  bodies,  while  another  slightly  dif- 
ferent combination  may  dissolve  or  break  up  the  forces  binding  the 
snbetance  of  the  animal  tissoes  together,  or  may  stifle  or  may 
stimulate  the  movements  of  the  nervoas  energy,  or  may  completely 
paralyse  the  organ  where  this  vital  agent  is  generated. 

The  following  seven  considerations  and  facts,  derived  from  phy- 
sical science,  lead  as  to  the  conclusion  that  matter  does  not 
exist  r — 

lit,  All  matter  (if  such  an  entity  exists)  acts  external  to  itself. 
The  sun  acts  on  the  earth,  and  the  earth  acts  on  the  moon.  The 
power  of  attraction  between  these  large  bodies,  considered  as  ft 
mechanical  force,  is  enormous ;  and  as  we  know  of  no  material  link 
between  them  which  can  explain  eo  strange  a  fact,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  believe  in  the  existence  of  this  tremendous  mechanical  ot 
pfaysical  force  without  a  mechanical  agent  to  produce  it. 

2d,  It  is  evident,  in  like  manner,  that  when  chemical  atoms  act 
on  each  other,  they  act  external  to  themselves.  It  is  therefore  here 
not  matter  which  acta  on  matter,  but  force  on  force. 

Zd,  It  can  be  proved  that  no  one  portion  of  matter  ever  toocbea 
another.  The  elasticity  of  all  substances  proves  this ;  and  when  it 
is  objected  to  this  argument  that  the  ultimate  parts  ol  matter  may 
be  compressible,  this  objection  is  merely  equivalent  to  saying  that 
thmr  parts  may  coma  do*er,  and  that  they  are  not  absolutely  cloee. 


j.Googlc 


384  Proceedings  of  Ike  Boycd  Society 

In  gUM  the  interrala  between  the  atomB  mnat  be  enormons,  and  jst, 
if  the  old  theory  of  repnlaioD  holde,  the  atoms  still  repel  one  another, 
eren  under  the  nearly  fully  exbaxrated  receiver  of  an  aii-pomp. 

4A,  A  ray  of  light  falling  on  a  poUahad  eniface  of  ooloored  fs^aaa, 
or  on  a  mahogany  table,  &c.,  ia  reflected  without  ocqniring  any  of 
the  oolooi  of  the  body  reflecting  it  This  proves  that  the  action  in 
reflection  is  external  to  the  substance  of  the  glass,  and  that  the  ray 
never  toDobes  the  reflecting  sniface. 

The  fact  with  regard  to  light,  that  the  angle  of  reflection  is  equal 
to  the  angle  of  incidence,  and  that  there  is  no  dispersion  of  the  imy, 
owing  to  the  necessary  roughness  of  all  artificially  polished  snr- 
faces,  is,  as  Sir  John  Hersohel  observes,  in  bis  article  on  light 
(Ency.  Metr.),  a  proof  that  the  ray  never  tonches  the  sarfaoe,  but  is 
reflected  at  a  certain  distance  from  it. 

5th,  The  passage  of  the  reacted  ray  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  band  of  force  (where  it  ia  bent  down  tontuda  the  glass),  and 
comes  upon  the  partially  rough  Bubstance  of  the  glass,  affords  a 
strong  proof  tbat  it  does  not  encounter  matter  there  to  obstruct  or 
scatter  it,  for  it  meets  the  snrface  at  every  conceivable  angle,  and 
yet  the  different  parts  <^  the  lay  pass  through  all  the  inequ^Uea, 
preserving  their  direction  parallel  with  one  another.  We  mnst 
therefore  regard  the  surface  of  the  glass  as  merely  the  first  line  of 
centres  of  the  atomic  forces  which  constitute  the  subatanoe  (^  the 
glaaa,  and  which  centres  terminate  again  in  the  line  of  the  lower 
Burface  of  the  glass. 

&d.  The  free  vibration  of  the  ether  in  the  densest  bodies,  sodi 
as  the  diamond,  ruby,  glass,  water,  and  crystals,  and  the  paiaUel 
direction  of  tbelnminiferous  ray,  is  notreconcilable  with  the  theory 
<A  transparent  bodies  being  solid  and  natural  bodies. 

7th,  Our  inability  to  interrupt  the  attracting  action  of  the  magnet 
by  the  intwrention  of  numerous  plates  cf  non-magnedo  danse 
bodies,  snch  as  glass,  copper,  lead,  pasteboard,  ico.,  eithw  ain^  or 
in  combination,  affords  a  strong  presumption  tbat  all  them  sub- 
stances interposed  are  composed  not  of  solid  matter,  bat  of  com- 
Innations  of  immaterial  forces. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  facts  and  considei^ons  Chat  we 
never  tonch  matter  (even  if  it  exists).  And  that  we  never  see  it  is 
admitted  alike  by  physiologists  and  mctapbysiciaiM,  for  vision  is 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinbttrgh,  Session  1861-65.  385 

taiereljr  a  mental  affection,  calleil  np  hy  an  impulse  on  the  optic 
nerve  made  by  the  movementa  of  the  InmiQifeTous  ether,  vhich,  not 
the  chair  or  table,  but  the  forces  exieting  and  acting  external  to 
the  chair  or  tahio,  or  other  object,  radiates  oS.  Moreover,  it  is 
universally  admitted  that  vision  is  only  a  mental  affection,  not  cor- 
responding  to  anything  external  to  the  mind. 

Chemical  atoms  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  circles  of  force 
without  any  nucleus  or  core  of  matter  in  them ;  for  if  the  forces 
are  the  efficient  parts,  there  is  evidently  no  necessity  to  assume 
that  an  inert  and  uselesB  part  will  exist  within  them.  The  law  of 
Parsimony  entirely  justifies  us  in  assuming  this,  and  in  discharging 
matter  from  the  atom. 

The  universe  in  this  light  becomes  a  vast  and  glorious  exhibition  of 
power,  acting  and  displayed  according  to  those  laws  which  have  been 
impressed,  and  which  laws  and  system  we  designate  the  law»  ofnalvre. 

Sir  John  Leslie,  in  his  Dissertation  prefixed  to  the  "  Eocyclo- 
psedia  Britaunica,"  seems  to  have  no  disfavour  to  Boscowich's 
"  Theory  of  Dynamics,"  except  that  the  material  points  are  made 
mathematical  points,  and  suggests  that,  in  order  to  get  over  this 
prejudice,  we  may  conceive  the  material  centres  "to  have  real 
dimensions,  though /or  iTaalUr  than  any  aisigned  meaiure." 

Professor  Forbes,  in  his  Disaertation,  expresses  a  difficulty  in 
reconciling  this  theory  to  the  law  of  inertia.  This  is  probably  a 
chief  difficulty  felt  by  most  men,  to  conceive  of  inertia  being  pos- 
eessed  by  immaterial  bodies.  But  the  difficulty  is  entirely  imagi- 
nary, and  arises  from  our  habit  of  considering  that  matter  ha* 
inertia,  and  conceiving  that  therefore  nothing  but  matter  can  have 
it.  It  is  evident  we  cannot  declare  what  propertiua  are  incompa- 
tible with  immaterial  forces.  Our  proof  that  we  must  admit  them 
to  have  inertia  is  this.  Let  us  suppose  a  molecule  of  forces  at  rest ; 
it  evidently  will  not  laoy^  unUsa/orcv  it  applied  ;  ct  certain  amount  ot 
force  is  required  to  give  it  a  certain  velocity.  If  this  he  admitted,  then 
it  follows  that  if  the  molecule  be  increased  10,  100,  or  1000  times 
in  matt,  it  must  necessarily  require  10, 100,  or  1000  times  that  force 
to  produce  the  like  velocity.  So  far,  then,  as  we  have  analogy  and 
argument  to  guide  us,  these  immaterial  bodies  must  have  inertia, 
at  least  the  mouth  is  shdt  against  declaring  that  they  cannot  have  it. 

If  a  difficulty  still  remains  in  conceiving  immaterial  masses  to 

VOL.  r.  3  a 


,0.,  Google 


386  Piveeedinga  of  the  Boyat  Society 

poeaeBS  inertia  oi  the  feeling  of  pondenuity  or  immobility,  tlie 
difficulty  should  Tanieh  when  it  iB  kept  in  mind  that  ail  our  percep- 
tions of  force  are  only  relaiive,  not  abiolute.  If  out  living  bodiei, 
then,  and  the  BubataDce  of  all  externa]  objects,  are  of  the  Mine 
immaterial  nature,  we  should  not  be  Burprised,  but  pbciuld  nther 
expect,  that  the  inertia  of  external  objeeta  Bhould  appear  in  propor- 
tion to  their  masaeB,  and  that  it  should  also  have  a  relation  to  the 
■Irengtb  as  well  as  the  mass  of  our  percipient  bodies,  all  b«ing  com- 
posed of  the  B&me  immaterial  subetance. 

The  great  difficult;  felt  by  those  metaphysicians  who  believe  ia 
matter  has  always  been  regarding  this  inert  thing,  matitr,  Tal^ 
away,  say  tbey,  the  qualities  of  colour,  heat  and  cold,  resistanoe  w 
solidity,  from  any  object,  and  an  inert  something  remains  to  pnizle 
us.  The  author,  on  the  contrary,  bolde  that  reBiatanoe  o;  sohdity 
GOQStitntes  matter.  The  difficulty  felt  by  metaphysioiana  ia  tbui 
avoided— namely,  the  neceesity  of  conceiving  B  thing  to  ^xiat  with- 
out qualities. 

There  is  another  difficulty  which  besets  the  believer  in  mattw- 
The  human  mind  has  always  felt  a  difficulty — an  apparent  incon- 
graity,  almost  approaching  to  a  feeling  of  impowibility — ^wben  it 
conceives  of  a  Being,  whose  essence  is  spiritual,  creating  a  thing  d 
a  different  essence  from  Himself,  which  matter  is  conceived  to  be. 
The  ancient  pbiloeopbers  of  G-reece,  feeling  this,  declared  thftt  mat- 
ter was  uncreated,  and  eternal.  Spinosa,  one  of  the  acntest  minds, 
felt  also  the  Bame  difficulty,  and  in  his  EQtici  he  lays  it  down  ai  U 
axiom  of  reason  that  "  the  knowledge  of  an  effect  (the  world,  for 
instance)  depends  on  the  knowledge  of  the  cause,  and  things  ttA^ 
have  nothing  in  common  with  each  other  (matter  and  spirit)  outnot 
be  understood  by  means  of  each  other."  Hence  the  one  c^oot  ba 
the  cause  of  the  other.  We  state  this  principally  to  show  how 
extensively  the  difficulty  has  been  felt  of  conceiving  the  existeitc9 
of  two  different  essences  in  nature. 

Recent  discoveries  have  eBtablished  that  beat  is  mechanical  force, 
the  two  being  mutually  convertible  without  loss.  The  attiactioo 
of  gravity  and  chemical  attractions  and  repulsions  are  all  the  UID^ 
physical  force,  and  the  entire  external  worid  is  nothing  faut  % 
manifestation  of  it, — a  simple  and  grand  conception,  and  one  wbi''^ 
enters  the  domain  alike  of  physics,  of  speculative  philosophy,  »dA 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  387 

of  theology,  sad  which  in  all  of  these  sciences  is  equally  impottant. 
Tt  TepieseaU  the  external  world  ond  its  Creator  aa  poBsessed  of  one 
immaterial  and  aptWfual  essence— jKiuier  and  itUelligtnce  hemg  Ihe 
attributes  of  the  Crsator,  and  pawn-  tuhordinate  and  ttitlained  tha 
charaeterittit  ofth*  mreation. 

The  objection  to  a  system  of  pure  dynamics  will  probably  be  thid. 
It  will  be  said  foroes  cannot  exist  except  as  the  properiU*  of  matter. 
The  belief  in  the  necessity  of  matter  is  all  but  universal.  ThU 
arises,  we  think,  from  a  law  of  the  mind,  which  when  it  refleote  on 
any  thing  at  txittmg  immediately,  and  of  necessity,  assigns  a  cause 
for  its  existence.  The  generality  are  satisfied  to  regard  the  pro- 
ptrtiet  perceived  at  eowtittUing  the  thing  or  object.  Tho  object  is 
thus  a  hard  or  soft,  a  black  or  white,  or  coloured  thing.  The  man 
of  science  applies  his  mind  to  the  consideration  of  the  propertie», 
and  afterwards  to  the  consideration  of  the  thing  it«elf,  as  if  they  were 
different  entities,  and  he  thus  assigns  matter  as  the  eauie  of  the 
properties  he  observes.  The  author  also  believes  in  a  cause  for  the 
forces  of  which  he  has  spoken ;  but  as  he  has  not  matter  to  fall 
back  on,  he  is  compelled  to  assign  as  the  eattae  that  Being  who  is 
the  centre  of  all  power  and  wisdom,  and  who  manifests  these 
attributes  to  his  creatures  in  the  vast  and  complex  arrangements  of 
a  dynamical  universe. 

The  tendency  of  speculative  philosophy  has  been  to  run  into 
idealism.  This  has  been  its  fate  in  Gennany,  and  it  is  to  he 
feared  it  may  come  to  the  same  conclusion  in  Scotland.  The 
author  would  deeply  deplore  such  an  end  to  our  boasted  Scottish 
phUosopby.  The  ultimate  foundation  of  all  reality  has  been  ad- 
mitted by  nearly  every  philosopher  to  be  the  Supreme  Being.  If, 
then,  the  theory  propounded  should  assist  abler  hands  in  establish- 
ing realism  directly  on  this  foundation,  the  author  would  feel  in  no 
ordinary  degree  gratified  and  reworded. 


2.  On  the  Nudibranchtate  MoUuaca  of  St  Andrews ;  Ed- 
wardsia  ;  and  the  Polyps  of  Alcyonium  digitatum.    By 
W.  C.  M'Intosh,  M.D.,  F.L.S.    Commnnicated  by  Pro- 
fessor Allmao.     (AccompaDied  by  Tarious  Drawings.) 
The  Nudibranchs  owe  their  prominence  in  British  zoology  to  the 


DvGooglc 


388  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

Ute  Dr  Johnaton  of  Berwick,  and  to  the  splendid  monogiapb  of 
Uesars  Ajdei  and  Hancock. 

Inhabitants  for  the  moat  part  of  the  lamin&rian  and  littoral 
zones,  the  locks  and  rock-pools,  by  minute  and  continued  eearch, 
produced  the  greater  number  of  those  met  with  at  St  Andrews,  the 
few  others  being  procured  from  fishing-boata  and  dSbris  of  atorms. 
Almost  all  require  to  be  sought  for  with  care,  and  generally 
escape  superficial  notice  altogether.  Host  have  been  kept  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  period  in  confinement,  and  some  are  living 
even  now,  though  with  greatly  diminished  bodies,  and  less  bril- 
liant tints,  the  results  of  insafEcient  food  and  other  unfavoumble 
circumstances. 

Their  favourite  haunts  are  under  stones  in  pools,  and  the^ore 
undiBturbed  these  look,  the  better  chance  is  there  of  securing  fine 
specimens.  The  upturned  surface  of  the  stooo,  however,  should 
be  immersed  an  inch  or  two  under  the  clear  water,  bo  as  to  float  out 
the  branches  of  the  zoophytes  and  the  branchise  of  the  Eolids.  The 
f  jndnesB  of  the  smaller  forms  for  surfaces  covered  with  Sertularidce 
is  also  seen  in  the  case  of  storms,  where  the  richest  fields  are  the 
broad  blades  of  the  Laminarise  that  are  covered  with  Laomtdta  geni' 
eulata  and  gelatinoaa. 

The  species  met  with  at  St  Andrews  will  he  given  in  the  order 
in  which  they  occur  in  the  "Monograph"  above-mentioned,  with 
such  remarks  appended  to  each  as  may  seem  necessary  or  new. 

The  most  plentiful  Nudibranch  here,  as  elsewhere,  is  Dorit  ttc 
herctilala,  which  occurs  in  all  sorts  of  places  amongst  the  rocks  at 
low  water.  In  storms,  many  are  fonnd  on  the  west  sands  in  the 
intricate  hollows  of  large  masses  of  Halichtmdria  panicea,  a  eitna- 
tion  aflbtding  them  both  food  and  shelter.  Some,  found  under 
Urge  stones  in  pools,  were  unusually  flattened  and  rounded,  like 
gigantic  Lamellarite :  Buch  are  not  gaily  tinted.  Most  of.  the 
specimens,  especially  those  of  large  size,  had  some  of  the  parasites 
described  by  Alder  and  Hancock  under  the  name  of  Ergasilns, 
which  sported  over  their  branchiae  and  other  organs  with  wonderful 
agility.  Messrs  Alder  and  Hancock  state  that  they  are  colourless, 
bat  in  most  cases  these  had  a  pure  white  cross  on  the  back,  and 
some  were  pinkish.  The  largest  Doris  measured  fully  4}  Inches. 
Their  food,  as  nsual,  is  SalicJumdria  panicta. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  389 

JJoria  Joknatoni  ia  somewhat  scarce,  and  generally  in  company 
with  the  fonnet  under  stones  between  tide-marks.  T^  species 
does  not  sport  in  tint.  It  is  an  active  animal  in  confinement.  The 
same  species  of  Ergasilus  occurs  on  this  Boris  as  on  the  former. 
Largest  specimen,  2J  inches. 

i^orti  repanf^a  is  one  very  commonly  found  at  all  seasons  amongst 
the  rocks.  The  largest  specimeas  are  often  of  a  dusky  yellow  tint. 
Uany  had  the  border  of  the  cloak  injured,  as  if  a  portion  had  been 
eaten  out.  It  ib  very  tenacious  of  life  in  captivity.  Two  kept  for 
some  time  in  a  veseel  along  with  a  little  Corallina  officinalis  de- 
posited their  ova ;  and  this  being  one  of  the  few  species  that 
Messrs  Alder  and  Hancock  bad  not  observed  at  the  breeding  season, 
nor  yet  succeeded  in  obtaining  its  spawn,  a  more  detailed  account 
will  be  given. 

On  the  10th  of  November,  the  two  were  observed  in  coitu,  and 
apparently  in  a  state  of  excitement,  elevating  the  cloak  &U  round 
the  margin  in  a  curionsly  frilled  manner.  They  lie  head  to  taU, 
but  not  very  closely,  and  the  intromittent  organ  is  capable  of  great 
extension  and  distension,  so  that  the  animals  are  enabled  to  effect 
their  purpose,  even  when  one  is  lying  at  right  angles  to  the  head 
of  the  other.  On  the  12th  they  were  both  in  process  of  depositing 
their  spawn  on  the  side  of  the  glass.  The  coil  is  a  simple  one, 
attached  by  the  edge,  and  sloped  upwards  and  inwards.  The  eggs 
are  very  large  and  conspicnous. 

In  spawning,  the  body  is  shortened  ;  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
cloak  being  doubled  inwards,  so  as  to  press  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  coil  of  ova.  The  upper  (left)  edge  of  the  cloak  is  raised  from 
the  surface  and  arched  in  a  graceful  manner.  The  anterior  border 
JB  spread  out  and  flattened  on  the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  the  fore 
part  of  the  foot  is  likewise  similarly  fixed.  In  the  centre  of  the 
coil  of  spawn,  the  foot  was  bent  upon  itself,  causing  a  deep  dimple, 
and  this  hollow  remained  although  the  animal  changed  its  position. 
As  the  act  of  deposition  proceeded,  it  glided  the  anterior  (attached) 
extremity  upwards,  while  the  posterior  (free)  turned  downwards, 
thus  favouring  the  gradual  exit  of  tlie  coil.  The  anterior  part  of 
both  foot  and  mantle  constitnted  a  broad  pivot  on  which  the  animal 
revolved  from  right  to  left.  The  posterior  border  of  the  mantle 
did  not  always  remain  alone  at  the  outer  part  of  the  coil,  for  by 


DvGooglc 


890  Proceedings  of  the  BoyaX  Society 

«nd  by  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot  likewise  projected,  and  the 
dimple  ii^he  centre  beoome  lesa  marked,  though  still  present. 

Next  day  it  had  nearly  completed  two  coils,  and  then,  having 
diverged  at  an  angle,  left  an  interrupted  row  of  ova  in  single  file. 

So  far  as  observed,  their  stomaohs  contained  only  cells  and  gia- 

DorU  Mpera. — Under  atones  in  pools  near  low-water  mark;  not 


Dari*  iiIatn«Uaf a.— Abundant  all  the  year  ronnd ;  occuning  in 
BWarms  in  ]Uarcli,  and,  according  to  Dr  John  Beid,  in  February 
also.  They  manifest  a  tendency  to  congmgate  together  in  a  yessel, 
and  often  crawl  out  of  the  water,  theii  stomacha  oontala  a  gray- 
ish-brown mass  of  granules. 

Doris  piloaa. — Common ;  of  all  buee,  and  occasioQally  patty* 
coloured.  The  same  peculiar  granular  matter  existed  in  the 
stomachs  of  this  species,  but  with  tbe  addition  of  a  greater  number 
of  larger  granules  and  cell'like  bodies ;  there  was  also  a  tendency 
to  form  bolus  masses. 

or  Doria  tubquadrata,  only  a  single  specimen  occurred. 

Ooniodori*  nodota  is  a  very  common  species,  first  found  btte 
by  the  late  Bev.  Dr  Fleming,  and  afterwards  by  Dr  John  Beid. 
There  is  little  to  be  met  with  at  St  Andrews  in  suppoit  of 
tbe  statement  of  tbe  able  authors  of  tbe  "  Monograph"'— in  regard 
to  tbe  disappearance  of  the  adult  animal  and  the  growth  of  tbe 
young }  for  the  varying  sizes  occur  throughout  tbe  entire  year, 
fine  fult-giowQ  specimens  (1^  inch)  being  foond  in  I)eoemb«r  as 
well  as  in  March,  April,  and  May.  They  are  hardy  in  confine- 
ment. 

Triopa  (Aaviger  occurs  now  and  then  under  stones,  in  sitnatioDS 
seldom  invaded  by  aught  but  the  waves.  The  most  striking  fact 
in  connection  with  this  animal  is  the  occurrence,  in  two  ont  of 
three  specimens,  of  crustacean  parasites  (Ergasili)  similar  in  all 
respects  to  those  found  on  the  two  first- men  tinned  speoiei  of 
Doris, 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  amongst  tbe  Nudibrancba,  and  at 
the  same  time  comparatively  rare,  is  met  with  in  considerable 
abundance,  viz.,  ^giriu  punetilvcens.  Belying  its  generic  nam<^ 
it  frequents  tbe  under  surfaces  of  stones  in  pools,  from  low  wator 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  391 

to  above  half  tide  mark,  apparent!;  delighting  in  dark  enrfacea 
whose  tints  closely  resemble  its  own.  They  were  met  with  osTeral 
times  in  groups.  ^.  panctilwxns  lives  well  in  captivily,  and  it 
spawns  in  July. 

Potyeent  ^uadrilineala  was  first  fonnd  at  St  Andrews  by  Dr  John 
Beid  in  the  month  of  September.  It  is  occasionally  got  after 
October  storms,  and  at  low-watet  mark  dnring  the  same  season. 
They  also  spawn  at  that  time. 

Poli/cera  oceUata  is  gregarions  amongst  these  rocks ;  very  active 
in  confinement ;  apparently  phytivoious.  Spawns  in  September, 
and  sometimeB  the  ova  ar«  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
an  incomplete  coil. 

One  young  specimen  of  Polyeera  Leitonii  occurred  after  ao  Oe- 
tober  storm  on  a  laminarian  blade  covered  with  L.  gtnieulata. 

Anctila  crittata  is  rather  a  common  Nudibrancb,  living  under 
stones  in  quiet  pools  between  tide  marks,  sometimes  in  groups  of 
three.  The  majority  of  the  specimens  are  pale.  They  spawned 
in  August. 

Tritonia  Homlerffii  comes  occasionally  from  the  deep-sea  fishing. 
In  the  stomach  of  one,  about  3J  inches  long,  were  fragments  of 
the  usual  food  (^Aieyonium  digitatum),  mixed  with  darker  dSbris, 
possibly  from  Amphitrite  tubes. 

Tritonia  pldxia,  very  abundant  on  AUyonxum  digitatam  (on 
which  it  probably  feeds),  cast  on  shore  by  storms,  on  corallines 
from  deep-sea  fiflhing,  and  procured  by  the  dredge  off  the  lami- 
narian  zone.  Twice  were  full-grown  specimens  got  in  autumn, 
having  a  remarkable  process  on  the  left  side,  about  the  last  bran- 
chial appendage  ;«indeed,  the  toil  seemed  bifid. 

Dendronottu  arboretceiu  generally  comes  from  deep  water  in  the 
flshtng-boats,  or  from  debris  of  storms.  Dr  John  Beid  first  pro- 
cured it  at  St  Andrews.  None  were  ever  beard  to  emit  the  sounds 
mentioned  by  him  and  Dr  Grant. 

Zhlo  fragUii. — Specimens  occur  on  corallines  fiom  deep-sea 
fishing.  They  are  rarer  than  the  succeeding  species,  and  generally 
larger. 

Doto  ecronala. — Abundant  In  the  same  regions  as  the  former 
and  also  under  stones  in  lock  pools.  One  showed  a  curions  ab- 
normality in  the  left  dorsal  tentacle. 


DvGooglc 


392  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

EdtU  pajtSlcta  occurs  very  plentifully  during  some  years  BmoEgrt 
the  lOcks,  bat  is  absent  from  its  accustomed  baunta  during  othere, 
without  apparent  cause. 

Supplying  the  place  of  the  It^rge  E.  Dmmmondi  of  i\ie  west  coist, 
is  the  more  beautiful  and  graceful  Eoli*  coronata,  which  is  occa- 
sionally met  with  near  low-water  mark.  They  eometimes  detoui 
portions  of  their  own  taila, 

Eolii  mJthTanehialia  appears  amongst  the  rocks,  and  in  d£tiria  of 
etonna.  The  white  granular  streak  down  the  tail  is  interrupted  by 
pale  papillae.  They  aie  agile  and  restlesB  in  confinement,  and  do 
not  scrapie  to  devour  a  dead  companion  of  any  species. 

Eolii  olivaeea  is  met  with  sparingly  under  large  stones  in  lOck 
pools,  between  tide  marks.    It  is  hardy. 

One  of  the  most  plentiful  species  is  E.  viridis,  a  group  of  blz  oi 
seven  occasionally  occurring  under  a  stone,  and  smaller  numben 
more  frequently.  Of  all  the  Eolides  observed,  this  has  the  mort 
prehensile  tail.  It  is  easily  kept  for  many  months,  though  it  loses 
ita  tints. 

Edit  Andreapolia,  n,  a.— Body  half  an  inch  long,  ovate-oblong, 
of  a  pale-yellow  or  dull  purplish  hue,  the  latter  chiefly  marked  at 
the  sides;  with  the  doranm  faintly  granular,  and  brilliantly  blotched 
over  with  large,  elongated,  bright  orange-pink  spots,  which  were 
quite  absent  from  the  tail.  Some  of  these  spots  were  in  front  of 
the  dorsal  tentacles— one  at  the  anterior  and  outer  aspect  of  each, 
and  a  very  distinct  mass  at  their  junction.  There  are  a  few  smaller 
orange  spots  at  the  sides  below  the  branchira.  Donal  teniacUs 
about  twice  as  long  as  the  oral,  not  much  tapered,  approximating 
at  the  base ;  tips  pale  amber,  then  a  bioad  belt  qf  reddish  orange ; 
a  few  white  grains  at  either  end  of  the  orange.  Oral  tentaetei 
short  and  blunt,  capable  of  a  spoon-like  flattening ;  similarly  tinted. 
Branehia  elliptical  or  club-shaped,  purple,  pale  at  the  base,  and 
densest  in  colour  next  the  reddish-orange  cap  at  the  tip.  In  one 
pale  specimen,  a  waved  central  vessel  was  apparent.  There  ap- 
peared to  be  more  tlian  a  dozen  transverse  rows.  The  stractuie  of 
the  tongue  approached  most  nearly  to  E.  tricolor.  Found  tttei 
storms,  and  at  low  water  amongst  the  rocks. 

Eolia  Farrani. — At  low  water  amongst  the  rocks,  and  on  the 
beach  after  storms.    Not  uncommon. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semion  1864-65.  393 

Eotix  exigua. — A  nninber  vete  found  on  Laomtiea  genieulala  upon 
Laminarian  bladee,  cast  od  shore  by  an  October  etonn. 

Eolu  Roberliana,  d.  s. — Body  three- tenths  of  an  inch  long,  rather 
stout,  and  of  a  prevailing  orange-red  hue ;  gianulai,  with  a  few 
paler  spots.  Dorsal  tentaela  extremely  attenuated,  long,  linear, 
smooth,  orange-red.  Eyes  very  distinct,  set  in  a  pale  yellow  space 
at  the  base  of  the  tentacle  posteiiorly.  Oral  tentacle*  shorter,  linear, 
simthirly  attenuated,  orange  red,  and  proceeding  from  the  angles  of 
the  lip.  Branehia  thick,  rather  swollen,  elongated,  tipped  with 
deep  orange-red,  which  likewise  paeees  down  the  sides ;  the  base 
paler  orange.  They  were  incomplete  in  the  specimen,  but  appeared 
to  be  set  in  nine  or  ten  transverse  rows,  leaving  a  considerable 
space  in  the  centre.  The  first  row  comes  nearly  as  far  forward  as 
tbe  dorsal  tentacles.  Foot  orange  yellow,  rather  suddenly  tapering 
to  a  short  tail,  i/iitra  of  apale  straw  colour;  lingual  plates  somewhat 
like  those  of  E.  tricolor,  and  stouter  than  in  E.  Farrani:  From 
the  border  of  the  laminarian  zone  during  a  spring  tide. 

Noie  on  the  Polypt  o/Alcyoninm  digitatum. 
The  varied  descriptions  and  figures  of  these  common  polyps  pro- 
bably arise  from  the  changes  which  so  readily  ensue  on  removing 
them  from  tbeir  native  sites  in  tbe  uenal  manner.  The  figure 
given  by  Kllis,*  though  not  accurate,  shows  a  closer  approach  to 
the  natural  aspect  of  the  tentacles  than  Dr  Johnston's,!  ^^^  ^^^ 
same  may  be  said  of  Muller's-t  Dr  Johnston  is  correct  enough  in 
his  description,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  faded  and  sickly  specimens 
brought  from  deep  water  by  the  fishermen.  Sir  J.  Qt.  Dalyell§  is 
somewhat  more  exact  in  his  description  of  tbe  tentacula  and  gene- 
ral appearance,  but  his  figure  does  not  represent  the  polyps  in 
perfection. 

The  most  perfect  specimens  are  got  amongst  tbe  rocks  at  low 
water,  under  stones  in  pools.  Small  patches  can  be  chipped  off, 
adhering  to  a  fragment  of  stone,  without  injury  ;  and  taking  one 
of  those,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  it  is  fouud  that  the 

"  The  Nat.  Hiet.  of  man;  Cnrions  and  Dncommon  Zoopbjtes, 

t  BritiBh  Zoophylea,  p.  177.     Pliites  uiiv.  anil  xuiv*. 

X  ZooL  Dauica.     Tab.  liixi. 

J  Rare  and  Remarkable  Animals,  ftc,  vol.  ii.  p.  176,    Plata  slvii. 
VOL.  V.  3  » 


j.Googlc 


394  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

thioknesfl  of  the  film  in  contractioQ  is  not  more  than  one-tenth  of 
an  inch.  As  the  polyp  ooutracts  into  its  stellate  apertnre,  its  month 
gapeg,  apparently  the  more  readily  to  give  exit  to  the  vatei  in  iU 
interior.  It  presents  the  aspect  of  an  octagon  with  hollow  sidw 
when  about  the  level  of  its  cell.  Bows  of  spicala  project  froni  the 
corners  towards  the  centre. 

If  further  extended,  the  tentacnla,  their  pinne,  and  the  lovs  of 
spicnU  become  mors  apparent ;  oral  aperture  dilated  ;  outline  of 
oral  disc  Bimllarly  octagonal,  though  much  larger. 

When  still  further  extended,  a  coiling  of  the  arms  is  frequently 
seen,  lihe  the  circinate  vernation  of  the  ferns. 

In  a  state  of  full  expansion,  the  polyp  is  elongated  and  narrowed 
towards  the  bead,  meaBoring  more  than  half  an  inch  from  the  tips 
of  the  tentacula  to  the  base.  The  tentacles  can  be  stretched  to 
more  than  twice  the  diameter  of  the  oral  disc,  are  narrow  and 
tapering,  and  have  the  elongated  pinnte  at  each  side ;  the  tips  ue 
slightly  opaque,  probably  from  minute  suckers.  The  tentacles 
are  also  roughened  by  minute  spicula,  which  do  not,  however,  go 
further  than  the  base,  where  a  pale,  unspiculated  portion  occois; 
below  this  the  neck  of  the  polyp  is  supplied  with  long  spicula 
with  tuberculated  edges,  arranged  in  an  anow-sfaaped  manner.  In 
those  polyps  which  are  best  expanded,  the  diameter  of  the  oral 
disc  is  smallest.  Sometimes,  from  the  position  of  the  parts,  tbe 
tentaculum  with  its  ptnnsa  presents  a  spindle-shaped  appearance. 

Note  on  two  Neto  Speeiet  of  ike  Oenut  Edvjardtxa. 

Edyoardtia  Allmaimi,  n.  s. — Found  on  the  beach  at  St  Andrewi 
after  an  October  storm.  This  actinia  inhabits  a  very  apparent  free 
tube.  The  tentacles  can  be  retracted,  and  the  external  border  of 
the  disc  pouted  over  them.  The  disc  is  marked  by  eight  alcyonisn 
divisions  or  radii,  and  has  always  a  ragged  border  of  the  investing 
sac.    The  colour  of  the  disc  is  pale  brown  or  dark  flesh  tint. 

Tentacles  simple,  rather  blunt,  pale  and  translucent,  with  a  white 
streak  in  the  centre.  The  rim  of  the  mouth  occasionally  protruded 
as  a  conical  process. 

Case  composed  of  a  vast  number  of  diatomacen,  entangled  in  a 
basis  of  tough  cells  and  grannies,  developing  algte  and  debris  of 


j.Googlc 


o/Edinhwrgh,  8e$aion  1864-65.  395 

1  kinds;  and  it  gndaolly  increued  in  deneity  from  the 
growth  of  its  GOnBtitaent  stnictiiTeB,  and  probably  from  the  ehed- 
ding  of  mnons. 

The  presence  of  the  oaee  difltingniihea  it  from  Feachia  and  Hal- 
cttmpa ;  from  the  formei  it  is  alao  separated  by  the  faot  of  the  ten* 
tacles  being  wholly  retractile  within  the  swollen  diec.  It  seenw 
most  nearly  allied  to  Edwardsia,  though  tha  case  was  much  larger 
than  any  previously  mentioned,  and  its  tentacles  were  also  blunter 
asd  shorter. 

Edtoardna  Qoodtiri,  n.  a. — Found  with  the  foregoing ;  sheath 
lees  perfect.  It  constantly  protruded  a  pale  bladdery  portion  with 
minute  suckeie  posteriorly,  and  was  more  lively  and  sensitive  than 
the  former.  When  fully  contracted,  it  assumed  the  shape  of  a 
Roman  jar,  and  measured  less  than  ^th  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Tentacles  fifteen,  translucent,  longer  than  the  diameter  of  the 
oral  disc,  and  not  tapering  much.  At  the  tip  of  each,  under  a  low 
power  is  seen  a  slightly  opaque  whitish  ring;  then  the  tentacle  is 
perfectly  transparent  for  a  short  distance.  From  the  hose,  a  white 
spear-bead  reaches  more  than  half-way  up,  its  centre,  however, 
.showing  the  transparent  texture. 

Oral  disc  streaked  with  white  and  light  loown ;  month  not 
observed  to  project.    Column  behind  the  tentacles  pale. 

When  folly  extended,  it  msasiueB  about  half  an  inch,  the  pos- 
terior pellucid  portion  forming  nearly  the  half  of  this.  The  anterior 
part  of  the  latter,  however,  is  tinged  of  a  light  fawn  colour  from 
the  viscera. 

3.  Miscellaneoua  Obserrations  on  the  Blood.    B;  John 
Davy,  M.D,  F.RSS.  Lond.  &  Edin.  Ac. 

These  observations  are  given  in  six  sections. 

In  the  first,  "  On  the  Action  of  Water  on  the  Red  Gorposoles  of 
the  Blood,"  the  results  are  stated  of  trials  of  different  proportions 
of  water  on  these  corpuBcles ;  from  which  it  would  appear,  that  two 
of  water  to  one  of  cruor  of  the  blood  of  the  common  fowl,  sufficed 
to  change  the  form  of  the  corpusoleB,  and  to  render  them  globular. 
Ofter  changes  are  described,  which  were  witnessed  when  water  in 
peat  exoesB  was  used,— changes  referred  by  the  author  to  endos- 


j.Googlc 


396  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

mofiis  and  esoBmoeis,  and  rapture  of  the  corpuscles,  and  the  exclu- 

HioD  of  their  onclei. 

In  the  second,  "  On  the  Changes  which  take  place  in  the  Blood 
when  excluded  from  air,"  it  is  shown  that  these  changes  are  much 
the  same  as  when  blood  is  exposed  ia  the  air,  the  difference  be- 
ing chiefly  in  degree  as  to  time,  the  accordance,  it  is  inferred, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  oxygen  in  the  blood  itself,  the  retained 
oxygen  being  sufficient  to  originate  putrefactive  decomposition. 

In  the  third,  "  On  the  Action  of  the  Air-pump  on  the  Blood,"  it 
is  stated  by  the  author  that  the  results  obtained  were  more  Tariou* 
than  he  could  have  expected.  Some  of  them  were  the  following  :— 
Of  the  several  animals  of  which  the  blood  was  tried  (the  commao 
fowl,  the  duck,  sheep,  bullock,  pig),  least  air  was  procured  from  that 
of  the  common  fowl;  more  from  the  blood  of  animals  killed  after 
feeding  than  after  fasting ;  more  from  venous  than  arterial  blood ; 
none  from  serum  of  the  blood  ;  this  last  result  confirmatory  of  the 
inference  that  the  air — the  extricable  air — is  chiefly  derived  from 
the  rod  corpuscles,  &c. 

In  the  fourth,  "  On  the  Elffects  of  a  Low  Temperature  on  the 
Blood,"  results  are  described  showing  that  the  freezing  of  the  blood 
does  not  preserve  it  from  change  of  composition,  ammonia  having 
been  found  evolved  from  it  when  frozen ;  and  that  evolution  of  the 
volatile  alkali  takes  place  from  stable  dung  when  frozen,  and  from 
some  other  manures ;  but  that  muscle  (meat)  in  its  frozen  state  does 
not  appear  to  be  liable  to  the  same  change. 

In  the  fifth,  "On  the  Action  of  Ammonia  on  the  Slood,"  an 
account  is  given  of  the  effects  of  different  proportions  of  aqua 
ammoniie  on  the  entire  blood,  and  on  its  fibrin,  its  serum,  and  red 
corpuscle.  The  results  obtained  were  such  as  to  confirm  the  infer- 
ence that  the  coagulation  of  the  blood  is  nowise  owing  to  escape  of 
the  volatile  alkali,  a  very  large  proportion  of  ammonia  not  prevent- 
ing coagulation. 

In  the  sixth, "  On  the  Got^lation  of  the  Blood,"  some  remarks  are 
offered  on  one  of  the  latest  hypotheses  brought  forward  to  account 
for  the  phenomenon,  the  hypothesis  of  Professor  Lister  tending 
to  show  that  that  hypothesis  is  not  sufficiently  founded  on  fact,  and 
concluding  with  the  expression  of  belief,  that  the  vera  eatua  of  the 
change  is  still  to  be  discovered. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  186*-65.  397 

Tho    following    Gentleman    was    elected    an    Ordinary 


Fellow : 

John  Hoik,  H.D.,  P.R.O.P.E. 


The  following  donations  wero  laid  on  the  table  : — 

Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  No.  i  (with  Supple- 
ment), 1864.     Calcutta,  1864.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 

Aanalea  dee  Mines,  ou  recneil  de  UemoireB,  but  1 'Exploitation  des 
Mines  et  but  les  Sciences  et  les  Aita  qui  s'y  rattachent, 
rediges,  par  lea  Ingenienn  des  Mines.  Tom.  Y.  YI.  VIT.  1864. 
Paris  1864.     8«..— Front  the  Ecole  dea  Mine*. 

Jouroat  of  the  Boyal  Dublin  Society.  Kos.  32  and  33.  Dublin, 
186S.     Svo.— /Vom  the  Soeiety. 

The  Journal  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland.  No.  88.  Edinburgh, 
1865.     8vo.    From  (he  Highland  Society. 

Proceedings  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society.  Vol.  II.,  No.  16. 
London,  1865.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 

A  General  Description  of  Sir  John  Soane's  Musenm.  New  Edition. 
London.     12mo. — From  the  Tniateet. 

Quarterly  Return  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered 
iu  the  Divisions,  Counties,  and  Districts  of  Scotland,  for 
Quarter  ending  31st  December  1864  (with  Supplement.) 
Edinburgh,  1865.     Svo — Fnm  the  BegiitTar-Qenerai. 

Monthly  Beturn  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages,  registered  in 
the  Eight  Principal  Towns  in  Scotland,  for  January  1865,  with 
Supplement  to  the  Monthly  Returns  for  1864.  8vo. — From 
the  Segiitrar-Oeneral. 

Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society.  Vol.  V.  No.  2. 
London,  1865.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 

Report  on  the  Formation  of  the  Canterbury  Plains,  with  a  Geolo- 
gical Sketch  Map,  and  Five  Geolc^cal  Sections.  By  Julius 
Haast,  Fb.D.,  &c.,  Provincial  Geologist.  Chriat  Church,  1864. 
Folio,— JVom  the  Author. 

Report  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  Province  of  Canterbury. 
By  Julius  Haaat,  Ph.D.,  &c.  Christ  Church,  1864.  Folio.— 
From  the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


398  Proceedinga  of  the  Boytd,  Society 

B&hercheB  AatroDomiqaea  de  rObserratoiie  d'UtieoIit.    Far  U. 

Hoek.    La  Haye,  1864.    ito.—Frtm  the  Author. 
RtefaercheB  eat  la  quantity  d'Ether,  continue  dans  1m  Liqaides. 

Fai  M.  Hoek,  et  A.  C.  Oudemans.    La  Haye,  1S64.    4to.— 

From  the  Authors. 
Nova  Acta  Academite  CtDBaren  Leopoldmo-Garoliiua  Geimaniee, 

Natune  Curiosorum.     CreBden,  18G4.     4to. — From  the  Aea- 


Monday,  20;A  March  1865. 
Sib  DAVID  BRBWSTEK,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  CommunicatioDS  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Pronunciation  of  Qreek.    By  ProfesBor  Blackie. 

I.  On  the  levival  of  learning  at  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  Hellenista  of  Europe  took  the  pronunciation  of  Greek 
from  tbeii  teachers,  the  learned  G-reek  refugees  who  fled  from  Con- 
Btantinople  when  that  city  was  taken  hy  the  Toike  in  1453,  and 
who  carried  with  them  the  Greek  language,  both  as  the  living 
people  who  used  it,  and  as  the  inheritoTS  of  the  rich  store  of  philo- 
logical learning  accumulated  by  an  unbroken  Bucceesion  of  Alex- 
andrian, Boman,  and  Byzantine  Bcholara. 

II.  This  Greek  pronunciation  of  Greek  remained  undifiturbed 
among  European  scholars  till  Erasmus,  in  the  year  1528,  publisbed 
an  essay  on  Greek  pronunciation,  at  Baele,  to  prove  that  the  By- 
zantine Greeks  had  in  this  matter  departed  in  many  points  from 
the  practice  of  their  ancestors.  The  effect  of  this  esaay  was  not  to 
reconstTuct  the  lost  pronunciation  of  classical  Greek  upon  an; 
scientific  basis,  but  merely  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  men,  and  to  Wt 
eyery  European  people  upon  the  task  of  inventing  a  pronunciation 
of  Greek  according  to  their  own  conceit,  and  after  the  model  gene- 
rally of  their  own  national  peculiarities.  The  consequence  of  thii 
unreasoning  procedure  has  been  that  Bahel  of  confusion  which  nov 
reigns  with  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  that  noble  language,  of 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1864-65.  399 

which  the  living  Greeks  with  so  mnch  reason  complain,  and  vhich, 
in  my  opinion,  it  is  the  duty  of  philologers,  as  it  now  is  to  a  large 
extent  in  their  power,  to  remove. 

III.  In  this  haphazard  creation  of  a  modem  pronnnciation  of 
G-reek  according  to  individual  conceit  all  nations  fared  ill,  but  the 
BngUsh  by  far  the  worst;  for  they  flung  the  whole  basketful  of 
their  phonic  anomalies  into  the  Greek  grammar,  and  produced  a 
jargon  as  like  Greek  as  French  would  be  spoken  by  a  Cockney  who 
had  never  shown  himself  beyond  the  sound  of  the  Bow  Bells  in 
Cheapaide.  The  Scotch,  partly  by  following  the  analogy  of  their 
own  musical  Doric  dialect — partly  from  old  habits  of  familiar  inter- 
course with  Continental  scholars  not  under  English  influence — 
contrived  to  preserve  a  pronunciation  of  Greek  as  far  as  possible 
removed  from  the  barbarous  innovations  of  their  English  neigh- 
bours, and  conformable  in  some  most  important  respects  to  the 
acknowledged  practice  of  the  Greeks  in  the  classical  periods. 

lY.  Specially  it  can  be  proved  by  a  very  distinct  passage  in 
DionysiuB  of  Halicamassoa — a  rhetorician  by  profession  in  the  age 
of  Augustus  OeeBar  (vtpl  wvOitrtw  ivo/iaTu*,  ch.  XIV.) — that  the 
whole  series  of  the  vowels  a  <  i  o  u  is  pronounced  by  the  Scotch,  as 
by  all  the  Continental  nations,  correctly,  with  the  single  exception 
of  V,  which  in  some  ports  of  Scotland  is  confounded  with  oo,  and 
not  according  to  the  perfect  analogy  supplied  by  the  native  words 
guid,  bluid,  as  these  words  are  pronounced  by  the  best  speakers  of 
the  Scottish  dialect,  corresponding  to  the  sound  of  u  in  German,  as 
in  Biihne,  Bruder,  &c.  It  is  also  certain  that  the  pronunciation  of 
the  diphthong  m  practised  by  the  English  is  contrary  alike  to  the 
whole  traditions  of  philology  and  to  the  most  marked  characteristic 
of  the  Greek  language.  All  scholars  recognise  oo  as  the  only  legi- 
timate pronunciation  of  that  most  musical  of  the  diphthongs. 

V.  About  the  pronunciation  of  the  other  diphthongs  in  the  strictly 
classical — that  is,  the  Athenian — period,  great  doubt  prevails ;  but 
there  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  cu  was  pronounced  like  the 
same  diphthong  in  the  English  word  vain,  and  it  like  this  diphthong 
in  the  English  word  receive,  at  Alexandria  in  the  time  of  Galli- 
machus,  about  two  hundred  years  before  Christ.  Any  attempt  to 
reconstruct  the  Attic  orthoepy  of  the  diphthongs  on  the  principle 
suggested  by  Erasmus,  of  showing  how  they  ought  to  be  pronounced 


j.Googlc 


400  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

by  the  most  obvioufl  and  easy  mterflow  of  their  vocal  etemente,  cui, 
accordiDg  to  the  experience  of  all  languages,  Ibbub  in  no  reliable  re- 
sult.    Pronunciation  is  a  matter  of  usage,  not  of  argument. 

YI.  What  is  called  the  modern  Greek  pronunciation,  or  that 
used  by  the  Greeks  speaking  tbeir  own  language  at  the  present 
day,  is  not  modem  in  out  sense  of  that  word — it  ie  ByzaDtine  and 
Alexandrian  ;  and  in  its  most  characteristic  elements  as  old  as  the 
oldest  Greek  manuscripts  now  existing — as  old,  we  may  say  more 
correctly,  as  the  general  body  of  the  ante-Nicene  theology.  That 
it  is  a  corruption  from  the  oldest  olassicai  pronunciation  is  self- 
CTident,  from  the  fact  of  its  giving  the  slender  sound  of  t  to  half  a 
dozen  different  vowels  and  diphthongs.  But  this  is  only  what  may 
be  said  with  equal  truth  of  French,  English,  and  other  languagee, 
which  have  passed  through  various  stages  of  culture  during  auccee- 
sive  centuries.  Their  present  pronunciation  is,  in  many  important 
points,  a  corruption  of  that  which  was  originally  the  rule, 

VII.  In  these  circumstances,  the  practical  question  is  not  witfaont 
difGcuIty  how  far  the  Byzantine  Greek  pronunciation  should  be 
acknowledged  by  those  nations  who,  like  the  Scotch,  have  the 
happiness  to  use  a  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs,  on 
the  whole  exhibiting  a  pretty  fair  approximation  to  what  can  be 
certainly  known  about  the  true  pronunciation  of  Greek  in  the 
palmy  days  of  Attic  eloquence,  It  is  certain,  for  instance — or  at 
least  extremely  likely,  for  the  modem  Greeks  show  sturdy  fight  on 
this  point — that  the  Scottish  pronunciation  of  ij,  as  a  prolonged «, 
like  the  long  English  a  in  mate,  is  classical,  while  the  English  and 
Byzantine  pronunciation  of  that  vowel  as  a  long  i  is  fundamentally 
false.  Nevertheless,  I  lean  to  the  opinion  recently  announced  by 
the  French  Academy,  that  the  Byzantine  pronunciation,  notwith- 
standing some  obvious  defects,  should  be  accepted  as  a  general 
basis  for  the  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs  by  all 
European  scholars ;  and  that  for  these  four  reasons : — (1.)  It  is  not 
a  modern  innovation,  but  a  historical  fact  of  nearly  two  tboiiBBiid 
years'  duration  in  its  main  points,  and  must  be  known  to  the  student 
of  early  manuscripts,  as  the  only  true  key  to  a  whole  class  of  blnn- 
deis  made  by  the  early  transcribers.  (2.)  Though  a  corruption  in 
some  points,  it  is  a  characteristic  corruption,  and,  in  fact,  only  the 
development  of  a   marked    national   tendency — a  tendency  well 


...Google 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaeton  1864-65.  401 

known  to  QuintiliaD,  u  is  evident  from  the  cootnet  drown  b;  Iiim 
between  Latin  and  Greek  in  tbe  words : — Quam^uam  tit  major  ul 
gracHitai,  noe  tamen  lutmufortioTet.  (3.)  If  adopted,  it  would  form 
a  uniform  basis  of  matnol  nnderetandiDg  between  all  persone,  whe- 
thoT  scholars  or  native  Greeks,  who  may  use  the  Greek  language ; 
and  no  other  uniform  basis  is  at  preeent  possible.  (4.)  It  would  tend 
to  keep  up  a  friendly  feeling  between  -professional  scholars  and  the 
living  Greek  people — a  feeling  by  no  means  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
eoce  either  to  the  peace  of  Europe,  or  to  the  growth  of  a  soientific 
pliilology. 

VIII.  But  though  I  willingly  follow  the  French  Academicians 
in  assuming  the  Byzantine  pronunciation  as  the  only  sure  historical 
basis  for  the  pronunciation  of  Qreek  among  European  scholars,  I 
claim  tbe  liberty  of  making  one  or  two  deviations  from  that  tradi- 
tional norm  in  the  special  case  of  its  application  to  ancient  poetry. 
In  this  region  the  mere  luxury  of  sound  must  always  be  a  legis- 
lative element ;  and  as,  in  reading  Chaucer,  an  English  scholar  of 
tbe  present  day,  if  he  would  enjoy  the  poetical  rhythm,  necessarily 
departs  in  some  points  from  the  pronunciation  suitable  for  the  reci- 
tation of  Tennyson  or  even  Shakspeare,  so,  io  reading  Homer,  if 
I  depart  bo  far  from  the  Byzantine  basis  as  td  pronounce  ot  with 
the  full  vocalism  heard  in  our  English  word  joy,  rather  than  with 
the  attenuated  sound  of  the  modem  Greek  itacism,  I  am  only  using 
what  every  intelligent  Greek  will  consider  a  most  legitimate  liberty 
in  the  circumstances.  For  though  I  may  have  no  means  of  know- 
ing how  Homer  enunciated  his  well-known  iroXv^iXourCoio,  I  am  sure 
that  in  the  early  stage  of  a  language  used  by  such  a  hardy  and 
vigorous  people  as  the  Greeks  the  extreme  gracilitaa  of  the  modem 
itacism  could  not  have  been  a  dominating  characteristio :  rather 
it  seems  impossible  that  the  pronunciation  of  any  human  language 
should  have  remained  absolutely  without  change  for  a  period  of 
nearly  3000  years. 

IX.  Bat  the  sound  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs,  however 
important,  is  only  one  element  in  the  proper  pronunciation.  Accent 
and  quantity — that  is,  pitch,  emphasis,  and  duration  of  syllabie 
sound — are  matters  of  no  less  consequence,  and  form  a  no  less  sig- 
nificant feature  in  the  physiognomy,  so  to  speak,  of  each  particular 
form  of  human  speech.    With  regard  to  quantity,  I  remark  simply 

VOL.  V.  8  a 


j.Googlc 


402  Proceedings  of  (he  Jioyal  Society 

that  the  practice  bo  common  amoDg  claasicaL  teacheie,  both  io 
England  and  Scotland,  of  allowing  short  Byllablee  to  be  pronounced 
long  and  long  short,  except  in  penultimate  ayllables,  is  worthy  of 
all  reprobation ;  nor  is  there  the  slightest  scientific  foundation  for 
the  practice  lecently  introduced  into  some  Eugluh  academies  of 
pronouncing  the  long  vowel,  as  in  m&ter,  with  a  decidedly  different 
quality  from  the  same  Towel  when  short,  as  in  piter.  The  long 
Towel  is  merely  a  prolongation  of  the  identical  sound  heard  in  tbe 
short  Towel,  as  in  j&>,  Job,  and  many  familiar  English  examples. 
With  regard  to  accent,  it  is  quite  certain  that  both  the  English  and 
Scottish  scholars  are  altogether  wrong ;  and  that  the  living  practice 
of  the  Greeks  in  this  matter  is  the  only  one  that  haimonisee  at 
once  with  historical  tradition,  and  with  the  conclusions  of  philolo- 
gical Bcience.  That  the  classical  Greeks  pronounced  their  language 
with  an  exact  obBerrance  of  the  accent  is  a  point  on  which  the 
ancient  grammarians  are  quite  decided :  they  all  assume  that  cer- 
tain determinate  accents  are  as  much  tbe  law  of  living  Greek 
utterance  generally  as  certain  quantities  are  the  law  of  rhythmical 
composition.  Neither  do  tbey  leave  as  in  the  slightest  doubt  as  to 
what  the  nature  of  accent  really  is.  The  name  aevte  ifvs  given  to 
the  ruling  accent  plainly  marks  an  elevation  of  the  pitch  of  tbe 
voice  on  a  certain  syllable,  and  the  words  hriratri^  and  oHOts  tech- 
nically applied  to  the  acute  and  grave  accents,  meaning  tention, 
ttrest,  or  rirain,  and  relaxtUutn  or  remtsncm,  plainly  point  out  the 
element  of  emphasis,  which  gives  one  syllable' of  a  word  a  marked 
preponderance  to  the  ear  above  tbe  rest.  The  whole  doctrine  of 
enclitics  also  marks  emphasis  or  stress  as  an  essential  element  of 
the  Greek  accent ;  and  tbe  accented  verses  of  tbe  Byzantine  popular 
poetry  and  the  pronunciation  of  the  modern  Greeks  all  drive  us  to 
tbe  same  conclusion,  which  only  obstinate  prejudice,  ignorant  con- 
ceit, or  stolid  stupidity  can  resist.  This  conclusion  is  that  when 
Olympian  Pericles  thundered  against  Spartan  insolence,  and  De- 
moetbenea  against  Macedonian  aggression,  they  emphasised  the 
thunderbolts  of  their  speech  in  the  same  manner  that  Greek  words 
are  now  emphasised  by  an  orator  in  the  modem  Greek  Parliament, 
or  a  muleteer  on  the  ridge  of  the  modem  Greek  Parnassus, 

X.-  The  practice  by  which  the  British  school  of  Greek  scholars 
has  hitherto  been  distinguished,  of  pronouncing  Greek  by  the  laws 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  403 

or  Latin  acceutuatiou,  transmitted  to  m  through  theBomaD  Catholic 
Church,  while  at  the  eame  time  the  real  Greek  accents  are  care- 
fully marked  on  every  printed  page,  and  taught  minutely  as  a 
matter  of  learned  indoctrination,  is  one  of  the  most  curious  instances 
of  combined  careleaaness  and  perversity  in  the  whole  history  of 
learning.  Had  the  Greek  accents  not  been  marked  so  cnriously 
on  every  Greek  word  in  every  page  of  printed  Greek  for  the  last 
fonr  centuries,  some  excuse  might  have  been  found  for  a  practice, 
for  whicb  the  vit  inertia  of  human  nature  and  the  Latinised  habi- 
tude of  academic  ears  so  powerfully  plead ;  but  as  the  matter  now 
stands,  the  persistence  in  a  perverse  practice,  refuted  by  every  fact 
in  historical  tradition,  and  every  argument  in  philological  science, 
Elands  as  a  staring  absurdity  alone  in  tbe  annals  of  scholastic  life. 
The  aversion  which  tbe  English  scholars  geuerally  have  to  acknow- 
ledging tbe  truth  in  this  matter  appears  to  me  to  have  its  origin 
partly  in  a  gross  habit  of  ear,  which  renders  them  unable  to  appre- 
ciate certain  musical  and  elocutional  distinctions  which  underlie 
tbe  subject,  partly  in  a  sort  of  unreasoning  conBerratism,  which  ia 
the  backbone  of  their  whole  scholastic  and  academic  system,  partly 
also,  and  principally,  perhaps,  from  a  vague  imagination  they 
entertain  that  the  spoken  accent  of  Greek  prose  has  something  to 
do  with  the  rhythmical  recitation  of  Greek  verse.  Now,  it  is  quite 
certain  that,  however  distinct  the  accented  syllable  was  in  Greek 
oratory,  in  tbe  composition  of  Greek  verse  the  duration  of  the  vowel 
sounds  was  the  only  element  necessarily  taken  into  account,  while 
the  spoken  accent  was  either  silent  altogether  or  heard  with  a 
marked  subordination  to  the  accent  of  the  rhythm.  And,  as  a 
matter  of  educational  practice,  nothing  is  more  easy  for  a  boy  who 
has  an  ear — and  he  who  has  none  need  never  read  vene— to  pass 
from  the  accented  pronunciation  of  prose  to  tbe  quantitative  mensu- 
ration of  poetry  without  confusion.  Even  the  daily  practice  of  our 
schools  teaches  that  a  boy  cannot  read  a  single  distich  of  Ovid 
rhythmically  without  putting  a  stress  on  the  last  syllable  of  the 
final  dissyllable,  which  is  quite  contrary  to  the  natural  accent  of 
tbe  same  word  when  pronounced  in  prose, 

XI.  In  conclusion,  I  have  to  observe  that  tbe  pronunciation  of 
all  Greek  words  indiscriminately  according  to  the  monotonous 
Latin  accentuation,  is  merely  a  part  of  an  entirely  false  method  of 


DvGooglc 


104  Proceedinga  of  the  Soyal  Society 

tesohing  prevalent  in  the  great  English  sohools,  according  to  which 
dead  mlea  are  enbatitnted  for  livisg  fnnctione,  and  doctrinee  about 
Bonnda  for  the  sonnds  themselvefl.  Whoeoerer  oa  a  teacher  of 
languages  has  eeizedon  the  great  principle  that  the  eariB  the  epedal 
organ  used  by  nature  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  articulate  BoundB, 
will  never  commit  the  mistake  of  prononncing  iXtoi,  the  divine 
attribute  of  mercy,  with  the  same  intonation  that  marka  £Uos,  a 
wooden  block  for  washing  mince-collop».  The  Greek  langnage  con- 
tains whole  columns  of  such  words,  which  the  man  who  pronouQcea 
Qreek  according  to  Latin  accents  must  pervert  and  turn  into  non- 
sense. To  teach  any  language  with  false  accents  and  false  quan- 
tities, and  yet  to  incalcate  rules  about  true  accents  and  true  quan- 
tities, ie  to  declare  the  scboolmaster  wiser  than  the  Creator,  and  to 
insist  on  doing  by  a  forced  and  painful  process  of  memory  what 
nature  is  willing  to  do  for  us  by  the  pleasant  habituation  of  the  ear. 

2.  Note  on  Actioo.    By  Frofe&Bor  Tait. 

The  quantity  represented  by  rvdi,  or  its  equivalent /ti'tif,  in  any 
case  of  the  motion  of  a  particle,  is  known  to  possess  important 
dynamical  relations.  The  accidental  discovery  of  a  singularly 
simple  geometrical  representation  of  this  quantity  in  the  oase  of 
planetary  motion  led  me  to  inquire  whether  the  method  involved 
might  not  be  easily  generalized.  This  note  contains  a  sketch  of 
some  of  the  results  of  a  hurried  investigation  of  the  point, 

Graphicaljepresentationsof  the  action  in  some  common  cases  of 
motion  readily  suggest  themselves. 

Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  parabolic  trajectory  of  an  unresisted 
projectile,  the  action  through  any  arc  of  the  path  is  proportional  to 
the  area  included  between  that  arc,  the  directrix,  and  two  ordinates 
parallel  to  the  axis;  while  the  time  is,  of  course,  represented  by 
the  intercept  on  the  directrix. 

Again,  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  bracbistochrone  (the  cycloid 
with  its  vertex  downwards),  the  action  and  the  time,  corresponding 
to  any  arc  from  the  cusp,  are  respectively  proportional  to  the  area 
and  the  arc  of  the  correspoDding  segment  of  the  generating  circle. 

Numerous  other  simple  cases  might  be  given,  but  these  are  enffi- 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seuion  1864^-65.  405 

cient  to  ehow  that  aach  repteBeutatioiiB  depend  mwnly  apoD  the 
particolar  natiue  of  the  path,  and  therefore  cannot  be  included  in 
any  general  formnla.  Bnt  the  example  which  follows  appeared  to 
point  oot  some  8uch  general  method ;  applicable  at  leaat  to  central 
oibita. 

In  an  ^iftic  orhit  deacrihed  about  Oiefocva,  iht  iime  it  fropoHvmal 
to  the  Ketoriai  area  deieribed  about  one  focut,  and  the  action  to  that 
ahotU  the  other. — The  proof  of  tbiB  tbeorem  is  obviouB,  if  we  remember 
that  the  product  of  the  perpendicnlars,  from  the  foci,  npoii  the  tan- 
gent to  an  ellipse,  ia  constant. 

This  appeared  to  me  to  indicate,  as  a  mode  of  representing  the 
action  in  a  central  orbit,  the  seeking  for  a  cnrre  allied  to  the  orbit, 
and  in  its  plane ;  such  that,  if  two  tangents  be  drawn  to  it,  the 
area  intercepted  between  them,  the  curve,  and  the  orbit,  shall  be 
proportional  to  the  action.  lu  the  case  of  the  elliptic  orbit,  above 
referred  to,  this  curve  would  evidently  become  a  point,  viz.,  the 
necond  focus.  The  following  investigation ,  however,  does  not  give 
a  very  encouraging  result : — 

Taking  the  centre  of  force  es  oiigin,  let  x,  y,  be  the  co-ordinates 
of  a  point  in  the  orbit,  {,  ^  those  of  the  corresponding  point  in  the 
allied  curve.    The  equation  of  the  tangent  at  x,  y,  is 

'  de 

and,  consequently,  the  lengths  of  the  perpendicularB  drawn  to  it 
from  the  origin,  and  from  the  point  f,  ij,  are 

respectively.  That  the  elementary  triangle,  whose  vertex  is  j,  ij, 
and  whose  base  is  Sf,  may  be  proportional  to  the  element  of  the 
action,  we  must  evidently  (as  we  see  by  refeming  to  the  case  of  the 
ellipse  above)  have 

pp'= constant. 

Ilence  our  first  condition  is 

(•|-»a)(<-sS-(»-"s)-. 


DvGooglc 


406  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

or,  in  a  somewhat  more  coDTenieut  form, 

'S-4'-f+? m- 

Also,  by  the  nature  of  the  constrnction  ve  are  attempting,  it  ta 
obvious  that  the  lioe  joining  the  points  !t:,y,  and^,  <},  must  be  a 
tangent  to  the  locus  of  £,  i;.  This  gives  ns  at  once  the  second 
condition 

t-Y^L c^o 

Since,  by  the  equation  of  the  central  orbit,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
known,  we  have  s  and  y  in  terms  of  «,  we  may  take  a  as  indepen- 
dent variable,  and  we  have  the  equations  (1)  and  (2)  necess&ry  and 
sufficient  for  the  determination  of  £  and  i;  in  terms  of*. 

Eliminating  ^  by  differentiation  and  subetitutioa,  we  find  for  i 
the  equation 

fdtd,     ^'      •'l^'    ''\iUdf    did,') 
a*  r   /dx  ipy      du  d^x\    „  dx  (Put  ) 

-?L'(asf  +  A5=-)-2!'s3?J} 

with,  of  course,  a  simitar  equation  for  tf. 
If  we  take  x  as  the  independent  variable,  and  put 


,  a  given  function  of  x. 


it  is  easy  to  reduce  this  equation  to 


)^^' 


which  seems  to  be  the  Bimplest  form  to  which  it  can  be  brought, 
unless  special  relations  between  x  and  y  ate  introduced,  and  with- 
out such  it  seems  to  be  quite  intractable. 

The  remainder  of  the  paper  refers  to  a  subject  which,  thoagh 
allied  to  action,  is  so  distinct  from  the  investigation  above  that  I 
give  the  foIlowiDg  abstract  of  it  under  a  distinct  title. 


DvGooglc 


o/Bdinbmgh,  Session  1884-65. 


3.  Oa  the  Application  of  Hamilton's  ChaiacteriBtic  Function 
to  Special  Caaes  of  Constraint.    By  Profeesor  Tait 

Hamilton's  beautiful  theory  of  Varying  Action  reduces  to  the 
dUcoTery  of  a  single  function  any  problem  connected  with  motion 
under  the  action  of  a  conserrative  system  of  forces,  and  with  con- 
straint by  any  ajBtem  of  emoath  fixed  surfaces. 

It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  applied  to  cases  (snct  aa  the 
brachistochrone)  in  which  the  requisite  constraint  is  the  thing  to 
be  determined. 

Taking  t  =  /  — ,  the  time  in  the  btacbiBtocbrone,  it  is  shown 
that  we  have,  r  being  regarded  as  a  function  otx,  y,  z, 

where  H  ia  the  whole  energy,  and  Fthe  potential  of  the  given 
system  of  forces.  If  a  complete  integral  of  this  equation  can  be 
foand,  we  have 

Also,  if  a,  /3,  bo  constants  iti  the  expression  for  r, 

where  &  and  IS  are  two  new  constants,  are  the  equations  of  the 
brachistochrone. 

VariooB  properties  of  braohistocb rones,  and  the  corresponding, 
free  paths,  are  deduced  from  these  equations ;  the  connection 
between  this  process  and  that  of  Hamilton  is  illustrated  by  the 
solution  of  problems  in  optics,  based  on  the  corpuscular  and  on 
the  nndulatory  theories ;  and  the  paper  concludes  with  an  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  to  cases  in  which  the  cboroctenstic  function 
is  of  such  forms  as 

where/and  ^are  given  functions. 


DvGooglc 


108  Proceedmga  of  the  Royal  Society 

4 .  On  Transveraals.    By  the  Rev.  Hugh  Martin,  Free 

Greyfriars. 

Thia  paper  contaioa  upvaids  of  seventy  theorems,  in  great  part 

new,  vith  reference  to  the  intersection  of  eystema  of  lines.     The 

demonstrations  are  based  upon  determinants. 


5  On  the  Motion  of  s  Heavy  Body  along  the  circumference 
of  a  Circle.    By  Edward  Sang. 

This  paper  contains  a.  demonstration  of  the  theorem  given  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  proceedings  at  p.  419. 

The  theorem  in  question  was  arrived  at  by  the  comparison  of  the 
well-known  formula  for  the  time  of  descent  in  a  circular  arc,  with 
another  formula  given  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Magazine  " 
for  November  1828,  by  awriter  under  the  signature  T.  W.  L. 
Each  of  these  series  is  reached  by  a  long  train  of  transform ations, 
developments,  and  integrations,  which  require  great  familiarity 
with  the  moat  advanced  branches  of  the  higher  calculus.  Tet  the 
theorem  which  results  from  their  comparison  has  an  aspect  of 
extreme  simplicity,  and  seems  as  if  it  could  be  reached  by  an  easier 
road.  A.  search  for  this  easier  road  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  a 
few  simple  propositions,  which  contain  the  whole  theory  of  motion 
in  a  circle,  and  which  only  require  for  their  examination  a  know- 
ledge of  the  fundamental  law  of  dynamics,  and  an  acquaintance 
with  trigonometry. 

There  are  two  distinct  cases  of  motion  in  a  circle,  viz.,  one  in 
^hich  the  heavy  body  describes  with  a  varying  velocity  the  whole 
circumference ;  the  other  in  which  the  motion  is  oscillatory,  as  in 
the  example  of  a  pendulum.  The  first  step  of  the  investigation  is 
to  establish  a  relation  between  a  continuous  and  an  oscillatory 
motion,  such  that  their  periodic  times  bear  a  certain  ratio  to  each 
other.  To  these  two  motions  the  name  conjugate  is  given.  By 
means  of  this  relation  the  problem,  "  to  compute  the  time  of  re- 
volution" in  the  case  of  continuous  motion,  can  be  converted  into 
another  problem,  "  to  find  the  descent  in  a  circular  arc,"  and 
contrariwise. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  409 

The  second  step  is  to  deduce  from  this  paii  of  conjugate  motions 
a  eecond  pair  of  motions  also  conjugate  to  each  other,  and  having 
their  periodic  times  in  simple  ratios  to  those  of  the  preceding  pair. 

The  third  step  is  to  form  a  progression  of  pairs  of  conjugate 
motions  deduced  successivelir  one  from  another.  In  this  progres- 
sion, carried  in  the  direction  inverse  to  that  just  mentioned,  the 
motions  approach  with  extreme  rapidity,  on  the  one  hand  to  a 
nniform  circular  motion,  on  the  other  hand  to  the  oscillation  in  an 
exceedingly  minnte  arc. 

As  a  practical  result  of  the  vhole,  it  is  shovn  that,  for  all  cases 
of  clock  motions,  and  for  experiments  to  determine  the  length  of 
the  seconds  pendulum,  the  time  of  oscillation  may  be  held  to  be 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  secant  of  the  eighth  part  of  the 
whole  arc  described  ;  the  number  of  oscilUtions  per  day  to  he  pro- 
portional to  the  square  of  the  cosine  of  the  same  eighth  part ;  and 
the  daily  retardation  to  the  square  of  the  sine. 

6.  On  the  Actioo  of  Hydriodic  Acid  on  Mandelic  Acid. 
By  Alex.  Crum  Brown,  M.D.,  D.Sc. 

The  relation  of  mandelic  acid  to  benzoic  aldehyd  is  so  precisely 
the  same  as  that  of  lactic  acid  to  acetic  aldebyd,  that  whatever  con- 
stitution we  assume  for  the  latter  acid,  a  similar  one  must  be 
ascribed  to  the  former. 

The  researches  of  Eolbe  and  Lautemann,  and  of  Wislicenus, 
prove  that  lactic  acid  is  ozypropionic  acid.  Mandelic  acid  must 
therefore  be  oxytoluic  acid,  and,  indeed,  it  has  been  bo  formulated 
by  Eolbe  in  his  work  on  Organic  Chemistry. 

While  agreeing  with  Kolbe  and  Wislicenus,  I  prefer,  for  some 
purposes,  to  employ  formulee  slightly  different  from  those  of  either 
of  these  chemists. 

Thus,  using  B  as  a  contraction  for  ^q   [  CO,  the  relation  of  alde- 
hyd, chloride  of  ethyliden,  ethylidenic  chtorhydrine,  and  c 
lactic  acid,  may  be  expressed  by  the  formulee 

VOL.  y.  3  H 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


110  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

It  is  thus  shown  which  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  propionic  acid 
H  I  ^  ]  H   ^  replaced  by  the  water  residue  HO  to  form  commoo 
lactic  acid,  and  the  latter  is  distinguished  fiom  sarcotactic  acid 

Beplacing  CH,  in  these  formnls  by  C,H,  we  get  the  formula  of 
the  con«Bponding  substances  in  the  aromatic  Beriea. 

The  complete  analogy  between  lactic  and  mandelic  acids  as  to 
the  mode  of  tbeir  formation  naturally  an^esto  the  idea  that  their 
decompositions  should  also  be  analogous ;  and  yet,  considering  that 
no  oiyacid  of  the  aromatic  series  bad  as  yet  been  directly  reduced 
to  the  corresponding  normal  acid,  it  seemed  to  me  to  be  of  interest 
to  examine  the  reaction  of  hydriodic  acid  on  mandelic  acid,  in  order 
to  see  whether  it  follows  the  analogy  of  aalicylio  or  of  lactic  acid, 
and  if  the  latter,  to  compare  the  toluio  acid  thus  produced  with  the 
two  isomeric  acids  at  present  known. 

For  this  purpose,  mandelic  acid  was  boiled  with  concentrated 
aqueous  hydriodic  acid  and  phosphorus  in  a  flask  fitted  to  an 
ascending  Liebig's  condenser,  so  that  the  vapours  of  hydriodic  acid 
condensed,  and  ran  back  into  the  flask.  Notwithstanding  the  pre- 
sence of  excess  of  phosphorus,  the  liquid  immediately  became 
opaque  from  the  separation  of  a  lai^  quantity  of  free  iodine,  and 
the  drops  of  condensed  hydriodic  acid  .became  milky.  After  boiling 
for  about  half  an  hour,  the  reaction  was  complete,  and  the  iodine 
was  removed  by  the  phoephoms.  The  clear  liquid,  while  still  hot, 
was  decanted  from  the  excess  of  phosphorus,  and  on  cooling  solidi- 
fied to  a  crystalline  magma.  The  crystals,  when  drained  and  re- 
crystallised  once  or  twice  from  boiling  water,  presented  the  follow- 
ing properties  t — 

Large  extremely  thin  iridescent  plates,  closely  resembling  those 
of  benzoic  acid,  but  without  the  serrated  character  of  the  latter; 
readily  soluble  in  hot,  sparingly  in  cold  water ;  readily  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  and  solutions  of  the  hydrates  and  carbonates  of  the 
alkalies.  When  treated  with  boiling  water,  they  at  first  fuse  to  a 
colourless  oil  denser  than  water,  and  subsequently  dissolve,  and 
when  a  hot  saturated  solution  is  cooled,  the  substance  is  at  first 
deposited  in  the  liquid  state. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaion  lSGi-65.  411 

Both  the  BolutioD  and  the  crystals  have  a  etrong  and  persistent 
emell  of  honey. 

When  heated,  the  crystals  fuse,  and  at  a  higher  temperature 
boil,  readily  volatilising  for  below  the  boiling  poiut. 

The  fusing  point  was  fonnd  to  be  76°  C,  and  the  boiling  point 
(corrected)  264°  C. 

Combustion  with  oxide  of  copper  and  oxygen  gave  the  following 
results : — 

I.  0-2422  grm.  gave  0-1344  water. 
II.  0-2212  grm.  gave  0*1297  water  and  0-5803  carbonic  acid. 
Indicating  the  formula  C,H,0,. 

Oalculated.  Obeerred. 

I.         II. 

C,         96         70-6  ...       71-5 


Hydriodic  acid,  therefore,  acts  in  the  same  way  on  mandelic  acid 
as  on  lactic  acid.  The  reaction  probably  tabes  place  in  two  stages, 
and  may  be  expressed  thus: — 


"■S-}o{go-Hi= 

'^■5-}c{?+H.O 

C^.}C{H,HI. 

"■l-JHi*"- 

A  lime  salt  prepared  by  boiling  the  acid  with  powdered  Iceland 
spar  crystallised  in  radiated  needles,  readily  soluble  in  water. 
Analysis  of  the  salt  dried  in  vacuo  over  sulphuric  acid  gave  the 
following  results : — 

I.  00977  grm.  lost  00101  at  130°  C. 

II.  0-2459  grm.  gave  0'0386  quicklime. 

III.  0-2674  grm.  gave  0-0419  quicklime. 

These  results  agree  with  the  formula  C„H„CaO,  +  2H,0. 

Calcnlated.  Observed. 

I. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 


Obeerred. 
II.        III. 


192         555 
18  5-2 

40         11-3 


346      100-0 

The  Bilver  salt  fonns  small,  indistinct,  white  scales,  eolnble  in 
boiling  water.  The  copper  salt  is  a  bright  green  lunorphons  pre- 
cipitate. The  ferric  salt,  a  pale  brown  precipitate,  ezactljr  like  the 
ferric  benzoate. 

Tbe  acid  resists  the  action  of  dilute  salpboric  acid  and  bicbiomate 
of  potash,  even  when  boiled  ;  when  heated  with  strong  salpbiuic 
acid  and  bichromate  it  is  oxidised,  and  gives  off  the  smell  of  oil  o! 
bitter  almonds.  Fuming  nitric  acid  readily  dissolves  the  acid 
when  heated,  the  solution  becoming  at  first  red,  then  colonrleee, 
and  on  cooling,  a  uitro-acid  crystallises  out.  This  nitro-acid  foniu 
colourless  crystals,  which  dissolve  in  solutions  of  the  alkalies  with 
a  yellow  colour.  I  am  at  present  engaged  in  its  ezamination,  and 
hope  to  obtain  from  it  the  corresponding  amido-  and  oxy-acids. 

A  comparison  of  the  properties  of  the  toluic  acid  thus  prepared 
from  mandelic  acid  with  thoee  of  Mailer  and  Strecker's  alpho-tohic 
acid  from  vulpic  acid,*  leaves  no  doubt  of  their  identity.  The  fosiog 
point  of  alpha-toluic  acid  is  765,  that  of  tbe  acid  from  mandelic 
acid  is  76°-0 ;  tbe  former  boils  at  265°  5,  the  latter  at  264°.  All 
tbe  characters  of  olpha-toluic  acid,  with  the  exception  of  the  smell, 
ore  BO  exactly  the  same  as  tbose  of  the  acid  from  mandelic  acid, 
that  there  is  not  a  word  in  Holier  and  Stiecber's  description  of  tbe 
former  which  does  not  perfectly  apply  to  the  latter. 

The  reduction  of  mandelic  acid  to  alpha-tolnic  acid  appears  to 
prove,  1st,  that,  notwithstanding  its  lower  fusing  point,  the  latter 
acid  is  the  true  bomologne  of  benzoic  acid.f 

2d,  That  the  reduction  of  the  oxy-acids  to  the  normal  acids  b; 
the  action  of  hydriodic  acid  is  not  peculiar  to  the  fatty  series,  ud 

*  Ann.  Cb.  Fhum.  cxiii.  66. 

t  Tbe  irregularit;  in  the  fusing  point  U  not  Barpriaing.  considering  tbit 
benzoic  acid  is  probably  the  flnt  term  in  the  aeries,  end  that  a  Bimilar  irre- 
golarit;  ii  observed  in  the  case  of  the  lower  terms  of  tbe  eerjet  of  faltj  acids. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864^-65.  413 

probably  depends  on  the  "chemical  position"  of  the  alcoholic 
water  residue  in  the  molecule. 

BecoIIocting  that  benzoic  aldehyd  has  been  prepared  fronx  ben- 
zoic acid  by  Piria  and  by  Chiozza,  we  see  that  by  three'  proceHseH, 
lit,  the  subtraction  of  oxygen  ;  2d,  the  addition  of  the  elements  of 
formic  acid ;  and,  3d,  the  anbtractiou  of  oxygen,  we  have  advanced 
one  step  in  the  homologous  series  of  the  aromatic  acids ;  and,  as  far 
as  we  can  see,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  this 
step,  and  the  gradual  ascent  of  the  series. 

With  a  view  to  ascertain  whether  this  is  possible,  I  have  treated 
cuminol  with  hydrocyanic  and  hydrochloric  acids,  and  the  results 
obtained  are  sufficient  to  encourage  me  to  continue  the  investigation. 

7.  Od  the  Nature  of  Antozone.     By  Alfred  B.  CattoD,  B.A., 

F.K.S.E.,  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  . 

Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Kataral  Philoaophy  in  the 

University  of  Edinburgh. 

Many  of  the  properties  of  ozone  are  very  similar  to  those  of  per- 
oxide of  hydrogen.  Thus  ozone,  like  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  is  in 
many  cases  a  powerful  oxidising  ^ent.  In  other  cases,  however, 
it  acts  as  a  deoxidiser.  Thus  ozone  deoxidises  peroxide  of  bydro- 
gen  and  peroxide  of  barium  with  the  production  of  water  and  oxide 
of  barium.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  also  deoxidises  oxide  of  silver, 
the  peroxides  of  manganese  and  lead,  permanganic  and  chromic 
acids,  &Q.  Again,  ozone  is  decomposed  catalytically  by  dry  silver 
leaf  and  by  several  oxides,  such  as  the  peroxides  of  manganese  and 
lead,  &c.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  also  decomposed  catalytically  by 
several  metals — gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  metallic  oxides.  Ozone 
liberates  iodine  from  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium.  Peroxide  of 
hydrogen  does  the  same  by  the  mere  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  proto- 
sulpbate  of  iron,  the  latter  undergoing  no  change  during  the  reaction. 

We  see  then  that  the  general  properties  of  ozone  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  If,  however,  we  examine  the 
properties  of  these  compounds  in  detail,  we  find  that  their  particular 
properties  are  complementary  to  each  other.  In  other  words,  for 
the  particular  compounds  for  which  ozone  acts  as  an  oxidising 
agent,  peroxide  of  hydrogen  does  not  act  as  an  oxidising,  but  in 


DvGooglc 


4]4  Proceedinga  o/the  Royal  Society 

general  as  a  reducing  i^ent.  Thm  mercury  and  eUvet  are  con- 
verted by  ozooe  into  ozideB.  These  oxides  are  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  peroxide  of  bydrogeo. 

A  piece  of  paper  moisteoed  with  SDlphate  of  maDganese  is  timed 
brown  by  ozone,  owing  to  the  formation  of  peroxide  of  mangaoeBS. 
The  peroxide  of  manganese  thus  formed  is  reduced  by  peroxide  of 
hydrogen  to  the  state  of  protoxide.  Similarly,  by  the  action  of 
ozone  on  snbacetate  of  lead  paper,  peroxide  of  lead  is  formed,  Trhich 
is  again  reduced  to  protoxide  of  lead  by  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

Peroxide  of  barinm  is  produced  by  the  action  of  peroxide  of 
hydrogen  on  hydrated  protoxide  of  barinm.  Peroxide  of  barium  is 
on  the  contrary  reduced  by  ozone  to  oxide  of  barium ;  the  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potaesium  is  converted  by  ozone  into  ferrit^anide,  which 
latter  is  again  reduced  by  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

This  opposition  in  the  characters  of  ozone  and  peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen, indicated  by  their  action  on  other  compounds,  is  maintained 
in  their  action  on  each  other.  Though  peroxide  of  hydrogen  and 
ozone  are  both  powerful  oxidising  agents,  by  their  action  on  each 
other  two  neutral  substances  are  produced,  water  and  ordinary  oxygen. 
These  characters  naturally  suggest  the  idea  that  ozone  and  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  are  related  to  each  other,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
acids  and  bases,  which,  though  both  possessed  of  decided  characters, 
mutually  neutralise  each  other.  In  other  words,  that  the  characters 
of  ozone  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen  bear  to  each  other  that  relation 
which  is  indicated  by  tbe  words  electro -negative  and  electro-posi- 
tive ;  a  conclusion  remarkably  confirmed  by  the  production  of  ozone 
during  the  electrolysis  of  an  acid  liquid  at  tbe  positive  pole,  and  of 
peroxide  of  hydrogen  at  the  negative  pole,  as  shown  by  Meidinger, 
thus  showing  that  ozone  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  electro-negative 
compound,  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen  as  an  electro-positive  com- 
pound. And  as  ozone  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen  neutralise  each 
other,  BO  to  speak,  we  are  led  to  suppose  that  tfaey  are  each  formed 
by  the  combination  of  the  same  number  of  molecules.  We  are 
thus  led  to  assign  to  ozone  tbe  formula  000(0  =  16)  as  suggested 
by  tbe  equation 


H,00     -I-     000 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  115 

The  eigns  placed  over  the  bracket  merely  denoting  that  H,00  as 
a  whole  is  to  be  conBidered  aa  an  electro-poeitive  compound,  and 
000  as  electro-negative. 

This  viev  of  the  constitution  of  ozone  is  due  to  Professor  Odling 
(Manual  of  Ohemiatry,  1861),  and  the  most  important  argument 
in  its  favour  is  the  non-diminntion  in  volume  of  ozonised  oxygen 
vrben  the  ozone  is  decomposed  by  iodide  of  potassium  or  mercury 
(Joe.  cit.  p.  94). 

The  existence  of  antozone  has  been  fully  established  by  the 
experiments  of  Schonbein  and  Heissner. 

The  latter  has  shown  that  when  electric  discbarges  are  passed 
through  dry  oxygen,  another  substance,  antozone,  is  produced 
besides  ozone.  If  the  latter  be  destroyed  by  passing  the  electrised 
oxygen  through  a  strong  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium,  antozone 
remains  mixed  with  ordinary  oxygen. 

The  properties  of  antozone  can  thus  be  observed.  One  of  the 
most  characteristic  of  these  is  the  formation  of  a  thick  white  mist 
when  passed  into  water.  This  same  white  mist  ia  also  formed 
when  the  gas  produced  by  the  action  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
on  peroxide  of  barium  is  passed  into  water.  In  the  latter  case, 
therefore,  antozone  is  produced,  and  not  ozone  (as  stated  by 
Houzeau). 

Now,  on  examining  the  characters  of  antozone  as  far  as  they 
have  hitherto  been  observed,  we  find  that,  instead  of  being  comple- 
mentary to  those  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  as  in  the  case  of  ozone, 
they  correspond  with  them  very  closely.  In  other  words,  where  per- 
oxide of  hydrogen  acts  as  a  reducing  agent,  antozone  does  so  also. 

Thus  a  paper  moiBtened  with  sulphate  of  manganese,  and  coloured 
brown  by  ozone,  is  again  decolorised  by  ontozone,  owing  to  the 
reduction  of  the  peroxide  of  manganese  at  first  formed  to  the  state 
of  protoxide.  Peroxide  of  manganese  is  also  reduced  by  peroxide 
of  hydrogen. 

Similarly,  a  paper  moistened  with  subacetato  of  lead,  and  dis- 
coloured by  ozone,  is  again  whitened  by  antozone,  owing  to  the 
reduction  by  the  latter  of  the  peroxide  of  lead  first  formed  to  prot- 
oxide of  lead.  Peroxide  of  lead  is  also  reduced  by  peroxide  of 
hydrogen. 

Similwly,  dilute  acidulated  solutions  of  bichromate  and  perman- 


DvGooglc 


416  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

ganate  of  potassium  are  reduced  by  antozone.  Peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen sIbo  reducea  chromic  and  permauganic  acids  and  their  salts. 

We  are  thus  led  to  regard  antozone  as  a  compound  analogona 
in  constitution  to  peroxide  of  hydrogen ;  in  other  words,  to  ivgaid 
antozone  as  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  in  which  the  hydrogen  is 
replaced  by  oxygen,  or  representing,  as  before,  peroxide  of  hydrogen 
by  +(H,00),  antozone  ia  +(000),  and  ozone  -(000).  The  + 
and  —  signs  being  merely  used  to  denote  the  idea  that  one  oem- 
pound  acts  as  eleotro-positiTe  and  the  other  as  electro- negative. 

If  we  adopt  the  hypothesis  that  free  oxygen  is  formed  by  the 
combinations  of  two  atoms  of  oxygen  (0=16),  one  of  which  acts 
as  an  electro- positive  and  the  other  as  ao  electro-negative  atom, 
free  oxygen  is  0  0. 

Hence,  since  free  oxygen  is  produced  when  ozone  is  decomposed 
by  mercury,  ozone  must  be  either  0  0  0  or  0  0  0,  in  accordance 
with  the  equations 


fig,  +  do5  =  fi&O  +  o5. 

The"  latter  formula  ia  inadmissible,  becanse,  as  we  hare  shown, 
ozone  acts  as  an  electro-negative  compound,  which  therefore  re- 
quires that  the  two  outside  atoms  ahould  both  be  electro-negatiTS. 
For  0  0  0  woald  neither  be  decidedly  electro- negative  nor  de- 
cidedly electro-positiTe.  Hence  ozone  is  0  0  0,  which  is  the  view 
of  Profeasoi  Odling. 

Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  has  shown  (Phil.  Traoa.  1850)  that  the 
reducing  properties  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  require  us  to  assign  to 
it  the  fonnula  H,  0  0.  Hence  antozone  is  O  0  0,  a  formula  which 
indicates  that  antozone  acta  as  an  electro-positive  compound.  The 
production  of  ozone  and  antozone  hy  the  passage  of  electric  aporks, 
or  the  ailent  discharge  through  dry  oxygen,  is  thus  ropreaented  by 
the  following  equation  : — 

Ordin^j  OijgeD.  Ozooe.  Anlozons. 

o5  +  o5  +  o5  =  o5o  +  too. 

These  formulae  indicate  hypotbetically  why  antozo&e  combtuee 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  417 

with  water  to  form  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  but  not  ozone.  For,  in 
accoTdance  witU  the  electrical  theory  of  chemical  action,  the  fol- 
lowing reaction  is  perfectly  poseible : — 

Water.  Antozona.  /^%''^„.  Oxyge-- 

H,0       +      Oo5      =      H,0  0      +      o5. 
Peroxide  of  hydrogen  cannot,  however,  be  formed  by  the  com- 
bination of  H,  0  and  0  0  0. 

Again,  it  givee  an  explanation  of  the  formation  of  antozone  by 
the  action  of  oil  of  vitriol  on  peroxide  of  barium.  Foi  we  may 
suppose  the  peroxide  of  barium  to  decompose  in  the  following 
manner: — 

£a,o5      =      Ba,b      +      0. 

The  oxide  of  barium  being  formed  as  sulphate  of  barium.  0  then 
combines  with  some  of  the  ordinary  oxygen  also  given  off  at  the 
same  time  with  the  formation  of  antozone  : — 


5o    +    0 


0  0  0. 


It  must  not  be  Bupposed  that  by  the  algebraic  signs  bere  used  it 
is  intended  to  denote  that  the  atoms  of  oxygen  preserve  any  abso- 
lute electric  state.  Although  in  a  compound  oxygen  may  act 
as  0,  we  must  guard  against  imagining  that  in  any  chemical 
action  0  cannot  be  transformed  even  with  the  greatest  facility  into 
0.  The  fact  of  the  production  of  free  oxygen  in  the  action  juet 
referred  to  shows  that  such  is  the  case.  Sulphuric  acid  is  a  highly 
electro-negative  compound,  and  we  can  easily  understand  how  the 
positive  electricity  of  0  is  neutralised  by  the  sulphnric  acid,  and 
how  0  is  even  changed  into  0. 

Again,  by  the  action  of  heat  on  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  it  is  de- 
composed into  water  and  ordinary  oxygen.  We  must  here  suppose 
that  the  peroxide  decomposes  thus — 

+ -+  + -  + 

HjOO     =     H,  0     +     0, 

and  that  half  of  the  0  is  changed  by  heat  into  0  in  order  to  form 


DvGooglc 


418  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

inactive  ozjrgen  0  0.  This  suppoaition  is  also  necessary  in  order 
to  explain  the  conversion  of  ozoqo  and  antozone  by  heat  into 
ordinary  oxygen. 

It  is  probable  that  the  protosnlphate  of  iron  in  the  method  of 
testing  for  peroxide  of  hydrogen  exerts  a  similai  action.     Having 

a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  it  decomposes  the  peroxide  into  H,  0 

+  — 

and  0,  and  at  the  same  time  converts  the  latter  into  0,  which  then 
decomposes  the  iodide  of  potassium  thus : — 

K,^     +     0     -     K,0     +     I,. 

This  last  reaction  being  similar  to  that  of  the  decomposition  of 
iodide  of  potassium  by  ozone : — 


o5o    =    5,0    +    5o    +    I,. 


The  production  of  antozone  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on 
peroxide  of  barium  is  perfectly  analogous  to  the  formation  of  per* 
oxide  of  hydrogen  by  the  action  of  carbonic  dioxide  on  peroxide 
of  barium,  thus — 


Bsj  0  6  +  C  0.^  =  Ba,  0  C  0,  +  6 

Peroxide  of 
Hydrogen. 

H,0  +  5  =  fi,oS. 

It  might  be  supposed,  from  these  views  of  the  constitution  of 
ozone  and  antozone,  that  when  in  contact  they  ought  to  combine 
with  each  other  to  pioduce  ordinary  oxygen.  There  is,  however, 
no  more  reason  that  this  should  be  the  case  than  that  an  electro- 
poaitive  element  like  hydrogen  should  combine  with  oxygen,  which 
IB  electro- negative,  when  mixed  with  each  other.  As  in  the  case 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  however,  it  is  possible  that  ozone  and 
antozone  may  combine  to  form  ordinaiy  oxygen  by  the  passage  of 
the  electric  spark.  The  increase  in  volume  of  electrised  oxygen  by 
the  passage  of  the  spark  from  a  BiihmkorS'B  coil,  may  possibly  be 
partially  due  to  this  cause,  although  no  doubt  owing  in  great  measure 
to  the  decomposition  of  some  of  the  ozone  and  antozone  by  heat. 


DvGooglc 


of  EdirtJmrgh,  Seaaton  1864-65.  419 

On  the  contrary,  antozone  appeaie,  from  the  experiments  of 
MeiasQoi,  to  be  more  stable  in  the  presence  of  ozone  than  when 
mixed  with  ordinary  oxygen. 

The  following  fact  may  possibly  be  considered  analogous.  An 
aqneons  solution  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  (an  electro-positive  com- 
pound) is  rendered  mors  stable  by  the  addition  of  an  acid,  an 
electro-negative  compound,  but  less  stable  by  the  addition  of  alkalies. 

Also,  since  oxygen  is  essentially  an  eleotro-negative  element, 
wo  can  easily  uDderstand  why  antozone,  which  we  may  look  upon 
u  containing  electit>-poBitive  oxygen,  gradually  decomposes,  and  is 
changed  into  ordinary  oxygen,  as  observed  by  Meissner.  And  we 
can,  on  the  contrary,  understand  why  ozone  is  a  comparatively 
stable  compound. 

Schonbein  has  shown  that  peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  produced  in 
many  cases  of  slow  oxidation  occurring  in  the  presence  of  moisture. 
This  is  commonly  attributed  to  the  formation  of  antozone,  which 
subsequently  combines  with  water  to  form  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 
In  the  author's  view,  however,  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  the 
immediate  product  of  the  reaction. 

In  the  oxidation  of  zinc,  for  instance, 

Zn,  +  00  +  ofi,=  Zn,0  +  OOHr 
Supposing  that  this  view  of  the  constitution  of  antozone  is  con- 
firmed by  further  investigation,  it  will  afford  a  strong  support  to 
the  theory  that  the  elements  in  the  free  state  ate  formed  by  the 
combination  of  two  atoms  in  opposite  electrical  states,  as  well  as 
of  the  electrical  theory  of  chemical  affinity. 

Some  persons  find  great  difficulty  in  the  supposition  that  oxygen 
can  combine  with  itself  to  form  compounds  differing  entirely  in 
properties  from  ordinary  oxygen.  There  is,  however,  in  reality  no 
greater  difficulty  in  this  supposition  than  in  other  admitted  cases 
where  a  compound  combines  with  itself  to  form  other  compounds. 
Methylene,  for  instance,  when  liberated  from  iodide  of  methylene 
by  the  action  of  copper  and  water,  combines  with  itself  to  form 
ethylene  and  tritylene,  as  shown  by  M.  Boutlerow.  Tritylene,  in 
fact,  bears  to  ethylene  a  somewhat  similar  relation  to  that  which 
ozone  and  antozone  bear  to  oxygen.  Again,  oxygen,  in  the  language 
of  modern  chemistry,  is  a  polyatomic  element ;   and  it  is  a  well- 


DvGooglc 


420  Proceedings  of  the  Boffol  Society 

known  fact  that  polyatomic  compovDilB  haTO  a  great  tendency  to 
combine  with  themaelveB  to  prodnce  otben  of  greater  complexit;. 

There  is,  therefore,  A  priori,  Dothing  itopiobable  in  the  Bippoai- 
tioD  that  oxygen  may,  under  proper  conditionB,  combine  with 
itself;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  analogies  of  science  are  in  faTonr 
of  such  a  suppositioD. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  repeat,  that  the  author's  view  of  the  con- 
stitatioD  of  antozone  freed  from  all  hypothesis  as  to  the  electric 
states  of  molecules  is,  that  antozone  is  peroxide  of  hydn^en,  in 
which  the  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  oxygen. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced: — 
Monthly  Betum  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Harriagea  registered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland.    Febmary  1865. 

Sto. — From  the  Begittrar-Qeneral. 
The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.     January 

1865.     Toronto.     8vo. — Fntm  the  Ediior*. 
Die  Fortscbritte  der  Fhysik  im  Jahre  1862  Dargestillt  von  der 

physikalisohen   GrBaellsohaft  zu  Berlin.      XVIII.   Jabigang. 

I.  and  II.  Ahtheilung.    Berlin,  1864.    8to.— .^Vom  the  Soddg. 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Boyal  Astronomical  Society,  London.  Vol. 

XXV.  No.  4.    8vo.— JVwft  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XIV.  No.  72. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Oq  the  Laurentian  Bocks  of  Britain,  Bavaria,  and  Bohemia,   By  Sir 

Boderick  L  Unrcbison,  E.G.B.,  F.B.S.   Bm.—Fnmth«AvAor. 
On  the  Origin  of  the  Alpine  Lakes  and  Valleys :  A  Letter  addreesed 

to  Sir  B.  I.  Murcbison.    By  M.  Alphonae  Favre.   8ro.— /Vvm 

Sir  R.  I.  Murchison, 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultnral  Society,  London.     Vol.  V. 

No.  8.     8to.— From  the  Society. 
On  the  Utilisation  of  Sewage,  with  a  Description  of  the  Plan  of 

Messrs  Napier  and  Hope  for  the  TJtilisatioD  of  the  Sewage  of 

London.    By  George  Bobertmn,  C.E.,  F.B.S.E.,  &c.    8vo.— 

From  the  Author, 
Annaaire  de  TAcad^oiie  Boyale  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres  et  des 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique,   1865.    Brussels.     8vo.— From  the 

Academy. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seasion  1864-65.  421 

Bulletin  de  I'Acad^mie  Roy&le  des  gciences,  d«B  Letties  et  den 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.    No.  I,  1865.   BiuwelB.   8vo. — From 

the  Academy. 
Nyt  Magazin  for  Katarridenekabeme — udgivee  af  des  Pbysiogra- 

pbiske  Foreuing  i  ChriHtiaaia.     Hefte  1,  2,  3.     Ghristiania, 

1864.     8to. — From  the  Univertity  of  Chritliania, 
Meteorologieche  BeobachtuDgen — Aufgezeicbnet  auf  ChristiaQia's 

ObBervatorium.   III.  and  IV.  Leiferuug,  1848—1855.    Chria- 

tiania,  1864.     4to.— fnwi  ike  tame. 
Om  deGologiBkeForboIdpaaEyatatnebniDgenaf  Norde  Bergenhua 

Amt,  at  U.  Irgene  og  Tb.  Hiortdabl.    Cfaristiaoia,  18C4.  4to. 

— From  the  Aulhora. 
Om  Sneebneen  Folgefon,  af  S.  A.  Sexe.    Ohiistiania,  1864.     4to. 

— From  the  AiUhor. 
Forhandliugei  i  YidenskabB — Selskabet  i  CbristiaDia,  Aar  1863. 

Ghristiania,  1864.     8to, — From  the  Univertity  of  Chritliania. 
Chemiak  UdereogelBs  af  Mergeller  og  deri  indoholdte  Boleer  af  Th. 

Hiortdabl.     ChriBtiaoia.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Om  det  Sypbilitiake  Vims,  af  L.Bidenkap.   Cbrietiania,  1863.  8vo. 

— From  the  Author. 
Biblical  Mataral  Science,  being  the  ExplanatioD  of  all  References 

in  Holy  Scripture,  in  Geology,  Botany,  Zoology,  and  PhyBioal 

Geography.    By  the  Bev.  Joho  Dans,  D.D.,  F.B.S.B.    Two 

vols.  large  8vo. — From  the  Author. 

Monday,  3d  April  1865. 
Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Coramunicationa  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Food  uf  the  Eoyal  Euginecrs  stationed  at 

Chatham.     By  Dr  Lyon  Playfair. 
The  value  of  the  food  of  soldiers  is  an  important  subject,  becauce 
it  presents  as  with  the  results  of  a  long  experience  in  feeding  adult 
men,  so  as  to  preserve  them  in  health  and  etrengtb. 

In  this  conntiy  fixed  rations  of  j  lb.  meat  and  1  lb.  of  bread 
ate  iesaed  to  the  soldiers,  and  the  rest  of  their  food  is  furnished 


DvGooglc 


422  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Societt/ 

from  tbeir  own  pay.    The  average  diet  of  soldiers  in  peace  and  wir 
is  as  follovB,  in  ouDcea  and  tenths  of  an  onnoe : — 


In  Peace. 

InWu 

Flesh  formers, 

4-2 

5-4 

(Fat, 

1-8 

2-4 

''"'8"«".ls,.„i,fe.      . 

18-7 

17-9 

Starch  equivalent  of  beat  givers, 

22'1 

23-5 

Total  carlron, 

12-0 

12-7 

The  peace  diet  has  heen  obtained  by  diBcnsBiona  of  the  food  given 
to  the  English,  French,  Prussian,  and  Austrian  annies;  while  the 
war  diet,  io  addition  to  these,  includes  the  Bussian,  Dutch,  Federal 
States,  and  Confederates  States'  armies.  Our  own  country  ia  the 
only  one  which  does  not  possess  a  special  war  diet,  and  the  want 
of  it  told  ID  the  frightful  mortality  of  the  Crimea.  During  tbe 
latter  part  of  the  Bussian  war,  tbe  rations  to  the  English  soldien 
were  increased;  but  the  diet  of  the  English  army  when  engaged 
in  the  arduous  work  of  war  is,  according  to  the  author  of  tbe  paper, 
unworthy  of  the  country — twenty  years  behind  the  state  of  science, 
and  a  hundred  years  behind  the  experience  of  other  natione.  To 
ascertain  what  well-paid  soldiers,  engaged  in  occupations  whicb 
would  represent  moderate  war  work,  found  it  necessary  to  eat,  Dr 
Playfair  obtained  returns  from  the  garrison  at  Chatham.  As  i^ 
well  known,  the  Sappers  and  Miners  are  men  versed  in  trades  with 
which  they  are  occupied  when  not  working  at  fortifications,  or  io 
the  field.  With  the  permission  of  Col.  Harness,  Col.  CotlJDEon 
undertook  this  inquiry,  and  obtained  the  exact  food  consumed  by 
495  men  for  twelve  consecutive  days.  Tbe  reduction  of  these 
carefully  prepared  returns  is  as  follows,  in  ounces  and  tenths  of  ao 
ounce : — 


Flesh  formers,        .        511  Starch  equivalent  of  1  „<i  . 


ralentof  |  ^ 
Fat,       .  .        2  9  I      heat  givers,      .    J  ' 

Starch,  Ac,    .        .      22'2     Total  carbon,  14-8 


It  will  be  seen  that  this  dietary  resembles  much  the  war  dietary, 
except  that  as  potatoes  are  largely  used  in  garrison,  the  starch, 
and  consequently  tbe  cnrbon,  is  increased.  Tbe  anthor  concludes 
that  a  war  diet  should  have  as  a  minimum  a  supply  of  5^  ounces  of 
flesh   formers  in  the  food.     This  quantity  is  necessary  to  enable 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  423 

them  to  march  fonrteen  miles  daily,  with  GO  Ibe.  weight  of  accontre- 
meDts,  without  living  upon  their  own  tissues  to  obtain  the  necessary 
foroo. 


2.  ^Notice  of  a  large  Calcareous  Stalagmite  brought  from  the 

Island  of  Bermuda  in  the  year  1819,  and  now  in  the 

College  of  Edinburgh.    By  David  Mibie  Home,  Esq.,  of 

Wedderburn. 

The  author  stated  that  this  stal^mite  was  a  calcareous  deposit  of  a 
colnmnar  shape,  which  had  been  brought  to  Edinburgh,  about  forty- 
eix  years  ago,  b;  his  father,  the  late  Admiral  Sir  David  Hilne. 

Whilst  commander-in-chief  on  the  North  American  and  West 
Indian  Station  during  the  three  years  ending  1819,  Sir  David  had 
passed  a  part  of  every  winter  in  the  genial  climate  of  Bermuda.  — 
He  took  mnch  interest  in  the  various  objects  of  natural  history 
abounding  in  the  island,  and  particularly  in  its  remarkable  caves. 

Posseesing  some  knowledge  of  geology,  and  being  a  personal 
friend  of  the  late  Professor  Jameson  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, who  was  then  collecting  specimens  from  all  quarters  for  a 
Museum,  Sir  David  resolved,  on  the  expiry  of  his  command,  to 
bring  home  with  him,  besides  madrepores  and  other  marine  pro- 
ductions, some  of  the  beautiful  calcareous  deposits  from  the  caves, 
and  present  them  to  the  Huseum. 

These  calcareous  deposits  consist — 1st,  Of  crusts  of  crystallised 
matter  coating  the  floor,  sides,  and  roof  of  the  caves ;  2d,  Of  icicle- 
shaped  formations  attached  to  and  pendant  from  the  roof;  Zd,  Of 
columnar-looking  deposits  resting  on  the  floor,  with  broad  rounded 
tops. 

These  various  deposits  are  formed  in  the  usual  way,  by  water 
highly  charged  with  lime ; — the  lime  being  held  in  solution  by 
carbonic  acid  gas  contained  in  the  water,  and  on  the  escape  of  that 
gas,  as  the  water  evaporates,  the  lime  is  precipitated. 

All  the  requisites  for  these  deposits  abound  in  Bermuda.  The 
rocks  of  the  island  (of  which  a  specimen  was  exhibited)  are  entirely 
calcoieons,  being  composed  of  comminuted  fragments  of  sea-shells 
and  zoophytes.  The  amount  of  tain  which  falls  annually  on  the 
inland,  and  which  percolates  through  the  rocks,  is  very  consider- 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


424  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

able, — whilst  the  heat  of  the  climate  is  gieftt ;  and  there  aie  fre- 
quently strong  parching  winds,  wbicb  piomote  evaporatioa. 

The  different  forms  of  the  stalactite  deposits  are  belieTed  to 
be  formed  in  the  following  manner : — "When  the  water,  after  per- 
colating the  limestone  rock,  reaches  the  roof  of  the  cave,  and  in 
such  quantity  as  to  drop  copiously  and  rapidly,  the  evaporation 
takes  place,  both  during  the  falling  of  the  water  Ut  the  floor  of  the 
cave  and  after  it  reaches  the  floor.  In  that  case  the  caloareooB 
matter  accumulates  on  the  floor,  and  if  the  water  continues  to  drop 
long  enough  from  the  same  part  of  the  roof,  the  deposit  gradnall; 
rises  up  in  a  columnar  form.     These  are  the  Stalagmket. 

If,  however,  the  water  is  less  abundant,  and  the  drops  less  fre- 
quent, evaporation  takes  place  whilst  they  are  adhering  to  the 
roof.    In  that  case  the  drops  of  water  thicken  on  the  roof  itself 
"~"-^--i9to  a  calcareous  paste,  and  icicle-looking  deposits  are  formed. 
These  are  the  SlalacliU». 

The  two  forms  of  deposit  were  indicated  on  a  sketch  exhibited, 
and  were  illustrated  by  specimens  on  the  table,  which  Professor 
Allman  had  allowed  to  be  brought  over  from  the  College  Uuaenm. 

Much  larger  specimens,  however,  of  both  kinds,  bad  been  brought* 
to  the  MnBeuin,^-one  of  these,  a  stalagmite,  about  6  feet  high, 
now  at  the  dooi  of  the  Museum.  Another,  to  be  more  particnlarly 
described,  was  too  pouderons  to  be  placed  there  ;  it  had  always  lain 
in  the  vestibule  of  the  Mathematical  Glass- Boom. 

Its  length  is, 11  feet  S  inches. 

„  average  diameter  at  the  base,  2    „    1      „ 

„  girth  half-way  betweeo  base  and  top,      7    „    4      „ 
Supposing  that  there  are  44  cubic  feet  of  stone  in  this  stalagmite, 
and  that  each  cubic  foot  weighs  170  lbs.,  the  weight  would  be 
nearly  S|  tons. 

The  cave  from  which  this  stalagmite  was  taken  is  situated  at 
Walsingham,  in  the  parish  of  Hamilton,  and  upon  the  side  of  a  hill, 
about  40  or  50  feet  above  the  sea,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant  from 
it.  Tiie  author  remembered  the  cave  well,  having,  with  his  brother, 
been  in  Bermuda  with  Sir  David  Milne  during  bis  command. 

The  cave  inside  might  be  abont  25  or  SO  feet  high  at  the  greatest 
height  of  the  roof,  about  50  or  60  yards  in  length,  and  20  to  30 
yards  in  breadth.     But  it  is  quite  irregular  in  shape.     It  contains 


DvGooglc 


o/Ediabvrgk,  Session  1864-66.  425 

an  immense  number  of  both  &talactite§  and  stalagmilea  of  all  sizes. 
Some  of  the  latter  bad  grown  up  so  high  as  to  have  leacbed  the  roof 
and  become  enpporte  to  it,  and  were  from  30  to  40  feet  in  girtb. 

At  the  bottom  or  lowest  part  of  the  cave  there  is  a  large  and 
deep  pool  of  salt  water,  rising  and  falling  with  the  tidee, — proving 
a  connection  with  the  sea. 

The  entrance  of  this  cave  is  nurow,  and  about  8  feet  high. 
The  floor  descends  rapidly  and  irregnlarly.  At  the  distance  of 
25  or  30  yards  from  the  month  stood  the  stalagmite  which  foima 
the  subject  of  the  present  notice.  At  this  place  the  floor  slopes 
downwards,  and  the  roof  is  abont  15  feet  above  the  floor,  so  that 
the  stalagmite  had  grown  up  high  enough  to  nearly  reach  the 
roof. 

This  stalagmite,  the  author's  father  caused  to  be  sawn  across 
near  its  point  of  attachment  to  the  floor.  It  was  flrst  sawn  half 
across,  and  a  nick  made  with  the  saw  on  the  opposite  side ;  it  was 
then  pulled  over,  so  as  to  cause  fracture,  the  column  having  been 
previously  secured  by  strong  tackling  and  shears  to  prevent  it 
falling  over  altt^ther. 

The  author's  brother.  Bear- Admiral  Sir  Alexander  Uilne,  having 
been  commander-in-chief  for  the  last  four  years  on  the  Korth 
American  Station,  he  also,  u  their  father  had  done,  spent  the 
winter  at  Bermuda,  and  when  there,  paid  one  or  two  visits  to  the 
cave  from  which  the  stalagmite  had  been  taken.  He  had  no 
difficulty  in  recognising  the  tmnk,  by  the  evident  appearauce  of  its 
having  been  sawn  across ;  and  he  was  at  once  struck  by  observing 
that  it  was  again  growing,  by  the  accnmnlation  of  fteah  calcareous 
matter.  It  occurred  to  him  that  it  might  be  interesting  to  measure, 
as  exactly  as  possible,  the  quantity  deposited  during  the  forty-four 
years  which  had  elapsed  since  the  etalagmite  had  been  removed. 
With  that  view  he  made  the  following  observations : — 

Ho  noticed  five  drops  of  water  falling  on  the  trunk, — two  at  the 
rate,  each  of  them,  of  three  or  four  drops  in  the  minute.  The 
other  three  dropped  much. less  frequently. 

On  the  part  of  the  trunk  where  the  two  first-mentioned  drops 
were  falling,  two  small  knobs  of  calcareous  matter  had  been  formed. 

On  the  part  of  the  trunk  where  the  three  last-mentioned  drops 
were  falling,  the  deposit  consisted  of  only  a  thin  crust. 

VOL.  V.  3  k 


j.Googlc 


426  Prveeediags  of  the  Royal  Society 

One  of  the  knobs  measured  in  height  ftbove  the  fractured 
Burfaco  five-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  had  at  its  base  an  uea  of 
abont  3}  inohes  in  diameter.  The  other  knob  measured  in  height 
foni'tentfas  of  an  inch,  and  had  at  its  base  an  area  of  about  2^ 
inohes. 

Supposing  these  knobs  to  be  exact  cones,  there  would  bs  2*3  oubic 
inches  in  the  former,  and  '53  oubio  inches  in  the  latter, — making 
altogether  2'8S  cubic  inches.  But  as  the  tops  were  rounded,  one- 
third  should  be  added  to  this  result, — making  altogether  377  cubic 
inches.  With  regard  to  the  amount  of  matter  deposited  by  the 
three  remaining  drops,  it  was  scarcely  appreciable,  bo  that  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  whole  deposit  may  be  very  safely  assumed  as 
not  having  exceeded  five  cubic  inches. 

Such  having  been  the  amount  of  growth  of  the  stalagmite 
during  forty-four  years,  it  occurred  to  inquire  bow  long,  at  the 
same  rate  of  growth,  it  bad  taken  for  the  whole  stalagmite  to  be 
formed.  In  the  part  of  it  now  at  the  Cktllege,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  contents  of  the  trunk  still  in  the  cave,  there  aie  4i  oubic  feet, 
or  above  76,000  cubic  inches.  If  this  amount  of  calcareous  matter 
had  been  deposited  at  the  same  rate  as  the  5  cubic  inches  during 
the  last  forty-four  years,  the  whole  stalagmite  would  have  required 
the  astounding  and  incredible  period  of  more  than  600,000  years 
for  its  formation. 

There  ate  several  circumstances,  however,  deserving  of  notice, 
which  show  how  little  such  a  calculation  is  to  be  relied  on, — tiiongh 
at  first  sight  it  is  perhaps  quite  as  plausible  as  many  other  calcula- 
tions of  a  similar  kind. 

It  aesnmes  that  during  the  whole  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
stalagmite,  the  calcareous  matter  had  been  deposited  at  exactly  the 
same  rate  as  during  the  last  half-century ;  in  other  words,  that  the' 
supply  of  calcareous  water  to  this  part  of  the  roof  had  been  always 
exactly  the  same.  There  is,  however,  nothing  ta  prove  that  this 
was  the  case;— it  is,  moreover,  not  in  the  least  likely  to  be  true. 
Indeed,  the  great  probability  is,  that  the  supply  of  water  to  any 
one  spot  in  the  roof  would  be  much  greater  at  first  than  afterwards. 
The  porous  limestone  rock  of  Bermuda  becamee  hardened  and 
encrusted  by  the  rain-water  percolating  through  or  over  it,  and 
the  rapidity  of  this  process  was  marvellous.     Lieut.  Nelson  of 


o'Googlc 


o/Edinbttrgk,  Session  I664r-G5.  427 

the  Engineeis,*  when  he  wae  enperiDtendiiig  the  ezcavatione  m 
Bermuda  for  the  dockyard,  found  the  eggs  and  bones  of  a  sea-fowl, 
one  of  tfae  existing  species  which  lays  its  eggs  in  crevices  of  the 
rocks,  entombed  in  the  coarse  limestone  rock.  The  poor  bird, 
whilst  sitting  on  its  nest,  bad  been  caught  by  some  storm  of  sand 
which  filled  np  the  crevice,  and  the  prisoner,  with  its  eggs,  became 
petrified  and  encased  in  the  rock.  Sfany  examples  of  the  same 
kind  had  come  to  Lient.  Nelson's  knowledge.  He  fonnd  a  canister- 
shot  and  a  gold  knee-buckle  similarly  foBsilised.  Wherever  the 
limestone  rock  has  been  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  gets  encnisted 
with  crystaUised  stalagtitic  matter,  bo  that  in  any  place  where  a 
hollow  or  trough  occurs  on  the  surface  of  the  rock,  water  falling 
or  flowing  into  it,  stands.  In  these  circumstances  it  is  not  difficult 
to  see  how  water,  filtering  at  first  through  to  the  roof  of  a  cave, 
might,  in  the  course  of  time,  have  its  coarse  diverted  from  the  spot 
where  it  used  to  drop  abundantly,  or  at  all  events,  how  it  should 
diminish  in  quantity.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  infer,  that  in 
the  early  history  of  the  caves,  the  wat«r  flowed  through  the  roofs 
much  more  copiously  than  afterwards.  The  cracks  and  interstices 
in  the  porous  rock  would  become  gradually  filled  np,  so  as  to  cut 
off  or  curtail  the  fiow  of  water,  and  consequently  lessen  the  supply 
of  calcareous  precipitate. 

On  these  grounds  the  author  entirely  repudiated  the  notion  that 
this  stalagmite  had  taken  the  enormona  period  to  grow,  indicated 
by  the  foregoing  calculation, — though  what  period  it  actually  did 
take,  there  were  no  data  to  determine. 

In  Douclading,  the  author  referred  to  the  probable  origin  of  these 
caves.  He  considered  that  they  had  origiaally  consisted  of  great 
masses  of  loose  sand  which  bad  become  enveloped  in  compact  lime- 
stone. Lieut.  Nelson,  in  his  paper  describing  the  excavations  for 
the  dockyard,  mentioned  that  "  tfae  irregular  density  of  the  rock 
is  exhibited  on  all  scales,  from  minute  flaws  and  patches,  to  large 
matieaofdry  tand,  which  more  than  once  occnired  during  the  pro- 
gress of  our  excavations  in  the  heart  of  otherwise  hard,  sound  rock." 
He  says  that  these  beds  of  dry  sand  lay  just  above  the  level  of 
high  water,  and  were  "  covered  hy  cliffs  of  good  rook  sometimes 

*  Qeological  Soeletf  TransactionH  fur  18ST,  vol.  v. 


DvGooglc 


428  Proceedings  o/the  £&yal  Society 

50  feet  high."  The  extent  to  which  shelly  sand  wu  thrown  up  by 
the  waves  on  the  shores  of  the  island,  and  then  blown  t^  the  S.W. 
winds,  BO  as  Bctaally  to  form  hills  of  160  feet  in  height,  had  been 
described  by  Lieat.  Nelson,  and  the  author  himself  distinctly 
rememberB  them,  along  the  sonth  side  of  the  island.  It  seemed 
probable  that  the  rain-water,  containing  as  it  does  a  certain  amonnt 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  had,  by  percolating  through  the  sand-dnneB 
in  ancient  times,  hardened  and  consolidated  the  calcareous  sand, 
down  to  a  certain  depth,  into  solid  rock ;  and  this  resnlt  would  be 
all  the  more  likely  if,  at  a  former  period  of  the  earth's  history,  as 
many  geologists  supposed,  the  earth's  atmosphere  then  contained  a 
larger  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  compact  limestone 
rock  having  been  formed  in  this  way,  enolosing  and  lying  above 
huge  masses  of  sand,  it  was  suggested  that  in  the  course  of  time 
the  sand  bad  been  undermined  and  washed  out  by  the  action  of 
the  sea.  It  was  understood  that  every  one  of  the  Bermuda  oavee 
are  at  or  near  the  sea-level,  and  have  pools  of  salt-water  in  them. 

3.  Meteorological  Observations  on  Stonns  of  Wind  in  October, 
November,  and  December  of  1863,  By  Alexander  Buchan, 
M.A.,  Secretaiy  to  the  Scottieh  Meteorological  Society. 

The  author  had  traced  eleven  distinct  storms  of  wind  passing 
over  parts  of  Europe,  between  the  26th  October  and  18th  December. 
With  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  stato  of  the  atmosphere  during 
the  progress  of  these  storms,  in  respect  of  pressure,  tomperature, 
wind,  cloud,  and  rain,  he  had  ooUected  observations  from  all  parts 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  from  many  places  on  the 
Continent.  He  found  that  each  storm  was  marked  by  concentric 
circles  of  equal  atmospheric  pieesure.  Generally,  the  point  of 
greatest  barometrio  depression  was  28'5  inches,  round  which,  as  a 
centre,  the  isobaiometrio  lines  could  be  traced  up  to  30  inohes. 

These  isobaiometric  lines,  especially  when  near  the  central  area 
of  minimum  pressure,  were  often  circular,  or  nearly  so ;— when  they 
were  elliptic,  the  longer  axis  generally  coincided  with  the  direction 
in  which  the  storm  moved. 

In  the  great  majority  of  the  oases  investigated,  the  storm  moved 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbttrgh,  Sesatoa  1864-65.  429 

towaide  some  point  of  the  qn&dnmt  between  north-east  and  south- 
east. In  one  case  the  movement  had  been  from  the  nurtli-east ; 
but  thia  had  so<m  receded  or  disappeared,  apparently  absorbed  by  a 
new  stonn  from  the  south-west. 

The  observations  on  temperature  indicated  that  before  a  storm 
from  south-westward  reached  a  pUce,  the  temperature  rose,  and  after 
it  had  passed,  the  temperature  fell  at  that  place. 

The  direction  of  the  wind  in  the  storm  was  ascertained  to  be 
pretty  nearly  coincident  with  tangents  to  the  isoharometrio  cnrves, 
though  with  a  tendency  to  turn  inwards  towards  the  centre.  The 
author  considered  that  he  hod  established  that  all  storms  marked 
by  a  low  barometer,  and  moving  north-eoaterly,  rotated  from  right 
to  left,  looking  northwards. 

With  regard  to  the  violence  of  the  winds,  he  found  that  it  was 
greatest  where  the  isobaiometric  curves  (having  each  a  diffeienoe 
of  two-tenths  of  on  inch)  were  closest  to  each  other ; — when  these 
lines,  whether  of  high  or  of  low  pressure,  were  far  apart,  the  wind 
was  moderate. 


4,  On  the  TJae  of  Graphic  Bepresentations  of  Chemical 
Formula.    By  Dr  A.  Gium  Brown. 

The  idea  of  atomicity,  or  the  definite  equivalence  of  chemical 
atoms,  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  theory  of  teplacemeat. 
It  was  employed  by  Frankland  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  organo- 
metollic  bodies,  and  its  application  was  further  extended  by  Eolbe 
to  a  large  number  of  organic  substances. 

It  is,  however,  to  EeknlS  that  we  owe  the  complete  generalisation 
of  this  idea  and  its  systematic  application  to  all  classes  of  com- 
pounds. This  first  rendered  it  possible  to  represent,  as  it  is  often 
advantsgeouB  to  do,  the  constitution  of  compounds  by  completely 
dissected  formulas.  The  most  convenient  way  of  doing  this  is  to 
employ  some  suitable  system  of  graphic  notation. 

KeknIS  himself,  in  his  "  Lehrbuch,"  made  use  of  a  system 
which  has  the  advantage  of  compactness  and  cleamesB,  but  is 
limited  in  its  application  to  those  compounds  in  which  the  poly- 
atomic atoms  form  a  single  chain.  In  order  to  obviate  this  incon- 
venience, I  proposed,  in  my  thesis  presented  to  the  Uedical  Faculty 


DvGooglc 


430  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

of  the  Univerait;  in  1861,  a  form  of  grapMc  notation  which,  while 
inferioi  in  compaolness  to  that  of  Eekuld,  appears  to  me  ptefetable, 
as  being  at  least  equally  clear  and  applicable  to  every  fonaola  in 
accordance  with  the  theory  of  atomicity. 

In  an  able  and  soggestiTe  papei  pnblished  in  the  "  Bulletin  de 
la Soci6t6  Chimiqne  de  Paris"  for  February  1865,  Eeknld  mesa 
modification  of  hia  original  notation,  which  to  a  great  extent 
remoTes  my  first  objection  to  it,  but  at  the  same  time  lays  it  open 
to  another  and  more  serious  one — that  of  obscurity  and  ambiguity. 
That  this  is  not  an  imaginary  or  trivial  defect  is  made  evident  by 
the  circumstance  that  Eekul6  has  himself,  in  the  paper  referred  to, 
been  led  into  an  error  by  bis  notation.  In  a  foot  not«,  pp.  103  and 
104,  be  says : — "  On  conceit  capendant  an  point  de  vue  de  la 
Ih^orie  de  I'atomicitS  rexistence  d'une  categorie  d'alcools,  dont  la 
constitution  devia  Stre  exprimee  par  les  noms  que  je  viens  de  citer. 
[Alcool  m£thylo-6tbyliqae,  itbylo-m^thylique  et  dimStbylo-m6thy- 
lique.}  C'est  oette  categorie  d'alcoob  dont  la  sagacity  de  M.  Eolbe  a 
pt^vn  I'existence.  La  difference  entre  ces  alcools  et  I'aloool 
ptopylique  normal  est  assez  clairement  rendue  par  les  figures  27 
ct28. 

II  ne  faut  cependant  pas  confondre  avec  ce  genre  d'alcoole 
isomfiriqaea  les  peeudo-alcools  que  r6snltent  de  la  r£dnctioD  des 
acetones  et  que  se  rattachent  gvidomment  aox  acetones  mtoes 
(figs.  29  et  30). 

II  ne  faut  pas  confondre  non  plus  les  pseudo-alcools  additionnels 
que  M.  Wurtz  a  d£riv6s  des  bydrooarbures;  o'est  une  isom^e 
d'nn  ordre  tout  i.  fait  different,"  &c.    The  figures  referred  to  are — 


SdoE 


Fig,  27.  Alcool  PropjUqne. 


Fig.  2S.  Adtooe.  Fig.  80.  Aloool  ActtoniqiM. 

Now  if  we  translate  tbcee  formuln  into  any  other  system  capable  of 


DvGooglc 


o/Ediidxirgh,  Seuim  186i-^.  431 

indicatiog  the  cbemical  poeitioD  of  each  atom,  we  find  that  figs. 
28  and  30  aie  identical.    In  Butlerow'e  formulfe,  we  bare 


CH,  1  (  V, 

CH  (HO)  \  or  typically  0  /  J' 
OH,  )  ^  (B 


CH' 
OH, 


or,  on  the  graphic  system  which  I  ose, 

©-(i)-(^-©-® 

In  fact,  a  little  conBideration  will  show  that  the  tbeor;  of  atomi- 
city does  not  admit  of  more  than  two  eubfltances  having  the  fonnola 
C,H,  (HO).  In  reference  to  the  Last  aeutence  quoted  from  Eekul^, 
I  shall  only  remark  that  bis  view  is  not  borne  ont  by  fact  in  tbe 
case  of  hydrate  of  propylene,  as  Berlhelot  has  shown  that  it  is 
identical  with  the  alcohol  derived  from  acetone. 

The  following  Oentlemen  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows 
of  the  Society : — 

1.  Jambs  PowaiB,  E«q.,  F.G.S. 

2.  Cbablbb  Jbkhbb,  Esq. 

The  following  DonalionB  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Bulletin  de  I'Acad^mie  Royale  des  ScieDces,  des  Lettres,  et  des 

Beaux  Arts  de  Belgiqae,  Nob.  1,  2.     Brnxelles,  1865.    8to. — 

From  the  Academy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Gieographical  Society.    Vol.  IX,,  No.  2. 

London,  1866.    8vo. — From  the  Sodety. 
Proceedings  of  tbe  British  Ueteorological  Society.     Vol.  II.,  No. 

17.    London,  1865.    8to.— JVom  (Ac  Society. 
The  Journal  of  tbe  Chemical  Society,  Februuy  1865.    London, 

1865.     Sva.—From  the  Society. 
Visible  Speech:  A  new  Fact  demonstrated.    By  Alexander  Uel- 


432  Proceedinga  of  the  BoytU  Society 

villa  Bell,  F.E.I.S.,  &e.    Edinbu^,  1866.    12mo.— /Vwn  tht 
AtUhoT. 

AbbaDdlungeu  dei  Eonigtiolien  Akademie  der  Wiseensch&ften  in 
Berlin,  1863.    Berlin,  1864.    ito.—From  &«  Academy. 

VerzeiobnisB  der  Abbandluugen  Crelebtter  GeBellechaften  nnd  der 
WiBsenscbafllicben  Eonigl.  PreussisoheD  Akademie  der  Wis- 
eenechaften  zu  Berlin.  Berlin,  1664.  8vo. — From  the  Academy. 

LawBon'B  Pioetnin  Briton nicnm.  Part  YIII.  Elephant  Folio.— 
From  the  Sight  Son.  The  Lord  Provott. 


Monday,  nth  April  1864. 
LOED  NEAVES,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 
The  followiog  OommtmicatioiiB  were  read : — 

1.  On  Oonfocal  Conice.    By  H.  Fox  Talbot,  Esq. 

2.  On  the  Celtic  Topography  of  Scotland.    By  William 
F.  Skene,  Esq. 

The  author  commenced  by  dietinguiBhing  between  an  etymologj 
of  names  of  places  founded  upon  mere  reBemblance  of  Bounds,  and 
one  where  the  names  are  analysed  according  to  fixed  laws,  based 
upon  sound  philolog^al  principles  and  a  comprehensive  obeerration 
of  facta.  The  former  is  the  ordinary  procees  to  which  they  are 
subjected,  and  has  characterised  all  systematic  attempts  hitherto 
made  to  analyse  the  topography  of  Scotland.  It  can  lead  only  to 
fanciful  renderings,  and  is  incapable  of  yielding  any  certain  results, 
while  the  latter  becomes  an  important  element  in  fixing  the  eth- 
nology of  the  inhabitants  of  a  country.  Karnes  of  places  undergo 
a  process  of  change  and  corruption.  The  language  from  wbicb 
they  were  derived  has  likewise  gone  through  a  process  of  change 
and  decay,  and  an  interpretation  based  upon  mere  resemblance  of 
sounds,  in  the  present  form  of  the  names  of  places,  to  words  in  au 
existing  language,  ignores  this  fact  and  can  only  mislead.  In  order 
to  obt«n  a  Bound  etymology  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  old  form 
of  the  name,  and  to  analyse  it  in  conformity  with  the  phonetic 
laws  of  the  language  from  which  it  sprang. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  18C4-66.  433 

The  author  then  showed  the  fallacy  of  the  syBtem  of  phonetio 
etymology,  on  whioh  the  conclnaionfl  of  Pinkerton,  Chalmers,  and 
others  were  baaed,  and  that  the  attempts  hitherto  made  to  discri- 
minate  between  that  part  of  the  population  speaking  a  Eymric, 
from  that  speaking  a  Qaelio  dialect,  irom  the  topography  of  the 
dietricts,  was  fonnded  npoo  an  JDaccniate  conception  of  the  facta 
and  a  false  view  of  the  dialeotio  differencee.  In  especial,  he 
showed  that  the  attempt  to  draw  a  line  of  demarcation  between 
them  from  the  respectivB  prevalence  of  the  terms  Aber  and  Inver, 
was  fonnded  upon  an  incomplete  and  inaccurate  apprehension  of 
the. real  facta  of  the  caae,  and  was  not  borne  ont  by  the  actual 
topography  of  the  country. 

The  author  then  explained  a  table  he  had  prepared,  showing  the 
geogrq>hica1  distribution  of  a  complete  list  of  the  terms  which 
enter  into  the  Celtic  topography  of  Scotland.  This  table  showed 
the  number  of  times  that  each  term  occurred  in  Ireland  or  in 
Wales,  and  likewise  in  every  county  of  Scotland,  and  to  a  great 
extent  disproved  the  assamed  facta  upon  which  the  deductions 
Dsually  made  from  the  topography,  are  based. 

This  table  likewise  showed  that  there  were  fonr  terms  peculiar 
to  the  diatricta  inhabited  by  the  Ficta,  and  these  words  belonged 
to  the  Gaelic  and  not  to  the  Kymric  branch  of  the  Celtic. 

The  author  then  showed  that  some  of  the  terms  belonged  to  an 
older  form  of  the  langnage  than  others,  and  after  giving  examples 
of  this,  he  c<fticlnded  by  stating  the  following  as  the  results  of  his 
investigatioa ; — 

1.  In  order  to  draw  a  correct  inference  from  the  names  of  places 
OB  to  the  ethnologic  character  of  the  people  who  imposed  them,  it 
is  neceBeary  to  obtain  the  old  form  of  the  name  before  it  became 
corrnpted,  and  to  snalyse  it  according  to  the  phonetic  laws  of  the 
langnage  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  A  compariBon  of  the  generic  terms  affords  the  beat  teat  for 
discriminatiug  between  the  different  dialects  to  which  they  belong, 
and  for  this  comparison  it  ia  necessary  to  have  a  correct  table  of 
their  geographical  distribution. 

3.  Difference  between  the  generic  terms  in  different  parts  of 
the  oonntry  may  arise  from  their  belonging  to  a  different  stage 
of  the  same  languid,  or  from  a  capricious  selection  of  different 

VOL.  V.  St 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


434  Proceedings  of  the  Boycd  Society 

BynonymB  by  different  tribes,  ae  well  as  from  a  real  dialectic  differ- 
ence between  tbe  languages  from  which  tfaey  weie  derived. 

4.  In  order  to  afford  a  test  for  discriminating  between  dialects, 
the  generic  terme  must  contain  within  them  those  sonods  which 
are  differently  affected  by  the  phonetic  laws  of  each  dialect. 

5.  Applying  this  test,  the  generic  terms  in  Scotch  tapi^iaphy 
do  not  show  the  existence  of  a  Kymric  language  north  of  the  FirttiB 
of  Forth  and  Clyde. 

6.  We  find  in  tbe  topography  of  the  north-east  of  Scotland 
traces  of  an  older  and  of  a  more  recent  form  of  Gaelic.  The  one 
preferring  labials  and  dentals,  and  the  other  gut tnrals.  Tbe  one 
hardening  the  coneonanta  into  tenitei,  the  other  softening  them  by 
aBpiration.  The  one  depositing  Abeis  and  Inveis  simultaneously, 
the  other  Invers  alone.  The  one  a  low  Ghielic  dialect,  the  other 
a  high  G-aelic  dialect,  the  one  probably  the  language  of  the  Piot^, 
the  other  that  of  the  Scots. 


3.  On  the  Bands  produced  by  the  Superposition  of  Faragenic 
Spectra  formed  by  the  Grooved  Surfaces  of  Glass  and 
Steel.    Part  II.    By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.RS. 


4.  Bemarks  on  the  Flora  of  Otago,  Nevr  Zealand.  By  W. 
Lander  Lindsay,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  Hon.  Member  Ot  the  Philo- 
sophical Institute  of  Canterbury,  New  Zealand. 

The  North  Island  flora  has  hitherto  been  regarded  (in  the  absence 
of  a  knowledge  of  tbe  South  Island  flora)  as  representing  the 
general  vegetation  of  our  New  Zealand  poBsessions.  But  the  New 
Zealand  Islands  extend  through  thirteen  degrees  of  latitnde,  and 
the  floras  of  their  northern  and  southern  extremes  necessarily  |>ie- 
Bent  various  marked  differences.  The  former  flora  is  more  sub- 
tropical, and  tbe  latter  more  antarctic  in  its  affinities.  The  former, 
morever,  is  richer  in  natural  orders,  genera,  and  species. 

Until  very  recently,  however,  comparatively  little  or  nothing  was 
known  of  tbe  Otago  flora,  all  collections  previous  to  1661  having 
been  made  on  its  coast,  and  with  a  single  limited  exception  on  its 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-«5.  435 

western  coast.  In  1861  the  author  botanically  examined  the 
vicinity  of  Dnnedin,  and  the  settled  districts  between  that  capital 
and  the  Clutha  River, — all  on  the  eastern  sea-board  of  the  pro- 
vince. The  immediate  fruit  of  this  examination  included,  in  the 
department  of  phnnogams  and  ferns  alone,  a  total  of  235  species. 

Five  species  were  new  to  science,  viz.,  Vitcum  iiwfeoy*  (Oliv,), 
parasitic  on  Metrotideroa  hypericifolia,  Cdmisia  Lindsay*  (Hook, 
fil.),  Poa  Lindiayi  (Hook.  fiL),  AciphyUa  CoUneoi  (Hook,  fil.),  and 
Crepia  2fova  ZelanditB  (Hook,  fil.)  (Drawings  of  these  plants  were 
exhibited.) 

Five  species  had  not  been  previously  fonnd  in  New  Zealand; 
twenty-two  had  not  been  previously  found  in  Otago  thirty  were 
rare  in  Otago ;  and  twenty-five  species  indigenous  in  Otago  were 
British. 

In  addition  to  these  and  to  the  total  of  235  species,  there  were 
twenty-seven  species  of  British  plants  naturalised  in  Otago,  making 
a  total  of  262. 

Between  1862  and  1864,  the  interior  of  Otago  has  been  explored 
by  the  Government  Qeologtcal  Survey,  and  the  collections  made  by 
the  botanist  attached  thereto  have  largely  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  flora,  more  especially  of  its  western  alps  and  great  central 
lake  basins. 

The  author  in  bis  paper  (which  refers  only  to  Fhanogams,  Ferns,, 
and  their  allies)  endeavours  to  give  the  great  characteristics  of  the 
flora  of  Otago,  as  a  type  more  especially  of  the  southern  flora  of 
New  Zealand,  and  he  draws  a  comparison  between  the  flora  of  the 
south  and  of  the  north.  The  subject  is  treated  mainly  in  a  tabular 
and  statistical  manner. 

The  following  table  shows  the  numerical  strength  of  the  Fhtsno. 
gamic  Flora  of  Otago : — 


I.  P&£NOGAMS. 
fDicorrLBDOHS. 


A.  Angiospermce — 

1.  Thalamiflorce, 

2.  Disciflorte, 

3.  Calyciflone, 


No.  of     No.  of    No.  of 
Orders.  Qenera.  Species 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 


Ho.  of 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Otden. 

Oenen.  Bpodeo. 

4.  CoroUiflone 17 

53 

178 

5.  Incomplete 7 

14 

30 

64 

137 

366 

Oymwjaperma, 1 

4 

10 

141 

376 

ttMoKocoiruo»m. 

1.  PataloidMB 6 

26 

49 

2.  Glumaccai 3 

81 

70 

Total  MoDoootyledoiiB,      .          9 

~67 

"ll9 

198 

495 

II.  CEYPTOGAMa 

1.  KliOM 1 

24 

88 

2.  LycopodiaceiB  and  UanUeaces,  .          2 

3 

8 

3 

27 

96 

Total  Phfenogame  and  Fems  in  Otago,    67 

225 

591 

Proportion  of  speciee  to  a  geniu,  2-61  to  1. 

Do.  do.  natural  order,  8'82  to  1. 

Do.  Dicotyledone  to  Monocotyledone,  3*15  to  1. 

Number  of  natural  orders  coDtaining  only  one  genus,  26. 
Number  of  genera  containing  only  one  Bpecies,  104. 

The  author  then  enamerat«a  the  prominent  orders  and  genen, 
mentions  the  proportion  of  ligneous  species,  and  gives  a  sketch 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  plants  of  Otago  under  the 
groups  Endemic,  Australian,  Antarctic,  South  American,  Poly- 
nesian, and  CoBmopollte  (including  Btitish  plants  and  widely  dis- 
tributed species). 


DvGooglc 


0/ Udinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  137 

5.  Od  the  GompoeitioD  of  Bome  Old  Wines.    By  Douglas 
Moclagan,  M.D.,  Cur&tor  £«y.  Soc.  Edin. 

The  BampleB  of  wine  were  fnmiBhed  to  Di  Uaclagan  by  the  Earl 
of  Dalhousie ;  they  had  been  found  in  a  leceBH  in  a  wall  in  Panmure 
House,  whicb  was  known  to  have  been  bnilt  np  in  1715 ;  the  samples 
were  consequently  at  leaat  150  years  old. 

The  wines  submitted  to  examination  were  three  in  number,  and 
were  contained  in  qn^  bottles,  resembling  those  ordinarily  in  use 
at  the  present  day.  They  were,  when  sent  to  Dr  Maclagan,  securely 
corked ;  evaporation  had,  however,  gone  on  to  a  sensible  extent  in 
two  of  the  bottles,  the  third  being  nearly  full. 

No.  1. — Bottle  No.  1  contained  21  fluid  annces  of  wine,  its  capacity 
being  25  fluid  ouncee.  The  fluid  was  carefully  decanted,  and  thns 
separated  from  a  considerable  quantity  of  dark  red  apothema. 

The  fluid  separated  by  decantation  was  slightly  turbid,  the  tur- 
bidity not  disappearing  on  filtration.  Its  colour  was  a  pale  tawny 
brown.  It  possessed  a  distinct  vinous  aroma,  which  when  the 
bottle  was  first  opened,  resembled  very  closely  that  of  claret.  In 
addition  to  the  vinous,  there  was  a  distinctly  acetous  odour.  Its 
density  at  60°  Fahr.  was  995'42. 

The  acids  of  the  wine  were  separated  by  precipitating  first  with 
ordinary,  and  then  with  basic  acetate  of  lead,  and  decomposing  the 
separate  precipitates  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  teeting.  The 
wine  was  found  to  contain  tartaric  and  tannic  acids,  besides  sul- 
phuric and  phosphoric  acids  and  chlorine  in  a  state  of  combination. 
It  contained  no  racemic  acid. 
The  results  of  a  quantitative  analysis  were  the  following  : — 

Water  in  1000  parts, 918-414 

Alcohol, 70-000 

Acetic  acid, S'906 

Tartaric  acid, 8-187 

Sugar -654 

Soluble  salts, 1-672 

Insoluble  salts 1-330 

In  the  above  analysis  the  total  acidity  of  the  wine  was  deter- 
mined by  means  of  a  standard  alkaline  solution ;  the  fluid  having 


DvGooglc 


438  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Soei^y 

then  beeD  acidified  with  solpharic  acid,  was  digtillod.  The  acidity 
of  the  diBtillate  was  theo  determined  hj  means  of  the  standard 
alkaline  Bolntion ;  from  the  amount  of  alkali  used  in  the  second 
deteimiuation,  the  acetic  acid  was  determined,  it  being  assumed 
that  this  was  the  only  volatile  acid  present.  By  subtracting  the 
amount  of  alkali  lequiied  to  neutraliee  the  volatile  acid,  from  the 
total  amount  leqnired  to  nentralise  the  wine,  was  found  the  amount 
of  alkali  required  to  nentialise  the  fised  acid.  The  calculation  was 
made  on  the  osanmption  that  the  only  fixed  acid  present  in  the 
wine  was  tartaric  acid.  The  assumption  is  an  erroneous  one,  but 
was  adopted,  so  that  the  analysis  might  compare  with  other  wine 
analyses,  which  are  usually  CDnduct«d  on  this  plan. 

The  sugar  was  determined  in  the  wine  which  had  been  treated 
with  acetate  of  lead,  and  subsequently  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
by  boiling  with  Febling's  solatiou,  and  determining  by  the  balance 
the  amount  of  copper  reduced. 

The  sediment  (apothema)  of  the  wine  was  examined,  and  found 
to  contain  much  tannic  acid,  in  combination  with  the  red  colouring 
matter  of  the  wine,  beeides  tartrate  of  potash. 

So.  2. — The  bottle  was  full  to  the  neck  of  a  wine  having  tiie  un- 
mistakable flavour,  and  average  colour,  of  Ifadeiia.  Though  it 
was  very  acid,  it  was  by  no  means  undrinkable.  Its  densi^  at 
60°  Fahr.  was  989-7. 

It  contained  a  trace  of  tannin,  but  no  tartaric  acid.  The  amount 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  chlorine  which  it  contained  appeared  to  be 
unusually  large. 

Its  complete  examination  has  been  prevented  by  other,  and 
more  important,  work.  The  following  particulars  have  been,  bow- 
ever,  ascertained : — 

Total  solids  in  1000  parts,        ....      27625 

Salts 2-446 

Alcohol, 100000 

Acetic  acid, 1-290 

Fixed  acid,  equivalent  to  2-152  parts  of  caustic  soda. 

The  amount  of  sugar  which  the  wine  contained  was  not  detei- 

Ho.  3. — The  bottle  was  full  to  the  shoulder  of  a  turbid,  deed 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1864-65.  439 

brown  wine,  of  very  hout  taste,  and  having  the  flavoui  of  port     It 
contained  an  abnndant  red  deposit. 

Ite  density  at  60"  Fahr.  was       ...         .     994-06 

Total  solids  in  1000  parts i9'66 

Salts, 2-79 

Alcohol 50-00 

The  total  amount  of  free  acid  in  1000  parts  was  determined  by 
means  of  a  standard  solution  of  soda,  and  found  to  be  equal  to  5*37 
parts  of  caustic  soda.  The  amount  of  acetic  acid  was  not  separately 
determined.  This  wine  contained  a  very  large  quantity  of  tannic 
acid  still  in  solution,  besides  the  large  amount  which  had  been  pre- 
cipitated in  combination  with  red  colouring  matter.  It  contained 
no  tartaric  acid  in  solution.  The  exact  amount  of  sugar  was  not 
determined ;  it  was,  however,  decidedly  small. 

6.  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Colouring  Matter  of  Feziga 
ceruginosa.    By  Dr  A.  Crum  Brown. 

The  Petiza  teruginoaa  is  a  fungus  belonging  to  the  family  Asco- 
myoetes,  and  order  Elvellaceffi.  Although  the  fructification  is  not 
often  met  with,  the  plant  itself  is  by  no  means  rare,  growing  on 
dead  wood,  chiefly  of  the  oak,  birch,  and  ash.  It  has  an  intense 
green  colonr,  and  tinges  the  wood  on  vhich  it  grows  to  a  consider- 
able depth. 

The  raw  material  upon  which  my  investigations  were  made  was 
derived  partly  from  the  plant  itself,  hut  to  a  much  larger  extent 
from  the  wood  upon  which  it  had  grown,  or  was  growing.*  I  am 
indebted  for  the  wood  and.the  plants  to  Dr  Alexander  Dickson,  at 
whose  suggestion  I  undertook  this  research. 

As  Dr  Dickson  had  observed  that  the  colouring  matter  dissolves 
withcnt  apparent  change  in  the  strong  mineral  acids,  but  is  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  dilute  acids,  I  employed  the  following  method  for 
its  isolation : — 

The  wood,  broken  into  small  pieces,  was  placed  in  a  large  fannel, 

*  Id  order  to  determiDB  «jth  certaiatj  the  eonnection  between  the  green 
wood  and  the  Pezizn,  Ur  M'Nab  of  the  Botanic  Oarden  exposed  pieces  of  the 
wood,  wliicb  showed  ne  trace  of  the  frnctiflcatioD,  to  heat  and  moieture,  whon 
luge  otops  of  the  fOngns  were  obtained. 


DvGooglc 


440  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

containing  a  small  asbestos  filter,  and  the  funnel  vaa  filled  with 
strong  commercial  nitric  acid.  The  acid  was  completely  saturated, 
after  passing  two  or  three  times  throngh  the  wood.  The  solution 
had  a  dork-green  colour  by  refiected,  and  a  deep-purple  red  by 
transmitted,  light.  When  poured  into  water,  a  copious  bnt  ex- 
tremely light  flocculent  precipitate,  of  a  brigbt-green  colour,  was 
produced,  which  slowly  subsided,  leaving  the  supernatant  liquid 
nearly  colourless.  As  this  precipitat«  was  found  to  possess  the 
same  properties,  whatever  acid  was  used  in  its  preparation,  I  had 
□a  hesitation  in  using  nitric  aoid,  which  is  by  Far  the  beet  solvent. 
Ou  attempting  to  wash  the  precipitate  with  distilled  water,  either 
by  deoantation  or  on  a  filter,  I  found  that,  while  nearly  insohible  in 
moderately  dilute  acid,  it  dissolves  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
water,  even  when  the  latter  contwns  distinct  traces  of  acid.  I 
therefore  bad  recourse  to  the  method  of  dialysis  to  get  rid  of  the 
aoid. 

The  acid  liquid  containing  the  green  matter  in  suspennion  was 
placed  on  a  dialysor,  consistiug  of  a  sheet  of  parchment  paper, 
stretched  over  a  double  ring  of  gutta-percha,  and  floating  in  a  vessel 
containing  distilled  vater.  After  two  or  three  days  {the  wat^ 
being  frequently  renewed)  the  nitric  acid  was  found  to  be  entirely 
removed,  and  the  contents  of  the  dialysor  consisted  of  a  green 
liquid,  and  a  dark-green  precipitate.  The  latter  left  a  small  white 
ash  on  ignition ;  and  as  the  quantity  of  ash  bore  no  constant  rela- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  green  matter,  it  was  obvious  that  the  sub- 
stance was  still  impure.  In  order  to  purify  it  further,  I  took  ad- 
vantage of  its  solubility  in  alkalies,  and  dissolved  it  in  the  smallest 
possible  quantity  of  very  dilate  ammonia.  The  brown  solution  thus 
obtained  was  filtered,  allowed  to  stand  several  days  in  the  dialysor, 
and  precipitated  by  means  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  acid  was 
as  removed  by  dialysis,  and  a  green  liquid  and  precipitate  obtained 
before.     This  was  dried  tn  vacvo  over  sulphuric  acid. 

The  substance  thus  obtained  is  a  very  light  powder,  almost  black 
when  viewed  in  mass,  dark  bluish-green  when  finely  divided,  and 
is  probably  nearly  pure,  I  have,  however,  not  yet  analysed  it,  as  it 
still  leaves  a  decided  trace  of  ash  ;  and  I  am  unwilling  to  expend 
the  small  quantity  at  my  disposal  until  I  have  made  further  eA'arts 
to  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  purity. 


DvGooglc 


ofEdwhurgh,  Session  1864-65.  441 

Ab  before  stated,  the  Bubetance  dissolres  readily  id  the  strong 
miDeral  acids,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  glacial  acetic  acid. 
These  solutions  are  precipitated  by  water.  It  also  dissolves  in 
water  and  ohiorofonn.  All  these  sclntions  are  green.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  soluble  with  a  brown  colour  in 
alkaline  solntiona.  When  no  excess  of  allcali  has  been  used,  these 
solutions  are  precipitated  green  by  dilute  acids ;  but  when  allowed 
to  etand,  even  for  a  few  minutes,  with  excess  of  alkali,  they  nndei^ 
a  change,  and  acide  then  produce  a  slimy-brown  precipitate.  The 
same  change  takes  place  when  the  aqueons  or  alkaline  solntiou  is 
heated  to  100°  Gent. 

The  neutral  ammonia  solution  gives  precipitates  of  a  dirty  green 
or  brown  colour  with  most  metallic  solutions. 

When  the  substance  is  fused  with  dry  caustic  potash,  a  power- 
ful ammoniacal  odour  is  given  off:  It  therefore  contains  nitrogen. 

These  obserrations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  substance  is 
a  weak  acid,  and  that  it  forms  compounds  of  slight  stability  with 
the  stronger  acids.  Any  speculatiouB  as  to  its  nature  are,  however, 
premature,  until  we  obtain  analyses  of  the  body  itself,  and  of  some 
of  its  compounds. 

Since  writing  this  note,  I  have  observed  in  the  "  Comptes 
Bendns,"  vol.  Ivii.  p.  50,  a  paper  by  M.  Fordos,  apparently  on  the 
same  subject.  H.  Fordos  was  not  aware  of  the  origin  of  the  gieen 
colour,  and  seems  to  have  obtained  only  a  very  small  quantity  of 
it.  He  has  anticipated  me  in  tfae  observations  as  to  its  solubility 
in  strong  acids  and  chloroform,  and  has  proposed  for  it  the  name 
of  "  Acide  xylochloerique." 


7.  On  the  Motion  of  Interpenetrating  Media.  By  Alfred 
R.  Catton,  B.A.,  Assistant  to  the  Frofeesor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  balloted  for,  and  elected 
Fellows  of  the  Society : — 

1.  Cbablgs  Lawsoh,  junior,  Eeq. 
•2.  Alex.  Keiller,  M.D.,  F.B.C.P.E. 
VOL,  V.  3  K 


DvGooglc 


442  Froceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  annotmced: — 

JoutdbI  of  tfae  Statietical  Society  of  London.   Tol.  XXVIII.,  Part 

1.    8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.     Vol.  III.,  No.  27.     Londoii. 

8vo,— From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society,  London.     Vol.  XIV.,  No.  73. 

8yo. — From  the  Society. 
American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arte.     No.  116.     New-Haven. 

8to.— iVom  the  Editors. 
Monthly  Betum  of  the  Birtha,  Deaths,  and  Marrit^a  regietered 

in  the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland,  March  1665.    8to.— 

From  the  Registrar -Qeneral. 
Seventh  Detailed  Annual  Report  of  tfae  Begistrar- General  of  Births, 

Deaths,  and  Marri^;es  in  Scotland.    Edinburgh,  1865.   8vo. — 

From  the  Kegittrar-Qeneral. 
On  the  Malacostraca  of  Arietotle.    By  J.  Young,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E. 

8vo  — From  the  Author. 
On  Bome  of  the  more  Important  Diseaeea  of  the  Aimy;  with  Con- 

tributione  to  Pathology.  By  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.R.S.   Loudon, 

1862.  8vo,— From  the  Author. 

Physiological  Beaearchea.     By  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.E.S.     London, 

1863.  8vo.— -From  the  Author. 

MSmoires  de  la  Soci€t«  de  Physique  et  d'Histoire  Natnretle  de 

Geneve.     Tome  XVII.,  Pt.  2.     Geneve,  181)4.     Svo.—From 

the  Society. 
Denkschriften   der  Euiseriichcn    Akademie  der  Wiasenschaften. 

Mathematisch-naturwissenBchaftliche  Claese,    Band    XXIIl. 

PhiloEOphiscb-faiBtoriBche  Olagee,  Band  XIII.     Wien,  1864. 

4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Sitzungsberichte  der  KaiBerliclien  Akademie  der  WisaenDchaften. 

Philosophiach-hiHtoriacbe  ClaBse,  Band.  XLV.,  Hefte  ii.,  iii. ; 

Band  XLVI.,  Hefte  i,-iii.     MatbematiBch-naturwiaBenschaft- 

liche  Clasee  (Meteorologie),  Band  XLIX.,  Hefte  ii.-v.     (Mine- 

ralogie).  Band  XLIX.,  Hefte  ii.-v. ;  Band  L.,  Heft  i.    Wien. 

4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Almanach  der  Kaiserlichen  Akademie  derWiesenschaften.     Wien, 

1864.  tivo.—From  the  Academy. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinbm-gh,  Session  1864-65.  443 

Abstracts  of  the  PioceediDga  of  tke  Geological  Society  of  London, 

Nob.  130,  131.    8vo.~  From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  Weekly,  for  1864-IJS.      London. 

8vo, — From  the  Society. 
Comptea  Bendns  Hebdomaduires  des  Seancte  de  I'Acad^ie  des 

ScienoeB.     Paris,  1864-65,     4to, — From  tke  Academy. 

Monday,  lat  May  1865. 

PRorEBSOR  CHBISTISON,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  Communicatious  were  read : — 

I.  Some  ObservationB  on  the  Cuticle  in  relation  to  Bvapo- 
ration.     By  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.E.S.  Lond.  A  Edin. 

Id  this  paper  the  author  gives  an  account  of  many  oxperiments 
made  on  the  loss  of  weights  of  different  animals  in  their  fresh  state, 
when  snspended,  exposed  to  the  air,  from  evaporation ;  From  the 
results  of  which  he  infers,  that  it  is  comparatively  greatest  from 
the  batracbiaDS,  not  quite  so  great  from  fishee,  less  from  mammalia, 
and  least  from  birds. 

Physiologically  considered,  he  infers  that  the  function,  in  all  but 
the  fishes,  is  connected  with  the  regulation  of  animal  heat,  tending 
to  keep  the  cool-blooded  batrachians  cool,  and  birds  of  a  high  tem- 
perature warm. 

Viewed  pathologically,  he  shows  how  it  tends  to  prevent  inspis- 
sation  and  drying,  and  to  preserve  the  blood  in  a  healthy,  and  the 
tissues  in  a  flexible,  moist  state. 

In  addition,  he  gives  an  account  of  some  similar  trials  on  vege- 
tables, in  wbich  the  cuticular  covering  performs  a  part  in  relation 
to  the  retarding  of  evaporation  and  the  preservation  of  life,  similar 
to  that  which  it  exercises  on  animals. 

He  concludes  with  calling  attention  to  the  drying  of  meats  and 
vegetables  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  and  with  the  expression 
of  regret  that  these  in  their  dried  state — so  much  used  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  on  the  Continent,  and  so  oaaUy 
obtained,  considering  the  simplicity  of  the  process,  are  not  more 
used  in  Great  Britain,  especially  by  the  labouring  class. 


,,.,  Google 


444  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

2.  Oa  Water,  Hydrogen,  Oxygen,  and  Ozone.    By  John 

Macvicar,  D.D.    Communicated  by  Dr  E.  Ronalds. 

3.  Kote  on  the  Eehaviour  of  Iron  Filings,  strewn  on  a 
vibrating  plate,  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  magnetic 
pole.    By  Professor  Tait. 

While  a  horizoDtal  pkte  is  in  a  state  of  rapid  vibratioD  (as  in 
Ghladni's  experiments),  iron  filings  strewed  on  the  surface,  near  a 
point  of  maximum  vibratiou,  are  prevented  from  being  scattered  to 
the  nodal  lines  by  a  magnetic  pole  held  above  the  plate,  but,  if  the 
pole  be  held  hdom,  tbey  are  speedily  dissipated.  If  too  powerful 
a  pole  be  used,  or  if  the  magnet  be  held  too  near  the  plate,  the 
filings  nearest  to  the  pole  ore  not  dispersed  in  the  latter  case.  I  men- 
tion this  curious  fact  (which  was  observed  recently  by  Mr  Talbot 
and  myself),  on  account  of  its  explanation,  which  is  very  simple. 

The  filings  tend  to  place  their  greatest  length  in  the  direction  of 
lines  of  magnetic  force ;  and  thus,  when  the  pole  is  above  the  plate, 
their  upper  ends  incline  inwards  to  it,  so  that  the  agitation  of  the 
plate,  combined  with  the  magnetic  attraction,  brings  them  nearer 
to  the  point  immediately  below  the  pole.  When  the  pole  is  below 
the  plate,  the  upper  ends  of  the  filings  divei^  from  the  pole,  and 
the  agitation  sends  them  outwards,  unless  the  magnetic  attraction 
be  considerable. 

4.  On  some  Goagenital  Defonnities  of  the  Human  Skall. 
By  Wm.  Turner,  M.B.,  F.RS.B. 

Isf,  ScaphocepheUw. — After  making  reference  to  his  previous 
papers,*  more  especially  to  that  in  which  he  bod  described  several 
specimens  of  the  scaphocepbalic  skull,  in  which  he  had  discussed 
the  influence  exercised  on  the  production  of  deformities  of  the 
cranium,  by  a  prematnre  closure  oi  obliteration  of  the  sntures, 
and  to  the  recent  memoirs  of  Frofesaor  von  Duben  of  Stockholm,! 

*  NfttnnJ  Hiatoff  Review.     Jkonuj  1864,  nod  JtMauy  16S5. 
t  MedloiDskt  Arohir.     Slookholm.     Vol.  ii.  Part  i.  p.  1.     ISM. 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  445 

aad  Dr  Jolin  Thurnam,*  the  author  proceeded  to  relate  two 
additional  cases  of  scaphocephalaa  to  thoee  he  had  already  re- 
corded. He  had  met  with  one  of  these  id  the  bead  of  a  living 
person,  the  other  in  a  skull  in  the  Natural  History  Musenm  of  the 
UniTeraity  of  Edinburgh. 

The  first  case  occnned  in  a  young  man,  a  native  of  Scotland, 
and  was  a  very  characteristic  specimen.  The  great  elongation  and 
lateral  compression  of  the  skull  in  the  parietal  region  were  well  ex- 
hibited, the  sagittal  ridge  was  strongly  pronounced,  and  the  flat- 
tening of  the  skull  on  each  side  of  the  ridge  was  considerable. 
The  head  was  9  inches  long ;  and  this  great  elongation  was  chiefly 
displayed  in  the  bulging  backward  of  the  occipital  region,  for  there 
was  no  marked  projection  of  the  forehead.  The  characteristic 
shape  of  this  youth's  head  was  congenital,  for  it  had  been  observed 
from  his  earliest  infancy,  and  his  birth  was  attended  with  consider- 
able difficulty.  He  was  of  studious  habits,  and  very  intelligent. 
For  in  these  cases  of  scaphocephalism  there  is  not  necessarily  any 
intellectnal  deficiency,  as  the  impeded  growth  of  tbe  skull  in  the 
transverse  direction  from  early  obliteration  of  the  sagittal  suture  is 
compensated  for  by  the  increased  growth  in  the  antero -posterior, 
and  the  growth  of  the  brain  though  restricted  in  one  direction  in 
permitted  in  another.  Hence,  the  cubic  capacity  of  these  crania 
doea  not  seem  to  be  below  the  mean  of  the  race  or  races  in  which 
they  have  been  found ;  one  of  the  skulls  the  author  had  formerly 
described — 117  a,  Edinburgh  University  Anatomical  Mueenm — 
having  a  capacity  as  high  as  108  cubic  inches. 

The  skull  in  the  Natural  History  Museum  is  that  of  an  Egyptian 
mummy,  and  was  described  and  figured  as  such  by  the  late  Mr 
Andrew  Fyfe,  in  his  "  Illustrations  of  the  Anatomy  of  t!ie  Human 
Body."  t  He  states,  that  "  it  is  remarkable,  not  only  for  its  length 
and  narrowness,  but  for  the  strong  impression  made  by  the  tem- 
poral muscle,  and  for  the  sharpness  of  the  arches  of  the  forehead 
and  occipnt ;"  but  he  says  nothing  of  tbe  condition  of  tbe  sagittal 
suture,  and  apparently  regards  the  skull  as  a  characteristic  specimen 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  cranium.    Conjoined,  however,  with  this 

•  Natural  HUtorj  RaTiaw.     ipril  1866. 

t  TUrd  Edition.  Flatei  vii.  ^  ud  vii.  b.  Edinburgh,  1814.  Aud  in 
Table  viii.  page  8,  of  the  edition  published  In  1680. 


j.Googlc 


446  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

leogth  and  narrowneas  are  an  absence  of  parietal  eminence,  a  com- 
plete obliteiatioD  of  tlie  sagittal  sutuie,  a  keel  oi  ridge  alo&g  the 
sagittal  line,  and  such  a  complete  blending  of  the  tvo  parietal 
bones,  that  it  must  be  pronounced  to  be  a  typical  epecimen  of  the 
scaphocephalic  skall.  Hence  it  cannot  be  leganJed  as  expreesiDg 
the  nonual  foim  of  head  of  the  ancient  Egyptian,  bnt  simply  u 
an  individual  peculiarity  due  to  piematuie  cloBare  of  the  sagittal 
suture,  and  poesessing  no  ethnolo^cal  value.  For  skulls  of  this 
furm  may  apparently  occur  in  any  race,  and  in  any  clime,  as  well  in 
the  old  Egyptian  as  in  the  Scotchman  of  the  present  day.* 

As  minor  characters  in  this  cranium,  may  be  noticed,  that  the 
lateral,  longitudinal,  and  vertical  transverse  lines  of  sutures  are 
marked  externally,  bnt  probably  obliterated  internally.  The  fore- 
head is  rounded  and  projecting  in  the  region  of  the  frontal  emi- 
nences, but  behind  these  tubera  the  frontal  hone  has  a  roof-like 
form.  The  biparietal  bone  has  no  beak  jutting  forward  into  the 
frontal,  and  there  are  indications  of  the  former  presence  of  parietal 
foramina.  A  narrow  beak  runs  forward  from  the  superior  angle  of 
the  occipital  bone  into  the  biparietal  bone.  The  facial  bones  tie 
broken  away,  and  the  cavity  of  the  skull  is  full  of  a  black  bitumi- 
nous-like material.  The  skull  is  apparently  that  of  a  person  past 
the  middle  period  of  life,  but  whether  male  or  female  is  eomewhat 
uncertain,  though  it  is  probably  the  latter. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  measurements,  expressed 
Id  inches  and  tenths : — 

Extreme  length,  81 ;  breadth,  48 ;  height,  5-3. 
Greatest  frontal  breadth,  39 ;  parietal,  4-3 ;  occipital,  8  6. 
Frontal  radius,  4'8 ;  parietal,  4'7 ;  occipital,  4-3. 
Frontal  arc,  5*4 ;  parietal,  6*2 ;  occipital,  49 ;  louKitndinal, 
16'6. 

*  U|iwatds  of  fort;  cases  of  Bcapbocephalism  have  uov  been  recorded  by  the 
fallowing  anatnmisla: — Sandirart,  Blumenbach,  and  Ton  Bser,  each  od«; 
Virehow  and  Lncae,  each  two ;  Uinclijo,  three ;  Welcker,  four ;  Von  Diibsn. 
seven :  Thnruain,  nine,  and  the  anlhor,  including  the  two  cases  described  in 
the  teit,  eleven  ;  and  they  have  been  found  in  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  Frencb. 
Oerman,  Danish,  Swedish,  Cnadan,  lUyrian,  Tartar,  Oentoo.  EaquimaBi. 
Ancient  Egyptian,  Negro,  and  AiutrBlian  heads. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  447 

FroDtal  tTDDSTerBe  arc,  12-6  ;  parietal,  120  ;  occipital,  10-6. 
Circumference,  21-3. 

2d,  Congenital  Deficiencies  in  the  Cranium. — For  the  opportunity 
uf  examining  the  verj  remarkable  skull-cap  next  deEcribed,  tbe 
author  was  indebted  to  Frofeesor  Uaclagan,  who,  on  account  of 
some  circumetances  connected  with  the  death  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  belonged,  possesBing  a  medico-legal  interest,  had  had  it 
sent  him  by  Br  T.  J.  Maclagan  of  Dundee.*  The  ekull-cap  was 
from  a  woman  at.  25.  Id  the  inter- parietal  part  of  the  occipital 
bone  an  oval  opening,  with  a  smooth  ronnded  margin,  existed  in 
the  middle  line.  Its  long  asie  was  vertical,  and  meaanred  one 
inch  ;  its  transverse  diameter  was  a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  at 
the  widest  part.  A  sutare  extended  upwards  from  the  upper  end 
of  this  opening  in  the  middle  line,  as  far  as  the  enperior  angle  of 
the  bone.  This  bole  was,  in  the  recent  state,  filled  up  by  a  mem- 
brane. In  the  posterior  slope  of  each  parietal  bone  an  oval  open- 
ing, with  a  rounded  margin,  was  situated.  The  long  axis  of  each 
was  transverae ;  that  on  tbe  right  side  ^^ths,  that  on  the  left  -^tbs 
of  an  inch  long ;  whilst  the  an tero- posterior  diameter  on  tbe  widest 
part,  on  the  right  side,  was  ^ths,  on  the  left  ^iha  of  an  inch. 
These  openings  were  filled  up  in  the  recent  state  with  a  cribriform 
membrane.  A  suture  passed  from  the  inner  end  of  the  left  parietal 
opening  almost  trausversely  inwards  for  about  half  an  inch,  when  it 
reached  the  middle  line,  and  then  extended  downwards  and  back- 
waids  for  1}  inch,  as  far  as  tbe  lambdoidal  suture,  occupying  the 
position  of  the  posterior  part  of  tbe  sagittal  suture.  The  right 
parietal  opening  had  no  suture  proceeding  from  it,  though  there 
were  appearances  as  if  one  had  formerly  existed.  The  parietal 
openings  by  their  outer  ends  were  close  to  elevations  in  tbe  bones, 
which  evidently  corresponded  to  the  parietal  tubera. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  skull-cap,  in  front  of  the  parietal 
openings,  was  marked  by  the  groove  for  the  superior  longitudinal 
sinus  along  the  middle  line;  opposite  these  apertures  it  was  deflected, 
and  ran  close  to  the  inner  end  of  the  right  parietal  opening  ;  and 
preserving  this  direction  it  ran  along  tbe  right  side  of  the  occipital 
opening  as  far  as  the  internal  occipital  protuberance;  from  the 

*  Froc.  Med.  Chic.  Sac.  Ediu.  in  Edinburgh  Uedical  Journal,  Ha;  1666. 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


448  Proceedings  o/the  Soyal  Socielt/ 

inner  end  of  the  left  parietal  opening  a  shallov  groove  pro- 
ceeded, which  ended  in  the  groove  for  the  superior  longitudinal 
BinnB,  and  had  apparently,  at  one  time,  lodged  a  Bmall  venons  Binns. 
Anteriorly,  the  right  parietal  bone  sent  forward  into  the  frontal  a 
beak  Bimilar  to  those  the  author  ha.d  described  in  some  of  the  eca- 
phocephalic  crania  recorded  in  hia  former  paper.  Traces  of  a  suture, 
yieible  only  elternally,  might  be  seen  commencing  at  the  coronal 
suture,  immediately  to  the  left  of  the  base  of  the  beak.  It  ex- 
tended in  an  interrupted  manner  backward  for  about  an  inch  and 
a  half,  and  then  disappeared,  so  that  from  this  spot,  to  a  point 
midway  between  the  two  parietal  openings,  the  sagittal  suture  was 
entirely  obliterated,  and  the  two  parietal  bones  were  completely 
blended  together.  The  other  sutures  of  the  skull-cap  were  well 
marked,  both  internally  and  externally. 

The  author  then  discussed  the  probable  modes  of  prodnction  of 
these  malfonnations.  He  argued  that  the  opening  in  the  occipital 
bone  was  due  to  want  of  union  in  the  middle  line  of  the  osaific 
spicula  proceeding  from  the  two  centtes  of  ossification  from  which 
the  inter-parietal,  or  cerebral,  part  of  the  occipital  bone  is  developed. 
The  malformation  might  be  compared,  therefore,  with  the  deficiency 
in  the  neural  arches  of  the  spinal  column,  occasioning  a  spina  bifida. 
The  two  large  openings  in  the  parietal  bones  were  of  a  difierent 
nature :  they  were  not  congenital  deficiencies  in  the  middle  line ; 
they  did  not  occur  along  the  line  of  junction  of  spicula — proceeding 
from  ossific  centres  orginally  distinct,  but  were  placed  laterally, 
and  each  was  situated  between  the  eminence  which  seemed  to  be 
the  centre  of  ossification  for  the  parietal  bone  in  which  it  occurred, 
and  the  middle  line.  The  openings,  indeed,  occupied  the  position  of 
the  parietal  foramina,  but  were  many  times  larger  than  those  aper- 
tures are  in  a  normal  ekull.  The  possibility  of  these  being  greatly 
exaggerated  vascular  foramina  was  then  discussed,  the  cribriform 
condition  of  the  membrane  closing  them  over,  and  the  relations  of 
the  grooves  for  the  venous  sinuses  internally,  seemed  to  favour  such 
a  conclusion.  Abnormalities  in  the  construction  of  the  bones  of 
the  skull-cap,  i.e.  of  the  bones  developed  in  membrane,  are  appa- 
rently more  frequent  than  those  of  .the  basis  cranii,  which  ore  de- 
veloped in  cartilage.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  ciroumetaooe, 
that  the  areas  of  the  different  bones  are  lera  precisely  defined,  and 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaaim  1864^65.  449 

that  tbe  process  of  oaaiGoation  is  more  liable  to  disturbance  in  the 
former  than  tbe  latter.  The  modifications  in  arrangement  are 
especiall;  apt  to  occur  along  the  lines  of  apposition  of  adjacent 
osseous  areas,  i.e.,  along  sutural  lines,  or  along  tbe  margins  of 
junction  of  the  subdivisions  of  a  bone  proceeding  from  distinct 
centres ;  and  in  these  localities  it  is  tbat  the  anatomist  so  fre- 
quentljmeeta  with  Wormian  or  triquetral  bones,  or  occasionally  with 
a  beak  projecting  from  one  bone  into  an  adjacent  one,  or  with 
tbe  not  unfrequent  blending  of  one  bone  vith  another  along  the 
antural  lines. 


5.  On  Saturated  Vapours.     By  W.  J.  Macquorn  Bankine, 
C.E.,  LL.D.,  F.R.SS.  Lond.  and  Edin.,  &c. 

As  this  paper  consists  almost  wholly  of  fonnulfe,  calculations, 
and  tables,  it  is  not  suited  for  being  read  to  a  meeting ;  and  there- 
fore tbe  following  short  abstract  of  its  contents  is  alone  offered  for 
the  purpose  of  being  read  aloud : — 

In  tbe  "Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal"  for  July  1S49,  tbe 
author  proposed  the  following  formula  for  the  preseure  of  saturated 
vapour  corresponding  to  a  given  boiling  point : — 


where  t  ia  the  ahvilute  temperature,  reckoned  from  the  ahtchiit  sero  ; 
and  A,  B,  andC  ore  three  specific  constants,  to  be  determined  from 
at  least  three  experiments  on  each  substance  ;  and  be  showed  that 
the  results  of  that  formula  agreed  better  with  experiment  than 
those  of  any  other  formula  containing  three  constants  only.  In 
a  series  of  papers  on  the  Mechanical  Action  of  Heat,  read  to  the 
Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1850,  and  subsequent  years,  and  in 
other  publications  also,  the  same  formula  is  explained,  and  its  use 
exemplified  in  various  ways.  The  first  division  of  the  present 
paper  gives  the  results  of  the  computation  of  the  values  of  the  con- 
stants A,  B,  and  G  for  several  fluids  for  which  they  had  not  been 
previously  computed,  the  data  being  taken  from  tbe  second  volume 
of  M.  Begnanlt's  "  filiation  des  Experiences,  &c.,"  published,  in 

VOL.  V.  3  N 


DvGooglc 


450  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

1862  ;  and  it'  is  also  shown  that  by  the  formula  a  conclosion  was 
anticipated,  which  M.  Begnault  has  deduced  from  his  experimentfi, 
viz.,  that  "  the  elastic  force  of  a  vapour  does  not  increaee  indeJiniUly 
with  the  temperatKre,  but  converges  totnards  a  limit  which  it  cannot 
exceed."     ("  BStation  des  Bxp^rieDceB,"  toI.  ii.  page  647.) 

The  second  division  of  the  paper  is  occupied  chiefly  with  a  com- 
pariHou  between  the  actual  values  of  the  preesurea  of  eatnration  of 
the  vapours  of  various  flnids,  and  the  values  which  those  pressares 
would  have  if  the  vapours  were  perfectly  gaseous.  In  the  first  of 
the  papers  already  referred  to,  read  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  published  in  their  Transaotions  in  18S0,  the  author 
proved  from  the  principles  of  thennodyn  amies  that  the  "  total  heat" 
of  evaporation  of  a  perfectly  gaseous  vapour  must  be  represented  in 
dynamical  units  by  the  expression 

J6  +  J./(, 

where  6  is  a  constant  to  be  found  by  experiment,  c'  the  specific  heat 
of  the  vapour  at  constant  pressure,  and  J  the  dynamical  equivalent 
of  an  unit  of  heat,  t  being  the  absolute  temperature  as  before.  In  a 
paper  read  to  the  Royal  Societyof  Edinburgh  in  1855,  but  not  pub- 
lished, the  same  formula  was  shown  to  express,  in  dynamical  units, 
the  total  heat  of  gaaefieaiion  of  any  substance  under  any  constant 
pressure,  when  the  final  absolute  temperature  is  (.  In  the  present 
paper  the  author  equates  that  expression  to  another  expression  for 
the  total  heat  of  evaporation,  from  the  absolute  zero,  at  a  given 
absolute  temperature  (,  as  follows  : — 


;si>-t- Ut: 


.jy^cV.  +  (  J  (.-."); 


in  wliich  v  and  v"  are  the  volumes  of  unity  of  weight  of  the  sub- 
stance in  the  gaseous  and  liquid  states  respectively,  under  the 
pressure  p,  and  at  the  absolute  temperature  t.    Then  putting  for  v 
its  value  in  the  perfectly  gaaeoua  state — namely, 
^^Jic-c)t 
P 
where  c  is  the  specific  heat  of  the  gas  at  constant  volume,  and  ne- 
glecting v"  as  very  small  in  compansoD  with  v,  there  is  found,  by  in- 
tegration, the  following  value  of  the  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1864-65.  451 

preaanre  of  eaturation  (a  being  a  constant  to  be  deduced  from  one 
experiment  for  each  fluid) :  — 


When  d'  is  conetant  (aa  ie  approximately  the  case  in  some  instancea) 
the  preceding  equation  becomes 

hyp.logj.=«-         *--^hyp.log  i     .     (B.) 
(c  —c)c      e  ~c 

The  presauroB  of  various  vapours,  as  calculated  on  the  supposition 
of  tbeir  being  perfectly  gaseous  by  means  of  the  preceding  equa- 
tions, are  compared  with  tbeir  actual  presBures;  the  general  result 
being,  that  vhon  the  vaponra  are  rare,  the  difTeiences  are  small, 
and  that  when  the  densities  increase,  the  differences  increase.  For 
example,  in  the  case  of  steam,  the  pressures  calculated  by  equation 
B  agree  very  closely  with  the  actual  presBures  from  0°  to  160° 
Gent. ;  but  above  the  latter  temperature  the  difTerence  gradually 
becomes  considerable,  and  at  220°  Cent,  is  about  one-fiftieth  part 
of  the  whole  pressure.  At  0°  Cent.  1  pound  of  saturated  steam 
occupies  3400  cubic  feet ;  at  160°  Cent,  about  5  cubic  feet ;  and  at 
228"  Cent,  about  1-4  cubic  foot. 

The  author  also  makes  some  comparisons  between  the  actual 
volumes  of  saturated  vapours  at  given  boiling-points,  and  the  calcu- 
lated volumes  which  tliey  would  fill  if  they  were  perfectly  gaseous ; 
and  also  between  the  actual  latent  beat  of  evaporation,  aud  the 
calculated  latent  heat  of  perfect  gasefication.  Tlie  general  results 
are  in  accordance  with  what  is  already  known, — viz.,  that  the 
actual  volumes  of  vapours  are  less  than  thuse  corresponding  to  the 
perfectly  gaseous  state,  and  the  actual  latent  heat  of  evaporation 
leas  than  the  latent  heat  of  gitsefication  ;  and  the  author  further 
points  out  that  the  differencea  in  the  case  of  ateam  increase  nearly 
AS  the  absolute  temperature. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 


6.  On  the  Ganglia  and  Nerves  of  the  Heart,  and  their  con- 
nection with  the  Cerebro-Spinal  and  Sympathetic  Systema 
in  Mammalia.  By  James  Bell  Pettigrew,  M.D.,  Edin- 
bnrgh.  Assistant  in  the  Museum  of  the  Boyal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England. 

The  Memoir,  of  vhlch  the  sabjoined  is  an  abstract,  is  based 
upoa  seventy  dissections,  and  is  intended  as  a  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  arraogemeDt  of  the  caidiac  nerves  in  the 
mammalia. 

It  has  the  five  following  objects  in  view : — 

lit.  To  describe  the  parts  of  the  sympathetic  and  vagus,  which 
furnish  branches  to  the  heart. 

2d.  To  trace  the  branches  given  off  by  the  sympathetic  and 
vagOB,  till  they  disappear  in  the  great  cardiac  pleznaea. 

Zd.  To  unravel  the  plexuses,  so  as  to  show  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  formed,  and  how  they  resolve  themselves. 

^h.  To  point  out  the  arrangement  of  the  nerves  on  the  polmoDary 
artery  and  aorta,  and  on  the  surface  and  in  the  substance  of  the 
auricles  and  ventricles. 

5A.  To  demonstrate  the  existence  of  certain  nervous  enlarge- 
ments on  the  suri'ace  and  in  the  substance  of  the  heart  generally, 
and  to  show  that  these  enlargements  are  true  ganglia,  and  contain 
innumerable  unipolar  and  bipolar  nerve-cells. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  investigation,  the  cardiac  branches  fnr- 
nisbed  by  the  sympathetic  and  vagus  have  been  examined  in  the 
cat,  calf,  and  rabbit,  and  also  in  man ;  but  the  author  is  indebted 
for  his  results  chiefly  to  the  three  former,  the  nervous  system  of  the 
domestic  animals  being,  in  his  opinion,  especially  interesting,  as  the 
animals  themselves  are  admirably  adapted  fur  the  purposes  of 
vivisection. 

The  chief  points  of  difference  to  be  noted  in  the  cardiac  nerves 
of  the  animals  referred  to,  occur  in  the  sympathetic,  and  are  a* 
follows ; — 

In  the  cat,  the  cardiac  nerves  furnished  by  the  sympathetic  pro- 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbwrgh,  Session  1864-65.  453 

ceed  from  two  Wge  BoUtary  ganglia,  one  of  which  is  situated  at  the 
root  of  the  neck  on  the  right  side,  the  other  on  the  left. 

In  the  rabbit,  they  proceed  from  fonr  smaller  ganglia,  two  of 
which  are  situated  on  the  right  side  of  the  root  of  the  neck,  the  re- 
maining two  on  the  left. 

In  the  calf,  the  number  of  ganglia  famishing  cardiac  branchee 
increaee  to  six,  these  heing  similarly  divided  and  situated. 

The  cat,  therefore,  seems  best  adapted  for  phyBiological  pnrsnits, 
and  a  series  of  carefully  performed  experiments  on  that  animal  may 
probably  be  the  means  of  determining  the  nature  and  the  extent  of 
the  influence  exerted  by  the  nerves  on  the  movements  of  the  heart, 
if  indeed  these  movements,  as  the  author  remarks,  are  not  referable 
to  the  ganglia  situated  in  the  heart  itself,  which,  from  various  con- 
siderations, he  thinks  not  unlikely.  The  heart,  e.  g.,  is  known  to 
contract  and  dilate  for  a  considerahle  period  after  the  blood,  which 
'is  regarded  aa  its  natural  stimulus,  is  abstracted  from  it.  It  further 
acts  regularly  when  removed  from  the  body  and  placed  under  a  bell 
jar  from  which  the  air  has  been  eubeeqaently  exhausted  by  the 
action  of  an  air-pump.  In  the  frog,  moreover,  as  not  unfrequently 
happens,  the  heart  suddenly  ceases  to  contract,  if  the  base,  where 
the  ganglia  ate  moet  numerous,  be  removed  by  the  stroke  of  a 
BoiBsors.* 

In  the  second  part  of  the  investigation,  the  great  cardiac  plexuses 
are  shown  to  resolve  themselves  into  four  minor  ones. 

Of  these,  one  occurs  on  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  supplies 
branches  to  that  surface  of  the  auricles  which  is  directed  towards 
the  great  vessels.  It  also  supplies  branches  to  the  right  ventricle. 
A  second  occurs  between  the  pulmonary  artery  end  aorta,  and  fur- 
nishes branches  to  the  anterior  coronary  vessels,  and  to  the  right 
and  left  veutricles,  particularly  the  latter.  A  third  occurs  on  the 
posterior  coronary  Binus,  and  gives  branches  to  the  left  auricle  and 
ventricle,  especially  the  latter.  The  fourth  occupies  that  surface  of 
the  auricles  which  is  directed  toworde  and  is  in  contact  with  the 
pericardium,  and  supplies  branches  to  the  inferior  cava,  to  the 
auricles,  and  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  right  ventricle.    The 

•  Bracbet  declaiea  that  if  the  cardioo  plains  in  mammalB  be  destroyed  th« 
movements  of  the  heart  are  luddenl;  and  pennsDenlly  arrested. — Du  Sytiime 
Ifeneuu  Oanglionaire,  p.  120. 


DvGooglc 


454  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

four  minor  plexuses  leferred  to  supply  branches  which  pursue  a 
definite  direction.  Thus  the  branches  from  the  plexus,  situated 
between  the  pulmonary  artery  and  aorta,  and  between  the  former 
and  the  right  auricle,  proceed  in  a  spiral  direction  from  right  to 
left  downwards,  so  that  they  cross  the  muscular  fibres  compoeing 
the  ventricles.  The  same  may  be  eaid  of  the  branches  proceeding 
from  the  plexuses  occurring  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  anriclee 
and  on  the  posterior  coronary  sinus.  By  this  arrangement  the 
nerves  distributed  to  the  heart  are  brought  iuto  intimate  contact 
not  only  with  the  muscular  fibres,  but  also  with  the  blood-vessels ; 
and  this  is  important,  as  it  Is  on  the  latter  that  the  ganglia  are  most 
frequently  detected. 

In  the  third  and  concluding  part  of  the  investigation,  the  en- 
largements and  fusiform  swellings  figured  by  Scarpa*  and  Leef 
have  been  examined  microscopically,  and  their  precise  nature  ascer- 
tfuned.  The  hearts  examined  for  this  purpose  were  numerous,  and 
consisted,  among  others,  of  those  of  man,  the  boise,  ox,  camel, 
heifer,  dog,  panther,  deer,  seal,  and  pig. 

The  ganglia  occur  as  irregularly  shaped  enlargements,  having 
three,  four,  five  or  more  nerves  connected  with  them.  Sometimes 
they  appear  as  simple  dilatations  occurring  on  the  nerves  as  they 
cross  the  vessels.  They  are  most  numerous  on  the  posterior  coronary 
sinus,  where  they  form  a  continuous  network  not  hitherto  described ; 
but  they  are  also  to  be  found  in  large  quantities  on  the  vessels  and 
tbroughont  the  substance  of  the  heart  generally. 

When  a  ganglion,  with  severalnerves  proceeding  from  it,  is  de- 
tached and  treated  with  carmine  and  glycerine,  it  is  found,  on 
microscopic  examination,  to  be  crowded  with  nerve-cells,  the  poles 
of  which  are  directed  towards  the  nerves  themselves.  When  one  of 
the  swellings  or  dilatations  which  occur  on  the  nerves,  as  they  cross 
the  vessels,  is  similarly  treated,  the  neive-cells  are  seen  to  form  an 
oval  patch  corresponding  in  shape  with  the  dilatation,  and  the  poles 
of  the  cells  are  directed,  as  a  rule,  in  the  direction  of  the  nerve 
trunk.  In  some  instances  the  nerves  terminate  in  bulbous  expan- 
sions, and  on  snch  occasions  the  expansions  in  question  are  crowded 
with  nerve-cells,  the  poles  of  which  are  directed  towards  the  attached 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh ,  Seaeion  1864-65.  455 

nerve.     It  ie  not  uncommon  to  obeerre  one  of  these  terminal  ex- 
pansions, with  a  emalleT  one,  apparently  in  process  of  formation, 

attached  to  it. 

The  nerves  and  nerre-pIexuHes,  in  their  various  combicatioDa, 
and  the  ganglia  and  their  contents,  have  been  described  at  length, 
and  the  appearances  presented  by  them  carefully  figured. 


Note  to  Paper  on  Ihe  Action  of  Eydriodic  Acid  on  Maudelic  Acid, 
by  Dt  a.  C.  Brovm.     Bead  March  20,  1865. 

Jimi  6,  1866. 
Since  this  paper  was  printed  I  have  prepared  the  aldehyd  of 
alpha-tolmc  acid.  I  shall  only  mention  here  that  it  posBesses  in  a 
very  high  degree  the  Bmell  of  honey,  which  was  observed  in  the 
case  of  the  alpha-toluic  acid  described  in  the  paper ;  and  that  it  is 
probable  that  that  acid  contained  traces  of  the  aldebyd  to  which  it 
owed  not  only  its  smell,  but  also  the  excess  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
indicated  by  the  analyses. 

The  followiog  DoDations  to  the  Library  were  laid  on  the 
table  :— 

Der  ZoologiBche  Garten.  Zeitschrift  fur  Beobachtung  Pflege  und 

Zucht  der  Thiere.    Herausgegeben  von  Frof.  Dr  0.  Bmch. 

Jabrg.  V.     Nob.  2-12.     Frankfurt,  1864.     8vo.^From  Fr</. 

Brveh. 
Sitzungsberichf*  der  Eonigl.  Bayer.  Akademie  der  WiBsenscbaTten 

zu  Muncben.    II.,  Heft  3-4.    Mnnchen,  18G4.    8vo.—From 

the  Academy. 
Monatsberichte  der   Eoniglichen  Frense.  Akademie  der  Wissen- 

scbaftenzuBerlis-ausdem  Jahrel864.    Berlin,1865.    8vo.— 

From  the  Academy. 
Haematologische  Studien  von  Dr  Alexander  Schmidl.     Bnrpat, 

1865.     8vo.— .From  Ike  Author. 
The  Sewage  of  the  Metropolis.    A  Letter  to  John  Thwaitea,  Esq. 

London,  1865.    8vo.— JVom  G.  Bobertson,  Etq.,  O.E. 
Proceedings  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society.    Vol.  II.,  No. 

18.     London,  1865.     8vo. — from  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


456      Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  o/Edintmrgh. 

PtoceediDgs  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society.    Vol.  V.,  No.  4. 

Iiondon,  1865.     Svo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Medical  and  Chiturgical  Society  of  Loq- 

doD.     Vol.  v.,  No.  I.     Svo.— From  the  Soeiety. 
The  Power  of  Form  applied  to  Geometric  Tracery.    By  Bubeit 

William  HillingB,  Baq.     Edinburgh,  1851.     Bvo.—From  tit 

Xotes  on  the  South  Slavonic  Countries  in  Auelria  and  Turkey  in 
Europe.  Edited,  witb  a  Preface,  by  Humphry  Sandvith, 
C.B.,  D.C.L.    Edinburgh,  1865.    8vo.~Fnm  the  Editor. 

Moutbly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  Vol.  XXV., 
No.  5.    Loudon,  1865.     8vo,—JVont  (Ae  Society. 

Society  reale  di  Napoli,  Bendiconto  delle  Tornate  e  dei  Lavori  dell' 
Accademia  di  Scieuze  Hotali  e  Folitiche.  Anno  qaarto. 
Napoli,  1865.    8vo.—From  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


KOYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 


EiaHTT-THiBD  Session. 
Monday,  27th  November  1865. 
Pbofesbor  KELLAND,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Council  were  elected  : — 

PraidtfU. 
PwHOPAi.  Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  K.H.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

Hotiorary  Vice-FToiderU,  hcxitig  JUkd  At  Office  of  Frmdent. 
His  Gucb  the  DUKE  or  ARQYLL. 

Vic^Pretid^iUi, 
Frofeasor  Eelland.  i         Prof^or  Invbs. 

Hon.  Lord  Nkavxs.  Prof.  Lton  Platfair,  C.B. 

Principal  Forbes.  |         D.  Milhb  Hoke. 

Qtiieral  fhcrttturi/ — Dr  Johm  Hottoh  Bauvor. 

Secrelariet  to  On  Ordinary  Mettingi, 
Di  Georob  Jambs  Allhan. 
Profesaor  P.  Gdthrib  Tait. 

TreataTer — David  Smith,  Esq. 
OuratoT  of  Lffvary  and  Muieum — Dr  DodoIiAB  Maclaoam. 


A.  Keith  Johnston,  Esq.  Sir  Jambs  Coxb,  M.D. 

Rer.  Dr  Stbtehson.  Rev.  Dr  Blaikib. 

Dr  Stevenson  Macadam.  Dr  Chribtison. 

Hon.  Lo&c  Jerviswoode.  Di  A.  Crdm  Browm. 

James  T.  GiasoN-CRAro,  Esq.  Dt  Burt. 

Edward  Sano,  Esq.  Profegsor  Macdouoall. 


...Google 


Proceedings  of  the  BoyeU  Society 


MoTiday,  ith  December  1865. 

The  Preeideot,  Sir  David  Brewster,  at  the  request  of  the 
Council,  delivered  the  following  Opening  Address : — 

AuoHG  the  variouB  functione  which  our  acientifio  institutiooB  axe 
expected  to  diecbarge,  not  the  least  important  is  to  foster  the 
labours  and  protect  the  interests  of  discoTerera  and  inveotois, — oE 
those  who  create  new  forms  of  matter  and  new  processes  of  art, — 
who  invent  new  instmments,  and  new  machinery  for  controlling 
and  rendering  useful  the  forces  of  the  material  world. 

The  rights  of  property,  in  its  material  phase,  whatever  be  its 
character,  and  hy  whatever  means  it  has  been  acquired,  have  ever 
been  held  sacred,  even  in  barbarous  commnnitiee.  The  hoarded 
treasure,  or  the  portion  of  the  earth's  crust  which  it  may  purchase, 
can  be  wrested  from  its  owner  but  by  the  forfeiture  of  crime,  or  the 
grasp  of  conquest.  As  civilisation  advances,  new  wants  are  de- 
veloped, and  new  rights  established.  The  historian,  the  philosopher, 
the  antiquary,  and  the  poet — the  pioneers  of  intellectual  life-^strive 
to  instruct  and  amuse  us,  and  claim  in  return  oor  sympathy  and  pro- 
tection. Hence  has  arisen  the  law  of  copyright,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  author  of  any  work,  however  frivolous  in  its  character,  how- 
ever immoral  in  its  tendency,  however  subversive  of  order,  and 
however  hostile  to  religion,  acquires  a  right  of  property  which  suc- 
cessive Acts  of  Parliament  have  enhanced  in  value,  by  lengthening 
its  tenure  and  adding  to  its  security.  This  just  privilege,  of  which 
the  humblest  and  the  highest  in  the  community  avail  themselves, 
is  granted  gratuitously  by  the  State,  and  is  enjoyed  during  the  long 
period  of  forty-eight  years,  and  by  the  youngest  author  dnring  the 
whole  of  his  life. 

In  the  progress  of  civilisation,  wants  other  than  intollectnal  de- 
mand immediate  gratification.  The  genius  of  invention  in  its 
youngest  exercise,  is  summoned  to  feed  and  to  olothe  us,  to  con- 
jure from  the  inner  earth  the  elements  of  civilisation,  to  strengthen 
the  hnman  arm  and  aid  the  failing  eye,  te  shield  us  from  the  ele- 
ments, and  to  open  to  the  missionary  and  the  merchant  the  loDgh 


DvGooglc 


0/Edinburgh,  Beaaion  1865-66.  459 

pathway  of  the  ocean.  In  its '  manhood,  it  li  snmmoned  to  more 
transcendental  functions ;  to  supply,  for  the  higher  civilisation,  the 
Inxnries  and  elegancies  of  life ;  to  carry  us  swiftly  and  safely  over 
earth  and  ocean ;  to  navigate  the  fields  of  ether ;  to  converse  with 
the  world,  in  accents  of  lightning,  through  the  air  and  under  the 
deep;  to  hring  within  ottr  research  the  most  distant  star;  and  to 
reveal  the  minutest  life  which  ewanns  beneath  us  and  aronnd  ni. 

With  snch  AmctioDS  to  discbarge,  and  having  discharged  thein 
nobly,  the  inventor  might  have  looked  for  a  generous  patronage 
from  the  State,  and  for  a  monopoly  as  free  and  secure  as  the  oopy- 
ligbt  of  the  author. 

The  ri^t  of  property  in  inventions  hoe  been  acknowledged  by 
almost  every  community  in  the  old  and  the  new  world,*  and  a 
patent  law  has  been  passed  to  define  its  character,  to  fix  its  limit, 
and  to  secure  it  against  infringement. 

In  England,  I  grieve  to  say,  her  inventors  are  more  cruelly  taxed 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Though  her  prosperity,  more 
than  that  of  any  other  nation,  depends  on  the  encouragement  of 
the  iDdnstrial  arts,  yet  she  levies  from  the  poor  inventor — nay,  from 
her  beat  benefactor,  the  enonnous  sum  of  L.lTiS  for  a  patent-right 
of /furteen  years.  Id  France  the  same  privilege,  for  jl/j«n  years,  is 
given  for  L.60,  paid  by  instalments  of  L.4  for  each  year  of  its 
tenure;  and  in  the  United  States  a  patent  continnes  Ktwnfeenyeare, 
and  costs  only  L.7,  68.  lOd.  In  Sweden  and  Norway  a  patent  is 
given  iatfifUen  years,  for  the  mere  expense  of  advertising  the  speci- 
fication. In  other  countries  the  diveraities  in  the  expense  and  en> 
doranoe  of  patent  rights,  measure  the  legislative  wisdom  which 
eharacterises  the  laws  that  pretend  to  encourage  the  naefnl  arts; 
and  show  us  how  unblnshingly  the  limited  means  of  the  poor  in- 
ventor are  transferred  to  the  pockets  of  ignorant  officials,  and,  in 
f  Ilia  country,  accnmalated  in  the  coffers  of  an  overflowing  Exchequer. 

The  consequences  of  such  ungenerons  legislation  it  is  not  difficnlt 
to  discover.  The  average  number  of  patents  granted  annually  in 
England  is  2000,  in  France  4000,  and  in  the  United  States  4000 ; 
and  hence  we  are  entitled  to  infer  that  upwards  of  2000  patents  are 
annually  suppressed  in  England,  and  that  many  valuable  inventions 


■  Switzeiland,  Cbiaa,  and  Japan  bave  no  pateut  taw. 


DvGooglc 


460  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

and  proceBses  in  the  arts  are  eitbei  not  perfected  by  their  anthon, 
or  employed  in  secret  and  Tot  ever  lost  to  society.* 

Tbie  is  not  the  occasion  to  analyse  the  patent  laws  of  Englaod, 
and  to  criticise  the  principles  which  are  eopposed  to  regolate  their 
enactments.  It  may  be  enough  to  hare  referred  to  the  miBeiable 
tenure  o{  fourteen  years  vhich  tbey  assign  to  the  inventor;  to  the 
cmsbing  tax  of  L.175  which  they  levy  from  him;  to  the  Ulnsoiy 
privilege  which  they  give  him ;  to  the  endless  litigation  into  which 
they  lead  him ;  and  to  the  bankruptcy  and  rain  in  which  he  is  so 
frequently  involved.  There  are,  doubtlese,  cases  in  which  patent 
rights  have  led  to  fortune,  but  it  is  chiefly  when  the  wealthy  capi- 
talist has  come  to  the  rescne  of  the  humble  inventor,  or  when  the 
patent  has  been  confirmed  by  the  decision  of  a  court  of  law. 

The  iujuBtice  of  the  patent  lav  has  been  so  fully  admitted,  that 
various  acts  of  Parliament  have  been  passed  in  favour  of  the  patentee, 
adding  slightly  to  the  protection  of  his  right,  and  reducing  to  the 
sum  we  have  mentioned  the  expense  of  its  attainment;  bnt  no  ad- 
dition has  been  made  to  the  shortness  of  its  tenure,  and  no  increase 
of  security  against  direct  piracy,  or  partial  infringement. 

Whatever  difBculty  the  statesman  may  experience  in  giving 
security  to  the  rights  of  inventors,  he  can  have  none  in  giving 
them  the  same  tenure  as  copyrights,  and  conferring  tbem  as  gratui- 
tously, 01  at  no  greater  cost  than  is  necrasaiy  to  cover  the  expenses 
of  the  patent  oEBce. 

Between  the  national  claims  of  authors  and  inventors  there  can 
be  no  comparison.  Value  as  you  may,  and  value  highly,  the 
treasures  of  ancient  and  of  modem  thought,  what  are  tbey  when 
weighed  against  the  inventions  of  art  and  science,  predominating 
over  onr  household  arrangements,  animating  our  cities  with  the 
sounds  of  industry,  and  covering  with  mechanical  life  the  earth 
and  the  ocean  ?  The  eloquence  of  the  orator,  the  lesson  of  the  his- 
torian, the  lay  of  the  poet,  are,  as  it  were,  but  the  fragrance  of  the 
plant  whose  fruit  feeds  us,  and  by  whose  leaves  we  are  healed ;  or 

*  On  thii  mbject  tbe  ComtaisBioDen  Btate,  in  their  recent  Report,  Quit 
"  The^  have  been  pressed  with  the  opinion,  that  the  coat  of  obtaining  l«ttei»- 
patent  is  still  so  high  as  lo  be  an  inBaperahle  bar  to  the  poor  inventor,  is  ob- 
taining the  protection  to  which  he  ia  fairly  entitled."— Alport,  p.  t.  Load 
18Q&. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  461 

u  tbe  anronl  tint  which  pvn  a  temporary  glory  to  a  rising  or  a 
Betting  sun.  Bat  grant  to  the  favoured  genine  of  copyright  its 
highest  cUima,  and  appreciate  loyally  its  most  fascinating  stores, 
their  valne  is  shared,  and  largely  shared,  with  that  of  the  type,  the 
paper,  and  the  press,  by  which  these  stores  have  been  mnltplied 
and  preserved.  The  relative  value  of  books  and  inventions  may  be 
presented  under  another  phase.  Withdraw  from  circulation  the 
secular  productions  of  the  press  that  are  hoarded  in  all  the  libraries 
of  the  world,  and  society  will  hardly  sufTer  from  the  change.  With- 
draw the  gifts  with  which  art  and  science  have  enriched  UB~the 
mbstantial  realities  throngh  which  we  live,  and  move,  and  enjoy 
our  being — and  society  collapses  into  barbarism. 

Under  the  influence  of  views  like  theee,  the  friends  of  inventors 
have  continued  to  watch  over  their  interests,  and  to  proBecute  im- 
provements on  the  Patent  Laws.  In  this  cause  some  of  the  lead- 
ing members  of  the  British  Association,  the  Inventors'  Institute, 
and  the  Social  Science  Congress,  have  been  specially  active,  and 
through  their  exertions  the  subject  was  brought  before  the  House 
of  Commons  in  the  last  session  of  FarliameDt.  In  the  discuBsions 
which  took  place  in  the  House  and  in  the  Commisstou,  the  most 
startling  opinions  were  advanced,  and  by  some  persons  received 
with  favour.  The  entire  abolition  of  Patent  Bights  whs  gravely 
proposed,  and  the  Beport  of  the  CommisBion  was  not  auhmitted  to 
the  consideration  of  Parliament,  on  the  ground  that  that  funda- 
mental question  should  be  previously  decided. 

Had  this  proposal  to  rob  the  citizen  of  the  most  sacred  of  his 
rights  been  accompanied  with  any  suggestion  that  Oovemment 
should  give  equitable  rewards  for  successful  inventions,  even  paten- 
tees might  have  welcomed  the  change ;  but  no  eucb  suggestions  have 
been  made,  and,  judging  from  the  past  history  of  British  science 
and  art,  we  cannot  indulge  the  hope  of  any  such  act  of  national 
liberality.  It  is  nnder  despotic  governments  alone  that  national 
benefactors  are  rewarded  and  honoured.  Where  mammon  is  in  the 
ascendant,  and  the  demigods  of  trade  and  commerce  influence 
legislation,  intellectual  eminence  mnst  look  to  other  lands  for  its 
recognition  and  its  patronage.  The  present  raid  against  the 
patent  Ixwa  is  the  direct  and  acknowledged  result  of  the  un- 
generous influence  of  trade.     The  sbortnees  of  the  tenure  of 


DvGooglc 


462  Proceedings  of  the  Roycd  Society 

patent  rights,  and  the  heav;  tax  leTied  fiom  iiiTentots,  are  ei- 
preaely  maintained,  in  order  to  diminiah  the  numher  of  patenta ; 
and  the  avowed  reasou  for  thus  diminishing  them  is,  that  from 
their  number  and  frivolity  they  interfere  with  the  operations  of 
tradesmen  and  mannfactnrerB,  by  exposing  them  to  actions  for 
infringement.* 

That  there  are  many  patents  not  remnnerating,  and  not  imme- 
diately  beneficial,  is  painfully  true,  when  wa  consider  how  much 
they  have  cost  the  sanguine  inventor.  That  there  aro  any 
patents  really  frivolons  or  nseless,  in  the  true  sense  of  these  terms, 
can  be  muntalned  only  by  ignorant  or  iDteiested  parties.  There 
is  no  patent  that  does  not  contain  a  proposal  to  do  something  that 
is  new,  or  to  make  some  improvement  apon  what  is  old;  and  there 
are  many  exampleB  of  apparently  nseleae  patents  containing  the 
germs  of  future  and  valuable  inventioua.  There  are  caaei  even  Id 
which  the  invention  etigmatised  as  uaelesa  has  proved  to  be  an 
essential  element  in  a  future  patent,  where  the  new  patentee  has 
piratically  used  it,  and  dared  to  complain  that  he  has  been  prose- 
cuted for  infringement.  But  there  is  a  still  more  intelligible  reason 
why  no  patent  can  be  called  useless.  In  bringing  it  into  the 
market,  workmen  are  employed,  and  materials  pnrofaased ;  and  even 
if  the  process,  instrument,  or  machine  thus  offered  to  the  public 
baa  no  sale  and  no  useful  application,  the  h^Iesa  patentee  has 

*  On  this  BQbject  the  commiBsioDen  malce  the  folTovIng  Btalflment : — 
'■  The  eTil  ariaiog  From  the  mnltiplicitf  of  monapliea  a  alUgti  to  ba  of  a 
tDofold  natiiM.  In  the  £rat  place,  that  of  tlie  existeiiGs  of  a  nnmbsi  of 
pateutH  foi  allegtd  invtniioiu  of  a  trivial  charatter  i  in  the  seumd  place,  that  of 
the  grauting  of  patents  for  iDventionB  which  are  nf An-  old  ot  practically  uteUm, 
and  aie  tmplai/td  hy  the  patenteet  only  to  embarrau  rival  mamtfacturtrt." — Repori, 
p.  V.     London,  1866. 

TheM  aUegationt  anbmittsd  to  the  commitaioneTB  are  not  soppocted  b; 
■peuific  facts,  and  ace  the  mere  opinions  of  intecested.  partiea.    BefoTe  giving 
effect  to  snch  allegations,  we  may  demsnd  the  following  infarmation  ; — 
Itt.  A  list  o(  aileged  invtnliiyni  of  a  trivial  cAaracter, 
2d.  A  list  of  old  patenta  that  have  embarrassed  riva]  mannfactnTsn. 
M.  A  list  ot proetiialt!/  umIim  patents  that  have  embanassed  rival  mainift» 

ith,  A.  list  of  the  embarrassment*  oocasioned  to  rival  maDnfoctureis  bj  dd, 
trivial,  and  naeless  patents;  and, 

6lA.  A  list  of  actions  foT  the  infringement  of  patents,  with  the  gioanda  opoa 
whieh  tlk«r  validity  wu  dudlenged. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinhargk,  Session  1865-66.  463 

given  liberal  fees  to  several  fuDctionarieB  of  tlie  8Ut«,  and  con- 
tributed nobly  to  tbe  Patent  Fund. 

That  any  patent  is  frivolous  and  injnrioua,  in  the  Bense  of  inter- 
fering with  the  fnuctiona  of  honest  traders,  ie  simply  untrue.  If 
an  invention  which  has  been  patented  at  the  cost  of  L.175,  and 
produced  nothing  in  return,  is  a  necessary  part  of  an  important 
invention  Babsequently  patented,  it  is  a  positive  proof  that  patents 
apparently  frivolous  maybe  truly valnable.  Tbe  first  inventioa  is, 
therefore,  neither  an  obstacle  to  improvements,  nor  a  ground  for 
litigation.  It  has,  on  the  contrary,  led  to  a  greater  invention; 
and  whether  the  aeoond  patentee  has  used  it  ignorantly,  or  ad- 
visedly, he  ought  to  pay  for  tbe  use  of  it,  instead  of  pleading  in  a 
oourt  of  law,  as  he  generally  and  dishonestly  does,  that  tbe  original 
specification  is  defective. 

But  even  if  the  cases  of  interfering  patents  were  more  numerons 
than  they  are,  and  more  fertile  in  litigation,  it  is  the  lawgiver,  and 
not  the  inventor  that  is  to  blame.  If  Parliament,  in  its  wisdom, 
cannot  reconcile  tbe  interests  of  patentees  and  honest  tradesmen 
but  by  robbing  tbe  former,  they  overlook  the  fundamental  law  in 
social  economy,  that  no  great  improvement  can  be  made  in  the 
arts  of  life,  and  no  true  reform  in  our  institutions,  without  inter- 
fering with  a  variety  of  interests. 

To  abolish  intellectnal  rights  inherent  in  man,  and  long  recog- 
nised and  enjoyed,  and  this,  too,  on  the  single  ground  of  public  con- 
venience, would  be  a  retrograde  step  in  legislation,  of  which  history 
affords  no  example.  As  well  might  the  surgeon  propose  to  heal  a 
rhenmatic  limb  by  amputation,  or  the  philanthropist  reform  a 
criminal  by  his  execution. 

In  proposing  to  abolish  patent  rights,  its  promoters  seem  to  have 
wholly  overlooked  the  international  interests  that  are  at  stake.  If 
we  have  no  patent  law,  we  deprive  every  foreigner  of  his  existing 
right  to  a  British  patent.  Foreign  governments  may  therefore  adopt 
a  policy  of  retaliation,  and  refuse  to  our  countrymen  the  patent 
rights  which  they  now  so  freely  enjoy;  or,  wbat'is  mora  probable, 
they  may  hold  out  additional  privileges  to  our  ingeoioua  artisans, 
and  thus  obtain  the  first  fruits  of  their  skill.  Inventors  will  fol- 
low their  inventions,  and  in  tbe  exodus  to  foreign  countries, — to 
the  United  States,  especially,  with  its  cheap  and  judicious  patent 


DvGooglc 


46i  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

lawB,  ire  Bball  lose,  more  rapidly  than  we  liave  yet  done,  the  most 
ingenioua  of  oar  inventors,  and  the  mast  useful  of  our  citiEens. 

A  policy  like  this,  ao  Boeotian  in  its  character,  and  ao  injorioag 
in  its  reeults,  is  aa  politically  unsafe  as  it  is  socially  unwise,  and 
personally  nnjnet.  Rights  that  have  been  firmly  established  and 
long  enjoyed  are  not  readily  abandoned.  Illiberal  and  oppressive 
as  the  patent  laws  are,  they  are  still  the  Magna  Charta  of  the 
commonwealth  of  inventors,  and  in  an  age  tending  to  democracy 
they  will  not  be  surrendered  witbont  a  struggle.  Bights  hitherto 
unquestioned,  and  not  more  aacred,  may  be  exposed  to  tbe  same 
scrutiny,  and  social  interests  endangered  which  all  classea  have 
been  accustomed  to  respect  and  defend. 

If  these  views  of  patent  rights  be  juat,  and  if,  aa  moveable  pro- 
perty, they  are  as  sacred  as  copyrights,  there  can  be  no  just  reason 
why  they  should  not  be  granted  equally  cheap,  given  to  every  ap- 
plicant, and  enjoyed  during  at  least  the  life  of  the  patentee.  When 
a  philosopher  or  an  artisan  ofi'ere  an  invention  to  the  State,  and  re- 
ceives an  exclusive  privilege  in  exchange,  we  might  expect  some 
equality  between  the  gift  and  its  reward.  In  perfecting  hia  inven- 
tion tbe  inventor  has  already  spent  much  of  hia  time,  and  in  many 
cases  exhausted  his  means.  When  a  suppliant  at  the  Patent  Office 
a  heavy  payment  ie  demanded,  and  he  purchasea  a  privilege  which 
may  ruin  him.  Tbe  theory  of  such  a  tax  it  wonld  be  difficult  to 
discover.  Its  avowed  object  is  to  diminish  the  number  of  patents 
for  the  benefit  of  non-inventors;  but  the  object  which  it  really 
accomplishes  is  to  paralyse  inventions ;  to  cause  valuable  pro- 
ceases  to  be  wrought  in  secret,  and  in  many  cases  to  be  lost ;  to 
give  fees  to  clerks  and  officers  of  State,  and  to  create  a  fund,  tbe 
purpose  of  which  has  not  yet  been  revealed.  A  tax  sufBoient  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  a  patent  ofGce*  might  be  jnstly  exacted,  but 
to  demand  a  sum  twenty-fold  that  amount  is  a  freak  of  finance, 
alien  both  to  reason  and  justice.  Will  it  be  believed  in  an  en- 
lightened age,  that  the  sum  paid  by  inventors  to  the  State  during 

*  In  the  Report  of  the  recent  Commisuon,  it  is  stated  that  the  Com- 
miBsionera  "  find  s  very  general  exprcgsion  of  opinion  that  the  price  to  be  paid 
by  inventflrs  in  the  aggregate,  Bhould  not  be  more  than  Bufflcient  to  provide 
for  the  ozpenses  of  the  Patent  Office  Litiiary  and  Museum." — S^aori,  p.  i. 
Lond.  186fi. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  465 

nine  yean  and  a-hair,  from  October  1852  to  December  1861,  viaa 
L.772,778,  which,  at  the  same  rate,  will  be  L.1,001,764  at  the  ead 
of  the  present  year  ? 

,  Of  the  snm  of  L.772,778  reoeiveil  in  1861,  L.502,000  bas  been 
expended,  viz.,  L.9G,000  in  feea  to  law  officers  and  their  clerks, 
wlio  do  nothing  for  the  inventor,  and  L.406,000  for  the  espenses 
of  the  Patent  Office. 

After  all  this  expenditure,  the  enormons  Bum  of  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  million  of  money,  wrenched  from  the  inventive  genius  of 
England,  elnmbere,  unapplied,  in  the  Exchequer,  while  oitr  schools 
and  nniveraities  are  left  to  starve,  and  the  interests  of  science  and 
art  consigned  to  the  mnnificence  of  our  scientific  institutions. 
i  In  discussing  the  policy  of  untaxing,  extending,  and  securing 
patent  rights,  we  may  view  them  io  relation  to  the  doctrine  of  free 
trade,  now  developing  iteelf  in  the  legislation  of  every  civilised 
oommuuity.  In  the  present  state  of  the  law,  patent  rights  may 
be  said  to  be  imported  and  exported  as  fruely  as  the  instruments 
and  machines  in  irhich  they  are  embodied  ;  but  in  so  far  as  they 
are  more  taxed  in  one  country  than  another,  the  trade  in  their  pro- 
ducts and  in  their  privileges  cannot  be  considered  free.  A  dis- 
covery in  science,  and  a  process  or  invention  in  art,  are  gifts  offered 
to  the  families  of  mankind  wherever  they  are  made,  and  whatever 
be  their  character.  To  fetter  their  development  in  one  country 
while  they  are  fostered  in  another,  is  an  act  of  international 
injustice,  which  free  trade  disclaims.  To  tax  them  anywhere, 
under  any  circumstances,  and  under  any  pretence,  is  a  blot  upon 
political  wisdom,  an  act  of  cruelty  to  genius,  and  a  wrong  inflicted 
upon  society  at  large. 

In  tracing  the  rise  and  progress  of  those  great  inventions  and 
discoveries  which  have  added  to  our  physical  enjoyments  and  con- 
solidated our  power  over  the  material  world,  we  cannot  fail  to 
recognise  the  grand  object  which,  in  the  arrangements  of  Provi- 
dence, they  are  meant  to  accomplish.  Whatever  man  is  fitted  to 
understand  he  is  destined  to  know.  Whatever  has  been  created 
for  his  use  be  is  destined  to  enjoy.  We  have  yet  much  to  learn  of 
the  sidereal  universe  of  which  we  form  a  part;  of  the  system  of 
planets  to  which  our  own  belongs ;  of  the  physical  history  and 
cpnstrDotioo  of  our  terrestrial  home ;  of  the  organic  and  inorganic 


,,.,  Google 


4(J6  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

enbstikDoes  which  compotieit;  of  the  precious  materiala  Btoiednp 
for  civiliBBtion ;  and  of  those  noble  fumiB  of  life  and  beauty  which 
everywhere  appeal  to  the  afFeotionB  and  intelligence  of  man. 

But  while  we  have  thus  mnch  to  learo  we  have  also  mnch  to  do, 
and  whatever  we  have  power  to  do  must  eventnally  be  done.  The 
great  inventions  which,  in  living  memories,  have  so  mysteriooBly 
altered  the  social  condition  of  our  race,  measure  to  as,  however 
feebly,  what  art  and  science  have  still  to  accomplish.  Oor  gigantio 
steam-vesselB — our  telegraphs,  aerial  and  submarine — our  railway! 
— our  light-houBes,  are  etill  in  their  infancy.  "We  have  yet  to  pass 
through  the  sea  with  a  surer  compass,  a  sharper  prow,  uid  a 
stronger  impulse.  We  have  yet  to  speak  more  articulately  through 
the  air  and  beneath  the  ocean.  We  have  yet  to  guard  our  cout« 
with  brighter  beacons  and  safer  lifeboats ;  and  oni  railvaya  have 
yet  to  convey  us  more  swiftly  and  safely  to  our  home.  But,  what 
is  more  important  stiil,  we  have  yet  to  discover  and  combat  those 
subtle  poisons  which  are  everywhere  astailing  the  seat  of  life,  and 
hurrying  thousands  of  their  victims  to  the  grave. 

In  the  completion  of  these  great  inventions  and  discoveries,  we 
shall  then  learn,  what  statesmen  have  been  unable  or  nnwilliog  to 
learn,  that  art  and  science  are  the  means  by  which  the  bleBsings  of 
religion  and  civilisation  are  to  be  sent  to  the  distant  isles  of  the 
sea, — the  several  families  of  the  earth  united  in  one,  and  the  reiga 
of  peace  and  righteousness  established  on  the  earth. 

But  while  art  and  science  are  thns  adding  to  out  social  blessings, 
and  are  pre-eminently  the  instrnments  of  peace,  they  have  in  our 
day  been  busily  and  succesBfully  employed  in  forging  the  weapons 
of  violence  and  destruction.  Nor  is  this  a  retrograde  step  in 
civilisation.  By  increasing  the  dangers,  we  diminish  the  chances, 
of  war.  In  perfecting  the  machinery  of  Death,  we  eventually  add 
security  to  Life.  War  may  become  so  disastrous  in  its  conse- 
quences, BO  indiscriminate  in  its  slaughter,  and  so  appalling  in  its 
carnage,  that  it  will  cease  to  be  the  arena  of  the  heroic  virtues ;  and 
this  bloody  scourge  of  humanity — tiie  master  crime  of  nations- 
will  be  crushed  by  the  genius  of  art,  and  perish  by  the  weapons 
itself  has  used. 

In  calling  your  attention  to  the  present  state  of  our  Society,'  I 


j.Goo^lc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  467 

regret  to  say  tbat  during  the  year  vhich  ia  about  to  cIobg,  our 
loBses  liBve  been  uoasually  severe,  not  only  when  leckoned  numeri- 
cally, but  when  measured  by  tbe  talent  and  reputation  of  the  col- 
leagues we  have  lost. 

Of  our  foreign  Honorary  FelloA's  we  have  lo«t  two,  Frederiok 
George  William  Struve  of  Pulkowa,  and  Professor  Encke  of  Serlin. 
Of  our  Honorary  Home  Fellows  we  have  lost  three — Sir  John 
Bichardson,  Sir  William  Jackson  Hooker,  and  Sir  William  Bowan 
Hamilton.  Of  out  Ordinary  Fellows  we  have  lost  seven : — Mr 
JamesSkeneofBubisIaw;  Professor Aytoun  ;  Sir  JohnUazwellof 
Pollock,  £art. ;  Sir  William  A.  Maxwell  of  Calderwood,  Bart. ;  Dr 
Maclagan ;  Sberiff  Gordon  ;  apd  Dr  Thomas  Herbert  Barker,  Bed- 
ford, Two  Fellows  of  the  Society  have  resigned — Mr  O.  R.  Matt- 
Und,  and  the  Bev.  Sr  Nisbet.  The  names  of  two  Fellows  have 
been  cancelled — Mr  A.  Mackenzie  Edwards,  and  Ur  Alfred 
Wanklya.  Two  of  the  Fellows  in' our  last  list  should  have  been 
transferred  to  tbe  list  of  British  Honorary  Fellows — Dr  Thomas 
Graham,  Master  of  tbe  Mint ;  and  Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel. 

The  following  seven  new  Fellows  have  been  elected : — Messrs 
Alfred  B.  Oatton,  Ohailes  Jenner,  Charles  Lawson,  junr.,  Dr  John 
tfoir,  James  Powrie,  Bev.  Francis  Bedford,  and  James  Stevenson, 

Upon  our  roll  for  1864  we  had  Ordinary  Fellows,  .        279 

Of  these  7  have  died,  2  have  resigned,  2  have  been  can- 
ceUed,  and  2  have  been  placed  on  the  honorary  list,   .  13 

Leaving 266 

New  Ordinary  Fellows  elected,      .....  7 

Total  Ordinary  Fellows  on  our  list,         •       ...        273 

In  proceeding  to  give  a  brief,  but  necessarily  imperfect  account 
of  the  colleagues  we  have  lost,  I  must  plead  tbe  difGculty  of  obtain- 
ing the  requisite  information  so  soon  after  their  decease.  On  the 
present  occasion,  the  duty  is  one  of  delicacy  also,  as  I  have  been  in 
penonal  commnnicatiou  with  all  of  them  but  one,  and  with  some 
in  relations  of  a  warmer  kind.  It  is  likewise  one  of  some  solemnity 
when  discharged  by  one  who,  with  a  single  exception,  is  senior 
fo  Ibem  all. 


DvGooglc 


468  Proceedings  of  fJie  Soycd  Sociefy 

FsBDBBtcs  Grorqk  WiLtiAH  Stsdti,  a  distingnished  aetroDomet, 
wae  born  at  Altons,  on  tlie  15th  April  1793,  and  was  the  routth  eon 
of  Dr  Jacob  Struve,  Director  of  the  OymnaBium  in  that  citjr.  At 
the  University  of  Dorpat,  which  he  entered  in  1808,  and  where  hi» 
eltier  brother  was^laeEical  lecturer,  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy  in  1813,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  appoioted 
Assistant  at  the  Observatory,  and  Extraordinary  Froferaor  of  Astro- 
nomy. In  1820,  he  was  chosen  Director  of  the  Observatory,  ao 
o£Qce  which  he  held  till  1839,  when  he  was  called  to  the  directioD 
of  the  great  observatory  which  the  Emperor  of  Russia  had  estab- 
lished at  Pulkowa,  and  furnished  with  the  finest  instrumeDts. 

Between  1816  and  1819,  he  executed  the  trigoDometrical  eirvey 
of  Livonia.  Between  1822  and  1827,  be  measured  a  part  of  the 
meridian  in  the  Baltic  provinces;  and  in  1831  be  published  ao 
account  of  his  operations.  In  1828  he  connected  this  survey  with 
that  of  General  Tenner;  and  in  1851  he  completed  the  measure  of 
the  BuHso- Scandinavian  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Ismael,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube,  in  45°  20'  and  Fuglenaes  in  70°  iff  of  north 
latitude, — an  arc  of  25°  20',  the  largest  that  ever  has  been  measured. 

Among  the  other  scientific  expeditions  undertaken  by  M..  Stnive, 
was  the  levelling  of  the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  tbe 
Caspian  Sea,  the  determination  of  the  geographical  position  of 
several  points  in  Siberia,  in  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces  and  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  observation  of  the  great  eclipses  of  1842  and 
1851.  The  results  of  these  different  expeditions  have  been  pub- 
lished in  theUemoirsoftheAcademy  of  Sciences  of  St  Petersburg. 

During  tbe  fifty  years  spent  by  M.  Struve  in  the  observatories  of 
Dorpat  and  Pulkowa,  he  made  many  valuable  observations  on  double 
and  multiple  stare ;  on  the  parallax  of  the  stars,  on  their  distribution 
in  space ;  on  the  Milky  Way ;  and  on  the  motion  of  tbe  solar  system. 
His  observatious  at  Dorput  between  1837  and  1839  have  been 
published  in  eight  volumes.  Those  on  Double  Stars  are  contained  in 
treatises  publiehedin  1820,  1827, 1830, 1837,  and  1852;  and  those 
on  the  Parallax  of  the  Fixed  Stars,  on  the  Milky  Way,  and  on 
the  Motion  of  the  Solar  System  in  Space,  were  published  in  1847, 
in  a  very  interesting  volume,  entitled  "Etudes 'd'Astronomie 
Stellaire."  Adopting  0'''209  as  tbe  parallax  of  stars  of  tbe  first  mag- 
uitudc,  he  found  that  tbe  annual  velocity  of  the  solar  system  round 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinbvrgh,  Seeaum  1865-66.  460 

a  point  in  the  constellation  HerculoH  is  33  miUions  of  geographical 
miles,  and  that  we  may  wager  400,000  to  I  that  each  a  motion 
exists. 

Frederick  Struve  wns  on  wdinnry  Counsellor  of  State,  a  Com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  a  Corresponding  Uember  of 
the  Imperial  Institute  of  France.  He  died  at  St  Peterahurg,  after 
a  short  illness,  on  the  23d  Novemher  1864,  in  the  72d  year  of  hb 
age,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  Direction  of  the  Obsarvatory  of 
Pulkowahy  his  distinguished  son,  Otto  Williatn  Struve,  well  kuowti 
to  the  scientific  world  by  his  writings  and  his  astronomical  labours. 

JoBN  Fkakois  Esou,  a  dtstingnished  astronomer,  was  bom  at 
Hamburg  on  the  23d  September  1791.  His  father,  who  was 
minister  of  the  church  of  St  James',  in  that  city,  sent  him  to  the 
UoiTereity  of  Goltingen,  where  he  studied  under  the  celebrated 
OauBs,  who  was  then  Professor  of  Mathematics,  and  Director  of 
the  Observatory,  In  1813  he  was  enrolled  for  active  service  ib 
the  military  force  raised  by  the  Hanseatio  towns,  and  afterwards 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  the  Prussian  service. 
In  this  capacity  his  acquirements  became  known  to  Baron  Linde- 
nan,  the  Director  of  the  Observatory  of  Seeberg,  near  Gotba. 
Having  become  Minister  of  Slate  in  1817,  the  Barou  gave  young 
Encke  the  entire  charge  of  the  Observatory,  which  he  conducted 
so  ably  that  he  was  made  Joint-Director  in  1829.  Soon  after  this 
be  was  called  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Boyal 
Observatory,  and  became  Secretary  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

During  hie  occupation  of  Iheso  two  observatories  Encke  made 
many  valuable  contributions  to  astronomy.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant were  his  determination  of  the  orbit  of  the  famous  comet  of 
1680,  of  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  and  of  the  orbit 
of  the  comet  discovered  by  Pons  in  1818  ;  for  the  first  of  which  be 
obtained  the  prize  of  Ootta,  adjudged  to  him  by  Gauss  and  Olbers. 
His  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  Earth's  Distance  from  the  Sun, 
by  the  aid  of  the  Transits  of  Venus  in  1761  and  1769,  was  pub- 
lished in  two  memoirs,  entitled  La  Diitance  du  Soleil.  In  several 
papers  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  between  1829 
and  1851,  he  demonstrated  the  periodicity  of  Pons'  comet,  which 
be  proved  to  be  identical  with  the  comets  of  1786,  1795,  and 


j.Googlc 


470  Proceedings  of  Ike  Soyal  Society 

1805.  This  intereBting  body,  now  known  as  Kncke'e  Comet, 
moves  in  an  elliptical  orbit  within  that  of  Jupiter,  and  completer 
its  revolutioD  in  three  years  and  four  mouths.  Having  fonod 
that  from  1786  to  1795  the  time  of  its  levalution  had  diminiahed 
from  120811  days  to  1207-88,  and  between  1795  and  1805  from 
120788  to  1207'42  days,  he  con  eluded  that  the  diminution  was  pio- 
dnced  by  the  action  of  Jupiter ;  but  npoD  using  a  more  conact 
value  of  the  mass  of  that  placet,  he  found  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  observed  and  computed  places  of  the  comet  could  be 
acoonnted  for  only  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  resisting  medium— a 
doctrine  which,  in  its  astronomical  relations,  must  remain  in 
abeyance,  till  it  is  exhibited  in  the  motions  of  other  celestial 
bodies. 

Upon  his  removal  to  Berlin,  Encke  became  editor  of  the  A^n- 
nonmehet  Jahrhuch,  which  contains  many  of  his  papers  on  phyHcsl 
astronomy.  He  visited  Scotland  in  1839,  and  took  an  active  pait 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  British  Association  which  met  at  Glas- 
gow, He  was  a  member  of  many  foreign  academies,  and  a  Cor- 
responding Member  of  the  Imperial  Institute  of  France.  He  died 
at  Berlin  in  1S65,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  bis  age. 

Sir  John  Biohardbon,  the  dtstinguiBhed  ArcLio  traveller  and 
navigator,  was  bom  at  Dumfries  in  1787,  and  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school  of  that  town.  He  entered  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh ID  1801,  with  the  view  of  following  the  medical  profession. 
After  obtaining  the  diploma  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeona,  he  was 
appointed  assistant-surgeon  to  the  Nympbe,  one  of  Sit  Bickaid 
Keats'  squadron,  which  accompauied  Lord  G-ambier  to  the  bombard- 
ment of  Copenhagen,  Id  1807  the  Nympbe  was  employed  in  the 
blockade  of  the  Tagus;  and  Mr  Bichardson  was  present,  as  a 
volunteer,  in  two  unBucceBsfnl  attempts  to  cut  out  vessels  anchored 
higher  np  the  nver.  After  serving  in  different  ships  In  varions  parts 
of  the  world,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  to  pursue  his  medical  etndiea; 
and  in  1817  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  ef  medioine.  In  1819 
he  was  appointed  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  expedition  under 
Lieutenant  Franklin,  which  was  sent  to  survey  the  northern  coa.it 
of  North  America.  He  returned  to  England  in  1822,  and  in  1824 
b»  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  royal  marines  at  Chatham.    In 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  18C5-66.  471 

the  expedition  under  Captain  Franklin,  which  was  carried  on  in 
the  years  1825-6-7,  Dr  Bichardeon  enrreyed  with  great  abihty 
the  B&a-coast  between  the  Mackenzie  and  the  Ckippeimine  Riven; 
and  arter  hia  return,  he  reBomed  and  oontinued  hie  duties  at 
Chatham  till  1838,  when  be  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  physician 
to  Haslar  Hospital,  and  Inspector  of  Kaval  Hospitals  and  Fleets — 
a  situation  which  gave  bim  leisure  to  pursue  the  studies  to  which 
he  had  been  so  long  devoted.  Hie  serriceB,  however,  were  too 
valnable  to  be  dbpeused  with;  and  though  now  in  the  sixtieth 
year  of  his  $ig6,  he  set  out  with  Dr  £ae,  in  1848,  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin  and  his  party.  After  enconntering  perils  both  on 
land  and  sea,  and  surmounting  difficulties  of  no  ordinary  kind,  he 
returned  to  England  in  1849,  and  continued  for  six  years  in  the 
charge  of  Haslar  Hospital.  In  1855  he  retired  from  the  puhlio 
service,  to  which  he  had  devoted  himself  for  nearly  half  a  century, 
and  settled  at  Lancrigg,  in  Westmoreland,  where  he  died  on  the 
5th  January  1865,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age. 

Sir  John  received  the  houonr  of  knighthood  in  1846,  and  was 
afterwards  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath,  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Boyal,  Linnean,  and  Geological  Societies,  and  a  member  of 
various  philosophical  societies,  both  in  this  country  and  the  CoD' 
tinent. 

Sir  John  is  the  author  of  the  Fauna  BortaUa  Americana^  and  of 
works  on  almost  every  branch  of  natural  history,  several  of  which 
appeared  as  appendices  to  the  voyages  of  different  Arctic  naviga- 
tors. He  contributed  eeveral  articles  to  the  "British  Eocyolo- 
pesdia,"  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Uusenm  of  Katoral 
History.!' 

Sti  WiLUAM  Jaoksoit  Hookkb,  a  distingoisbed  botanist,  was  bom 
at  Norwich  on  the  6th  of  July  1785,  and  received  his  early  educa- 
tion at  the  High  School  of  that  city.  His  father,  who  was  a  man  of 
literary  tastes,  possessed  a  Collection  of  rue  and  curious  plants ;  and 
it  was  no  doubt  from  this  circumstance  that  he  was  led  to  the  eaily , 
study  of  botany.  Having  inherited  from  his  godfather,  William 
Jackson,  Esq.,  a  ctmeideiable  landed  property,  he  resolved  to  devote 
himself  to  scientific  pursuits ;  but  in  order  to  improve  his  lands,  he . 
spent  some  time  in  the  study  of  agricnltuie  at  Stanton  in  Notlillk. 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


472  Proceedings  of  the  So^' Society 

Here,  however,  he  devoted  moBt  of  hia  time  to  the  study  of  natural 
history,  making  a  fine  collection  of  the  birds  and  insects  ot  Nor- 
folk. Having  dJEcovered  a  new  and  curious  British  moss,  tbe 
Buschaumia  dpJiylla,  he  took  it  to  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  and 
WHS  encournged  by  that  eminent  botanist  to  pursae  the  study  which 
he  hud  so  successrully  begun.  In  1806,  when  he  came  into  pos- 
ECifision  of  his  fortune,  he  made  extenaiTe  botanical  tonrs  in  tbe 
remotest  parte  of  Scotland  in  company  with  Dawson  Turner,  Esq.,  ■ 
wlioee  eldest;  daughter  lie  married  in  1815.  By  the  advice  of  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  with  whom  he  became  acquainted  during  his  resi- 
dence in  London,  he  visited  Iceland  in  1809,  and  made  lEirge  col- 
lections there  in  every  department  of  natural  history,-  The  ship, 
however,  in  which  be  returned  was  burned  at  sea,  and  he  bimaelf 
miraculouely  escaped  by  the  help  of  another  vessel,  with  the  loss 
of  all  his  manuBcripts,  drawings,  and  specimens.  His  account  of 
this  journey,  drawn  up  from  memory,  was  published  in  18L1  under 
the  title  of  "  Recollections  of  Iceland,"  the  first  of  a  Beriee  of 
works  which  raised  him  to  a  high  place  in  the  scientific  world. 

In  1810-11  he  made  -great  preparations  to  accompany  Sir  Bobert 
Brownrigg,  wbo  was  going  out  as  governor  to  Ceylon,  but  the 
sanguinary  distnrbaBoee  which  took  place  in  that  island  prevented 
him  from  visiting  it. 

In  1814  he  made  a  botanical  tonr  of  nine  months'  in  France, 
Switzerland,  and  the  North  of  Italy,  and  thus  became  acquainted 
with  many  of  the  most  distingniabed  botanists  in  Europe.  In  1812 
be  began  his  first  botanical  work,  on  the  British  Jnngermannite, 
which  was  completed  in  1816.  This  work  was  followed  by  his 
Muacologia  Brilannica  and  his  Mttsei  Exotid,  the  first  of  whicli 
waa  published  in  conjunction  with  Dr  Taylor  in  1817, 

'  While  engaged  in  these  and  other  works,  be  found  it  necessary  to 
look  out  for  some  permanent  employment.  He  had  sold  his  landed 
property  in  1811,  and  vested  the  proceeds  in  different  securities, 
which  had  so  rapidly  deteriorated,  that  in  1820,  on  tbe  advice  of 
Sir  Joseph  Banks,  he  accepted  of  tbe  vacant  FrofessorBhip  of 
Botany  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  which  was  then  worth  little 
more  than  L.lOO  a  year,  but  which  afterwards  rose  to  upwards 
of  L.800. 

.  During  tbe  twenty  years  be  resided  in  Glasgow  he  published  bit 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Sesnon  1865-66.  478 

Flora  iSmltca,  which  appeared  in  1821 ;  his  Flora  Ikcoliea,  in 
1823-27;  his  leonet  Filieum,  in  conjunction  with  Br  Gieville; 
And  in  1639  the  first  edition  of  his  Brituh  Flora,  in  the  12tli  edi- 
tioD  of  which  he  was  assisted  by  Professor  Walker  Arnott. 

In  1836  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  tbroagh  the 
infloence  of  Earl  Rnssell  he  was  appointed,  in  1811,  Diiector  of 
the  Boyal  Qftidens  at  Eew,  a  sitoation  which  he  held  during  the 
lest  of  his  life.  In  this  favoured  position  he  improved  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  Gardens,  and  prevailed  apon  Crovemment  to  build  » 
noble  pftlm-honse  and  extensive  conaervatorieB,  and  he  foauded  a 
library  and  botanical  musenm,  in  which  his  noble  herbarium,  the 
largest  in  iJritain,  is  deposited. 

The  works  of  Sir  William  Hooker,  comprising  upwards  of  fifty 
Tolnmes  of  descriptive  botany,  illustrated  chiefiy  by  drawings  from 
bis  own  exquisite  pencil,  are  too  □omeroua  to  he  mentioned  in 
detail  in  a  brief  notice  of  hie  life. 

Sir  William  was  a  Euight  of  the  Hanoverian  Order  and  a  Che- 
valier of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  he  received  from  Oxford  the 
degree  of  D.G.L.,  and  from  Glasgow  that  of  LL.D.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Boyal,  Linnean,  Antiqaarian,  and  other  English 
Sooieties,  and  a  Corresponding  Uember  of  the  Imperial  Institute 
of  France,  and  of  all  the  principal  Academies  in  Europe  and 
America. 

He  died  at  Eew  on  the  12th  of  Angnst  1865,  In  the  80th  year 
of  his  age,  and  is  succeeded  in  the  direction  of  the  Boyal  Gatdens 
by  his  distinguished  son,  Dr  Joseph  Dalton  Hooker. 

Ou  list  of  British  Honorary  Fellows  has  sustained  an  irreparable 
loss  by  the  recent  death  of  Sir  William  Bow  an  Hauuton,  one  of 
the  greatest  mathematicians  that  have  ever  lived. 

At  an  early  age  he  displayed  uncommon  talents,  especially  in 
the  study  of  languages.  He  is  said  to  have  acquired  nearly  a 
dozen  different  langu^es  wben  only  thirteen  years  old.  In  his 
fifteenth  year  he  had  already  mastered  all  the  branches  of  matbe- 
matios  usually  taught  in  a  university ;  and  in  his  twenty-second 
year,  while  hut  an  undergraduate  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was 
aj^inted  Andrews'  Professor  of  Astronomy,  and  Astronomer- 
Boyal  for  Ireland,  as  successor  to  Dr  Brinkley,  who  had  been  one 

VOL.  T.  84 


DvGooglc 


474  Procee^iga  of  the  BoyoX  Soeietj/ 

of  the  first  to  recognise  hia  wonderful  mathemalicftl  pomn,  sod  to 

gaide  his  early  invest  igati  on  b. 

These  early  investigations,  which  h&d  reference  ofaiefly  to  Geo- 
metrical OpticB,  were  gradually  developed  into  an  elaborate"  Theoiy 
of  SyBtems  of  Bays,"  which  was  oommniiicated  to  the  Boyal  Iiish 
Academy  in  1828.  In  the  third  snpplement  to  tbia  essay,  he  pre- 
dicted from  theory  the  existence  of  the  two  species  of  Conical  Bafne- 
tion,  the  experimental  verification  of  which  has  given  so  mncb  addi- 
tional  probability  to  the  hypothesis  of  luminlferons  iindnIatii»B. 

His  next  great  papers  were  entitled  "  On  a  General  Method  in 
Dynamics,"  and  appeared  in  the  Fhilosopbioal  TransactioDS  in 
1833-34.  In  these  he  developed  the  principle  of  Varying  Action, 
the  discovery  of  which  constitntes  one  of  the  most  importaot  steps 
which  dynamical  science  has  yet  made.  In  these  inveatigationB, 
both  optical  and  dynamical,  the  novel  and  remarkable  feature  is  the 
discovery  of  the  existence  of  a  single  fnnction  (adapted  to  each 
paitioulai  problem),  from  whioh,  if  known,  the  complete  solution 
of  the  problem  is  to  be  found  by  differentiation  alone.  Xhese  p^>en 
soon  gave  him  a  European  fame,  and  procured  for  him  the  honorary 
diploma  of  all  the  moet  important  scientific  societies  abroad,  as  well 
as  at  home.  Though  much  has  been  done,  especially  by  Jacobi,  in 
extension  of  Hamilton's  results,  it  has  been  almost  entirely  confined 
to  their  analytical  aspect;  the  physical  discoveries  which  must 
abundantly  flow  from  them  have,  as  yet,  been  barely  sought  foe. 

But  perhaps  Hamilton  was  moet  widely  known  by  bis  sfdendid 
invention  of  "  Quaternions."  A  profound  general  principle  in  optics 
or  dynamics  is  heard  of  only  by  the  few  who  can  understand  it; 
but  a  new  mathematical  method  is,  at  least  in  its  elements,  aooee- 
sible  to  all.  Little  has  yet  been  done  to  disseminate  elementai7 
knowledge  of  this  important  Calculus.  Hamilton's  "  Lectures  m 
Quaternions"  (1853)  is  adapted  only  to  a  high  class  of  readers;  but 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  his  posthumous  work,  to  which  he  devoted  the 
last  sis  years  of  his  life,  and  which  (under  the  title  of  "  Elements 
of  Quaternions")  is  annonnoed  for  speedy  publication,  will  put 
within  the  reach  of  the  intelligent  beginner  a  branch  of  mathematioa 
which  for  simplicity  of  conception,  symmetry,  variety  of  expres- 
sion, and  almost  irresistible  power,  may  well  ofaaUenge  comparison 
with  any  yet  devised. 


DvGooglc 


of  EfUnbttrgh,  Session  1865-66.  475 

HuniltoD's  otiier  DameionB  pnblicfttiong,  chiefly  in  scientific 
joomala,  such  as  the  "  TranaactioiiB  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy," 
the  "  Pbiloflophioal  Hagazine,"  <&c.,  are  deToted  to  the  moat  varied 
salg'eota,  "Algebra  as  the  Science  of  Pure  Time,"  "  Abel's  arga- 
ment  w  to  the  imposeibility  of  solving  the  general  equation  of  the 
fiftb  ibgiee,"  "  Definite  Integrals,"  "  Fluctnatiag  Functions," 
"  Icosian  Colcalas,"  &c.,  may  be  taken  as  examples.  But,  besides 
■11 -this,  he  is  underetood  to  have  left  an  immense  store  of  mann- 
script  investigations  on  snbjecta  of  the  greatest  importance,  from 
which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  copioas  selections  will  be  published. 
Hamilton  was  scmpnloua,  almost  to  excess,  as  to  the  exactness  and 
^mmetry  of  everything  he  pnblished ;  and  it  may  be  that,  among 
ths  investigations  which  he  did  not  consider  properly  polished  for 
the  press,  there  are  gems  of  even  greater  value  than  those  which 
have  seen  the  light 

In  a  life  of  but  sixty  years  such  a  mass  of  original  work  has  not 
often  been  accomplished  ;  but  when  we  consider  that  Hamilton 
retained  to  the  last  his  love  for  languages  (especially  Persian),  that 
he  Was  no  mean  poet,  that  be  was  one  of  the  most  copious  of  cor- 
respondents, and  that  he  willingly  entered  into  the  minutest 
details  when  implied  to  for  explanations  on  subjects  connected 
with  his  writings,  we  wonder  how  he  fonnd  time  for  a  mere 
feaetion  of  what  he  has  done. 

Sir  John  Herschel  once  wrote  thus :— "  Here,  whole  branches  of 
continental  discovery  are  nnstudied,  and,  indeed,  almost  nnknown 
even  by  name.  It  is  vain  to  conceal  the  melancholy  truth.  We 
■re  fast  dropping  behind.  In  mathematics  we  have  long  since 
drawn  the  rein  and  given  over  a  hopeless  race,  &c."  Hamilton, 
while  second  to  none,  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  that  brilliant  array 
of  mathematicians  who,  since  Herschel  wrote,  have  removed  this 
stigma,  and  well-nigh  reversed  the  terms  of  his  statement. 
Another  was  the  late  Professor  fiooLX,  who,  thongh  not  a  Fellow 
of  this  Society,  claims  notice  in  this  address  as  having  received  onr 
highest  honour,  the  Keith  Medal.  Their  death  has  made  a  gap  in 
the  ranks  of  British  science  which  will  not  soon  be  filled ;  and  our 
sorrow  is  bnt  increased  by  the  recollection  that  they  have  been 
removed  in  the  full  vigour  of  their  intellect,  and  when  their 
passien  for  work  wae,  if  possible,  stronger  than  ever. 


DvGooglc 


476  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Sot^etj/ 

Dr  Datid  Maclaoak  was  bom  in  Edinbni^h  in  Febrnaiy  1785. 
After  lecemng  hb  clwsioal  education  at  the  High  School,  be 
entered  the  UniTeisity  aa  a  student  of  medicine,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  Mr  Andrew  Wood,  one  of  the  principal  BQigeons  io  the 
city.  In  1804  he  took  bis  surgeon's  diploma,  and  in  1805  bia 
degree  of  H.D.,  and  he  prepared  himself  for  the  medical  eervioe  of 
the  army  by  studying  at  St  (reorge'e  Hospital,  and  becoming  in 
1S07  a  Member  of  the  Boyal  Collage  of  Surgeons  in  England. 
Attached  to  the  9lBt  regiment,  he  accompanied  it  to  Walcfaeren, 
where  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  escape  the  epidemic  which  deci- 
mated the  flower  of  the  British  army.  In  1811,  after  his  Tetoro 
to  England,  be  was  under  orders  for  Canada,  when  he  received 
the  appointment  of  Btafi'-suTgeoD  to  the  9th  Fortoguese  Isigade, 
a  part  of  the  Ith  division,  which,  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
was  investing  the  fortress  of  Badajos.  He  aocoidingly  sailed  for 
liisbon  in  November  1811,  and  was  present  at  the  storming  of 
Badajos,  and  at  the  subeeqaent  battles  of  Salamanca,  Vittorio,  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Nivelle,  and  the  Nive,  receiving  tor  these  servicefl 
the  Peninantar  medal,  with  six  clasps.  The  professional  sUl 
which  be  exhibited  on  these  occasions,  and  his  active  zeal  for  the 
recovery  of  the  wounded,  were  frequently  acknowledged  by  his 
military  superiors,  and  led  to  his  appointment  as  pbyedcian  to  the 
forces. 

In  1816  Dr  Haolagan  quitted  the  anny  on  half-pay ;  and  having 
been  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  College  of  Surgeons,  he  settled 
in  his  native  city,  when  his  professional  skill  soon  obtained  for  hini 
an  extensive  practice.  In  1826  be  was  elected  President  of  the 
Boyal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  of  the  Boyal  College  of  Physicians 
in  1856.  He  presided  also  over  the  Kedico-Cbirurgical  Society, 
and  took  an  active  and  intelligent  part  in  all  our  literary,  scientific,  ~ 
and  philanthropic  institutions.  In  the  cause  of  medical  misrions 
he  took  an  early  and  eealoos  part;  «id  the  friends  of  every 
religious  movement  conld  always  ootint  upon  his  active  and  gene- 
rous support. 

To  his  professional  accomplish  meqts,  Dr  Maclagau  added  a  taste 
for  the  fine  arts,  and  he  was  intimately  acquainted  with  the  emi- 
nent artists  who  in  his  time  adorned  our  metropolis. 

Amid  the  distractions  of  his  professional  life,  which  laatsd  more 


DvGooglc 


0/ EdiJi3»trgh,  Session  1865-66.  477 

than  half  a  oentury,  he  found  leianre  to  stnd;  the  great  social 
qoeBtioDB  of  the  day,  and  was  an  atdeut  promotet  of  f  arliamentary 
and  bnigh  reform,  free  trade,  Catholic  emancipation,  the  education 
of  the  people,  and  the  abolition  of  slaverj.  But  while  he  thus  took 
tt  zealouB  part  in  erery  question,  and  in  erety  institution  of  secular 
interest,  he  had  ever  in  his  view  the  higher  destiuies  of  man. 
He  vas  as  exemplary  member  of  the  Presbyterian  Chnicb,  and  a 
tnte  believer  in  those  great  truths  which  the  wisdom  of  this  world 
is  unable  to  comprehend.  Without  any  maiked  disease,  but 
weakened  gradually  with  E^e,  this  truly  ChriBtian  physician  and 
philanthropist  expired  on  the  6tb  June  1865,  in  the  midst  of  his 
Hamily,  lamented  by  a  widow  and  seven  sons,  some  of  whom  have 
obtained  distinction  in  the  servioe  of  their  country. 

'  Sir  Jomi  Haxwiu.  of  Pollock  imcceeded  his  father  ss  ninth 
baronet  in  1S44,  and  belonged  to  the  twenty-ninth  generation  of  big 
family.  Ha  was  bom  in  1791,  and  received  hie  early  education, 
partly  in  Scotland,  under  the  Bev.  Dr  MacLetcbie  of  Meame,  and 
partly  in  England,  at  Market-Baisin,  and  snbaequently  at  Westnin- 
Bter  ScfaooL  In  1809  he  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  as  a 
gentleman  commoner,  and  graduated  in  that  University.  In  IS12 
he  attended  eeveral  olaesee  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh ;  and  in 
the  following  year,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  he  was  ^pointed 
lientenant^jolonel  of  the  Benfrew  militia — an  office  which  he  very 
soon  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  Government  refusing  to  send 
relief  to  the  starving  operatives  in  Paisley.  In  1813, 1814,  and  1815, 
he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  visiting  part  of  Africa  and  Asia,  accom- 
panied by  Ur  John  Bramsen,  an  ex-officer  of  the  PraBsian  service, 
and  afterwards  Professor  of  German  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  A 
jonmal  of  his  travels  is  preserved  at  Pollock ;  but  a  fuller  aoconnt 
of  them  was  published  in  161S  by  Professor  Bramsen, 

In  1818,  Mr  Maxwell  was  elected  M.P.  for  the  county  of  Ben* 
frew,  and  represented  that  county  in  three  suoceasive  Farliamentc 
In  1831  he  contested  the  county  of  lAnark  with  the  brother  of 
Lord  Douglas ;  bat  though  defeated  on  that  occasion,  be  was  elected 
for  that  county  in  1832,  after  the  passing  of  the  Beform  Bill,  and 
again  in  1835.  As  a  Member  of  FaiUament,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  many  of  the  leading  meaenres  of  the  day ;  and  on  several  ocoa* 


DvGooglc 


478  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

sions  when  be  spoke  in  the  House  of  Commone,  he  was  listened 
to  wilh  attention  and  respect. 

In  1859,  vhen  the  Prinoe  of  Wales,  on  the  ISth  Angnst,  Tinted 
for  the  first  time  his  ancient  barooy  of  Be.ifrew — the  cradle  of  hii 
Stnart  aucestois  In  Scotland — he  was  hospitably  received  at  Pc^ock 
Honsa 

Sii  John  Kaxwell  was  liberal  in  his  politios,  and  puUiahed 
sereral  pamphlets  on  Farliameatary  lefonn,  and  the  other  great 
qnestiouB  which  then  agitated  the  country. 

In  1839,  he  married  Lady  Matilda  Brace,  second  daughter  of 
Thomas  Earl  of  E^;in  and  Kincardine.  She  died  on  the  Slst  Angnst 
1857,  without  issae.  Sir  John  died  on  the  6th  of  Jnne  1865,  in  the 
seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  estates  by 
his  nephew,  William  Stirling,  Esq.  of  Keir. 

Sir  WiLuiH  ALXXAxnxa  Uazwkll  of  Caldeiwood,  desoended 
from  the  oldest  branoh  of  the  Maxwells  of  Pollock,  and  the 
seventh  baronet,  was  bom  on  the  30th  April  1793.  He  entered 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  held  a  commission  in  the  Ist  or 
Boyal  Dragoon  G-Daids.  Upon  succeeding  to  his  father  in  1837, 
he  retired  from  the  service  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1647  he 
married  the  fifth  daughter  of  Walter  Logan,  Esq.  of  Fingalton. 
He  died  on  the  4th  of  April  1865,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his 
age,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Mr  Hu^  Bates  Maxwell, 
who  had  been  called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1818. 

iuaa  Seknb  of  Bubislaw,  was  bom  on  the  7th  Uaroh  1775. 
His  father  died  in  the  following  year,  leaving  a  widow  and  a  family 
of  seven  children.  In  1783,  Mrs  Skene  removed  to  Edinburgh  tot 
their  education,  and  James,  who  was  then  th^  second  son  and 
youngest  child,  was  placed  at  the  High  School ;  and  was  the  hut 
survivor  of  a  host  of  distiDguiahed  men  who  were  bis  class-fellom. 

In  1791,  after  he  had  left  the  High  School,  he  succeeded  to  the 
family-estate  of  Bnbislaw,  by  the  death  of  bis  elder  brother ;  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  be  was  sent  to  Gknnany  to  complete  his 
studies.  After  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  French  and  German 
languages  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Scotch 
bar  in  1797.    Here  he  fonn«d  an  acquaintance  with  Sir  Waltw 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinhargh,  Seeaion  1865-66.  479 

Scott,  vhich  ripened  into  a  cloie  and  life-long  friendship.  Hr 
Skene  had  early  shown  a  love  of  art,  and  a  sin  gnlai  talent  for 
drawiDg,  to  which  Sir  Walter  allndes  in  the  introduction  to  the  4th 
canto  of  Uannion,  which  ia  dedicated  to  Hr  Skene. 

"  An  thou  with  pencil,  I  with  pen, 
The  featniea  traced  of  hill  and  ^ea." 

In  1797  Ur  Skene  waa  appointed  cornet  of  the  Edinbnrgh  Light 
HorBe,  one  of  the  earliest  regiments  of  volunteers,  which  was  organ- 
ised mainly  by  the  efforte  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  After  walking  the 
Parliament  Honae  for  a  few  years,  Mr  Skene  revisited  the  continent 
in  1802,  and  travelled  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  during  the 
next  few  years.  In  this  journey  he  became  acquainted  with  Wx 
Greenough,  President  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and 
travelled  for  some  time  with  that  distinguished  geologist.  He 
thns  acquired  a  taata  for  geology,  and  was  afterwards  elected  a 
member  of  the  Geological  Society. 

In  1806  Mr  Skene  married  Jane,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Forbes 
of  Pitsligo,  Bart.,  and  settled  on  a  small  property  he  possessed  in 
Einoardlneshire,  where  he  spent  the  next  eight  years  of  his  life. 

In  1816  Mr  Skene  retamed  to  Ediubuigh,  for  the  education  of 
hia  children,  when  he  joined  the  different  Uterary  and  scientific 
Bocietisfl,  which  at  that  time  were  not  in  a  very  flourishiDg  state. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Boyal  Society  in  1817,  and  as  Curator 
of  their  Lihiaiy  and  Uuseum,  an  office  which  he  held  for  many 
years,  he  did  eminent  servioe  to  that  important  department  of  the 
Society.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  its  reform  and  restOTation, 

During  his  residence  in  Edinburgh  Mr  Skene  explored  and 
aketched  the  various  buildings  in  the  Old  Town  that  were  remark- 
able for  their  antiquity  or  historical  interest,  and  he  has  left  a 
valnable  collection  of  these  sketches,  which  we  trust  may  be  given 
to  the  pnblic. 

Ur  Skene  held  for  many  years  the  office  of  Secretary  to  the 
Board  of  Trustees  and  Manufactures,  and  in  this  capacity  he  did 
much  for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts  in  Scotland. 

In  1838,  when  (be  health  of  some  of  bis  family  reqniied  a  wanner 
climate,  he  vent  to  Greece,  and  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Athens. 


DvGooglc 


480  Proceedingi  oftJte  SoycU  Society 

In  m  fileguit  villa,  bnilt  by  himeelf,  he  spent  eight  yaan ;  vA 
he  has  left  behind  him  a  series  of  beautifnl  water-colonr  dnwings, 
npwards  of  500  in  number,  of  the  scenery  and  actiquities  of  that 
iateresting  couotry. 

On  bis  return  to  England  in  1844,  be  took  np  bis  reeidence  in 
Leamington.  He  afterwards  Tent  to  Oxford,  and  resided  io  a 
carious  old  mansion,  called  Frewen  Halt,  where  he  enjoyed  the  beat 
literary  society  in  that  seat  of  learning.  After  a  residMioe  there 
of  nearly  fifteen  years,  he  died  on  the  27th  of  November  1864^  ia 
the  90th  year  of  bis  age. 

Mr  Skene  was  a  man  of  veiy  elegant  tastes  and  nnmerons  accom- 
plishments. He  had  a  great  general  knowledge  of  science  as  weO 
as  of  literature,  and  spoke  with  fluency  French,  German,  and  TtaliaiL 
He  was,  as  Sir  Walter  Scott  said,  "  the  first  amateur  draughts- 
man in  Scotland,"  and  was  the  author  of  two  volumes  of  JUustra- 
tions  of  the  Waverley  Novels.  Bnt  though  he  used  his  penoil 
more  than  bis  pen,  yet  he  made  several  contributions  to  tbe 
Transactions  of  the  Societies  to  which  he  belonged,  and  was  the 
author  of  the  excellent  article  on  painting  in  the  Edinhnrgh  En- 
cyclopsdia. 

JoHK  TaoHSON  GoRsoir  was  tbe  only  son  of  Dr  John  Gordon,^ 
a  distingnished  teacher  of  anatomy  in  this  city,  and  anther  of 
several  valuable  treatises  on  anatemy  and  physiology, — and  of  Miss 
Butberfurd,  sister  of  tbe  late  eminent  lawyer  and  judge  Lord 
Butberfurd.  He  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  on  the  19th  March  1813 ; 
and,  after  gaining  distinction  as  a  classical  scholar  at  the  Edin- 
burgh Academy  and  at  this  University,  he  prosecuted  with  great 
seal  and  snccese  the  study  of  tbe  modem  languages  at  Aschaffen- 
hni^,  in  Bavaria,  He  was  called  ia  tbe  bar  in  1835,  and  was 
remarkable  among  his  compeers  for  the  extent  of  his  Bcbolarship, 
the  richness  of  bis  fancy,  and  the  natural  eloquence  of  which  be 
was  possessed,  and  these,  from  the  geniality  of  bis  nature,  were 
always  at  tbe  disposal  of  his  friends  and  tbe  public. 

In  1837  Mr  Gordon  married  the  second  daughter  of  Professor 
Wilson,  and  has  left  five  sons  and  one  daughter. 

He  was  appointed  Sheriff  of  Aberdeenshire  in  1817,  and  of  Mid- 
Lothian  in  1848,  an  office  which  he  held,  and  tbe  dotiea  of  which 


DvGooglc 


o/  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  481 

be  diBchai^  with  great  ability,  till  his  death,  wbicb  took  place 
suddenly,  at  Caen  in  Normandy,  on  22d  September  I860. 

Thoius  Hbbbbbt  BAasBR,  a  diBtioguished  member  of  the  firitbh 
Medical  AHsociation,  was  bom  in  1814.  He  received  his  professioDol 
edncation  at  Queen's  College,  Birmingham,  and  at  University  Col- 
lege, London.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Apothecary's  Company  in 
1827,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1642,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  same  body  in  I80I.  Although  he 
obtained  great  distinction  in  the  different  departments  of  his  pro- 
fession, yet  his  reputation  mainly  re^ts  upon  his  investigation  of 
the  cause  of  epidemic  and  endemic  diseases. 

In  1856,  the  Fothergill  Gold  Medal  was  awarded  to  bim  for  his 
essay  on  Ualaria  and  Miasmata,  which  was  published  in  1862,  and 
in  the  conrae  of  last  summer  he  received  from  the  British  Medical 
Association  the  Hastings  Gold  Hedal  for  his  essay  on  Deodorisation 
■nd  Disinfection.  Dr  Barker  is  also  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
on  the  "  Hygienic  Sfanagement  of  Infanta  and  Children,"  and  of 
Tarious  articles  in  the  medical  journals.  He  died  at  Bedford  of  a 
fievere  attack  of  typhoid  fever  on  the  24th  October  1665. 

WiLLUH  Edicoiistounb  AiTocH  wBs  bom  in  June  1813.  His 
father,  who  was  an  eminent  writer  to  the  Signet,  died  when  his  son 
was  comparatiTely  young.  After  receiving  his  elementary  education 
at  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  be  went  through  the  usual  curriculum 
of  study  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  which  he  was  destined 
afterwards  to  adorn.  At  the  end  of  his  course  he  went  to  Germany, 
where  he  acquired  that  knowledge  of  its  literature  which  is  so  con- 
spicuous in  his  writings.  On  his  return  t<)  Scotland  he  passed  as  a 
writer  to  the  Signet,  but  disliking  the  profeesioti,  he  was  called  to  the 
Scottish  Bar  iu  1840,  and  practised  for  some  time  in  criminal  cases 
on  the  western  circuit.  His  time,  however,  was  devoted  principally 
to  literature,  and,  with  some  exceptions,  his  earliest  productions 
were  contributed  to  Tail's  Magazine,  where,  in  conjunction  with 
bis  friend  Mr  Theodore  Martin,  lie  began  his  celebrated  Bon- 
Gualtier  Ballads,  which  have  gone  through  many  editions.  In 
1832  Mr  Aytoun  published  his  first  separate  work  entitled  "  Poland, 
Homer,  and  other  Poems."    In  1633  be  made  the  first  contributions 

TOIh  T,  3  b 


DvGooglc 


482  Proceedings  oj  the  Boyid  Society 

to  Blackwood's  Magazine,  and  from  that  time  to  hie  death  they 
amounted  to  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty.  In  1843  he  contTi- 
buted  to  tbnt  Journal  the  tvo  beautiful  poems  entitled  the  "  Bntial 
March  of  Dundee,"  and  "  Charles  Edward  at  YeTBailleB,"  and  in 
1845,  his  celebrated  satire  on  railway  speculation,  entitled  "  How 
we  got  up  the  Glen  mute btin."  His  "  Life  and  Times  of  Bichard 
III."  appeared  in  1840,  and  in  1849  hie  most  papular  work,  "  The 
Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers,"  the  most  interesting  of  which, 
"  Edinburgh  after  Flodden,"  bad  appeared  in  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine for  the  preceding  year. 

In  1845  he  succeeded  Professor  Spalding  as  Professor  of  Bhetorio 
and  English  Literature  in  the  Unirersity.  To  the  duties  of  this 
ofQce  he  devoted  himself  with  great  energy  and  success,  raising  his 
cisss  from  thirty  to  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  atudenta. 

In  1849,  Professor  Aytoun  married  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Professor  Wilson,  in  the  society  of  whom  ten  years  of  domestic 
happiness  passed  rapidly  away. 

In  1852  he  was  appointed  Sheriff  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,  spend- 
ing in  these  islands  several  months  in  the  year,  and  discharging  the 
duties  of  his  office  with  much  assiduity  and  success. 

In  1854  he  published  "Firmilian — a  Spasmodic  Tragedy;"  in 
1856,  "Bothwell— aPoemf  in  1858,  "  the  Ballade  of  Scotland ;" 
and  in  1861,  a  novel,  entitled  "Norman  Sinclair."  The  last  of 
his  separate  works  was  the  "  Kuptial  Ode  on  the  Karriage  of 
H.  R.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales." 

In  1863  Professor  Aytoun  married  Miss  Einnear — a  happy  union 
which  he  was  destined  not  long  to  enjoy.  His  health  had,  in  the 
fallowing  winter,  begun  to  fail,  and  unfitness  for  intellectual  pursuits 
began  to  indicate  the  commencement  of  some  serious  malady.  In 
the  beginning  of  lost  June  he  went  to  Blackhills,  near  Elgin,  in  the 
hope  of  recovering  his  strength  while  enjoying  the  hill  and  field 
sports  of  that  delightful  neighbourhood.  This  hope,  however,  was 
fallacious.  Neither  the  salubrity  of  the  climate,  nor  the  hracing 
exercise  of  the  fields,  nor  the  skill  of  his  physici»),  could  arrest 
the  progress  of  that  fatal  disease  which  was  rapidly  invading  the 
seat  of  life.  He  sank  gradually  under  its  influence,  and  in  the  full 
possession  of  his  faculties,  and  he  died,  as  a  Christian  should  die, 
on  the  4th  August  1665,  in  the  53d  year  of  his  age. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  483 

Among  the  eminent  men  whose  loea  this  Society  &□<!  the  Univer- 
■ity  have  had  recently  to  deplore,  Professor  Aytonn  holds  a  distin- 
guished  place.  As  a  poet  of  high  talent  and  varied  acquirements, 
distinguiahed  alike  by  his  genial  humour,  and  by  the  force  and 
purity  of  his  satire,  he  will  be  long  and  warmly  admired,  but  more 
warmly  still  by  those  who  weep  over  the  memories  of  that  nnfor- 
tnnate  dynasty  which  he  has  so  ably  and  loyally  immortalised.  As 
an  able  and  assiduous  judge,  he  will  be  long  and  kindly  remem- 
bered by  the  islanders  among  whom  he  annually  laboured  ;  and  as 
a  professor  in  the  University  which  be  adorned,  his  pupils  will  not 
sooB  forget  his  earaesf;  sympathy  with  their  studies,  nor  his  col- 
leagues his  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  University,  and  the 
happy  hours  which  they  spent  in  his  society. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced  :■ — ■ 

Astronomical  Observations  made  at  the  Boyal  Observatory,  Green- 
wich, in  the  year  1862.     London,  1864.     4t<i. — Fnm  the 

Obtervalory. 
Seven-Year  Catalogue  of  2022  Stars,  deduced  from  Observations, 

extending  from  1854^60,  at  the  Boyal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 

4to. — From  the  ObKrvatory. 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Eoyal  Society  of  London.    Vol. 

CLIV.    Parts  1-3;  Vol.  CLV.     ^to.— From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Eoyal  Society  of  London,   Nos.  75-77,    8vo. — 

From  the  Socitty. 
Transactions  of  the  Zoological  Society,  London.    Vol.  V.     Part  4. 

4to. — Fnm  &e  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society,  London.    1864,    Parts  1-3. 

8vo.— JVom  Ihe  Society. 
Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society,  London.  Vol.  XXV.  Part  1, 

4to. — ^fVfn  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Linuean  Society,  London.    (Botany.)     Nos.  33-35. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society,  London.   Vol.  XXXIV. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society,  London.  Vol.  IX. 

Noe.  3-6.  8to. — From  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


484  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society,  LondoD.    Vol.  XXI. 

Noa.  82  aod  S3.    Svo.— ^rtmi  the  Society. 
Jourual  or  the  Statistical  Society,  London.    Vol.  XXYIII.    Farts 

2  and  8.     8vo. — Fnm  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  London.    Vol.  IIL    Nos.  28-34. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society,  London.    Vol.  V. 

Nob.  5-8.    8vo.— From  the  Sodett/. 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomioal  Society,  London.  VoL 

XXV.    Nob.  6-8.    8vo.— ^tw»  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Medical  and  Ghimrgical  Society,  London. 

Vol.  V.    No.  2.    8to.— JWm  the  Society. 
TransactionB  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London.  VoL  XXXIX. 

4to. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiqnaii^,London.  Vol.  II.  No.  6. 

Svo.—From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.   Nos.  123-127.  Calcutta, 

1864.  8vo.— JVwB  the  Society. 

ProceedingB  of  the  British  Heteorological  Society,     Vol.  II.    Noa. 

19  and  20.     London,  1866.    8vo.— From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Boyal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Iteland. 

Vol.  I.     Part  2.    (New  Series.)     London,  1865.    8to.— -jFrww* 

tlie  Society. 
Iroceedings  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Liverpool. 

No.  18.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society.    Nos.  6-8.    (New 

Series.)     Edinburgh,  1864.     8vo.— frwn  the  Society. 
ProceedingBof  the  Geologists' Association,  London.  Vol.  L  Part  2. 

8vo. — From  the  Association. 
Quarterly  Returns  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  regis- 
tered in  the  Divisions,  Counties,  and  Districts  of  Sootland. 

Nos.  41-43.      Edinburgh,  1865.     8vo.— ^rwn  tA«  Seyiitrar- 

GenertU. 
Monthly  Betnme  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered 

in  the  £ight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland  for  April — October 

1865.  8vo. — From  the  Regittrar-Qenend. 

American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.  Noe.  117-119.  New  Haven, 
1865.     8vo. — From  l^e  Editors. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  48d 

Proceedioga  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  ScienceB,  Philadelphia, 
1864.    Nob.  1-5.    Svo.—From  the  Acadtmy. 

Canadian  Jounial  of  loduBtry,  Science,  aod  Art.  Noe.  66-68. 
Toronto,  1865.    8vo. — From  the  Canadian  InUiltU: 

ObBervatioDB  made  at  the  Mag^etical  and  Meteorological  OboeiTa- 
tory  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Vol.  I.,  for  1840-43.  4to.-^ 
from  the  Ob*crvatory. 

Plants  Indigenons  to  the  Colony  of  Victoria.  Described  by  Fer- 
dinand Mueller,  M.D.  Melbourne,  1865.  4to.— Front  the 
Author. 

Beport  upon  the  Foreate  of  the  Punjab  and  the  Weetem  Himalaya. 
By  H.  Cleghom,  M.D.  Koorkee,  1864.  Svo.—Ftom  the 
Author. 

Proceedings  of  the  Frivy  Council,  in  the  Question  as  to  tbe  Prece- 
dence of  tbe  Corporations  of  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  in  present- 
ing Addressee  to  the  Sovereign.  Edinburgh,  1365.  4to. — 
From  the  Edinburgh  Town  Council. 

Beport  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  City  of  Edinburgh.  By 
Henry  D.  Littlejohn,  M.D.  Edinburgh,  1865.  6Y0.—From 
the  Edinburgh  Town  Council. 

Astronomical  and  Meteorological  Observations  made  at  the  Bad- 
cliffe  Observatory,  Oxford,  in  1862.  Vol.  XXH.  8vo.— JVwni 
the  OhtereaUry. 

Fragmenta  Phytographite  Australiaa.  By  Ferdinand  Mueller,  Vol. 
IV.     Melbourne,  18G4.     ^yo.—From  the  Avihor. 

Essays  on  the  Invasion  of  Britain  by  Julius  Cssar,  Flantins, 
and  Claudius ;  Early  Military  Policy  of  the  Bomans  in 
Britain,  and  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  vith  Correspondence. 
By  George  Biddell  Airy,  Esq.  Loudon,  1665.  4to. — From 
theAuthw. 

Uetcorological  Papers  (No.  13),  published  by  authority  of  the  Board 
of  Trade.    Nova  Scotia,  1865.    4to.— /Vwn  the  Board. 

Catalogue  of  the  Melbourne  Public  Library  for  1861.  8vo. — I^tm 
the  Library. 

Hippocratia  et  aliorum  Mediconim  veterum  Reliquin.  Edited  by 
F,  Z.  Ermerius.  Amsterdam,  1864.  4to, — From  the  Bot/al 
Academy,  Amtterdam. 

Verhandelingen  der  Koninklijke  AkaJemie  van  Wettensohappeii. 


DvGooglc 


486  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Letterkuude,  Beel  III. ;  Natuurkunde,  Deel  X.    AmBteiduin. 

4to. — From  the  Royal  Academy,  Amsterdam, 
Veislagen  en  Mededeeliugea  der  Eouioklijke  Akademie  van  We^ 

teiiBcbappen.    Letterkuade,  YIII. ;  Nataurkande,  XYIL  8vo. 

— From  the  Royal  Academy,  Amzlerdam. 
Jaarbo«k  van   de   Eoninklijke   Akademie   van   Wettonschqipen, 

1863-64.     8to. — From  the  Royal  Academy,  Amtterdam. 
iitisie  Vrolik. — Catalogue  de  la  CoUectioa  d'Aoatomie  hnmaiiie, 

Gompar^e  et  Fathologique  de  MM.  Oer  et  W.  Yrolik.    Far  J. 

L.  Dusseau.    Amsterdam,  1865.    6vq. — From  the  Author. 
'Memorie    del   Beale    Istituto    Lombardo  di  Scienze  et  LetU-re. 

Claase  di  Scienze  Matematicbe  e  Natur&li,  Vol.  X.   1  della 

eerie,  III.    Fasc.  1;   Glasae  Morali  e  Politiche,  Vol.  X.    1 

della  aerie,  II.  Faac.  1.    Milano,  1865.    4to.--JTOm  the  lit- 

ttUiiU. 
Reudicoiiti,  Classe  di  Scienze  Matematicbe  e  Ifaturali.    ToL  I. 

Fasc.  9,   10 ;    Vol.  II.    Fasc.   1,  2.     ClBsae  di  Letteie  e 

Scienze  Morali  e  Politiche,  Vol.  I.    Fasc.  8-10 ;    VoL  IL 

Fasc.  1,  2.     8vo.—From  the  InttituU. 
M^moireB  Couronn^B  et  M^moiree  des  Savants  ^trangera  jmblils  par 

I'Acadfimie  Royale  dea  Sciences,  dee  Lettres,  et  des  Beaux-Aita 

de  Belgique.     Tome  XXXII.     BruxBlles,  1665.     ito. — Fmn 

tAe  Academy. 
MSmoircB  Couronn^s  et  aittreB  M^moirea.     Tome  XVII.     8to.— 

From  the  Academy. 
Bulletins  de  TAcad^mie  Boyale  dee  Sciences,  dea  Lettres,  et  dee 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.    Tomes  XVIII.,  XIX.,  XX.     Nos. 

6-8,    8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Annnaire  de  rAcodemie  Boyale  de  Belgiqne,  1865.    12mo.— Frm 

the  Academy. 
Annuaire  de  I'Observatoire  Boyal  de  Bmzellea,  1865.    12mu.— 

From  the  Obiervatory. 
Atti  deir  Imp.-Beg.  Istitnto  Veneto  di  Scienze,  Lettere,  ed  Art). 

Tomo   soDO,  serie    terza,  dispenaa   aeata-decima,   1863-64. 

Tomo  decimo,  aerie  terza,  dispensa  prima-quarta,  1864-65. 

8vo. — From  the  Ifutitute. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci£t«  de  Gtographie.    Tome  VIII.    Faria,  1864. 

8vo, — From  the  Society. 


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of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  487 

Anoftles  des  Minee.    Tome  VI.    Liv.  6;   Tome  YII.    Lit.  1-3. 

Paris,  1865.     8vo. — Frvm  the  EcoU  det  Mines. 
U^moireB  de  TAcademie  Im^eriale  des  ScisDces,  fielles-Lettres,  et 

Arte,  de  Lyon.    Classe  des  ScienceB,  Tome  XIII. ;   ClaBse 

Lettree,  Tome  XI.    Lyon,  1863.    8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Bnlletin  des  Stances  de  I'Acad^mie  Imp£rUle.    Lyon,  1865.  8vo. 

— From  the  Academy. 
Memorias  de  la  Beale  Academia  de  Ciencias  Exoctas,  FJsicas  y 

Naturales,  de  Madrid.    Tomo  VI.  Part.  1,  2.  4to.— f  r«n  tlte 

Academy. 
Beonmen  de  laa  Actas  de  la  Beale  Academia  de  Ciencias  Exaclas, 

Fisicas  y  Natuioles,  de  Uadrid,  1862-63.     8vo.— ^rom  th» 

Academy. 
Iiibros  del  Saber  de  Aetroaomia  del  Bey  \).  Alfooso  X.  de  Gastilio, 

copiladofi,  anoUdofl  y  cumeutados  pot  Don  Manuel  Bico  y 

Sinobas.    Tom.  III.    Madrid,  1864.    'Eo\.— From  the  Academy. 
Bendiconto  della  Beale  Accademia  dj  Archeologia,  Lettere,  e  Belle 

Arti,  1864.     Napoli,  1864.  4to— JVom  the  Academy. 
Stalistiqne  Internationale  (population)  publico  avec  la  Collaboration 

des  Statisticiens  OfBciels  des  difT^rents  ^tats  de  I'Europe  et  des 

Etats-unis  d'Ameriqne.    Par  Ad.  Quetelet  et  Cav.  HeDSclling. 

Bruxellee,  1865.    4to.— .From  ihe  AtUhore. 
Histoire   dee   Scieocea    Matb6matiques  et   Physiques   cbez    les 

Beiges.    Par  Ad.  Quetelet     Bruxelles,  1864.     8vo.— i^Vom 

the  Author. 
BnUetin  d«  la  3oci£t£  Vandoise  des  Sciences  Naturellee.    Tome 

VIII.     Nos.  51  and  52.    Lausanne,  1865.    8vo.— Jrom  the 

Soeieli/. 
Sitznngsberichte  der  kdnigl.-bayer.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 

zn  Munohen.     Hefte  1-5.    1865.    8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Society  leale  di  Napoli ;  Bendiconto  delle  Tornate  e  del  Lavori 

dell'  Accademia  di  ScJenza  Morali  e  Foliticbe.    Feb.,  March 

1865.     8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Jabrbucb   der  kaiserlich-koniglicheD   geologischen  BeicfaBanstalt. 

Band  XV.  Nob.  1  and  2.  Wien,  1865.   8vo.— i^rom  the  Arehivar 

t^the  SeickiaiulaU. 
Verbandlungen  der  sobweizerischen  natnrroTschenden  GeEellscfaaft 

Ku  Zurich.    1864.    8vo. — From  Ute  Society. 


DvGooglc 


488  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Scbeikandige  VerhandeliDgen  Ouderzoekingen  nitgegeven  door  Gr. 
J.Mulder,  4 deel,lBtStiik.  Botterdtkm-,  1865.  8vo. — Fromlhe 
Author. 

Aonalea  der  koniglicfaen  Sternwarte  bei  Uuncbea.  Band  XIV. 
8to. — From  the  Royal  Ohtervatory  of  Munich. 

Smitbsouian  ContribatioDB  to  knowledge.  Yol.  XIV.  WoehingtoD, 
1865.     4to. — From  the  Smitkaonian  Inttilvtion. 

Anonal  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsoniao  Institu- 
tion for  1863.    8to. — From  the  Smithsonian  Inattlution. 

Beview  of  American  Birds  in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution. By  9.  F.  B&ird.  Fart  I.  8vo.-~From  the  SmiA- 
Kmian  Inttiiution. 

Beport  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  TJ.  S.  Coast  Survejr,  showing 
the  Progress  of  the  Surve;  during  1862.  Washington,  1864. 
iU>.—From  the  Survey. 

Beeulte  of  the  Meteorological  Observations  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  n.  S.  Patent-OfBce  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
from  1854  to  1859.  Vol.  II.  .Part  1.  Washington,  1864.  4to. 
—From  the  U.  S.  Patent-Office. 

Embryology  of  the  Star- rish.  By  Alexander  Agaseiz.  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  1864.     Ailo.—From  the  Author. 

Statistics  of  the  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  of  the  U>  S. 
Washington,  1864.  8vo. — From  (he  Secretary  of  th»  Tra^aury 
of  the  U.  8. 

Annual  of  the  Ifatural  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1S63-64.  Cam- 
bridge, U.  S.    1864.     Svo.~FTom  the  Academy. 

Report  of  the  Natural  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1863.  WashingloD, 
1864.    8vo. — From  the  Academy, 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia. 
Nofl.  71,  72.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 

List  of  the  Members  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Phila- 
delphia.   8to. — Front  the  Society. 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  for 
1864.    8to. — From  the  Academy. 

Proceedings  of  the  Portland  Society  of  Natural  History.  Vol.  1. 
Part  1.    8vo. — From  the  Society. 

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1864,    8vo.—From  the  Society. 


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TnuieactionB  of  the  Literary  aod  Historical  Society  of  Quebec. 
Session  1864-65.    8vo.— frou*  the  Sodety. 

Thefolhrnng  Pvllicalion*  have  been  presented  bi/  the  Depot  de  la 

Marine,  Parit. 

Annales  Hydrographiqaee ;   Recueil  d'Avis,  InstructiotiB,  Docn- 

meatB,  et  M^moires,  relatif§  i.  I'Hydrographie  et  &  la  Naviga- 
tion.   Faria,  1861-65.    Sto. 
Uannel  de  la  Navigation  dang  la  mer  dea  Antilles  et  dans  le  golfo 

dn  Hexique.    Fans,  1864.    8vo. 
Boatier  de  la  Cote  Nord  d'Espagne.    Traduit  de  I'EspagnoI  par  A, 

leGras.    Paris,  1864.    8vo. 
Mer  du  Nord.    Par  M.  A.  le  Graa.    Part  IV.   Paris,  1864.  8vo. 
La  Iioi  dea  TempStes  considerfe  dans  sos  relations  avec  lea  mouve- 

menta  de  I'atmosphere.    Par.  W.  H.  Dove.    Paris,  1864.    8vo. 
InatructionB  Nautiques  pout  les  principaux  Ports  de  la  Cote  Est  de 

TAmerique  du  Nord,   reimprim^B    d'ajires   les   cartes   de  la 

C6te  des  £tatB  unfs  de  1858.     ParM.  MHoDermott.     t'oris, 

1864.  8vo. 
InstmctioDB  poor  le  HicromStre  lugeol  i  Cadran  Lorienx.    Far  M. 

Bose.    Paris,  1865.   8vo. 
BeohercboB  but  les  ChronomStres  et  les  iDstrumentB  Nautiques. 

Paris,  1864.    8vo. 
Madagascar,  partie  CompreDant;  I'lle  Pong  Tamatave,  Foule  Fointe, 

Hahambo,  Fvnortve,  Sainte-Marie,  et  Tintingue.    Par  If.  Ger- 
main.   Paris,  1864.    Svo. 
Instructions  Nautiquea  eur  lea  Cotes  de  Corse.     Par  M.  Sallot  des 

Myers.    Paris,  1865.    8vo. 
Annuaire  des  Marees  dea  Cotes  de  France  pour  I'an  1865.    Par  M. 

Gaassin.     Faria,  1865.    12mo. 
Benseignements  snr  la  Navigation  des  Cotes  et  des  Bividres  de  la 

Gnyane  Fran^aise.    Par  M.  Em.  Cony.    Paris,  1865.    Svo. 

Memorie  dell'  Accademia  delle  Scienze  dell'  Istituto  di  Bologna. 

Tomo  III. ;  Tomo  IV.  Part  1.     4to.— front  the  Academy. 
Bendiconto  delle  Sessioni  dell'  Accademia  delle  Scienze  dell'  Istttato 

Bologna,  1863-64.    8vo. — From  the  Academy. 
Indici  General!  della  CoUezione  pubblicata  dell'  Accademia  delle 
roL.  T.  3  8 


DvGooglc 


490  Proceedings  o/tjie  Boyai  Society 

Scienze  dell'  Istitnto  di  Bologna  dal  1850-61,   4to.— fVom 
ihe  Academy. 
Jabroebericht  am  17  Afai  1S64  dem  Comite  der  Nicolai.    Hanpt- 

Btemwarte  abgestattet  von  Dr  der  Stemwarte.   St.  Petenbni^, 
1864.     8to. — From  the  Avihor. 
Uittbeilungea  dei  XatiiTforaobenden  (^esellsohaft  in  Bern.     Mr. 

£53-579.     Bern,  1864.     8to.— JVom  the  SoctUy. 
Salla  Causa  specifica  del  Colera  Aaiatico  it  suo  processo  Patologico 

e  la  Indicazione  Curativa  cbe  ne  reaulta.    Dell  Dott.  Filippo 

Pacini.     Firenze,  1865.     8Ta. — From  the  Avihor. 
"Egy  Continentftilis  Emelked^  b6b  Sulyedearol  Eiir6pa  D^eletir- 

€Bz6n.    Eloadta  A  Magyar  Tudom,  Akademia  koz  uleseben 

1861.   Pest,  1862.    ^ta.—From  the  Academy. 
Ab  Isomidegek  VegzodlBeirSl,  Dr  Th,  Margo.    Pest,  1862.   4to.— 

From  the  Academy. 
A  TemeBi  Bftneag  foldje  gazdas&gi  6b  Mulipari  Tekintetben,  18G3. 

Eloadta  Nendtvich  K&roly.      Peet,   1863.     ito.—From  t/,e 

Aqademy. 
Bndapesti  Szemle  Szerkeazti  6b  Biodja  Csengeiy  Astal  LYT.  £s 

LVII.  Fnzet.    Peet,  1863.    8vo.— from  the  Academy. 
TTeber  die  Wurflinifl  im  leeren.     Baome  von  Dr  0«org  Sidler. 

Berne,  1865.    ih).—From  the  AvOor. 
Revae  Arch6ologiqne,  on  Becueil  de  DocnmeDta  et  de  Kemoirea 

reladfa  i  I'^tude  des  Mounmente,  k  la  Mumigmatiqne,  et  i  la 

Pbilologie  de  I'aDtiqnit^  et  du  moyen  &ge.    Par  U.  Ad.  Pictet. 

PariB,  1864.     8to.— /Wm  the  Author. 
ObeerrationB  des  Ph4nomSnee  p6riodiqiies  dee  Plautes  et  dea  Ant- 

maax,  1861-62.    Far  Ad.  Qnetelet.    Bnizellee.    Svo^-Fnm 

the  Author. 
Die  PhyBiologicscbe  Optik  eine  DaTBtellang  der  Gesetse  des  Anges 

Ton  Dr  Hermann  3cbeffler-  Parts  1,2.  Branusohweig,  1864-65. 

8to. — From  the  Avthor. 
GorreHpondeDzblatt  dea  Yereina  fur  Naturknnde  zu  Presbiirg,  18G3. 

8vo,. — From  Pnfator  E.  Mack. 
Conafquenoes  de  I'impuuit^  du  Flagiat.    Par  F.  CoUardean.   Fari<>, 

1865.    8to.— from  tt«  ArUhor. 
Journal  of  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Boyal  Aaiatic  Society. 

No.  1.    Shangbai,  1865.    8to.— from  iht  Society. 


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q/Edinbargh,  Session  1865-66.  491 

Eaplomtion  of  Vancouver  WmkI,  1864.    Victoria,  1864.    8vo.— 

From  the  Colonial  Qovemmeni. 
Thonghte  on  the  Influence  of  Ether  in  the  Solar  STstem.    By 
Alexander  Wilcooke,  M.D.    Philadelphia,  1864.    4to.— JVom 
the  Author. 
Bemarks  in  Explanation  of  the  Ifap  of  the  Upper  Tertiaries  of  the 
Goanties  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,   Middlesex,  Hertford, 
Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  and  Bedford,  with  Farts  of  those  of 
Bnckingham  and  Lincoln,  and  accompanying  Sections.     By 
Searles  V.  Wood,  Junior.    8to. — From  th«  Avthor. 
Beport  of  the  Professor  of  Astronomy  in  the  University  of  Gla^w. 

Otasgow,  1865.     8vo, — /Vwn  Fri^euor  R.  Qrant. 
On  the  Origin  of  the  Alpine  Lakes  and  Valleys.    By  H.  Alphonze 

Fane.    186fi.    8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Ptnetum  Britannicum.    Farts  10-13.    Edinburgh,  1865.     Fol. — 

From  Charlea  Lataon,  Etq. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  for  1865.  Svo. 

— .PVom  the  Society. 
Artificial  Lactation.   By  Charles  H.  Wetherill,  M.D.   Indianapolis, 

1860.    8vo.— IWm  (Ae  Author. 
Prfcis  d'une  Hiatoire  du  Terrain  Houiller  defl  Alpes.     Par  U. 

Alpbonse  Favre.    1865.    8vo.— ^fwn  the  Author. 
Sitzungsberichte  der  kaiserlichen  Akademia  der  WisBeneoharten. 
Phil.  Hist.  Clasae,  Band  XLVII.  Hefte  1,  2;  Band  XL VIII. 
Eefto  1, 2.    Math.  Nat.  Classe,  Band  L.  Hefte  1-S ;  Band  LI. 
Eefte  1,  2.    Mineral  Glaase,  Band  L.  Hefte  2-5 ;  Band  LI. 
Hefte  1,  2.    Wien.    8vo.— from  the  Academy. 
Jahreabericht  iiber  die  Fortachritte  der  Gbemie  und  Venvandt«r 
Theile  Andeier,  Wieeenscbaiten,  for  1864.     Von  Heinricli 
Will.    Giessen,  1865.    8vo.— Ffwn  the  Author. 
Nachrichten  fiber  Leben  und  Schrift«n  des  Herm  Gebeimrathes,  Dr 
Earl  Ernst  v.  Baer,  mitgetheilt  von  ihm  Selbat  verofientlicht 
bei  gelegenbeit  Seines   Filnfzigjabrigen  ^Boctor-Jdbil&ums, 
am  29th  Aug.  1864.    Von  der  Bitterschaft  Ebstlande.     St 
Petenbni^,  1865.    4to.— /Vom  Ae  Author. 
Das  Fiinfzigjahrige  Doctor-JubilAum,  des  Oebeimrathe  Ear]  Ernst 
von  Baer,  am  29th  Aug.  1864.   St  Peterabui^.  ito.—From 
the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


492  Proceedings  of  the  RoyoX  Society 

Aonalee  de  I'Observatoire  Physique  Central  de  Bnssie.    Nos.  I,  2. 

St  Petersburg,  1865.     4to. — From  the  Riutian  Government. 
Grioroale  di  Scienze  Naturali  ed  EcoDoniiGhe  pubblicato  per  Cnra 

del  Consiglio  di  Perfezionamento  aonesso  aei  letituto  tecDico 

di  Palermo.    Vol.  I.  "Faso.  2.    Palermo,  1865.    ito.—Fnm 

the  ImtittUe. 
Nouveaux   Pb4iiomdnes   dee   Corps    cristallis^s,    avec   Quatorze 

Planches.    Far  Louis  Lavizzari.    Ziugano,  186S.    Toh—From 

the  Author. 
Bolletin  de  la  Soci&t6  Imp^riale  des  NatnraliEteB  de  Moscou.    Noi. 

2-4  for  1864.     No.  1,  1865.     Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
Diacours  prononc^  la  21  Aoflt  1863  h  I'ouverture  de  la  Quarante- 

Neuvidme   Session  de  la   Soci^t^  Helv^tiqne  des   Scieucea 

Naturelles,  rennte  &  C^enSve.    Far  U.  le  Professeor  Aogusta 
.     de  la  Eive.     Gen&ve,  1865,     Svo. — From  the  Author. 
Besnmg  H^tSorologique  de  TAnnge  1864,  pour  Geneve  et  le  Grand 

St  Bernard.    Par  E.  Plantamour.   Geneve,  1865.  Svo.— JWtn 

Hie  Atillwr. 
Eeoherches  sur  la  DietribntioD  de  la  Temperature  &  la  Surface  da 

la  Suisse  pendant  I'Hiver  1863-64,    Far  K.  Flantamonr.   8vo. 

— From  the  Avlhor. 
M^oires  de  la  Society  de  Physique  et  d'Histoire  Natuielle  de 

GenSve.    Tome  XVIII.  Part.  1.    GenSve,  1865.    ito.— From 

the  Soeieti/, 
Beport  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  for  1862  (Arts  and  Hanu- 

factures).    Vols.  I.  and  II.    Washington,  1864.    SYO.—Fhm 

the  U.  S.  Oovtmment. 
Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society,  London.     Vol.  XVI.. 

London,  1865.     Svo. — From  the  Soeieti/. 
Transactions  end  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Victoiia. 

Vol.  VI.     Melbourne,  1865.     Svo From  the  Society. 

Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society,  Glasgow.    Vol.  I.  Fart  2; 

Vol.  II.  Part  1.     Svo.— /Vom  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.    Vol.  IV. 

Parts  5  and  6.    London,  1865.    Svo. — From  the  Inilitvtion. 
Journal  of  tlie  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.   Vol.  I.  Fart  1. 

DiilUn,  1865.  8vo.— J^rom  the  Soeieti/. 
Trunsactions  of  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh.     VoL  VUL 

Part  2.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Searion  1865-66.  493 

Od  the  Silurian  Fonnation  of  the  Fentlasd  BQIe.    By  QwrgR  0, 

Hoswell.     Edinburgh,  1865.     Svo.— iVom  the  Author. 
Hazzaroth,  oi  the  ConBtellationB.    Part  1.    London,  1862.   Sto. — 

From  the  Beo.  Frandt  Sed/ord,  F.SJSFl. 
Beport  of  the  Geological  Formation  of  the  Timam  IKstriot,  m 

reference  to  obtaining  a  supply  of  Water.    By  Julius  H&aat, 

Fh.D.    ChriBtchnrch,  1865.    Fol.— fnm  &e  A^Uhor. 
Beport  on  the  Oeological  Exploration  of  the  West  Coaat  of  2few 

ZealaDiL    By  Julius  Haaat,  Ph.D.    Christchnnih,  1865.    FoL 

— Froni  ihe  A  tUhor. 
Heteorologioa]  Papers,  published  by  Authority  of  tbe  Board  <tf 

Trade.    No.  14.    London,  18G5.—From  the  Board. 
•  Beply  to  Letter  of  O.  W.  Maunsell,  Esq.,  of  2Ist  Oct.  1865.    By 

Andrew  H.  Bagot^    8to. — From  the  AtUhor. 


DvGooglc 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 

OrTBE 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBUfiGH. 

VOL.  T.  1865-66.  No.  69. 


Monday,  l&th  December  1865. 

Sra  DAVID  BREWSTER,  PreBident,  in  the  Chair. 

At  the  request  of  the  Council,  Profeasor  William  Thomson 
of  Glasgow  delivered  the  following  Address  on  the  Forces 
concerned  in  the  Zjaying  and  Lifting  of  Deep-Sea  Cables. 

The  forces  concerned  id  the  Ujing  and  lifting  of  deep  Bubmariac 
cftbtee  attracted  much  public  attention  in  the  years  1857-58. 

Ad  experimental  trip  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay  in  May  1858,  proved 
the  poBBibility,  not  only  of  safely  laying  such  a  lope  as  the  old 
Atlantic  cable  in  very  deep  water,  but  of  lifting  it  from  the  bottom 
without  fracture.  The  speaker  had  witnessed  the  almost  incredible 
feat  of  lifting  up  a  considerable  length  of  that  sUgbt  and  seemingly 
fragile  thread  from  a  depth  of  nearly  2^  nautical  miles.*  The 
cable  bad  actually  brought  with  it  safely  to  the  surface,  from  the 
bottom,  a  splice  with  a  large  weighted  frame  attached  to  it,  to 
prevent  nntwisting  between  the  two  ships,  from  which  two  portions 
of  cable  with  opposite  twists  had  been  laid.  The  actual  laying  of 
the  cable  a  few  months  later,  fVom  mid  ocean  to  Taleucia  on 

*  Thnmgliont  the  following  Btatomenta,  the  word  mile  will  be  naed  to  ile- 
oote  (Dot  that  moat  meaDiagleHa  of  tnodem  meaanreB,  the  British  statute 
mile)  bat  the  nantic»]  mile,  or  the  length  of  a  minale  of  latitude,  iu  tnean 
hititndee,  which  is  6078  feet.  For  approiimate  Btslementa,  rough  eetimates, 
ftC  it  may  be  taken  u  6000  feet,  or  1000  fathoms. 

TOL.  V.  8  T 


DvGooglc 


496  Proceedings  of  &te  Royal  Society 

one  Bide,  And  Triaity  Bay,  Newfonndlaiid,  on  the  other,  regarded 
merely  as  a  mechanical  achievement,  took  by  Burpriee  some  of  the 
most  celebrated  engineers  of  the  day,  who  had  not  concealed  their 
opinion,  that  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Gmnpany  had  undertaken  an 
impoBBible  problem.  As  a  mechanical  achievement  it  waa  com- 
pletely ancceaefnl ;  and  the  electric  failure,  after  aeveral  hundred 
messageB  (compriBing  upwards  of  4359  words)  had  been  transmitted 
between  Valencia  and  Newfoundland,  was  owing  to  electric  faults 
existing  in  the  cable  before  it  vent  to  sea.  Such  faults  cannot 
esc^ie  detection,  in  the  course  of  the  mannfacture,  under  the 
improved  electric  testing  since  brought  into  practice,  and  the  canrae 
which  led  to  the  failure  of  the  first  Atlantic  cable  no  longer  exist 
as  dangers  in  submarine  telegraphic  enterprise.  But  the  possibility 
of  damage  being  done  to  the  insulation  of  the  electric  condnclor 
before  it  leaves  the  ship  (illustrated  by  the  occurrenoes  which  led 
to  the  temporary  loss  of  the  1865  cable),  implies  a  danger  which 
can  only  be  thoronghly  guarded  against  by  being  ready  at  any 
moment  to  back  the  ship  and  check  the  egress  of  the  cable,  and 
to  hold  on  for  some  time,  or  to  haul  back  some  length  according  to 
the  results  of  electric  testing. 

The  forces  concerned  in  these  operations,  and  the  mechanical 
arrangements  by  which  they  are  applied  and  directed,  constitute 
one  chief  part  of  the  present  address;  the  remainder  is  devoted  to 
explanations  as  to  the  problem  of  lifting  the  west  end  of  the  1200 
miles  of  cable  laid  last  summer,  from  Talencia  westwards,  and  now 
lying  in  perfect  electric  condition  (in  the  very  safest  place  in  which 
a  submarine  cable  can  be  kept),  and  ready  to  do  its  work,  as  soon  as 
it  is  connected  with  Newfoundland,  by  the  600  miles  required  to 
complete  the  line. 

Foreei  concerned  in  the  Svhmergeitce  of  a  Cable. 

In  a  paper  published  in  the  "  Engineer"  Journal  in  1867,  the 
speaker  had  given  the  difierential  equations  of  the  catenary  formed 
by  a  submarine  cable  between  the  ship  and  the  bottom,  during  the 
submergence,  under  the  influence  of  gravity  and  fluid  friction  and 
piesauie;  and  he  had  pointed  out  that  the  curve  becomes  a  straight 
line  in  the  case  of  no  tension  at  the  bottom.    As  this  is  always  the 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seaeum  1865-66.  497 

CBi*e  in  deep-BM  cable  laying,  he  mode  no  farther  reference  to  the 
general  problem  in  the  present  address. 

When  a  cable  is  laid  at  nniform  speed,  on  a  level  bottom,  quite 
straight,  bnt  withoat  tenaion,  it  forms  an  inclined  straight  line, 
fVom  the  point  where  it  enters  the  water,  to  the  bottom,  and  each 
point  of  it  clearlj  moves  uniformly  in  a  straight  line  towards  the 
position  on  the  bottom  that  it  ultimately  occupies.*  That  ia  to 
say,  each  particle  of  the  cable  movea  uniformly  along  the  base  of 
an  isosceles  triangle,  of  which  the  two  equal  sides  aie  the  inclined 
portion  of  the  cable  between  it  aud  the  bottom,  and  the  line  along 
the  bottom  which  this  portion  of  the  cable  covers  when  laid.  When 
the  cable  is  paid  out  from  the  ship  at  a  rate  exceeding  that  of  the 
ship's  progress,  the  velocity  and  direction  of  the  motion  of  any 
particle  of  it  through  the  water  are  to  be  found  by  compounding 
a  velocity  along  the  inclined  side,  equal  to  this  excess,  with  the 
velocity  already  determined,  along  the  base  of  the  isosceles  triangle. 
The  angle  between  the  equal  sides  of  the  isosceles  tiiangle, 
that  is  to  say,  the  inclination  which  the  cable  takes  in  the  water, 
is  determined  by  the  condition,  that  the  tnaiBverse  component  of 
the  cable's  weight  in  water  is  equal  to  the  transverse  component  of 
the  resistance  of  the  water  to  its  motion.  Its  tension  where  it 
enters  the  water  is  equal  to  the  longitudinal  component  of  the 
weight  (or,  which  ia  the  same,  the  whole  weight  of  a  length  of 
cable  hanging  vertically  down  to  the  bottom),  diminished  by 
the  longitudinal  component  of  the  fluid  resistance.  In  the  laying 
of  the  Atlantic  cable,  when  the  depth  was  two  miles,  the  rate  of 
the  ship  six  miles  an  hour,  and  the  rate  of  paying  out  of  the  cable 
seven  miles  an  hour,  the  resistance  to  the  egress  of  the  cable, 
accurately  measured  by  a  dynamometer,  was  only  11  owt.  But  it 
must  have  been  as  much  as  28  owt.,  or  the  weight  of  two  miles  of 
the  cable  hanging  vertically  down  in  water,  were  it  not  for  the  fric- 
tional  resistance  of  the  water  against  the  cable  slipping,  as  it  were, 
down  an  inclined  plane  from  the  ship  to  the  bottom,  which  therefore 
must  have  borne  the  difference,  or  11  owt.  Accurate  observations 
are  wanting  as  to  the  angle  at  whiob  the  cable  entered  the  water; 
but  from  measurements  of  angles  at  the  stem  of  the  ship,  and  a 

*  Fieoiiely  ibe  tnoveinetit  o/  a  bftttalion  in  line  cbuging  fruDl. 


DvGooglc 


498  Prooeediage  of  (he  Bogal  Soeiely 

dynunical  estimate  (from  the  meuDied  stxatn)  of  what  the  car- 
Tature  must  havB  been  between  the  ebip  and  the  water,  I  find 
that  its  iDclinatioD  in  the  water,  when  the  ship's  ipeed  was  nearly 
6^  milee  per  hour,  must  have  been  ahont  6^°,  that  is  to  say,  the 
incline  was  about  1  in  8^.  Thus  the  length  of  cable,  from  the 
ship  to  the  bottom,  when  the  water  was  2  miles  deep,  must  have 
been  about  17  miles. 

The  whole  amount  (14  cwt.)  of  flnid  reaistanoe  to  the  motion  of 
this  length  of  cable  through  it,  is  therefore  about  '81  of  a  cwt.  per 
mile.  The  longitudinal  component  velocity  ctf  the  cable  throngfa 
the  water,  to  which  this  resistance  was  dne,  may  be  takeo,  with  hnt 
very  small  error,  as  simply  the  excess  of  the  speed  of  paying  ont 
above  the  speed  of  the  ship,  or  about  1  mile  an  hour.  Hence, 
to  haul  np  a  piece  of  the  cable  vertically  through  the  water,  at 
the  rate  of  1  mile  an  hour,  would  require  less  thsn  1  cwt.  for  over- 
coming fluid  friction,  per  mile  length  of  the  cable,  over  and  above 
its  weight  in  water.  Thus  fluid  friction,  which  for  the  laying 
of  a  cable  performs  so  valuable  a  part  in  eaaiDg  the  strain  with 
which  it  is  paid  ont,  offers  no  serious  obstruction,  indeed,  scarcely 
any  sensible  obstruction,  to  the  reverse  process  of  hauling  back,  if 
done  at  only  1  mile  an  hour,  or  any  slower  speed. 

As  to  the  transverse  compooent  of  the  flnid  friction,  it  ia  to 
be  remarked  that,  although  not  directly  assisting  to  reduce  tbe 
egress  stiaiii,  it  indirectly  contributes  to  this  result ;  for  it  is  the 
transverse  friction  that  caases  the  gentleness  of  the  slope,  giving 
the  sufficient  length  of  17  miles  of  cable  slipping  down  through  the 
water,  on  which  the  longitudinal  friction  operates,  to  reduce  the 
egress  strain  to  the  very  safe  limit  found  in  the  recent  expe- 
dition. In  estimating  its  amount,  eves  if  the  slope  were  as 
ranch  as  1  in  6,  we  should  commit  only  an  insignificant  error,  if 
we  supposed  it  to  be  simply  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  cable 
in  water,  or  about  14  cwt.  per  mile  for  the  1865  Atlantic  cable. 
The  transverse  component  velocity  to  which  this  is  due  may  be  esti- 
mated with  but  insignificant  error,  by  taking  it  as  the  velocity  of 
a  body  moving  directly  to  the  bottom  in  the  time  occupied  in 
laying  a  length  of  cable  equal  to  the  17  miles  of  oblique  line 
from  tbe  ship  to  the  bottom.  Therefore,  it  must  have  been  about 
2  miles  in  17  -i-  6}  =  2-61  hoars,  or  -8  of  a  mile  per  hour.     It  ia  not 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  499 

prob&ble  that  tfae  actual  motion  of  the  cable  lengthwiee  through 
the  water  can  affect  this  reenlt  much.  TfauB,  the  vdodttf  t^teUling 
o(  a  horizontal  pieoe  of  the  c&ble  (or  velocity  of  einlciog  throngh 
the  water,  with  weight  jost  bonie  by  flaid  friction)  would  appear 
to  be  about  '8  of  a  mile  per  hour.  This  may  be  contrasted  with 
longitudinal  friotion  by  remembering  that,  according  to  the  previ- 
ouB  result,  a  longitudinal  motion  through  the  water  at  the  rate  of 
1  mile  per  hour  is  resisted  by  only  ^th  of  the  weight  of  the  por- 
tion of  cable  so  moving. 

Theae  concluBions  justify  remarkably  the  choice  that  was  made 
of  materials  and  dimenaions  for  the  1865  cable.  A  more  compact 
cable  (one  for  instance  with  lees  gutta  percha,  less  or  no  tow  round 
tfae  iron  wires,  and  somewhat  more  iron),  even  if  of  equal  strength  and 
eqnid  weight  per  mile  in  water,  would  have  experienced  less  trans- 
verse resistance  to  motion  through  the  water,  and  therefore  would 
have  run  down  a  much  steeper  slope  to  the  bottom.  Thus,  even 
with  the  same  longitudinal  friction  per  mile,  it  would  have  been 
lees  reeisted  on  the  shorter  lengthy  but  even  on  the  same  length 
it  wotdd  have  experienced  much  less  longitudinal  friction,  because 
of  its  smaller  circamfeience.  Also,  it  is  important  to  remark  that 
the  roughness  of  the  outer  tow  covering  undoubtedly  did  very 
much  to  ease  the  egress  strain,  as  it  must  have  increased  the  fluid 
friction  greatly  beyond  what  would  have  acted  on  a  smooth  gutta 
petcha  surface,  or  even  on  the  surface  of  smooth  iron  wires,  pre- 
sented by  the  more  common  form  of  submarine  cables. 

The  speaker  showed  models  illustrating  the  paying-ont  machines 
used  on  the  Atlantic  expeditions  of  1858  and  1865.  He  stated 
that  nothing  could  well  be  imagined  more  perfect  than  the  action 
of  the  machine  of  1865  in  paying  out  the  1200  miles  of  cable 
then  laid,  and  that  if  it  were  only  to  be  used  for  paying  otU,  no 
change  either  in  general  plan  or  in  detail  seemed  desirable,  except 
the  substitution  of  a  softer  material  for  the  "jockey  pulleys,"  by 
which  the  cable  in  entering  the  machine  has  the  small  amount  of 
resistance  applied  to  it  which  it  requires  to  keep  it  from  slipping 
round  the  main  drum.  The  rate  of  egress  of  the  cable  was  kept 
always  under  perfect  control  by  a  weighted  friction  brake  of  Appold's 
coDStruction  (which  had  proved  its  good  quality  in  the  1858  Atlan- 
tic expedition)  applied  to  a  second  drum  carried  on  the  same  ahaft 


DvGooglc 


500  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

with  the  main  drum.  When  the  weights  were  removed  from  the 
brake  (which  could  be  done  almoat  inetaDtaneuuely  b;  means  of  h 
simple  mechanism),  the  resistance  to  the  egress  of  the  cable,  pro- 
duced by  "jockey  pulleys,"  and  the  friction  at  the  bearings  of  the 
shart  carrying  the  main  drum,  Ac,  was  abont  2^  cwt. 

Procedure  to  Repair  the  Cable  in  cote  of  the  appearance  of  ait  electric 
fimlt  during  the  laying. 

In  the  event  of  a  fault  being  indicated  by  the  electric  test  st 
any  time  during  the  paying  out,  the  safe  and  proper  course  to 
be  followed  in  future  (as  proved  by  the  recent  experience),  if  the 
cable  is  of  the  same  construction  as  tho  present  Atlantic  cable, 
is  instantly,  on  order  given  from  an  authorised  officer  in  the  electric 
room,  to  stop  and  reverse  the  ship's  engines,  and  to  put  on  the 
greatest  <q/e  weight  on  the  paying-out  break.  Thus  in  the  conne 
of  a  very  short  time  the  egress  of  the  cable  may  be  stopped,  and, 
if  the  weather  is  moderate,  the  ship  may  be  kept,  by  proper  use  of 
paddles,  screw,  and  rudder,  nearly  enough  in  the  proper  poeitioa 
for  hours  to  allow  the  cable  to  hang  down  almost  vertically,  with 
little  more  strain  than  the  weight  of  the  length  of  it  between  the 
ship  and  the  bottom. 

The  best  electrio  testing  that  has  been  praotised  or  even  planned 
cannot  show  within  a  mile  the  position  of  a  fault  consisting  of  a 
slight  loss  of  insulation,  unless  both  ends  of  the  cable  are  at  hand. 
Whatever  its  character'  may  be,  unless  tho  electric  tests  demon- 
strate its  position  to  be  remote  from  the  outgoing  part,  the  only 
thing  that  can  be  done  to  find  whether  it  is  just  on  board  or  just 
overboard,  is  to  cut  the  cable  as  near  the  outgoing  part  as  the 
mechanical  circumstances  allow  to  be  safely  done.  The  electric 
test  immediately  transferred  to  the  ^esh-cut  seaward  end  shows  in- 
stantly if  the  line  is  perfect  between  it  and  the  shore-  A  few 
minutes  more,  and  the  electric  tests  applied  to  the  ttoo  endt  of  the 
remainder  on  board,  will,  in  skilful  bands,  with  a  proper  plan  of 
working,  show  very  closely  the  position  of  the  fault,  wlialever  ill 
character  may  lie.  The  engineers  will  thus  immediately  be  able  to 
make  proper  arrangements  for  resplicing  and  paying  out  good 
cable,  and  for  cutting  out  the  fault  f^om  the  bad  part. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinhwrgh,  Session  1865-66.  501 

Bnt  if  tlie  fault  is  between  the  laod  end  and  the  freelt-cnt  sea* 
vud  end  on  board  sltip,  proper  Bimnltaneone  electric  tests  on  board 
flhip  and  on  i>hore  (not  hitherto  practised,  bnt  easy  and  snre  if  pro- 
perly planned)  mnst  be  need  to  discover  whether  the  fault  lies  bo 
near  the  ship  that  the  right  thing  ie  to  hanl  back  the  cable  until  it 
ia  got  on  board.  If  it  is  so,  then  steam  power  mnst  be  applied  to 
reverse  the  payiog-ont  machine,  and,  by  caiefal  watching  of  the 
dynamometer,  and  controlling  the  power  accordingly  (hauling  in 
slowly,  stopping,  or  veering  out  a  little,  bnt  never  letting  the  dyoa- 
roometer  go  above  60  or  65  cwt.),  the  cable  (which  can  beai  7 
tons)  will  not  break,  and  the  fault  will  be  got  on  board  more 
rarely,  and  possibly  sooner,  than  a  "  snlky"aalmon  of  30  lbs.  can  be 
landed  by  an  expert  angler  with  a  line  and  rod  that  conld  not 
bear  10  Ibe.  The  speaker  remarked  that  be  was  entitled  to  make 
such  assertions  with  confidence  now,  becauae  the  experience  of  the 
late  expedition  had  not  only  verified  the  estimates  of  the  scientific 
committee  and  of  the  contractors  as  to  the  strength  of  the  cable, 
its  weight  in  water(whetherdeep  or  shallow),  and  its  mechanical 
manageability,  bnt  it  had  proved  that  in  moderate  weather  the 
Great  Eastern  could,  by  skilfnl  seamanship,  be  kept  in  position 
and  moved  in  the  manner  required.  She  had  actually  been  so 
for  thirty-eight  hours,  and  eighteen  hours  during  the  operations 
involved  in  the  hauling  bock  and  cutting  out  the  first  and  second 
faults,  and  reuniting  the  ci^Ie,  and  during  seven  hours  of  hauling 
in,  in  the  attempt  to  repair  the  third  fault. 

Should  the  simnllaneous  electric  testing  on  board  and  on  shore 
prove  the  fanlt  to  be  50  or  100  or  more  railee  from  the  ship,  it 
would  depend  on  the  character  of  the  fault,  the  season  of  the  year, 
and  the  means  and  appliances  on  board,  whether  it  would  be 
better  to  complete  tbe  line,  and  arterwarde,  if  necessary,  cut  out  the 
fault  and  repair,  or  to  go  back  at  once  and  cut  out  tbe  fault  be- 
fore attempting  to  complete  tbe  line.  Even  tbe  worst  of  these 
oontingenotes  would  not  be  fatal  to  the  undertaking  with  such  a 
cable  as  the  present  one.  But  all  experience  of  cable-laying  shows 
that  almost  certainly  the  fault  would  either  be  found  on  board,  < 
but  a  very  short  distance  overboard,  and  would  be  reached  and  cut 
out  with  scarcely  any  risk,  if  really  prompt  measures,  as  above  de- 
scribed, are  taken  at  the  instant  of  tbe  appearance  of  a  fault,-' 


DvGooglc 


-X 


502  Proceedings  of  the  Boyd  Society 

to  fitop  as  BOon  aa  possible  with  e^tety  the  further  egress  of  tbe 
cftble. 

Tbe  most  striking  port  of  the  Atlantic  andertaking  proposed  for 
1866,  is  that  b;  which  the  1200  miles  of  excelteDt  cable  laid  in 
1865  is  to  be  utilised  hj  completing  the  line  to  Newfonndlftnd. 

That  a  cable  lying  on  tbe  bottom  in  wkter  two  miles  deep  can 
be  oanght  by  a  grapnel  and  raised  several  bnndred  fathoms  above 
the  bottom,  was  amply  proved  by  the  eight  days'  work  which 
followed  the  breakage  of  the  cable  on  the  3d  of  August  last  Three 
times  out  of  four  that  the  grapnel  was  let  down,  it  caught  the 
cable,  on  each  occasion  after  a  few  hours  of  dragging,  and  with 
only  300  or  400  fathoms  more  of  rope  than  the  2100  required  to 
reach  the  bottom  by  the  shortest  oonTse.  Tbe  time  when  tbe  grap- 
nel did  not  hook  the  cable  it  came  np  with  (me  of  its  flukes  caught 
ronnd  by  its  chain-,  and  the  grapnel,  the  short  length  of  chain  next 
it,  and  about  200  fathoms  of  tbe  wire-rope,  were  proved  to  have  been 
dragged  along  the  bottom,  by  being  fonnd  when  brought  on  board 
to  have  interstices  filled  with  soft  light  gray  ooze  (of  which  the 
speaker  showed  a  specimen  to  the  Boyal  Society).  These  results 
are  quite  in  accordance  with  the  dynamioal  theory  indicated  above 
(see  Appendix  II.),  according  to  which  a  length  of  such  rope  as  tbe 
electric  cable,  hanging  down  with  no  weight  at  ita  lower  end,  and 
held  by  a  ship  moving  through  tbe  water  at  half  a  mile  an  hour, 
would  slope  down  to  the  bottomatananglefrom  the  vertical  of  only 
22° ;  and  the  much  heavier  and  denser  wire-rope  that  was  used  for 
the  grappling  would  go  down  at  the  same  angle  with  a  considerably 
more  rapid  motion  of  the  ship,  or  at  a  much  steeper  slope  with 
tbe  same  rate  of  motion  of  the  ship. 

The  onlyiemaining  question  is :  How  is  the  cable  to  be  brought 
to  the  surface  when  hooked  ?  Tbe  operations  of  last  August  failed 
from  the  available  rope,  tackle,  and  hauling  machine  not  being 
strong  enough  for  this  very  unexpected  work.  On  no  occasion  was 
the  electric  cable  broken.*    With  strong  enough  tackle,  and  a 

*  The  itTongest  tope  arsilable  wua  a  qnantjtj  of  rope  of  iron  wire  aDd 
hemp  Bpnn  togetlieT,  able  to  bear  11  tons,  vbich  waa  prepared  merelj  es  £iM>y- 
Tope  (to  provide  for  the  contingency  of  being  obliged,  by  streas  of  weather  or 
other  c»u»e,  to  oat  And  leave  tbe  cable  in  deep  or  shallow  water),  and  wm 
aceordingly  all  in  100  fathoma-lengtbe,  joined  b;  shacklet  with  switels.    Tke 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  18G5~^6.  50S 

hauling  machtoe,  both  etraug  euoughf  and  ander  perfect  contnd,  the 
liftisg  of  a  sobmarme  cable,  aa  good  in  meclianical  quality  as  the 
Atlantic  cable  of  1865,  b;  a  grapnel  or  grapnels,  from  tb«  bottoia 
at  a  depth  of  tvo  mJlee,  is  certainly  piaoticable.  If  one  attempt 
faib,  another  will  BQOceed ;  and  there  ia  every  reaaon,  from  dyoa- 
taics  as  well  as  from  the  1865  ezpe^enoe^  to  believe  that  in  any 
moderate  weather  the  feat  is  to  be  accomplished  with  little  delay, 
and  with  very  few  if  any  Cailing  attempts. 

The  several  plans  of  proceeding  that  have  been  proposed  are  of 
two  classes — those  in  which,  by  three  or  more  ships,  it  is  proposed 
to  bring  a  point  of  the  cable  to  the  surface  without  breaking  it  at 
all ;  and  those  in  which  it  is  to  be  cut  or  broken,  and  a  point  of  the 
cable  somewhat  eastward  from  the  break  is  to  be  brought  to  the 
surface. 

With  reference  to  either  class,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that,  by  lift- 
ing simultaneously  by  several  grapnels  so  constructed  as  to  hold 
the  cable  without  slipping  along  it  or  cutting  it,  it  is  possible  to 
bring  a  point  of  the  cable  to  the  surface  without  subjecting  it  to  any 
strain  amounting  to  the  weight  of  a  length  of  cable  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  water.  But  so  many  simultaneous  grapplings  by  ships  cross- 
ing the  line  of  cable  at  considerable  distances  from  one  another 
would  be  required,  that  this  possibility  is  scarcely  to  be  reckoned  on 
practically,  without  cutting  or  breaking  the  cable  at  a  point  west- 
ward of  the  points  raised  by  the  grapnels.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
bnt  three  ships  the  cable  might,  no  doubt,  be  brought  to  the  surface 
at  any  point  along  the  line,  without  outting  it,  and  without  subject- 
ing it  at  any  point  to  much  more  strain  than  the  weight  correspond- 
ing to  the  vertical  depth,  as  is  easily  seen  when  it  ia  considered  that 
tbe  cable  was  laid  generally  with  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  slack. 
And  if  the  cable  is  cut  at  some  point  not  far  westward  of  the 
westernmost  of  the  grapnels,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  it  could  be 
lifted  with  great  ease  by  throe  grapnels  hauled  up  simultaueonsly 
wire  and  hemp  tape  itsolf  never  biok^  but  on  two  of  tbe  three  ooragioDi  a 
ewivel  gave  waj.  On  the  last  occaaioo,  about  900  fntbomi  of  Manilla  rope 
had  to  be  lued  for  the  upper  part,  there  not  being  enough  of  tbe  wire  baoj- 
rope  left ;  and  when  700  fathoms  of  it  had  been  got  in,  it  broke  on  boitrd 
beside  a  ehacUe,  and  the  Temsining  200  fathoms  of  the  Manilla,  with  1540 
^thorns  of  wlte-rope  and  the  grapnel,  and  the  clcetric  cable  which  it  had 
booked,  were  all  lost  Sea  the  fear  186B. 

VOU  V.  So 


DvGooglc 


504  Proceedings  of  (Ae  Roycd  Society 

hy  three  shipa.  The  catenaries  coDcerned  in  these  operations  were 
illuetrated  hy  a  choio  with  16  pet  cent,  of  slack  banled  up  simul- 
taneoael;  at  three  points. 

The  plan  which  seemed  to  the  speaker  snrest  and  simplest  is  to 
cut  the  cable  at  any  chosen  point,  fai  enough  eastward  of  the  pre- 
sent broken  end  to  be  clear  .of  entanglement  of  lost  booy-rope, 
grapnels,  and  the  loose  end  of  the  electric  cable  itself;  and  then,  or 
as  soon  as  possible  after,  to  gnpple  and  lift  at  a  point  abont  three 
miles  farther  eastward.  This  could  be  well  and  safely  done  by  two 
ships,  one  of  them  with  a  cutting  grapnel,  and  the  other  (the  Great 
Eastern  hetself)  with  a  holding  grapnel.  The  latter,  on  hooking, 
should  haul  up  cautiously,  never  going  beyond  a  safe  strain,  as  shown 
by  the  dynamometer.  The  other,  when  assnied  that  the  Groat  Eastern 
has  the  cable,  should  haul  up,  at  first  cantiously,  but  nlttmately, 
when  the  cable  is  got  well  off  the  bottom  by  the  Great  Eastem,  the 
western  ship  should  move  slowly  eastwards,  and  haul  up  with  force 
enough  to  cut  or  break  the  cable.  This  leaves  throe  miles  of  &ee 
cable  on  the  western  aide  of  the  Great  Eastern's  grapnel,  which  will 
yield  freely  eastwards  (even  if  partly  lying  along  the  bottom  at 
first),  and  allow  the  Groat  Eastern  to  haul  up  and  work  slowly 
eastwards,  so  as  to  keep  its  grappling  rope,  and  therefore  olti- 
mately  the  portions  of  electrio  cable  hanging  down  on  the  two 
sides  of  its  grapnel,  as  nearly  vertical  as  is  necessary  to  make  sure 
work  of  getting  the  cable  on  board.  This  plan  was  illustrated  by 
lifting,  by  aid  of  two  grapnels,  a  very  fragile  chain  (a  common  brass 
chain  in  short  lengths,  joined  by  links  of  fine  cotton  thread)  tcotn 
the  floor  of  the  Boyal  Society.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  it  oan 
be  executed  by  one  ship  alone,  with  only  a  little  delay,  but  with 
scarcely  any  risk  of  failure.  Thus,  by  first  hooking  the  cable  by 
a  holding  grapnel,  and  hauling  it  up  200  or  SOO  fathoms  from 
the  bottom,  it  may  be  left  there  hanging  by  the  grapnel-rope  on 
a  buoy,  while  the  ship  proceeds  three  miles  westwards,  cuts  the 
cable  there,  and  roturne  to  the  buoy.  Then,  it  is  an  easy  matter,  in 
any  moderate  weather,  to  haul  up  safely  and  get  the  cable  on  board. 

The  use  of  the  dynamometer  in  dredging  was  explained  ;  and  the 
foroes  operating  on  the  ship,  the  conditions  of  weather,  and  the  - 
means  of  keeping  the  ship  in  proper  position  during  the  process  of 
slowly  hauling  in  a  cable,  even  if  it  were  of  strength  quite  insuffi- 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1866-66.  505 

oieot  to  act,  vhen  nearly  vertical,  with  an;  eensible  foree  on  the  ahip, 
were  diecnssed  at  some  length.  The  manageability  of  the  Great 
Eaatern,  in  skilful  hands,  had  been  proved  to  be  very  much  better 
than  could  have  been  expected,  and  to  be  emfflcient  for  the  require- 
menta  in  moderate  weather.  She  has  both  screw  and  paddles — an 
advantage  poBaeHSed  by  no  other  steamer  in  existence.  By  driving 
the  screw  at  full  power  ahead,  and  backing  the  paddles,  to  prevent 
the  ship  from  moving  ahead,  or  (should  the  screw  overpower  the 
paddles),  by  driving  the  paddles  full  power  astern,  and  driving  at 
the  same  time  the  screw  ahead  with  power  enough  to  prevent  the 
ship  from  going  aetem,  "  steerage  way "  is  created  by  the  lash  of 
water  from  the  screw  against  the  rudder;  and  thus  the  Great 
Eastern  may  be  effectually  steered  without  going  ahead.  Thus  she 
is,  in  calm  or  moderate  weather,  almost  as  manageable  as  a  small  tug 
steamer,  with  reversing  paddles,  or  as  a  rowing  boat.  She  can  be 
made  still  mere  manageable  than  she  proved  to  be  in  1865,  by 
arranging  to  disconnect  either  paddle  at  any  moment ;  which,  the 
speaker  was  informed  by  Mr  Canning,  may  easily  be  done. 

The  speaker  referred  to  a  letter  he  had  received  from  Mr  Can- 
ning, chief  engineer  of  the  Telegraph  Construction  and  Maintenance 
Company,  informing  him  that  it  is  intended  to  use  three  ships,  and 
to  be  provided  both  with  cutting  and  with  holding  grapnels,  and 
expressing  great  confidence  as  to  the  success  of  the  attempt.  In 
this  confidence  the  speaker  believed  every  practical  man  who  wit- 
nessed tbe  Atlantic  operations  of  1865  shared,  as  did  also,  to  his 
knowledge,  other  engineers  who  were  not  present  on  that  expedi- 
tion, but  who  were  well  acquainted  with  the  practice  of  cable-lay- 
ing and  mending  in  various  seas,  especially  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  more  be  thought  of  it  himself,  both  from  what  he  hod  wit- 
nessed on  board  the  Great  Eastern,  and  from  attempts  to  estimate 
on  dynamical  principles  tbe  forces  concerned,  the  more  confident  he 
felt  that  the  contractors  would  succeed  next  summer  in  ntilisitig 
the  cable  partly  laid  in  186S,  and  completing  it  into  an  electrically 
perfect  telegraphic  line  between  Yalencia  and  Newfoundland. 


DvGooglc 


506  Proceedings  of  the  Boytd  Society 

Afpendiz  L 

DeaeripiionB  of  the  Atlaniie  CtAUaof\S59  and  1865. 

(Difitanoe  &om  Ireland  to  Newfoundland,  1670  Nautical  Miles.) 

OU  AOmtic  Caih,  1858. 

CondvctoT. — A  copper  strand,  oonsteting  of  Bevmi  wires  (six  laid 
round  one),  and  weighing  107  lbs.  per  nautical  mile. 

Intulator. — Chitta  peroba  laid  on  in  three  coTeriogs,  and  weigh- 
ing 261  Iba.  per  knot. 

Eidemal  Protection. — Eighteen  strands  of  charcoal  iron  wire,  eooh 
strand  composed  of  seven  wires  (six  laid  round  one),  laid  spirally 
tonnd  the  core,  which  Utter  was  preyiously  padded  with  a  serring 
of  hemp  saturated  with  a  tar  mixture.  The  separate  wires  were 
each  22  gauge ;  the  stand  complete  was  No.  14  gauge. 

Circan^erence  (^Finished  CabUj  2  inches. 

Weight  in  Air,  20  cwt.  per  nautical  mile. 

Weight  in  Water,  134  cwt.  per  nautical  mile. 

Breaking  Strain,  3  tana  5  cwt.,  or  equal  to  4'85  times  the  cable's 
weight  iu  water  per  mile.  Hence  the  cable  would  bear  its  own 
weight  in  nearly  five  miles  depth  of  water,  or  2'05  times  the — 

Dtepett  Water  to  be  encountered,  2400  fathoms,  being  less  than 
2jt  nautical  miles, 

Leagff^ofCalle  Shipped,  2174  nautical  miles. 

New  Atlaniie  Cable,  1866. 

Conductor. — Copper  strand  consisting  of  seven  wires  (six  laid 
round  one),  and  weighing  300  lbs.  per  nautical  mile,  embedded  for 
solidity  in  Ghatterton's  compound.  Diameter  of  single  wire  -048  = 
ordinary  18  gauge.    Gauge  of  strand  -144  =  ordinary  No.  10  gauge. 

Jntvlation. — Gutta  peroha,  four  layers  of  which  ore  laid  on  alter- 
nately with  four  thin  layers  of  Ghatterton's  compound.  The  weight 
of  the  entire  insulation  400  lbs.  per  nautical  mile.  Diameter  of 
core  '464  of  an  inch ;  circumference  of  core  1*46  inches. 

External  Protection. — Ten  solid  wires  of  diameter  '095  (No.  13 
gauge)  drawn  from  Webster  and  HorsfoU's  homogeneous  iron, 
^caoh  wire  surrounded  separately  with  five  strands  of  Manilla  yam, 
saK^nrated  with  a  preservative  compound,  and  the  whole  laid  spirally 


DvGooglc 


o/BdirUmrgh,  Semon  1865-66.  507 

ronitd  the  core,  which  latter  is  padded  with  ordiDarjr  hemp,  aatn- 
rated  with  preeervatiTe  mixtare. 

Circuti^trmee  ofFiniihtd  CaJth,  3*534  iDchee. 

Wei^  in  Air,  35  cwt.  3  qre.  pet  natitical  mile. 

Weight  in  Water,  14  cwt.  per  nantical  mile. 

Breaking  Strain,  7  tons  15  cwt.,  or  equal  to  eleyen  times  the 
cable's  weight  in  water  per  mile.  Hence  the  cable  will  bear  He 
own  weight  in  eleven  milea  depth  of  water,  or  464  times  th&— 

Deepest  Water  to  be  enconntered,  2400  fathoms,  or  lees  tlian  2^ 
nantical  miles. 

Lengffi  o/Cahk  Shipped,  2300  nautical  miles. 


Let  W  be  the  weight  of  the  cable  per  unit  of  its  length  in  water ; 
T  the  force  with  which  the  cable  is  held  hack  at  the  point  where 
it  reaches  the  water  (which  may  be  practically  regarded  as  equal 
to  the  force  with  which  its  egress  from  the  ship  is  resisted  by  the 
paying-out  machinery,  the  difference  amounting  only  to  the  weight 
in  air  of  a  piece  of  cable  equal  in  length  to  the  height  of  the  stem 
pulley  ahoTO  the  water) ;  F  and  Q  the  transrerse  and  longitudinal  • 
oomponenls  of  the  force  of  frictional  resistance  experienced  by  tbe 
cable  in  passing  through  the  water  from  surface  to  bottom ;  *  the 
ioolioation  of  its  line  to  the  horizon ;  D  the  depth  of  the  water. 

The  whole  Jength  of  cable  from  surface  to  bottom  will  be  -■ — > ; 

and  the  transverse  and  longitudinal  components  of  the  weight  of 

this  portion  are  therefore  ~ — fioe  i,  and  WD  respectirely.    These 

are  balanced  by  P  ^—5  and  T  +  Q  -j— j- 


,=(W-5)sin.- (1.) 


P  =  Wco«t,  Q: 

To  find  tbe  corresponding  components  of  the  velocity  of  the 
cable  through  the  water,  which  we  shall  denote  by  p  and  q,  we 
have  only  to  remark  that  the  actual  velocity  of  any  portion  of  the 
cable  in  the  water  may  be  regarded  aa  the  resultant  of  two  velooi- 


DvGooglc 


d08  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

ties, — one  equal  and  parallel  to  thai  of  tlie  ship  forward*,  and  the 
other  obliquely  dovDwarde  along  the  line  of  the  cable,  eqnal  to 
that  of  the  paying  out,  obliquely  downwards  along  the  line  of  the 
cable  (since  if  the  cable  were  not  paid  out,  bnt  simply  diagged, 
while  by  any  means  kept  in  a  straight  line  at  any  constant  incli- 
nation, its  motion  would  be  simply  that  of  the  ship).  Hence,  ifv 
be  the  ship's  velocity,  and  u  the  velocity  at  which  the  cable  is  paid 
out  from  the  ship,  ve  have 

p>=vBiii«,  2=M-wcos»       ....    (2.) 
Kow,  as  probably  an  approximate,  and  theieforo  practically  use- 
ful, bypothesia,  we  may  suppose  each  component  of  fluid  fHction  to 
depend  solely  on  the  corresponding  component  of  the  fluid  veloci^, 
and  to  be  proportional  to  its  square.    Thus  we  may  take 

p_W^„      Q-W^ (3.) 

whera  ;p  and  (  denote  the  velocities,  transreise  and  longitudinal, 
which  would  f^ve  frictions  amounting  to  the  weight  of  the  cable ; 
or,  as  we  may  call  them,  the  transrerse  and  longitudinal  »ettling 
vtloeitiea.  We  may  use  these  equations  merely  as  introducing  a 
convenient  piece  of  notation  for  the  components  of  fluid  friction, 
withont  assuming  any  hypothesis,  if  we  regard  p  and  q  as  each 
some  unknown  function  of  p  and  {.  It  is  probable  that  p  depends 
to  some  degree  on  q,  although  chiefly  on  p ;  and  vice  vena,  q  to 
some  degree  on  p,  hat  chiefly  on  q.  It  is  almost  certain,  however, 
from  experiments  such  as  those  described  in  "Beanfoy's  Nautical 
Experiments,"  that  ]l  and  Q  are  each  wry  nearly  constant  for  all 
practical  velocities. 
Eliminating  p  and  q  between  (1),  (2),  and  (3),  we  have 

which  gives 


(WD-T)sint=Wl/"~"T'*y  .     . 
which  gives 


y{WD-T)sin« 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  509 

These  formn1»  apply  to  every  case  of  naifonu  towing  of  a  rope 
under  water,  or  hauling  in,  or  paying  out,  whether  the  lower  end 
reaches  the  bottom  oi  not,  provided  always  the  lower  end  is  free 
from  teaaion;  bnt  if  it  is  not  on  the  bottom,  D  must  must  denote 
its  vertical  depth  at  any  moment,  instead  pf  the  whole  depth  of  the 
sea.  To  apply  to  the  sase  of  merely  towing,  we  must  put  u  =  0 ;  or, 
to  apply  to  haaling  in,  we  must  suppose  u  negative. 

It  is  to  he  remarked  that  the  inclination  assumed  by  the  6able 
under  water  does  not  depend  on  its  longitudinal  slip  through  the 
water  (since  we  assume  this  not  to  infloence  the  transverse  com- 
ponent of  fluid  friction),  and  that,  according  to  equation  (4),  it  is 
simply  deteimioed  by  the  ratio  of  the  ship's  speed  to  the  transverse 
"  settling  velocity"  of  the  cable. 

The  following  table  shows  the  ratio  of  the  ship's  speed  to  the 
"  transverse  settling  velocity"  of  the  cable  for  various  degrees  of 
inclination  of  the  cable  to  the  horizon : — 


BMIo  of  sup-)  SpHKl 

aiifttiiitUf" 


1.) 
I  ) 


so 

85 

to 


11-4518 
84784 


1-8612 
1-6779 


BMOBctaujfiafMi 


46- 
60 
51^60' 


If  the  inclination  of  tbe  cable  had  been  exactly  6°  46'  when  the 
speed  of  tbe  Grreat  Eastern  was  exactly  6|  mUes  pel  hour,  the  value 
of  9  for  tbe  Atlantic  cable  of  1666  would  be  exactly  6}  -h  8  478,  or 
-765  of  a  mile  per  hoar. 


ovGooglc 


610  Proceedttiga  ofiho  Boyal  Society 

Tbe  following  CommniiicaUoiis  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Dynamical  Theory  of  Heat    Part  VII.    By 
ProfeBsor  W.  Thomson. 

This  paper  oommenceii  with  &  condeneed  re-atstemeDt  of  the 
fundamental  principlee  and  formula  of  the  Djaamical  Theory  of 
Heat,  from  the  first  aix  parts  of  the  author's  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject pievioiiBly  communicated  to  the  Bo;bI  Society  of  Edinbui^h, 
and  his  articles  "On  the  Therrao-elaatio  Properties  of  Matter," 
in  the  "  Quarterly  Mathematical  Joninal "  (April  1S55),  and 
on  "  Thermo- magnetism,"  and  "  Thermo-electricity,"  in  Nichol's 
Cyclopedia  (Edinburgh  1860). 

The  chief  object  of  the  paper  is  the  deduction  of  nmneiical 
T^uea  in  absolute  measure  for  the  thermo-electric  efTects  which 
form  the  subject  of  Fart  YI.  of  thia  series  ("  Traneactione  of  the 
Eoyal  Society  of  Edinburgh,"  1854;  and  "  Phil.  Mag."  1854,  second 
half  year,  and  1855,  first  half  year),  especially  for  differences  of 
temperature  produced  by  electric  convection  of  heat,  and  for  the 
changes  of  temperature  due  to  strain  in  elastic  solids,  inveetigated  in 
the  article  on  therm o-etastic  properties  of  matter  above  referred  to. 
The  very  valuable  results,  recently  published,  of  tbe  experiments  of 
Forbes  and  AngGtriim  for  determining  in  absolute  measnre  tbe 
thermal  conductivities  of  iron  and  copper,  supply  a  very  important 
element,  previously  wanting,  for  definite  estimates  of  those  changes 
of  temperatnie,  and  are  taken  advantage  of  in  tbe  present  paper. 
Thus,  the  author  has  been  enabled  to  give  that  practical  character 
to  some  of  bis  former  conclusions,  of  which,  when  they  were  first 
published,  he  pointed  out  the  want.  In  particular,  with  reference 
to  elastic  solids,  the  apparent  value  of  Young's  modulus  *  when 
the  stress  is  applied  and  removed,  or  reversed  so  rapidly  that  the 
loss  of  thermal  effect  by  conduction  and  radiation  ia  insensible,  is 
proved  to  be  given  by  the  following  formula : — 

■  Tlie  amount  of  tlie  force  dEvided  hy  the  elongatfon  produced  by  it,  wlwn 
any  force  within  prncticol  limits  of  dutioitj  is  applied  to  elongate  a  bar  rod 
or  wire,  of  the  iubatance,  one  Bqnare  centimetre  in  eection. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  5U 

where  U  deaotes  tbe  Young'a  modalus  of  the  sahatance  for  con- 
stant temp«ratnre,  a  its  B]ieciBc  heat  (per  UDit  masa,  as  uanal),  e 
its  longitudinal  (linear)  expansion  per  degree  of  elevation  of  tem- 
perature, p  itB  density  or  specific  gravity,*  and  ( its  actual  tempera- 
ture from  absolute  zero  ("  Dynamical  Theory  of  Heat,"  Part  VI., 
j  100),  that  is,  temperature  centigrade  with  274  added.  Of  course, 
if  M  ia  reckoned  ("  Thomaon  and  Tail's  Natural  FhiloBophy," 
§§220,221,  238),  in  gravitation  meaaure  (weight  of  one  gnonme,  the 
unit  of  mass),  J  must  be  reckoned  in  gravitation  measure  (gnuninfle 
weight  working  through  one  centimetre),  in  which  oaee  ita  numeri- 
cal value  is  42,400,  being  Joule's  number  (1390),  reduced  from  feet 
to  centimetres.  Values  of  surface  resistance  to  gain  orloaa  of  heat 
in  absolute  measure,  derived  from  experiments  by  the  author,  are 
naed  to  estimate  the  effect  of  radiation  and  convection  in  dissi- 
pating energy  in  virtue  of  the  thermo-dynamic  change  of  tem- 
perature in  a  rod  executing  longitudinal  vibrations.  The  vebcity 
of  propagation  of  longitudinal  vibrations  (as  in  the  transmission  of 
sound  along  a  bar)  being  equal  to  the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body 
in  falling  through  a  height  equal  to  half  the  "length  of  the 
modaluB,"t  is,  of  course,  half  as  mnch  afiected  as  the  modulus,  by 
ehanges  of  temperature.  In  iron,  for  instance,  the  effect  of  change 
of  temperature,  when  there  is  no  dissipation,  is  an  increase  of  about 
one-third  per  cent,  on  the  Toung's  modulus,  and  of  about  one- 
aixth  per  cent,  on  the  velocity  of  sound  along  a  bar.  The  effect  of 
the  conduction  of  heat  in  diminishing  the  differences  of  tempera- 
ture in  a  rectangular  bar  executing  flexural  vibratians,  is  investi- 
gated from  the  solution  invented  by  Fourier  for  expressing  periodi- 
cal variations  of  underground  temperature.  Its  absolute  amount 
for  bars  of  iron  or  copper,  of  stated  dimensions,  vibrating  in  stated 
periods,  is  determined  from  Forbes'  and  Angstrom's  conductivities. 
It  is  proved  that  the  loss  of  energy  due  to  this  effect  at  its  maximum 
is  not  by  any  means  insensible,  though  it  is  not  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  whole  loss  of  energy  which  the  author  has  found  in  experi* 

*  Which,  when  the  French  syatom  (unit  bulk  of  water  bai&g  of  mus  unit;] 
it  followed,  mean  the  same  thing 

t  The  "  length  of  the  modulue  "  ia  M^^ ,  ir  M  bo  the  nodulue  in  graniiues 
w«ight    per   equare   cvnUiiietre.-~-rAoin*on    and   Tatl'x   Natun^   P&Uomphff, 

eeea. 
von.  T.  3  X 


j.Googlc 


£12  Prooeedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

meats  on  flexural  vibrations  of  metal  Bprings,  which  therefore 
prove  imperfectnesB  in  the  elasticity  of  flexore,  sach  as  he  had 
proTiousIy  proved  for  the  elasticity  of  toision.* 


2.  The  "  Doctrine  of  Uniformity  '  iu  Geology  briefly 
refuted.    By  Professor  William  ThomsoTi. 

The  "  Doctrine  of  Uniformity  "  in  Geology,  as  held  by  many  of 
ttie  most  eminent  of  British  Geolc^ts,  assumes  that  the  earth's 
surface  and  npper  cmst  have  been  nearly  as  they  are  at  present 
in  temperatnre,  and  other  physical  qualities,  during  millions  of 
millions  of  years.  But  the  heat  which  we  know,  by  obeervaticm, 
to  he  now  conducted  out  of  the  earth  yearly  is  so  great,  that  if  thu 
action  had  been  going  on  with  any  approach  to  uniformity  for 
20,000  million  years,  the  amount  of  heat  lost  out  of  the  earth 
would  have  been  about  as  much  as  would  heat,  by  100°  Gent.,  a 
quantity  of  ordinary  surface  nx^  of  100  times  the  earth's  bulk. 
(See  calculation  appended.)  This  would  he  more  than  enough  to 
melt  a  mass  of  surface  rook  equal  in  hulk  to  the  w&ole  eartk. 
No  hypothesis  as  to  chemical  action,  internal  flnidity,  effects  of 
piesBUie  at  great  depth,  or  possible  character  of  sabHtanceB  in  tha 
interior  of  the  earth,  possesaing  the  smallest  vestige  of  probability, 
can  justify  the  supposition  that  the  earth's  npper  crust  has  re- 
mained nearly  as  it  is,  while  from  the  whole,  or  from  any  part,  of 
the  earth,  so  great  a  quantity  of  heat  has  been  lost. 


AppxNniz. 
EUiinate  {/present  annual  lota  of  heat  from  th«  tarOi. 

Let  A  be  the  area  of  the  earth's  smface,  D  the  increase  of  depth 
in  any  locality  for  which  the  temperature  incieases  by  1°  Cent^ 
and  k  the  conductivity  per  annnm  of  the  strata  in  the  same  locality. 
The  heat  conducted  out  per  annum  per  square  foot  of  surface  in 
that  locality  is  _-.     Hence,  if  we  give  k  and  D  proper  average 

•  P[oe«eciinga  of  the  Rojal  Societj  of  LondoD,  May  1866.— IT  Thmton, 
••On  III*  ElattKil]/ and  VueotUy  of  MUaU." 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  513 

Taloes  for  the  vIio]e  upper  crust  of  the  earth,  the  quantity  con- 
ducted out  across  the  whole  earth's  surface  per  annum  will  be  ^  • 
The  halk  of  a  aphere  being  its  surface  multiplied  b;  ^  of  its  radius, 
the  thermal  capacity  of  a  mass  of  rook  equal  in  bulk  to  the  earth, 

and  of  specific  heat «  per  unit  of  bulk  is  ^  An.   Hence  j^   is  the 

elevation  of  temperature  which  a  quantity  of  heat  equal  to  that 
lost  from  the  earth  in  a  year,  wonld  produce  in  a  mass  of  rock 
equal  in  bulk  to  the  whole  earth.  The  laboratory  ezperimenta  of 
Feolet ;  Observations  on  Underground  Temperature  in  three  kinds 
of  lock  in  and  near  Edinburgh,  by  Forbes ;  in  two  Swedish  strata, 
by  Angstriim,  and  at  the  Boyal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  give  values 
of  the  conductivity  in  gramme-water  units  of  heat  per  square 
centimetre,  per  1"  pet  centimetre  of  variation  of  temperature,  per 
«econd,  from  -002  (marble,  Peclet)  to  '0107  (sandstone  of  Craigleith 
quarry,  Forbes) ;  and  '005  may  be  taken  as  a  rough  average. 
Hence,  as  there  are  31,537,600  seconds  in  a  year,  we  have  k=  '006 
X  31,537,600,  or  approximately  15  x  10*.  The  thermal  capacity  of 
surface  rock  is  somewhere  about  half  that  of  eqnal  bulk  of  water ;  so 
that  we  may  take  »^-5.  And  the  increase  of  temperature  down- 
wards may  be  taken  as  roughly  averaging  1°  Cent,  per  30  metres ; 
so,  that,  I>E=3000  centimetres.  Lastly,  the  earth's  quadrant  being 
according  to  the  first  foundation  of  the  French  metrical  system, 
about  10*  centimetres,  we  may  take,  in  a  rough  estimate  such  as 
the  present,  r=6}cl0' centimetres.    Hence, 

3t  3  X 15  X 10'  30  X 10*      5 

Drt-3000x6xl0'x-6*10"x6  -10' 

This,  multiplied  by  20,000  x  10*,  amounts  to  10,000,  or  to  100  times 

as  much  heat  as  would  warm  100  times  the  earth's  bulk  of  surface 

rock  by  1°  Cent. 

3.  Note  on  the  Atomicitj  of  Sulphur.    By  Dr  Alexander 

Gram  Brown, 

We  now  know  a  considerable  number  of  elements  which  exhibit, 

in  their  compounds,  two  or  more  distinct  degrees  of  atomicity. 

Thus  we  have  N  triatomic  in  ammonia  and  its  analognes,  in 


DvGooglc 


514  Prooeedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

□itioue  aeid,  the  nitiitee  and  the  nitroBO-snbBtitntioti  products; 
peDt&tomiGin  the  ammonia  Balte,  in  Ditricacid,  and  themtro-subeti- 
tution  piodncta.  P  triatomic  in  PHg,  PCl^,  phoBphoroua  acid,  and 
the  phoaphiteai  pentatomic  in  PCI,,  POCI^,  H,PO„  HPOj,  &c.; 
G  diatomic  in  CO,  and  tetratomic  in  almost  all  other  componnds; 
a  large  number  of  aach  exampleB  might  be  adduced,  but  these  may 
suffice. 

So  chemist,  however,  as  far  as  I  kuow,  except  Eolbe  and 
V.  Oefele  has  assumed  a  ximilar  variety  iu  the  atomicity  of  sulphur. 
I  had  long  suspected  that  such  a  variable  atomicity  must  be  attri- 
buted to  sulphur,  but  the  remarkable  discoveries  of  v.  Oefele  have 
to  my  mind  placed  it  beyond  a  doubt.  Indeed,  so  strong  does  the 
evidence  appear  to  me,  that  I  should  not  have  thought  it  necessary 
to  trouble  the  Society  with  this  note,  had  I  not  observed  that 
some  of  our  moat  emiuent  theoretical  chemists,  as  Hofmaun  and 
Foster,  still  represent  S  as  diatomic  in  such  componuds  as  30,  and 
Hj  SOf.  I  have  therefore  gathered  together  what  seem  the  most 
cogent  arguments  in  favour  of  the  variable  atomicity  of  sulphur. 

That  S  is  diatomic  in  HjS  and  the  corresponding  metallic  sul- 
phides, in  the  mercaptans  and  alky  1-suIpb ides,  is  quite  obvious,  and 
is  admitted  by  all.  I  need  therefore  spend  no  time  on  this  part 
of  the  subject.  Let  us  then  turn  to  those  compounds  in  which 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  tetratomic  enlphur. 
These  are  S0„  SO  Cl„  M^SO,,  S(C,HJJ,  and  its  derivatives.  The 
latter  series  of  substances  discovered  by  v,  Oefele  seem  to  me  quite 
inesplicable,  except  by  the  assumption  of  tetratomic  sulphur,  and 
I  have  never  seen  an  attempt  to  explain  their  constitution  in  any 
other  way.*  But  even  leaving  them  out  of  the  question,  the  most 
natural  explanation  of  the  constitution  of  SO,  and  M,SO,  is,  that 
their  sulphur  atom  is  tetratomic.  Fonnulae  can,  indeed,  be  con- 
structed with  diatomic  sulphur,  which  represent  the  coffiponttom  of 
these  bodies;  but  if  we  examine  these  formulce  we  easily  see  that 

'  Wurtz,  in  a  aot«  to  a  paper  by  t.  Oefela  on  "  Diethyl  Snlphsn  "  in  tbe 
Bulletin  de  la  SocJ£l£  Chimtque  de  Paris  for  Febraary  18S6,  formulates  tbat 
among  other  snlplinr  compODnds  on  the  aBsumptiou  of  diatomic  Bulphnr.  But 
it  must  he  remembered  that  this  body  (C,H,)jSOj,  coctaing  in  the  raoleinilo 
only  two  monad  radicaU,  so  that  it  tnkcs  ita  place  beside  chloride  of  sulpboryl 
mthcr  than  in  the  BorieH,  sincD  discovered  by  t.  Oefele,  of  which  the  stuiing- 
IHiint  is  th«  iodide  of  Methyl  salphiu  8(C,lIJjI. 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinbtt7-gk,  Session  1866-66.  51$ 

thfljr  are  id  matij  points  of  view  forced  and  uuDatural ;  io  other 
words,  that  they  are  not  what  an  unbiased  considoration  of  the 
compofiitiou  and  properties  of  the  substances  would  naturally  lead 
to.  This  is  still  more  the  case  with  those  BubBtances  in  which  the 
sulphur  appears  to  be  hexatomic.  These  aie  SO,,  Iff^O,,  M^0„ 
and  the  numerous  derivatives  of  H^SO^,  which  contain  (SOJ*;  aB 
these  bodies,  like  the  sulphites,  contain,  in  the  molecule,  only  two 
monad  atoms,  it. is,  of  course,  ■pouible  to  reprasent  tbeir  composi- 
tioD  by  formnlfe  containing  diatomic  sulphur.*    Thus — 


^ 


®-©-®-©-eH9 


Sulphnroiu  Anhydride.  Sulphite.  Solpbaria  Anhjdride. 

eK3-®-<!)-€H»)-®,fa- 

Sulphate. 
Examining  these  fonnulfe  we  find  that  these  stable  suhstances 
have  some  of  the  oxygen  equivalents  saturated  by  oxygen  ;  this 
is,  of  course,  possible ;  indeed  we  know  bodies  such  as  H,0„  BaO,, 
Ag,0„  Brodie's  peroxides,  &c.,  in  which  this  arrangement  is  pro- 
bable ;  but  all  these  bodies  are  remarkable  for  instability,  and  for 
the  readiness  with  which  they  lose  oxygen.  They  present  ab- 
Bolntely  DO  points  of  resemblance  to  the  substances  we  are  dow 
considering.  The  striking  analogy  of  SO,  and  SO,  to  CO  aod  CO, 
also  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  former  is  S"0,  and  the  latter 
S''0„  and  that  in  both  of  them  all  the  oxygen  is  combined  with 
salphur.  If  we  accept  this  view,  end  follow  out  the  analogy 
between  the  carbon  aud  the  sulphnr  compounds,  we  get  a  simple 
explanation  of  many  relations  otherwise  difBcnlt  to  be  understood. 
For  instance,  hypo -sulphuric  acid  obviously  stands  in  the  same 
relation  to  sulphurous  anhydride  and  sulphuric  acid  as  oxalic  acid 

*  I  use  here,  for  the  pnrpoee  of  Tepteseuting  the  chemical  etmcture  of 
moleculea,  the  graphic  method  which  1  first  introduced  in  my  thesis  pre- 
sented to  the  Medical  Faculty  of  the  nniveraity  in  1861,  and  which  I  have 
mora  than  once  employed  in  papers  read  before  this  Society.  I  am  happy  to 
oboerve  that  its  advaulagcs  are  appreciated  by  others,  Dr  Hofmann,  for  in- 
stance, using  a  system  almost  identical  in  his  lacturo  delivered  before  the 
Koyal  Institntiun  on  thu  Tth  of  April  of  thin  year. 


j.Googlc 


516  Proceedings  of  the  BoycU  Sodely 

does  to  carbonic  oxide  and  catbonic  acid ;  and  the  manner  in  which 
hypo-sulphniic  acid  is  fonned  by  the  reaction  of  SDlphnrous  acid 
on  peroxide  of  manganeae  further  confinns  this  view  of  its  con- 
etitatioD.    This  reaction  may  be  represented  thus — 


Before  the  reoction- 
Bo  that  hypo-Bulphnric  acid  is 


just  as  oxalic  acid  is 


By  means  of  the  same  assumption  we  get  a  simple  explanation 
of  the  relations  of  the  sulphites  to  sulphatea,  and  to  hypo- sulphites. 
Thus— 

)-®-®  ©-0-GHi)  a:0-(iH9 


o/Edinburgh,  Seaaum  1865-66.  517 

The  two  latter  bodies  bein^  respectively  the  oxide  and  the  sulphide 
of  the  former,  as  their  formatioji  and  decom  posit  ion  indicate.  It 
wontd  be  easy  to  give  a  much  larger  number  of  examples,  but 
these  are  sufficient  to  show  the  way  in  which  this  view  of  the 
atomioity  of  sulphur  may  be  applied  to  expluD  the  couatitntion 
of  its  compounds. 


4.  Note  on  a  paper  by  Balfonr  Stewart,  Esq.,  in  the  Trane- 
actions  of  tiie  Royal  Society  of  Edioburgh,  by  I.  Tod- 
hantei,  Esq.,  M.A.,  St  Joba's  College,  Cambridge.  Com- 
maoicated  by  FrofeBsor  Tait. 

In  Yolume  XXI.  of  tbe  Transactions  of  tbe  Boyal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  pages  407-409,  a  proposition  in  tbe  Theory  of  Numbers 
is  demonstrated.  The  proposition  may  be  extended,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  demonstration  simplified.  I  propose  to  establish 
the  following  result : — Let  1,  «,  ft  y,  .  .  .  /*,  be  tbe  n  roots  of 
the  equation 

^-1=0 (1.) 

then,  will 

(l-0(l-!.)(l-«)(l-<y)    .    .    .    Cl-'ri-l-l-     (2) 
where  ( is  any  quantity. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  term  independent  of  ( on  the  left-band 
side  of  (2)  is  unity.  Consider  any  other  term, — for  example,  that 
involving  ^;  the  coeEQcient  of  this  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  every  three  of  the  quantities  1,  a,  /3,  y,  .  ,  .ft,  with 
the  sign  changed ;  and  from  (1)  we  know  that  this  sum  is  zero. 
In  this  way  (2)  is  established. 

It  is  known  that  if  n  he  a  prime  number,  the  quantities  a,  ft 
y,  .  ,  ,  fi,  may  be  expressed  as  the  powers  of  any  one  of  them  ; 
for  example,  as  a,  a',  a'  ,  .  a*"'.  And  if  n  he  not  a  prime 
number,  tbey  may  be  expressed  as  powers  of  some  of  them. 

Divide  both  sides  of  (2.)  by  1  - 1 ;  thus— 
(l'ai)0.-pt)(l-yl)   .  ,   .  (l-p()=l  +  *  +  f+    ■     ■     ■    +t^~'- 
In  this  result,  suppose  t=  1 ;  then  we  obtain 

(l-«)(l-;3)(l-y)     .      .     (!-;<)  =  «. 


j.Googlc 


518  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

This  \%  the  FropositioD  established  in  Vohimo  XXI. 

[Sir  Tod  hunter's  elegant  demonstration  may  be  farther  BtoipliEed, 
thus, — we  have  for  all  valaes  of  x, 

.c-l=(.-l)(.-.)(.-ffl    .    .  .  («-rt. 

From  this 

a-- '+0!— *+.    .    .   +1  +  l  =  (a:-a)(a;-ft  .     .     .  (i-f.) 

or,  putting  a:  =  1 

n  =  Cl-«)(l-/3)    .    .     .    (1-i*). 

P.  G.  T.J 

At  the  Meeting  on  Ith  December,  the  following  Gentle- 
men were  elected  Honorary  Fellows  of  the  Society : — 

I.  FOREIGN. 
Anoblo  Sicchi,  ObttTvatory,  Bamt. 

ir.  BEITISH. 
Lieut.-Oeneial  Edwabd  B&diki.  R.A,,  PraiideM  oflht  Boyal  Sadrly 

of  London. 
Chableb  Dauwih,  Esq.,  UA.,  Boon,  BromUg,  Kent. 
AbtBub  Cavlet,  Esq.,  Pre/euar  of  Malhematia,  Cambridge. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  elected  Ordinwy  Fellows 
at  the  Meeting  of  18th  December : — 

The  Right  Rev.  Bibbof  Hobbbll.  < 

WibUAH  BuiKO.  Esq.,  Glaagoif. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Proceedings  and  Transactions  of  the   Nova  Scotia  Institute  of 

Natural  Science.     Vol.  II.  Part  3.     Halifax,  1865.     8to.— 

From  the  Inttilnle. 
Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions.    Vol.  XL VIII.    London,  1865- 

8vo. — From  the  Royal  Medifo-Chirurgieal  Society. 
Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Sooiety.     Vol.  XXI.     Part  4. 

London,  1865.     Svo.—From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  London.     Vol.  XIV.  No.  78. 

8to, — From  the  Society. 
The  Canadian  Joiirual  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.     Vo.  49. 

Toronto,  1865.     8»o.— From  the  EAitort. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinhurtjh,  Session  1865-66.  519 

JonrDal  of  the  Chemical  SooJetjr,  London.     No.  3fi.    8to. — From 

the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Linnean  Society  (Zoology).  VoL 

VIII.    Nob.  31-32.    London,  1865.    8vo.— fVom  the  Society. 
Memoire  of  the   Boyal   Astronomic&l  Society.      Vol.   XXXIII. 

London,  1865.     4to, — From  the  Society. 
Besearches  on  Solar  Fhysica.   By  Warren  de  la  Bue,  Esq.,  Balfour 

Stewart,  Esq.,  and  Benjamin  Loewy,  Esq.  London,  1865.  4to, 

— From  the  Auttiori. 
Thirty-Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Council  of  the  Boyal  Soottish 

Academy.    Ediuhorgh,  1865.    Svo. — From  the  Academtf. 
Monthly  Betnm  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uarriagea  registered  in 

the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland,  Novemher  1865.  6to. 

— From  the  Begiitrwr-Qeneral. 
Uemoires  de  1' Academic  Imp6riale  dea  Sciences  de  St.  FeterBbonrg. 

VII*  Serie.    Tome  VII.,  Tome  VIII.    4to.— JWm  ih»  Aca- 
demy. 
Bulletin  de  I'Acad^mie  Imp£riale  des  Sciences,  de  St  Petersbourg. 

Tome  yil.  Nob.  3-6 ;  Tome  VIII.   4to.— fVwt  the  Academy. 
Noiges  Mynter  i  Uiddelalderen,  samledeog  beakrevne  af  C.I. 

Schive.    Sjette  Hefte,  Femte  Hefte.    Christiania,  1865.    fol. 

— From  the  Boyal  University  o/Nonoay. 
Nyt  Uagazin  for  Ifaturvidenskabeme.     Trettende  Binds,  Fjerde 

Hefte ;  Fjorteade  Binda,  Forste  Hefte.    ObriBtiania,  1864r^. 

8vo. — From  the  Royal  University  o/Nomiay. 
Norgee  FerslvandskrebsdyT  Forsted  afsnit  Branchiopoda,  i  Cladocera 

otenopoda,  af  Georg  Osaian  Sars.   Christiania,  1865.  4to. — 

From  the  Boyal  University  of  Norway. 
Om  de  i  Norge  Forskommende  Fossile  Dyrelevninger  fra  Quartsr 

perioden,  et  Bidrag  til  vor  Faunas  Historie,  af  Dr  Sars.    Chris- 
tiania, 1865.  4to. — From  the  Royal  Univertity  of  Norway. 
Heteorologische  Beobacbtungen ;    aufgezeicbnet   auf  Christiania 

Observatorium.    Band  I.    1837-63.    Christiania,  1865.    4to. 

—From  the  Boyal  University  of  Norway. 
Heteorologiske  lagttagelser  paa,  Christiania  Observatorinm,  1864. 

4to. — From  ihe  Boyal  University  ofNortoay. 
Flateyjarbok  en  samling  af  Norske  Xonge-aagaer  med  imdskndte 

mindre  fortallinger  om  begivenheder  i  og  ndenfor  Norge  Samt 

TOL.  T.  3  T 


,,.,  Google 


520  Froceedinge  of  the  Boyai  Society 

ADnaler,  III.  Binds,  1  Hefte.   ChriBtiaaia,  1865.   Svo.—From 

the  Boyal  Univertily  ofNorviay. 
Det  EoDgelige  Noreke  VidenekaberB-selBkabs  Skrirten  det  IS* 

Aarhundrede,  V.  Binde,  1  Hefte.    Throodhjem,  18C5,    8vo.— 

.From  Oie  Boyal  Univernty  ofNorvtay. 
Gaver  til  det  Egl.  Noreke  UniTerHiteta  i  Cbristiania.    8vo. — Fnm 

the  Bot/al  Univertity  of  Norway. 
Det  Kongl.  Norote  Frederiks  Univeraiteta  Aaraberetning  for  Aaret 

1863.    Christiania,  1865.    Svo.— /Vom  the  Bm/al  Univertity  of 

Norway. 
NoTske  UniveratetB  og  Skole-AnDaler  adgivne  af  Univentteteti 

Secretair-,  Hai,  Oct  1659;    Uarts,  Juui  1860;   Harts  1861; 

Marts  1862;  Marta,  Deer.  1863;  Jimi,  Oct.  1864;   Febi., 

Mai  1865.     Cbristiania.     8vo. — From  the  Boyal  Univertity  cf 

Norway. 
Bulletin  de  I'Acad^mie  Boyale  des  Sciencefl,  dea  Lettres,  et  it» 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.     Tome  XX.  Nos.  9,  10,     Braxellec, 

1865.     8to. — From  the  Academy. 
The  Lord  Provost's  Statement  to  the  Tovo-Council  respecting 

Sanitary  ImproTement.     Edinbnrgh,  1865.     Svo.—From  tie 

Right  Bon.  The  Lord  Prmiost  of  Edinburgh. 


Ttteaday,  2d  January  1866. 

Hm*.  Lord  NEAVES,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  CommnnicationB  were  read  : — 

1.  Additional  Observations  on  the  Folarisatioo  of  the 
Atmosphere  made  at  St  Andrews  in  1841,  1842,  1843, 
1844,  and  1845.  By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.a.  D.C.L., 
F.R,S.,  Ac. 

In  a  former  paper  on  thie  subject,*  the  antbor  gaTa  a  aeleotion 

from  his  obaerrations  on  the  polarisatioD  of  the  atmosphere.    After 

its  publication,  he  received  a  long  and  elaborate  memoir  on  the 

*  TiansactioDs,  vol.  xsiu.  p.  211. 


DvGooglc 


of  Minbvrgh,  Session  1865-66.  621 

same  enbject  by  Dr  B.  Bubeneon,*  cootaining  a  series  of  valuable 
obeetvations  made  at  Borne  on  the  place  of  mazimum  polarisation, 
and  on  the  intensity  of  the  mazimnm  polarieation  at  difl'erent 
hours  of  the  day.  Important  observations  on  the  polarisation  of 
the  atmosphere  have  also  been  made  by  M.  Liais  and  U.  Andrea 
Poey,  and  the  value  of  such  observations,  in  determining  the 
height  and  constitution  of  onr  atmosphere,  has  been  universally 
recognised. 

Uuder  this  impreeeion,  the  author  was  induced  to  submit  to  the 
Society  the  rest  of  the  four  years'  observations  which  he  made  at 
St  Andrews,  which,  along  with  those  already  pnblished,  all  exhibit 
tlie  optical  condition  of  the  atmosphere  during  many  days  of  every 
month  of  the  year. 

2.  Notices  of  some  Ancient  Sculptures  on  the  Walls  of  Caveii 
in  Fife.    By  ProfesBor  J.  Y.  Sitnpsoti. 

The  county  of  Fife  abounds  in  caves  or  "  weems"— a  derivative 
from  the  Gaelic  name  for  caves — and  their  existence  gives  a  title  to 
the  earldom  of  Wemyss.  Some  of  the  caves  in  Fife  are  historical, 
as  St  Bule'a  at  St  Andrews,  St  Adrian's  near  Elie,  and  St  Har- 
garet's  at  Dunfennline.  St  Serf  of  Culross,  the  great  patron  saint 
of  the  west  of  Fife,  is  described  by  one  of  his  biographers  as  having 
usually  spent  the  forty  days  of  Lent  in  a  cave  named,  as  such 
retreats  often  were,  the  Desertum.  This  cave  at  the  Deiertum — 
(or  Dyaart,  to  use  the  modem  form  of  the  name) — was  used  as  a 
church  up  till  near  the  time  of  the  Beformation.  About  two  miles 
eastward  of  Dysart,  and  near  the  village  of  Easter  Wemyss,  there 
is  a  range  of  large  caves,  seven  or  eight  of  which  are  at  the  pre- 
sent time  open;  but  several  more  probably  exist,  having  their 
openings  covered  over  with  debris.  They  stand  about  15  or  20  feet 
above  the  level  of  high  tide.  Some  of  them  are  80  to  100  feet  in 
length,  and  of  corres  poo  ding  height  and  breadth.  Two  or  three  of 
them  are  perfectly  dark,  and  require  to  be  entered  with  candles. 
Last  summer,  when  on  a  professional  visit  to  Fife,  Dr  Simpson 
made  a  hurried  visit  to  two  of  these  caves,  along  with  Dr  Dewar, 

*  Act<  or  Ihp  Royal  Society  of  Scicoces  of  Upsnl.     Seiiea  iil.  lom.  v. 


j.Googlc 


522  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

and  saw  some  rude  sonlptniingB  in  one  of  them.  Tbis  discovery  iu- 
duoed  him  to  retam  for  fnrtber  search,  accompanied  by  his  fiiendi, 
Drs  Joseph  Bubertsou,  Dnns,  and  Fateraon,  when  two  or  three  nev 
oaves  were  visited,  and  theii  walla  fonnd  to  be  covered  at  diffeieDt 
points  with  lepiesentations  of  various  animals,  figures,  and  emblemi. 
The  cave  aonlptarings  in  Fife  are  of  special  interest  to  the 
Scotch  archeologist,  for  this  reason,  that  the;  exactly  resemble,  in 
type  and  character,  the  carvings  on  the  so-called  Sculptnred  Stones 
of  Scotland.  In  bis  magnificent  first  volume  on  the  Scnlptuied 
Stones  of  Scotland,  Ur  Stnart  has  collected  one  hnndred  and  fifty 
examples ;  and  latterly  perhaps  fifty  more  have  been  discovered. 
These  Sculptured  Stones  extend  along  the  whole  east  coast  of  Scot- 
land, from  the  Forth  uorthwardB.  Only  two  have  been  found  south 
of  the  Forth.  In  general  ornamentation,  they  resemble  the  sculp- 
tured atones  of  the  west  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales,  and  England ; 
but  the  peculiarity  of  tfae  Scotch  stones  is,  that  they  have  addi- 
tional figures  and  symbols  upon  them  that  have  been  seen  nowhere 
else  in  the  world.  These  peculiar  and  characteristic  symbols 
oonsiet  of  the  crescent  or  crescent-ornament,  aometimes  inter- 
sected with  the  V  sceptre ;  of  the  so-called  spectacle  ornament — 
a  double  set  of  oirclee  connected  by  middle  linea— with  or  without 
the  Z  sceptre;  of  figures  of  elephants,  fish,  serpents,  minon, 
combs,  arches,  or  torca,  &c.  The  arrangement  of  these  symbols 
upon  the  stones  is  in  no  two  instances  alike.  On  the  oldest  stones 
they  are  cut  upon  unhewn  blocks,  without  any  surrounding  orna- 
mentation. Id  the  Sculptured  Stones  of  a  later  date,  they  are  cnt 
in  a  raised  form,  with  surrounding  ornamentations,  and  often  com- 
bined with  figures  of  the  Christian  cross.  Other  figures  ore  found 
carved  on  these  stones,  as  portraits  of  priests  and  dignitaries,  pro- 
cessions of  men;  {he  sacrifice  of  the  bnll ;  war  and  bunting  scenes; 
animals,  native  and  foreign,  as  the  lion,  tiget,  camel,  and  monkey; 
the  battling  and  devouring  of  men  by  wild  animals;  men  with 
monster  heads  of  beasta  and  birds;  repreaentationa  of  dragons  and 
monalets,  &c.  There  is  one  instance  of  the  representation  of  a 
boat  and  another  of  a  chariot,  at  Meigle. 

These  rude  sculpturings  have,  with  one  exception,  been  pre- 
viously to  the  present  timo  found  only  on  sepulchral  st'>Dee ;  but 
in  the  Fife  caves  they  exist  in  great  abundance  on  tlie  cave  walb- 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


of  Edivhurgh,  Session  1865-60.  623 

These  walls  are  OBually  comparatiTely  smooth  ;  and  io  maDy  places, 
though  DOt  in  all,  they  retain  the  figures  cut  upoB  thero.  The 
care  figures  consist  of  animals,  as  the  elephant,' — exactly  of  the 
form  seen  un  the  Sculptured  Ston^, — the  deer,  the  dog,  the  swan, 
the  peacock,  fish,  serpents,  and  jnonsterB.  On  them  we  see  also 
repreeentationa  of  the  mirror,  comb,  and  arch  or  horse-shoe.  No 
perfect  example  of  the  crescent  omamentatiot  exists  in  these  cave 
BcnlptDrings ;  bnt  many  specimens  of  the  spectacle  ornament  are 
to  be  fonnd  on  their  walls,  both  with  and  withont  the  intersecting 
Z  sceptre. 

Odo  of  the  cave-figures  is  specially  interesting,  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  exact  connterpart  of  the  only  analogooa  carving  found 
on  anght  except  a  monolith,  viz.,  a  scale  of  silver  armour  presented 
to  the  Antiquarian  Unseum  of  Scotland  by  Mrs  Durham  of  Largo, 
and  whose  history  is  this : — A  man  still  living  in  Fife — a  huckster 
— acting,  it  is  eaid,  upon  an  old  tradition,  that  a  knight  lay  buried 
in  silver  armour  in  a  small  barrow  called  Norrie's  Law,  stealthily 
dag  into  it,  found  in  reality  the  silver  armour,  and  removed  and 
sold  it  in  pieces  to  the  amount,  it  is  alleged,  of  four  hundred 
onncee.  By  the  time  tbis  spoliation  was  discovered,  the  silver 
armour  was  all  melted,  except  a  few  fragments.  One  of  these  frag- 
menta  is  a  scale,  having  cut  upon  it  a  spectacle  ornament  traversed 
by  the  Z  sceptre,  and  having  appended  to  one  end  of  it  the  head  . 
and  shoulders  of  a  dog,  as  in  some  modem  Orders  of  European 
knighthood.  Precisely  a  similar  figure,  with  the  appended  dog's 
head,  is  carved  upon  the  interior  of  one  of  the  Wemyss  caves. 

On  the  walls  of  some  of  the  caves  there  are  crosses  of  various 
forms ;  and  in  two  or  three  parts  appearances  somewhat  resembling 
letterings,  and  symbolic  arrangements  of  figures  or  hieroglyphics. 
On  the  walls  of  St  Adrian's  caves  are  lines  which  some  have  believed 
to  be  half  obliterated  Bunes ;  and  the  Bev.  Mr  Skinner  of  St 
Andrews  has  a  loose  stone  from  this  spot  which  presents,  he  thinks, 
Bunic  characters. 

Among  the  cave  sculpturings  at  Wemyas,  there  is  a  figure  of  a 
man  of  diminutive  form;  and  Mr  Stuart  has  traced  among  them 
faded  outlines  of  a  full  sized  human  figure,  apparently  tailed,  as  if  he 
formed  one  of  the  provokiiigly  missing  links  which  some  enthusi. 
asttc  ethnologists  are  so  anxiously  and  vainly  searching  after. 


DvGooglc 


•^24  Proceedings  of  the  Boyai  Sooiett/ 

The  caves  of  Fife,  both  tboee  that  hare  aculptnreB  and  thoae 
without  them,  have  almoet  alt  occaaioDal  complete  perforations  or 
holes  cut  in  their  aidee,  and  in  their  floore  and  roof,  capable  of 
allowing  a  thong  or  rope  to  be  passed  through,  as  if  the;  were 
intended  to  suspend  or  to  affix  objecte. 

The  age  of  these  cave-BculptDres  can  only  be  fixed  by  approaching 
the  age  of  the  aoabgous  figures  upon  the  Sculptnred  Stones.  The 
earliest  of  the  Sculptured  Stonea  are  perhaps  very  old— [fossibly 
as  far  back,  if  not  farther,  than  the  period  of  the  Boman  inTaaioD. 
Jq  opening  last  year  a  large  cairn  at  Linlethan  in  Forfarshire,  a 
figure  of  the  elephant,  exactly  simitai  to  those  existing  on  our 
sculptured  stones,  was  found  on  a  stone  lying  upon  the  covering  of 
the  stone-enclosed  cist.  This  cist  contained  a  bronze  weapon  and 
an  urn.  The  elephant  sculpture  was  as  old,  therefore,  as  the  era  of 
urn  burial  and  bronze  weapons — except  the  carved  fragment  of 
stone  had  got  by  pure  accident  into  its  present  position  when 
the  barrow  was  opened  twenty  years  ago.  The  ancients  sometimes 
buried  both  stone  and  bronze  relics  with  their  dead,  after  apparently 
they  had  iron  instruments  and  weapons.  But  if  the  bronze  dagger 
at  Linlethan  was  a  weapon  used  by  the  person  buried  under  the 
caini,  the  date  is  probably  pre-Boman.  For  when  Agricola  invaded 
Scotland  in  a.d.  81,  our  Caledonian  forefathers  had  apparently 
■  already  passed  through  the  bronze  era,  as,  according  to  Tacitus, 
they  fought  the  Boman  legions  with  swords  "  long  and  without  a 
point ;"  in  other  words,  with  iron  swords. 

But  most  of  the  Sculptured  Stones,  particularly  the  more  elaborate 
varieties  of  them,  were  of  comparatively  later  date,  and  were  pro- 
bably erected  as  late  as  the  eighth  or  tenth  century.  An  elaborate 
specimen  found  buried  in  the  old  churchyard  of  St  Vigeans,  having 
upon  its  surface  the  spectacle  ornament,  the  crescent,  the  mirror, 
the  comb,  Ac,  in  raised  figures,  has  an  inscription  on  it,  which  is 
probably  the  only  Picttsb  inscription  and  sentence  now  remaining. 
It  speaks  of  the  stone  as  erected  to  Droeten,  the  son  of  Voret ;  and 
a  Piotish  king  Drosten  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  BLathmig 
or  Blethmout — a  mile  or  two  off— in  the  year  729,  as  we  leam 
from  the  Annals  of  Tigheamacb.  Ibe  Fife  cave  sculptures  at 
WemysB  are  mixed  up  with  numerous  forms  of  crosses,  particularly 
of  equal-limbed  Greek  crosses,  showing  that  they  were  cut  after 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  525 

the  introduction  of  Cbriatiaoity ;  and  in  one  or  two  spots  there 
are  appearances  of  Ohrietian  moaogcsms.  Within  St  Adrian's 
oavfi  «t  Caplawchy,  near  Elie,  there  are  many  croBsea  on  the  wbIIb  ; 
stone  seats  cut  out,  &o. ;  but  no  animalB  or  symbols. 

The  purposes  fur  wbicb  tliey  vere  cat,  and  the  meaning  ef  the 
mysteriooB  symbols  on  the  caves  and  sculptured  stones,  are  archs»' 
ological  enigmata  that  no  one  has  yet  solved.  As  long  ae  they 
were  found  on  sepulchral  monoliths  only,  they  were  supposed  to  be 
hieroglyphic  or  heraldic  funeral  inscriptions  or  emblems.  This 
doctrine  is  so  far  gainsaid  by  this  late  discoTory  of  them  on  the 
walls  of  caves.  But  poasihly  they  may  be  sacred  symbols  of  some 
description,  or  of  some  unknown  form  and  meaning.  For  around 
and  upon  his  gravestones  man  has  always  been  in  the  habit  of 
cutting  emblema  of  his  religion  vhen  be  has  cut  anything ;  things 
saoted  and  things  sepulchral  being  found  united  in  his  earliest 
carvings. 

Other  Scotch  caves  have  sculptures  cut  npon  them.  The 
so-called  Gave  of  Bruce,  in  the  Island  of  Arrac,  has  been  found 
by  Dr  Mitchell  and  Ur  Stuart  to  have  deer  and  serpents  carved  on 
its  walls ;  and  many  years  ago,  within  St  Ualoe's  cave  in  Holy 
Island,  Dr  Daniel  Wilson  found  ancient  Scandinavian  inscriptions 
written  in  Bunes. 

In  many  counties  in  Scotland,  both  on  the  sea  shore  and  inland,  - 
there  exist  large  caves,  the  walls  of  which  require  to  be  now  care- 
fnlly  examined,  in  order  to  find  if  our  ancient  forefathers  had 
carved  upon  them  any  such  emblems  and  scolpturings  ae  have 
been  traced  in  Fife.  The  Fife  caves  have  formerly  been  inhabited. 
Dr  Simpson  showed  from  one  of  the  Wemyss  oaves  a  collection  of 
bones  which  had  been  split  to  remove  their  marrow,  like  the  bones 
fonnd  is  the  old  Danish  midden  heaps,  tea.  Among  the  bones  were 
those  of  the  deer,  sheep,  ox,  <Jec.  There  were  also  shells  of  limpets, 
ScQ. ;  and  microscopic  remains  of  cereals  were  fonnd  in  cavities  in 
the  rocks  that  had  been  apparently  used  as  rubbers  or  querns. 
Perforated  stones  and  two  implements  from  the  tyre  of  the  deer's 
horn  were  picked  up  from  the  rubbish  upon  the  floor;  but  the 
debris  of  these  caves  requires  to  be  most  carefully  searched,  before 
all  that  could  be  ascertained  on  this  point  becomes  known  to 
archteologistB.     In  Scotland,  there  is  one  cave  still  occasionally 

L.,^.l...o.,  Google 


526  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

inbabited,  at  Wick,  and  within  which  Dr  Mitctiell  has  eeen  living 
a  family  of  eight  or  ten.  But  cave  men  are  common  eleewbere. 
Mr  BarnweH  has  lately  recorded  the  canons  fact,  that  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Charters  there  are  at  present  living,  in  cavea, 
150,000  men,  in  the  very  centre  of  fiance.  In  Africa,  Asia,  &d., 
caves  are  still  inhabited,  as  they  were  by  the  Trogloditee  and 
Horites  of  old. 

In  England,  we  know  that  in  archaic  times  caves  woto  inhabited 
by  the  men  of  those  distant  ages,  such  as  Kent's  Hole,  the  Brixharo 
Cave,  the  Eirkdale  caves,  <&c.  In  these  caves  the  bones  of  man 
have  been  found  with  bis  stone  weapotiH,  and  along  with  them  the 
bones  of  long  extinct  animala,  as  the  mammoth,  the  cave  bear,  the 
hytena,  &a.  But  in  his  earliest  and  rudest  times,  man  has  been  a 
sculpturing  and  painting  animal;  and  hia  old  attempts  in  this  way 
may  yet  be  found  upon  the  walls  of  those  oesiferous  English  caves. 
Sir  Charles  Kicolson  had  stated  to  Dr  Simpson,  as  a  proof  that  man, 
in  his  savage  state,  was  a  sculpturing  being,  the  carious  fact,  that 
at  the  head  of  Sydney  harbour  rude  aculpturings  of  the  kangaroo, 
Ac,  had  been  found  cnt  on  the  rooks,  when  the  turf  was  removed 
in  building  operations  there.  Ur  Graham  bad  likewise  informed 
him  that  at  the  Cape,  the  Bushmen,  one  of  the  rudest  existing  races 
of  humanity,  live  much  in  caves,  and  constantly  paint  on  the  walls 
of  them  the  animals  in  their  neighbourhood,  and  sometimes  battle 
and  hunting  scenes,  always  in  profile.  Mons.  Lartet  has  lately 
shown  that  the  caves  of  Ferigord  have  been  inhabited  by  archaic 
man,  at  a  time  when  apparently  he  had  no  metallic  weapons, 
when  the  reindeer  still  inhabited  the  south  of  France,  and  when 
even  the  dog  was  not  yet  a  domestic  animal.  Yet  amongst  the 
relics  found  in  these  Perigord  caves  have  been  discovered  sculptnr- 
ings  upon  stone,  bone,  and  ivory,  of  different  animals ;  and  latterly 
a  rude  sketch  of  the  mammoth  itself.  All  this  entitles  us  to  hope 
that,  if  these  cave  researches  are  prosecuted,  we  may  yet  find  on 
the  cave  walls  sculpturings  done  hy  nmn  in  the  most  ancient  times, 
and  containing  fragments  of  his  earliest  history. 

[Dr  Simpson's  communication  wan  illustrated  by  numerous  dntw- 
inge  of  the  Fife  cave  sculptures,  made  by  Mr  Dnimmond,  B.S.A., 
and  Dr  Patorson  of  Leith.] 


DvGooglc 


o/EtUnburgk,  Seaeitm  1865-66. 


627 


S.  ObservstioiiB  on  New  Lichens  and  Fungi  from  Otago, 
Ifew  Zealand.    By  Dr  Lander  Lindsay. 

The  paper  conaiBta  mainly  of  the  author's  ohservations  on  the 
micioscopio  aaatomy  of  the  reproductive  organs  (with  illnstrative 
fignree)  of  the  following  new  apeeiei  and  varieliet  of  Liehent  and 
Fungi  collected  by  him  in  the  province  of  Otago,  New  Zealand,  in 
1661  :— 

I.    LlOHENB. 

.  Abrotballiu  Cnneji,  £ind*.    i   16.  0.  w^opiAa,  Syl. 


2.  Leddea  OtageDHU,  Nyl. 

3.  L.  flavido  atra,  Nyl. 

4.  L.  melanotropa,  Nyl. 
6.  L.  amphitropa,  Jfyl. 

6.  L.  lenootbalunia,  Nyl. 

and  var.  melachroa,  Nyl. 

7.  L.  aUotropa,  Ifyl. 

8.  L.  coarotata,  Aeh. 

var.  ezpoiita,  Nyl. 

9.  L.  trachona,  Nyl. 

var.  margin Btula,  Nyl. 

10.  Lecanora  homologa,  Nyl. 

11.  L.  pelolenca,  Nyl. 

12.  LeoBSoTB  thioineta,  Nyl. 

13.  Plaeopaia  perrimosa,  Nyl. 

14.  OpegraphamibeffigutaiiB,  .ATyi. 

15.  O.  agelteoides,  Nyl. 


17-  Arthonia  pUtygiaphella,  iVy^. 

18.  Pktygrapha  Longifera,  JVy^ 

19.  PertuMria  perfida,  Nyl. 

20.  P.  perrimota,  Nyl. 

21.  Pannaria  inuouEta,  Nyl. 

22.  P.  gymnoclieilB,  Nyl. 

23.  FsoromaBphinotrma,  lfnt.,tuid 

var.  pholidotoidea,  Nyl. 

24.  PhjBcia  plinthisa,  Nyl. 

25.  Bicseolia  berbacea,  DN. 

var,  adscripts,  Nyl. 

26.  Sticta  eubcoriacea,  Nyl. 

27.  8.  epUticla,  Nyl. 
2S.  B.  tUi.Hfm.,  and 

var.  paTTuIa,  Nyl, 
29.  8.  damntcomiB,  Ach, 

var  Miboaperata,  Nyt. 


These  additions  to  the  Licheo  Flora  of  New  Zealand  and  of  the 
world  may  be  thus  tabulated  : — 


Tribe. 

GenoB. 

Nu.ofNewBpooiaB 
and  Vara. 

■■ 

(Leoidea, 
"^Abrothallus, 

Fertauaria, 

81 
IJ 
3 
2 

» 

n. 

<  Pannaria, 
Placopaii, 
[Ptoroma, 

Sticta, 

9 

UI. 

Ricaaolia, 
PhjBoia, 
Opegiapha, 

i 

6 

IV. 

JpUtypapba, 
.  Arthosia, 

ij 

S 

Total, 

-   M  j 

,-.,„,sle 


628  Proceedings  of  the  Boytd  Society 

In  the  "  Flora  Novae-Zelaudis"  of  Dr  Hooker  there  is  no  reoord  of 
any  species  of  Opegrapha,  Platygrafiha,  Umhilicaria,  or  Ahrothadia; 
and  Profeesoi  Churchill  Babington  therein  epecially  remarkB,  io- 
deed,  on  the  eupposed  absence  of  the  genera  Opegrapha  and  UmhUi- 
caria  (Oyrophora)  from  the  Liohen-Flora  of  New  Zealand.  Sab- 
sequent  researcbeB  have,  honever,  shown  that  these  genera  are  really 
represented,  their  apparent  absence  having  been  dne  probably  po 
their  not  having  been  specially  looked  for.  The  foregoing  list  ex- 
hibits three  species  of  Opegrapha,  all  new,  being  all  the  Opegraphm 
contained  in  the  anthor's  collection  ;  and  Dr  Knight  and  Ur  Mitten 
have  described  other  three  species,*  two  of  them  new,  as  occnrring 
in  the  North  Island.  The  author's  Otago  collection  also  oootains 
at  least  one  species  of  Umhiliearia — a  British  one — U.  pclyphyHa, 
L.,  and  he  has  little  doubt  others  will  be  discovered  when  the 
Lichens  of  the  New  Zealand  Alpi  are  specially  collected. 

n.  FOKQI. 


1.  Sphsiria  Lindrayana,  Currey. 
S.  S.  Otagends,  Lindt. 
3.  S.  Martiniana,  Ltndi. 
i.  8.  permgoaaria,  Lindt. 

5.  S.  Ca^pUiana.  Lind*. 

6.  S.  Uniearia,  Lindi. 


7.  Spbeeria  vermioularia,  l4nili- 

8.  S.  Ramalinaria,  Lindt, 

9.  S.  Stictaria,  Lindt. 

10.  Nectria  armeniaca,  OarMy. 

11.  .^^dioni  Otagenie,  lAndt. 


Of  these,  Nos.  4  to  9  are  types  ofa  group,  which  is  as  yet  virtually 
nnknown  to  FungologistB,  viz.,  the  Fitn^  paraiilie  on  Liehmi;  while 
No.  11  possesses  interest  in  connection  with  the  deformitias  or 
diseases  it  produces  in  the  FhsnogamouB  plant  which  it  affects. 

4.  Orthogonal  Isothermal  Surfaces.    By  Professor  Tait. 

The  Council  reported  that  they  hod  awarded  the  Keith  Prize  for 
the  biennial  period  1863-65,  to  Principal  Forbes,  St  Andrews,  for 
his  "  Experimental  Inquiry  into  the  Laws  of  Conduction  of  Heat 
in  Iron  Bars,"  which  was  printed  in  the  last  Fart  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Society. 

The  Council  also  reported  that  they  had  awarded  the  Neill  Prize 

•  "  ContribntioQS  to  tbe  Lichenographia  of  New  Zealand,"  TranB.  Linnean 
Boo.  vi^xxiii.  p.  101. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seeaion  1865-66.  529 

for  the  triennial  period  lS62-<65  to  Andbbw  GROMBn  Bahsat,  F.B.S.. 
Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Govemnient  School  of  Minee,  and 
Local  Director  of  tbe  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  for  hia 
various  works  and  memoirs  published  during  the  last  five  yeare, 
in  which  he  bae  applied  the  large  experience  acquired  by  him  in 
the  Direction  of  the  arduous  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Great  Biitoin  to  the  elncidatioB  of  important  questione  bearing  on 
Geological  Science. 

The  follov»ing  Gentlemen  vrere  duly  elected  Fellowe  of  the 
Society : — 

Fbaser  Thomson,  H.D.,  Perth. 

John  M'Cullocb,  Eeq. 

T.  UsAiHOBR  Stewart,  M.D.,  F.B.C.P.E. 

Joseph  M.  Josbpr,  H.D.,  F.R.C.P.E. 

Colonel  Sib  Jaues  Alexanubb  of  Weeterton. 

The  following  Dooationa  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

TraDsaotione  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Academy.  Antiquities,  Vol.  XXIV. 

Parts  2-4.    Science,  Vol.  XXIV.   Parts  i  aod  6.    Literature, 

Vol.   XXIV.     Part  2.      Dublin,   1864^65.      4to.— i^wn  the 

Academy. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.      Vols.  VII.,  VIII,, 

IX.    Pkt  1.    Dublin,  8vo.— JVot»  the  Academy. 
Transactions  of  the  Bombay  Geographical  Society.     Vol.  XVII. 

Bombay,  18()S.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Catalogue  of  the  Printed  Books  in  the  Advocates'  Library.    Part 

II.     Edinburgh,  1864.     4to. — From  the  Lihrary. 
On  tbe  Mechanical  Principles  of  the  Action  of  Propellers.     By 

Professor  W.  J.  Macquorn  Bankino,  LL.D.    4to. — From  (Ae 

Ubservations  on  the  Functions  of  tbe  Liver.  By  Bobert  M'Donnell, 
M.D.    Dublin,  1865.    8vo.— /Vom  iA«  Author. 

Uouthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astrooomjcal  Society.  Vol.  XXVI. 
No.  1.     London,  1865.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 

Proceedinys  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Vol.  X.  No.  1. 
London,  1865.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


530  J'roceedings  of  the  Bo^al  Society 

Monday,  15th  January  1866. 

Sir  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  iu  the  Chair. 

The  following  Communicatioos  were  read  : — 

I  ■  Notes  for  a  Comparison  of  the  Glaciation  of  the  West 
of  Scotland  with  that  of  Arctic  Norway.  By  Archibald 
Geikie,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

In  the  course  of  the  detailed  investigation e  which,  dnring  tbe 
past  six  or  aeven  jeare,  have  been  carried  on  by  the  officers  of  the 
Geological  Survey  into  the  history  of  the  glacial  period  in  Britain, 
the  desire  naturally  arose  to  compare  the  phenomena  of  glaciation 
80  familiar  in  this  country  with  those  of  some  other  region  where 
they  might  be  linked  on  to  the  action  of  still  existing  glaciers.  No 
other  part  of  Kurope  offered  so  many  facilities  for  such  a  comparison 
as  were  to  be  found  in  Scandinavia.  It  was  accordingly  plaoDed 
by  my  colleague,  Dr  John  Young,  and  myself,  to  visit  Norway  in  the 
summer  of  1863.  Unforeseen  ciicnmstances  delayed  the  journey, 
and  ultimately  deprived  me  of  the  companionship  of  my  friend.  Nor 
was  it  until  June  of  last  year  (1865)  that,  accompanied  by  two  of 
my  associates  in  the  Geological  Survey.  Mr  W.  Whitaker  and  Hr 
James  Geikie,  I  reached  the  Arctic  Circle.  All  the  Norwegian 
observations  recorded  in  this  paper  were  made  conjointly  with 
these  companions. 

The  objects  proposed  to  be  accomplished  in  this  excursion  were — 
to  compare,  as  minutely  as  time  would  allow,  the  ice-marks  on  the 
rocks  of  Scotland  with  those  on  the  rocks  of  Scandinavia ;  to  ascer- 
tain, from  personal  exploration,  how  far  the  glaciation  of  the  Nor- 
wegian coasts  and  fjords  could  be  traced  to  the  action  of  laud  ice 
or  of  floating  bergs ;  to  trace,  if  possible,  the  connection  between 
the  ancient  ice-work  and  the  work  of  the  living  glaciers ;  and, 
generally,  to  watch  for  any  facts  that  might  help  to  throw  ligl"' 
npon  the  history  of  the  glacial  period  in  the  British  Isles.  Having 
only  a  few  weeks  at  our  disposal,  we  were  far  from  aiming  at 
original  discovery  in  Norwegian  geology.     The  main  features  of 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaim  1865-66.  531 

tbe  disposition  of  tlie  SDOw-fields  and  glaciers  had  already  been 
given  in  the  masteily  sketch  of  Principal  Forbes — a  work  which 
was  of  inestimable  value  t«  us.*  More  detailed  descriptions  of 
parts  of  the  glaciation  of  Norway  had  been  pabliehed  b;  Scandi- 
navian geologiflts — Esmaikit  Horbye,}  Kjerulf.g  Sexe,|j  and  others. 
Tet  I  was  not  without  the  hope  that,  besides  adding  to  our  own 
ezpeiience,  we  might  also  be  fortunate  enough  to  find  in  the  Nor- 
wegian fjords  materials  for  making  still  more  dear  the  geological 
history  of  our  own  western  aea-lochs. 

Tbe  close  resemblance  between  the  general  outline  of  Scotland 
and  that  of  ScandinaTia  is  too  well  known  to  need  more  than  a 
passing  allusion.  The  Dumerous  deep  and  intricate  indentations, 
the  endless  islands  and  skerries,  the  mountainous  shores,  the  host 

■  '■  Norvay  and  its  Glacieis."  8to.  186S.  Mr  Chambere  also  baa  referred 
to  the  striated  rocks  in  different  parts  of  Nonra;  in  hia  "  Tiacings  of  the 
North  of  Enrope."    1860. 

t  Eamaik.  "  Edm.  New  Phil.  Joamal,"  vol.  ii.  p.  118  tt  teq.  (1826).  In 
tbli  paper  the  former  preaence  of  land  ice  over  large  areas  from  which  it 
it  DOW  abaent,  and  ita  powerful  inQnence  aa  a  geological  agent  of  abrasioD, 
ate,  for  the  flrat  time,  distincttj  recogniaad.  Tbe  illustiationB  are  taken  from 
the  Bonth  of  Norway. 

}  Horbye.  "  Obaerrationa  anr  lea  phinominea  d'eroaiou  en  NoTv4|{e." — 
ProgTaaant  dt  V  UnwieTtii4  de  CMtttania  pour  185T,  Tbe  aathoi  giTea  a  care- 
ful return^  of  all  tbe  obaervationa  made  by  bimaelf  and  othera  upon  the  direc- 
tion of  the  strie  on  tbe  rocks  of  Norway,  and  adds  a  nnmber  of  raapa,  one  of 
which  ahowa  the  outward  radiation  of  tbe  striie  from  the  central  mountain 
mass  of  Scandinavia.  Yet  be  commita  himself  to  no  theory  as  to  tbe  nature 
of  the  agent  by  which  the  atrite  were  produced.  In  a  concluding  section  upon 
the  glacial  theory,  be  says  : — "  II  eat  vrai  aana  donte  qn'en  g£n£ral  In  direc- 
tion det  atriea  eat  parallBle  i  I'avancement  dea  glaciers  actuela;  maisjene 
Tois  pas  que  cette  circonstance  pnisse  snfBsamment  dSmontrer  que  las  strioa 
ont  £t£  grav^  par  lea  glacieia."  "  Je  me  joins  k  cette  conclusion,  que  les 
sulcatnres  da  Nord  so  preaenteiit  commo  dee  produits  d'nn  agent  plus  puisaant 
et  plus  g£n£rat  qne  les  glaciers  dont  Taction  conserve  loujours  un  caractilie 
plus  local."  But  be  doea  not  indicate  what  this  more  powerful  and  more 
general  agent  may  bo. 

i  Kjemlf.  "  Uber  das  Friktiona-Pbaenomen."  Cbriatiania.  8vo.  1860. 
See  also  Programme  de  I'Univeraiti  de  Chriatiania  pom  1860,  and  Zeitacbrift 
der  Deutach.  Oool.  OeteUcfaaft,  1863,  p.  619,  and  plate  ivii. 

I  Sexe.  "  Om  Sneebiieen  Folgufon."  Chriatiania.  Univeniteteprogrom 
for  andet  Halvaar  1864.  Thia  paper  gives  a  detailed  account,  with  map  an<l 
sections,  of  the  Folgefoa  anow-field  and  its  glaciers,  including  the  well- 
known  glaeier  of  Bondbana. 


sai'GoOglc 


532  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

of  short  independent  etreaniB  on  tlie  treatera  coast ;  and  on  the 
oaatern  side,  the  brood  undulating  lowlands  tending  theii  collected 
drainage  into  large  rivers,  which  enter  the  sea  along  a  com- 
paratively little  embayed  coaet-line,  are  familiar  features  on  the 
maps  of  both  countries.  This  general  outward  semblance,  which 
at  once  arrests  the  attention  of  every  traveller  in  Norway,  to  whom 
the  scenery  of  the  western  Highlands  is  familiar,  depends  apon 
a  close  similarity  in  the  geological  structure  of  the  rocks,  and  a 
coincidence  in  the  geological  history  of  the  surface  of  the  two 
regions,  Norway,  from  south  to  north,  is  almost  wholly  made  op 
of  metamorphic  rocks,  not  all  of  the  same  age,  yet  poseesaiDg  s 
general  similarity  of  character.  In  like  manner,  the  west  of  Scot- 
land, from  the  Mull  of  Cantyre  to  Cape  Wrath,  is  in  great  measure 
built  up  of  gneiss,  schist,  slate,  qnartz-rock,  granite,  and  other 
metamorphic  rocks,  qnite  comparable  with  these  of  Norway.* 

•  Mj  friend  Herr  Tellef  Dahll,  who,  iu  conjnnctioD  with  Dr  Kjeralf,  i» 
carryiug  on  the  OoTemment  Geological  Surre;  o(  Norwaj,  wrote  down  for 
me  the  following  order  of  BUperpoaitioa  of  the  tocka  of  the  sonth  of  Norwsj. 
He  was  not  at  the  timo  acqauinted  with  the  order  of  BncceBMon  in  the  Doctb- 
west  of  Scotland,  and  eipresaed  his  eurpriae  and  pleasure  to  find  that  it  cor- 
roborated Ml  well  the  order  eatabliahed  by  his  coUeagne  and  himself.  I  place 
in  parallel  culumae  the  Norwegian  and  Scottish  rocks,  to  show  tba  genertl 
parallclisQi,  wJthuut  wiahing  to  inaiat  that  the  equivalents  anggested  here  sn 
in  each  case  atrictly  eiact. 

Norway.  If.  W.  HigUand: 

DoTonian?  LoirerOld  Red  Sandstone. 

Upper  Silurian.  „ 

Lower  Silurian.  ■,            ^              (SchiBta,    gneiat,   and 

Hornblende,  achiat.  gneiea,  &c    [  }f^?^     k^eiaoee     and     acbiatOM 

„ ,  .,  I           SiluruD   I     rooks. 

ttnartzite.  f                           ( Ciuartz-rockandlimeatonea. 

Schiate  with  Dictyimtma  norvcgtea. 

Sp.„g«It.  .nd  „Li.l.,  .bo.l  2000  H.  I  '  ^'■'"  <■'  "-"'•  "^  "« 

(      =Liiigulafla^? 

M  S.Dd.i.n,  .nd  oo»glom.mK  m-  ,  „^j  StuiUm  ud  o.ngl» 

».londly  pr«o.,t  h.™      Tl.«».ndJ  mmM  (Cmbriu)  IjiW 

th.o.eri,me,lml.,«l,aU,™mn-  uDconf.ra.blj  01.  tb. 

formably  npon  thu  ' 

Tellemarken    formutiou — a   vast  sue-  FnndamoutalerLaDrentian 

cesflion  of  tiiclnninrphic  roolw.  gneiaa, 

Thia  jiarBlleliam  niay  rri|uire  couaidenble  uodificnlion,  but  it  i»  at  IcMt 

_„,.,  Google 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  533 

Beeides  the  external  resemblance  due  to  the  litbological  nature  of 
the  rocks,  beneath  there  is  a  stilt  further  likeness  dependent  npon 
BimilarJty,  partly  of  geological  structure,  and  partly  of  denudation. 
Many  of  the  Scottish  sea-lochs  have  had  their  trend  determined 
by  lines  of  strike  or  of  anticlinal  axis,  and  the  same  result  seems 
to  have  taken  place  in  Norway.  In  other  cases,  the  lochs  and 
glens  of  the  one  country,  and  the  fjords  and  valleys  of  the  other, 
cantiDt  be  traced  to  any  determining  geological  stmoture,  but  must 
be  referred  to  the  great  process  of  denudation  which  has  brought 
the  surface  to  its  present  form.*  In  short,  Xarway  and  the 
Scottish  Highlands  seem  to  be  but  parts  of  one  long  table-land  of 
paleozoic  (chiefly  metamorphic)  rocks.  This  table- land  mnat  be  of 
venerable  antiquity;  for  it  seems  to  have  been  in  existence,  at 
least  in  part,  as  far  back  as  the  Lower  Old  Bed  Sandstone.  Since 
that  time  it  has  been  sorely  defaced  by  long  cycles  of  geological 
revolution ;  rains,  rivers,  ice,  and  general  atmospheric  waste,  have 
carved  ont  of  it  the  present  valleys,  and  to  all  this  surface  change 
must  be  added  the  results  of  dislocationB,  as  well  as  unequal  up- 
heavals  and  depressions  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  beneath.  Never- 
theless, it  still  survives  in  extensive  fragments  in  Norway,  where 
it  serves  as  a  platform  for  the  great  snow-fields,  while  it  can  even 
yet  be  traced  along  the  undulating  summits  of  the  mountains  of 
the  Scottish  Highlands.  One  of  ite  latesii  great  revolutions  was  a 
submergence  towards  the  west,  which  extended  from  the  coasts  of 
Ireland  to  the  north  of  Norway,  and  gave  rise  to  some  of  the  most 
distinctive  features  of  that  part  of  Europe.  No  one  con  attentively 
consider  the  maps  of  the  countries  between  the  headlands  of  Con- 
naught  and  the  North  Cape,  without  being  convinced  that  the 
endless  ramifying  sea-locha  and  fjords,  kyles  and  sounds,  were  once 
land  valleys.  Each  loch  and  fjord  is  the  submerged  port  of  a 
Tdley,  of  which  we  still  see  the  upper  portion  above  water,  and  the 

important  at  present  in  showing  that,  both  in  Norwii;  and  in  Scotland,  there 
fa  a  bottom  gaeiea  covered  nnconformabl;  b;  strata  containing  fossils,  and 
that  these  strata  ate  again  overlaid  by  an  upper  and  later  series  of  meta- 
morphic rocks  of  Lower  Silaiian  age. 

■  I  ba*a  tried  to  trace  the  hietorj  of  this  process  in  the  case  of  tbe  Scottish 
Highlands,  and  I  may  be  permitted  to  refer  to  "  The  Scenery  of  Scotland, 
viewed  in  connection  with  its  Physical  Geology,"  chap.  vi. 


j.Googlc 


534  Proceedinga  of  the  Boytd  Society 

sunken  locks  aod  ekeiriea,  islets  and  islaods,  are  ^1  so  many  relics 
of  the  nneven  surface  of  the  old  laud.  The  indented  form  of  the 
ooast-Iine  of  the  west  of  Scotland  and  of  Norway  is  not  evidence 
of  the  uueqnaL  eacroachments  of  the  sea,  but  is  due  to  a  general 
submergeDce  of  the  west  side  of  the  two  countries,  whereby  the 
tides  have  been  sent  far  inland,  filling  from  side  to  side  anoient 
valleys  and  lakes*  Subsequent  re-elevations  are  marked  along 
both  the  Norwegian  and  Scottish  ahores  by  snccessive  terraces  or 
raised  beaches. 

But  to  one  who  has  sailed  and  boated  among  the  sea-lochs  of 
Scotland,  no  feature  of  the  Norwegian  coaet  is  at  once  so  striking 
and  so  familiar  as  the  universal  smoothing  and  rounding  of  the 
rooks,  which  ia  now  recognised  as  the  result  of  the  abrading  power 
of  ice.  Every  skerry  and  islet  among  the  countless  thousands  of 
that  coast- line  is  either  one  smooth  boss  of  rock,  like  the  back  of  a 
whale  or  dolphin,  or  a  succession  of  such  bosses  rising  and  sinking 
in  gentle  undulations  into  each  other.  Such,  too,  is  the  nature  of 
the  rocky  shore  of  every  fjord ;  the  smoothed  surface  growing 
gradually  rougher,  indeed,  as  we  trace  it  upward  from  the  sea-level, 
yet  continuing  to  show  itself,  until  at  a  height  of  many  hundred 
feet  it  merges  into  the  broken,  scarped  outlines  of  the  higher 
mountain  sides  and  Bummits.f  In  short,  as  is  now  well  known,  the 
whole  of  the  surface  of  the  country,  for  many  hundred  feet  at>ove 
the  sea,  has  been  ground  down  and  smoothed  by  ice. 

We  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Norway,  between  Bergen  and 
Hammerfest,  by  the  uanat  steamboat  route,  touching  at  many 
stations'hy  the  way,  threading  the  narrow  kyles  and  sounds  that 
lie  among  the  innumerable  islands,  and  now  and  then  running  in- 
land up  some  fjord  far  into  the  heart  of  the  country.  We  halted 
here  and  there  to  spend  a  few  days  at  a  time  in  exploring  some  of 
the  fjords  and  glaciers.  What  can  be  aeen  from  the  steamer  on 
the  coasting  voyage  is  now  familiar  from  the  numerous  descriptions 
which  have  been  given  of  it  in  recent  years.    I  shall  therefore 

*  See  a  fnller  BtateineDt  of  this  nibject  in  "  Seettery  of  Scotkud,"  pp.  12&- 
187. 

t  The  unguiarl;  iee-wara  aspect  of  the  Norwegian  eout,  aa  well  m  iti 
atrong  rosemblance  to  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  wae  auccinctl;  deacribed  by 
Frindpol  Forbes,  "  Norwa;  and  its  Glaciers,"  p.  42  et  mq. 


j.Googlc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Sesaion  1865-66.  535 

oonteot  myself  with  offerJDg  to  the  Society  an  account  of  two 
ezcanioDB  to  eome  dletance  from  the  ordinary  route. 

A  little  to  the  noith  of  the  Arctic  Circle  lies  the  island  of  Uelo, 
one  of  many  which  are  here  crowded  together  along  the  coast.  It 
is  only  noticeable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  station  at  which  the  steamers 
call,  and  from  which  the  great  snow-fielda  of  the  Svartisen  or  Fon- 
dalen  may  he  most  easily  visited.  Here,  as  along  all  the  rest  of  the 
Norwegian  ooasts,  we  find  ourselves  among  bare  bossy  hammocks 
of  rock  thoroughly  ice<wom.  From  the  higher  eminences  the  eye 
sweeps  over  the  countless  islets  and  skerries,  and  far  across  the 
Vest  Fjord  to  the  serrated  peaks  of  the  Lofodden  Islands,  which 
from  the  distance  seem  deep  sunk  in  the  north-westeni  sea.  The 
whole  of  the  lower  grounds  is  one  labyrinth  of  roeha  numionnSei, 
raising  their  smooth  backs  like  so  many  porpoises  out  of  the  sea, 
and  ont  of  a  flat  expanse  of  green  pastnre  and  dark  bog  which  here 
covers  an  old  sea-bottom.  The  striations  and  groovinga  aie  still 
fresh  on  many  of  the  smoothed  surfaces  of  gneiss,  and  invariably 
ran  straight  out  to  sea  in  the  line  of  the  long  valley  np  which  the 
sea  winds  inland  among,  the  snowy  mountains.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  a  vast  mass  of  ice  bas  come  seawards  down  this  valley, 
and  that  all  these  ice-worn  hummocks  of  rock  were  ground  down 
by  it.  The  wide  valley  or  opening  which  stretches  inland  from 
Mel3,  is  formed  by  the  cohverging  mouths  of  a  number  of  narrow 
Qords.  Of  these  the  moat  northerly  is  the  Glommena  Fjord, 
which  is  bounded  along  its  northern  side  hy  a  range  of  high  moun- 
tains, with  a  serrated  crest  and  abundant  snowy  clefts  and  corries. 
Southward  lies  a  belt  of  lower  ice-worn  hills,  cut  lengthwise  by  the 
Bjerangs  Fjord,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Holands  Fjord, 
on  the  south  side  of  which  rises  another  range  of  scarped  snow- 
covered  mountains.* 

From  the  gaard  of  Mela  we  boated  eastwards  among  various  small 
islets  and  channels,  passing  soon  into  the  Holande  Fjord,  np  which 
we  continued  until  we  rested  UDderneath  the  great  snow-field  and 

*  Although  I  lue  the  word  nnaiHaini,  there  ii  no  definite  lyBtem  of  ridges ; 
on  the  coDtnir;,  theae  fjords  mnit  be  regarded  as  indentations  along  the  edge 
id'  a  great  table-land,  of  which  the  average  level  may  range  from  8000  to  4000 
fe^  above  the  *aa,  and  which  MTvesas  the  platform  on  which  the  wide  bdow- 
fields  lie.     Bee  "  Norwa;  and  ite  Olacien,"  pp.  100, 282, 

VOL.  V.  4  A 


j.Googlc 


536  Proceedings  of  the.  Royal  Society 

gtaciura  of  Svartisen.  lu  this  excursion  we  started  from  the  cout, 
amid  islands,  all  moulded,  like  those  of  the  west  of  Scotland, 
bjr  the  ioe  of  the  glacial  period,  and  we  ended  among  rocks  on 
whicli  the  present  glaciers  aro  inscribing  precisely  the  same  mark- 
ings. One  of  tlie  first  features  which  arrested  atteutioQ  waa  the 
contrast  between  the  smoothed,  ice-worn  surface  of  the  lower 
grounds  and  the  craggy,  scarped  outlines  of  tlie  mountain  crests. 


Fig.  1.— Uap  of  tbe  Neighbourhood  of  the  Holanda  Fjord  (Hiuicb}. 

This  was  especially  marked  along  the  northern  side  of  the  Grlom- 
mens  Fjord,  wiiere  the  ice-worn  rocks  form  a  distinct  zone  along 
the  side  of  therongh,  craggy  hills.  To  the  north  of  Ikleliivaerthis 
ice-worn  belt  was  estimated  hy  aneroid  to  rise  about  200  feet  above 
the  sea.  Its  smoothed  rocks  areabundantly  rent  alonglines  of  joint 
and  other  divisional  planes;  their  ice-worn  aspect  must  thus  be 
imperceptibly  fading  away.  The  rough  rocks  above  them  some- 
times show  traces  of  smoothed  surfaces,  as  if  they  too  had  suffered 
from  an  older  glaciation,  of  which  the  records  are  now  all  but 
obliterated.  The  line  of  division  between  the  belt  of  rocks  which 
have  been  smoothed  by  ice,  and  those  which  have  been  roughened 
and  scarped  by  atmospberio  waste,  slopes  gently  upward  in  the 
direction  of  the  central  snow-fields  of  the  interior.  While  at 
Metbvaer  it  seemed  to  rise  only  about  200  feet  above  the  sea; 
at  Fondalen,  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  inland,  it  mounts  to  a 


DvGooglc 


ofEdinbargh,  Session  1865-66.  537 

beigbt  of  fulljr  1500  feet.  A  tract  of  bare  hills,  lyiog  between  the 
Glommena  and  the  Holanda  Fjoid,  and  rising  eastward  iuto  the 
snow-coTored  table-land,  is  well  smoothed  in  the  direction  of  these 
fjords.  In  short,  the  whole  of  the  broad  depression  hetweeo  the 
two  fjords  baa  been  filled  with  ice,  moving  steadily  downwards 
from  the  snow-fields  to  the  sea. 

It  was  interesting  to  watch,  on  every  little  islet  and  promontory 
undei  which  we  passed,  the  same  details  of  glaciation  so  familiar 
along  the  margin  of  onr  Scottish  fjords.  The  locks  are,  as  usual, 
smoothed  into  flowing  lines,  and  slip  sharply  and  cleanly  into  the 
water.  Tbey  are  well  grooved  and  striated,  these  markings  differ- 
ing in  no  respect  from  those  in  Britain.  Moreover,  it  was  easy  to 
see  that  the  ice  which  bad  graven  these  lines  must  have  moved 
down  the  fjord,  for  the  he  or  rougher  side  of  the  crag  looked  sea- 
wards. It  was  likewise  clear  that  the  scorings  were  not  the  work  of 
drifting  bergs  or  coast  ice,  for  they  could  often  be  seen  mounting 
over  projecting  parts  of  the  banks,  yet  retaining  all  the  while  their 
sharpness,  paraileUsm,  and  perBistent  trend.  Another  point  of 
similarity  to  west  Highland  scenery,  was  found  in  the  strange 
scarcity  or  absence  of  drift  and  boulders.  I  do  not  mean  to  assert 
that  these  are  not  to  be  met  with  at  all,  hut  tbey  do  not  exist  so 
prominently  as  to  catch  the  eye  even  of  one  who  is  on  the  outlook 
for  them.  The  rock  everywhere  raises  its  bare  knolls  to  the  sun 
as  it  does  on  the  coasts  of  Inverness  and  Argyll.  To  complete  the 
resemblance,  the  Norwegian  fjord  has  its  sides  marked  by  the  line 
of  a  former  sea-margin,  about  250  feet  above  the  present.  This 
terrace  winds  out  and  in  among  all  the  ramifications  and  curves  of 
the  fjord,  remaining  fresher  and  more  distinct  than  the  raised 
beaches  of  the  west  Highlands  usually  are,  and  even  rivalling  one 
of  the  parallel  roads  of  Locbaber. 

We  rested  for  a  week  at  the  hamlet  of  Fondalen,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Holanda  Fjord.  It  stands  at  the  moutli  of  a  deep  narrow 
valley  on  the  line  of  the  terrace,  which  here  runs  along  the  crest  of 
a  steep  bank  of  rubbish  covered  with  enormous  blocks  of  rock — an 
old  moraine  thrown  across  the  end  of  the  valley.  There  seems  to 
have  been  at  one  time  a  lake  behind  this  hank,  formed  by  the 
ponding  back  of  the  drainage  of  the  valley,  and  gradually  emptied 
as  the  outflow-stream  deepened  its  channel  through  the  moraine. 


Proceediikia  of  the  Royal  Society 


Fig.  2. — View  of  tlio  twu  Glaciers  at  FondKlcs,  Holands  Fjord. 


D,„i,z.dj.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1866-66.  539 

At  the  heftd  of  the  valley  a  small  glacier  descends  from  the  snow- 
field  of  SvartiseD.  There  could  be  no  better  locality  for  stadying 
the  gradnal  diminution  of  the  glaciers,  and  for  learning  that  it 
vaa  land-ice  that  filled  the  Norwegian  fjords,  over-rode  the  lower 
hills  and  mountains,  and  went  ont  boldly  into  the  Atlantic  and 
Arctic  Sea.  The  Holands  Fjord  runs,  as  I  have  said,  approxi- 
mately east  and  vest,  and  this  short  narrow  valley  descends  from 
the  south.  The  fjord  was  filled  with  ice,  and  is  therefore  polished 
and  striated  along  the  line  of  its  main  trend.  The  valley  of 
Fondalen  was  likewise  filled  with  ice,  moving  down  to  join  the 
mass  in  the  fjord ;  and  its  rocks,  too,  are  striated  in  the  length 
of  the  valley,  or  from  south  to  uorth.  The  moraine  of  Fondalen 
is  a  proof  that  a  glacier  once  descended  to  the  Holands  Fjord  at 
that  point.  Farther  evidence  is  fonnd  in  the  fact,  that  the  sides 
of  the  valley  are  ground  and  striated  for  700  feet  and  more  above 
its  bottom.  Moreover,  these  polished  and  scored  rocks  can  be 
traced  up  to  and  underneath  the  glacier,  I  crept  for  some  yards 
under  the  ice,  and  found  the  floor  of  gneiss  on  which  it  rested 
smoothly  polished  and  covered  with  scorings  of  all  sizes,  exactly 
the  same  in  every  respect  as  those  high  on  the  sides  of  the 
valley,  in  the  fjord  below,  and  away  on  the  outer  islands  and 
skerries.  Over  this  polished  surface  trickled  the  water  of  the 
melted  ice,  washing  out  sand  and  small  stones  from  under  the 
glacier. 

We  climbed  the  steep  eastern  side  of  the  valley  above  the  foot 
of  the  glacier,  and  found  the  hummocks  of  gneiss  wonderfully  gla- 
ciated np  to  a  height  of  fully  700  feet.  The  gnailed  crystalline 
rook  has  been  ground  away  smoothly  and  sharply,  so  as  to  show  its 
twisted  foliation,  as  well  as  the  patterns  of  a  marble,  are  displayed 
on  a  polished  chimney-piece.  Even  vertical  or  overhanging  faces 
of  rock  are  equally  smoothed  and  striated.  Uany  of  the  rochet 
moutonnjet  are  loaded  with  perched  blocks  of  all  sizes,  up  to  masses 
30  or  40  feet  long.  Above  the  limit  to  which  we  traced  the  work 
of  the  ice,  the  rocks  begin  to  wear  a  more  rugged  surface,  nntil 
along  the  summit  of  the  ridges  they  rise  into  serrated  crests  and 
pinnacles.  This  rougher  outline  is,  of  course,  the  resnlt  of  atmo- 
spheric waste,  guided  by  the  geological  structure  and  chemical  com- 
position of  the  rocks. 


DvGooglc 


fi40  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Socisty 

The  gluier  deflcends  (torn  the  snow-Beld,  which  waa  jessed  lo 
have  there  an  elevation  or  abont  3500  feet,  to  a  point  in  the  nlbij 
about  400  feet  above  the  sea.  The  distance  froni  the  anow-fietd  lo 
the  foot  of  the  glacier  looks  not  mnch  more  than  one  English 
mile — at  leaet  it  is  but  short,  compared  with  the  rapidity  of  de- 
scent. Hence  the  glacier  is  steep,  and  in  some  places  much  cre- 
Tassed.  Issningfrora  the  upper  snow,  in  a  steep,  broken,  and  j^;g«d 
slope  of  blue  ice,  it  descends  by  a  series  of  steps,  till,  getting  com- 
pacted again  in  tbe  valley  below,  it  passes  into  a  solid,  firm  glacier, 
with  a  tolerably  smooth  surface,  forming  a  declivity  of  12°  or  15". 


FiK'  S. — Longitudinal  Section  of  Bmatler  Glacier.    Fondalon. 

At  a  point  about  half  a  mile  or  less  from  the  foot  of  the  glacier 
the  valley  suddenly  contracts,  ami  the  glacier,  much  narrowed  and 
compressed,  tumbles  over  a  second  steep  declivity  in  a  mans  of 
broken  ice.  The  crevasses  Bpeedilyiinite,and  after  another  descent 
of  300  or  400  yards  at  an  angle  of  25°,  the  glacier  comes  to  ao 
end.  At  the  point  where  the  strangulation  takes  place,  the  glacier 
lies  in  a  kind  of  basin,  of  which  the  lower  lip  presents  proofs  of  the 
most  intense  erosion.  On  the  western  bank,  in  particular,  a  mass 
of  the  mouDtuin  side  which  projects  into  the  ice  has  been  ground 
away,  and  shows  plainly  enough,  by  its  form  and  strife,  that  the 
glacier,  ascending  from  the  basin,  has  climbed  up  and  over  this  bar' 
rier,  so  as  to  tumble  down  its  northern  or  seaward  side. 

The  course  of  this  little  glacier  is  now  too  short  to  admit  of  the 
formation  of  moraines.  Yet  there  are  large  heaps  of  rubbish  and 
enormous  masses  of  rock  scattered  over  the  valley  below,  and  tlie 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Sesaim  1865-66.  Ml 

moraine  at  Fondaleo  is  a  furtlier  ^iroof  that  when  tlie  ice  formerly 
filled  tlie  valley,  its  surface  received  abundant  detritus  from  the 
mountain  slopes  on  either  side. 

Opposite  Fondalen,  the  Holauds  Fjord,  passing  tlirough  a  deep 
and  narrow  channel  on  its  northern  bank,  trendsin  an  east  •north-eas- 
terly direction,  but  jnst  before  taking  this  course,  il  sends  eastward 

Fig.  4.— Sketch-map  of  lower  end  of  larger  Glnttier.    Fondolen. 


a  bay  which  terminalett  at  the  mouth  of  a  valley  about  a  mile  above 
the  hamlet.    This  valley  is  oousiderably  larger  than  that  just  de- 


DvGooglc 


542  Proceedrnga  o/tlie  Boyal  Soci^ 

scribed,  and  it  u  occupied  by  a  mncb  loDger  and  larj^  glacier.  To 
ODe  who  louke  ap  the  valle;  fiom  the  opposite  eide  of  the  fjord,  it 
seema  as  if  the  ample  glacier  which  filla  np  the  bottom  sweep* 
down  from  the  snow-field  in  a  rapid  descent  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  sea.  On  a  visit  to  the  locality,  however,  it  is  foand  that  be- 
tween the  foot  of  the  glacier  and  the  sea  margin,  there  lies  a  plain 
of  shingle  and  alluvium,  which  is  partly  covered  with  a  bmsbwood 
of  birch,  and  partly  with  a  scanty  pasturage.  Jya  it  nears  the  ice 
it  rises  into  ridges  and  hummocks,  which  increase  in  size  as  we 
ascend.  These  are  true  moraine  mounds,  rising  often  60  or  70  feet 
above  their  base,  and  strongly  reminding  me  of  the  moraines  at 
Loch  Skene,  Peeblesshire.  They  consist  of  earth  and  stones,  and 
are  strened  over  with  large  blocks  of  gneiss,  porphyry,  limestone,  and 
other  crystalline  rocks.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  trom  the  mai^n 
of  the  fjord,  along  the  eastern  half  of  the  breadth  of  the  valley, 
these  mounds  come  in  ooutact  with  the  foot  of  the  glacier,  which 
is  there  pushed  in  a  long  tongue  down  the  valley.  The  ice  over- 
rides the  moraine  heaps,  ploughing  them  and  pushing  them  over. 
Fig.  6. — Sections  aenwa  the  lower  snd  of  tha  larger  Glacier.    Foodaleii. 


tn  Ike  niipM'  MctlDD.  UiB  gUder  la  ihovn  onrrtdlDg  )U  monlse ;  In  tho  lamr,  Ilia  buD 
liUe  •rltb  flwllng  Ice  intemoH  baCween  tbB  and  of  tb*  glader  uS  tin  monlne.  In  MCb  wc- 
Uon/7nuriu  the  lenloftbe  fiord. 

On  the  west  side  of  this  prolongation  of  the  glacier,  the  ice  is 
separated  from  the  moraine  mound  by  a  small  lake,  of  which  the 
surplus  waters  find  their  way  seaward  by  cutting  throngh  the 
moraine.  Like  Loch  Skene  and  many  lakes  still  existing  in  Bri- 
tain, this  sheet  of  water  is  formed  by  the  dam  of  rubbish  thrown 
down  by  the  glacier  across  the  valley.  It  is  full  of  fn^menta  of 
ice,  which  break  off  from  the  parent  mass,  and  float  across  to  the 
north  or  lower  aide,  where  they  strand  on  the  moraine  heaps,  and 


DvGooglc 


oj  Edmbwrgh,  Session  186.^-66.  543 

gradQally  melt  awajr.  The  smaller  pieces,  however,  often  find  their 
way  into  the  stream  by  which  the  lake  discharges  itself,  and  are 
then  carried  down  into  the  Qord.  From  the  mean  of  several  ob- 
serrations  taken  with  the  anemid,  I  estimated  the  surrace  of  this 
lake  to  be  about  25  feet  above  the  level  of  high  water  in  the  fjord. 
We  had  nomeansofmeasaring  its  depth,  yet,  from  the  slope  of  the 
glacier,  it  may  be  inferred  thai  the  bottom  of  the  ice  is  probably 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Proofs  that  the  glacier  was  once  much  lai^er  than  it  is  now,  nay 
be  well  seen  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley,  a  little  above  the  lake. 
The  shelving  slopes  of  the  monntain  for  several  hundred  feet 
npward  have  been  shom  smooth,  grooved,  and  striated,  and  every 
polished  hnmmock  of  rock  ia  loaded  with  hnge  fragments  of  stone, 
and  heaps  of  earth  and  angnlar  rubbish.  Here,  as  at  every  gla- 
cier we  visited,  the  glaciation  of  the  rocks  was  exactly  similar,  down 
tothe  minutest  detail,  withthatof  the  coast  and  outer  islets,  as  well 
as  with  that  of  the  Scottish  glens  and  sea-lochs. 

But  the  feature  which  most  interested  us  was  the  relation  of 
this  la^  glacier  of  Fondalen  to  the  marine  deposits  of  the  loca- 
lity. The  foregoing  sketch  (fig  4.)  shows  that  the  high  terrace  so 
marked  along  the  sides  of  the  Holands  Fjord  enters  this  valley,  and 
extends  on  the  western  mountain  side,  at  least,  as  far  as  the  foot  of 
the  glacier.  Hence  the  gravelly  plain  and  the  moraine  mounds  that 
separate  the  glacier  from  the  fjord  are  overlooked  on  either  side 
by  a  raised  sea-heach.  In  examining  attentively  the  nature  of  the 
material  of  which  the  mounds  nearest  the  glacier  were  composed,  we 
were  stmok  with  its  difference  from  the  loose,  coarse  character  of 
the  ordinary  moraine  rubbish,  and  its  resemblance  to  the  upper 
boulder-clay  of  Scotland.  The  glacier  is  pushing  great  noses  of 
ice  into  and  over  those  mounds,  so  that  freshly  exposed  sections  are 
abundant.  The  deposit  is  a  loose  sandy  clay  or  earth  full  of  stones, 
among  which  the  percentage  of  striated  specimens  is  not  large. 
The  larger  blocks  of  gneiss  and  schist  appeared  to  us  not  to  occur  in 
this  clay,  but  to  be  tumbled  down  upon  it  from  the  surface  of  the  gla- 
cier. We  had  hardly  begun  to  look  over  a  surface  of  the  clay,  ere 
we  found  frt^^ents  of  shells,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes 
we  picked  up  several  handfula,  chiefly  of  broken  pieces  of  Cyprina 
lilattdica,  but  including  also  single  valves  of  Attarte  compreua,  dx. 

VOL.  V.  4  b 


...Google 


544  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Soci^y 

We  even  took  oqt  two  or  three  fngmenti  which  were  eticking  in 
the  ice  of  the  faciei.  These  shells  ue  not  pecnlinr  to  one  spot, 
but  occurred  mora  or  less  abundantly  across  the  Talley. 

From  the  natnre  of  the  material  of  which  these  mounds  oonsiBt, 
and  from  the  oocuirence  of  marine  shells,  it  became  evident  that  we 
were  looking  not  merely  npon  ordinary  moraine  heaps — the  de- 
tritus carried  down  on  the  surface  of  the  ice  and  discharged  upon 
the  bottom  of  the  valley.  The  glacier  was  engaged  in  ploughing 
up  the  sediment  which  had  been  formerly  deposited  in  the  valley  by 
the  sea,  and  on  the  heaps  of  earth  and  clay  so  formed  were  thrown 
the  gravel  and  blocks  brought  down  by  the  glacier.  In  short,  we 
saw  here  actually  at  work  a  process  of  excavation,  by  which  it  bad 
been  conjectured  that  the  marine  drift  was  removed  from  certain 
valleys  in  the  British  Isles.* 

We  made  two  attempts,  both  ansncceasfol,  to  climb  to  the  vast 
table-land  of  eoow  from  which  these  glaciers  are  fed.  But  we  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  a  point  from  which  a  good  view  of  the  seemin^y 
boundless  undulating  plain  of  smooth  bdow  oould  be  obtained.  We 
ascended  the  ridge  that  separates  the  two  glacier  valleys  just  de- 
scribed. After  leaving  the  raised  beach  of  Fondalen,  with  its  mas- 
sive erratics,  we  climbed  a  steep  elope,  clothed  with  a  thick  brush- 
wood of  birch,  mountain-ash,  and  dwarf-willow,  and  Invariant 
masses  of  ferns,  bilberries,  cloudberries,  juniper,  rock-geraoium, 
lychnis,  Sk.  The  be^h  trees  are  often  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a-half 
in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  ara  the  building  material  used  at  the 
hamlet  of  Fondalen  below.  These  trees,  at  the  height  of  1320  feet 
above  the  sea,  still  often  measure  a  foot  across  at  the  bottom,  and  15 
or  20  feet  in  height.  At  this  height,  and  even  considerably  lower, 
there  were  large  sheets  of  snow  on  the  12th  of  July,  and  these  in- 
creased in  number  and  depth  as  we  ascended.  The  birch  trees  grow 
smaller  and  more  stunted  the  farther  they  stmggle  up  the  bars 
mountain  ridge,  until  they  become  mere  bushes.  The  willows,  in 
like  manner,  dwindle  down  till  they  look  like  straggling  tufts  of 
heather,  though  still  bearing  their  full-formed  catkins.  At  a 
height  of  1690  feet,  these  stunted  bushes  at  Isst  give  place  to  a 
Borub  of  bilberry,  mosses,  and  lyoopodia.    The  mountain  consists 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  X865-66.  M5 

of  gneiss,  aomstimes  massive  and  jointed,  aometimee  fissile  and 
flaggy,  witb  a  strike  towards  W.  15"  S.  The  extent  to  which  the 
higher  portions  have  suffered  from  the  disintegrating  effects  or  the 
weather  is  remarkable.  The  gneiss  is  split  np  along  its  joints 
into  Isrge  blocks,  which  lie  piled  upon  each  other  in  heaps  of 
augalai  ruin.  We  noticed  one  or  two  masses  which  differed  in 
lithologioal  cbaiaoter  from  the  rocks  around ;  these  ma;  possibly 
have  been  ice-borne  from  some  of  the  neighbonring  eminences. 
On  reaching  a  point  2700  feet  above  the  fjord,  our  further  passage 
waa  arrested  by  a  narrow,  shattered,  knife-edge  of  gneiss,  along 
whioh  it  was  impossible  to  advance.  But  from  this  elevated  point 
we  could  judge  of  the  general  aspect  of  the  great  snowy  table- 
land of  the  Svartieen,  which  was  sloping  towards  us,  wbile  the  two 
glaciers  were  spread  out  as  in  a  plan  beneath. 

The  branch  of  the  Holands  Fjord,  which  opposite  to  the  hamlet 
of  Fondalen,  strikes  off  to  the  north-east  for  seven  or  eight  miles,  is 
bordered  on  the  south  side,  and  closed  in  at  its  further  end,  by  a 
range  of  steep,  almost  precipitous,  walls  of  lock,  the  summits  of 
whioh  aie  on  a  level  with,  and  indeed  form  part  of  the  great  table- 
land. Here,  as  in  so  many  other  parts  of  Norway,  we  are  reminded 
that  the  fjords  are,  after  all,  mere  long  sinuous  trenches,  dng  deeply 
but  of  the  edge  of  a  series  of  elevated  plateanx.  And,  looking  np 
to  the  orest  of  these  dark  precipices,  we  see  the  end  of  this  snow- 
plain  peering  over,  and  sending  a  stream  of  bine  glacier  ice  down 
every  available  hollow.  We  counted  seven  of  these  tiny  glaciers, 
exuding  like  tears  from  under  the  snow,  and  creeping  downward 
under  the  sombre  cliffs  of  gneiBs.  None  of  them  comes  maoh  below 
the  enow  line,  and  none,  of  coarse,  reaches  the  sea.  The  largest  of 
them  is  near  the  end  of  the  fjord,  and  appears  as  a  broken,  ctevassed 
mass  of  ice,  moulded  as  it  were  over  the  steep  hill  side,  and,  when 
seen  from  below,  seeming  about  to  slip  oS  and  plunge  into  the 
Qord.  Fragments  of  it  at*  continually  breaking  away,  and  rolling, 
with  the  noiEC  of  thnnder,  and  clouds  of  icy  dnst,  down  the  shelving 
Bides  of  the  mountains.  These  glaciers  are,  for  the  most  part,  the 
icy  drainage  of  the  snow-field.  But  there  ore  one  oi  two  lying  in 
corries,  and  quite  detached  from  the  main  snow-Geld,  though  pro- 
bably connected  with  it  in  winter. 

We  left  this  delightful  fjord  not  without  regret,  and  catching 


.,  Google 


546  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

ag&in  the  coaBting  steamer  at  Melovaer,  pmoeeded  northwards. 
Between  Melovaer  and  liodo,  the  higher  monntaiDB  have  woader- 
fally  cnggy  and  spiry  outlinea,  only  their  loner  parts  ehowiDg 
the  smoothed  contoar  of  glaciation.  But  vhere  the  ooast  hills 
sank,  as  towanls  a  fjord  or  bay,  the  ice-nonldnd  forma  could  be 
traced  to  a  greater  height.  To  the  north  of  Bodii,  the  contiaat  be- 
tween the  sharp  weather-worn  peaks  above,  and  the  flowing  ice- 
worn  hummocks  and  hill  sides  below,  is  singularly  startling.  Prin- 
cipal Forbes,  who  gave  a  charaoteristically  faithful  drawing  to  illus- 
trate this  feature,  places  the  upper  limit  of  glaciation  at  from  1500 
to  2000.*  We  should  have  estimated  it  to  be  considerably  lowei. 
Through  oairow  kylea  and  intricate  sounds,  reminding  one  at  every 
turn  of  detached  portions  of  West  Highland  or  Hebridean  scenery, 
the  steamer  slowly  wound  its  way,  and  then  aoroas  the  Vest  Fjord 
to  the  Lofodden  Islands.  The  weathei  now  unfortunately  proved 
unfavourable  for  geological  observation.  In  sailing  through  the 
Rafte  Sund,  we  saw  what  looked  like  moraines  at  the  mouths 
of  some  of  the  valleys,  and  the  lines  of  moraine  terraces  continued 
as  marked  as  ever.  Well  ioe-wom  rocks  were  also  observed  at  the 
openings  of  some  of  the  valleys,  but  ws  were  nther  impreaeed  with  the 
general  mggedness  and  abeenoe  of  glaciation  among  the  Lofodden*. 
To  the  north  of  Tromsij  lies  the  island  of  BingvatsS,  notioed  by 
Mr  R,  Ohambei8.t  The  moraine  which  he  describes  ae  damming 
up  the  circular  sheet  of  water,  whence  the  island  takes  its  name, 
really  coincides  with  the  line  of  the  higher  of  the  two  strongly 
marked  terraces  or  sea- margins  of  this  part  of  the  Norwegian  coast. 
It  thus  illustrates  the  history  of  the  moraine  and  terrace,  below  the 
smaller  glacier  at  Fondalen.  It  was  further  interesting  to  mark 
that  the  glacier  of  Riogvatsb,  paitially  hidden  under  enow,  lies  in 
a  hollow  or  corry  surrounded  with  precipices,  and  quite  out  off  from 
any  snow-field.  The  accumulation  of  snow  in  the  corry  itself  must 
thus  be  sufficient  to  give  rise  to  the  glacier.  In  looking  at  this 
island,  I  was  again  forcibly  reminded  of  the  histoty  of  the  glaciers 
of  Tweedsmuir  and  Loch  Skene,  where,  on  dimples  of  the  hill  tops, 
and  in  deep  cliff-encircled  recesses,  there  must  have  gathered  snow 
enough  to  form  streams  of  ice,  which  oaught  and  carried  on  their 


*  Iforway  and  ibi  Qlncien,  p.  68. 

t  Tracingi  of  the  North  of  Europe,  p.  14fi. 


,,.,  Google 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  547 

surface  tlie  pilee  of  rubbish  and  huge  blocka  of  greywacke  that  now 
form  the  morafneg  of  Hidlaw,  and  dam  back  the  waters  of  Looh 
Skene.  A  large  enow-field  ia  not  necesaar;  for  the  production  ofa 
glacier  that  may  form  comparatively  extensive  moraines.* 

The  Bouth-westera  side  of  the  Lyngen  Fjord  is  formed  by  a  mass 
of  high  ground,  which  shoots  up  steeply  from  the  aea  to  a  height 
of  4000  feet  or  more.  Every  hollow  and  cliff  is  smothered  with 
snow,  which  descends  in  straggling  streaks  and  patches  almost  to 
the  edge  of  the  water.  We  sailed  up  the  fjord  for  some  miles,  and 
had  a  full  view  of  this  truly  magnificent  coast  line.  We  counted 
from  ten  to  twelve  small  glaciers  nestling  in  separate  corries,  and 
also  two  or  three  on  the  north-eastern  side.  There  was  here  the 
same  evidence  of  the  formation  of  glaciers  in  small  independent 
hollows  of  the  mountains,  quite  detached,  at  least  in  the  summer, 
from  any  lai^  snow-field. 

We  halted  at  the  island  of  Skjaervd  Q.aL  70°)  for  the  purpose  of 
making  an  excnraion  across  the  Evenangen  Fjord  and  np  the 
Jokuls  Fjord,  to  see  the  glacier  which  was  said  to  reach  the  level  of 
the  sea.f  The  metamorphic  rocks  among  which  the  Joknis  Fjord 
lies,  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  flaggy  qnortzoee  character.  Some- 
times, especially  where  they  are  most  fissile,  they  ore  violently 
crumpled.  Farts  of  them  pass  into  hornblende  rock  and  actinolite 
schist.  Their  average  strike  is  ou  an  east  and  west  line.  They 
are  much  jointed,  and  yield  freely  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 
Henoe,  a  rough  and  angular  surface  has  very  generally  replaced 
the  ice-moulded  oDtlines,  though  these  still  here  and  there  remain. 

*  North  Walea  preeenta  anamberofilluBtrationsnf  this  remark,  mchasCirin 
OraioDog,  Cwm  Idwol,  Ac.  (see  ProfaMoi  Bamiay's  Glsciers  of  North  Wslec). 

t  This  glaciei  was  noticed  b;  Von  Buch,  and  ia  mentioned  b;  Prinofpal 
Forbe*.  Whemre  visited  it,  1  vas  not  aware  thstabrief  acoonntof  ithadbeeu 
given  in  vol.ii.of  "Feaka,  Pasies,  andQUciars,"  teamd  *tHtt.  Mr  J.  F.  Hard;, 
tlie  writer  of  that  description,  started  overland  from  Talvik  on  the  Alten  Fjord, 
and  reached  the  Jclknls  Fjord  below  the  glacier,  to  which  be  ascended  bf  boat 
Like  mj  own  party,  be  did  not  climb  the  glacier,  bat  he  seema  to  have  re- 
garded it  as  oonnected  with  the  anow-fleld  above.  Though  I  did  not  succeed 
In  Boeending  the  rugged  cliffs,  I  had  no  doubt  that  the  lower  glacier,  from  ita 
colour,  and  the  steepnese  and  contraction  of  the  gorge  above  it,  ia  a  true  gta-- 
tier  remanid.  and  like  the  Suphelle  glacier  described  by  Furbe*  ("  Norwaj  and 
its  Glaciers,"  p.  149),  i«  quite  disconnected,  at  least  in  amnmer,  fromthesnov- 
flelde  above. 


DvGooglc 


548  Proceedings  of  the  Boytd  Society 

The  same  two  prominent  terracea  already  mentioned  are  well 
mtirked  along  the  sidea  of  the  Jiikuls  Fjnrd.  Tbe  lower  one  is 
about  60  feet,  the  higher  about  152  feet  (aneroid  meaauremeDt) 
above  bigb-water  mark,  and  eevetal  others  less  diatinct,  occur 
between  the  higher  aud  the  aea.     Tbe  upper  U  eapeciall;  marked. 


Fig.  6.- 


often  running  as  a  shelf  cut  out  of  tbe  rock.  This  feature  was 
noticed  along  many  parts  of  tbe  Norwegian  coast,  even  (as  in 
the  Jiikule  Fjord)  in  sheltered  places  where  wave  action  cannot  be 
supposed  ever  to  have  been  very  strong.  As  the  date  of  these  rock- 
terraces  probably  goes  bock  into  the  glacial  period,  it  occurred  to 
me  that  they  may  have  been  due  in  large  measure  to  the  effecta 
of  the  freezings  and  thawings  along  tbe  old  "  ice-foot,"  and  to  the 
rasping  and  grating  of  coast  ice.  Such,  too,  may  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  higher  horizontal  rock-terrocea  of  Scotland. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edt'nhimfh,  Session  1865-C6.  549 


Fig.  7.— View  rif  JokuU  Fjord  Qlnoiar. 


DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


550  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

At  Ibe  head  of  tbe  fjord  the  terraces  disappear  along  the  Bleep, 
bare  sides  of  the  mountnins.  A  moraine  monnd  of  loose  rubbish 
and  large  blocks  lies  on  the  west  side,  and  extends  a  little  way  ioto 
the  fjord,  poiuting  towatds  a  similar  ridge  on  the  opposite  side,  as 
if  both  were  parts  of  a  curved  termiDal  moraine.  The  view  from 
this  ridge  is  singularly  imposing.  Tbe  sombre  precipitous  inountainB 
sweep  upward  from  -the  edge  of  tbe  water,  seamed  everywhere 
with  streaks  and  sheets  of  snow.  Down  even  to  the  beach  these 
nuow-drifts  lie ;  and  it  gives  a  vivid  impression  of  the  high  lati- 
tude of  the  place,  that  even  in  July  there  should  be  deep  masses 
of  snow  overhanging  tangle  covered  rocks,  and  undermined  by  the 
wash  of  the  waves.  Over  the  crest  of  tbe  mountains,  at  the  head  of 
the  fjord,  we  see  the  edge  of  the  great  snow-field  of  the  Jokuls  Fjeld, 
and  stealing  down  from  underneath,  the  snow  comes  a  broken,  shat- 
tered mass  of  glacier  ice,  broadest  at  the  top,  and  narrowiug  dowo- 
waids  till  its  point  disappears  in  a  deep  cliff  or  ravine,  perhaps  a 
third  of  the  way  down  from  the  surface  of  the  snow-field  to  the  sea. 
The  easteni  part  of  this  glacier  seems  plastered  as  it  were  oTer  the 
forehead  of  the  mountain,  and  is  ever  sending  off  fragments  down 
the  dark  preoipice  below.  Indeed,  the  whole  glacier  is  in  constant 
commotion,  cracking,  and  crashing,  and  discharging  masses  of  ice 
^d  snow,  which  pour  over  the  black  rocks  in  sheets  of  white  dust, 
with  a  noise  like  the  nnintermitted  thunder  of  a  battle.  These 
ice-falls  are  in  large  measure  intercepted  at  the  point  where 
the  glacier  disappears  behind  the  side  of  the  ravine.  They 
seemed,  indeed,  to  collect  in  the  ravine,  and  to  slide  down  throngli 
it;  for  at  its  lower  end  a  second  glacier  begins,  and  expands 
with  the  expansion  of  tbe  hollow  in  which  it  lies,  till  it  reaches 
the  edge  of  tbe  fjord,  where  it  may  be  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
broad.  This  lower  glacier  appeared  to  me  not  connected  vritb  the 
snow-field,  but  a  true  glacier  remanii,  deriving  its  materials  en* 
tirely  from  the  avalanches  of  snow  and  ice  that  pour  doim  upon  its 
surface  from  the  precipices  overhead.  It  has  a  white,  or  dull  green- 
ish white  colour,  varied  wilh  well-marked  dirt-bands.  The  slope 
of  its  surface  was  judged  to  be  fully  20°  or  25°.  A  few  longitudi- 
nal crevasses  make  their  appearance  along  the  middle  of  the  glacier, 
and  a  little  further  down,  tbe  transverse  crevasses  increase  in  num- 
ber and  size,  until  at  its  foot  the  glacier,  broken  by  large  eemicircu- 

......GooqIc 


0/ £dinintrgb,  Sesiion  1865-66.  551 

lar  route,  beoomes  a  tumbled  idbsb  of  ruiu.  Laat  summer  these 
cliffs  of  gronnlar  loose  textared  ice  in  some  places  overhung  the 
wayes.  But  the  dark  rock  was  likewise  seeo  peering  out  along  the 
water's  edge,  underneath  the  ice,  which  does  not  posh  its  way  out 
to  sea  LU  a  mass,  but  ends  abraptly  where  it  meete  the  water.  From 
these  icy  waits  fragments  and  large  slices  break  off,  and  fall  either 
on  the  margin  of  rook  or  into  the  Ijord,  which  is  thus  covered 
with  hundreds  of  miniature  icebergs,  slowly  drifted  downwards 
against  wind  and  tide,  by  the  sntface  corrent  of  freshwater.  This 
process  is  called  "calving"  by  the  natives,  and  bo  great  is  the 
commotion  sometimes  produced,  that  according  to  the  information 
collected  by  Von  Buch,  the  Lapp  huts  along  the  margin  of  the 
fjord  are  sometimes  inundated  by  the  waves  propagated  outwards 
from  the  falling  masses.  The  floating  fn^ments  of  ice  look  like 
little  models  of  Arctic  bergs;  their  forms  are  often  singularly  fan- 
Fig.  8.-Sootion  of  Fuot  of  JSkul'B  Fj'oril  Glacier. 


taetic ;  they  may  be  seen  shifting  their  position,  and  even  capsizing, 
as  their  submerged  parts  melt  away;  some  of  them  carry  stones 
and  earth  on  their  surface;  and  many  ore  aground  along  the  margin 
of  the  fjord,  and  rise  aud  fall  with  the  tide,  or  the  ripple  of  the 
waves.  We  passed  two  or  three  which  were  from  8  to  10  feet 
long,  and  rose  from  3  to  4  feet  out  of  the  fjord.  Our  boat  grated 
against  several,  which  seemed  only  a  foot  or  two  in  size,  yet  the 
shock  of  the  collision  shewed  how  much  larger  was  the  portion 
concealed  under  water. 

To  the  east  of  the  upper  glacier  the  enow-field  sends  another 
icy  stream  down  the  face  of  the  shelving  precipices  which  descend 
into  a  higher  valley.  We  could  hear  the  roar  of  the  avalanches 
even  when  the  glacier  itself  became  hidden  behind  the  intervening 
spur  of  the  mouatain.  From  the  rocky  declivities  of  the  Jokul's 
Fjord  also,  stones  were  heard  and  seen  bounding  from  point  to 

TOU  T.  4c 

D.q,i,zedj.Googlc 


55'i  Proceed*ngB  of  the  ^yoA  Society 

point  in  their  descent  tovards  the  long  heaps  of  debria  &t  the  bot- 
tom. In  short,  m  this  lonely  nninhabited  spot,  the  activity  and 
ceaseleaeneeB  of  the  wasting  powers  of  nature  come  before  tha  tn- 
veller  with  a  memorable  imprefisiveneBS.  The  wide  saow-field  that 
seems  to  lie  bo  sluggish  and  still  among  the  distant  mists,  is  yet 
seen  to  be  in  slow  but  constant  motion,  pushing  its  ice-stteams  to- 
wards the  TalleyB,  and  grinding  down  the  hard  rocks  over  which  it 
moves.  Frtnts,  ruin,  and  springs  have  scarped  the  shoulders  of 
every  mountain,  and  poured  long  traiuB  of  rubbish  down  its  sides. 
And  if  this  can  be  now  done  under  the  present  climate  of  Norway, 
how  mnoh  more  powerful  must  the  abrasion  have  been  when  the 
ice,  in  plaoe  of  being  arrested  on  the  brow  of  the  mountain,  filled 
up  the  fjord,  and  pushed  \\»  way  into  the  Arctic  Sea, 

From  the  open  mouth  of  the  Kvenangs  Fjoid,  in  the  passage  be- 
tween Skjaervo  and  the  Jokul,  the  outline  of  the  neighbouring 
land  is  welt  seen.  The  steep,  aerrated  ridge  of  the  Evenongs  Tin- 
deme  shows  its  tiny  glaciers  nestling  in  corrles  both  on  its  northern 
and  southern  sides.  The  sides  of  the  Kvenangs  Fjord  are  ice- 
moulded  and  striated  in  the  direction  of  the  inlet,  and  its  islands 
are  only  large  rocAes  nwutonniet.  In  looking  back  at  the  moun- 
tainous tract  of  the  Jokul's  Fjeld,  we  see  that  it  is  another  snowy 
tableland  jutting  out  as  a  promontory  into  the  Arctic  Sea,  deeply 
trenched  with  long,  narrow  fjords,  and  pushing  glaciers  down  every 
glen  and  hollow  that  descends  from  the  plateau  of  snow. 

We  visited  the  north-western  and  northern  sides  of  this  snov- 
field,  boating  up  the  Bergs  Fjord  to  the  hamlet  of  that  name,  ond 
after  ascending  to  its  glaciers,  continuing  our  excursion  by  boat 
into  the  Kus  Fjord.  (See  fig.  6.)  In  ascending  the  South  Bergs 
Fjord,  we  found  the  gneissio  and  schistose  rocks  polished  and 
striated  from  east  to  vest,  which  is  the  direction  of  the  inlet,  and 
in  turning  into  the  North  Bergs  Fjord,  which  runs  nearly  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  other,  the  strife  were  seen  to  turn  out  of  the 
Lang  Fjord  and  bend  northwards  through  the  northern  limb  of  the 
Bergs  Fjord.  At  the  hamlet  of  Bergsfjord  these  ice-mouldings 
are  especially  well  shown,  and  there,  as  well  as  along  many  ports 
of  the  fjord,  occur  lineB  of  rock -terraces,  often  atrewed  with  quanti- 
ties of  angular  blocks.  Two  of  the  moet  marked  of  these  horizon-, 
tal  ban  have  an  elevation  of  about  60  and  160  feet  neqpectively. 

DiqitlzeaovGOOglC 


o/ Edinburgh,  Bemon  1865-66.  553 

Behind  the  hamlet  the  ground  elopes  up  to  a  point  about  250  feet 
above  the  sea,  beyond  which  Ilea  the  month  of  a  ralley  that  mns 
np  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  We  climbed  the  terraced 
slope  leading  to  this  recess,  and  fonnd  that  the  lower  half  of  the 
valley  is  occupied  by  a  lake  about  a  mile  long,  and  said  to  be  30 
fathoms  deep.  It  lies  in  a  rock  basin,  and  the  rooks  aroand  its 
margin  show  that  they  have  been  powerfully  abraded  byice.  We  were 
told  that  three  weeks  before  onr  visit  this  lake  was  solidly  fiozea 
over;  great  sheets  of  mow,  indeed,  still  descended  to  the  water's 
edge,  aud  were  melting  away  under  the  glare  of  a  fierce  July  sun. 
At  the  far  end  of  the  valley  mounds  of  angular  mbbiah,  cumbered 
with  huge  blocks  of  etoue,  stretched  from  side  to  side,  while  over- 
head two  glaciers  came  ont  of  the  edge  of  the  snow-field,  and  hnng 
down  the  steep  moantain  side — the  longer  one  almost  reaching  the 
bottom  of  the  valley.  Here,  too,  the  ice  was  ever  breaking  up  and 
crashing  down  the  precipices  in  clouds  of  snowy  dnst.  The  debris 
of  ice  gathered  into  talus  heaps  below,  like  the  cone*  d»  defection  at 
the  foot  of  a  winter  torrent. 

From  Bergsfjord  we  continued  onr  boating  voyage  down  the 
Qord,  and  fonnd  fresh  proofs  that  a  vast  body  of  ice,  descending 
from  the  lofty  Jokuls  Fjeld,  had  moved  northwards  along  the 
length  of  the  inlet.  Every  promontory  was  beautifully  smoothed 
and  polished ;  while  the  grooves  and  striaa  slanted  up  and  over  the 
projecting  bosses  of  rock,  as  they  do  in  Loch  Fyne  and  the  other 
western  sea-lochs  of  Scotland.  Bound  the  headland  at  the  month 
of  the  BergB  Fjord  we  turned  eastward,  and  soon  passsd  the  month 
of  the  nifjord.  We  could  see  that,  at  the  far  end  of  that  inlet,  the 
snow  of  the  great  table-land  moves  outward  to  the  edge  of  the  dark 
precipices  which  encircle  the  Ulfjord,  and  actually  forma  on  the 
crest  of  these  precipices  a  white  clifi*,  from  which,  of  course,  ava- 
lanches are  constantly  falling.  Tet  the  under  part  of  this  snowy 
clifi'  is  not  snow,  bnt  ice,  as  shown  by  its  blue  colour  conbasting 
with  the  whiteness  of  the  upper  layer,  which  is  snow.  At  the  foot 
of  the  precipice  a  glacier,  derived  probably  in  part,  like  that  of 
Jokul'e  Fjord,  from  the  ice-falls  from  above,  creeps  towards,  bnt 
does  not  reach,  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  Continuing  onr  eastward 
jonmey  we  saw  the  same  terraces  still  skirting  the  hill  sides,  now  as 
green  platforms  of  detritus  loaded  with  angular  blocks,  and  now  as 

'Sk 


664  I'roceediftge  of  the  Soyal  Society 

sharp  horizontal  notches  id  the  bare  rocki.  We  were  likewise 
Htnick  here,  as  io  other  parte  of  the  Norwegian  coaet,  with  the 
greater  freBboese  of  the  ice-markinge  near  the  sea-level,  when 
compared  with  those  higher  up — a  differeDce  which  ia  likewise 
very  noticeable  in  the  weet  of  Scotland. 

The  Nua  Fjord  is  about  six  miles  long,  and  lies  between  the 
Ulfjord  and  Oafjord.  Its  margin  is  terraced  by  the  same  horizon- 
tal lines  BO  constant  in  this  region.  Ita  Boath-westem  side  presents 
a  singularly  arctic  scene.  A  range  of  deeply  cleft  and  embayed 
crags  and  precipices,  plentifully  streaked  with  snow,  rises  op  to  the 
edge  of  the  snow-field,  which,  as  usual,  presses  down  every  larger 
valley  in  a  stream  of  blue  ice.  Sight  or  ten  distinct  glaciers  may 
be  counted,  of  which  at  least  three  descend  from  the  snow-field. 
The  others  lie  in  carries  detached  from  the  snow-field,  though  in 
some  cases  connected  with  it  by  nearly  perpendicular  streaks  of 
snow.  Here,  as  in  the  Ulfjord,  the  edge  of  the  great  sheet  of  snow 
which  covers  the  table-land  may  be  seen  ending  off  abruptly  as  a 
cliff  upon  the  crest  of  a  dark  precipice  of  rock,  and  from  the  colour 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  cliff,  it  is  plain  that  from  pressure  and 
motion,  the  under  portion  of  the  snow  sheet  is  converted  into  ice, 
and  as  ice,  reaches  the  verge  of  the  table-land,  where  it  breaks 
sharply  off,  and  sends  its  ruins  to  the  bottom  of  the  precipice  under- 
neath. There  the  debris,  mingled  with  the  winter  snow,  is  anew 
converted  into  solid  ice,  and  creeps  downward  as  a  glacier. 

At  the  head  of  the  Qoid,  on  the  south-east  side,  the  mouth  of  a 
valley  which  terminates  inland  at  the  foot  of  a  glacier  is  blocked 
up  by  an  old  moraine.  Behind  this  rampart  of  detritus  the  valley 
spreads  out  as  an  altuvial  plain,  evidently  at  one  time  a  lake  formed 
by  the  moraine  barrier  at  the  foot.  The  moraine  itself  is  strewed 
with  enormous  angular  blocks  of  rock,  beside  which  the  huts  of  a 
miserable  Lapp  encampment  took  like  mere  pebbles.  The  side  of 
this  moraine  facing  the  fjord  is  cut  by  the  50  foot  beach.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  fjord  a  valley,  at  the  bead  of  which  a  glacier 
comes  down  from  the  Sn&e-fond,  opens  upon  the  shore,  and  is 
curtained  across  by  a  terrace,  the  surface  of  which  is  mottled  with 
a  number  of  irregular  concentric  mounds.  We  had  not  an  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  these,  but  they  seemed  to  be  moraine  heaps 
left  by  the  glacier  when  it  came  down  to  the  fjord.    They  vividly 

.....GooqIc 


o/ Edinbttrgh,  Sesaion  1865-66.  555 

recalled  the  aiogiilar  concentric  mounds  that  overlie  the  teir&ce  at 
the  mouth  of  the  old  glacier  valley  of  the  Brora  in  Satherlaudnhire. 
We  walked  atoDg  the  north-eagt  side  of  the  fjord,  and  found  the 
rocky  declivity  terraced  with  old  sea-margiDB,  which  ran  along  like 
ancient  and  ruined  roadways.  They  occur  up  to  perhaps  200  or 
250  feet  above  the  eea-Ievel,  and  are  cut  in  the  hard  rook.  They  are 
covered  with  loose  blocks,  partly  derived  from  the  rocks  around,  but 
probably  in  part  also  transported  from  a  higher  part  of  the  valley. 
On  the  beach  we  met  with  well  ice-worn  bosses  of  gneiss,  slipping 
Fig.  9.— Seclion  on  beach  at  Nob  Fjord. 


d  Saady-grvy  di 


beneath   a  grey  sandy  clay  full  of  arctic  shells — a  conjunction 
which  is  closely  paralleled  hyone  on  the  shores  of  Loch  Fyne. 

Fig.  10. — SJvctioii  on  beach  at  Atdmamock,  Loch  Ffne. 


rf  3«*T-g™T 

diT, 

,  tta  oi  nmna . 

pro* 

imo,  A.Mt«  boiwlfh  S. 

diuOD  fnipnei 

(hick) 

c  Finelj  MOMia 

nd 

d«y,  wlthcml  ihi 

;l|g. 

»  Banlder-cUT. 

In  each  case  the  tocks  are  beautifully  smoothed  and  grooved,  and 
show  that  the  ice  which  moulded  them  moved  down  the  length  of 
the  inlet.  To  the  north  and  east  of  the  Jbkala  Fjeld  the  ground 
becomes  lower,  and  descends  wholly  below  the  enow-line.  The  hills 
that  bound  the  Alten  Fjord,  instead  of  rising  into  serrated  peaks, 
like  the  higher  tracts  to  the  south,  have  a  well  ice-worn  aspect,  and 
recall  the  hills  of  Gantyre,  or  the  scenery  of  parts  of  the  He- 
brides. Indeed,  the  whole  of  this  northern  district  of  Norway,  from 
the  Alten  Fjord  to  beyond  the  North  Cape,  has  the  smoothed  out- 


...  Google 


556  ProceedinffB  of  the  BoyaX  Sod^ 

line  which  further  BOuthward  is  found  only  OD  the  lower  tone  of  tba 
uioantoins.*  It  aeems  u  if  a  ebeet  of  ice,  descending  from  the 
south,  had  overriden  all  the  fjorda  here  and  the  comparatively  low 
hills  between  them,  and  had  advanced  northwards  to  the  Arctic 
Sea. 

In  fine,  this  short  excnrsion  into  the  Northern  part  of  Scondi* 
navia,  foiniahed  ns  with  ahnodant  proofs  that  the  glaciatioD  of  the 
west  of  Norway  was  produced  hy  a  mass  of  land-ice,  of  which  the 
present  glacieia  are  the  representatiTes.  It  likewise  confirmed,  in 
a  most  impressive  way,  the  conclusion  which  has  gained  ground  so 
rapidly  within  the  last  few  years,  that  the  glaciation  of  the  Scottish 
Highlands,  as  well  as  of  the  rest  of  the  British  lelea,  is  in  the  main 
the  work,  not  of  floating  bergs,  but  of  land  ice.  This  conclusion 
may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as  demonstrated  beyond  all  cavil  by  the 
ice>markB  of  Norway.  Much  good  work  might  be  done  by  trying 
to  work  out  a  detailed  comparison  of  the  glaciation  of  the  Scandi- 
navian pen  insula  with  that  of  this  country.  More  esiiecially  would 
it  be  of  importance  to  ascertain  how  far  the  glacial  deposits  of  the 
two  countries  cau  be  compared.  Doubtless  the  drift-covered  slopes 
of  Sweden,  and  those  of  the  east  and  centre  of  Scotland,  must  have 
many  geological  features  in  common.  It  will  perhaps  be  found 
that  some  of  the  difficulties  which  our  Scottish  drift  presents  are 
explained  by  the  more  extensive  deposits  of  the  north,  while  the 
latter  may  likewise  suggest  new  explanations  of  phenomena,  sup- 
posed to  be  already  sufficiently  intelligible. 


2.  On  the  Third  Coordinate  Branch  of  the  Higher 
Calculua    By  Edward  Sang,  Esq. 

The  object  of  the  paper  was  to  point  out  that  the  theoiy  of 
variables  has  a  third  branch,  bearing  to  the  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus  a  relation  somewhat  analogous  to  that  which  the  theory 
of  Logarithms  bears  to  luvolntlon  and  Evolution. 

In  the  theory  of  Fuuctious  there  are  three  connected  variable 

■  We  did  Dot  go  further  lliaii  Hammerfust,  but  Uio  aamo  coutoar  i>  Te- 
liiinud  over  tlio  low,  buua  district  Uiat  au^uuatua  Eammcrfeet  fraiD  tlie  Nvrtb 


DvGooglc 


of  Eddnburgh,  Sesaum  186&-66.  667 

qaantitiea,  viz.,  the  Primu'y,  the  Function,  and  the  DeiiT&tive. 
When  the  reUtion  between  the  ptimary  and  the  fnnction  is  given, 
the  dtsooreij  of  the  derivatiTd  helouge  to  the  Difienotial  Galculua. 
When  that  between  the  primary  and  the  derivatiTO  iit  given,  tlie 
foDction  is  found  by  help  of  the  Integral  Calonlne.  Aod  the  gene- 
ral problem  to  find  the  primary  when  the  relation  between  the 
fanctioQ  and  its  deiiimtiTe  is  given,  belongs  to  a  third  branch,  which 
may  be  called  the  Calculus  of  Primaries. 

It  was  stated,  iu  the  course  of  the  paper,  that,  by  help  of  well- 
known  artifices,  problems  involring  the  fint  derivati7e  or  the  second 
derivative  can  be  converted  into  problems  of  integration,  and  that 
thus  the  first  two  chapters  of  the  Calculus  of  Primaries  are,  as  it 
were,  abstracted ;  but  that,  whenever  the  order  of  derivation  ■• 
higher  than  the  eecond,  the  equations  cannot  be  tnosformed  so  as 
to  be  rendered  integiable. 

The  following  QeDtlemen  were  dalj  elected  FellowB  of 
the  Society : — 

CsABLBS  HoRBHBAD,  H.D.,  F.B.C.P.  Lond. 
Frofeisor  David  Habson. 
David  Douolas,  Esq. 

The  followiDg  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Abstracte  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London. 

Mo.  139.    Sw.—From  the  SodOj/. 
Sniletin  do  la  SociSI^  ImpSriale  des  Naturslistee  de  Moecou.    No. 

2.     1865.     Svo.—From  the  Soeietjf. 
SitzuDgsberichtA  der  konigl.  bayer.  Akademie  der  Wissenscharten 

zu  Munchen  1866.     II.  Heft  1,  2.     8vo.— iVom  the  Academy. 
Astronomical,  Uagnetical,  and  Heteorological  ObBervations  made 

at  the  Boyal   Observatory,   Greenwich,   in  the  year  1863. 

London,  1865.     4to. — I^vm  the  Obaervatory. 
Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  London.     Vol.  XXV. 

Part  II.     4to. — From  the  Society. 
List  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  London  for  1865.    8vo. — From  the 

Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XIV.    No. 

79.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 
Uonthly  Beturos  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Uarriages,  registered 


j.Googlc 


558      Proceedings  of  the  Moyal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

in  the  Eight  principal  Towdb  of  Scotland.    December  1865. 

8 TO. — From  th«  Regutrar-Qeneral. 
Address  of  Lieut.-6«narat  Sabine,  delivered  at  tbe  Anniversary 

Ueeting  of  the  'RoyeA  Society,  London,  on  SOth  NoTember 

1865.     8vo,— /Vom  the  Author. 
Heteorologiache  Waamemingen  in  Nederland  en  Zijne  Bezittingen 

en  Afvijkingen  van  Temperatunr  en  Barometstand  op  vele 

plaatsen  in  Europa  TJitgegeven  dooi  het  Eoninklijk  Neder- 

landscb  Meteorologieche  Institunt  1861-1863.     Utrecht.    4to. 

— From  the  Virecht  Society  of  Art*  and  Sdeneta. 
L'appareil  ^pisternaldes  Oioeanx  dSctit.    Far.  P.  Harting.    Utrecht 

1864.  4to.--fVom  Ihe  UtredU  Society  ofArtt  and  Science: 
Bijdragen  tot  de  ontvikkelings  der  Zoetwater  Flanarien.    Utrecht 

1865.  4to. — From  the  Vtreehl  SoeiUy  r^ArU  and  Soiencet. 
Verslag  van  bet  Verhandelde  in  de  Algemeene  Yei^sdering  Tan 

het  piovinoiaal  Utrechtsche  genootecbap  van   Eunsten  en 

Wetensobappen  1862-63-64-65.    Aanteekeningen  1860-61- 

62-63-64.     Utrecht.     8vo.—Frvm   the    Utrecht   Sod^y  of 

Art*  and  Sdmicea. 
Abbuidlangen  der  Philosophisch-PhilotogiBcben  classe  der  Eonig- 

lich  bayeriscben  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften.    Band  X. 

Hietoiiscben  clasae.    Band  IX.  Band  X.    ErsteAbtbeilangen. 

Munohen.    4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Journal  of  tbe  Statistical  Society  of  London.    YoL  XXVIII. 

Part  IV.     8vo.— ^rom  the  Socieiy. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.     Vol,  X, 

No.  73.    Philadelphia.    8to.— from  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH. 

VOL.  V.  1865-66.  No.  70. 

Monday,  5tk  February  1866. 
Sib  DAVID  BEEWSTER,  Preeident,  in  the  Chair. 
The  fi^viDg  Commonicationfi  were  read : — 

1.  On  the  Laws  of  the  Fertility  of  Women.  By  J.  Matthews 
Duncan,  M.D. 

This  paper  was  a  sequel  of  a  paper  read  to  the  Boyal  Society, 
and  published  in  tlie  23d  volume  of  the  "  Transact  ions."  That 
p^r  was  entitled,  "  On  the  Variations  of  the  I'ertility  and  Fecun- 
dity of  Women,  according  to  age ; "  and  among  other  conclnsione 
therein  announced,  was  one  to  the  effect  that  fecundity,  or  likeli- 
hood of  child-bearing  ^ter  marriage,  incrcaeed  from  the  earliest 
child-bearing  age  till  about  twenty-five,  and  thereafter  gradually 
decreased.  In  the  present  paper,  the  laws  regulating  such  fertility 
after  marriage  are  demonstrated.  The  chief  data  on  vbich  the 
argamenta  for  these  lavs  are  based  are  derived  from  an  analyBis  of 
16,301  famitiea,  in  connection  with  which  entries  were  made  in  1855 
in  the  pnblic  registers  for  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow. 

The  fertility  of  marriagea  in  Scotland  is  shown  by  the  reports  to 
the  Begistrar- General  to  be  about  4'64  children  to  a  marriage. 
Bat  this  statement  ia  of  no  physiological  value,  since  all  marriages 
are  included  in  it,  comprising  those  at  all  ages  and  of  all  durations, 
Ac.    A  statement  of  the  fertility  of  Scottish  wives,  a  little  more 

TOIh  V.  4  » 


DvGooglc 


560  Froceedmga  of  the  Boyal  Society 

exact,  ie  got  by  dividiDg  tbe  number  of  married  women  of  child- 
bearing  age  by  the  Dumber  of  legitimate  children  bora,  all  in  the 
same  year.  It  is  thns  found  that  every  3'55  wives,  aged  from  fifteen 
to  forty-five,  add  one  to  tbe  population  annually. 

The  fertility  of  all  marriages  in  Ediubnigh  and  Olasgow  that 
were  fertile  in  1655  is  found  to  be  3-7  children  to  a  marriage. 
The  fertility  of  fertile  marriages  endaring  for  the  whole  child- 
bearing  period  of  life  is  shown  to  be  on  an  average  ten  children  to 
a  marriage;  and  as  the  average  interval  between  successive  births 
ie  about  twenty  months,  fertile  women,  living  In  wedlock,  from  fif- 
teen to  fort)'-five,  are  fecund  for  about  seventeen  years. 

Tbe  fertility  of  persistently  fertile  marriages,  lasting  during  the 
whole  child-bearing  period  of  life,  is  shown  to  be  at  least  fifteen 
children  to  a  marriage.  Persistently  fertile  wives,  taken  at  any 
duration  of  marriage,  are  found  to  have  bom  at  the  late  of  a  child 
very  nearly  every  two  years. 

It  is  shown  that,  at  any  epoch  in  married  life,  the  average  nom- 
bei  of  a  fertile  woman's  family  is  one-third  of  the  number  of  years 
elapsed  since  her  marriage,  and  that  the  number  of  a  persistently 
fertile  woman's  family  is  one-half  of  the  number  of  years  elapsed 
since  her  marriage.  These  numbers  vary  according  to  tbe  age  of 
tbe  wives  at  marriage  —  a  circumstance  which  is  subsequently 
explained. 

The  average  interval  between  marriage  and  the  birth  of  a  first 
child  is  shown  to  be  seventeen  months.  Inclusive  of  this  period, 
the  interval  between  the  births  of  successive  children  is  twenty 
months.  In  average  families,  the  first  four  children  succeed  one 
another  more  rapidly  than  the  next  six — that  is,  on  to  the  tenth. 
But  in  large  families,  or  those  above  ten,  the  children,  from  tbe 
first,  do  comparatively  hurry  after  one  another  with  brief  intervals. 

Fertile  women,  married  at  different  ages,  have  an  amount  of  fer- 
tility which  decreases  as  the  age  at  marriage  increases;  and  this 
greater  total  fertility  arises  from  tbe  greater  continuance  or  per- 
sistence in  fertility  of  the  younger  married.  Women  married  at 
higher  and  higher  ages  have  a  shorter  career  of  fertility.  This  per- 
severance in  fertility  explains  why  the  women  married  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  years  of  age  have  a  greater  fertility  than  those  marrieJ 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five,  who  have  the  highest  fecundity  or  lik^' 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  561 

lihood  to  have  children,  sod  specially  a  greater  probability  of  being 
fertile  than  thoee  married  from  fifteen  to  twenty. 

Wivea  who  are  pereietently  fertile  are  more  fertile  the  older  they 
were  at  the  time  of  marrii^.  In  other  words,  the  older  a  woman, 
destined  to  he  fertile,  is  at  the  time  of  marriage,  the  greater  will  be 
her  fertility  ao  loDg  ax  it  lasts.  The  fertility  of  a  woman  old  at 
marriage  is  greater  than  that  of  a  woman  young  at  marriage ;  yet 
the  total  fertility  of  women  married  young  far  exceeds  that  of 
women  married  when  elderly,  reckoning  for  both  sets  equal  dura- 
tions of  marriage,  and  all  within  the  child-besring  period ;  because 
of  the  younger  a  far  larger  proportion  are  fecund,  and  hecause  the 
younger  bare  a  far  longer  continuance  of  fertility. 

The  increasing  frequency  of  twin-births  as  age  advances  is  ex- 
plained by  this  law  of  increasing  intensity  of  fertility  as  age 
advances. 

Women  married  when  elderly  have  been  supposed  by  some 
authors  to  have  a  special  postponement  of  the  generative  orgasm,  to 
enable  them  to  bear  children  beyond  ordinary  periods.  But  this  is 
showD  not  to  be  the  case,  by  the  circumstance  that  most  women 
cbild-hearing  at  very  high  ages  are  already  mothers  of  considerable 
families. 

2.  On  the  Glae&ification  of  Chemical  Substances  hj  Means 
of  Generic  Badicals.    By  Dr  Alexander  Crum  Brown. 

In  this  paper  the  author  proposes  to  use  for  purposes  of  classifi- 
cation those  radicals  or  parts  of  molecules  which  are  common  to 
genera  of  substances,  and  within  which  the  changes  characteristic 
of  these  genera  take  place.    Thus  the  carbon  acids  contain  the 


group    or    radical  Qy- ;  the  aldehydes        (^J—i    '"'d    the 

/j^  /T\  "  true" 


In  the  eame  way,  as  the  acetones  contain  [ 


DvGooglc 


562  Proceedirtga  of  the  Royal  Society 

the  pBendo-slcoholB  derived  from  them  must  contain 


B;  ft  comparison  of  various  reactions  it  iB  shown  that  the  groap 
characteristic  of  the  olefine-hydr&tea  ia  piobabljr 


;  that  of  the  olefines,  i 


glycols 


that  of  the  lactic  acid  class  ( 


and  that  of  the  organic  acids  derived  from  salphtuic  acid 


Snch  groups  of  atoms  may  be  called  generic  radicali,  as  the  dis- 
tingDishing  ch&racteiB  of  a  geona  depend  on  the  presence  of  one 
of  them,  and  the  individual  snbstaDcea  may  be  classified  as  com- 
ponnds  of  these  radicals.  In  conclusion,  some  substancee  are 
mentioned  which  consist  entirely  of  such  radicals,  as  glycol 
(CH,HO)„  glyoxal  (COH)„  oxalic  acid  (CO  H0)„  hypo-sulphuric 
acid  (SO,HO)j,  glycolic  acid  (CH^O)  (CO  HO),  glyoxylic  acid 
(COH)  (CO  HO),  glycerine  (OH  HO)"  CCH,HO)„  tartronic  acid 
(OH  HO)"  (CO  HO),,  glyceric  acid  (OH  HO)"  (CH^O)  (GO  HO), 
meMxalic  acid  (CO)"  (CO  HO^. 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinbwrgh,  Session  1865-66. 


3.  Note  on  the  Compreesioa  of  Air  in  an  Air-bubble 
under  Water.    By  Profesaor  Tait. 

In  an  air-babble  of  moderate  dimenaionsthepiessme  ie  very  little 
greater  than  that  of  the  atmosphere ;  but,  as  the  difTereoce  of 
preaanrea  within  and  vitbout  a  bubble  is  proportional  to  its  ourratnre, 
it  appeared  to  me  possible  that  the  so-called  solution  of  air  in  water 
might  be  due  in  some  degree  to  the  extreme  compression  of  the 
air  when  divided  into  small  bubbles  invisible  perhaps  even  under 
the  microscope. 

For  a  rough  attempt  at  a  solution,  let  ub  assume  air  to  follow 
Boyle's  law  for  all  pressures,  and  suppose  the  common  formula 

2T 
P-p-=  — 

to  hold  for  the  smallest  bubble. 

Bath  of  these  assnmptiona  are  probably  far  from  correct — the  first, 
when  the  condensation  of  the  aii  is  great ;  and  the  second,  when  the 
dlmensionB  of  the  bubble  are  bo  small  as  to  be  comparable  with  the 
greatest  distance  at  which  molecular  forces  are  senBibla. 

If  B  be  the  radius  of  the  sphere  which  the  contained  air  would 
occupy  at  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  p^ ;  r  the  rodiuB  of  the 
bubble,  and  p  the  presBure  inside, 
E' 

Eliminating  p  by  the  help  of  the  first  equation, 
2T  , 


(0^S(0-»- 


Now,  by  experiments  on  the  rise  of  water  in  capillary  tubes,  it 

ia  found  that  the  value  of  —  is,  roughly,  -OOOi  inch,  if  T  be 

the  tension  per  linear  inch,  p^the  pressure  per  square  inch.  From 
the  smallnese  of  this  quantity  it  appears  that  unless  K  be  very 
email,  the  second  term  of  the  above  cubic  is  of  little  consequence, 
and  therefore  the  dimensions  of  the  bubble  are  little  altered. 


DvGooglc 


664  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Bat  if  B  be  ver;  small  the  second  term  is  of  more  importance 
than  the  firat.    The  following  are  rough  approximations  only: — 


0-0001  -75  2-3 

000001  -3  35 

0  000001  1  1000 

00000001  -03  33,000. 

An  air-bubble  whose  radios  is  -00001  inch,  which  is  abont  the 
smalleet  that  can  be  observed  by  means  of  a  good  microscope,  con- 
tains  air  compressed  to  11  atmoBpheree  only. 

When  the  bubble  is  detached  from  the  fluid  each  of  its  surfaces 
contributes  its  share  to  the  excess  of  internal,  over  external  pres- 
sure. (W.  Thomson,  Proc.  B.  S.  1858.)  In  this  case  the  equatiou 
above  becomes 

(H)"-i(B)"-l-». 
at  least  until  r  becomes  bo  small  that  the  thickness  of  the  film 
must  be  taken  into  account.  The  following  numbers,  therefore, 
refer  to  the  caee  of  vesicular  vapour  which  is  supposed  by  Olausius 
and  others  to  account  for  the  blue  of  the  sky  and  the  morning  and 
evening  red.  As  I  have  considered  it  unnecessary  to  allow  for  tbe 
thickness  of  the  film,  the  later  resnlts  are  t«o  large : — 

ii.   '                         ^  Pii 

0-0001  -62  4-3 

0-00001  -22  94 

0-000001  -07  2740 

O-OOOOOOl  -022  98,000. 

Little  is  gained  towards  a  closer  approximation  by  applying 
analysis  such  as  that  of  Laplace  or  Gauss  to  this  question.  If  we 
express  by  ift(r)  tbe  law  of  molecular  action  as  depending  on  the 
distance,  we  know  merely  that  ^  is  insensible  for  sensible  values 
of  r.  Tbe  complete  solution  of  the  problem  can,  no  doubt,  be  given 
by  a  direct  application  of  Laplace's  process.     Thus,  if  we  write 

<l'(.r)=/rdrfy(r)dr, 
the  attraction  of  a  uniform  spherical  shell,  of  radius  a,  on   an 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  665 

external  unit  of  matter  placed  at  a  distance  r  from  its  centre  is 
represented  by 

Integrating  between  the  limits  0  and  a  (a<^r)  for  a,  we  have  the 
attraction  of  a  uniform  sphere  on  an  external  point.  Forming 
the  equation  of  fluid  equilibrium  on  the  supposition  that  such  a 
spherical  portion  ceaaes  to  exert  molecular  force,  we  find  the  ex- 
pression for  the  pressure  in  the  fluid  at  a  distance  r  from  the 
centre  of  the  bubble.     This  contains  the  following  new  functions 

m(r)=/rdr/rdr/,t<ryir, 
KnA  x(r)=/dr/rdrf,l>(r)dr, 

but,  from  the  manner  in  which  they  appear  in  the  final  expreasion, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  relative  importance  of  the  terras 
containing  them. 

We  see,  however,  that  the  terms  in  u>,  which  are  multiplied 
by  the  curvature,  become  somewhat  less  as  the  radius  of  the  bubble 
diminishes — so  that  the  calculated  pressures  given  above  are  pos- 
sibly too  large. 

4.  Od  some  Geometrical  Construction  a  connected  with  the 
Elliptic  Motion  of  Unresisted  Projectiles.  By  Professor 
Tait. 

In  "  Tait  and  Steele's  Dynamics  of  a  Particle,"  chap,  iv.,  a 
number  of  geometrical  constructions  are  given,  some  possibly  for 
the  first  time,  connected  with  the  motion  of  projectiles  in  para- 
bolic paths  in  vacuo.  I  have  recently  been  led  to  remark  that 
most  of  these  propositions  still  hold  when  we  substitute,  for  the 
uniform  action  of  gravity  in  parallel  lines,  the  action  of  gravity 
supposed  to  be  directed  to  the  earth's  centre,  and  to  vary  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  that  point.  My  excuse  for 
bringing  so  simple  a  matter  before  the  Society  is,  that  the  proposi- 
tions are  in  themselves  curious  and  elegant,  and  that  I  am  not 
aware  of  their  having  been  before  mentioned.  A  very  few  ex- 
amples will  EulBce  to  indicate  the  change  of  form  required  by  the 
more  general  assumed  conditions.  The  following  may  be  taken 
for  this  purpose  : — 


DvGooglc 


566  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

1.  The  loouB  of  the  second  foci  of  the  patha  of  all  projectUes 
leaviDg  a  given  point,  with  a  given  velocity,  in  a  vertical  plane,  is 
a  oiicle. 

2.  The  diieotioQ  of  projection  for  the  greatest  range  on  a  given 
Lne,  passing  through  the  point  of  projection,  bisecta  the  angle 
between  the  vertical  and  the  line. 

3.  Any  other  point  on  the  line  which  can  be  reached  at  all,  can 
be  reached  bj  fwo  difTerent  paths,  and  the  directions  of  piojection 
for  these  are  equally  inclined  to  the  direction  which  gives  the 
maximum  range. 

4.  If  a  projectile  meet  the  line  at  right  angles,  the  point  which 
it  strikes  ia  the  vertex  of  the  other  path  by  which  it  may  be 
reached. 

5.  The  envelop  of  all  possible  paths  in  a  vertical  plane  is  an 
ellipse,  one  of  whose  foci  is  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  the  other 
the  point  of  projection.     (In  the  simpler  case  this  is  a  parabola.) 

The  proofs  of  these  propositions  are  extremely  simple.  Thus, 
let  E  be  the  earth's  centre,  P  the  point  of  projection,  A  the  point 


which  the  projectile  wonld  reach  if  fired  verticall;  npwaids.  With 
centre  E.  and  radios  EA,  describe  a  circle  in  the  common  plane  of 
projection.  This  corre^randa  to  the  common  directrix  of  the  para- 
bolic paths  in  the  ordinary  theory.    If  F  b«  the  second  focns  of 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  567 

any  path,  we  must  have  EF+FF  conBtant,  because  the  axis  m^or 
depends  on  the'«efo«(y,  not  the  direction,  of  projection.  Hence  (1) 
tlio  locus  of  F  ie  the  circle  AFO.  Again,  aince,  if  F  be  the  focus 
of  the  path  which  meets  FB  in  Q,  we  must  have  FQ^^QS ;  it  is 
obvious  that  the  greatest  range  Py  is  to  be  found  by  the  condition 
Oq^qs.  0  is  therefore  the  Gecond  focus  of  thJB  trajectory,  and 
therefore  (2)  the  direction  of  projection  for  the  greatest  range  on 
PK  bisects  the  angle  APR.  If  QF=Qr  =  QS,  F  and  Fare  the 
second  foci  of  the  two  paths  by  which  Q  may  be  reached ;  and,  as 
■^FFO=-<rFP0-weBeethetmthof(3).  If  Q  be  a  point  reached 
by  the  projectile  when  moving  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
PE-we  must  evidently  have  FQF=-<c  FQF=-^  SQB="^EQF  ; 
i.e.,  £Q  passes  through  T.  This  case  is  represented  on  the  other 
aide  of  the  diagram — vheMfg=gh=fg.  The  ellipsewhose  second 
focna  ia  /  evidently  meet  Pr  at  right  angles :  and  that  whose 
second  focus  is  /'  has  (4)  its  vertex  at  g.  The  locus  of  q  is  evi- 
dently the  envelop  of  all  the  trajectories.  Now 
Pj=P0  +  0j=FA  +  02, 
Ej=E«-»2=EA-03. 
Hence 

Pj  +  E2=FA  +  AE, 

or  (5)  the  envelop  is  an  ellipse,  whose  foci  aie  E  and  P,  and  which 
passes  through  A. 


5.  On  the  Fairj  Stones  found  in  the  Elwand  Water  near 
Melrose.    By  Sir  David  Brewster,  K.H.,  F.R.S. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Elwand  Water,  which  runs  Into  the  Tweed, 
about  two  miles  above  Melrose,  there  is  a  picturesque  glen  called 
the  Fairy  Dean,  which  has  become  a  favourite  place  of  resort,  from 
its  association  with  the  incidents  in  "The  Monastery"  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  It  has  acquired  an  interest  of  a  diSerent  kind 
from  certain  mineral  concretions  which  have  received  the  name  of 
Fairy  Stones,  from  their  being  found  in  that  part  of  the  rivulet 
which  runs  through  the  Fairy  Dean. 

When  the  Waverley  Novels  were  not  acknowledged  by  their 
author,  facts  oi  incidents  to  which  they  referred,  were  always  wel- 

TOL.  V.  4  s 


DvGooglc 


568  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

come  Bubjecta  of  convereation  at  Abboteford;  and  on  one  occasion 
when  I  happened  to  mention  that  eingular  Btonee  were  found  in 
the  Fairy  Dean,  Sir  Walter  Scott  expressed  a  desire  to  see  them, 
and  to  know  how  they  were  formed.  I  accordingly  sent  some 
young  persons  to  search  for  them  in  the  bed  of  the  rivulet,  and  I 
was  fortunate  in  thus  obtaining  several  specimens  of  great  variety, 
and  singular  shape,  aud  showing,  very  clearly,  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  formed. 

It  did  not  then  occur  to  me  that  a  description  of  these  stones 
would  excite  any  other  than  a  local  interest ;  but,  some  years 
ago,  when  in  company  with  our  distinguiehed  conntryman  Mr 
Robert  Brown,  the  Botanicontm  facile  Princeja  of  Humboldt, 
he  asked  me  to  accompany  bim  to  his  museum,  to  see  some 
remarkable  mineral  productions  which  bad  been  sent  to  him, 
and  which  be  had  not  seen  before.  These  minerals  were  exactly 
the  same  as  the  Fairy  Stones  from  Bozburgbsbire,  but  none  of 
them  were  so  remarkable,  either  in  their  shape  or  their  mode  of 
formation,  as  those  which  I  now  present  to  the  Society. 

The  Fairy  Stones  are  generally  of  &  grey  colour,  like  common 
freestone,  but  some  of  them  are  coated  to  the  thickness  of  about 
the  seventieth  of  an  inch,  with  a  black  substance,  so  soft  as  to  pro- 
duce a  black  streak  upon  paper  like  a  crayon. 

These  stones  ate  generally  formed  of  concentric  layers  more  or 
less  regular  round  a  single  centre,  as  in  figs.  1  and  2,  some  of  them 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

having  the  form  of  a  lens,  ocaalonally  so  deep,  as  to  be  almost  a 
sphere.  In  many  specimens  the  concentric  layers  are  formed 
round  two  centres,  as  in  fig.  3 ;  in  some  round  three  centres,  and 
in  others  round  many  centres,  as  in  figs.  4  and  5. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edmimrgk,  Session  1865-66.  569 

In  a  few  gpecimens,  when  tbe  concentric  rings  round  two  centres 


•:  i  m 


have  come  into  contact,  as  in  fig.  3,  the  rings  take  the  shape  ABCD 
like  the  Lemniscates  in  hiaxal  crystals. 


In  one  remarkable  specimi 
tions  are  disposed  witli  such 
the  appearance  of  a  frasil. 


Fig.  6. 

n,  shown  in  fig.  6,  the  diflferent  por- 

extraordinary  symmetry  as  to  give  it 


DvGooglc 


570  Proceedings  of  the  RoyeA  Society 

It  is  obviouB,  from  the  iDBpectiuD  of  the  specimens  on  the  table, 
that  the  Fairy  StoDes  are  formed  by  the  dropping  of  water  con- 
taining  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed.  This  is  clearly 
shown  in  two  of  the  specimene  on  the  table,  where  the  fluid  matter 
has  been  deposited  upon  fragments  of  whinstone,  though  in  one  of 
these  specimens  (fig.  7), the  deposits  at  AA  are  eo  deeply  imbedded 
as  to  have  the  appearance  of  contemporaneous  formations. 

When  the  stones  have  a  Bymmetrical  structure  on  the  under  as 
well  as  on  the  upper  side  (as  in  fig.  8),  it  is  difficult  to  understand 


FiR.  7.  Fig.  8. 

the  mode  of  their  formation,  unless  we  suppose  that  the  deposit 
has  been  made  upon  a  soft  stratum  of  clay  or  sand,  or  any  other 
material  with  which  the  deposited  matter  will  not  combine,  and 
from  which  it  may  be  easily  separated. 

This  difficulty  is  increased  when  the  specimen  has  the  form  of  a 
ring,  as  in  fig.  9. 


According  to  a  rough  analysis,  which  Dr  Dalzell  has  been  so 
good  as  to  make  for  me ;  the  specific  gravity  of  the  Fairy  Stones 
is  2*65,  and  their  odoui,  when  breathed  upon,  argillaceous.     They 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seatim  1865-66.  571 

effervesce  with  mineral  acids,  and  contain  the  following  ingredients 
proportionally  in  the  order  in  which  tbe3r  are  written  : — Alumina, 
Silica,  Lime,  Magnetia,  Oxide  of  Iron,  and  a  trace  of  Manganete. 

The  black  coating  on  man;  of  these  stones,  whicb  is  too  minute 
for  analysis,  and  which  may  be  easily  removed,  is  very  remarkable. 
If  it  is  not  carbonaceoaH  it  must  b«  an  aluminous  deposit,  when  the 
particles  of  the  aluminous  solution  have  become  so  small  as  to  be 
unable  to  reflect  light.  This  supposition  will  not  appear  unreason- 
able to  those  who  have  seen  the  surfaces  of  fracture  of  certain 
specimens  of  quartz,  where  the  separated  fibres  are  so  minute  as 
to  be  incapable  of  reflecting  the  lowest  order  of  tints  in  Newton's 
scale.  The  specimen  of  quartz  in  which  I  observed  this  very 
remarkable  phenomenon  was,  I  believe,  exhibited  to  the  Society.  ■ 
Hr  Haidinger  afterwards  found  a  less  perfect  specimen  in  which 
the  snifac«e  of  fracture  were  equally  black. 

The  followmg  Gentlemen  were  admitted  Fellows  of  the 
Society ; — 

John  H'Nair,  Esq. 
Pbofessob  Spbmcb. 

TfiOHAS  Nelsom,  Esq. 

The  follovring  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 

Transactions  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts.    Vol.  VII. 

Part  1.     Svo.— From  rt«  Sociriy. 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London.    Vol. 

CLV.     Part  2.     London,  1865.     ito.— From  Oe  Society. 
Proceedings  of  tbo  Boyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XV.    Ko.  80. 

8vo. — from  (Ae  Society. 
List  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  30tb  Nov.  1865.    4to.— 

From  the  Society. 
Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  High  Constables  of  Edinburgh.    By 

James  Warwick,   F.B.S.E,   Edinburgh,   1865.      8vo.— -From 

Charlet  Lawton,  Esq. 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society  of  London.   New  Series. 

Vol.  I.     Port  1.     8vo.— friwn  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society  of  London.    Vol. 

V.     No.  9.     8vo.— from  the  Society. 


DvGooglc 


572  Proceedings  o/the  Royal  Society 

Transactions  of  the  Historic  Society  of  Laocashire  and  GbeBbir?. 
Natr  Series.     Vol.  IV.    Session  1863-64.    Liyerpool,  1664. 
8to. — From  the  Society. 
Joamal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1865.    Part  1.    No.  3. 

Part  2.     No.  3.     Calcutta,  1865.— JVom  the  Society, 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London.     No.  XXXVI.     8to. 

— From  the  Society. 
The  Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.    No.  60. 

Toronto,  1865.     Svo.—From  the  Editon. 
Die  Fortschritte  der  Physik  in  Jahre,  1863.     Dargestellt  von  der 
Pbysikalieoben  C^esellschaft  zn  Berlin  XIX.  Jahrgang  Erste. 
Zweite  AbtheiluDg.     Berlin,  1865.     8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Ofveisigt  af  Kongl.  Vetenskape-Akademiens  FiSrhandlingar,  1861. 

Noa.  1-10.     Stockholm,  1865.   8vo.— From  the  Academy. 
Kongl.  Svenska  Vetenskaps-Akademiens  Handlingar.    Bd.  S.    Hft. 

1.     1863.     4to.— JVom  the  Academy. 
Ueteorologiska  lakttagelser  i  Sverige  Utglfna  af  Kongl.  Svenska 
Vetenskaps- Akademien  austallda  ach  bearbetade  under  Insende 
af  Er.  Edlund.    Bd.  5.     1863.    4to.— /"rem  the  Academy. 
Bulletin  de  L'Academie  Royale  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  des 
Beaux  Arts,  de  Belgiqne.    Tome  20,  Nob.  11,  12.    Tome  21, 
No.  1.     Bruxelles.     8vo, — From  the  Academy. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci^t^  des  Sciences  NaturellesdeNenohatel.    Tome 

VII.     No  1.     8to.— Jrwn  the  Society. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t^  Vaudoise  des   Sciences  Naturelles.     Tom. 

VIII.,  No.  53.     Lausanne,  1865.     Bvo.—From  the  Society. 
Annales  dee  Mines  ou  recueil  de  UfimoireB  eur  L 'exploitation  des 
Mines.     Tome  VIII.  4'.    LivraisoD,  Paris,  1865,    4to. — From 
the  Eeole  dee  Minea. 
Jahrbucfa  der  Esiseriicb-Eoniglichen  Geologischen  Beichsanstalt. 

Band  XV.     No'.  3.     Wien.     8vo.— /"rem  the  Society. 
Schriften  der  Univeraitat  zu  Kiel  aiis  dem  Jahre,  1864.     Band  XI. 

Kiel,  1865.  4to.— JVom  the  Vnivenity. 
Reise  der  Oiiterreicbischen  Fregatte  Novara  um  die  Krde  in  den 
Jahren  1857-58-59  unter  den  Beseben  des  Commodore  B. 
von  Wullerstorf'Urbair  Nautiscb-PbyeicaliBcber  Theil.  II. 
Abtbeil.  Magnetiscbe  Beobacbtnngen.  Wien,  18G5.  4to. — 
From  the  Attatrian  Navy  Board. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  186&-66.  673 

Monday,  19th  February  1866. 
Sir  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  in  tlie  Chair. 
The  following  CommuuicatioDS  weie  read  : — 

1.  Report  on  the  Hourly  Observations  made  at  Leith  Fort 

ia  1826  and  1827,  by  Direction  of  the  Society.     By  Sir 

David  Brewster,  K.H  ,  D.C.L.,  F.R.9.,  &c. 

Id  1823  tbe  Boyal  Society  eetablished  a  register  of  hourly  ob- 
servatioDB  of  the  tbermometeT  at  Leith  Fort.  They  were  made  hy 
the  DOD-commifisioued  ofScers  of  artillery,  aod  were  continaed  for 
four  years,  from  1824  to  1827  inclusive.  A  report  on  these  obser- 
vations for  the  years  1824  and  1825  was  published  id  the  tenth  vo- 
lame  of  the  Society's  Transactions ;  bat  from  causes  t«  which  it  is 
DDDeceBBary  to  refer,  the  report  on  the  observations  of  1826  and 
1827  were  not  then  published. 

The  great  interest  which  was  attached  to  meteorological  obser- 
vations, but  specially  to  those  made  eveiy  hour,  has  induced  the 
author  to  publish  the  results  which  be  has  obtained  from  tho 
original  registers  in  the  Library  of  the  Society. 

The  agreement  of  these  results,  with  those  obtained  from  the 
observations  in  1824  and  1825,  is  very  remarkable. 

2.  On  a  New  Property  of  the  Retina.    By  Sir  David 

Brewster,  K.H.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  &c. 

In  a  paper  on  bemiopay,*  the  author  had  shown  that  the  parts  of 

the  retina  affected  with  thisdieease  were  susceptible  of  luminous  im- 
pressions and  inseoBible  to  visual  ones,  and  that  the  light  by  which 
they  were  inipresBed  was  derived  by  irradiation  from  the  adjacent 
parts  of  the  retina.  The  parts  of  the  retina  affected  with  hemiopsy 
were,  however,  so  small,  so  irregularly  distributed,  and  the  plieno- 
menon  of  such  abort  duration,  that  it  was  difGcult  to  study  it  and 
deduce  any  satisfactory  results. 

From   an  accidental  observation  the  author  discovered    tlmt  a 
*  TrausactiDDB,  toI.  xiit.  p.  16. 


DvGooglc 


574  Proceedings  of  the  BoycU  Society 

pi>rtioD  of  theretiaaof  his  right  eye,  though  the 'vision  of  the  eye 
was  perfect,  was  actually  blind  or  insensible  to  visual  impresBione, 
while  it  was  so  sensible  to  luminous  impressions,  that  no  spot  of 
the  slightest  darkness  or  shade  was  seen  in  the  field  of  vision  when 
directed  to  the  sky  or  any  extended  white  surface.  When  the 
im^e  of  a  bright  object,  or  of  the  setting  sun,  was  received  on 
this  portion  of  the  retina,  which  was  about  the  twenty-eighth  part 
of  an  inch  in  breadth,  it  was  wholly  invisible,  and  therefore  the 
light  with  which  it  was  impressed  must  have  been  derived  by  irra- 
diation from  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  retina,  or  from  those  parts  of 
it  which  underlie  the  insensible  part.  But  for  this  property  the 
patient  would  constantly  see  a  black  spot  disfiguring  the  aspects 
of  nature,  and  ever  reminding  him  of  his  misfortune. 

The  author  mentioned  a  temporary  affection  of  tiie  same  eye, 
observed  thirty  years  ago,  on  which  two  lines,  radiating  from  the 
furamen  centrale,  were  absolutely  black. 

3.  Oa  some  Laws  of  the  Sterility  of  Women.     By 
J,  Matthews  Duncan,  M.D, 

lu  this  paper  absolute  sterility  is  held  to  mean  the  condition  of 
a  woman  who,  under  ordinary  favourable  circumstances  for  breed- 
ing, produces  no  living  or  dead  child,  nor  any  kind  of  abortion. 
Sterility  is  held  to  mean  the  condition  of  a  woman  who,  under  or- 
dinary favourable  circumstances  for  breeding,  produces  no  living 
and  viable  child,  or  odds  not  one  to  the  popalation.  Relative 
sterility  is  held  to  mean  the  condition  of  a  woman  who,  while  she 
may  or  may  not  be  absolutely  sterile,  while  she  may-or  may  not  be 
sterile,-iB,  under  ordinary  favourable  conditions  for  breeding,  sterile 
in  relation  to  the  circumstance  of  time,  or,  in  other  words,  in  re- 
lation to  her  age  and  the  duration  of  her  married  life. 

The  sterility  of  marriages  in  onr  population  is  estimated  as  19 
per  cent. 

The  sterility  of  wives,  married  at  ages  from  15  to  44  inclusive, 
la  shown  to  be  15  per  cent,  or  about  1  in  6}. 

The  absolute  sterility  of  wives  may  be  held  to  approximate 
closely  to  the  sterility  of  wives  ;  for  to  the  data  used  in  calculating 
the  sterility  of  wives  there  would  only  have  to  be  added  the  wives 


DvGooglc 


of  Bdinburgh,  Session  1865-66 .  575 

bearing  dead  children  only,  or  abortions  only,  or  both  (and  the 
number  of  these  ia  probably  inconsiderable),  in  order  to  get  the 
absolute  sterility  of  wives. 

Sterility  varies  according  to  tbe  age  of  the  woman  at  marri^;e. 
About  7  per  cent,  of  tbe  women  married  from  15  to  19  years  of  age 
are  sterile.  Of  those  married  from  20  to  24  years  of  age,  almost 
none  are  sterile.  After  24  years  of  age,  sterility  reappears  and 
increases  progressively  with  the  age  at  marriage. 

Expectation  of  sterility  begins  after  three  years'  of  marriage,  for 
only  7  per  cent,  of  fertile  wives  commence  child-bearing  after  that 
period  has  elapsed. 

The  piobahility  of  a  woman's  being  sterile  is  soonest  decided  at 
tbe  ages  at  which  the  probability  of  fertility  is  greatest. 

Relative  sterility  is  sooner  arrived  at  accordiog  as  the  age  at 
marriage  is  greater.  This  is  merely  the  converse  of  the  law  of 
continued  fertility,  that  being  greater  according  as  the  age  at 
marriage  is  less. 

Expectation  of  relative  sterility  commences  after  three  years  of 
cessation  of  fertility,  and  increases  as  more  time  elapses. 


4.  On  certain  Points  in  the  Morphology  of  Cleft  Palate. 
By  John  Smith,  M.D.,  F.II.C.9.E.  Communicated  by 
William  Turner,  M.B. 

Id  cases  of  cleft  palate  with  alveolar  fissnre,  the  maxillary  bones 
are,  during  infancy,  not  only  ununited,  but,  in  general,  if  not 
always,  more  widely  separated  from  one  another  than  in  the  natural 
condition.  This  has  been  frequently  observed  in  such  cases  as 
come  under  the  care  of  the  surgeoD,  although  little  attention 
appears  to  have  been  bestowed  upon  the  fact  beyond  its  mere 
casual  mention.  HeasurementH,  however,  have  been  lately  made 
by  Dr  Engel,*  showing  that  ihe  difference  between  certain  fixed 
points — such  as  the  two  infra-orbital  foramina,  the  nasal  processes 
of  the  tippet  jaw,  &e,,  is  very  well  marked,  when  tbe  distance  is 
measured  in  a  healthy  newborn  child,  compared  with  oue  having 
a  cleft  palate. 


•  Prag.  VierteljohTschrifl.    1864.    P.  116. 

4r 

_.,.,  Google 


576  Proceedings  o/the  Boyal  Soctely 

Iq  these  cases,  he  describeB  the  width  of  the  noetril  od  the 
effected  side  aa  greater,  the  bridge  of  the  nose  lees  arched,  and  the 
diBtaiioe  between  the  two  orbits  iacreased.  In  all  cases,  the  lover 
ends  of  the  nasal  bon«8  project  further  forwards  than  is  healthy 
uew-boro  children.  The  nasal  processes  of  the  frontal  bone  in  bila- 
tsral  cleft  palate  are  shown  by  him  to  be  broader,  the  width  between 
the  tubera  frontalis  to  be  increased ;  and  besides  the  tiro  eyes  being 
further  removed  from  each  other,  the  form  and  size  of  the  orbits  are 
altered ;  and  both  in  bilateral  and  anilateral  cases  are  seldom  equal 
in  size.  The  minute  details  of  a  case  are  also  given  by  him  where, 
associated  with  doable  cleft  palate,  there  was  a  great  addition  both 
to  the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  basis  oranii  in  the  ethmoid  and 
orbital  portions  of  the  frontal  region:  a  condition  he  considers  to 
bear  a  "  causal  relation  "  to  the  occurrence  of  cleft  palate. 

The  increased  breadth  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  he  con- 
siders as  necessitating  a  greater  distance  between  the  superior 
maxillfe  than  can  be  filled  up  by  the  deTelopment  of  the  inter- 
vening structures.  And  the  cause,  again,  of  this  increased  breadth 
of  the  bead  he  believes  due  to  various  circumstances,  such  aa 
congenital  hernia  cerebri,  dropsy  of  the  third  ventricle,  or  ante- 
rior comua  of  the  lateral  ventricles,  or  excessive  development  of 
the  anterior  cerebral  lobes.  Owing  to  such  distension  within  the 
cranium  of  the  embryo,  be  shows  the  parts  on  each  side  of  the 
palatal  fissure  to  be,  in  the  young  subject,  not  only  deficient  in  the 
middle  line,  but  further  asunder  than  in  the  normal  condition. 

These  circumstances  become  somewhat  more  interesting  if  we 
contrast  them  with  what  appears  to  occur  in  the  adult.  Here  the 
transverse  distance  between  the  palatal  sides  of  the  upper  right 
and  left  anterior  bicuspids  will,  in  an  ordinarly  well-formed  jaw,  be 
found  to  measure  from  one  and  an  eighth  to  one  and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch.  The  measurements  afl'orded  at  tbe  same  spot,  in  sixteen  adult 
cases  of  cleft  palate,  of  which  I  have  collected  casts,  are  somewhat 
less  than  this;  and  in  others,  of  which  I  have  not  preserved  a  re- 
cord, the  same  peculiarity  was  observed.  Among  tbe  cases  noted, 
the  measurements  at  the  point  already  described,  are  as  follows ; 
the  canines  of  the  opposite  sides — which,  by  the  way,  are  always 
present  in  these  cases— being  in  some,  of  course,  much  closer  than 
the  bicuspids. 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Seamm  1865-66.  577 

In  eiz  cases  where  the  iDtermazillary  bones  seemed  altogether  ah- 
Bent— probably  cases  originally  or  double  cleft— where  these  bones 
had  beeo  removed  by  the  snrgeon — or  of  others  where  they  had 
never  been  developed — 

I  case  measured  |tlia  of  an  inch. 

1  ,,        ..  |th« 

2  caseii     „  jtliB        „ 
1  case      „  I  inch. 

1     „        „  Ijth  of  aji  inch, 

giving  an  average  measurement  of  between  fths  and  |thH  of  an 
inch. 

In  ten  cases  of  simple  cleft  palate  alone,  or  of  cleft  palate  com- 
bined with  only  unilateral  fissure — 

1  case  meaaored  gths  to  fths  of  an  inch. 

1     ..         >.         |ths 

4  cases      „         gtbs        „  „ 

3     ,.        „  1  inch. 

1  case       „         Ijth  of  an  inch, 
giving  an  average  measurement  of  |ths  of  an  inch. 

I  have  selected  the  inter-bicuspid  point  of  measurement,  as  being 
that  in  which  the  relative  width  in  the  infantile,  compared  with  the 
adult  jaw,  seems  to  vary  least.  The  increase  by  expansion  of  the 
jaw  in  this  direction  amounting  to  very  little  comparatively  from 
infancy  to  adult  age  in  the  healthy  subject. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  while  in  the  infant  there  is  abnormal 
teparation,  in  the  adult  there  occurs  abnormal  approximation  of  the 
parts  on  each  side  of  the  fissure.  To  a  certain  extent  this  approxi- 
mation of  parts  may  be  fortuitous :  a  misdirection  of  growth  depend- 
ant upon  the  absence  of  the  mesial  structures,  while  the  superior 
maxilla  is  becoming,  as  age  advancee — elongated  downwards  by  the 
expansion  of  the  antrum.  But  ae  the  same  appro  si  mation  seems  to 
occur  BFen  where  only  a  partial  fissure  exists, — the  cleft  being 
limited  to  the  palate,  while  the  maxillary  arch  is  throughout  com- 
plete,— there  is  reason  to  conclude  that  it  is  in  some  measure  to 
be  considered  as  a  reparative,  or  rather  an  ameliorative  effort  on 
the  part  of  nature  towards  remedying  the  defects  existing.  And  such 
a  view  becomes  practically  interesting,  as  pointing  to  the  probability 
of  a  certain  amount  of  assistance  likely  to  be  obtained  in  this  man- 
ner, by  a  judicious  delay  in  surgical  interference  with  such  cases. 


..,  Google 


578  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Further,  the  perfect  developmeut  of  the  true  maxillaries,  iodi- 
cated  hj  the  invariahle  presence  of  the  canines,  is  significant  of  the 
leeion  being  one  chiefl3r  affecting  or  originating  in  the  interposed 
structures;  and  in  the  more  characteristic  cases  the  disease  no 
doubt  is  best  marked  in  its  effects  on  the  intermaxillary  bones. 
Without  homologating  any  hypothesis  advanced  on  such  subjects, 
this  proclivity  to  irregular  or  arrested  development  in  these  bones 
— the  htemal  spines  of  the  nasal  vertebra,  as  described  by  Owen — 
the  htemapophyses  of  the  catacentric  vomerine  sclerotome,  as 
described  by  Groodsir, — seems  to  afford  a  confirmation  of  the  theory, 
that  the  tendency  to  return  to  a  manifestation  of  what  have  been 
described  as  archetypal  characters  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
assume  an  erratic  development,  becomes  greater  as  we  depart  from 
the  vertebral  centrum.  This  part  of  the  subject  is  one,  however, 
which,  without  mature  elaboration  of  many  as  yet  undetermined 
facts  hearing  on  it,  cannot  be  treated  in  either  a  positive  or  an 
exhaustive  manner.  But  in  a  further  acquaintance  with  those 
great  principles  of  morphology,  of  late  beginning  to  be  revealed  in 
the  vertebrate  skeleton,  we  may  expect  that  the  nature  of  malfor- 
mation and  metrological  disease  will  be  presented  in  a  new  and 
more  int«lligible  light. 


5.  Kotes  more  especially  on  the  BridgiDg  CoQTolatioDB  in 
the  Brain  of  the  Chimpanzee.  By  Wm.  Turner,  M.B., 
F.KS.B. 

The  late  Professor  Oratiolet,  in  his  elaborate  and  beautifully 
illustrated  memoir,  "Sur  lea  Plis  C£r6braux  de  I'Homme  et  des 
Primates,"  attaches  great  weight  in  his  differential  diagnosis  of 
their  cerebral  characters  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  one  or  more 
members  of  a  series  of  convolutions,  which  he  designates  as  the 
plia  de  paatage.  When  present,  these  convolutions  bridge  over  the 
external  perpendicular  fissure  of  the  hemisphere,  and  connect 
the  parietal  and  temporal  with  the  occipital  lobes.  By  varions 
anatomists  in  this  countiy  they  are  called  bridging,  connecting, 
or  annectent  convolutions.  In  the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee  U, 
Gratiolet  states  that  the  first  bridging  convolution  ia  ^together 


DvGooglc 


0/ Edinburgh,  Seasion  1865-66.  579 

wanting ;  that  the  second  is  preeeut,  bnt  concealed  under  the  opercu- 
luta  of  the  occipital  lobe;  that  the  third  and  fonrth  are  superficial. 

In  hie  comparison  of  the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee  with  the  brain 
of  the  Orang,  he  attaches  great  impottance  to  the  absence  of  the 
first  bridging  convolution  in  the  former,  and  to  its  presence  in  a 
well-marked  manner  in  the  brain  of  the  latter  ape.  In  his  general 
retvmS  (p.  98)  of  the  mode  of  arrangement  of  the  second  bridging 
conToIntion  in  the  brains  of  the  monkeys  of  the  old  world,  he  states 
that  in  them  it  is  constantly  concealed  under  the  opercnlum,  and 
never  comes  to  the  surface ;  whilst  the  third  and  fourth  connecting 
convolutions  are  always  superficial. 

All  anatomists  who  have  inquired  into  this  subject  since  the  pub- 
lication of  H.  Gratiolet's  memoir  agree  with  him  in  recognising  the 
superficial  position  of  the  third  and  fourth,  and  tho  concealment  of 
the  second  bridging  convolution  within  the  perpendicular  fissure  in 
the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee.  But  with  regard  to  the  complete 
absence  of  the  first  bridging  convolution  in  the  brain  of  this  ape, 
evidence  has  been  advanced  which  proves  that  M.  Gratiolet's  state- 
ment, although  correct  in  some  specimens — as,  for  example,  in  the 
one  which  he  described  and  figured — yet  is  not  universally  appli- 
cable. 

Thus  Professor  Bolleston  states*  that  on  the  right  side  of  the 
Chimpanzee's  brain, in  theOsford  University  MuHeum,awell-marked 
snperior  bridging  convolution  came,  for  a  considerable  part  of  its 
length,  nearly  or  quite  to  a  level  with  the  lobes  it  connects;  and 
Professor  Marshall  describest  on  the  right  side  of  the  brain  of  a 
Chimpanzee,  which  he  dissected,  arudimentary  superior  connecting 
convolution  of  very  small  size  passing  from  the  outer  margin  of  the 
lobule  of  the  second  ascending  convolution  outwards,  and  then 
bending  inwards  and  backwards  across  the  perpendicular  fissure  to 
join  the  occipital  lobe. 

Whilst  dissecting  the  brain  of  a  young  male  Chimpanzee,  which 
vres  given  to  me  about  two  years  t^  by  my  former  pupil,  Mr 
Alfred  Pullar,  I  obtained  evidence  of  a  greater  extent  of  variation 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  convolutions  in  this  ape  than  bad  up  to 
that  time,  I  believe,  come  under  the  notice  of  anatomists.  This 
•  Natural  Eistor;  Review,  1661,  p.  211. 
t  Natural  History  Review,  IB6],  p.  809. 


DvGooglc 


580  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

brain  I  shall  deeignate  in  the  following  remftrka  as  A.  By  peimis- 
eion  of  Frofesaor  Goodair  I  have  also  had  the  opportunity  of  exft- 
mining  two  as  yet  nndescribed  br&ins  of  this  animal,  both  females, 
in  the  anatomical  museum  of  the  TTniveTBity  of  Bdinbn^h.  It  will 
be  GonTenient  to  refer  to  these  as  B  and  G. 

In  all  three  specimens  the  antero-posterioT  convolutions  of  the 
frontal  Bub-division  of  the  frontal  lobe  corroBponded  so  generally 
in  their  arrangement  with  each  other,  and  with  the  brains  of  the 


Chimpanzee  figored  by  Frofeseore  Oratiolet  and  Marshall,  that  no 
special  description  is  necesBary.  In  all,  the  olfactory  Bnlcos  was 
well  marked;  and  in  two  specimenB  a  triradiste  arrangement  of 
the  sulci,  situated  in  the  outer  part  of  the  lobule,  was  distinct, 
though  in  the  third  specimen  (A)  this  regular  mode  of  arrange* 
ment  did  not  exist.  The  ascending  frontal  (premier  pli  ascendant) 
(4  4)  and  ascending  parietal  (denxidme  pli  ascendant)  (5  5j  con- 
volutions also  i^;reed  very  closely  in  their  general  arrangement ; 


^aovGoOglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  581 

and  in  all  the  Bpecimens  the  fissure  of  RoUndo  (S)  extended  up- 
wards as  far  as  the  great  longitudinal  fisanre,  and  formed  with  its 
fellow  the  sides  and  apex  of  a  V-shaped  figure.  The  lobule  of 
the  second  ascending  parietal  convolution  of  Gratiolet  (postem- 
parietal  lobule — HimUy)  reached  as  far  back  as  the  external  per- 
pendicular fissure  (parieto -occipital  fissure),  and  presented  a  sub- 
division into  an  internal  (5*)  and  external  (fT)  portion ;  each  of 
which  again,  though  somewhat  mi>re  strongly  marked  in  B  than  in 
A  and  C,  exhibited  signs  of  sub-diTisiou  into  secondary  lobules. 
The  bent  or  angular  convolution  (pli  courbe)  (6  6)  varied  some- 
what in  its  anangement  in  the  three  specimens.  In  A  it  commenced 
much  lower  down  in  front  of  the  Sylvian  fissure  than  in  B  and  C. 
The  length  of  its  sscending  part,  from  its  commencement  to  the 
apex  of  the  fissure,  was  in  the  first  named  l^tb  inch,  whilst  in  the 
others  it  was  considerably  less.  Id  all  three  biainB  it  was  partially 
broken  up  into  smaller  convolutions  hy  secondary  fissures.  In  A 
its  descending  part  was  directly  prolonged  into  the  middle  temporo- 
sphenoidal  convolution,  as  in  the  brains  figured  by  Gratiolet  and 
Marshall.  In  B  and  G  its  continuity  superficially  with  this  con- 
Tolntion  was  broken  by  a  cross  intersecting  fissure.  Not  only  in 
the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee,  hut  in  those  of  all  the  apes  in  which 
the  various  parietal  convolutions  are  differentiate d,  the  fissure  which 
separates  the  angular  convolution  from  the  second  ascending  parietal 
and  its  posterior  lobule  is  so  clearly  marked  that  it  deservee  to  he  re- 
cognised by  a  distinctive  term ;  but  as  none  has  as  yet  been  applied 
to  it,  I  would  suggest  that  it  should  he  called  the  intra-parietal 
fissure  (IP).  This  fissure  commences  anteriorly  behind  the  fissure 
of  Rolando,  at  first  ascends  almost  parallel  to  it,  and  then  runs 
backwards  and  joins  posteriorly  the  parieto-occipital  figsnre. 

In  the  brain  (0)  the  external  perpendicular  (parieto -occipital) 
fissure  {E  P)  on  each  side  was  unbroken  hy  the  passage  across  of 
either  the  first  or  second  bridging  convolutions,  and  the  opercular 
edge  was  as  sharp  and  well-defined  as  in  the  brains  figured  by  Gra> 
tiolet  and  Vao  der  Eolk  and  Yrolik.  But  in  B,  whilst  this  arrange- 
ment existed  in  the  right  hemisphere,  the  left  exhibited  an  im- 
portant variation.  From  the  posterior  and  outer  angle  of  the  left 
postero-parietal  lobule  a  narrow,  but  clearly- marked  convolution 
(a,  fig.  2),  half  an  inch  long  and  ^th  of  an  inch  wide,  arose.    It 


DvGooglc 


582  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

passeil  almost  transverBely  inwards,  and  joined  the  eupeTo-internal 
angle  of  the  occipital  lobe  close  to  the  lou^tndiDal  fissure.  It  was 
superficial  in  ita  entire  extent,  and  consequently  bridged  across 
the  external  perpendicular  fissure.  From  its  position  and  conoec- 
tions  it  must  be  regarded  as  the  homologue  of  the  superior  con- 
necting convolution  of  G-ratiolet.  This  brain,  therefore,  furnishes 
another  example  to  those  already  recorded  by  Professors  BoUestou 
and  Marshall  of  the  occurrence  of  this  convolution  on  one  side  of 
the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee,  though  in  the  opposite  hemisphere 
to  that  found  in  their  specimens. 


Fig.  3.— Vertex  Tiew  oT  bnln  B.    Tbe  lettarlnt  u  In  Fig.  1,  iritb,  in  ■ddlEtoa,  S.  SylTlin 

In  the  brain  {A)  the  amount  of  variation  was  atill  more  strongly 
marked.  On  the  right  side  the  postero- parietal  lobule  gave  off  from 
its  outer  and  posterior  part  a  superficial  convolution  (a,  fig.  1)  -^ths 
of  an  inch  broad,  which  was  almost  immediately  joined  on  its  deep 
surface  by  a  slender  process  from  the  superior  angle  of  the  bent 
convolution,  tbe  place  of  junction  being  concealed  by  tbe  imper- 
fectly defined  occipital  operculum.  This  convolution,  then,  passed 
across  the  external  perpendicular  fissure,  inclined  inwards,  till  it 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  583 

reached  the  longitudinal  fissnie  of  the  cerebrum,  of  which  it  formed 
the  boandaiy  for  half  an  inch,  and  then  joined  the  inner  end  of  the 
fint  occipital  convolution.  A  eecoDdary  fieenre  passed  for  eome 
diatance  into  its  substance  before  it  joined  the  occipital  lobe. 
Tbronghout  its  entire  extent  it  formed  a  very  distinct,  enperficial, 
first  connecting  convolution,  almost  as  well  marked,  indeed,  as  that 
figured  and  described  by  Gratiolet  as  so  remarkable  and  distinctive 
a  feature  of  the  brain  of  the  Orang  amongst  the  apes. 

On  the  left  side  no  first  conaecting  convolution  existed;  but 
from  the  superior  angle  of  the  bent  convolution,  where  it  became 
continuous  with  the  descending  limb,  a  narrow  convolution  (B, 
fig.  1),  ^th  of  an  inch  wide,  arose.  At  its  origin  it  was  concealed 
by  the  occipital  operculum ;  but  almost  immediately  it  became 
superficial  in  the  parieto- occipital  fissure,  passed  almost  transversely 
inwards,  and  joined  the  inner  angle  of  the  superior  occipital  con- 
volution close  to  the  longitudinal  fissure.  The  length  of  its  super- 
ficial portion  was  fths  of  an  inch.  From  its  origin  it  was  evidently 
the  second  bridging  convolution,  and  in  its  superficial  position  it 
exhibited  an  arrangement  such  as  has  not  before  been  rect^nised 
in  the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee,  and  which  Gratiolet,  indeed,  had 
not  met  with  in  any  of  the  numerous  brains  of  the  Old  World  apes 
which  he  had  examined. 

The  convolutions  of  the  occipital  lobe  presented  no  variation  in 
arrangement  calling  for  special  remark.  They  were  joined,  in  the 
usual  way,  by  the  third  and  fourth  superficial  bridging  convolu- 
tions proceediDg  from  the  temporo-spbenoidal  lobe. 

In  the  disposition  of  parts  about  the  Sylvian  fissure,  the  brains 
B  and  C  conesponded  closely  to  those  figured  by  Professors 
Gratiolet  and  Uarsball,  bat  in  the  brain  A  an  arrangement  prevailed 
such  as  has  not  yet  been  described  in  the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee. 
The  anterior  lip  of  the  Sylvian  fissure  was  as  usual  shup  and  well- 
defined,  but  the  posterior  marginal  convolution  (jili  temporal 
avpirieur),  instead  of  forming  the  posterior  boundary  of  this  fissure 
in  its  entire  extent,  became  gradually  narrower  as  it  ascended,  and 
at  the  same  time  receded  from  the  surface.  As  a  consequence,  its 
upper  end  was  entirely  concealed,  the  Sylvian  and  parallel  fissures 
became  continuous  superficially  with  each  other,  and  the  ascending 
and  descending  limbs  of  the  bent  convolution  formed  the  anterior 

VOL.  V.  4  a 


DvGooglc 


Proceeding*  of  the  Boyal  Society 


584 

and  posterior  lipe  of  tfae  combined  SyMao  and  parallel  fisHnrea.  Tbe 
remarkable  snperficial  continnity  of  these  fiMUres  might  be  apt,  on 
a  hasty  glance,  to  lead  to  the  impreasion  that  the  Sylvian  fissQre 
motiDted  much  higher  on  the  outer  eurface  of  the  hemiephereB  than 
is  UBual,  but  what  at  first  sight  seemed  to  bo  the  upper  end  of  the 
Sylvian  was  really  the  upper  end  of  tbe  parallel  fissure,  as  was  at 
once  proved  by  separating  tbe  ascending  and  descending  parb)  of 
the  bent  convolution  from  each  other,  when  the  npper  concealed 
end  of  tbe  Sylvian  fissure  became  visible.  A  similar  arrangement 
to  that  just  described  has  been  stated  by  Gratiolet  (p.  29)  some- 
times to  occur  in  the  brain  of  Cereojnlhecut  Sab<etu. 

The  median  or  central  lobe  (Island  of  Beil)  consisted  on  the  left 
aide  of  five  abort  and  almost  straight  convolutions,  none  of  which 
possessed  any  great  size,  but  on  the  right  side  only  four  were 
visible.  The  fissures  which  separated  these  gyri  from  each  other 
were  short  and  shallow.  The  gyri  radiated  outwards  and  back- 
wards from  the  locus  perforatus  anticos.  The  most  anterior  joined 
superficially  the  inferior  frontal  gyrus ;  the  rest  were  separated  by 


a  deep  groove  from  the  convolutions,  which  formed  the  anterior  lip 
of  tbe  Sylvian  fissure.    The  island  was  deeply  situated  within  the 


j.Googlc 


o/Edinburgk,  Session  1865-66.  585 

fissure  of  Sylyiua,  and  excepting  a  sinall  part  of  the  most  anterior 
gjms,  where  it  joined  the  inferior  frontal,  was  completely  con- 
cealed BO  long  as  the  lips  of  the  Gasure  were  tn  aitu. 

The  hrain  A  ia  the  only  Hpecimen  on  the  inner  and  tentorial  enr- 
facea  of  the  hemiephere  of  which  I  have  been  enahled  to  study  the 
arrangement  of  the  fissures  and  convolution  b.  The  calloso- margi- 
nal BulcuB  (t  t)  commenced  anteriorly  in  front  of  the  anterior  end 
of  the  corpnB  calloaum,  and  extended  uninteniipt«dly  backwarda. 
When  opposite  tlie  commencement  of  the  poBtericr  third  of  the 
corpus  callosnm  it  bifurcated, — one  branch  ascended  and  reached  the 
margin  of  the  great  longitudinal  fissure,  the  other  ran  backwards 
and  joined  the  internal  perpendicular  fissure.  From  the  caltoso- 
marginal  sulcus  a  few  secondary  fissures  extended  upwards  and 
downwards  into  the  marginal  (17)  and  callosal  (18)  convolutions. 

The  internal  perpendicular  (occipito-parietal)  fissure  (£),  slightly 
convex  forward,  was  continuous  at  the  upper  margin  of  the  inner 
face  wil^lt  the  external  perpendicular  fissure,  whilst  inferiorly,  it 
joined  the  calcarine  buIcub  (I  I).  Proceeding  from  its  poflterior  lip, 
two  connecting  convolutions  ran  at  once  into  the  fissure ;  one,  (*) 
deeply  placed,  except  at  its  origin,  mounted  upwards  and  outwards, 
and  joined  the  deeper  aspect  of  the  post ero- parietal  lobule.  Its 
concealed  part  exhibited  an  indication  of  anhdiviaion  into  two  gyri. 
The  other,  or  inferior  an  nee  tent  gyms  (■\)  partly  projected  into  the 
perpendicular,  and  partly  into  the  calcarine  fissure,  and  joined  the 
lower  piirtion  of  the  quadrate  lobule.  The  dentate  sulcus  (m  m) 
was  well-marked,  and  at  its  lower  end  was  prolonged  iiiLo  the  re 
curved  part  of  the  uncinate  gyrus  (19).  The  calcarine  sulcus  (I  T), 
which  possessed  great  depth,  commenced  posteriorly  in  a  bifurcated 
extremity,  the  two  limbs  of  the  forks  being  almost  equal  in  length. 
It  extended  forwards  close  to  tbe  dentate  sulcus,  but  did  not  quite 
join  it,  BO  that  the  callosal  (18)  and  uncinate  (19)  gyri  were  con- 
tinuous with  each  other  in  front  of  its  anterior  extremity.  Within 
the  calcarine  sulcus  two  small  gyri  were  found.  One  sprang  from 
tbe  floor  of  the  fissure,  and  evidently  corresponded  to  tbe  calcarine 
gyrus,  described  by  Ur  Flower  as  so  well  developed  in  tbe  brain  of 
CercopilhecicB  ;  the  other  and  larger  arose  from  the  internal  occi- 
pital lobule  (25)  which  formed  tbe  roof  of  tbe  snlcus  ;  it  projected 
towards  tbe  calcarine  gyrus  ;  anteriorly  it  became  continuous  with 


...Google 


586  Proceedinga  of  the  Bayed  Society 

the  quadrate  lobule,  aod  the  tnferioi  anDectent  gyrns,  and  poste- 
rioily  it  turned  round  the  upper  branch  of  the  aulcaa,  and  joined 
the  eupero-occipital  gyrua.  The  collateral  biiIcub  (n  n)  reached 
almost  the  entire  length  of  the  tentorial  sepect  of  the  hemisphere, 
and  although  neither  so  deep,  nor  extending  bo  far  back  as  the 
calcarine  sulcns,  yet  reached  in  front  almost  u  far  as  the  tip  of  the 
tempore -sphenoidal  lobe.  Some  small  secondary  fisBuree  proceeded 
from  it.  The  internal  occipital  (25)  and  quadrate  (IS*)  lobules  were 
well  seen,  and  the  latter  was  considerably  larger  than  the  former. 

The  three  specimens  of  the  brain  of  the  Chimpanzee  just  described 
prove  that  the  generalisation  which  Gratiolet  has  attempted  to 
draw  of  the  complete  absence  of  the  first  connecting  convolution, 
and  the  concealment  of  the  second,  aa  eBsentiolly  charaoteriBtic 
features  in  the  brain  of  this  animal,  is  by  no  means  nniversally 
appUcable.  In  only  one  specimen  did  the  brain,  in  these  partioulaie, 
follow  the  law  which  Oratiolet  has  expressed.  As  regards  the 
presence  of  the  superior  bridging  convolution,  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  it  has  existed  in  one  hemisphere,  at  least,  in  a  majority 
of  the  brains  of  this  animal  which  have  up  to  this  time  been  figured 
or  described.*  The  superficial  position  of  the  second  bridging 
convolution  is  evidently  much  less  frequent,  and  has  as  yet,  I 
believe,  only  been  seen  in  the  brain  (A)  recorded  in  tbis  communi- 

*  Bnt  few  BpedmeuB  of  the  brain  of  tha  Chimpanzee  hare  u  yet  been 
figared  or  described.  In  that  flared  bj  Tjson,  out;  ths  baae  and  an  internal 
view  of  the  brain  are  given.  In  the  brains  figured  and  described  hj  OratJolet, 
and  Van  der  Kolk  and  Vrolik,  and  in  my  brain  {C)  no  mperior  bridging  oon- 
volntion  eiiBted.  In  the  brains  described  bj  Kolleeton  and  Marshal],  as  wtll 
as  in  the  brains  A  and  B  now  described,  it  is  piecisely  stated  that  it  was  pre- 
sent in  one  bemiephere.  In  the  brain  figured  by  Tiedamann  {PkU.  TVost. 
I6S6),  from  a  epucimen  in  the  Hnnteiian  Museum,  London,  it  is  apparentl; 
present  in  the  left  hemisphere,  though  it  is  not  referred  to  in  the  description  : 
and  from  the  drawing  of  n  careful  cast  of  the  brain  dissected  b;  Dr  Hacartne; 
(TVonj.  Royal  Iriih  Acad.  1848),  it  eeeme  probable  that  the  fint  biidgiog 
convohition  existed  in  his  specimen. 

Addendum,  May  6. —  Since  the  above  paper  was  read,  a  fine  foong  male 
CliiaipaDzee  bas  been  parchased  b;  Professor  Qoodair  for  the  Anatomical 
Moseam,  the  brain  of  which  I  removed  aud  examined.  In  both  hemisphorea 
the  parieto-occipilal  fissure  was  unbridged,  and  the  opercular  edge  of  the 
occipital  lobe  was  aa  sharp  andwall  defined  as  in  mj  brain  ((7),  or  in  the  speci- 
men figured  by  Oratiulet, 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaawn  1865-66.  587 

cation.  The  o-symmetrical  artangemeDt  of  the  oonvoIntiotiB  in  the 
two  hemiBphereB  which  previous  obeeirerB  have  referred  to  io  their 
desciiptioDB,  ie  also  well  illiutrated  in  these  specimens.  The  bighei 
differentiation  of  the  cerebral  convolutions  in  the  Gbimpanzee  over 
that  of  the  lower  apes  affords  room  for  a  greater  amount  of  vari- 
ability of  arrangement  in  it  than  in  tham.  Hence,  in  depicting  the 
brain  of  this  animal,  juat  aa  in  the  lepreeentation  of  its  face  and 
figure,  every  drawing  should  be  a  portrait,  and  every  description 
whilst  embracing  the  great  general  outlines  in  which  all  the  apeci- 
mens  probably  agree,  should  yet  indicate  the  special  modifications 
in  construction  exhibited  by  the  individual. 


6.  On  the  Theory  of  the  Eefraction  aud  DispersioD  of  Light. 
Part  I.  By  Alfred  R.  Catton,  M.A.,  F.R.8.E.,  Fellow  of 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  AseistaDt  to  the  Professor 
*of  Natural  Philoflophy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Supposing  the  phenomena  of  light  to  be  caused  by  the  inde- 
finitely small  vibrations  of  a  highly  elastic  medium  pervading  space, 
it  is  a  simple  problem  to  determine  the  motion  of  such  a  medium 
in  vacuo,  or  in  space,  where  matter  does  not  exist,  as  in  these  cases 
the  problem  is  reduced  to  the  determination  of  the  motion  of  a 
Jiomogeneovi  elastic  medium. 

On  proceeding,  however,  to  investigate  the  motion  of  the  ethe- 
real medium  in  crystals,  for  the  purpose  of  accounting  for  the  phe- 
nomena of  crystalline  refraction,  the  question  arises,  whether  there 
is  an  action  between  the  material  molecules  and  the  etberial  medium. 
In  other  words,  are  the  laws  of  the  refraction  of  the  ether  within 
crystals,  independent  of  the  existence  of  material  molecules,  so 
that  the  etber  may  be  treated  as  a  single  elastic  medium,  or  are 
the  phenomena  of  crystalline  refraction  produced,  wholly  or  partially, 
by  a  direct  action  between  the  material  molecules  and  the  ether  7 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  consider  at  the  outset,  whether  there 
are  any  physical  facts  which  throw  light  on  this  question.  For 
tbis  purpose  the  observatione  of  Sir  David  Brewster,  De  Senarmont, 
Des  Cloizeaux,  Mitecherlicb,  and  others,  are  discussed  at  leng(b 
in  tbe  paper. 


DvGooglc 


588  Proceedings  of  the  SoyaZ  Society 

The  discoveriea  of  Sir  David  Brewster  ehow  that  the  optic^  pro- 
perties of  cryetalB  aie  connected  with  tlie  arrangement  in  space  of 
the  material  molecules  of  which  they  are  built  up.  Thus  when 
the  material  molecules  are  symmetrically  arranged  with  respect  to 
three  planes  at  rightangles  to  BDotheT(as  in  the  prismatic  system), 
or  where  there  is  only  one  plane  of  symmetry  (as  in  the  oblique 
system),  or  none  (as  iu  the  anorthic),  there  are  two  optic  axes. 
But  when  they  are  symmetrically  arianged  about  one  line  as  an 
axis,  there  is  only  one  optic  axis  which  coincides  with  the  axis  of 
symmetry  of  the  crystal.  In  the  cubic  system,  which  is  symmetrical 
in  every  direction,  every  straight  line  becomes  an  optic  axis. 

Again,  in  quartz  and  dextro-  and  Itevo- tartaric  acids  (as  ob- 
served by  Pasteur),  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polariza- 
tion is  to  the  right  or  left  according  as  the  hemihedral  forma  which 
occur  on  crystals  of  these  substances  turn  to  the  right  or  left. 
Here,  then,  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  arrangement  of  the  material 
molecules  is  connected  with  a  want  of  symmetry  (so  to  speah)  in 
optical  properties. 

The  bearing  of  the  experiments  of  De  Senarmont,  Des  CloiEeaux, 
and  others,  is  then  discussed,  and  it  is  shown  that,  in  general, 
whenever  and  from  whatever  cause  the  arrangement  of  the  material 
molecules  is  changed,  the  optical  properties  are  also  changed.  The 
influence  of  beat  and  pressure  on  crystalline  refraction  is  well- 
known.  Thus  in  a  rbombobedron  of  calcite,  increase  of  tempera- 
ture alters  the  angles  between  the  faces,  making  them  approach 
more  nearly  to  a  cube,  and  at  the  same  time  the  extraordinary  re- 
fractive index  is  increased.  A  similar  obBerratiou  has  recently 
been  made  by  Fizeau  in  quartz.  From  the  facts  brought  forward 
in  this  paper,  it  is  concluded  that  the  ether  within  all  bodies  is  of 
the  same  nature  as  tn  vacuo,  and  that  the  optical  properties  of 
crystab  are  caused  entirely  by  the  direct  action  of  the  material  mole- 
cules on  the  ether.  Of  course  the  action  which  the  ether  exerts  at 
a  given  point  within  a  crystal  is  not,  as  in  vacuo,  the  same  in  every 
direction.  For  in  crystals  of  the  prismatic  system,  the  action  of 
the  material  molecules  is  different  in  different  directions ;  in  other 
words,  it  tends  to  compress  the  ether  more  in  one  direction  than 
in  another,  and  in  consequence  the  resistance  of  the  ether  to  com- 
pression must  abio  be  different  in  different  directions. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edmbuirgh,  Session 

The  great  defect  iu  the  theories  of  cryBtalline  refractioa  hitherto 
proposed,  viz.,  the  theories  of  Freeael,  Cauchy,  NeumanD,  Macul- 
lagh,  and  Green,  is  the  neglect  of  the  action  of  the  material  mole- 
culea.  In  these  theories  the  ether  within  crystale  ia  supposed  to 
poBsesB  special  properties  different  from  those  which  it  poseesses  in 
vacuo,  such  as  pusaessing  different  degrees  of  elasticity  in  different 
directions;  the  ether  in  every  body  being  supposed  to  possess  an 
elasticity  peculiar  to  itself.  In  none  of  these  theories  are  any  con- 
siderations advanced  to  show  how  the  ether  might  be  supposed  to 
have  acquired  the  special  properties  which  it  is  found  necessary  to 
asBtime  that  it  posEesses,  in  order  that  these  tbeuriee  may  account 
for  phenomena.  So  that,  even  if  they  were  satisfactory  in  other 
respects,  aa  important  desideratum  would  still  be  left.  A  few 
remarks  are  then  made  on  the  question  whether  the  ether  is  a 
eorUinuou*  or  diteonlinuotu  medium.  In  the  present  paper  the 
general  equations  of  motion  are  obtained  on  both  suppositions.  In 
vaato  the  equations  of  motion  are  known  to  be  of  the  same  form 
whichever  supposition  is  adopted. 

With  respect  to  the  molecular  action  between  matter  and  the 
ethereal  medium,  it  is  supposed  to  be  sensible  at  only  very  small 
distances.  That  this  is  true,  in  general,  for  molecular  forces,  is 
shown  by  such  facts  as  the  following : — When  a  solid,  as  a  piece  of 
marble,  is  reduced  to  powder,  no  amount  of  pressure  will  make  the 
powder  again  cohere  into  a  solid  mass.  Two  clean  surfaces  of  lead 
may  be  made  to  cohere,  but  not  if  there  is  the  slightest  film  of 
o^tide.  There  are  a  number  of  other  facts  of  the  same  kind.  The 
height  CO  which  the  fluid  rises,  or  is  depressed,  in  a  capillary  tube  is 
independent  of  the  thickness  of  the  tube.  Also,  to  take  the  ease  of 
water— if  the  thinnest  film  of  grease  be  present  in  the  tube,  the 
water  is  depressed  instead  of  elevated,  showing  that  the  sphere  of 
action  of  the  molecular  forces  of  the  glass  on  the  water  is  less  than 
the  thickness  of  the  thinnest  film  of  grease.  The  strength  of  a 
wire,  also,  is  dependent  only  on  its  lection.  Also,  if  we  take  a 
crystal  of  Iceland  spar,  and  reduce  it  by  cleavage,  or  otherwise,  to 
as  small  dimensions  as  possihle,  it  is  found  that  the  crystals  succes- 
sively obtained  are  in  every  respect  similar  in  their  optical  pro- 
perties to  the  original  crystal.  The  portions  of  the  crystals, 
therefore,  removed  by  cleavage,  have  no  effect  on  the  optical  pro- 


,d.,  Google 


590  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

pertieB  of  the  minute  oi^etat  ultimately  obtained;  and  as  GryeUlB 
of  quartz  and  other  gnhstances  have  been  obtained  of  almost  micro- 
Bcopio  dimenBioDB,  but  still  poaseBsing  all  the  properties  of  large 
crystals  of  these  substances,  we  see  that  the  motion  of  the  ether  at 
any  point  of  a  crystal  is  only  affected  by  the  material  molecules 
wbioh  are  within  extremely  minute  distances  of  that  point. 

Again,  there  is  no  dispersion  of  light  in  vacuo,  or  in  space.  Id 
Older  that  this  may  be  the  case,  that  is,  in  order  that  rays  of  all 
wave  lengths  may  be  propagated  with  the  same  velocity,  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  action  exerted  by  the  parts  of  the  ether  on  each 
other  can  only  be  sensible  at  very  small  distances. 

In  obtaining  the  equations  of  motion,  it  is  supposed  that  the 
motion  constituting  light  is  transversal  to  the  direction  of  propaga- 
tion, which  is  equivalent  to  supposing  that  the  ether  is  incom- 
pifiBsible  with  respect  to  the  forces  called  into  action  in  the  pro- 
pagation of  light,  or  that  the  motion  of  the  ether  takes  place  withont 
change  of  density. 

The  arguments  in  support  of  the  hypothesis  of  transversal  vi- 
brations, to  which  Fresnel  was  led  by  physical  considerations, 
founded  on  the  non-interference  of  rays  polarised  in  planes  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  are  so  well  known,  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  enter  into  their  discnsaion.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  "  if  the 
simplicity  of  a  theory  which  condncts  ua  through  a  multitude  of 
curious  and  complicated  phenomena,  like  a  thread  through  a  laby- 
riuth,  be  considered  to  carry  the  stamp  of  truth,  the  claims  of  the 
theory  of  transverse  vibrations  seem  but  little  short  of  those  of  the 
theory  of  universal  gravitation"  (Stokes  "On  the  Dynamical 
Theory  of  Diffraction,"  Gam.  Phil.  Trant.,  vol,  ix.  p.  2).  As  in 
other  theories,  the  squares  of  the  displacements  of  the  elements  of 
ether  from  their  positions  of  equilibrium  are  neglected. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  591 

Tlie  following  Gdntlemen  were  balloted  for  and  admitted 
Fellows  of  the  Society : — 

Adim  Black,  Esq. 

Albxahdbk  Macduff,  £aq.  of  Bonfaud. 

Tbokab  Constable,  Egq. 

Dr  James  Ddvbhdbb,  Ptea.  R.C.S. 

Dr  AbTHUS  IflTCHRLL. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Journal  of  tbe  Scottinh  Meteoiologickl  Society.     Kew  Series,  No. 

9.     Edinburgh,  1866.     Svo.—From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Horlicnltural  Society  of  London.     Vol.1. 

No.  1.     1866.     8vo.— From  th»  Soeitty. 
Jonrnal  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  LondoD.     Vol.  IX.    No.  36. 

(£otany).     8vo. — From  (he  Society. 
Eighth  Detailed  Annaal  Beport  of  the  Begistrar-General  of  Births, 

Deaths,  and  Marriages  in  Scotland.     Edinburgh,  1866.     Svo. 

— From  the  Begittrar-Oeneral. 
Monthly  Itetarn  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered 

in  the  eight  principal  tovna  in  Scotland.      January  1866. 

8vo, — From  the  Segittrar-Oeneral. 
BendicoDto  delle  Tomate  e  dei  Lavori  dell'  Accademia  di  Scienze 

McTali  e  Politiche.     Anno  4.     1865.     8vo. — From  the  Boyal 

Society  of  Napaii. 
Entstehung  and  Begriff  der  naturhistorischen  Art,  von  Dr  Carl 

Nageli.    Zweite  Anflage.     Mtinchen,  1865.     8vo. — Fnm  the 

Induction  nnd  Deduction,  von  Justus  von  Liebig.  Mfincben,  1866. 
8vo. — From  the  Author. 

Rede  gebalten  in  der  bfisntlichen  Sitzung  der  £.  Akademie  der 
Wissenechaften,  am  25  Juli  1664,  znr  vorfeiei  dee  allet- 
bijcbsten  Geburts  nnd  Namens-Festes  Sr.  Majestat  des  Eonigs 
Lndwig  11.  Ton  Bayem.  Von  Dr  Georg  Martin  Thomas. 
Monchen,  1S64.     iio.—From  the  Author. 

Chioesisobe  Texts  zn  Dr  Johann  Heinriob.  Plath'a  Abbandlung, 
Mtinchen,  1864.     4to.— /Vom  the  Author. 

Hagnetical  and  Meteorological  Observations,  made  at  the  Govern- 
ment Observatory,  Bombay,  in  the  year  1863.    Bombay,  1864. 
^io.—From  ihe  Oleervatory. 
VOL.  T.  4  b 


DvGooglc 


592  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

La  Repubblica  di  Venezia  e  la  Persia,  per  G-nelielmo  Serchet. 

Torino,  1866.     8vo. — From  the  ItaUan  Govemmetii. 
BeUzioue  della  direzione  tecDica  alia  direzione  generale  delle 

Btrade  ferrate  dello  state.     Torino,  1663.     ilo.—From  tht 

Italian  Govtrnment, 


Monday,  5tk  March  1866. 

In  the  absence,  frotu  illQeSB,  of  Sir  David  Brewster,  the  chair 
WAS  taken,  pro  tern.,  by  ProfeBsor  Tait,  on  the  motion  of 
Professor  Balfour. 

In  delivering  tlie  Keith  Medal  to  Principal  Forbes,  Professor 
Tait  scud — "  The  Buddenneas  of  this  eummons,  and  my  consequent 
total  want  of  preparation,  may  well  excuse  me  if  I  fait  short  of  vhst 
is  due  to  the  Society  or  to  Principal  Forbes  on  this  occasion. 
Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  agreeable  to  myself  than  to  per- 
form such  &  duty  to  him  who  was  my  earliest  instructor  in  the 
science  I  now  profeaa.  Principal  Forbes  has  already  obtained  this 
prize,  and  has,  during  a  long  and  active  career  of  investigation, 
over  and  over  again  merited  it.  As  one  of  bis  unrewarded  works 
which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  their  value,  I  may  merely  men- 
tion his  Theory  of  Glacier  motion,  which,  in  spite  of  ignorant  and 
inndione  criticism,  still  remains  the  true  statement  of  the  observed 
phenomena— all  it  pretended  to  be. 

"  Happily,  with  reference  to  the  paper  which  has  won  the  honour 
I  have  to  confer,  I  am  provided  with  the  opinion  of  perhaps  the 
greatest  living  authority  on  the  subject  of  Beat,  Professor  W. 
Thomson  of  (rlasgow.  As  one  of  yonr  secretariee,  I  had  obtained 
it  from  him,  with  the  view  of  its  being  incorporated  in  the  address 
which  ill  health  has  prevented  our  President  from  delivering  on 
the  present  occasion.  The  reading  of  this  is  all  that  is  necessary 
to  prove  to  you  how  justly  the  medal  has  been  merited. 

"Principal  Forbes'  experimental  investigation  of  the  thennal 
conductivity  of  iron  has  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  properties  of 
matter  with  information,  which  is  not  only  (^  extrone  interest  and 


DvGooglc 


o/Edmburgh,  Seeaion  186i>-66.  593 

importance  in  the  deeper  specalations  of  natnral  philosophy,  but  of 
Tsry  great  practical  value.  Other  experimentera  had  given  tolerable 
approximatioua  to  the  rdative  coDductivitiee  of  different  metals,  but 
had  either  not  attempted,  or  had  most  notably  failed,  to  measure  the 
conductivity  of  any  one  metal.  The  problem  vhiofa  had  thus 
proved  so  difficult  has  been  first  solved  by  Forbes.  The  absolute 
value  which  be  has  found  for  the  conductivity  of  iron  is  welt  guar- 
anteed for  accuracy  by  the  full  and  a&tisfactory  statement  of  the 
principle  and  details  of  bis  investigation,  which  has  been  published 
in  the  '  Tranaoctions.'  Its  close  agreement  with  Angstibm's  sub- 
sequent determination,  by  a  very  different  method,  also  trustworthy, 
proves  the  agreement  in  the  conductive  quality  of  the  specimens  of 
iron  used  by  the  tvo  experimenters ;  but  is  not  required  to  confirm 
the  results  of  either. 

"  The  method  by  which  Forbes  analyses  the  circumstances  con- 
cerned in  the  transmission  of  heat  along  a  bar  of  whioh  one  end  is 
maintained  at  a  high  temperature,  is  remarkable,  no  less  for  the 
ingenuity  shown  in  its  invention  than  for  the  thorough  and  vigor- 
ous working  out  of  the  laborions  processes  of  experiment  and  of 
reduction,  both  graphic  and  by  calculation,  which  it  involves.  The 
manner  in  which,  from  that  analysis,  Forbes  discovered  the  varta- 
(«0n  of  conductivity,  due  to  variation  of  temperature,  along  the  bar, 
is  very  atriking.  The  final  deduction  of  the  varying  value,  through 
a  wide  range  of  temperature,  of  the  absolute  measure  of  the  thermal 
conductivity  of  iron,  constitutes  a  very  important  contribntion  to 
physical  science." 

After  the  delivery  of  the  Medal,  Principal  Forbes  took  the 
Chair  as  senior  Yice-Piesident. 

The  following  Communications  were  read  : — 


1.  Od  Some  Capillary  Phenomena.    By  Professor  Tait. 

Tbis  communication  was  intended  to  illustrate  by  experiments 
with  the  solution  of  glycerine  and  oleate  of  soda,  devised  by 
Plateau,  the  mode  in  which  a  soap-bubble  is  detached  as  a  dosed 


DvGooglc 


594  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

shell  from  the  month  of  «  funDsl ;  the  mode  in  which  two  bnhblea 
unite ;  and  the  procese  of  cutting  one  into  two  or  more. 

A  statical  investigation  of  the  Torm  of  an  nncloBed  film,  blown 
with  coal  gas,  was  given  (the  kinetic  problem  preseutiDg  very 
grave  difficulties),  and  the  results  were  shown  to  be  in  accordance 
with  ohBervation,  bo  far  as  the  eye  can  follow  the  rapid  change 
which  takes  place  in  the  neck  of  the  film  just  before  the  closed 
bubble  is  detached. 

ProfeBHOT  Tait  called  attention  to  the  exquisite  macner  iu  which 
the  molecular  motions  in  the  film  may  be  exhibited  by  employing 
the  poeteriot  surface  of  a  large  bubble  as  a  concave  mirror  to  form 
a  email  bright  point  from  a  beam  of  parallel  rays,  and  receiving  cm 
a  screen  the  light  diverging  from  this  point  after  it  baa  passed 
through  portions  of  the  anterior  surface. 

He  also  noticed  that  the  epectrnm  of  the  reflected  light  show« 
very  effectively  the  phenomena  of  interference,  supposed  by  Von 
Wrede  to  account  for  the  dark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum. 


2.  On  Functions  with  Recurring  Derivatives.     By  Edward 
Sang,  Esq. 

In  a  previous  paper,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  diaracteristic 
problem  of  the  third  branch  of  the  higher  calculus,  is  to  discover 
the  relation  between  the  primary  variable  aud  its  funcUon,  when 
the  relation  subsisting  between  the  fuDction  and  its  derivative  is 
known.  The  present  paper  treats  of  the  solution  of  the  aimpleet 
case  of  this  general  problem,  that  in  which  the  function  b  equal  or 
proportional  to  its  derivative. 

The  proposition  in  hand  is  naturally  divided  into  cases,  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  derivation  :  The  first  two  of  these  can,  by  well- 
known  artifices,  be  brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  integral 
calculus,  and  their  relations  cau  therefore  present  nothing  new. 
But  for  the  sake  of  tbe  continuity  of  the  treatment,  and  of  certain 
relationships  which  otherwise  could  not  have  been  so  well  explained, 
they  have  been  discussed  in  the  paper.  When  we  inquire  into  the 
nature  of  the  function  which  is  equal  to  its  own  fint  derivative,  we 
arrive  at  the  exponential  fnuctioit,  aud  at  the  basis  of  K«perian 
Logarithms  of  this  function  «*,  the  development  is 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  595 

and  it  ie  shown  tliat  ths  fuDdamental  recaning  functionii  of  any 
bi^er  order,  as  the  n'*,  are  obtaioed  by  takiog  eaoh  n<*  term  of  this 
developmeDt. 

When  each  alternate  term  of  the  Boiiee  for  e*  is  taken,  we  obtain 
a  fnnction  which  is  equal  to  its  owu  second  derivative;  of  thisfnnc- 
tioD  there  aie  two  varieties,  according  as  the  terms  oontain  the  even 
or  the  odd  powers  of  the  primary.  If  the  value  of  the  primary  be 
represented  by  absoissse,  and  the  corresponding  values  of  the  fuDC- 
tioD  be  indicated  by  ordinates,  we  obtain  two  curved  lines,  one  of 
wbioli  is  the  catenary,  and  the  other,  a  line  which  may  be  called 
the  oompanion  to  the  catenary;  these  two  liuee  do  not  meet  each 
other. 

If  we  take  each  third  term  of  the  development  of  e<,  we  obtain 
recurring  fnnctioas  of  the  third  order ;  of  these  there  are  three  va- 
rieties,  according  to  the  term  with  which  we  begin.  When  the 
values  of  these  three  functions  are  represented  by  ordinates,  there 
result  three  curved  lines  which  intersect  ench  other,  and  it  is  shown 
that  tbeir  intersections  take  place  on  ordinates  at  equal  distances 
from  each  other,  the  lines  being,  as  it  were,  plaited  upon  each 
other.  As  the  value  of  the  primary  is  augmented,  the  interval  be- 
tween the  curves,  as  measured  on  an  ordinate,  generally  diminishes, 
aod  tbe  three  lines  soon  become  so  close  as  te  be  undistinguishable 
in  a  drawing  of  ordinary  size.  For  negative  values  of  the  absclaeie, 
the  curves  separate  more  and  more  from  each  other.  Tbe  distance 
between  tbe  ordinates,  on  which  these  intersections  take  place,  is 
an  important  feature  of  tbe  ternary  functions ;  it  bears  a  certain 
reiatioD  te  tbe  circumference  of  a  circle  of  which  tbe  radius  is  equal 
te  the  linear  unit,  and  is  susceptible  of  very  easy  computation. 

A  very  remarkable  property  of  the  lines  representing  these  ternary 
fuDctions  is  ihie,  that  if  an  equilateral  triangle  be  placed  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  paper,  and  passing  through  one 
of  tbe  onlinatee  in  such  a  way  as  that  tbe  three  corners  of  the  trigon 
may  have  the  points  of  the  three  curves  for  their  projections; 
and  if  the  ordinate  be  supposed  to  be  displaced  along  tbe  line  of 
abscissa  at  a  uniform  rate,  the  trigon  will  turn  round  also  with  a 
unifonn  velocity,  and  ite  side  decreases  or  increases  in  oontinoec! 


DvGooglc 


596  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

proportion,  accoidiDg  as  the  directdon  of  the  motion  of  the  ordinftt« 
is  toward  the  +  or  —  aide  of  the  abscin. 

When  each  fourth  term  of  the  eerieB  for  e*  is  taken,  we  obtain 
recarring  fanctione  of  the  fourth  order;  of  these  there  are  fonr 
Tarietiee,  dUtingaiahable  into  two  gronpe  according  as  they  ioTolve 
odd  or  even  powers  of  the  pftmaiy.  The  curved  lines  representing 
the  functions  of  the  even  powers  accompany  each  other,  crossing 
and  recrossing  on  ordinate  at  equal  intervals,  the  middle  line  be- 
tween them  being  a  modification  of  the  catenary.  The  lines  repre- 
senting the  functions  with  odd  powers  also  accompany  each  otber 
on  ordinates  midway  between  those  of  the  previous  pair.  The  dis- 
tance between  these  ordinates  corresponds  to  the  valne  of  r,  the 
ratio  of  the  circumferancB  to  the  diameter  of  a  circle ;  and  aa  the 
compQtatioQ  of  this  value  is  easily  made,  we  have  a  new  determina- 
tioa  of  IT,  independent  of  the  theory  of  the  circle.  The  intersections 
of  the  curves  of  even  with  those  of  odd  powers,  are  not  on  ordinates 
at  equal  distances. 

The  quaternary  functions  are  notable  on  this  account,  that  by 
addition,  they  gave  the  oatenarian — by  subtraction,  the  circular 
functions. 

When  we  proceed  to  the  fundamental  recarring  functions  of 
higher  orders,  we  find  that  the  interruptions  of  the  representative 
curves  no  longer  occur  on  equidistant  ordinates,  although  certain 
compounds  of  them  present  the  plaited  appearance  of  the  ternary 
lines;  and  it  is  noteworthy,  that  then  the  loops  widen  as  we  pro- 
ceed towards  the  -I-  end  of  the  line  of  abscisste. 


3.  The  World  aa  Governed  by  Law,  Teleologically  consi- 
dered.    By  R.  &  Wyld. 

Atr  Wyld  etated  that  he  considered  the  philosophic  treatment 
of  this  subject  important,  aa  there  existed  a  great  amount  of  loose, 
ill-digested  opinion  in  the  public  mind  regarding  it,  and  possibly 
also  in  the  minds  of  many  men  of  science. 

The  flnt  object  of  the  paper  is  to  direct  attention  to  the  fact  of 
the  existence  of  general  laws,  alike  in  the  physical  and  in  the 
moral  world ;  to  consider  these  as  designed  for  the  benefit  of  th« 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  697 

human  race;  and  to  enforce  the  daty  of  revieving them  as  the  ap- 
pointed paths  to  haman  happiness  and  progress. 

Hr  Wyld  showed  that  the  doctrine  is  not  only  not  necessarily 
connected  with  what  is  called  infidel  opinions,  bnt,  on  the  contrary, 
is  far  more  natnrally  allied  with  the  belief  in  a  supreme  Bnling 
Intelligence, 

In  the  prosecution  of  the  sabject,  he  first  directed  attention  to 
physical  law,  showing,  in  particular,  in  what  manner  he  believed 
the  law  of  attraction  to  have  operated  in  bringing  about  the  present 
stmcture  of  the  earth,  and  to  be  operating  in  a  similar  way  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  planets. 

Begarding  the  mental  or  moral  world,  the  writer  showed  that  the 
entire  social  system  was  compacted,  and  kept  in  life  and  energy,  by 
virtue  of  the  various  appetites,  deairee,  emotions,  and  passions  by 
which  man  is  influenced. 

The  conclusion  to  which  the  writer  is  led,  in  considering  this 
part  of  the  subject  is,  that  it  is  unwise  and  in  vain  to  talk  of  re- 
pressing the  instinct  which  leads  man  to  expect  special  instances 
of  Divine  favour.  The  instinct  is  a  strong  and  nniversal  one  im- 
planted in  us,  doBhtlesa  for  wise  and  useful  ends.  It  would  seem 
the  part  of  wisdom,  then,  rather  to  regulate  than  to  extingaish  it ; 
and  this  can  only  be  done  safely,  by  showing  that  the  Utwi  o/nature 
are  the  tpeeial,  jiut,  and  wiie  methodt  appointed  by  the  BvJer  of  the 
world  for  dealing  v)ith  man,  and  as  such,  that  they  are  to  be  re- 
verenced, submitted  to,  and  obeyed. 


4.  Description  of  Pygopterus  Greenockii  (Agasaiz) :  with 
Notes  on  the  Structural  Belatious  of  the  genera  Pygopterus, 
Amblypterua  and  Eurynotus.  B;  RaniBay  H.  Traqnair, 
M,D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.    Communicated  by  W.  Turner,  M.6. 

In  this  pi^r  a  detailed  description  is  given  of  a  species  of 
Pygopterus  (P.  Oree/tockit)  from  the  carboniferous  shales  of  Wardie, 
Hid-Lothian,  which  was  named  by  Agassiz,  but  without  any  figure 
or  description,  beyond  the  mention  of  the  fact  that  the  scales  of  the 


DvGooglc 


598  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

anterior  part  of  the  trunk  are  higher  than  broad,  a  circnmBtance 

distingtUBhing  it  from  all  the  other  species  of  this  genua. 

According  to  specimena  exhibited  hy  the  author,  tbe  acales  an  of 
different  forma  on  different  puts  of  tbe  bod;,  being  very  ininDt«, 
and  nearly  equilateral  along  the  belly;  the  fins  are  large,  and  the 
dorsal  u  placed  bo  far  bock  as  to  be  nearly  opposite  tbe  uial;  tbe 
interspinons  bones  of  the  azygoa  fins  are  well  developed,  and  there 
are  traces  of  vertebral  apophyses,  but  none  of  vertebral  bodies.  On 
tbe  top  of  tbe  head  are  shown  the  parietal,  mastoid,  frontal,  poet- 
frontal,  and  prefrontal  bonee,  with  a  single  nasal  forming  a  pro- 
jection above  tbe  mouth.  On  tbe  side  of  the  head,  the  opercnlnm, 
enbopercnlum,  superior  maxillary  bone  and  lower  jaw  are  distinctly 
recognisable,  with  a  large  triangular  plate,  covering  tbe  cheek 
aWve  the  opper  jaw  bone,  and  smaller  ossicles  around  tbe  orbit, 
which  is  placed  very  far  forwards.  Tbe  broad  Buperior  maxiltaiy 
bone  is  beveled  off  for  the  orbit  in  front,  to  a  narrow  point  which 
comes  in  contact  with  a  small  intermaxillary  situated  below  tbe 
nasal  and  prefrontal  bones.  The  teeth  are  conical  and  of  two  aizes, 
large  ones  alternating  with  small.  The  branch iostega)  ^paratns 
consists  of  numerous  narrow  flattened  plates,  and  tbe  shoalder 
girdle  shows  the  aupra-scapulor,  scapular,  and  corocoid  bonee,  with 
a  triangalar  plate  in  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  ooracoid,  analogous 
to  a  similar  plate  in  the  recent  Polyptems. 

A  comparison  was  made  between  the  osteology  of  tbe  head  in 
Pygoptems  and  in  Amblyptenis,  showing  tbe  very  intimate  corre- 
qiondence  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  bones  in  those  two 
genera;  and  the  appearances  in  both  were  then  compared  with  tbe 
structure  of  the  skull  in  tbe  recent  Lepidoetens  and  Polyptems. 

Tbe  general  structure  of  Enrynotus  was  then  noticed,  and  several 
of  its  facial  bones  described,  together  with  the  peculiar  rounded 
teeth  with  which  the  jaws  and  palate  are  famished.  Tbe  opercular 
apparatus  and  superior  maxillary  bone  differ  considerably  in  fonn 
from  those  id  Amblyptems,  and  still  more  marked  is  the  difference 
in  tbe  shape  of  the  teeth ;  hot  the  two  genera  agree  in  the  form  and 
arrangement  of  the  braaobioetegal  plates  and  in  the  general  strac- 
tnie  of  the  fins  aod  soalee.  A  specimen  in  the  St  Andrews  Huaenm, 
shows  distinctly  that  there  wem  two  rows  of  fulcral  soalea  along  the 
anterior  edge  of  tbe  dorsal  fin,  at  least  of  Enrynotus. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Semon  1665-66.  599 

Id  regard  to  classification,  it  was  showD  that  Pygopteras  aod 
Amblyptenia  must  be  placed  close  together  in  the  same  family  of 
"FaUeoniscidfe,"  as  already  done  by  Vogt  (^oo!.  Brie/e  II.  Band  s. 
133),  a  family  iocludiiig  the  so-called  "  Lepidoidei  Heterocerci," 
with  the  addition  of  Py^opfertu,  ^croI«pu,  and.  their  allies,  formerly 
classed  as  "Sanroidei;"  the  distinction  between  Lepidoids  and 
Sanroids  having  been  long  ago  sfaowD  to  be  artificial.  (Sfuller — 
Oanoidea — Abhandl.  Berl.  Acad,  der  Wissenscbaften,  1844.)  As  to 
the  position  of  Btuynotas,  and  whether  it  should  remain  with 
Amblyptenis  and  PalfeoDisciis,  or  be  transferred  to  the  eame 
family  with  FlatysomuB  and  the  Pycnodonts,  ae  has  been  recently 
done  by  Dr  Tonng  (Proc.  Oeol.  8oc.  London,  Feb.  1666),  the  aathor 
is  of  opinion  that  for  the  present  it  sbonld  remain  in  the  former 
family,  althongh  considered  as  a  member  of  the  group  of  Palsw- 
Discidn,  it  is  certainly  a  very  aberrant  form. 

The  following  Gentleman  was  balloted  for  aud  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Society : — 

Dr  Patbiok  Hbbon  Watsok. 

The  following  Donationa  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Pinetnm    Britannionm.      Parts    XIV.   XV.,   fol.— from    Cltarle* 

Lawaon,  Esq. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Geographical  Society  of  London.     Vol. 

X.     No.  2.     8to.— /Vwn  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Socie^  of  London.    Vol.  XV.    No.  81. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society  of  London.     Vol. 

I.  (New  Seriea).     No.  2.     8yo. — From  the  Society. 
Geology  of  the  North  of  Scotland.    By  James  Nicol,  F.B.S.E.,  &e., 

Edinbni^fa,  1866.     fiYO.—From  the  Author. 
Sketch  of  the  Bomantio  History  of  Parallels.    By  Matthew  Byan, 

Waabington,  1866.     Sva.— From  the  Author. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Uedical  and  Chinirgical  Society  of 

London.     Vol.  V.     No.  3.     Syo.—From  the  Society. 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Literatnre,  London.    Vol. 

VIII.     Part  II.     8vo.— JVom  the  Society. 
Nachricbten  von  der  E.  Gesellschaft  der  WiBsensohaften  und  der 

TOU  V.  4  I 


DvGooglc 


600  ProceedingB  of  the  Royal  Society 

G«org-AnguBta-Univeraitat  auB  dem  Jahre  166S.     Gottingen, 

1865. — From  the  Univenity. 
Natuurknndige  Verb  and  alio  gen  van  de  Hollandscfae  Uaatecli^ptj 

der  Wetenschappen  te  Haarlem.    T.  XXI.,  St.  2.,  T.  XXII., 

St.  1-2.,  T.  XXIII.    ito.—FTOM  the  Society. 


Monday,  19th  March  1866. 
Sib  DAVID  BREWSTER,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Communications  were  read  : — 

1.  ObservationB  on    the   Marine   Zoology  of   Korth   Uiel, 

Outer  Hebrides, — (Coelenterata,  MoHusca,  Echiuodermata, 

Gephyrea,  and   Pisces)."     By  W.  C.   M'lntosh,  M.D., 

F.L.B.    Commnuicated  by  Professor  Allmau. 

The  surface  of  the  island  is  Ibbs  richly  supplied  with  animal  life 

than  ths  ocean,  and,  indeed,  with  vegetable  likewise.    The  grass  ia 

ooarae  and  stunted,  and  even  the  hill  tops  are  hoggy ;  while  the 

sea  border  bae  rich  crops  of  Fuoi,  Laminarise,  and  other  sea-weeds, 

and  harbours  hosts  of  animals,  both  vertebrate  and  invertebrate. 

The  inhabitants  seem  to  take  certain  of  the  circum stances  in  which 

they  are  placed  to  the  beet  advantage.    Xelp  is  mannfactared  from 

the  sea-weeds ;  the  drift-wood  makes  the  framework  of  tbeir  bovel 

roofs,  and  is  applied,  besides,  to  many  other  useful  purposes ;  while 

fishing  is  universal.     The  soil,  again,  on  the  eastern  side,  with  a 

single  exception,  is  cultivated  with  neither  vigour  nor  profit,  the 

ielandeiB  having  a  tendency  to  be  a  pastoral  sad  fishing,  rather 

than  an  agricultural  race. 

There  are  few  or  no  rook  pools  on  the  eastern  side,  but  at  Paible, 
OD  the  western,  they  are  common,  their  rich  vegetation  afibrding 
shelter  to  Cotti,  Wrasses,  Shannies,  and  Kysidn — animals  almost 
totally  absent  between  tide-marks  on  the  eastern  side.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  laminarian  blades  at  Paible,  beyond  low-water  mark,  do 
not  seem  to  be  so  prolific  in  simple  or  compound  Ascidians — 
probably  because  the  water  is  purer  and  more  boisterous.  At  Locb- 
*  Everjr  ipecimeu  hsreefter  mentioued  waa  leeu  b;  the  autbur. 


DvGooglc 


o/Etlinbmrgh,  Session  1865-66.  601 

maddy  the  blitdes  of  this  seo-weed  are  covered  with  a  floccalent, 
muddy  deposit,  that  appeara  to  be  favoarable  to  Ascidian  existence ; 
while  at  Paible  they  are  fresh  and  clean,  there  being  naught, 
indeed,  but  pure  sand  to  deposit  on  them. 

The  occurrence  of  iniaad  seas  affords  an  interesting  variety  in 
examining  marine  life.  The  most  abundant  animal  species  in 
these  is  Littorina  teruirota,  which  clothes  the  branches  of  tbe  fnoi 
with  its  myriad  examples,  and  abonnds  under  stones ;  while  swarms 
of  tbe  young  of  Riuoa  tlriata  and  B.  viva  speckle  the  green 
Cladophora.  The  common  museel  clings  by  its  bysBus  to  tbe  fuci 
and  atones ;  but  no  large  example  was  seen  in  such  localities,  either 
living  or  dead.  Tbe  band-net  showed  that  MytU  eJutmaUon  and 
IdoUa  trietupdaia  found  amongst  the  sea-weed  thickets  both  food 
and  sbelter ;  and  tbe  ubiquitous  Oammaru$  locuMta,  and  other 
sessile-eyed  crustaceans,  lurked  under  the  stones  in  thousands,  as 
well  as  sported  in  the  water.  Careimu  mana»,  as  fierce  and  wary 
as  when  in  purer  water,  was  common.  Under  the  stones  were 
□umerouB  groups  of  the  little  Planaria  ujtxs.  Tbe  sole  representa- 
tive of  the  swimming  jellies  was  a  small  medusa,  with  four  lilao 
loops,  like  M.  awrita.  Of  fishes  there  were  grilse,  trout,  young 
gobies,  and  rough-tailed  sticklebacks.  It  was  strange  to  find, 
within  forty  yards  of  such  an  inland  sea,  a  true  boggy,  fresh-water 
lake,  where  we  bad  tbe  bold  contrast  of  the  white  water-lily,  oar- 
damine,  sparganium,  horse-tails,  and  confervie,  holding  the  place 
of  the  neighbouring  fuci,  and  marine  algs.  Instead  of  the  marine 
fauna  before- mentioned,  glistening  beetles  skimmed  tbe  surface, 
water-boatmen,  dytisci  and  cyprides  the  depths,  pond  enails, 
cyclades,  and  leeches,  climbed  the  water  plants,  and  annelids  and 
larvffi  crawled  in  tbe  brown  peaty  mud  at  the  bottom. 

Of  tbe  Ccelenterata,  nine  were  got  within  tide-marks,  the  moat 
abundant  being  Serlularia  pumila.  Caryophyllia  SmiAii  swarms 
at  the  verge  of  low  water  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  being 
attached  to  rather  muddy  stones  that  lie  piled  over  each  other,  so 
as  to  form  small  caverns,  in  which  the  corals  bang,  grow  upright, 
or  project  horizontally;  they  feed  voiaoiously  on  the  aalpte. 
Amongst  the  anemones  Antfiea  cereut  attracts  most  notice  from  its 
curious  arborescent  habits  on  the  fuci  and  laminarin  of  tbe  creeks 
at  low  water. 


DvGooglc 


)2  Proceedings  of  Vie  Royal  Society 

The  Doly  Sertalarian  found  in  profaeioD  on  lamiDariaQ  blades 
from  deep  water  was  S.  opereulata,  which 
seemed  to  thrive  best  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  island.  Adhering  to  a  maas  of  Twbu- 
laria  indivita  from  the  Uinch  was  a  creep- 
ing stem,  having  a  series  of  homy,  ringed 
polyp  cells,  of  a  somewhat  fusifonn  aspect, 
with  a  short,  smooth  peduncle,  the  whole 
having  the  appeaiance  of  a  CampaniUaria 
(fig.  1).  They  were  only  observed  after 
immersion  in  spirit,  bo  that  the  tentacles  of 
the  polyps  could  not  beconnted.  Pavonaria 
quadrangalari«  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Minch,  but  1  only  got  a  single  muti- 
lated speoimen.  Lucemaria  auriculata  was 
In  all,  thirteen  Otslenterata  were  procured 


Fig.l. 
dredged  at  Paible. 
from  deep  water. 


Clava  Tnulticomia. 
Uydractinia  echinata, 
Tubolaria  indiviea. 
gracilis . 
Halecioffl  halacinura. 
Sertularia  mgosa. 

pumila. 

operculata, 
Flotnularia  catharina, 
Laoiaedea  geniculata, 

Campanularia  integra. 


List  of  Zoophyte*. 

Campannlaria  verticiltata. 
domoM. 

«g.  1. 

Paronsria  qoadrangalarU. 
Alcyou.  digitatum. 
Caryopbjllia  Smitbii. 
Actinia  meEembryantbemiun. 


orawicomu. 

trcglodytee. 
Anthea  ceren*. 
Lucemaria  atmcalata. 


Thirteen  ^olyzoa  were  procured  between  tide-marks ;  and  it  is 
curious  to  find  that  here  Critia  eburnea  forms  the  pigmy  forests  under 
stones,  in  place  of  the  Sertularia  pwnila  of  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 
A  very  abundant  Lepralia  in  the  same  region  is  L.  vemteoia. 

Prom  beyond  low-water  mark  there  were  thirty<siz  Polyzoa.  In 
one  instance,  no  less  than  three  cups  of  Tt^ndipora  patinti  grew  one 
above  another.  Grindia  setacea  was  very  abundant  on  laminarian 
roots,  forming  dense,  snowy  tufts.  More  than  a  third  (seventeen) 
of  the  total  number  were  Lepralin.  One  of  the  richest  fields  for 
these  and  other  marine  productions  not  destroyed  by  drying  was 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  603 

the  coUectiou  of  Laminariffi,  chiefly  from  the  Monich  region,  fornied 
at  the  kelp  factory.  On  a  tuft  of  Tubularia  indivUa  from  the  deep 
water  of  the  Mincli,  two  Bpecimens  of  Betepora  Beaniana  occurred. 
Ooe  of  these  adhered  to  the  teat  of  bd  Aecidian  in  a  position  which 
prevented  the  coTalline  from  following  its  usual  law  of  having  the 
cells  only  on  the  concave  side,  eince,  to  accommodate  itself  to  cir- 
cumgtanceB,  the  Betepora  had  its  celts  on  the  convex  side.  The 
latter,  however,  may  be  regarded  only  as  a  contorted  inner  or  con- 
cave side.  A  small  independent  Betepora  on  the  same  mass  pre- 
sented a  peculiarity  in  having  its  inner  or  cellular  suifaco  hispid 
with  rather  stout,  simple  spines.  The  apertures  of  the  cells  were 
round,  with  a  raised  tooth  on  one  edge,  like  the  cells  of  R.  Beaniana. 
The  outer  or  smooth  side  in  the  various  specimens  is  marked  by 
delicate  white  lines,  which  at  first  sight  look  like  cracks. 
LUtofPolyzoa. 


Lepralia  verrucosa. 

hiapida. 

Tsnoloaa, 

flabeUaris. 

nitida. 

lerpetiB. 

byalina. 

Ballii. 

Atecto  gnnulatt),  var. 

QilUta. 

Criiia  ebumea. 

spiaifera. 

imniersa. 

geniculala. 

violacea. 

Crisidia  corouta. 

bispinoaa. 

Mlacea. 

Membranipora  pilosa. 

Uippothoa  di?aricata. 

Cellularia  ciliata. 

•cruposa. 

Lepralia  byalba. 

reptans. 

tenuis 

Haaaallii. 

Relepora  Beaniana. 

linearis. 

granifera. 

anricaUta. 

punctata. 

parasiticum. 

FJaitra  hispida. 

biforis. 

Peachii. 

pedioetoma. 

The  island  is  peculiarly  rich  in  Ascidians,  thus  affording  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Scotland,  where  the  compound 
species,  and  a  few  eulitary  ones  under  stones,  are  the  only  repre- 


DvGooglc 


604  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

Bentativea  generally  met  with  between  tide-marks.  Aplidium/allax 
occurs  occasionally  in  roaBses  fally  an  inch  across.  On  touching 
living  specimens,  the  large  aperture  in  the  common  test  leading  into 
the  internal  cavity  was  sharply  contracted.  A  group  of  cnrions  ani- 
mals {Amouroucium  f),  elevated  on  long,  clavate,  hyaline  peduncles, 
and  arranged  round  a  common  centre,  were  also  got  under  a  stone. 
The  truncated  tips  of  the  masses  were  carunculated,  and  the  polyps 
of  a  bright  orange  hue  during  life.  Numerous  specimens  of  several 
species  of  bright  orange  and  reddish  orange  Z/eptoelini  abounded  on 
the  stones  and  fuci;  and  both  BotryUui  and  BotryUoides  were  well 
represented,  many  having  tadpoles  in  their  masses.  A  curions  thin, 
greyish-brown  species,  and  a  bright  ochre-yellow  one,  occurred  at 
the  extreme  verge  of  low  water,  both  having  glistening  (as  if  var- 
nished) surfaces,  covered  with  soft  spiniform  papilla;.  A  Clavelina 
(fig.  2)  was  got  between  tide-marks,  of  a  clavated  outline,  and 


Fig.  2. 

with  a  hyaline  test.  At  the  upper  part  of  the  animal  a  dull  grey- 
ish, muddy  mass  capped  the  viscera ;  below  this  was  a  somewhat 
fusiform,  flesh-coloured  thorax,  irregularly  streaked  with  yellow 
lines;  a  swollen  bright  reddish  orange  stomach  sncoeeded,  marked 
by  regular  yellow  bands,  which  on  both  sides  presented  a  similar 
appearance,  vis.,  two  lateral  lines  corresponding  with  the  curve  of 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  605 

the  region,  and  a  central  one,  the  whole  haviDg  the  shape  of  the 
inverted  Q-reeb  letter  to,  and  rcBembling  a  crown.  The  Tieceral 
region  dwindled  to  a  atreak  before  reacliing  the  radiciform  pro- 
loDgatiouB  at  the  base. 

Tire  simple  Ascidiane  were  represented  hy  A.  iniatinalia,  A. 
eani'na,  A.  menfula,  A.ttahra,  and  A.  aiperta.  AccompaDying  the 
latter  were  one  or  two  hard,  reddieh  tepedea,  that  apparentiy  conld 
be  classed  with  neither.  From  the  deep  water  of , the  Minch  came 
several  Ascidians,  slightly  adhering  to  each  other  by  the  extraordi- 
nary debrie  of  shells,  mad,  and  corallinee,  that  surrounded  them, 
yet  otherwise  solitary  and  distinct,  like  Molgula  oculata.  Their 
orifices  were  situated  on  separate  fleshy  papillte,  the  anal  having 
eight  streaks  of  crimson,  with  intermediate  pale  lines;  the 
branchial  somewhat  larger  and  more  prominent,  but  similarly 
tinted.  Molgula  tubulota  was  occasionally  met  with  on  muddy 
ground  (six  fathoms)  in  Lochmaddy.  The  pspillte  were  greyish- 
brown  ;  and  when  placed  in  spirit,  it  speedily  cast  oS'  its  coating 
of  mud  and  minnte  shell  fragments. 

Cynthia  ruitiea  and  0.  grottvlaria  are  frequent  between  tide- 
marks,  but  not  at  the  extreme  verge,  for  that  seems  rather  occupied 
by  sponges  and  zoophytes.  IT  a  stone  having  its  under  surface 
covered  with  the  former  is  turned  over,  death  and  discoloration  of 
the  Asoidians  soon  take  place,  althongh  they  remain  in  the  same  spot 
as  regards  the  tide.  C  ampvlla  (7)  was  dredged  in  twelve  fathoms 
on  hard  ground ;  it  had  a  tunic  covered  with  sandy  hairs,  with  n 
clear  space  on  which  the  two  long  pinkish  apertures  were  situated. 
A  small  specimen  allied  to  C.  teuelata  was  also  dredged.  On  the 
test  of  a  large  A.  mentvia  from  the  Minch  were  several  examples 
of  CynUiia  Uutiee,  new  sp.  (fig.  3).  The  largest  w6re  about  a 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  globose,  and  bisped  with  branched 
bristles  springing  from  papilhe  on  a  tough  greenish  tunic.  It  differs 
from  the  Ascidia  echinata  of  Professor  Forbes  in  having  four  divi- 
sions to  its  branchial  orifice,  in  having  no  regularity  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  bristles,  and  in  their  want  of  radiation. 

The  countless  multitudes  of  Salpa  ipinota  and  8.  runcinata,  in 
both  solitary  and  aggregate  forms,  is  also  a  noteworthy  fact. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  in  tha  distribution  of  the 
mollusca  (proper)  of  the  island  is  the  abundance  of  wood-borsra, 


j.Googlc 


606  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

and  tbe  comparative  abseoce  of  rock -mio era. *  Tbe  eole  examples 
of  the  latter  lurked  between  etones  that  had  been  fixed  together  by 
a  laminarian  root,  in  tbe  intersticee  of  tbe  latter,  on  rocks,  in  peat, 
never  in  an  indepecdent  tncnel.  The  drift-wood,  again,  ie  almost 
universally  perforaled  by  the  Teredo,  and  many  logs  are  bo  honey- 
combed, that  they  are  only  fit  for  firewood,  or  the  cabinet  of  the 
naturalist.  Teredo  norvagica  and  T.  megotara  were  the  two  species 
obtierved.  The  lotal  number  of  moUuBca  (proper)  recognised  was 
145 ;  of  which  stxty-tbree  were  Lamelli branchiate,  eighty-one 
Cephalophorous,  and  one  Cephalopodons. 


Fig.  8. 

Between  tide-marks  the  prevalence  of  TrocJtw  zizt/phinus  was 
characteristic.  The  women  and  children  still  gather  LiOorina 
liltorea  for  sale.  Tbe  inherent  apathy  of  the  islander  prevents 
him  taking  due  advantage  of  the  occurrence  of  MytUvt  edulU  in 
the  creeks ;  and  be  is  to  be  seen  fishing  with  a  scrap  of  limpet  or 
cockle,  rather  than  trouble  himself  to  procure  the  former  for  bait. 
The  somewhat  rare  Tapet  decttssata  is  mot  with  in  the  sand  at  low 
water.  Fiturella  reticulata  and  Emarginula  retieulata  are  abundant 
under  stones  in  the  same  region.  Dorit  proximo  is  common  on  the 
floating  blades  of  fuel  at  low  water ;  and  most  of  the  Nudibranchs  (17 
*  The  rocks  are  for  tbn  moat  part  composed  of  gntiit. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  SesBton  1665S6.  607 

Id  Damber)  are  in  a  new  field,^-OD«  being  a  new  speoieB,  viz.,  Eolit 
Loekmaddii : — Body,  rather  moie  tban  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length,  pale,  translucent,  and  faintlj'  pinkish  on  doreum  from 
vlBoera.  Tail,  stretching  a  little  beyond  the  eloped  branchiae,  pale. 
Oral  tenlaela,  pale,  rather  short.  Dorsal  tentacles,  generally  carried 
erect,  thick,  coarsely  crenalate,  barred  with  pink,  and  white  at  tipa. 
Eye;  distinct.  Branehia,  at  first  small  and  club-shaped,  then 
becoming  long  and  slightly  fmifonn ;  processes  bent  inwards  over 
the  doreum,  and  tapered  towards  the  tips.  Colour,  pole  pink,  grained 
xrith  red ;  tips  with  white  grains  and  a  few  red,  capped  by  a  tians- 
Incent  point.  It  is  an  active  and  hardy  nudibranch,  swimming  on 
the  surface,  elongating  its  foot,  and  throwing  it  into  a  goove.  It 
deposited*  pale  pink  ova,  as  a  simple  band  in  transparent  mncus. 
In  the  loch,  the  hard  and  mnddy  ground  abounded  in  small 
cockles,  Fenus  ovata,  Crenella  decuttata,  Corbula  nucleus,  and  occa- 
sionally the  rare  Lima  lubaurieulata.  The  most  common  univalves 
brought  in  by  the  dredge  (from  four  to  fifteen  fathoms)  were  Trochi, 
Lacnnte,  Biasore,  and  the  curious  spectes  resembling  Akera  buUata, 
but  poeseesing  two  distinct  eyes ;  the  Utter  animal  preferring  a  hard 
bottom,  not  far  from  mud.  Thracia  dittorta  and  dead  volvee  of 
Thraoia  etinvexa  were  got  in  company  with  Tellina  donaeina,  Vemu 
etuina,  and  Artemii  exoleta  in  the  same  region.  The  valves  of  the 
Peden  maximw,  cast  on  shore  by  winter  storms,  are  still  used  by 
the  natives  for  skimming  milk  and  scooping  butter.  On  the 
weatem  shores  of  the  island  the  pret^  Pkatianella  puUui  is  com- 
mon. Sepiola  atlantica  was  dredged  also  at  Paible,  on  sandy  ground. 
A  purplish- brown  variety  of  Ely*ia  vmdi*,  with  many  pink  and 
blue  specks,  was  frequently  got  at  Lochmaddy. 


Teredo  norfagica,  d.\ 
Sazioara  arttea. 


Liu  of  Mdlvtca. 


Oorbula  nucleus 
Thracia  oonveza,  d.  v.f 


Cochlodesma  pratanae,  d.  t 
Solen  iiliqoa. 
eniis. 
pellneidDB. 
Tellina  donadna,  d.  v. 

•olidula. 
Syndotmya  alba. 

iotermsdia. 
Scrobioularia  piperaU. 

t  Dead. 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 


M«lr»  aUiptica. 

HanleTi. 

Tapu  deoutMta. 

rober. 

pulLwtra. 

cinereni. 

Veniu  cuiDK. 

ueUw. 

itristula. 

Patella  Tnlgata. 

fMcUU.  d.  V. 

atUetiea. 

OTBta. 

Artemit  exoleta. 

linota. 

Yirginea. 

Luoinopiu  undsta,  d  v. 

Dentaliom  entalia. 

Cyprina  Iilwidiea. 

FiMarella  teficnlata 

Ciree  mininw. 

Emargmula  leticnUta. 

A»t»te  MloiU,  d.  V. 

Trocbiu  sizjphiniH. 

gruiDUtui,  d. 

trianguluia. 

MoDUgni. 

tomidiu. 

eduk. 

einerariaa. 

Aicifttum. 

m^ns. 

[ygin»oni. 

PhaaiineUa  puUiui. 

•necioam. 

Littorina  littorea. 

LnciiM  boreklis. 

Uttoralii. 

•pinifera.  d.  v. 

rndb; 

MontMuUi  ferruginoM. 

teDcbroaa. 

Lacuna  pallid  ula. 

Kellia  luborbicaUrii. 

Tmcta. 

rubn. 

RJHoa  BeaniL 

MjtUiu  edulu. 

punctura. 

CrenellA  diMon,  in  neatt  knd  in 

costata,  d. 

apanicea. 

striata  and  vnr. 

parva. 

deeuBMta. 

labioM. 

NueuU  nucleut,  d.  v. 

cingiUn.. 

DitidA. 

solnta. 

decQwta. 

ulne. 

tenuis. 

Skenea  planorbii. 

Arc«tetHigoM,d.v. 

TuritellB  communis. 

Lima  tobauriculats. 

Peoten  niveuB,  d  «. 

Eulima  distorta. 

pmio. 

tigrinna. 

Natica  nitida. 

■imilis. 

pusilla. 

mazimiu. 

Lamellaria  perapicaa. 

operaolarit. 

Purpura  lapillua. 

Oitrea  edulia. 

Nassa  reticulata. 

iucrauata. 

patelliibrniii. 

Fnaua?  young. 

■triata. 

SplnlU? 

DvGooglc 


o/Edtt^mrgh,  Session  1866-66. 


MangelU  torrionU. 
CfpTDft  EuropiBm. 
Cfliahiu  eylindnees. 

tninoata. 

obtnia. 
Tomatella?  young. 
Akera  bulUla?  with  ejet, 
Philine  scabra,  d. 
punctata. 
Doria  tubereubta. 
repanda. 


bilamellata. 


Doris  piloaa. 
OoniodoTie  nodou. 
JEgitua  punctilnceiii. 
Puljrcerft  quadrilineata. 

ocellata. 
Doto  ooronata. 
£oli8  loobmaddii,  n.  *. 

gracilii. 

olifaeea. 

aumntiioa. 

Eljsia  Tiridii,  var. 
Sepiola  atlantica. 


Thirteen  Ecbtnoderma  were  dredged  or  pTocured  between  tide- 
marka,  beaidee  a  new  species  of  Aatrophyton,  and  a  new  STnapta. 
With  regard  to  the  AUrophyton  Elizahetfue,*  new  ap.,  fig.  4,  it 


Fig.  4. 
is  curiena  that  no  example  of  the  genua  bM  been   found  in 
Britain  since  the  publication  of  Frofeasor  Forbee's  work.f     It  was 

*  Named  after  a  zoological  benef&ctieai. 

t  BeT.  A.  NortDaii,  An.  ffat.  Hit.,  Feb.  I86G.  Frofeuor  Duni,  bniftrer, 
intimated  that  a  BpecJmen  of  A.  *eutatitm  bad  been  procured  from  Shetland 
•ince  the  above-mentioned  period  b;  the  late  Dr  Fleming,  and  tu  now  In 
the  Free  Church  College  Hu*enm. 


DvGooglc 


610  Proceedings  o/the  Boycd  Society 

dredged  in  six  fathoms,  od  mud  and  Bfaell  gravel.  Bodg,  some- 
what pentagODal,  of  a  paid-flesh  colour,  here  and  there  slightly 
grained  with  red ;  haviDg  regular  maihinge,  roughly  granulated, 
and  with  the  maigioa  modified  so  as  to  fit  the  baaes  of  the  five 
rays.  The  first  joint  of  each  of  the  latter  is  nearly  plano-concave, 
miniitely  grained  and  frosted  (in  spirit).  Between  this  and  the 
body  is  a  bioonvez,  ligamentous  coDDeotion.  The  next  joint  is 
somewhat  lozenge-shaped,  presenting  a  central  projection,  and  two 
slightly  curved  articular  surfaces  to  the  first  joint,  and  a  longer 
.process  and  two  more  extensive  articular  surfaces  (also  curved)  on 
the  distal  side,  each  of  the  latter  articulating  with  a  divi^ioD  of 
the  bifid  arm  beyond.  Viewed  dorsally,  it  has  thus  no  less  than 
four  articular  ligaments.  The  limha  usually  separated  at  the  joint 
between  this  and  the  first  segment.  A  transverse  section  of  ao 
arm  at  its  base  showed  aborally  an  arched  outline,  orally  a  flat- 
tened, BO  that  it  was  somewhat  D-shaped,  with  a  perforation  in 
the  centre.  Two  symmetrical  muscular  bundles  were  placed  over 
each  of  the  larger  joints  inferiorly.  The  first  joint  of  the  secondary 
arm  is  of  an  irregular  rhomboidal  shape,  being  widest  t^iwards  its 
outer  edge,  and  with  the  deepest  curve  on  its  proximal  aide ;  the 
second,  of  an  irregular  lozenge-shajie,  pointed  on  both  proximal 
and  distal  edges,  especially  the  latter,  the  distal  apex  being  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  middle  line,  the  short  outer  curve  thus  formed 
giving  rise  to  the  long,  jointed  limb.  The  last  joint  presents  a 
eomewbat  plano-concave  outline  on  its  dorsal  surface,  the  concavity 
being  proximal,  and  articulating  by  means  of  a  biconvex  ligament 
with  the  preceding  segment.  From  the  outer  side  and  shorter 
curve  of  the  second  last  segment  springs,  as  before  mentioned,  a 
long,  delicate,  jointed  arm  of  ten  gradually  diminishing  pieces, 
like  the  skeleton  of  a  vertebrate  tail.  The  segments  of  these  are 
(in  spirit)  finely  grained,  and  frosted  (after  the  manner  of  several 
Lepralia),  like  the  larger  segments,  and  have  also  microscopic  spikes 
near  the  junctions,  directed  distally.  Along  the  ventral  surface  of 
these  slender  armlets,  after  preservation  in  spirit  (which  blanched 
the  rest),  wer&  numerous  dull,  reddish,  minute  taberoles,  apparently 
imbedded  in  the  tough  membrane  that  was  present  on  this  surface. 
All  the  arm^  and  their  branches  were  coloured,  during  life,  of  a  beau- 
tiful purple  lake,  a  slightly  paler  portion  being  in  the  centra  doimlly. 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seaawn  1865-66. 


611 

The  hard  piktta  of  the  animal  were  densely  calcareous,  and  the 
disc  seemed  quite  solid.  On  the  under  eurfuoe  was  a  bulky,  soft 
mass,  of  a  reddish-brown  hue,  which  coTered  the  central  disc,  and 
extended  outvaida  over  the  bases  of  the  arms.  Microscopically 
this  consisted  of  a  rich  oellnlo-grannlar  structure,  that  might  have 
been  the  d(3mt  of  ova.  The  mass  readily  separated  from  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  and  arms,  but  left  a  membranous  coat- 
ing which  adhered  very  closely  to  the  edges  of  the  limbs,  so  that  it 
seemed  a  fixed  process.  In  this  tough,  translucent  membrane  were 
many  minute  calcareous  scales,  with  a  conceclric  stmctuie,  like 
those  of  a  cycloid  fish.  The  oral  surface,  after  removal  of  the  soft 
moBB,  had  a  wide  circular  opening,  with  several  tooth-like  pro- 
ceBses  projecting  inwards  from  the  oircum  Terence. 

Imbedded  in  the  soft  mass  last  mentioned,  and  partly  projecting 
outwards,  was  a  curious  crostacean  parasite,  of  a 
mottled  crimson  colour,  when  fresh  (fig.  5). 

The  occurrence  of  Synapta  OalUennii  (Hera 
path),*  a  species  hitherto  only  procured  from 
Guernsey,  is  interesting,  and  shows  bow  cau- 
tiously deductions  as  to  the  distribution  of 
marine  animals  ought  to  be  made.  Some  of  the 
specimens,  though  imperfect,  measured  between 
2  and  S  inches,  of  a  pale  pinkish  or  fiesb  colour, 
clouded  by  the  dark  intestine.  Interspersed 
amon^t  the  spicnla  were  numerous  circular, 
papilliform,  grained  rings  of  a  brownish-red 
colour.  The  specimens  agreed  in  most  respects 
with  Dr  Herapath's  description,  but  the  anchors 
and  anchor  plates  seem  to  be  more  than  "ser- 
rated," since  both  are  studded  over  with  groups 
of  microscopic  spikes  and  granules,  which  impart  to  them  a  rough, 
corroded  aspect,  very  characteristic  when  compared  with  the  suc- 
ceeding species  or  S.  digitala. 

Synapta  Bu*kii,f  new  sp, — Two,  about  an  inch  in  length,  were 
dredged  (nine  to  ten  fathoms)  on  a  bottom  of  muddy  clay  in  Loch- 


Fig.  6. 


*  Quart.  Jour.  Microi.  Soc.,  laaxaaj  1866. 
t  Named  after  Profee«or  G.  Bulk,  London. 


DvGooglc 


Proceedingt  of  the  Royal  Society 


612 

DQEtddy.  It  is  a  most  tranaluoent  species,  of  a  pale  flesh  colour,  with 
the  plates  and  anchois  visible  as  distinct  glistening  points  under  a 
lens,  and  having  five  longitudinal  mnscular  bands.  One  adhered 
to  the  cover  of  a  table  during  life,  and  coald  not  be  taken  off  with- 
out seriona  mutilation.  The  intestine  is  dull  yellowish.  Both  had 
eleven  tentacles,  each  of  which  apparently  had  five  divisioDe, 
though  I  am  not  certain  of  these  figures,  since  they  were  minutely 
examined  after  immersion  in  spirit,  and  then  only  the  terminal 
and  two  adjoiniug  divisions  of  the  arms  were  distinct.  The  plates 
and  anchors  were  identical  throughout  in  both  examples,  and  very 
characteristic  (fig.  6).    The  plates  have  a  somewhat  hexagonal  out- 


Fig.  6. 

line,  with  a  long  process,  like  a  handle,  and  are  perforated  by  a 
central  and  six  eurronnding  apertures,  with  serrated  edges.  There 
are  two  small  openings  in  the  "  handle."  The  anchors,  about  the 
same  length  as  the  plates,  are  articulated  to  the  end  of  the  last- 
mentioned  process,  and  present  slight  serrations  on  tbe  flakea. 


Liit  of  Echinodermata. 


Ophiura  albida. 
Ophiocoma  bracbiata. 

filiformii, 

bellis. 

granQlaia 

Aitrophyton  Eliubtillite,  n 
Urn  Iter  glacial  is. 


I  Uraater  rubeni, 
i     Crilwlla  oculata. 

Solaiter  pappou. 

Echinna  aphara. 
I  Oonua  bmnneat. 
I     Sjnapta  OalUennii 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  613 

GEFHTxaA. — Friapalut  cawdatv*  was  met  with  in  great  Bbon- 
donce  in  the  sand;  mud  of  a  creek  at  low  water ;  some  of  the 
apecimens,  independently  of  the  long  tail,  measuring  6  inches  in 
length.  A  great  change  will  require  to  be  mode  in  the  descrip- 
tione  of  Profeesoi  E.  Forbes,  for  he  does  not  notice  the  presence  of 
the  homy  teeth  of  the  prohoBcis,  with  theii  carved  central  and 
three  lateral  fangs,  or  the  occurrence  of  papillra  in  rows  on  the 
same  organ,  or  on  the  body  and  processes  of  the  tail. 

Besides  the  common  Sipunctilut  Bemhardut  and  S.  Johnttoni,  a 
new  Syrinx  (Forhee),  Dendiostomum  (Qaatrefages),  was  fonnd. 
Dendrottomum  Mitxhyii,*  new  ap. ;  from  under  a  alone  lying  on 
muddy  sand.  It  stretched  itself  when  living  to  the  length  of 
7  inches,  both  eztiemitiea  being  tapered.  Body  of  a  uniform  dull 
brownish  hue,  elongated,  Termiform,  and  with  the  proboscis 
abruptly  separated  anteriorly  by  a  well-marked  shoulder ;  instead 
of  having  a  smooth  body,  as  in  S.  Barveii  (Forbes),  to  which  it 
seems  most  nearly  allied,  this  ia  everywhere  m^ked  by  £ne 
transverse  lines,  closely  studded  with  small  papiUes,  just  visible 
to  the  naked  eye.  The  shoulder  and  base  of  the  prohosois  present 
the  most  conspicuous  caruncula^,  those  at  the  tapering,  downy, 
posterior  extremity  being  somewhat  less  marked,  from  the  absence 
of  mgee.  The  proboscis  is  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length, 
very  mgose  at  the  base,  more  finely  papillated  towards  the  extre- 
mity, near  which  the  papillae  sharp  like  spikes,  and  towards  the 
buccal  cirri  marked  as  minute  black  dots. 

lAtt  o/Oephyrea, 
FriBpnliu  candatoi.  I         SipuDCulns  Bemhardiu. 

Dendroftoniiun  HnileyiL  i  Johnttoni. 

FisHis. — The  most  conapicuous  character  in  the  class  of  fishes 
(of  which  thirty-three  species  were  observed)  was  the  abundance 
of  the  Wrauu  that  swam  in  shoals  at  the  margin  of  the  rocks, 
or  Iniked  under  the  sea-weeds  of  rock  pools.  Numerous  ex- 
amples of  Lepidogaster  bimaaUat^I^  and  Siphonoitomui  TyphU 
were  caught  in  the  lajninarian  region  around  the  little  islands. 

•  Nuned  aftst  Pntfeiior  Huxlejr,  London. 

Digitized  DvGoOglc 


614  Frooeedittffs  of  the  Boyal  Society 

Salmon  and  tront  were  eveirwheie  plentiful.  Attached  by  a 
long,  Blender,  central  appendage  (like  Uiat 
of  a  Cftoltmut)  to  the  pectoral  legion  of  a 
MoUlla  glawM,  that  swam  unongrt  the  saJps, 
waB  B  remarkable  crnstacean  parasite  (fig.  7). 
A.  malfonned  young  Turbol*  was  also  caught 
as  it  disported  itself  amongst  the  salpie,  hanng 
both  lidea  of  its  body  coloured,  and  with  an 
eye  on  each ;  operciilor  bones  on  both  eideB 
armed  with  prickles.  The  dorsal  fin  com- 
mences rather  behind  the  posterior  border 
of  the  orbit,  leaving  a  distinct  crown  of  the 
head  in  front  Tho  ventral  line  was  flattened, 
had  a  prominent  spinous  process  at  the  pos- 
terior termination  of  the  lower  jaw,  in  a  line 
with  the  posterior  part  of  the  orbit,  and  a 
deep  notch  behind  the  rudimentary  ventral 
fins.  The  directions  of  the  axes  of  the  eyes 
were  different.  The  anal  fin  commenced 
behind  the  ventral  notch.  There  was  little 
^E'  1-  aboonnality  in  either  pectoral  or  caudal  fin, 

save  that  the  latter  was  directed  somewhat  downwards  (ventrallj). 


AnguQla  latirostiii. 
Conger  vnlgaria. 
Aunnodjtet  laneea. 
Clupea  hareuguB. 
Salmo  talar. 
Fario  aTgentem. 
Labnu  macnlatui, 
Ctenolabrna  rapeatris. 
Crenilabro*  puiiUni. 
Oadu*  morrfaus. 
ceglefinuB. 
Herlangui  oarbonariui. 
Lota  molva. 
Molells  qninqoeeirrata. 


Liat  o/ Fithei. 

PlatsHa  fiesni. 

limanda. 
!     Acanthocottni  MKirpiiii. 
I     Oasteroiteui  tracbnnii. 
,  apinaohia. 

Gobin*  bipnnctatu*. 
'  minntiu, 

I     Lepidoguter  bimaculatns. 

Cycloptemi  Imnpoa,  yonng. 

Liparit  volgBriB. 
'     Blennias  pholii.   - 
I     MurnnoidM  guttata. 
I     Lophius  pitcatoriui. 

Siphonottomu*  Typhis. 

Acantbias  vulgaris . 
I     Raia  batia. 


*  In mjditgDMiiofthiianlEaallwu aided b;DrB.H.  Tnqnair,whohair«- 
CMitljrpnbliibedmanjTalvablaobMrvationBonthaPleQKMiMttdB,  £»N.3VaM. 


DvGooglc 


o/JSdmhvrgh,  Sesaion  1865^6.  615 

2.  On  tlie  Natural  History  of  Lewis.    By  Professor  Duns, 
D.r.,  F.R.S.E. 

Compuativel;  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  natatal  his- 
tory of  Lewis.  Stray  notices  of  the  geology,  botany,  and  zoology 
of  the  Oator  Hebrides  are  to  be  met  with,  bnt,  with  one  oi  two 
exoeptions,  these  are  not  of  mach  value.  Martin's  "  Description 
of  the  WestorD  Islands  (1703),"  ia  chiefly  interesting  for  its  full 
account  of  the  industrial  and  moral  condition  of  the  people.  Little, 
however,  can  be  made  of  bis  incidental  references  to  the  natural 
history  of  the  islands.  Two  volumes  on  the  "  Economical  History 
of  the  Hebrides,"  by  Rev.  Dr  Walker,  Professor  of  Natural  History 
in  the  'DniverBity  of  Edinburgh,  were  published  in  1808,  after  Dr 
Walker's  death.  This  work  contains  a  good  deal  of  information 
on  indigenous  plants,  but  almost  none  ou  zoology.  Dr  Uacul- 
loch's  "  Description  of  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland  (3  vols., 
1819),"  is  in  every  way  an  abler  and  better  work  than  either  of  the 
two  now  named.  Its  notices  of  the  geology  and  mineralogy  of  tfae 
Outer  Hebrides  are  even  still  valuable.  The  only  other  work  call- 
ing for  notice  here  is  the  late  Ur  James  Wilson's  "  Voyage  Bound 
the  Coast  of  Scotland  and  tbe  Isles  (2  vols.  1842)."  Hr  Wilson 
spent  a  short  time  at  Stomoway,  but  tbe  work  contains  only  one 
brief  reference  to  tbe  zoology  of  the  district.  He  names  starlings, 
redbreasts,  larks,  thrushes,  and  sand-martens  as  the  only  land  birds 
Been  by  bim  near  that  town. 

In  addition  to  these  works  there  are  several  separate  papers  on 
tbe  natural  history  of  tbe  Long  IsLand,  which  should  be  named. 
Two  were  published  by  tbe  late  Professor  Macgillivray,  in  tbe 
second  volume  of  the  "  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Natural  and  Geo- 
gr^hical  Science  (1819),"  and  onother  by  Mr  John  Mocgillivray, 
on  the  "  Zoology  of  the  Hebrides,"  in  the  "  Annals  of  Natural  His- 
tory (vol.  viii.  1840)."  These  papers  are  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
zoology  of  Harris,  oud  are  very  imperfect.  In  tbe  "  Transactions 
of  tbe  Botanical  Society  of  Edinbargb  (1841),"  Dr  Balfour  pub- 
lished a  very  complete  list  of  tbe  plants  of  the  "  Outer  Hebrides 
and  Skye."  Captain  Thomas's  iDteresting  paper  on  "  Tbe  Geologic 
Age  of  the  Pagan  Monuments  of  tbe  Outer  Hebrides  {Proc.  Boyal 
Phyt.  Soc.  1863),"  contains  valuable  particulars  as  to  the  supposed 

VOL.  V.  4  L 


.,  Google 


616 


Proceedings  o/  the  Soyal  Society 


rate  of  growth  of  pe&t,  changes  in  the  surface  deposits  of  the  loca- 
lities referred  to,  &0. 

I  visited  Levis  last  summer,  chiefly  with  the  view  of  looking  at 
its  Ewlogy  and  surface  geology.  In  the  present  paper,  attention 
is  limited  to  the  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  land  moUusca. 


MAMMALIA. 

VasFERTiuoNiniS,  Common  Bat, 

HbjwrELtDS, 

.    Otter,  .        .        . 
Common  Martin,  . 

.  Lutra  vulgarU, 
.  MarUt/oina. 

Phooida.  . 

.    Common  S«al, 
Grey  Seal,     .        . 

MUBtD^     . 

.    Common  Mooae,  . 
Norway  Rat, 

.  JftudMrnanM 

LKPORIDf, 

.    Common  Hare,     . 
Alpine  Hare, 

Cbktid^  . 

.    Red  Deer,     . 

.   Cermud^iu. 

DELrmvTDJB, 

.    Common  Prapoise, 
Gmmpn.,     .        . 

AVE8. 

.   D.orea. 

.  PhooFTia  Mda$. 

Falcohid^ 

.     Rmg-fegged  Bnnarf, 
Common  Boziard, 
Golden  Esgle,       .        . 
WHle-tuled  Sea  Eagle, 
Fishing  Ospreyc^FiBhE 

Fet^inne  Faloon, 
Heriin, 
Kwtrel,        . 
Sparrow  Hawk,     . 

.  B*Uotagop<u. 
.   B,vtilgaru. 

.  F<doorrf<^- 

.  J.perwriHiM: 
.   F.tuahm. 

.   F.  ttnnunatlta. 
.   AtapUer  nitvt. 

STRiom*^  . 

Snowy  Owl, 
Common  Owl, 

.  SgTWanytlea. 
.   Strixalua,. 

nillBBDIMJD*, 

Bam  Owl,     . 
Bare-Toed  Day  Owl  {!), 
Chimney  SwaUow, 
Sand  Martin, 

[     Gould.  (tX*^ 

CAPRIKULOIDf, 

DvGooglc 


of  Edit^forgh,  8ee9um  1865-66.  617 

CucuLms,         .    Cuckoo,        ....   Oueuliu  eanonu. 

CoBTis^  .             Bavea,          ....  Cormu  eoraa. 
Hooded  or  Grey-backed  Crow,  C.  eornix. 
Book, 0. /mgiltgiu. 

Stuhkiu^  Stading,       ....  Stwnvt  vulgarit. 

TirxDiDA,  .  Dipper,         ....  Oindvt  Evropimu. 

Bliickbild,     ....  IWiJui  nurula. 

Biug  Oosei,  .  .  T.  torquatut. 

Field&re,      ....  T.  piiarii. 

SoDgXhnuIi,  .  7.  raunew. 

Bedwiug,  .  T.  iliaeut. 

(Bylvina). 

Btlviidm,  .  Garden  Wubler,  .  .  Sj/Jvia  hortmtU. 

Willow  Woodwren,  .  S.  irocUItM. 

Gold  Crest,  ....  Btguhu  auricapilbit. 

OommoD  Wren,    .        .        .  Troglodyta  wUgarii. 

(ErT/thaoma). 
Bedbreost,    ....  EryOiaeiu  rubeaila. 
Wbite-rumped  Stone  Chat,  .  Saxieola  txtt<mtht. 
Whin  Chat,  ....  FnUicieola  rubalra. 

{Parino!). 
Btne  n^      ....  Tom*  axrvitiu. 

{MotaeiUinn). 
Ficd  WKg^  .  MobuiOa  TantUi. 

{Fringiltma). 

Frihoillu)^     .    Cbaffinch,     ....  FrittfiUa  etdAt. 

Mountain  f^ch,  .  .  F.  Tnont^fringilla. 

Qcej  Lionet,  .  F.  eanwihina. 

Twite, F.  monliwn, 

Oreenflnoh,  .  .  F.  chlorU. 

House  Spairow,    .  .  Fautr  domtiUou*. 

{Bmhervmiz). 

Common  Bunting,  .  Embtrixa  mUiaria. 

Yellow  Hammer,  .  .  E.  eitrintlta. 

Be«d  Sp&iTow,  .  B,  tehiemeiui. 

Soowflake,    ....  PhelrojAana  wivaUt. 

(Alavdma). 
Meadow  I^pit,  .  AtUhu*  prattntU, 

Shore  Pipit^  .J.  obtcunu. 

Sky  Idrk,     ....   Alau^  m 


DvGooglc 


618 

Proceedings  of  the  Sot/cU  Society 

CoLDHBm^ 

.     Wood  Pigeon,       . 

.  ColvmhafoitmiMU. 

Rook  Dove,  . 

aUvia. 

Turtle  Dove  {)),    . 

.  CtuHur. 

PHULUnD^ 

.    Comnuin  Pheasant, 

PhanoMuColcluetu. 

Ferdicidx, 

.    Gommoa  Partridge, 

Perdix  eineria. 

Tbtraohid^ 

.    Black  Grouse, 

Tetrao  tttria. 

Bed  GrouK, 

T.Scotiois. 

Ptarmigan,    . 

Lagojnu  dnertUM. 

Qkdidx,    . 

.    Grey  Crane, 

.  Onueiturea. 

Pldrioud*, 

.    Golden  PloTOT,     . 

Dotterel,       . 

Fhtvialu  iM/rituUut. 

Ring  PloTOT, 

lapwing,      . 

Vandhu  cT^ttatut. 

Turnstone,     . 

&Ttptiiat  inierprtM. 

Oyster  Catoher,     . 

Grey  Sandpiper,  . 

Tringa  eanutiu. 

Purple  Sandpiper, 

Dunlin, 

T.eind^ 

Ssnderling,  . 

Curlew, 

Wliimbtel,    . 

N.^Moput. 

Totanidje, 

ToUmtt*  adidrit. 

SCOLOFAOID^ 

.    Common  Snipe,    . 

Jack  Snipe,  .        . 

a.  gaUinvia. 

Woodcock,    . 

AUDBIDJS,    . 

,    Common  Heron,  . 

Ardta  einerta. 

Kallid^  . 

.    WaterRail,  . 

Land  Bail,    . 

OrtxpToUiuu. 

Water  Hen,  . 

Coot,    ...        . 

FnlicaatTa. 

ASATIDJE,  . 

.    Grey  Lag  Goose,  . 

AiMTftnu. 

Wild  Gooee, 

AwMOMtr. 

Shortrbilled  Goose,       . 

A.oSnfrMt. 

^VUte-feced  Beinicle  Goose, 

Swan,.        .        .        . 

Oygnv*  iMuicv*. 

Shieldnke,  . 

Awuladorna. 

MaUaid,       . 

A.ho«3uu. 

Teal,     .... 

A.cneea. 

Pintul  Teal, 

A.  acuta. 

DvGooglc 


0/ Edit^nirgh,  Seaaion  1865-66.  6 

,    Wige<m,        .        .        .  .A.  Ptmlope. 

Broad-billed  Scaup  Duck,  .  A.  marila. 

Tufted  Pochard,    .  .    A.  fuligula. 

Velvet  Scoter,       .        .  .A.  fvtca. 

Black  Scoter,  .A.  nigra. 

Eider  Dack,  .A.  moUitima. 

Golden  Eye,  .        ,  .A.  clati^la. 

GooMauder,  .  Mergvt  mergrmur. 

Ited-breuted  GooMaader,  .  M.  terraioT. 


CovnamM, 

Little  Grebe, 

.   Podictpi  minor. 

Gmt  Northern  Diver, 

.   Colyrnina  glacialit. 

CoLTiumx, 

BUckthroated  Diver, 

.    Carclioiu. 

Red-throated  Diver, 

.    C  ttfttntTionalit. 

Alcid^ 

Common  Guillemot, 

.    UrialTOiU. 

.    U.grylU. 

Little  Auk,  . 

.   Aleaaae. 

BazorBiU,    . 

.  A.lorda. 

Puffin,  . 

.  A.  arctiai. 

Pkucabid^, 

Cormorant,  . 

.   FdttMau  oarbo. 

Shag,    .        .        . 

.   P.  graoilui. 

Gannet,        .        , 

.   P.boacmi,,. 

PsoCELLAKICf, 

Fulmar, 

.   Proallaria  glaciaii». 

.   Pvffintu  Anglorum. 

Slonnr  Petrel,      . 

Larid*,     . 

Rich&rdson's  Skna, 

Kittiwake,    . 

.    Larmrina. 

Great  Black-backed  Gull,       .   L.marinw. 

Leaser  Black-backed  Gull,     .  L./u4eu$. 

Herring  Gull,        . 

.   L.  argentalwt. 

Common  Gull, 

.   L.canu,. 

Brown-hooded  Mew, 

.   L.  ridilmndw. 

Common  Tem,      . 

.   SlenM  hinind^. 

Arctic  Tem, 

.  S.aTctiea. 

EEPTILIA. 

Stone  Worm, 

.  Angvit  fragUit. 

Common  Adder,  . 

.    ViperaberuaO) 

MOLLUSCA  (Land). 

Limaz  agrtitie,  Zonilts  celiairtiu,  Z.  ntfufiu,  HAet  atrgeta,  B.  wmoraiit, 
H.  rotundofo,  Zml  Ivbrica. 


DvGooglc 


620  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Society 

These  lists  krs  not  a  little  suggeetive,  when  regarded  trom  the 
point  of  view  of  the  geographical  dietribation  of  animale.  Taking 
into  account  the  cUmatal  condition  of  Lewis,  its  relation  to  the 
mainland  and  to  the  islands  of  the  Onter  Hebrides  group,  it  will  be 
seen  that  its  fauna  contains  fonna  which  could  scarcely  have  been 
looked  fot  there,  and  that  others  are  absent  which  we  might  have 
expected  to  find.  Its  climate  is  comparatively  mild,  and  not 
BO  humid  as  many  believe.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
Ho'-S,  and  the  average  annual  rain-fall  is  not  more  than  30-2 
inches.  The  greatest  cold  is  seldom  more  than  3S°,  and  the 
greatest  heat  65°. 

In  the  list  of  mammalia  the  Muatetidce  are  represented  by  two 
genera,  LtUra  and  Martet.  It  is,  however,  remarkable  that  neither 
the  common  weasel,  the  stoat,  nor  the  polecat,  should  be  met  with 
in  a  locality  which  still  shelterB  one  of  the  least  common  Scottish 
forms  of  this  family — the  rapidly  decreasing  Martei/oina.  This 
animal,  whose  skin  still  sells  at  a  price  varying  from  lis.  to  208., 
occurs  in  Sir  James  Hatheson's  deer  forest,  Hhoragail.  Under 
the  family  Phodda,  the  common  seal  and  the  grey  seal  are  named 
as  known  to  breed  on  the  west  coast  of  Lewis.  When  Ifartin 
visited  the  district  more  than  160  years  ago,  he  wrote — "  Seals  are 
eaten  by  the  vulgar,  who  find  them  to  be  as  nourishing  as  beef  and 
mutton."  Two  species  of  Mvridtz  occnr — the  common  mouse  and 
the  KoTway  rat  In  almost  all  other  districts  these  species  are 
found  associated  with  the  shrews,  the  volee,  and  the  field  mouse, 
none  of  which  are  met  with  in  Lewis.  It  is  cnrioue,  too,  that 
while  the  common  and  Alpine  hares  abound,  there  are  no  rabbits. 
Several  attempts  to  introduce  them  have  failed.  The  fox,  hedge- 
hog, mole,  and  badger,  are  also  absent,  yet  these,  I  believe,  all 
occur  in  Skye.  The  number  of  species  of  Uammalia  which  fall  to 
be  associated  with  Lewis  is  thirteen.  In  the  same  way,  the  num- 
ber of  species  of  birds  is  110.  Many  of  these,  however,  are 
occasional  visitors.  The  number  of  reptiles  is  one,  and  of  land 
moltusca  seven.  A  careful  examination  may  odd  some  forms  to  the 
last;  but  I  do  not  anticipate  that  the  list  of  birds  will  have  many 
names  added. 

Many  of  the  birds  came  under  my  own  observation.  Othras  are 
named  from  a  collection  preserved  at  Uie  gamekeeper's  lodge,  near 


DvGooglc 


of  EtUnburgh.  Seaaim  1 865-66.  621 

Stomowfty  Cutle.  Several  of  the  tarest  forms  are  among  tbeee. 
For  the  namee  of  othera  I  am  indebted  to  Mr  Liddle,  fanaor, 
G-reM,  BO  intelligent  and  tmstwortb;  obserrer. 

Not  fewer  than  ten  species  of  Falconidm  occur  in  Levis,  or  in 
Bome  of  the  islands  on  the  east  and  west  coast.  The  golden  eagle 
is  seen  throughont  the  jear;  in  winter  singly,  in  summer  often  in 
pairs.  The  belief  is  common  among  the  people  that  this  epeoies 
takes  salmon,  aa  well  as  hares,  moorfowl,  &a.  The  white-tailed 
eagle,  in  its  turn,  poaches  on  the  territory  of  the  golden  one.  It 
has  been  often  known  to  take  Iambs  as  well  as  salmon,  and  ia  said 
to  have  killed  a  fawn  in  Mhorsgail  Deei  Forest.  The  fishing  osprey 
is  more  common  than  either  of  theee.  It  nests  in  the  Shiant 
Islands,  and  may  not  onfreqnently  be  seen  on  the  Uig  coast.  The 
jer-falcon  is  only  an  occasional  visitor.  It  ia  more  frequently  seen 
in  the  Flannen  Isles,  on  the  west  coast  of  Lewis.  The  peregrine 
falcon  ia  observed  throughout  the  year.  It  is  noted  as  a  bold 
hnnter,  and  very  deatractive  to  young  grouse.  When  pressed  1^ 
hnnger  it  will  attack  the  old  also.  Its  favonrite  prey  is  the  rook 
pigeons,  which  abound  on  the  west  coast  especially.  The  merlin 
was  once  abundant,  but  is  now  comparatively  rare.  The  sparrow* 
hawk  is  common.  The  kestrel  is  not  so.  Two  snowy  owls  were 
shot  at  the  Bntt  in  1855,  and  one  at  Uig  in  1859.  The  common 
and  bam  owls  are  compaiatively  rare.  A  good  observer  described 
to  the  author  a  species  which  he  bad  once  seen,  as  small,  bare  on  the 
toes,  hrown  above  and  yellowish  below.  The  deacription  suggested 
Noetua  nudipes  of  Qould ;  bat  this  is  of  very  tare  occurrence  in 
Britain,  and  even  on  the  Continent  it  is  seldom  met  with  north  of 
lat.  65". 

The  cuckoo  frequently  appears  in  the  end  of  April,  but  its  usual 
time  seems  to  he  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of  Hay.  Writing  of 
Bona,  Martin  makes  the  following  note : — "  The  inhabitants  of 
this  little  island  say  that  the  cnckow  is  never  seen  or  heard  here, 
but  after  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Seaforth  or  the  minister  I" 

Among  the  CorvidcB,  the  raven  and  grey-backed  crow  are  com- 
mon, Soth  of  these  birds  are  very  hold,  and  destructive  to 
grouse.  The  former  not  nnfrequently  attacks  diseased  sheep,  and 
picks  their  eyes  out  before  the  animals  are  dead.  Several  of  the 
latter  have  been  seen  to  attack  the  female  grouse,  when  covering 


DvGooglc 


622  Proceedings  of  the  RoyoX  Society 

her  youDg,  drive  hei  Bway,  and  fly  off  with  a  yonog  bird  each. 
Both  build  in  the  wild  cliffs  overhaDging  the  sea,  but  they  are  often 
met  with  in  the  moors.  The  rook  is  rarely  eeeo  in  Lewis.  It  is 
noticed  only  as  an  occasional  visitor  in  winter,  and,  when  disturbed, 
takes  flight  in  the  direction  of  the  mainland;  yet  there  ia 
abundance  of  food  for  it.  Not  only  does  the  earthworm  abound, 
but  many  hurtful  grubs  also.  Cultivated  patches  were  pointed  ont 
to  roe  as  having  been  destroyed  by  mildew,  but  on  pulling  up  the 
plants  by  the  roots,  numerous  wire  worms  of  Tipvhi  and  Elator 
were  seen. 

The  jackdaw  is  absent,  but  the  starling,  which  in  many  of  its 
habits  resembles  this  bird,  is  very  abundant.  The  starling  builds 
in  the  holes  of  rocka,  and  seems  to  be  much  more  particular  about 
its  nest  than  it  ia  in  the  south.  In  Lewis  it  uses  mose  and  wool 
as  a  lining,  and  is  often  seen  on  the  sheep's  back,  not  feeding  oa 
the  ticks,  which  it  sometimes  does,  but  quietly  pulling  out  the  wool 
for  nest-lining. 

Six  species  of  the  family  Turdtda  pccnr.  Of  these  the  dipper 
is  the  least  common.  The  ring  ousel  is  met  with  in  summer.  An 
interesting  illustration  of  what  might  be  called  the  adaptive  power 
of  instinct  came  under  my  notice  in  the  little  island  named  Pabba, 
near  the  Uig  shore.  On  the  15th  of  June  1865,  when  examining 
the  rocks  of  the  island,  I  met  with  a  nest  of  the  common  thrush, 
containing  four  eggs.  In  placing  it  at  the  top  of  a  sand-covered 
rock,  over  the  edge  of  which  long  stalks  of  lyme  grass  drooped,  the 
bird  had  availed  itself  of  these  for  a  kind  of  cradle  for  tho  nest. 
Indeed,  some  of  the  leaves  were  woven  into  the  outer  covering  of 
the  nest,  which  was  thus  hung  ont  over  the  bank.  In  the  Low- 
lands the  favourite  nesting-place  of  the  thrash  is  a  tree  or  a  bush ; 
but  as  these  are  of  rare  occurrence  indeed  in  Lewis,  the  bird  yields 
to  circumstances,  and  places  its  nest  in  the  hollows  of  the  rocks,  or 
on  the  top  of  sand-banks  near  the  shore.  In  this  case  it  had 
managed  to  place  it  where  it  would  swing  in  the  breeze.  The 
nesting-time  of  the  thrush  in  the  soath  is  in  April  and  the  begin- 
ning of  May.  These  birds  occur  in  great  numbers  all  over  Lewis. 
Tbe  missel-thrush  and  redwing  appear  in  winter.  Id  the  sonlb  the 
former  is  most  common,  in  the  north  the  latter. 

The  family  Sylviidm  is  well  represented.    Some  members  occur 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  623 

io  LewiB,  which  we  could  not  have  expected  to  find.  I  met  with 
the  garden- warbler,  the  willow  wood-wren,  and  the  pretty  little 
gold-crest,  in  the  plantation  around  Stomoway  Castle.  The  age  of 
the  trees  and  busbea  there  is  not  great.  These  birds  must  thus 
have  found  their  way  thither  after  the  plantation  was  made.  It 
would  be  intereating  enough  if  we  could  trace  the  path  of  their  pro- 
gress north,  especially  as  they  arrive  only  a  few  days  later  than 
those  which  frequent  tlie  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh.  The  pre- 
sence of  the  blue  tit  is  as  curious.  Of  related  forms  the  pied 
wagtail  and  yellowhaminer,  whinchat  and  redbreast,  may  be  men- 
tioned as  not  common. 

The  lark  may  be  named  the  bird  of  Lewis.  On  every  moor,  in 
every  cultivated  spot,  inland  or  along  the  shore,  wherever  there  is 
a  bit  of  turf,  you  meet  this  bird.  Some  have  thought  that  the  in- 
crease of  starlings  in  the  Lowlands  lias  thinned  the  number  of  larks. 
In  Lewis  both  are  very  abundant. 

Among  the  FringiUiihe,  perhaps  the  least  common  is  the  house* 
sparrow.  "  A  pair  of  sparrows,"  says  James  Wilson,  in  the  work 
referred  to  above,  "  built  in  Stomoway  in  1833,  but  we  did  not  see 
their  descendants  in  1841."  I  believe  that  the  date  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  sparrow  fnto  Lewis  is  correct.  They  ore  now  spread 
all  over  the  country;  but  in  few  localities,  eicept  in  Stomoway,  do 
they  breed  in  the  eaves  and  thatch  of  houses.  Even  the  sparrow 
turns  away  from  the  wretched  huts  in  which  the  majority  of  the 
people  dwell.  Here,  again,  we  have  an  illustration  of  the  influence 
of  habit  on  instinct.  Were  a  sparrow  to  build  a  nest  in  the  thatch 
of  one  of  these  wretched  hovels,  it  would  be  almost  sure  to  be 
destroyed  when  the  eggs  were  dropped.  To  prevent  the  escape  of 
smoke  almost  all  the  huts  are  built  without  a  chimney.  Windows 
occur  in  very  few  of  them,  and  the  doors  are  smaller  than  those  of 
cottages  in  the  Lowlands.  The  object  of  this  is  to  direct  the  peat 
smoke  into  the  loose  thatch,  in  which  the  soot  may  lodge.  In 
spring  this  part  of  the  covering  is  taken  off,  and  spread  over  the 
"lazy  beds,"  in  which  barley  and  green  crops  are  to  be  raised. 
Thus  manured,  they  yield  abundant  crops.  The  sparrow  has  been 
taught  the  uncertainty  of  tenure  in  such  roofs,  and  builds  its  nest 
in  the  boles  of  rocks  instead  of  the  habitations  of  man. 

The  CoJumhiilm  are  represented  by  the  vock-pigeon  and  the  wood- 


...  Google 


624  Proceedinga  of  the  Royal  Society 

pigeon.  The  former  ia  very  abnodant;  tbo  latter  is  only  seen 
occagioually  in  Bpring  or  in  autnms.  Some  yeara  af^  one  of  Sii 
James  Matbeson'e  keepers  shot  a  apecimen  of  the  turtle  dove.  This, 
I  believe,  is  the  only  inBtance  in  nhich  this  bird  has  been  met  with 
BO  far  north. 

When  the  pheasant  was  first  introduced,  it  roosted  babitaally  on 
the  trees  near  Stotnoway  Castle.  This  it  seldom  does  now.  Has 
it,  too,  learned  something  fay  experience  7  It  has  nothing  to  dread 
from  foz,  or  polecat,  or  ermine;  and  the  marten,  which  would  be 
deatmctive  to  it,  frequents  a  distant  locality.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  introduce  the  black  grouse,  bnt  they  have  not  as  yet  been 
Buccessful.  Walker  seems  to  have  met  with  it  on  the  occasion  of 
his  visit  to  these  islands.  He  says,  "  The  stomach  of  the  black- 
cock is  often  found  stuffed  in  spring  with  the  Polypodium  vtdgan ;" 
and  adds,  "  This  ia  the  only  certain  instance  that  has  occurred  of 
any  animal  living  upon  a  plant  of  the  fern  kind  in  thia  coniitry," 
Ptarmigan  are  very  common,  especially  on  the  Lewia  elopes  of  the 
Harris  hilta.  The  red  grouse  is  not  fit  for  shooting  tilt  about 
September. 

One  species  of  Qruidce,  the  grey  crane,  has  several  times  been  shot 
in  severe  winter  weather.  Of  the  Pluvialidce,  the  golden  plover  is 
very  abundant  in  the  moors  during  summer.  In  winter  it  retiree  to 
the  shore.  The  dotterel  is  seen  in  June  and  July,  and  the  riog-plover 
is  very  abundant  throughout  the  year.  Ur  Macgilliviay  says  that 
the  lapwing  ia  of  extremely  rare  occurrence  in  the  Hebrides.  This 
is  a  mistake ;  I  saw  it  frequently.  Its  habits  as  to  change  of  place 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  golden  plover.  The  tornstone  is  met 
with  during  winter.  The  oyster- catcher  is  abundant.  I  found 
several  neate  on  a  shelving  rock  near  Gallan  Head,  with  eggs  in 
them,  on  the  14th  of  Jane.  In  some  the  shell  was  beginning  to 
break,  and  the  "peep-peep"  of  the  chick  conld  be  heard.  In  the 
Fern  Islands  the  young  of  Ibis  bird  appear  a  fortnight  earlier. 
The  neating-place  was  a  hollow  in  the  large  look,  without  lioing  of 
any  kind. 

Of  the  Tringidef,  the  grey  sandpiper  arrives  in  small  flocks  in 
September,  the  purple  sandpiper  appears  for  a  few  weeks  in  spring, 
the  dunlin  is  abundant  on  the  Uig  ooaat  in  June,  the  sanderling 
arrives  early  In  September,  and  departs  in  March,  the  cnrlew  is 


^aovGoOglc 


of  Ediftimrgh,  Seaaum  1865-66.  62S 

abuadant,  and  the  whimbrel  is  seen  in  Hay  Tor  a  short  time.    It 
does  not  seem  to  breed  in  Lewis. 

The  Totantda  are  represented  by  the  redahcmk,  vbich  is  not 
common,  and  is  seen  only  in  summer.  Three  species  of  Scolopaetda 
ore  met  with.  The  common  snipe  is  abnndant  throughont  the 
year.  The  jack-snipe  is  not  common  in  winter.  The  woodcock 
arrives,  bnt  not  in  great  numbers,  in  October.  In  no  case  have 
they  been  known  to  remain  during  summer. 

The  common  heron  is  often  observed  in  winter;  very  seldom  at 
any  other  season.  The  water-rail  is  not  common.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  year.  The  Und-rail  aniTea  between  the  middle 
and  end  of  tfay ;  but  a  curious  fact  was  brought  under  my  notice 
in  r^iard  to  it :  its  cry  is  frequently  heard  in  Beruera,  Uig,  ten 
days  or  a  week  earlier  than  in  the  Long  Island  itself. 
'  No  fewer  than  nineteen  species  of  Anatidee  have  been  met  with 
in  Lewis.  Among  tfaese,  the  grey  lag  and  bean  goose  are  seen 
occasionally  in  winter;  the  pink-footed  or  sliort-billed  goose  breeds 
in  the  Flannen  Islands;  the  white-fronted  goose,  tlie  swan, 
shieldrake,  velvet  and  black  scoters,  appear  in  winter;  the  pintail 
teal  is  rare.  The  wigeon  has  frequently  been  shot  in  Lewis,  though 
Hr  Macgillivray  says,  ''  In  the  north  of  Scotland  they  are  un- 
common ;  on  its  north-west  coast  scarcely  ever  seen ;  in  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  I  believe,  never."  The  broad-billed' scaup  duck  is  a  rare 
winter  visitaut.  The  eider  duck  breeds  in  the  Flannen  Isles.  I 
saw  a  pair  which  had  been  brought  to  Bernera  two  days  before  my 
visit.  I  observed  a  pair  of  the  golden  eye  on  a  small  lake  in  Uig  in 
June.  I  watched  them  with  a  field-gloss  for  about  an  hour.  One  of 
Sir  James  Matheeon's  keepers  was  with  me,  but  they  never  came 
within  gun-shot.  The  gooseandei  breeds  occasionally  in  the  district. 

All  the  other  forms  named  in  the  list  of  birds  are  abundant,  with 
the  exception  of  the  little  grebe,  which  is  not  very  common. 

Under  RtptHia  I  have  set  down  the  common  adder;  bnt  its  oc- 
currence in  Lewis  is  apocryphal,  though  assured  by  several  that  they 
bad  seen  what  must  have  been  an  adder.  The  only  reptile  is  the  slow 
worm,  of  which  the  people  have  a  great  and  superstitious  dread, 
though  it  is  perfectly  harmless.  The  frog,  the  toad,  and  the  newt 
are  absent.  On  this  account,  the  people  call  Lewis  a  blessed  country, 
in  being  so  free  from  the  evil  creatures  that  abound  in  the  south  t 


DvGooglc 


626  Proceedings  of  the  Bm/al  Society 

3.  On  M.  Mege  MonriA'  Process  of  Preparing  Wheat  Flour. 
By  Professor  Wilson. 

Some  twelve  jeais  ago  M.  M^e  Honri^s  had  his  ottentioD 
directed  to  the  compoeitioD  of  Ibe  grain  of  wheat,  and  to  the 
proceBsea  of  grinding  and  pani6cation.  The  object  of  that  gentle- 
man's inTefltigations  waa  to  show  the  defective  knowledge  and 
waste  of  material  in  the  ordinary  practices  of  the  trade ;  bnt 
although  these  were  fully  proved  by  the  results,  there  appeared  to 
have  been  trade  and  other  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  general 
adoption.  Having  last  year  acted  as  juror  on  "  Food  Substances" 
at  the  Dublin  ExbibitioD,  I  had  my  attention  recalled  to  the  sub- 
ject by  ao  article  which  was  submitted  to  the  jury  under  the  came 
of  "  Cexealina,"  purporting  to  be  a  preparation  of  wheat  flour  by 
the  process  indicated  byH.  M€ge  Mourite,  and  which,  on  examina- 
tioD,  confirmed  the  opinions  which  had  been  previously  formed  of 
its  food  value.  On  further  inquiry,  it  was  found  that  a  simple 
mechanical  process  had  been  devised  in  the  United  States,  where 
the  flour  had  been  prepared,  for  efTecting  the  most  difflcult  part  of 
M.  M£ge  Mouries'  process — that  of  decorticating  the  grain.  This 
rendered  the  operation  of  preparation  so  easy  and  so  inexpensive 
as  to  make  it  desirable  that  attention  should  again  be  colled  to  th« 
process.  In  examining  the  composition  of  the  grain  of  wheat,  U. 
U^ge  mouries  found  that  it  was  a  far  more  complicated  structore 
than  was  commonly  supposed — that  it  consisted  of  (1)  an  outer 
covering  or  epidermis,  (2)  epicarp,  (3)  endocarp,  and  that  these 
three  layers  consisted  chiefly  of  ligneous  tissue,  and  formed  the 
exterior  covering  of  the  grain  or  true  bran,  and  had  no  food  value. 
Together,  they  averaged  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  wheat.  Beneath  these  came  (4)  the  testa  or  seed-coat 
proper,  which  was  a  distinct  cellular  tissue  of  a  dark  colour — yellow 
or  orange,  according  to  the  description  of  the  grain ;  and  (5),  the 
embryo  membrane,  directly  connected  with  the  germ,  which,  indeed, 
it  supplied  as  soon  as  the  vital  principles  of  growth  were  excited. 
These  two  coats  or  layers  contained  nitrogenous  matters  in  large 
proportions,  and  enveloped  the  mass  of  starch-cells  which  formed 
the  body  of  the  grain.    Ordinary  flour  was  composed  entirely  of 


DvGooglc 


o/£dmi»ir&h,  Seaaion  1865-66.  627 

these  interior  etarch-celU — the  rem&JniDg  portioDS  of  tbe  gnia 
being  separate  in  the  shape  of  bran,  and  carrying  away  with  them, 
at  the  BBme  time,  a  piopoitioD,  generally  five  oi  eiz  per  cent.,  of 
tbe  flonr  also.  If.  Uege  Monriffl  found  that  the  gluten  contained 
in  the  grain  was  very  nneqnt^ij  divided ;  that  while  in  tbe  epi- 
demiiHoc  the  tme  bran  it  was  least,  it  existed  in  larger  quantity  io 
tbe  two  next  layera  than  it  did  in  the  staich-cells  or  flour  of  tbe 
interior.  He  therefore  recommended  that  tbe  grain  sbould  be 
merely  decorticated  preTioiis  to  grinding,  and  that  the  layers  of 
cells,  BO  rich  in  glnten  as  the  testa  and  embryo  membrane,  should 
be  ground  up  with  the  starch  cells,  and  form  part  of  tbe  flour  used 
for  bread  or  other  food  purposes.  From  an  analysis  which  has 
been  made  by  Dr  Lyon  Flayfaii,  I  found  that  by  this  process  the 
true  bran  contains  only  1-571  per  cent,  of  gluten  instead  of  16'019 
by  the  ordinary  process.  The  flour  made  by  M.  M£ge  Mouri£s' 
process  contains  15672  per  cent,  of  gluten,  as  compared  with  9'79& 
in  the  ordinary  flonr.  By  merely  taking  off  the  outer  covering  of 
the  grain,  which  is  perfectly  valneleea  as  an  article  of  food,  instead 
of  following  tbe  ordinary  process,  which  takes  off  at  least  14  per 
cent,  of  bran,  fully  10  per  cent,  is  added  to  the  food  portion  of 
wheat,  while  the  nntritive  value  of  flour  is  increased  by  about  60 
per  cent.  This,  upon  the  wheat  consumption  of  tbe  kingdom, — say 
20,000,000  of  quarters, — is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance. 
Another  important  advantage  is  secured  by  U.  U£ge  Mouri^s' 
process  in  regard  to  the  storage  and  preservation  of  wheat.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  outer  covering — the  epidermis — absorbs  moisture  far 
more  readily  than  the  regular  cellular  tissue  of  the  inner  layers, 
and  thus  renders  tbe  grain  more  or  less  liable  to  mould  and  other 
injuries  by  keeping,  unless  great  care  be  taken  by  occasionally 
shifting,  &c.  By  tbe  process  of  decortication  this  is  entirely  re- 
moved, and  a  hard,  smooth  surface  given  to  the  grain,  frum  which 
every  particle  of  deteriorating  matter,  in  the  shape  of  dirt,  smut, 
&o.,  has  been  removed,  diminishing  its  bulk,  and  leaving  it  ready 
for  the  miller  whenever  it  may  be  required.  The  following  is  the 
method  adopted  for  tbe  preparation  of  tbe  grain  by  M,  Mege 
Mouries'  process: — 

"  Wheat  is  carried  up  to  the  topmost  floor,  then,  pasfling  tbrougli 
a  screen  or  riddle,  it  falls  through  a  hopper  into  a  long  narrow 


DvGooglc 


628  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  SocUty 

troagh  which  coDtains  water,  sDd  ia  travereed  through  ita  length 
by  an  ArchiraedJan  screw.  This  carries  the  wheat  slowly  along 
the  trough  to  the  discharge  end,  where  it  now,  in  a  moistened 
state,  falls  down  a  tahe  to  the  unhranning  or  decortioaling  cylin- 
ders. These  are  formed  of  cylinders  of  cast-iron,  ridged  on  their 
iDterior  diameters,  and  with  closed  ends.  A  screw  shaft  traverses 
the  centre  of  them,  carrying  hroad  aims  or  floats  set  at  an  angle, 
diagonal,  or  'aslant'  to  the  face  of  the  cylinder,  and  with  a  dia- 
meter so  much  less  than  that  as  to  cause  friction,  but  to  allow  the 
grain  to  pass  without  crushing.  A  rapid  rotation  is  given  to  this 
central  shaft,  and,  owing  to.the  angle  at  which  the  floats  are  set, 
a  slight  progressive  motion  is  given  to  the  grain.  The  friction 
causes  a  large  proportion  of  the  ttue  bran — epidermis,  epicarp,  &o. 
— to  be  separated ;  and  this  is  removed,  as  it  is  separated,  by  a 
blast  driven  through  the  cylinder  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the 
motion  of  the  shaft,  which  also  has  the  effect  of  drying  the  exoess 
of  moistnre  of  the  grain.  It  then  passes  along  a  spout  inta  a 
second  cylinder,  where  it  undergoes  the  same  process ;  and,  finally, 
is  carried  into  the  drying-chambers,  composed  of  a  series  of  iron 
troughs,  along  which  the  grain  is  propelled  by  screw  shafts,  » 
current  of  dry  warm  air  being  driven  along  them  in  an  opposite 
direction.  It  then,  quite  dry,  receives  its  last  friction  in  the 
polishing  cylinders,  where  the  friction  is  limited  to  that  of  the 
grains  themselves,  and  leaves  it  in  a  dry,  smooth,  rounded  form. 
As  thb  generates  a  considerable  elevation  of  temperature,  it  re- 
quires to  undergo  a  cooling  process  before  storing  or  using.  This 
is  effected  by  carrying  it  up  to  the  upper  floor,  and  allowing  it  to 
fait  down  iDcIined  planes  through  a  flat  shoot,  up  which  a  blast  of 
cold  air  is  driven." 


4.  ObeervatioDB  on  Meat  (BatchOTe'-meBt),  in  relation  to 
the  Changes  to  which  it  is  liable  under  different  circom- 
Btances.  By  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.R.SS.,  London  and 
Kdinburgh,  &c. 

Animal  fotrd  is  of  so  much  importance,  in  relation  to  our  wants 
as  to  diet,  tliat  I  have  been  induced  to  make  some  experiments  on 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  629 

it,  with  the  hope  of  abUining  nsefnl  reBnlta.  These  I  now  enbmit 
to  the  Society,  imperfect  as  thej  ore,  tmBting  that  they  may  not 
prove  altogether  useless,  and  that  they  may  tend  to  farther  inquiry. 

1.  0/ Degree  </ Temperalvre  (u  modifying  Change. 

It  is  well  known  how  rapidly  meat  undergoes  the  pntrefactive 
change  in  the  height  of  summer,  and  in  tropical  climates  at  all 
seasoDs;  and,  on  the  contrary,  how  l<jng  it  may  be  kept  free  from 
putridity  during  oar  winter,  and  more  especially  at  the  freezing 
tempeiatare,  and  degrees  of  temperature  approaching  the  freezing,— 
in  this,  as  in  the  preceding  instance,  fnlly  exposed  to  the  air  of 
ordinary  atmospheric  humidity. 

In  the  comparatiTe  trials  I  have  made  in  each  season,  fur  the  sake 
of  precision,  the  meat  nsed  has  been  divided  into  two  portions, — 
one,  suspended  by  a  thread,  has  been  fully  exposed  to  the  air  of  the 
room;  the  other  has  been  easpended  in  a  receiver  over  a  little 
water, — the  receiver,  so  covered  as  to  admit  air,  and  yet  prevent 
rapid  desiccation  by  evaporation. 

In  one  experiment  on  portions  of  lamb,  made  at  a  temperature 
varying  from  60°  to  65°  of  Fahr,,  between  the  11th  and  12th  of 
August,  the  results  were  strikingly  different.  The  portion  fully 
exposed  to  the  air  lost  weight  rapidly,  and  soon  became  dry  and 
hard,  without  acquiring  any  putrid  taint ;  whilst  the  other,  on 
the  contrary,  softened,  and  for  most  part  actually  liquified,  at  the 
same  time  becoming  extremely  putrid.*  1  have  mentioned  these 
results  in  a  note,  in  a  paper  published  in  the  last  volume  of  the 
Society's  Tran8actions,t  and  in  the  same  note  have  adverted  to  the 
fact  of  the  perfect  preservation  of  the  meat  during  the  like  time 
and  temperature  over  water  in  vacuo. 

In  a  second  trial  made  in  winter,  a  portion  weighing  1411  grs., 
exposed  freely  to  the  air,  became  dry  and  hard  in  twenty-three 
days,  viz.,  from  the  27th  of  October  to  the  19th  of  November,  the 
thermometer  in  the  room  averaging  about  55*.     During  this  time 

■  The  dioppingB  from  the  putrifjiug  meat  have  had  Bome  resemblance  to 
chjme,  being  found  to  coneiBt  of  a  Said  conignlablu  bj  heat,  in  vhich  were 
Bnapended,  as  Beeo  with  a  high  Tnagniffillg  power,  innumernble  granules, 
■ome  fibres,  and  some  minute  crjslnls. 

t  Tranaactinna,  vol.  ixiv.  ]■.  137. 


DvGooglc 


630  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

it  lost  by  evaporatioD  966  grs.,  or  677  per  cent. ;  aod  it  lost  do 
more  from  further  exposure. 

Another  portion  of  the  eame  meat,  weighing  71-5  grs.,  Baepended 
over  water  lightly  covered,  retained  during  the  same  time  much  of 
its  humidity,  and  shortly  became  covered  with  a  delicate,  white 
filamentons  growth  of  the  macednouB  kind,  not  nnlike  very  fine 
hair.*  It  emitted  the  pecniiar  smell  of  monld,  and  the  water  be- 
neath had  a  taint  of  the  same.  On  the  15th  of  December  it  was 
reduced  to  266  grs.,  or  had  lost  65  2  per  cent.  The  delicate  white 
fibres  were  somewhat  shranlcen ;  the  upper  moiety  had  become 
darker;  cut  into,  the  moutdijieBS  was  found  to  be  superficial;  the 
interior,  of  a  darkened  colour,  was  of  increased  translucency ;  its 
muscular  fasicnli  were  distinct ;  their  structuTe  so  little  altered,  that 
when  moistened  with  dilute  acetic  acid  their  strite  were  seen  well 
defined.  TlnderneBtb,  in  the  water,  there  was  a  little  white  sedi- 
ment, which  was  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  cells  (spores)  thrown 
off  from  the  mildewed  surface.  Evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue 
weighed  only  '4  gr.  Beplaced  over  fresh  water,  this  water,  in 
three  days,  had  become  slightly  turbid  from  spores  snspended  in  it, 
and  bad  acquired  the  pecniiar  smell  of  mould.f  The  portion  of  meat 
was  now  freely  exposed  to  the  air ;  it  soon  shrunk  and  became  hard ; 
and  when  it  sustained  no  further  loss  from  evaporation  it  was  re- 
duced to  21  grs.,  a  loss  of  716  per  cent. — a  part  of  which  loss,  it 
may  be  presumed,  was  owing  to  the  vegetable  growth. 

In  the  paper  already  referred  to,  I  have  mentioned  that  dried 
meat  does  not  attract  the  flesh-fly,  only  the  putrid  in  progress  of 
deliquescence,  when  it  affords  a  fit  nidus  for  the  larvte  of  this  fly, 
and  for  their  nutriment.  I  may  further  remark  that  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  flesh-fly  loses  its  activity,  and  is  no  longer  seen 

*  TbJB  ma;  belp  to  accoant  for  what  ia  atatedof  a  bod;  long  buried,  which. 
after  fortj-three  years,  was  found  as  reported  aJmoflt  entiTet;  covered  wttb  hair. 
Accordiug  to  tbe  namitive :  "  The  cover  of  tbe  coffin  having  been  removed,  the 
whole  corpae  appeared  perfectlj  resembling  tbe  humaD  shape,  exhibiting  the 
ejes,  nose,  month,  ears,  and  all  tbe  other  paits,  but  from  the  ver;  crown  of  the 
head  to  the  sola  of  the  feet  covered  over  with  hair,  long  and  mnch  coiled." 
A  specimen  of  this  hair-like  Bobetance  was  considered  worth;  of  a  place  in  tbe 
rppositor;  of  Greaham  College,    (See  Phil.  Tram,  abridged,  vol.  ii  p.  490.) 

t  Bpoiea  were  found  also  on  tbe  inner  Bniface  of  the  gUss  covers.  Whan 
llirown  off,  it  may  bo  inferred  that  the;  are  readily  diffused  in  currents  of 


DvGooglc 


o/Edinburgk,  Session  1865-66.  631 

(oDe  of  about  50°),  is  also  that  at  which  the  deliquescent  proceeiof 
pntrefactioD  ceasefi  and  the  mould -growth  takes  its  place. 

2.  0/a  Moist  or  Vaporma  tleUe  o/Atmo^there  at  modifying  Change. 
The  influence  of  warmth  and  moiBtore  of  atmosphere  in  pTO- 
moting  the  putrid  decomposition  of  animal  matter  is  an  established 
fact.  It  is  well  known  that  within  the  tropica,  especially  in  littoral 
regions  where  the  thermometer  ranges  between  78°  and  tj3°  or  84°, 
and  the  atmosphere  is  commonly  damp,  the  difference  between  the 
moistened  and  dry  bulb  seldom  exceeding  5°  or  6°,  putrefaction  is 
so  rapid  that  meat  cannot  be  kept  more  than  a  few  hours  without 
acquiring  a  putrid  taint.  When,  however,  the  air  is  very  di;,  as 
in  Nubia  and  the  African  deserts,  then  the  putrefactive  process  is 
very  much  arrested,  though  the  temperature  may  be  high.  At 
Ualta  a  wind  occasionally  prevails,— a  south-weat  wind,  coming  from 
Africa, — which,  in  the  lummer  season,  I  have  known  as  high  as 
105°,  and  so  dry  that  the  difference  between  the  moistened  and  dry- 
bulb  thermometer  has  been  as  much  as  30°.  The  atmosphere  of 
Nuhia  is  somewhat  of  the  same  character ;  and  its  quality,  as  to  the 
checking  of  the  putrefactive  change,  is  well  shown  by  a  passage  in 
a  very  charming  book  by  a  lady, — Lady  Duff  Gordon's  "Letters 
from  Ggypt,"  18G3-G5 ;  writing  from  that  country.  Nubia,  she  re- 
■  marks :  "  Fancy  that  meat  kept  ten  and  fourteen  days  under  a  sun 
which  I  was  forced  to  cover  my  head  before  I  In  Cairo  you  must 
cock  yoni  meat  in  two  days ;  in  Alexandria  as  soon  as  killed,  and 
the  sun  is  nothing  there.  But  in  Nubia  I  walked  till  I  woie  out 
my  shoes  and  roasted  my  feet :  and  I  was  as  dry  as  a  chip  in  Nubia 
and  as  low  down  as  Sing,  below  Thebes  some  way  ;  after,  it  altered, 
and,  though  cold,  I  perspired  again."  I  may  mention  another  strik- 
ing example.  In  the  early,^ring  of  1626 1  visited  the  Greek  island 
of  Ipsara,  a  little  more  than  two  years  after  it  had  been  invaded 
and  devastated  by  amerciless  Turkish  force.*  We  found  it  a  desert, 
the  town  in  ruins,  only  one  of  the  inhabitants  remaining,  who  served 
as  OUT  guide,  all  the  rest,  excepting  those  who  escaped  in  their  ships, 
or  were  captured  and  enslaved,  having  been  massacred.  On  one 
side  of  the  island,  exposed  to  the  south-east  wind,  the  moist  sirocco, 

*  Tbls  was  in  Jane  1H24,  alxmt  midBumtner. 


D.^,l,zedDvG00glc 


632  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

on  a  spot  where  the  carnage  had  been  greateet,  only  bleached  bones 
were  to  be  Been ;  whilst  on  the  other  and  opposite  side,  exposed  to 
the  north,  to  the  dry  Etesian  wind,  at  a  battery  called  Fetellio, 
which  had  been  heroically  defended,  we  fonnd  two  or  three  hundred 
bodies  still  remaining,  lying  as  they  fell,  and  bo  little  were  they 
changed  that  our  companion  was  able,  though  their  facee  were 
blackened  and  shrunk,  to  recognise  each  individual  by  his  features. 
They  had  become,  as  it  were,  natnral  mnmmies;  their  clothes — for 
they  were  all  clad — had  apparently  suffered  little  decay ;  and  their 
hair,  except  that  it  was  a  little  bleached,  showed  ita  natural 
colonr. 

Whether  Buch  a  checking  of  putrefaction  is  owing  to  a  rapid 
desiccation  of  the  surface  and  a  retardation  of  the  entrance  and 
penetration  of  oxygen,  or  to  other  lees  obyious  causes,  may  be  a 
question,  I  am  disposed  to  consider  it  owing  to.  the  former,  inaR- 
much  as  putrefaction  always  begins  at  the  surface,*  and  from  the 
oiioumBtance  that  desiccating  subBtancee,  such  as  quicklime,  pre- 
vent putrefaction.f 

3.  0/ Cooking  at  modifi/ing  Change, 
That  the  boiling  or  roasting  of  meat  thoroughly  enables  it  to  be 
kept  longer,  even  at  a  temperature  and  moist  Btate  of  atmosphere 

*  It  JB  well  known  to  cooki,  that  whilst  tlie  ont«T  surface  of  moat,  mch  as 
Tenieon,  may  be  ofTeneiTel)'  tt^ated,  the  inner  portion  may  be  comparatively 
Bweet  and  fit  for  use,  especially  if  the  deer,  as  soon  as  shot,  has,  according  to 
the  practice  of  the  skilled  forester,  been  well  blooded.  It  need  hardly  be  re- 
marked, that  if  the  blood  is  allowed  to  remain,  it  is  itself  a  source  of  pntte- 
faction,  oniDf;  to  the  oxygen  which  it  retains.  The  butcher,  gnided  by 
experience,  is  meet  careful  in  expelling  as  mnch  blood  as  possible  witbont 
delay  traia  hie  slangbtered  animale. 

f  I  may  refer,  in  proof  of  the  above,  to  the  reaulli  of  experiments  given 
in  vol.  ii.  of  my  Researches,  published  in  1836,  confirmed  by  others  in  n 
later  vol.,  that  of  1668.  In  the  former  I  have  qnoted  an  instance  from  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions,  Abridged,"  vol.  ii.,  of  the  fntility  of  burying 
the  carcasses  of  diseased  cattle  with  qnicklime.  Yet  qnickline  is  still  ordered 
to  be  nsed  in  the  intemient  of  snch  carcasses,  but  with  the  addition  of  some 
disinfectant.  Buch  a  procedure,  no  doubt,  will  vastly  delay  the  decomposition 
of  the  bodies,  and  prevent  tba  formation  of  offensive  gases.  Carbolic  acid, 
one  of  the  disinfectants  recommended,  has  the  advantage,  1  find,  of  being  re- 
pulsive to  dogt.  A  portion  of  meat  moistened  «ith  this  acid  was  refused  by 
three  hungry  dogs. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1866-66.  633 

moflt  favourable  to  putrefoctioo,  ia  well  known  to  the  honsewife. 
From  the  few  trials  I  haTe  made,  the  procesB  appears  to  arrest  the 
patrefactive  change,  and  to  favour  other  changea  with  the  produc- 
tion of  mould  or  mildew. 

The  following  ia  aniDstance: — On  the  11th  of  July  18^,  a  por- 
tion of  well-boiled  mutton  waa  euspeDded  in  a  receiver,  and  covered 
with  a  plate  of  glaea  uot  air-tigbt.  It  weighed  82-2  grs.  On  the 
20th  of  the  aame  mouth  it  was  reduced  in  weight  to  71-8  grs.,  and 
on  the  7th  of  Aogust  to  65-6  gre.  It  now  bad  a  slight  smell,  not 
agreeable,  not  putrid.  It  seemed  drier,  and  was  covered  with  mould 
of  various  colours,  mostly  white.  Cut  into,  ita  interior  bad  the 
amell  of  decaying  cheese.  The  muscular  fasciculi  were  distinct; 
and,  with  the  aid  of  dilute  acetic  acid,  their  striated  structure  was 
seen.  It  was  near,  and  only  near,  the  surface,  that  the  vegetable 
growth  was  visible.  Four  months  later,  it  weighed  494  gra.  It 
waa  drier,  and  had  become  very  much  darker ;  its  colour  was  a  very 
dark  brown.  Examined  in  the  following  December,  i.e.,  after 
seventeen  monthe,  some  mildew  was  found  on  its  surface.  It  had 
an  ammouiacal  and  disagreeable  smell,  like  that  of  rotten  cheese, 
and  it  cut  like  such  cheese.  When  broken,  not  cut,  it  was  found 
friable.  The  muscular  fasciculi  still  retained  their  form,  and,  with 
dilute  acetic  acid,  showed  the  striated  marking,  with  an  increase  of 
translucency.  From  another  experiment  of  the  same  kind  on 
boiled  mutton,  begun  on  the  13th  of  August  1864,  and  continued 
to  the  11th  December  of  the  present  year,  like  results  were  ob- 
tained 

Blood,  too,  I  find,  after  having  been  subjected  to  the  boiling 
temperature,  has  its  tendency  to  putrefy,  arrested,  like  muscle,  and 
that  from  keeping  it  undergoes  somewhat  similar  changes.  I  may 
mention  one  instance : — On  the  6th  of  September  1864,  a  portion 
of  fowl's  blood,  jiist  after  it  had  coagulated,  was  boiled  for  several 
hours.  The  vial  holding  it,  on  ita  cooling,  waa  corked,  but  not  so 
tightly  aa  to  prevent  the  admission  of  air.  It  was  placed  in  a  room 
where  there  was  no  fire  in  winter,  and,  with  the  exception  of  being 
under  cover,  the  temperature  to  which  it  was  exposed  differed  but 
little  from  that  of  the  open  air.  Examined  on  the  14th  of  December 
1865,  it  was  found  moderately  dry,  for  most  part  of  a  brick-red 
colour,  partially  whitish.     It  had  an  ammoniacal  odour,  no  putrid 


DvGooglc 


634  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

odour.  Under  the  microscope,  it  was  seen  to  consist  chiefly  of 
amorphoua  matter,  of  oells  like  the  spores  of  mncedo,  and  of  blood 
corpuscles, — these,  except  ia  form  and  size,  bat  little  altered ; — do 
crystals  were  visible.  It  imparted  to  water  only  a  very  faint,  jast 
perceptible,  brownish  hue,  as  seen  after  filtration  and  separation  of 
suspended  particles.  The  water  had  a  strong  alkaline  reaction, 
but  was  almost  tasteless. 

A  clot  of  blood — ^to  mention  another  inBtance — ^wbich  had  been 
boiled  only  ten  minutes,  kept  the  eame  time,  oETeied  nearly  the 
same  results.  It  escaped  the  putrefactive  change ;  mould  formed  on 
it,  which,  after  more  than  a  year,  was  of  various  colours,  bright  red, 
white,  and  block — changes  of  colonr,  it  may  be  conjectured,  owing 
to  the  different  states  of  the  vegetation. 

Is  the  change  which  meat  and  blood  undergo  after  exposure  ia 
a  boiling  temperature,  as  described,  in  any  way  analogous  to  that 
which  vegetables  experience  when  converted  into  peat? — a  conver- 
sion which  appears  to  take  place  only  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature— below  that  favouring  rapid  decomposition ;  for  I  am  not 
aware  of  any  peat- formation  having  ever  yet  been  discovered,  in 
progress  within  the  tropics  or  in  any  locality  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  which  is  above  60°  of  Fahr. 

i.  Oniha  Injtnence  of  Sidphurout  Add  and  Acetic  Acid  m  amtting 
Ptiirefaetion. 
From  time  to  time  I  have  made  some  other  experiments  on  meats 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  their  preservatioo.  The  first  instituted  were 
with  sulphurous  acid,  of  which  I  have  given  an  account  in  a  volume 
of  "  Besearches,"  published  in  1839.  The  second  were  on  vinegar, 
the  results  of  which  are  there  also  described.*  The  sulpharous  acid 
had  previously  been  employed  in  arresting  the  fermentation  of  the 
more  delicate  white  wines.  I  found  it  to  arrest  the  putrefaction 
equally  well  of  animal  and  vt^table  subetances,  and  so  preserving 
them  as  to  render  them  not  unfit  for  use  as  human  food.  Trials 
with  vinegar  and  dilute  acetic  acid  gave  somewhat  similar  reBtilts, 
BO  Far  as  the  immediate  arrest  of  putrefaction  was  concerned ;  but 
it  did  not,  like  the  sulphurous  acid,  so  alter  the  character  of  the 


*  Besesrehea  AdUoid.  and  Fhfuol.  vol.  i. 


DvGooglc 


0/  Eiiin^rgh,  Seamon  1865-66.  635 

animal  or  vegetable  matter  as  to  prevent  ulterior  change  on  the 
removal  of  the  aoid  by  washiog  with  water* 

If  the  sabject  under  conBideration,  that  of  the  preeervation  of 
meat,  is  always,  fiom  an  economical  point  of  view,  deserving  of 
attention,  is  it  not  eepeciallj  so  at  a  time  such  as  the  present,  when, 
owing  to  the  cattle  plague,  there  is  a  danger  of  a  stinted  snpply,  at 
a  greatly  enhanced  price  7 


5,  The  Baried  Forests  and  Feat  Mosses  of  Scotland.  By 
James  Greikie,  Esq.  CommtiDieated  by  Archibald  Geikie, 
Esq. 

This  commnuication  is  an  attempt  to  eliminate  the  geological 
history  of  our  Scottish  peat  mosses,  which  appear  to  contain  the 
record  of  certain  changes  of  climate,  that  have  not  hitherto  fully 
engaged  attention.  The  phenomena  revealed  b;  our  peat  mosses 
are  threefold — First,  the  buried  trees,  and  the  condition  of  this 
country  at  the  period  of  their  growth  ;  second,  the  causes  which  led 
to  the  destruction  of  these  trees ;  and,  third,  the  present  aspect  of 
the  peat  moBses.  Under  the  first  head  is  to  be  considered  the  con- 
tinental period  of  Crreat  Britain,  to  which  the  bnried  trees  in  the 
older  peat  bogs  of  the  country  belong.  Under  the  second  head,  the 
canses  of  the  destruction  of  these  trees  are  chiefly  assigned  to  the 
upward  growth  of  wet  mosses,  the  chilling  effects  of  which  caused 
the  overthrow  of  the  trees.     This  points  to  a  change  of  climate; 

*  Siuce  the  eiparimenta  above  referred  to  were  made,  othera  have  bean 
tried,  the  reaults,  too,  of  which  I  may  briefl;  describe. 

On  the  9th  of  September,  ei  freah  parr,  laid  open  and  eviBCerated,  woa  bub- 
pended  by  a  thread  in  a  bottle  in  which  was  a  little  vinegai,  the  parr  not  in 
contact  with  the  acid.  Another  parr,  aimilaily  prepared,  was  moiEtened  with 
vinegar  and  wrapped  in  blotting-paper,  also  moistened  with  the  acid.  Thus 
encloeed,  it  was  placed  in  an  ale-glass  and  covered  with  a  tumbler.  After 
eight  days  the  suspended  parr  was  found  well  preserved;  it  bad  not  the 
slightest  nnpleaaant  smell;  ita  sarfaee  was  not  diatincUy  acid  to  the  taste, 
and  ita  teeth  retained  their  aharpneas.  The  other  parr  was  also  free  from  any 
nnpleasant  Emell,  but  was  softening  in  places;  the  bonea  were  quite  soft. 
After  ten  days  the  body  of  the  first  parr  was  fonnd  detached  from  softening, 
aud  had  fallen  into  the  acid,  tbe  head  remaining  suapended,  and  it  was  stitl 
free  ftom  any  unpleasant  smell,  as  was  also  the  softened  body.  The  parr  in 
paper  was  little  changed ;  it  showed  no  marks  of  putridity. 


DvGooglc 


636  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

the  country  was  no  loager  characterised  by  an  exceasive  or  con- 
tinental climate,  but  by  an  insular  and  more  moiat  one.  In  regard 
to  the  third  bead — the  present  aapect  of  the  peat  mosaeB — a  glance 
at  these  will  convince  any  geologist  that  the  peat  moss  formation 
has  not  only  ceased  to  spread,  but  is  in  most  cases  rapidly  disap- 
pearing. The  moisture,  which  in  former  times  afforded  it  nourish- 
ment and  support,  has  now  become  its  chief  enemy.  Every  shower 
of  rain,  every  frost,  gives  fresh  impetus  to  the  decay ;  and  leaving 
altogether  out  of  account  the  operations  of  agriculture,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  natural  causes  alone  will  in  time  suCSce  to  strip 
the  last  vestige  of  black  peat  from  hill  and  valley.  The  peat  mosses 
of  Scotland  are  only  a  wreck  of  what  they  have  once  been.  The 
growth  of  the  peat  bas  ceased  to  be  general :  here  and  there  mosses 
continue  to  increase  in  sufficient  abundance  to  form  that  substance, 
but  this  increase  ia  far  exceeded  by  the  general  rate  of  decay.  The 
peaty  covering  invariably  shows  an  upper  or  surface  stratum  of 
'  heath  and  grasses,  and  is  almost  everywhere  full  of  holes  and 
winding  channels.  These,  and  other  appearances,  convince  the 
writer  that  the  climate  has  now  become  less  humid — agricultural 
operations  aloue  not  being  entirely  safGcient  to  account  for  the 
change.  The  change  of  climate  indicated  by  the  wasted  aspect  of 
peat  mass  appears  to  have  shown  itself  first  along  the  southern 
limits  of  that  formation  in  Europe.  It  then  slowly  extended  ito 
influence  in  a  northward  direction,  meeting  in  its  course  with  many 
modiScations,  such  as  must  arise  from  local  circumstances.  Chief 
among  these  was  the  configuration  of  the  land — the  peat  of  low- 
lying  districts  dying  out  more  quickly  than  the  mosses  of  higher 
levels,  where  any  diminution  of  moisture  ia  taat  to  be  appreciated. 
In  the  same  manner,  the  track  of  the  rainy  winds  on  the  west  and 
south-west  coasts  have  also  marked  out  a  region  where  we  now 
meet  with  less  waste  among  the  mosses  than  in  other  districts. 
But  as  the  effect  of  such  a  cosmical  change  must  be  so  blended 
with  tbe  results  brought  about  by  the  progress  of  cultivation,  the 
geologist  can  do  little  more  than  suggest  the  extreme  probability 
of  its  existence.  As  it  can  be  shown  that  the  destmction  of  out 
ancient  forests  is  not  primarily  due  to  man,  although  in  the  later 
stages  of  the  process  he  certainly  played  an  important  part,  so  we 
may  expect  that  tlie  cliange  from  a  humid  to  a  drier  climate  bos 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  637 

abo  been  effected  by  natural  oausee ;  but  man,  eagerly  foUowiDg 
natare,  faaa  outBtripped  faer  in  her  work,  and  bo  identified  tbia  witli 
bia  own,  tbat  it  now  beoomee  scarcely  posBible  to  diBtiDguiah  tbe 
one  from  the  other. 


The  following  Donations  to  the  Librarj  were  announced; — 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philoeophical  Society,  held  at  Phila- 
delphia, for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge,  Vol.  XIII.  Part  2. 
Philadelphia,  I8S5.      4to.— from  the  Society. 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  held  at  Phila- 
delphia, for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge.  Vol.  X.  No.  74. 
8yo. — From  the  Society. 

Tranaactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland. 
Vol.  I.    No.  1.    1866.    8vo.— From  the  Socielt/. 

Journal  of  the  Koyal  Dublin  Society.  No.  34.  Dublin,  1865.  8to. 
— From  the  Socitty. 

Journal  of  the  Chemic^  Society.  Vol.  IV,  Nob.  37,  38.  London, 
1866.     8to.— JVwn  the  Society. 

Proceedings  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society,  London.  Vol. 
III.     Nos.  21,  22.     8vo.— -Frwn  ihe  Society. 

The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.  Vol.  XLL  Nos.  120, 
121.    New  Haven,  1866.    SYO.—From  the  Editort. 

Quarterly  Betarn  (with  Supplement)  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and 
Marriages  registered  in  the  DivisionB,  Counties,  and  Districts 
of  Scotland.     No.  XLIV.     8vo.~From  the  Regittrar-Generol. 

Monthly  Betum  of  the  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  registered  in 
the  Eight  Principal  Towns  of  Scotland.  February,  1866,  8vo, 
— From  the  Regiatrar-Oeneral. 

Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  Entozoa  in  tbe  Museum  of  the 
Boyal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England.  London,  1866.  8vo. 
— From  the  College. 

Abhandlungen  der  Mathematisch-Physiscben  classe  der  Xiiniglich 
Sacbaiscben  Qesellscbaft  der  Wissenscbaften  zu  Leipzig.  Band 
VIL  No.  2,  3,  4,  Philologisch-historiscben  classe.  B.  IV. 
No.  5,  6.     B.  V,  No.  1.     8vo.— From  the  Society. 

Bericbte iiber  die  Verbandlnngen  der  £bniglich  Sacbaiscben  Creeell- 
schaftderWissenschaflen  zu  Leipzig,  Fhilologisch-hJBtorische 


DvGooglc 


638  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

classe,  1864.    No.  2,  3.    Math.-Pbya.  cl.    1864.    8vo.— JVwh 

ihe  Society. 
ScbrifteD  der  Kooigliohen  Physibtdisch-Okonomischen  GoeellBchaft 

zQ  KSnigsbeig.     No.  1,  2.    1664.    4to. — From  the  Society. 
Jahresbericht  iiber  did  Fortschritte  der  Chemie  ttnd  verwandter 

Theile,  anderer  Wiasenschaften  fur  1864.   Giessen,  1865.  8to. 

— From  the  Editors. 
Obeerr&tioDS    H^t^orologiqnes    faites   &  Nijoe-TagniUk   (Moots 

Oarals,  G^UTeniemeiit  de  Perm)  Ann6e  1864.    8va — From 

the  Sustian  Oovemment. 
Om  OaterejoD  af  S.  LotSd.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 


Monday,  2d  April  1866. 

8iK  DAVID  BEEWSTEB,  PreBident,  in  the  Chair. 

The  President,  in  delivering  the  Neill  Medal  to  PiofeBsoi  A.  C. 
Bamsay,  LL.V.,  F.B.S.,  &o,,  made  the  following  remarks  :— 

In  adjudicating  the  Neill  Prize  for  the  tnenniat  period  from 
1862  to  1865,  the  Council  of  the  Boyal  Society  could  not  overlook 
tbe  high  claims  of  oar  eminent  countiyman,  Ur  Andrew  Rameay, 
Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Goveroment  School  of  Mines,  and  local 
Director  of  the  Qeological  Survey  of  Great  Britain. 

Mr  Ramsay's  geological  studies  commenced  with  a  survey  of  tbe 
Island  of  Arran.  After  JnveBtigating  the  atructnre  and  the  rela- 
tions of  the  rocks  of  that  interesting  island,  he  embodied  tbe  re- 
sults of  his  researches  in  a  beautifully  executed  model,  wbicb  we 
had  tbe  pleasure  of  seeing  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  Glasgow  in  1840.  This  model,  which  was  afterwards 
published  on  the  scale  of  Ivxt  inches  to  tbe  mile,  attracted  the 
particular  attention  of  Sir  Henry  De  La  Beohe,  tbe  Director- 
General  of  the  Geologioa)  Survey ;  and  in  tbe  following  year  Mr 
Bamsay  was  appointed  one  of  the  surveyors  who  were  then  at  work 
in  the  county  of  Pembroke. 

In  1845,  when  the  Survey  was  remodelled,  the  important  o£Sce 
of  local  Director  for  Great  Britain  was  conferred  upon  Mr  Bamsay, 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  639 

and  he  has  to  the  pieeetit  day  dieoharged  its  duties  with  credit  to 
himself  and  advaotage  to  the  Surrey.  He  has  thus  not  only 
mapped  large  areas  with  his  own  hand,  but  has  had  the  general 
superintendence  of  the  geological  reseaicheH  carried  on  nnder  Sir 
Henry  Do  La  Seche,  and  afterwards  under  onr  distinguiBhed  coun- 
tiyman,  Sir  Hoderick  Murohison, 

In  1847  Mr  Bamsay  waa  appointed  to  the  Chair  of  Gleology  in 
the  University  College,  London,  an  office  which  he  held  till  1851, 
when  he  waa  chosen  teetnrer  on  Geology  in  the  Koyal  School  of 
Mines  in  Jermyn  Street. 

In  the  midst  of  these  varions  official  dnties,  Mr  Bamsay  found 
leisure  for  pursuing  several  interesting  branches  of  geological  re- 
search. Id  1846  he  published,  in  the  Memoirt  of  the  Geological 
Survey,  a  paper  on  the  "  Denudation  of  South  Wales,"  which  led 
the  way  to  thoee  measured  details  by  which  this  branch  of  geology 
has  been  so  greatly  advanced. 

In  1855  Mr  Bamsay  published  fais  remarkable  paper  on  the 
"  Permian  Breccias  of  Shropshire,"  in  which  he  made  it  highly 
probable  that  there  were  glaciers  in  our  latitudes  during  the 
Permian  era ;  and  he  at  the  same  time  suggested,  that  some 
of  the  thick  conglomerates  of  the  Scottish  Old  Bed  Sandstone 
might,  in  like  manner,  be  the  representatives  of  an  ancient  glacial 
drift. 

Mr  Bamsay  has  distinguished  himself  by  the  energy  and  ability 
with  which  he  has  elucidated  the  history  of  the  glacial  period  in 
the  British  islands,  and  by  the  ingenious  theory  in  which  he  refera 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  rock-basin  lakes,  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, to  glacier  erosion  during  the  glacial  period. 

No  British  geologist,  in  our  day,  bos  done  more  than  Mr  Bamsay 
to  extend  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  to  which  the  present  outlines 
of  the  surface  of  our  country  is  due. 

In  his  annual  addresses,  as  President  of  the  Geological  Society, 
in  1863  and  1864,  he  has  skilfully  applied  bis  extensive  and 
minute  stratigraphical  knowledge  to  those  higher  branches  of  phi- 
losophical geology  which  deal  with  the  succession  of  life  in  time, 
and  with  the  relation  between  tbe  appearance  of  living  beings  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  and  the  physical  changes  which  that  sur- 
face has  undergone. 

VOL.  T.  4  0 


DvGooglc 


640  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Soctettf 

For  tbese  varied  and  important  labours,  the  Cottucil  of  the  £o;aI 

Society  coDsidered  Hr  Bameay  veil  entitied  to  the  honour  of  re- 

ceiviug  the  Neill  Medal.    The  President,  addressing  Mr  Bamsay, 

then  said, 
Mr  Bausat,  I  have  mnch  pleasure  in  delivering  to  yon  the  Neill 

Medal,  and  in  congratulating  you  on  an  honour  which  you  hare  bo 

well  deserved. 


At  the  request  of  the  Council,  Professor  Ptazzi  Smyth,  Astro- 
nomer-Boyal  for  Scotland,  gave  "  an  account  of  recent  measures  at 
the  Great  Pyramid,  and  the  deductions  flowing  therefrom." 

This  address,  which  was  illustrated  by  specimens,  models,  draw- 
ings, and  stereoscopic  photographs,  referred  chiefly  to  the  four 
months'  labour  of  the  author  in  the  winter  and  spring  of  1864  and 
18G5  at  the  Great  Pyramid  ;  where  he  went  with  the  approval  of, 
and  also,  he  thankfully  acknowledges,  a  considerable  amount  of 
assistance  from,  His  Highness  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  The  observa- 
tions then  made,  comprised  measures  of  length,  angle,  and  heat ; 
and  are  enough  to  fill  several  MS.  books,  which  are  being  prepared 
for  publication.  The  author,  indeed,  hod  hoped  to  put  all  these 
foundational  facts  into  the  hands  of  the  public  before  venturing  to 
anuonitpe  any  of  the  conclusions,  hut  was  overruled  by  respect  for 
the  appeal  mode  to  him  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  on  this  occa- 
sion. He  trusts  however,  still,  that  no  one  will  prejudge  the 
pyramid  question  on  hearsay,  but  wait  until  they  have  all  the 
instrumental  particulars  before  them. 

The  follovsring  Gentlemen  were  duly  elected  Fellows  of 

the  Society : — 

Dr  JoBN  Smith. 

Jahss  Falshaw,  Esq.,  C.E. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Useful  Information  for  Engineeers.    First  Series.    Fourth  Edition. 

By  William  Pairbaim,  LL.D.,  F.E.S.,  F.G.S.     London,  1864. 

8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Useful  Information  for  Engineers.     Second  Series.     By  William 

FairbaiiD,  LL.D.,  F.B.S.,  F.G.S.   London,  1860.   8vo.— .Fnm 

the  Author. 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seanon  1865-66.  641 

Treatise  on  Uilh  and  Millwork.  B;  William  FaiTbaini,  G.E.,  LL.D. 

In  two  toIh.     Second  Bdition.     London,  1864.     8vo. — Prom 

the  Author. 
Iron,  its  History,  Properties,  and  Processes  of  Manufactuie.     By 

William  Pairbaim,  C.B.,  LL.D.    Edinburgh,  1865.    8to.— 

From  the  Author. 
Treatise  on  Iron  Ship-Building,  its  Histoiy  and  Progress.    By 

William  Pairbaim,  C.E.,  LL.D.    London,  18SS.    S^o.—From 

the  Author. 
On  the  Application  of  Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  to  Building  Porposes. 

By  William  Fairbairn,  C.B.,  F.E.S.    Third  Edition.    London, 

1864.     8vo.— From  the  Author. 
Bemarke  on  Canal  Navigation,  illustrative  of  the  Advantage  of 

the  Use  of  Steam  as  a  Moving  Power  on  Canals ;  with  an 

Appendix.    By  William  Faiibaini,  Engineer.    London,  1831, 

8vo.~i^n>m  the  Author. 
Experiments  to  determine  the  Effect  of  Impact  Vibratory  Action 

and   long- con  tinned    Changes    of    Load   on    Wrought- Iron 

Girders.    By  Williiun  Fairbairo,  LL.D,,  F.B.S.    4to.— From 

the  Author. 
On  the  Law  of  Expansion  of  Superheated  Steam.    By  William 

Fairbairn,  LL.D.,  F.E  S.,  and  Thomas  Tate,  EEiq.   4to.— JVom 

the  Author*. 
Experimental  Hesearches  to  detennine  the  Density  of  Steam  of 

different  Temperatures,  and  to  determine  the  Law  of  Expan- 
sion of  Superheated  Steam.     By  William  Fairbairn,  F.RS., 

and  Thomas  Tate,  Esq.     4to. — From  the  Authors. 
Joomal  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society  of  London.   Vol.  I.  Fart 

2.     8vo. — From  the  Society, 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Horticultural  Society  of  London.    Vol,  I. 

No.  3.  (New  Series.)    8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London.  Vol.  IV.  No.  39.  8to. 

•—From  the  Society.  ' 
Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Greological  Society  of  London.  Vol.  XXII. 

Part  1.     8vo.— JVoTO  the  Society. 
Listof  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  December  31, 18C5.  8?o. 

— From  the  Society. 
Observations  on  the  arrested  Twin  Development  of  Jean  Battista 


DvGooglc 


642  Proceedings  of  the  SoyeU  Society 

Dob  S&ntoB.    By  V.  D.  HaDdyetde,  U.D.    Edinbnrgb,  1866. 

8to. — From  the  Author. 
Dublin  luteraational  Kxhibition,  1865 — Kingdom  of  Italy — Official 

Catalogue,  illustrated  with  JBagravings.    Published  by  order 

of  the  Royal  Italian  Gommiasion.    Second  Edition.    Turin, 

1865.     8td. — From  the  Comniittion. 
Bolletin  de  la  SociSte  do  Oeographie.  Tome  X.    Paris,  1865.    Svo. 

— from  the  Sodelg. 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t§  de  G^ographie.   Jan.  Fev.  Mara  1866.   8to. — 

From  the  Societt/. 
Nova  Acta  Begite  Societatis  Scientatia  Scientiarum  UpBalieneiB. 

Vol.  V.  Fasc.  2.     Upsala,  1865.     ito.—From  the  Society. 
Memoir  of  the  Geographical  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  and  of  the 

Museum  of  Practical  Geology.     The  Geology  of  North  Wales 

by  A.  C.  Bameay,  F.R.S.,  Local  Director  of  the  Geological 

Survey  of  Great  Britain,     With  an  Appendix  on  the  Fosails, 

with  PlatcB,  by  J.  W.  Salter,  A.L.S.,  F.G.S.    8vo.    London, 

1866.— J'rom  Pro/eseor  Ramsay,  LL.D. 
Relationon   eineetheilB  znischen  Snmmen    und   Differenzen  nnd 

Anderntheila  zwischen  integralen  und  difTorentralen.    TcaiF. 

A.  Hansen.     8vo.'     l^Z4:.-^From  the  A^tihor. 


Monday,  lUh  April  1866. 
Dr  CHRISTISON  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  Communications  were  read  : — 

1.  Some  ObeerratioQB  on  Incuhation.    By  John  Davy,  M.D., 
F.R.S.,  Lond.  and  Edin. 

In  this  paper  its  author  deacribes  the  results  of  experiments 
made  with  two  intents — one,  to  endeavour  to  ascertain  whether 
there  can  be  a  complete  arrest  of  vital  action  without  the  death  of 
the  egg;  the  other  to  ascertain  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
those  instances  in  which,  during  incubation,  the  egg  proves  un- 
productive. 

The  eggs  used  were  chiefly  those  of  the  common  fowl.    The 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinhvrgh,  Session  1865-66.  643 

trials  to  which  they  were  eubjeoted  were  of  three  kinds — the  air- 
pump,  the  ice-house,  and  immersion  in  lime-water. 

Though  the  resnlta  obtained  were  not  entirely  negative,  yet, 
when  reasoned  on,  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the  experiments 
taken  into  account,  they  have  not  appeared  so  decisive  as  to  allow 
or  the  inference,  in  regard  to  arrested  action,  that  that  was 
absoluta ;  or  as  regards  the  changes,  that  these,  bo  many  and 
different,  which  take  place  in  unproductive  eggs,  admit  of  any 
satisfactory  explanation. 


2.  On  the  Abeorption  of  SubatanceB  from  SolutiosB  by 
Carbonaceous  Matters,  and  the  Growth  thereby  of  Coal- 
Seams.  By  William  Skey,  Analyst  to  the  Geological 
Survey  of  N'ew  Zealand.  Communicated  by  James 
Hector.  M.D.,  F.E.S.E.,  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  New  Zealand. 

Some  time  since,  during  the  performance  of  a  series  of  analyses 
of  the  Brown  Coals  of  Otago,  my  attention  was  directed  to  the  very 
large  quantity  of  sulphur  which  several  of  them  contained,  even 
where  the  most  careful  examination  failed  to  detect  more  thau 
traces  of  snlphatea  or  sulphides  in  the  composition  of  the  coal,  a 
Hiugalar  fact  which  has  been  before  commented  upon  by  Dt  Percy 
in  his  work  on  Metallurgy. 

After  several  unsuccessful  efforts  to  discover  the  form  in  which 
the  excess  of  sulphur  was  present,  it  oconred  to  me,  that  possibly 
the  sulphur  might  be  retained  to  the  coal  in  combination  with 
hydrogen,  by  a  similar  absorptive  power  to  that  which  charcoal 
exercises  over  that  gas.  I  therefore  tried  whether  brown  coals 
had  the  property  of  absorbing  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Finding 
that  blown  coals  did  possess  this  power,  the  experimeuts  were 
extended  over  a  variety  of  other  substances  in  solution,  and  the 
fact  waa  established  that,  with  certain  modifications  hereafter  to 
be  described,  all  mineralized  carbons,  such  as  lignites,  coal,  and 
graphite,  possess  the  power  of  absorbing  the  same  substances  as 
charcoal,  especially  those  soluble  organic  matters  that  occur  in 
natural  waters. 


DvGooglc 


644  Proceeding»  of  the  Soyal  Society 

The  circumstance  that  these  miueralB  are  tbns  able  to  arreet  sncl 
retain  organic  substances,  was  bo  snggeetive  in  relation  to  the  origin 
and  physical  characters  of  coal,  that  Z  was  led  to  make  this  property 
of  coal  a  special  object  of  study,  and  ss  the  coarse  the  investigation 
took  rendered  it  very  desirable  to  test  the  solubility  of  coal,  this 
subject  was  also  carefully  examined  by  me,  and  as  the  results  of 
these  iuTestigatione  appeared  to  have  some  degree  of  interest,  I 
submitted  them  to  the  attention  of  Dr  Hector,  and  with  his  advice 
and  assistance,  I  now  endeavour  to  state  them  Id  a  concise  form. 

Id  comronoicating  a  detailed  account  of  the  various  experimenta 
employed  in  these  investigations,  the  results  arrived  at,  and  the 
infeiences  they  appear  to  justify,  I  have  divided  the  whole  subject 
into  three  parts,  the  first  of  which  is — 

I.  On  Absorption  at  a  Property  of  Lignite,  Coal,  and  QraphUe, 
n  vnik  Charecal. 


a.  Absorption  of  Acids. 

6.  Absorption  of  Basic  Substanoes, 

e.  Absorption  of  certsio  neutral  Organic  Substances. 

d.  Absorption  of  certain  decomposed  Organic  Substances. 

e.  Combining  quantities  of  bodies  probably  observed  in  their 

absorption. 
/.  Substitution  effected  in  certain  cases. 
Summary. 

Sufficient  has  been  adduced  by  the  experiments  conducted  by  me 
to  prove  the  existence  of  au  absorptive  power  in  lignite,  coal,  or 
graphite  for  many  organic  and  inorganic  snbstances.  There  is  no 
doubt  the  list  of  such  might  have  been  almost  indefinitely  extended 
if  it  had  been  necessary ;  but  I  desired  rather  to  establish  the  general 
fact  of  absorption,  and  to  ascertain  the  principles  which  regulate  it. 

So  far  as  these  results  enable  us  to  judge,  it  would  appear  that 
generally  when  any  substance  has  but  a  feeble  solubility  in  water, 
or  when  it  has  its  affinities  for  this  liquid  lowered  or  overpowered 
by  other  agents,  such  substance  will  he  withdrawn  from  solntion 
by  contact  with  any  of  the  foregoing  bodies,  lignite,  coal,  graphite, 
or  charcoal.  Those  substances  which  pOBsess  basic  or  acid  pro- 
perties especially,  are  subject  to  absorption,  providing  such  pro- 


DvGooglc 


o/ Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  645 

pertiee  are  not  too  well  defined.  The  substancea  of  this  class  can 
generally  be  abstracted  from  the  absorbing  body  by  the  application 
of  a  sDitable  acid  or  base,  as  the  cose  may  be. 

The  fact  of  the  absorption  of  acids  being  often  facilitated  by  the 
presence  of  stronger  acids,  and  that  of  bases  by  the  presence  of 
stronger  bases,  the  application  of  these  being  indeed  often  abso- 
lately  necessary  to  produce  absorption,  may  perhaps  be  accounted 
for  by  the  greater  affioity  these  stronger  chemicals  have  foi  water. 

Thus  the  solvent  powers  of  this  liquid  for  the  body  we  wish  to 
determine  to  the  coal,  &c.,  is  reduced,  or  altogether  removed,  and 
that  state  most  favourable  for  absorption  obtains.  If  this  is  so,  we 
can  perceive  why  sulphuric  acid  and  the  caustic  alkalies  are  not 
capable  of  being  retained  by  coal  or  charcoal ;  their  affinity  for  water 
being  so  intense  that  it  cannot  be  overcome  by  absorptive  power 
alone,  and  we  are  not  in  the  possession  of  means  to  remove  or  lower 
the  affinity  of  these  substances,  as  we  have  in  the  case  of  others. 

But  it  is  particularly  at  this  stage,  in  the  investigation  of  attisted 
absorption,  that,  as  I  bave  before  observed,  we  are  enabled  to  trace 
differences  in  the  intensity  of  the  absorptive  power  of  charcoal  and 
coal;  the  former  body  being  able  to  absorb  many  acids  from 
eolntion  without  that  assistance  from  stronger  acids  required  so 
frequently  by  coals,  the  absorbing  power  of  the  charcoal  being 
superior  to  the  affinity  subsisting  between  the  acid  and  the  water, 
while  that  of  coal  is  generally  inferior.  However,  there  is  this  to 
consider,  that  when  we  have  determined  the  absorption  of  any 
acid  to  coal  by  the  aasistance  of  a  stronger,  we  can  remove  the 
latter  without  effecting  the  solution  of  the  former  to  any  consider- 
able extent. 

Qentral  Remarki. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  indicating  a  practical  application  of 
these  observations,  that  the  absorptioD  of  araenious  acid  by  carbo- 
naceous substances  would  allow  of  its  separation  from  solution  for 
analytical  purposes  if  desirable ;  arsenic  acid,  too,  would  no  doubt 
be  also  absorbed,  being  isomorphous  with  one  which  is  so,  that  is, 
phosphoric  acid. 

In  reference  to  the  property  of  phosphoric  acid,  of  being  absorbed 
by  charcoal,  &c.,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  low  decolorising 


DvGooglc 


646  Proceedings  o/t/ie  Boyal  Society 

power  of  oimDal  chftTCO&l,  when  separated  from  tha  phosphate  of 
lime  by  meaiiH  of  bydrochlorio  acid,  to  what  it  should  be  theoreti- 
caUy,  may  be  partly  due  to  the  pieseoce  of  this  acid ;  for  if  animal 
charcoal,  which  has  been  submitted  to  three  days'  digesting  in 
ordinary  hydrochloric  acid,  be  washed  in  water  till  nothing  further 
is  removed,  and  bo  then  placed  in  contact  with  ammonia  for  a  short 
time,  a  slight  but  decided  crystalline  precipitate,  soluble  iu  acetic 
acid,  is  obtained  by  adding  chloride  of  ammonium,  and  sulphate  of 
magnesia  in  excess  of  ammonia;  while,  if  water  or  weak  hydro- 
chloric acid  was  substituted  for  the  ammonia,  and  suffered  to  remain 
in  contact  with  the  charcoal  for  many  hours,  not  the  least  indication 
of  phosphoric  acid  was  obtained  by  the  application  of  the  above 
test.  It  may  be  mentioned,  the  water  employed  contained  a  miuate 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  which  would  probably  enbatitnte  itself 
for  a  portion  of  the  phosphoric  acid  absorbed  to  the  charcoal,  and 
thus  render  ita  detection  more  difficult. 

The  absortion  of  hydriodic  acid  by  coal  from  acidulated  solu- 
tions renders  it  very  probable  that,  wherever  any  coal-bed  is  acid 
from  the  presence  of  the  stronger  acid,  and  has  a  flow  of  water 
through  it,  such  bed  will  be  charged  with  hydriodic  acid  in  those 
parts  which  first  receive  the  underground  Sow ;  and  there,  also, 
we  may  reasonably  expect  to  find  an  unusual  proportion  of  other 
acids,  such  as  phosphoric,  arsenic,  bydrosulphuric,  and  hydroaisenic 

The  property  of  brown  coals,  &c.,  to  absorb  sulphnretted  hydro- 
gen, afTords  a  probable  solution,  as  before  shown,  of  the  difficult 
problem.  In  what  form  does  the  sulphur  exist  in  those  highly  sul- 
phurized coals,  which  are  comparatively  free  from  either  iron 
pyrites,  sulphuric  acid,  or  snlpbates?  That  it  does  exist,  in  com- 
bination with  hydrogen,  to  form  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  received 
confirmation  from  further  experiments,  which  went  to  prove  that 
such  coals  evolved  considerable  quantities  of  this  gas  when  sub- 
jected to  temperatures  ranging  from  212°  to  300°  Fahr. 

In  regard  to  the  action  of  decomposing  organic  matters  upon 
sulphates  furnishing  the  gas,  we  have  only  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  general  absorptive  power  of  coal  to  explain  the  frequeot 
association  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  with  it. 

It  may  be  stated  that  many  of  the  blder  coals,  as  also  samples 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Seanon  1865-66.  647 

of  graphite  from  England,  and  from  tha  province  of  Nelaon,  New 
Zealand,  gave  indications  of  the  presence  of  anlphnretfed  hydn^n 
in  the  vapour  evolved  from  them  by  the  application  of  a  heat  not 
exceeding  300°  Fabr. 

In  reference  to  the  absorption  of  gas,  it  wonid  appear  that  at 
least  carbonic  acid  does  not  owe  its  absorption  to  the  porons  nature 
of  the  coal  alone ;  for  Bnbstances  quite  as  porous,  such  as  claj, 
btiok,  blotting-paper,  and  wood,  when  dried  at  212°  Fahr.,  and 
placed  in  carbonic  acid  gas,  did  not  exhibit  any  power  of  absorp- 
tion. A  piece  of  well-waehed  hydrate  of  alumina,  however,  was 
found  to  be  capable  of  absorbing  ten  volames  of  this  gas  when 
dried  at  212°  Fahr.,  and  nearly  as  much  when  exposed  to  a  red 
heat ;  bat  as  this  substance  in  solution  has  decided  basic  properties, 
it  is  probable  the  absorption  in  this  instance  is  due  to  the  exeroise 
of  these. 

II.  Partiai  SobiUlily  a  Properly  poiteued  by  CoaL 

a.  Partial  Solubility  of  Brown  Coal. 

b.  Partial  Solubility  of  Bituminous  Goal. 

Summary  of  EaviU. 
From  the  experiments  conducted  under  this  department,  it  was 
found  that  a  lignite  of  good  average  quality,  compact  and  lustrous, 
is  soluble  in  pure  water  to  a  considerable  extent, — about  l-20tli  pet 
cent,  being  thus  soluble, — and  that  even  in  the  case  of  a  bard, 
compact  bituminous  coal  of  excellent  quality,  belonging  to  the 
carboniferous  formation,  this  also  has  a  small  but  very  appreciable 
solubility  in  the  same  liquid.  Allowing  this  last  to  be  an  excep- 
tional case  however,  it  might  be  argued  (if,  indeed,  lignites  are 
in  a  transitional  state  between  dead  vegetable  matter  and  mineral 
coal)  that  the  solubility  of  tbe  lignite  will  be  continued  far  into 
the  coal  proper;  but  tbe  degree  of  it  will  gradually  diminish  until 
scarcely  any  method  of  testing  would  discover  it,  oi  until  it  be 
finally  and  completely  lost  in  those  members  of  the  coal  series 
farthest  removed  from  the  commencement. 


DvGooglc 


648  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 

III.  On  (Ae  Infiuaux  which  the  Abiorptive  Power  and  SolubUHy  cj 
Garhortaceotu  DtpoiiU  exemtw  upon  the  Orowth  of  Goal  Seamt. 

(1).  BecapitulatioD  of  those  ftuts  alre&dy  stated  affecting  the 
qaestioB  at  iaeiie. 

(2).  Application  of  the§e  phenomena. 

In  applying  these  vaiiotiB  phenomena  to  explain  how  certain  of 
the  pioperttea  of  the  coal  have  heen  attained,  the  subject  will  be 
treated  in  the  following  manner.    The  fiiat  of  the  division  ia — 

a.  Absorption  applied  to  increase  the  Oompaatnees  of  Goal-Seams. 

b.  Absorption  applied  to  increase  their  thickness.    Two  objeo- 

tiona  answered. 
e.  Absorption  applied  to  convert  Oarbonaoeoas  Clays  into  Bita- 

minona  Shale  or  impure  Coal. 
d.  The  Instre,  hardness,  and  coherence  of  Coal  possibly  dne  to 
the  exercise  of  its  absorptive  power  and  its  partial  solu- 
bility in  water. 
«.  The  absorptive  powei  and  solubility  of  Goal  applied  to  in- 
crease the  structural  and  chemical  differences  of  adjoining 
parts. 

Summary  <^  FaU». 
In  summing  up  the  several  parts  we  find  the  absorptive  power 
of  the  coal  enables  it  to  arrest  those  organic  matters  contained  in 
common  water,  and  a  continual  supply  of  such  being  kept  up  by 
the  flow  of  the  water  down  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  oanying  the 
necessary  material,  we  may  have  the  compactness  of  the  same 
largely  augmented ;  all  losses  entailed  by  decomposition  made  good 
by  interior  absorption,  or  by  a  surface  absorption,  and  thus  these 
matters  may  be  applied  to  build  np  the  seam  to  a  greater  tbickneaa. 
In  the  one  case  we  require  no  miraculous  interposition  of  pressure 
to  remove  the  veeionlarlty  which  deoompcwition  entails  in  the  in- 
durated mass ;  and  in  the  other,  in  surface  abeotption,  we  reduce 
the  difficulty  we  have  in  accounting  for  the  remarkable  thickness 
which  baa  been  attained  by  certain  coal-seams. 

These  additions  would  be  singularly  free  from  earthy  impurities 
of  any  kind,  and  therefore,  no  matter  how  great  a  thickness  the 


DvGooglc 


of  EdiiJmrgh,  Session  1865-ti6.  649 

Beam  ultimately  attained  bjr  this  meana  may  be,  we  ebould  find  it 
comparatively  pure  and  uniform  in  composition.  The  ivbole  loof 
of  anperincnmbent  material,  boweveT  great  its  tbicknees  might  be, 
would  be  lifted  up  in  detail,  scarcely  a  particle  wonid  be  left  be- 
bind  to  attest  the  act. 

In  part  (c)  we  find  bow  this  abaorptive  power  may  be  applied 
with  acme  degree  of  probability  to  account  for  the  production  of 
certain  bituminoiu  ebalea  and  impure  coals,  characterised  by  their 
hom(^;eneity,  and  their  poverty  in  vegetable  etrnotures.  The 
whole  proceaa  is  nearly  a  repetition  of  what  ia  supposed  to  occur 
in  the  case  of  coal  itaelf,  the  only  difference  being,  that  in  one  case 
the  absorbing  substance  is  thinly  dispersed  through  a  quantity  of 
earthy  mUters,  while  in  the  other  it  is  in  a  concrete  form. 

In  part  (d)  I  have  attempted  to  show  in  what  manner  the 
partial  solubility  of  coal,  together  with  its  absorptive  power,  may 
have  afiected  its  physical  character. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  whole  seam  has  been  repeatedly 
turned  over  by  these  means,  and  each  time  reduced  by  the  separa- 
tion of  portions  of  it,  principally  in  the  form  of  oxygenated  com- 
pounds :  the  lossee  so  incurred,  however,  being  abundantly  made 
up  by  introduced  substances.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  continual  re-solntion 
and  te-deposit. 

STow,  all  these  ptocesses  going  on  at  an  exceedingly  slow  rate,  we 
are  quite  certain,  judging  from  analogous  cases,  that  ultimately  the 
product  so  attained  will  cohere  in  all  its  parts,  and  be  possessed  of 
the  utmost  bardness  and  the  highest  degree  of  lustre  of  which  its 
constitution  admits. 

In  the  last  part  (e),  I  have  used  these  properties  of  coal  to  in- 
crease the  differences  in  adjoining  parts  of  the  seam.  To  assist  in 
this,  and  to  give  a  greater  completeness  to  the  work,  I  have  gone 
further  back  in  the  history  of  coal,  and  traced  a  supposititious  origin 
for  the  commencement  of  these  difi'erences,  using  the  suggestion  of 
Bischoff,  relating  to  the  precipitation  of  the  organic  substances  from 
water  in  the  first  instance.  Thus  I  had  horizontal  cleavage  and 
planes  of  greatest  change  readily  afforded  me;  and  to  increasa  the 
differences  so  started  and  so  directed,  I  had  only  to  suppose  that 
the  rates  of  absorption  for  that  part  most  decomposed,  and  that 
pnrt  least  so,  are  unequal. 


DvGooglc 


650  Proceedings  of  the  Roy<d  Society 

Thae  every  characteriatic  quality  whioli  distingaiahes  mineral 
coal  from  oidinary  ddcompoeed  veget^le  subatancee  has  now  been 
coDsidered,  and,  I  think,  provided  for  in  the  exercise  of  tbese  its 
newly  discovered  properttea  of  absorption  and  solnbility. 

Whether  a  alight  elaystion  of  temperature  ia  necessary  or  no  to 
assist  Id  educing  those  members  of  the  coal  series,  very  far  removed 
from  the  primary  material,  it  ia  certain  it  would  greatly  facilitate 
the  mioeralisation  cf  these  depcwits,  but  in  eitlier  case  it  is  tbe 
presence  of  water  which,  besides  initiating  the  commencement  of 
the  required  changes,  allows  of  them  being  carried  to  the  farthest 
point,  by  bringing  the  particles  of  the  solid  substances  within  reach 
of  each  other's  affinities,  thus  determining  the  production  of  new 
combinations  more  insoluble,  more  carbonaceous,  and  more  easOy 
absorbed ;  and  these  being  deposited  as  they  were  formed  slowly,  tbe 
hardness,  coherence,  and  compactness  of  tbe  deposit  are  ensured. 

IV.  PoptHar  theory,  explaining  (he  Phtpieal  ProperUet  r^  Coal 
considered. 

As  I  have  purposely  avoided  all  along  any  leferenoe  to  other 
theories  respecting  the  formation  of  coal,  in  order  that  no  external 
influence  should  be  brought  to  secure  favoni  for  the  views  here 
propounded  from  prematurely  afaowing  up  their  deficiencies,  pre- 
ferring rather  that  they  ehouM  stand  thus  long  on  their  own  merits 
uncontrasted  with  those  of  others.  I  hope  now  to  be  allowed  to 
state  a  few  objections — objections  so  obvious  and  so  serious  that 
they  will  have  frequently  occurred  to  the  mind  of  the  inqiiirer. 

The  principal  agencies  hitherto  supposed  to  be  involved  in  the 
formation  of  coal  are  decomposition,  pressure,  and  heat  In  regard 
to  decomposition,  important  and  indeed  essential  as  it  is  to  the 
formation  of  coal,  it  is  still  -  possible  to  overstate  its  influence. 
Taken  by  itself,  it  is  obvious  it  cannot  increase  the  hardness  of 
coal.  It  is  the  property  of  decay  rather  to  reduce  than  to  jcrease 
the  hardness  of  minerals,  the  most  compact  of  which  are  thus 
modified,  and  especially  should  this  be  apparent  in  coal  where  it 
involves  a  positive  loss  of  substance.  This  is  well  exemplified  in 
the  case  of  wood  which  has  enfTered  the  "  dry  rot,  here,  from  the 
absence  of  water  in  sufficient  quantity,  there  baa  been  no  recom- 
position  "  of  the  decomposed  matters ;  hence  even  the  colonr  is 


j.Googlc 


of  Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  651 

nnchauged,  though  the  wood  is  ezceediDgly  rednced  in  cotnpact- 
DGflg.  Nor  even  vith  tho  aid  of  pressare  can  we  do  more  thui 
increan  the  denei^;  we  bring  their  paiticleB  neaiei  together,  but 
we  do  not  affect  the  character  of  the  particles  themselveB ;  if  pree- 
Bore  could  perfonn  this,  why  ehoold  it  not  have  been  equall3r 
effective  Tot  the  indoration  of  clays  or  other  Boft  hydrous  minerals, 
which  in  certain  states  bear  considerable  resemblauce  to  lignite, 
many  of  these  having  been  subjected  to  pressure  as  great,  oi  even 
far  greater  ? 

It  is  to  a  reconstmctioD  of  the  residue  from  decomposition  into 
new,  more  insoluble,  and  more  permanent  combination,  that  any 
great  physical  differences  should  be  due,  and  to  this  only;  this 
cannot,  however,  be  effected  while  the  particles  of  the  solid  vege- 
'  table  matters  are  nnable  to  move  to  each  other's  affinities  while 
their  position  is  fixed  by  cohesion ;  they  mast  be  brought  into 
renewed  chemical  contact  before  they  can  enter  into  those  com- 
binations which  give  to  coal  qualities  we  have  to  account  for. 

If  now  we  seek  the  assistance  of  an  elevation  of  temperature 
sufficient  to  fuse  or  volatilize  portions  of  the  coal,  bo  as  to  gain  in 
this  renewed  chemical  contact,  so  necessary  for  recomposition,  we 
shall  find  that,  although  we  may  effect  this,  the  results  are  not 
altogether  of  the  kind  we  want 

Suppose  we  attempt  to  go  no  further  than  partial  fusion,  althoagh 
we  should  certainly  indurate  its  particles  coneiderablyt  and  give 
them  some  degree  of  lustre,  and  also  effect  favourable  recomposition 
in  the  substance  in  regard  to  its  chemical  composition,  we  should 
certainly  obliterate  that  laminated  appearance  coal  often  presents, 
and  render  the  whole  perfectly  homogeneous,  both  in  its  physical 
character  and  chemical  composition ;  and  we  should  further  most 
likely  destroy  the  distinctioDS  of  those  boundaries  which  separate 
the  coal-seam  from  above  or  below,  and  also  change  their  unifonntty 
of  direction.  But,  in  all  probability,  in  attempting  the  fusion  only, 
we  could  not  avoid  decomposing  a  portion  of  the  coal  into  gas,  and 
this  being  mechanioally  retained  by  the  semifluid  mass,  would  render 
it  porous  throughout ;  and  thus,  although  we  might  gain  consider- 
ably in  some  of  the  properties  of  coal,  such  as  those  of  hardness, 
lustre,  coherence,  we  should  lose  in  compactness — the  vesicular 
appearance  such  a  product  would  present  would  neutralise  all  we 


DvGooglc 


652  Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Boctety 

have  gained,  and  give  it  an  appearanoe  quite  foreign  to  that  of 
ooa).  Bat  to  what  extent  this  porosity  vonld  be  modified  by  the 
application  of  an  immense  pressure  during  the  heating  process  we 
do  not  know ;  this,  however,  is  almost  oeitain,  that  if  it  did  snooeed 
in  preserving  or  giving  to  the  coal  a  more  mineral  appearance,  it 
conld  but  partially  reduce  its  vesicularity,  and  never  so  mnch  bnt 
that  it  would  readily  be  discerned — the  increase  of  hardness  sup- 
posed to  follow  by  this  process  would  only  help  to  impede  the 
effect  of  pressure,  and  preserve  to  the  vesicnles  their  exact  sh^te 
and  size. 

But  in  order  to  escape  this,  it  may  be  argned  that  the  gas  in 
these  pores  has  since  been  substituted  by  other  matters  in  a  state 
of  fusion,  or  by  condensed  oils,  &o.  If,  however,  such  had  been 
really  the  case,  we  should  surely  have  been  able  to  observe  indica- 
tions of  it  in  the  amygdaloidal  state  of  the  coal  so  found,  since  we 
could  scarcely  have  given  us  the  same  charaoters  to  substances 
whose  chemical  composition  and  manner  of  formation  are  so  dif- 
ferent; this  appearance  would  be  especially  manifested  at  the 
junction  of  those  bands  in  the  coal  before  alluded  to;  in  the  plaoe 
of  the  divisional  places  being  as  now  perfect,  there  would  be  in- 
numerable intermptionB  from  some  of  the  geodea  occupying  a 
position  in  both  seams.  That  bands  of  a  mote  recent  date  have 
obliterated  the  amygdaloidal  appearance  of  the  coal  is  too  improbable 
to  need  any  comment. 

It  would  therefore  Eqipear,  that  though  the  hardness  of  coal  may 
be  increased,  even  into  that  of  coke,  by  heat,  the  coal  thus  obtained 
would  be  rendered  proportionately  lighter  and  more  poroos;  and 
that  beat  could  induce  the  laminated  appearance  of  coal,  or  favour 
its  development,  when  begun,  is  very  improbable,  its  effect  would 
rather  be  to  obliterate  any  previous  lamination,  and  give  to  the  coal 
a  homogeneous  appearance. 

But  besides  these  objections  against  the  supposition  that  high 
temperature  has  been  concerned  in  the  production  of  coal  from 
organic  matters,  there  are  others — the  non-necessity  of  such  for  the 
production  of  these  chemical  differences  we  observe  between  them ; 
for  that  there  is  no  absolute  necessity  for  this  may  be  gathered 
from  the  heterogeneous  nature  of  most  samples  of  coals.  In  the 
case  of  the  Newcastle  coal,  the  difference  in  the  parts,  great  as  it  is, 


^aovGoOglc 


o/Edinburgh,  Session  1865-66.  653 

is  not  owing  to  any  rapeiior  heat  applied  for  the  piDdnotion  of  the 
more  catbonaooouB  anbetanoe;  for  how,  indeed,  could  superior  heat 
be  applied  to  these  parts  alone?  Why,  therefore,  should  not  the 
bituminous  coal  be  itself  produced  from  brown  coal  without  the 
aid  of  an;  iacrease  of  temperature  over  that  which  has  obtained 
in  its  formation  ?  there  being  no  greater  chemical  difference  between 
these  than  there  is  found  to  be  between  the  bituminous  coal  and 
the  fibrous  anthracite. 

Sat,  besides  the  internal  evidence  afforded  by  coal  itself  that 
substancee  very  rich  in  carbon  con  be  eliminated  at  low  tempera- 
tures, we  have  the  authority  of  Bischoff  for  asserting,  that  for  the 
elimination  of  a  substance  still  further  lemoTed  from  organic 
matter  (gn^hite)  high  temperatures  are  not  necessary. 

On  the  whole,  it  would  therefore  appear  there  is  indeed  no 
absolute  necessity  to  provide  any  considerable  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture to  bring  about  the  chemical  change  required  to  convert  decom- 
posed organic  matter  into  substances  resembling  anthracite ;  and 
further,  it  wonld  also  appear  that  hardness  gained  in  such  a  manner 
would  render  the  product  porous,  or,  if  these  pores  were  subsequently 
filled,  the  anthracite  would  appear  amygdaloidal. 

Thus  we  have  to  rely  upon  the  solvent  powers  of  water  as  the 
only  means  by  which  recompoeition  can  be  effected, — as  the  only 
agency  which  can  modify  these  vegetable  substances  in  the  manner 
we  would  wish,  and  which  not  only  favours  their  decomposition, 
but  allows  of  theii  recompoeition  and  deposit  as  a  bard,  compact, 
coherent,  and  lustrous  mineral. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  to  apologise  for  the  incompleteness  of  these 
investigatioos ;  nothing  but  my  inability  to  prosecute  farther 
reeeaiohes  for  some  time,  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  laboratory 
to  a  distant  part  of  the  colony,  and  the  consequent  suBpense  of 
analytical  operations,  induces  me  to  forward  them  in  this  state. 

There  was  one  part  of  the  subject,  especially,  I  wan  very  anxious 
to  examine  farther — that  treating  upon  substitution — fur  it  was 
apparent,  if  it  could  be  ascertained  whether  or  no  gases  are  able  to 
substitute  each  other,  some  further  light  would  be  shown  upon  the 
manner  in  which  these  absorptions  are  effected,  since,  in  the  absence 
of  solvents,  there  would  be  fewer  chemical  affinities  to  interfere. 


DvGooglc 


654  Proceediaga  of  the,  Royol  Sod^ 

Bnt  it  wu  more  particnUrl;  in  reference  to  the  tnanndr  of  the 
fonnation  of  coal  u  connected  with  its  property  of  absorption  that 
I  vaa  the  most  desirous  to  add  to  these  investigations,  and  especially 
as  to  the  precise  action  carbonic  acid  exercises  during  the  absorp- 
tion of  deoompoaing  organic  matters.  As  to  whether,  in  any  case, 
these  matters  f^e  able  to  subBtitnte  this  acid  when  it  has  been  pre- 
viously absorbed  to  the  coal. 

If  not  anticipated,  however,  with  permission,  I  intend  oomtniuti- 
cating  farther  upon  these  subjects,  when  the  results  of  certain  pro- 
jected experiments  relative  to  this  are  ascertained. 


3-  (1.)  Description  of  Erpetoichthys,  a  new  Clenoa  of  Gftnoid 
Fiah,'from  Old  Calabar,  Western  Africa;  forming  an 
addition  to  the  Family  Polt/ptermt.  By  John  Alexander 
Smith,  M.D.,  F.R.O.P.B.  (Specimene  of  the  fish  were 
exhibited.) 

In  the  beginning  of  January  1866,  the  antbor  received  from 
the  Bev.  Alexander  fiobb,  Old  Calabar,  a  package  cf  specimens 
of  natural  history  preserved  in  spirits.  Among  these  were  two 
small  ganoid  fish.  ,  They  were,  however,  imperfect,  having  been 
torn  across  near  the  anal  region,  and  theii  caudal  extremities  were 
wanting.  The  characters  of  the  fish  could  not,  therefore,  be  com- 
pletely determined.  The  author,  however,  exhibited  them  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Boyal  FhyBical  Society,  on  the  22d  March  1865,  and 
stated  that  they  were  allied  to  the  genus  FoU^tertu;  bnt  from 
variouB  differenccB  in  character,  to  be  afterwards  detuled,  and 
especially  the  great  relative  length  of  their  bodies,  and  the 
apparently  total  absence  of  ventral  fins,  he  would  place  them  pro- 
visionally in  a  new  genus,  which,  from  their  general  aspect  and 
form,  he  designated  Erpeloichthys,  the  reptile  or  serpent  fish ; 
and  the  species,  from  the  locality  where  it  was  found,  he  named 
E,  Calabarieui. 

Since  that  time  the  author  had  received  perfect  specimens  from 
Old  Calabar,  and  found  that  the  accuracy  of  his  previous  conclu- 
sion s  were  confirmed. 

The  fish  ia  got  in  the  fresh-water  streamlets  which  run  iuto  the 


DvGooglc 


of  Edinburgh,  Se»non  1865-66.  665 

main  rivers  or  creeks  of  the  great  Calabu  river,  and  id  the  pools 
of  the  maTsli;  lands.  It  in  occasionallj  sold  in  the  markete,  and 
eaten  by  aome  of  the  aativea.  Its  native  name  is  U-nyang,  which 
the  Bev.  Hr  Bobb  explains,  b;  suggesting  that  it  may  be  derived 
from  a  verb  signifying  to  struggle  or  scuffle  for  the  poaseesion  of 
a  thing,  and  he  therefore  Biippaseg  it  to  mean  the  straggler,  or, 
using  a  Scottish  word  as  more  appropriate,  the  "wamblei," — the 
name  being  probably  given  to  it,  on  account  of  the  apparent 
straggling,  wriggling,  or  undulating  movements  of  its  elongated 
body,  as  it  Bwims  in  the  water  or  mnd  of  the  river. 

Snmmary  of  characters  of  the  genus  Catamoichthys,*  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  genua  PolyplenM : — 

GiNUB  CALAKOioHiHrs. — Head,  small,  depressed  above,  somewhat 
oval  in  shape  (ronnded  and  narrow  in  front,  expands  laterally 
behind  orbits,  and  contracts  again  at  the  back  part,  towards  neck). 
,  Suboperculum  wanting.  (No  small  plates  below  [ireopercnlum.) 
Body,  much  elongated ;  anguiform  (cylindrical  for  about  half  its 
length,  then  becoming  gradually  mote  compressed  laterally,  and 
tapering  slightly  towards  its  oandal  extremity).  Caudal  extremity, 
short,  tapering  rapidly.  Caudal  Fin,  rounded  ;  homocercal ;  fin- 
rays,  hard.  (ScaUi,  OBseons,  rhombic,  sculptured.)  Fina,  small — 
Pectorals,  obtusely  lobate,  fin-rays  soft ;  Dorsal  finlets,  numerous, 
separate  ;  Anal  (with  fulcrum  at  base  anteriorly),  in  male  large,  in 
female  small;  fin-rays  hard;  Yen trals,  wanting. 

The  last  character  is  rather  an  important  one,  as  this  fish  thus 
appears  to  be  the  only  living  ganoid  yet  known  which  has  no  ventral 
fins.  Van  der  Hoeven,  in  his  "  Handbook  of  Zoology,"  gives  the 
presence  of  ventral  fins  as  one  of  the  characters  of  his  great  Section 
III.  of  the  Glass  Fisoss,  the  QancJ^xdoti;  and  older  naturalists, 
as  Cuvier,  place  the  ganoids,  for  a  similar  reason,  among  the 
Malawptsryii  Ahdominalei.  The  discovery  of  this  fish  will  there- 
fore necessitate  a  change  in  this  character  of  the  whole  section. 

In  the  Gbncs  Poltpizsus  (on  the  other  hand),  the  Head  is  rela- 

■  Bines  thit  paper  wu  sent  to  preas,  tha  anthor  baa  learned  that  a  cloidy 
comspDndiDg  name  to  ErpeteUhlky*  had  baeii  already  used  in  Ichthyology ; 
and,  accordingly,  he  now  cbanges  tlie  desigDatioa  to  CaiamoicMhyt  (Oalamoe 
and  ichthys).  which  Btitl  bean  a  relatioD  to  the  cylindrical  shape  of  tbe 
fish. 

VOL,  V.  4  U 


j.Googlc 


656  Proceedings  of  the  Soytd  Society 

tivel;  larger  (with  appareotly  little  or  no  lateral  expansion  and 
BubBeqnent  contraction  tovards  neck);  ita  gently  Bwelling  outlines 
gradually  expand,  and  run  backwards  into-  those  of  the  body. 
Subopercnlum  present ;  several  email  plates  below  pieoperculum. 
Body,  relatively  much  shorter,  generally  tapering  gradually  from 
behind  region  of  pectoral  Ens,  and  .becoming  more  compressed 
laterally,  towards  ita  caudal  extremity.  Caudal  extremity,  longer. 
Sealei,  generally  Bniooth(?).  Fins,  larger — Pectorals,  fin-rays, 
osseous ;  Anal,  apparently  alike  in  size  in  male  and  female;  Yen- 
trals,  present. 

The  genus  Galammchihya  agrees,  however,  with  Pol^pferu*,  in 
the  general  character  of  its  numerous  dorsal  finlets;  lobate  pec- 
torals ;  two  nasal  cirri ;  a  spiracle  on  each  side  of  the  head  above ; 
and  a  large  Sat  branchiostegoue  ray  or  jugular  plate,  on  each  side 
of  the  meeian  line  below ;  and  also  in  the  hard,  osseous,  rbomhoidal- 
shaped  ganoid  ecalea,  arranged  in  rows,  running  obliquely  back- 
wards ;  and  in  the  tapering  caudal  extremity  of  the  body. 

The  new  genus  belongs,  therefore,  to  the  same  family  as  Polyp- 
terus,  and  would  accordingly  fall  to  be  placed  next  to  it  in  the 
Family  of  the  Polypterini  : — 

FAMILY  POLYPTERINI. 
I.  Crenns.  Folsftekds. 
II.  Genns.  Calamoiokthib. 
I.  Species.  C.  Calabaricva. 
(The  specimens  described  measured  from  8  to  nearly  13  inches 
in  length.) 

Mabitat,  Old  C^bar  Biver,  and  the  Camaroons,  West  Africa, 
(A  female  sent  by  Mr  G.  W.  Mylne  from  the  latter  locality, 
and  recently  received  by  Dr  Smith,  was  also  exhibited.) 

For  the  purpose  of  getting  an  anatomical  description  of  this  new 
fish,  Dr  Smith  placed  several  specimens  of  the  males  and  females 
in  the  hands  of  Dr  Bamsay  H.  Traquair,  who  was  especially 
qualified  for  the  task,  from  having  made  a  careful  dissection  wid 
study  of  a  species  of  the  genus  Polyptenu.  Dr  Traquaii  has 
accordingly  prepared  a  detailed  account  of  its  anatomy. 


DvGooglc 


o/Bdinbwgh,  Bmion  1865-66.  657 

(2.)  Internal  Structure  of  Galaniaichihye  Calaharioua  (J.  A. 
Smith.)  By  S.  H.  Traqoair,  M.D,,  Demonstrator  of 
Anatomy  in  the  Univereity  of  Edinburgh. 

On  diesecting  those  specimens  of  CaUtmav^Uhyi,  entrnsted  to  the 
frathor  by  Dr  Smith,  the  gieatest  similarity  was  found  to  exist 
between  their  internal  organisation  and  that  of  Polj/pfertu  ;  the 
chief  differoncea  being  dependent  on  the  great  elongation  of  the 
body  of  the  former  fish,  vhile  the  abdominal  cavity  extends  propor- 
tionately still  further  back  towards  the  caudal  extremity  than  is  the 
case  even  in  the  genns  loat  mentioned. 

The  Tertebne  resemble  in  constmotion  exactly  those  of  Polyp- 
tervi,  but  are  very  much  increased  in  number,  amonating,  in  the 
specimen  which  was  used  for  the  preparation  of  the  skeleton,  to 
110,  the  first  of  which  has  no  body,  consisting  merely  of  neura- 
pophysee,  spioons  process,  and  a  pair  of  ribs.  These  latter  form 
the  first  of  the  aeries  of  well -developed  npper  ribs,  which  extend 
in  the  horizontal  intermnscnlar  septum,  as  far  back  as  the  ninety- 
eighth  vertebra.  But  the  lower  series  of  ribs  are  very  deficient  in 
development  in  comparison  with  those  in  Polyptertu,  where  the 
whole  series  of  abdominal  vertebne,  except  the  first,  is  furnished 
with  those  appendages,  which  posteriorly  attain  a  cousiderabla 
length.  In  Calamokhihyt,  on  the  other  hand,  those  lower  ribs  are 
very  miante,  and  no  trace  of  them  was  found  in  advance  of  the 
sixtieth  vertebra.  The  number  of  abdominal  vertebrae  is,  in  the 
specimen  alluded  to,  100,  of  caudal,  10;  showing  the  very  great 
proportional  elongation  of  the  abdominal  and  shortening  of  the 
caudal  region.  The  vertebral  oolamn  projects  beyond  the  last 
caudal  vertebra,  as  a  notochordal  continuation  or  "  iTrostyle,"  con- 
cealed among  the  rays  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  bones  supporting 
the  fins  agree  in  their  general  conformation  with  those  in  Polyptenu, 
— there  being,  however,  a  less  ossified  state  of  the  radius,  ulna, 
and  carpns,  while  the  pelvic  bones,  along  with  the  ventral  fins,  are 
completely  absent.  The  first  dorsal  finlet  is  placed  opposite  the 
forty-ninth  vertebra. 

As  regards  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium 
and  face,  the  most  complete  correspondence  is  found  with  those  of 
Pdyptenu,  a  space  being  found,  however,  below  the  preoperculum, 
which,  in  various  species  of  Polyjpterw,  is  defended  by  n  variable 

.....Google 


658  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Society 

nnmber  of  boDf  plates.  Tbe  BnbopeTcnluni  is  also  cotnpletel; 
abuQt.  Tbe  amtDgement  of  the  mucus  canals  on  the  head  is 
similar  to  that  in  PolypUrut. 

The  arrangement  of  the  muscular  system  corresponds  in  the  two 
genera.  In  CalamotcAfAyi,  owing  to  the  great  increase  of  the  num- 
ber of  vertebne,  the  number  of  transveise  segments  of  Lhe  great 
body  mnscle  is  also  muoh  larger.  Tbe  muscular  layer  aloug  the 
belly  ia  very  thin. 

Viteera. — The  (esophagna  dilatea  into  a  flaak-shaped  stomach, 
vhich  terminates  behind  \Q&cvide  sac  From  the  interior  part 
of  the  stomach,  and  close  behind  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus, 
iesuea  the  intestine,  which,  passing  first  slightly  forwards,  makes 
almost  immediately  a  turn  on  itself,  and  then  proceeds  straight 
back  to  the  anus.  A  small  ccecal  appendt^,  with  tbe  apex  di- 
rected forwards,  is  seen  in  connection  with  tbe  intestine  shortly 
after  its  backward  flexure ;  and  a  little  farther  down,  between  this 
and  the  anus,  a  spiral  valve  of  about  fire  turns  is  developed  in  the 
interior.  The  liver  was  in  none  of  the  specimens  examined  very 
voluminous,  but  much  elongated,  being  continued  as  a.  narrow  stripe 
the  whole  length  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  gall-bladder,  is 
distinct,  and  opens  into  the  intestine  immediately  after  its  flexure, 
and  in  front  of  the  ciecum. 

Tbe  heart  is  conformed,  as  in  Polt/ptenu,  with  muscular  bnlbus 
arteriosus,  which  is  furnished  internally  with  numerous  valves  of 
unequal  size.  The  branchial  artery  gives  off  first  a  large  lateral 
branch  on  each  side,  whiclr  divides  into  three  for  tbe  three  posterior 
gills ;  the  trunk  then  bifurcates,  giving  off  a  branch  for  the  anterior 
gill  of  each  side.  As  in  Polyptertti,  the  posterior  gill  has  only  one 
row  of  leaflets,  and  the  cleft  behind  it  is  wanting.  No  trace  of  a 
"  Fseudobranchia"  was  found,  an  organ  likewise  absent  in  Polyp- 
tcnu.  The  spleen  is  very  long  and  slender,  lying  closely  along 
the  great  air-bladder.  Tbe  air-bladders  are  two  in  number,  open- 
ing by  a  common  orifice  into  the  lower  aspect  of  the  throat, 
behind  tbe  gill-clefte.  That  of  the  left  side  is  small,  being 
only  2{ths  inches  in  length  on  a  fish  of  10  inches;  it  is  closely 
adherent  to  the  side  of  tbe  oeeopbagus  and  commencement  of 
tbe  stomach.  That  of  the  other  side  measures  8|  inches  on  the 
same  fish,  and  extends  along  the  whole  length  of  the  abdominal 


DvGooglc 


o/Edmburgk,  Session  1865-66.  659 

cavity,  lying  cloaely  along  the  nnder  surface  of  the  Tertebral 
coin  mo. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  abdominal  organs  in  general,  the  kidneyB 
are  very  alender  and  elongated ;  each  consUtB  of  a  narobei  of  little 
lobules,  which  lie  in  the  conoaTitiea  on  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
vertebral  bodies.  The  excretory  duct  or  ureter  lies  along  the  outer 
border  of  the  organ,  and  passes  straight  backwards  to  unite  with 
the  genital  duct,  and,  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  at  the 
urogenital  pore.  The  ovaries  and  oviducts  correspond  exactly  with 
Miillei's  description  of  these  organs  in  Polypterus  (Trant,  Berlin 
Acad.  1844).  Each  ovary  is  in  the  form  of  a  flattened  plate,  sus- 
pended in  front  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  kidney  by  a  mesentery, 
is  solid,  and  consists  of  a  stroma  imbedding  ova  of  all  sizes,  up  to 
■^(th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  oviduct,  proceeding  forwards 
from  the  urogenital  pore  as  a  pretty  wide  tube,  crosses  beneath  the 
ovarian  meseuteiy,  and  opens  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  gland,  and  closely  above  its  lover  extremity.  The 
ovaries  are  not  symmetrical  in  position,  one  being  in  advance  of 
the  other,  so  that  also  one  oviduct  is  longer.  In  a  female  measur- 
ing 6|ths  inches,  the  right  ovary  was  1^  inch  in  length,  its  anterior 
extremity  being  placed  4  jths  inches  from  the  top  of  the  siwut,  and 
the  length  of  the  oviduct  Ifths  inch,  while  the  left  measured  1  jths 
inch,  was  situated  at  its  anterior  extremity  6}ths  inches  from  the 
tip  of  the  snout,  and  having  a  duct  of  l^ths  inch.  The  testes  are 
very  minute,  and  situated  very  far  forwards,  each  being  a  small 
oval  body  ^ths  inch  in  length,  in  a  male  of  10  inches;  and  in  the 
same  specimen  the  right  one  was  sitnated  2|,  and  the  left  2)itbs 
inches  back  from  the  tip  of  the  snout.  A  very  minute  duct  runs 
backwards  parallel  with  and  close  to  the  ureter,  which  it  joins  near 
the  urogenital  pore. 

On  opening  a  number  of  specimens,  it  was  found  that  all  those 
with  a  large  anal  fin  were  males,  while  those  in  which  that  organ  was 
small  were /emales.  The  females  are,  however,  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  males  by  another  character,  namely,  the  much  larger  size  of 
the  urogenital  pore,  which  is  situated  immediately  behind  the  anus. 

4.  Professor  Archer  exhibited  Jones  Levick's  Coal-Cutting 
Uachine,  and  Mr  David  Price's  Experiments  on  the  Restoration  of 
Oil  Paintings. 


DvGooglc 


660     ProceedingB  of  the  Roytd  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

A  Hodel  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  with  Bpecimeoa  of  the  atones 
used  in  the  external  casing  of  it,  was  presented  by  FrofessOi  Fiazzi 
Smyth,  and  thanks  were  voted. 

The  following  Gentlemen  were  dnl;  elected  Fellows  of 
the  Society : — 

JoHM  K.  Watsom,  Esq. 
W.  D.  Clakk,  Esq. 
David  Chixubks,  Esq. 

The  following  Donations  to  the  Library  were  announced : — 
Jotunal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London.      Vol.  XXIX.   Port 

1,  1866.     8vo.— From  iKa  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  fioyal  Society  of  London.    Vol.  XV.    No.  82. 

8to. — From  the  Society. 
American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.     Vol.   XLI.     No.  122. 

New  Haven,  1866.    Bvo.—From  the  Edilon. 
Canadian  Journal  of  Industry,  Science,  and  Art.    New  Series. 

No.  LXI.    Toronto,  1866.     8vo.—From  the  Canadian  In- 

ilitute. 
Journal  of  tke  Chemical  Society  of  London.     Vol.  IV.    No.  40. 

8vo. — From  the  Society. 
Monlhly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  London,  for 

1865-66.     8vo.— JVom  tke  Society. 
Transactions  and  Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Dnmfries- 

ehire  and  G-alloway  Natural  History  and  Antiquarian  Society, 

Session  1863-64.    Dumfries,  1866.    8vo.—From  Sir  William 

Jardine,  Bart. 
The  Geological  and  Natural  History  Repertory  and  Journal  of 

Pre-Historic    Archieology    and     Ethnology.      Nob.    10-12. 

London,  1866.     8to.— i^rom  the  Society. 
Bulletin  de  L'Acad^mie  Royale  des  Sciences  des  Lettres  et  des 

Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.   Nos.  2,  3.   Bruxelles,  1866.    8vo. 

— Front  the  Academy. 
Sur  I'^tat  de  I'Atmoepb^re,  a  Braselles  pendant  I'Aanfie  1865. 

Par  M.  Ernest  Quetelet.     8vo. — From  the  Author. 
Comptes  Rendus  Hebdomad  aires  des  Stances  de  I'Acaddmie  dea 

Sciences,  1865-66.     Paris.    4to. — From  the  Academy. 
Jonmat  of  the  Society  of  Arts  and  of  the  Institutions  in  Union, 

for  1865-C6.    London.    8vo.— JVwn  the  Society. 


,,.,  Google 


INDEX. 


Actioh,  Note  on,  4W. 

Address,  Opening,  1662,  by  Principal 

FoTbu,  2. 
18G8,    by    Profeisoi  Innes, 

IBO. 
-. 1864,  bj  Hie  Qncfl  the  Dake 

of  ArgjU,  2«i. 

-  1S65,  bj  Sir  David  Biewstei 


468. 
Address,  1864,  bj  Bii  Dftvid  Biewater, 

aa  President,  821. 
Address  to   E.B.E.    the    Prince   of 

Wales,  126. 
Aerifonn  Volumes,  llie  Laws  of,  ex- 
tended to  dense  bodies,  220. 
Agrarian  Law  of  Lycnrgas,  168. 
Aleyonmm     digilat«M,     Foljps     of, 

S9S. 
Alexander    (James),   The    Decimal 

Prublem  Solved,  1B9. 
Algebraic  Equation,  Simple  Method  of 

approiimatiDB  to  the  KooU  or,  162. 
Allman  (Professor)  on  a  Pre-Brachial 

Stage  in  the  Defelopment  of  CornU' 

on  the  Occnrrence  of  Anoebi- 

form  Protoplasm  and  the  Emission 
of  pBendopodia  in  the  Hydroida, 
158. 

: on  a  New  Foeail  Ophturidim, 

from  Post-pliocene  strata  of  the 
Taller  of  '>>»  Forth.  101. 

Amber,  Fos«il,  Notice  of  a  remarkable 
piece,  860, 

Amfcttiform  Protoplasm  and  the 
Emission  of  Pseudopodia  in  the 
Hydioida,  168. 

Anatom;  and  Phyeioloey  of  the 
Valves  in  Mammals,  Ac.,  108. 

Aniline,  Action  of  Terchloride  of 
Phosphorus  on,  177. 

Antozone,  on  tlie  Nature  of,  413. 

Archer  (Professor),  Cnrions  Binocular 
Telescope,  181. 

on  the  Bemaikabla  Occnr- 
rence of  Graphite  in  Siberia,  07. 


Archer  (Professor)  on  Leviok's  Coal- 
cutting  Machine,  and  on  Price's 
Eipertment*  on  the  Bestoratlon 
of  Oil  Paintings,  650. 

on  a  new  Bituminous  Sub- 
stance imported  under  the  name 
of  Coal,  from  Brazil,  864. 

AtktU  (His  Grace  the  Duke  of). 
led  Honorary  Vice-President, 

.  Opening  Address,  1864-66, 


Open-air  Vegetation  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Botanic  Garden,  daring  De- 
cember 1868,  166. 

Bituminous  substance,  imported  under 
the  name  of  Coal,  from  Brazil,  864. 

Blackie  (Professor),  on  the  Pronuncia- 

.    tion  of  Greek,  898. 

on  the  Agrarian  Law  of  Ly- 

curgde,  and  one  of  Hr  Grote'e 
Canons  of  Historical  Criticism,  168. 

on  the  Principle  of  Onomalo- 

pceia  in  Language,  S27. 

Blood,  UiscellaneouB  Ohservations  on, 
895. 

Botanic  Garden,  Edinburgh,  Open- 
air  Vegetation  in,  166. 

Boulder-day  of  Scotland,  on  the 
occurrence  of  Stratified  Beds  in  the, 
by  Arcbd.  Geikio,  F.G.8.,  84. 

of  Greenock  and  Port-Glas- 
gow, 268. 

Brain  of  the  Chimpanzee,  (jonvoln- 
tions  in.  678. 

Brewster  (Sir David;  on  the  Strnctnre 
and  Optical  Phenomenon  of  De- 
composed Glass,  76. 

Note  from,  89. 

Glass,  Specimens  of  Decom- 
posed, 89. 


DvGooglc 


662  In 

BMwator  (Sir  Dafid),  Letter  reUUTS 

toSpecimenaof  Tomzwith  Pres»iue 

Catitiet,  95. 
on  the  PoUruation  of  Bough 

Suifacea,  and  of  Subatancea  that 

Beflect  White  or  Colonred  Light 

trwa  their  Interior,  96. 
on  the  PolariBtrtion  of  the 

Atmoephere,  100. 
Description  of  the  LJthoecope, 

BD  tnatrament  for  diatingniahing 

Pieciooa  Btonea  and  other  bodies, 

160. 
DD  the  Influence  of  the  Be- 

bacting  Force  of  Calcareooa  Spar 

on  Folaxisation,  175. 
on  the  Difliaction  Bands  pn>- 

dneed  b;  Double  Striated  Snrfacea, 

184. 

Address  as  President,  821. 

on  the  Oaase  and  Cure  of 

Cataract.  850. 
'  Notice  of  a  remarkable  Piece 

ofFossil  Amber.  860. 
• on  Heiuiopa;  or  Half  Vision, 

878. 


Opening  AddrMS,  1866-46, 

468. 
'  Additional  Obserrations  on 

the  Polarisation  of  the  Atmosphere, 

620. 
on  the  Fair;  Stones  found  in 

the  Elwand  Water,  near  Helrose, 

667. 
■ Report  on  the  Uonrly  Obser- 

vatioDs  made  at  Leith  Fort  in  1826 

and    1827,    b;    direction   of   the 

Societ;,  673. 

■      on  a  New   Property  of  the 

Betino,  673. 
Brown  (Dr  A.  Cram),  on  the  Theory 

of  leomeiie  Compoands,  280. 
Note  on  thePhlogiatic  Theory, 


Mote  on  the   Atomicity  of 

Sulphur,  618. 

on  the  Uee  of  Qrapbic  Repre- 
sentations of  Chemical  Formula, 
429. 

Note  on  the  Colouring  HatUr 

of  Faiza  arugiaota,  489. 

— —  on  the  Classification  of 
Chemical  Substances  by  means  of 
(leneric  Radicals,  661. 


96. 

. Notice  of  Qlacial  Clay,  with 

Arctic  Shells,  near  Errol,  on  the 
Tay,  267. 

Bucban  (Alexander,  M.A.),  Report  on 
the  Weather  of  October,  November, 
and  December  1868,  as  compared 
with  the  previous  sii  years,  172. 

Meteorological   ObewTationi 

on  Storms,  428. 

Burt  (Dr),  Exhibition  of  Three  Skulls 
of  Qorilla  from  AL  Dn  Cbailln,  841. 

Cables,  Deep-Sea,  Forces  concerned 

in  the  Laying  and  Lifting  of,  496. 
Calamoichthys,  a  new  Oenus  of  Oan- 

Old  Fiih,  664. 

CoJabarieas,  Anatomy  of,  667. 

Calcnlua,  Higher,  Third  Co-ordinate 

Branoh  of,  666. 
Capillary  Phenomena,  698. 
Cortmnaceous  Hatters,  Absorption  of, 

648. 
Cataract,  on  the  Canse  and  Core  of, 

860. 
Oatton  (Alfred  R.,  B.A.)  on  the  Rhom- 

bohedral  System  of  Crystallogra. 

phy,  282. 

—  on  the  Connection  between 
theForm  and  Optical  Properties  of 
Crystals,  242. 

i  on  the  Molecular  Constitn- 

tion  of  Otgauio  Compounds,  No.  1 , 
863. 

on  the  Nature  of  Antonrae, 

413. 

■  ■  ■ '  -■  on  the  Motion  of  Interpene- 
trating Medio,  441. 

-■  —  on  the  Theory  of  the  Befrao- 
tion  and  Dispetsion  of  Light,  Fart 
1,687. 

CaTos,  Ancient  Scnlptnres  on  Walls 
of,  521. 

Celtic  Topography  of  Scotland,  432. 

Centiobaric  Bodies,  190. 

Chambets  (William,  of  Glenormi*- 
ton).  History  of  Fopnlor  Literature, 
and  its  Inflnence  on  Society,  88. 

on  the  Hill  Forte,  Terraces, 

and  other  Remains  of  the  Early 
Races  in  the  South  of  Scotland,  861. 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Watcn 
of  Beauly,  InremeBB,  and  Mony 
Firths,  870. 

Formula,  Use  of  Graphic  Re- 
presentations of,  429. 

Subetancei,  Claasiflcation  of. 

661. 


j.Googlc 


96. 
Clio  eaudata,  oQ  tbe  Zoological  Chu- 

acten  of.     B;   John  Denis  Hm- 

doiiftld,B.N.,F.H.S..76. 
Coals,  Tertiary,  New  Zealand,  874. 
Camalula,  on  a  Pre-Bnicbial  Stage  in 

the  DeTelopment  of,  by  Professor 

AUman,  91. 
CommeDsiirablea,  Theory  of,  164. 
Oompreesioii  of  Air  in  an  Air-bnbble, 

663. 
Oonfocal  Conica,  4S2. 
Convenatioue,  Proposed.  89. 
CorrelalioD  of  Foroee,  Vital  Agency 

with  reference  to,  209. 
Council,  1862-68, 1. 

ElecUon  of,  1863-64, 129. 

Election  of,  1864-66,  263. 

Election  of.  1886-66.  467. 

Crystallography,  Rhombohedtal  Sys- 
tem of,  282. 
Crystals,  Form  and  Optioal  Properties 

of,  242. 

D»TT  (John,  M.D.,  P.R.SS.),  Obaer- 
Tationa  on  the  Coticle  in  relation 
to  Eraporation,  448. 

■  on  Heat  in  lelation  to  tbe 
Changes  to  which  it  is  liable,  626. 

• on  tbe  Freezing  of  the  Egg 

of  the  Common  Fowl,  224. 

MiscdllaneouB  Obaerrationson 

tbe  Blood,  895. 

some  ObacTTationB  on  Incnba- 

Uon,  642. 

Decimal  Problem  Bolved,  19S. 

Diffraction  Bands,  produced  by  Dou- 
ble Siriated  SurfsceB.  1B4. 

Dittmar  (W.),  Contribution  to  the 
History  of  the  Oxides  of  Manga- 
nese, 266. 

"Doctrine  of  Uniformity"  in  Geo- 
logy. 612. 

Drift  Beds  with  Sheila.  167. 

Dunc(in(J.  Hattbews,  H.D.)  on  some 
Laws  ortheSterilityofWomen,674. 

on  the  Variations  of  the  Fer- 
tility and  Fecnndity  of  Women 
according  to  age,  226. 

on  the  Laws  of  the  Fertility 

of  Women,  669. 

Dooi  (Professor)  on  tba  Natural  His- 
tory of  Lewis,  €16. 

Dynamical  Theory  of  Heat,  610. 

Esrtb  -Currents    during    Magnetic 

Calma,  112. 
ejvardtn  Allmanai.  304. 


of,  2: 

Elcbies,  on  the  great  Befractor  at, 
and  ita  powers  in  Sidereal  Obaer- 
vation,  by  Professor  C.  Piuzl 
Smytb.  Astronomer-Boyal  for  Soot- 
land,  47. 

Star  ObserratioQB  at,  100. 

Energy,  on  the  Conserration  of,  121. 

Epicycloidal  OarreB,  Perigal's  Prob- 
concerning  the  contact  of,  888. 
"   1,  Cuticle  in  relation  to. 


ETaporation 


Fairy  Stones  found  in  the  Elwaud 

Water,  667. 
Fagnani's  ThetH^m.  126. 
Fdlows  elected,  86.  77,  86,  SO,  91, 

99,  104.  119,  127,  146.  166,  159. 

174.  161,  191,  240.  261,  897,  431. 

441,  618,  629,  667,  671.  691.  699, 

640.660. 
FeUowB,  Honorary,  elected.  812.  618. 
Fergnaon  (Adam.  LL.D..  F.aS.E.) 

Biographical  Sketch  of,  214. 
Fermat'B  Theorem.  181. 
Fertility  and  Fecnodity  of  Women, 

226 
Fertility  of  Women,  Laws  of  tbe,  669. 
Firola,  Notes  on  tbe  Anatomy  of  tbe 

Oenna,  by  John  Denia  Macdonald. 

K.N.,  F.R  S.,  76. 
Flora  of  Otago.  New  Zealand,  484. 
Food  of  Royal  Engineers  statiouod  at 

Chatham,  421. 
Forbes  (Frindpal),  Opening  Address, 

1862-68,  2. 
Biographical  Account  of  Pro- 
fessor   Louis    Albert    Nechar,    of 

Qcneva,  63. 
Notice  respecting  Hr  Koilly's 

Topographical  Survey  of  tbe  Chun 

of  Mont  Blanc.  885. 
El  peri  mental    Inquiry  into 

the  Laws  of  Conduction  of  Heat  in 

Bars,  Part  2,  36S. 
Forests,  Buried,  of  Scotland.  686. 
Frequency  of  Error.  Law  of,  SSS. 
FunctionB  with    Kecnrring    Deriva- 

tivee,  694. 
Funia    Umbilicalis    and     Placenta, 

Anatomical  Type  in,  112. 

Qeikie  (Arch.,  F.G.3.)  on  the  Oc- 
currence of  Stratified  Beds  in  the 
Bonlder  Clay  of  Scotland,  S4. 

Comparison  of  the  Oltciation 

of  the  West  of  Scotland  with  that 
of  Arctic  Norway,  630. 
4b 


,,.,  Google 


664  Tnd 

Qcikie  (Anh.,  F.O.B.),  Account  of 

the  Progreea  or  the  Geological  Sur- 

TB?  in  Scotland,  8G6. 
(James]  ou  the  Boiied  Foreils 

>nd   Fett    HoMeg    of    Sootland, 

685. 
GeologT,  Doctrins  of  Uaifonnit;  ia, 

612. 
GlaciBl  Cla<r,with  Arctic  Shells,  2&7. 
OUciatioii,  Comparison  of  that  of  the 

West   of    Bcotlsnd  with    that  of 

Arctic  Norwa;.  G30. 
Glass,  Decomposed,  on  the  StmctDre 

and  Optical   Phenomenon  of.   b<r 

8ir  Darid  Brewrter,  76. 
Graphite,  on  the  Remarkable  Occnr- 

teDce  of,  in  Siberia,  97. 
Qreek,  on  the  PtonunciatioD  of,  898. 

Hamilton's  Characteristic  Fanction 
of  Bpecial  Cases  of  Restraint,  Ap- 
plication of,  407. 

Heart,  Ganglia  and  Nerree  of,  462. 

Heat,  Annual  Lots  of,  from  the 
Earth,  G12. 

Dynamical  Theory  of,  610. 

Hemiopey,  or  Half  Vieion,  878. 

Hill  Farts.  Terraces,  and  other  Re- 
mains of  the  Earl;  Races  in  the 
Sonth  of  Scotland,  861. 

Home  (David  Uilne),  Notice  of 
large  Calcareoiia  Stalagmite  ^m 
Bermuda,  428. 

Hot  Springs,  Temperatare  of,  160. 

Hydriodic  Acid.  Action  of,  on  Han- 
delic  Acid,  409. 

Hydroida,  Kmission  of  Psendopodia 
in,  168. 

Incnhation,  Some  OtweTvations  on, 
642. 

Inne«  (Profeuor),  Opening  Address, 
180. 

Iran,  CondnctiTity  of,  869. 

Iron  Filings,  BehaTlour  of,  on  Vi- 
brating Plate,  444. 

Isomeric  Compounds,  Theory  of,  280. 

Keith  Uedal,  PreaentatioD  of,  to  Pro- 
fessor William  Thomeon  by  Sir 
David  Brewster,  206, 

■ Presented  to  Principal  Forbee, 

692. 

Keith  Prize  awarded,  192. 

Kelland  (Professor)  on  the  Limits 
of  oiu  Knowledge  respecting  the 
Theory  of  Parallelg,  1&6. 

■  on  Superposition,  190. 

Kinematical  and  Dynamical  Theo- 
rems, lis. 


Dialects.  202. 
Law,  the  World  governed  by,  Tel«o- 

logically  considered,  696. 
Laws  of  Conduction  of  Heat  in  Bars, 

Experimental  Inquiry  into,  869. 
Lewis,  Katnral  Hietory  of,  616. 
Library,  Donations  to.  86.  46,  77,  86, 

90,  Bl.  99.  104,  119,  127,  147, 166, 

169.  174,  182,  191,  201,  206,  214. 

261,812,  SSO,  S40,  S5S,  866,380, 

897,  420,  431,  442,  466.  483,  618, 

629.  667,  671,  691,  699,  687,  640, 

660. 
Lichens,  New,  and  Fnngi  from  Otago, 

New  Zealand,  627. 
Light,  Re&action  and  Dispersion  of, 

687. 
Lightning,  Lead  on  Nelaoo's  Honn- 

ment  injured  by.  106. 
Lindsay  (W.  Laoder.  M.D.,  F.L.8.) 

Remarks  on  a  Map  of  Tarauaki, 

New  Zealand,  executed  by  a  Maori, 

886. 
■-  on  the  Tertiary  Coals  of  New 

Zealand.  874. 

Remarks    on   the   Flora  of 

Otago,  New  Zealand,  484. 

Observations  on  New  Lichens 

and  Fnngi  from  Otago,  New  Zea- 
land, 627. 

Literatoie.  History  of  Popular,  by 
William  Chambers,  88. 

Lithoscope.  Description  of,  160. 

Liinebui^,  Notes  ou  the  Geoh)gy  of, 
by  Rev.  Robert  Boog  Watson.  79. 

Lycurgus,  Agrarian  Iaw  of,  168. 

Macadam  (Dr  Stevenson)  on  the 
Chemical  Composition  of  the 
Watere  of  the  Beanly,  Inverness, 
and  Moray  Firtha,  870. 

Hacdonald  (John  Denis,  R.N.,F.R.S.) 
on  the  Representative  Relation- 
ehipe  of  the  Fixed  and  Free  Tuui- 
cata,  46. 

Notes  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 

Genus  Firola.  76. 

i  on  the  Zoological  Characters 

of  the  living  Clia  caudata  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  Ciio  hartala. 
given  in  Systematic  Works,  76. 

on    the   Bitemal   Anatomy 

of  a  new  Mediterranean  Pteropod, 
166. 

on  the  Morphnlofrical  Rela- 
tionships of  the  MoUuscoida  and 
Ccelenterata,  166. 

MIntosh  (W.  C.  M.D.,  F.L.S.)  on 


the  Nudibranchiate  HoUtUG*  of  St 

Andrews.  S8T. 
M'Intoah(W.C.,M.D.,F.L.S.),ObsBr- 

TationB  OD  tlie  Marioe  Zoology  of 

North  nut.  Outer  Rebridea,  QOO, 
Maclagan   (Donglu.   M.D.)   on  the 

CompoBitton  of  some  old  Wines, 

*3T. 
HBCTicar(J.  G.,  A.M.,  D.D.),  the  Law 

of  Aeriform  Volnmes  extended  to 

dense  bodies,  220. 
on  Water.  Hydrogen,  Oxygen, 

aod  Oxone,  444. 
Uakdoagall-Brisbane  Prize,  78 

Medal  swarded,  S86. 

Uandelic  Acid,  Action  of  Hydriodic 

Acid  on,  409,  4&G. 
ManganeM.  Oxides  of,  265. 
Hap   of    Taranaki,   New   Zealand, 


885. 


..  Hagh)  0 


I  Trantvanale, 


Uartin  (Bei 

406. 
Heat,  Batchen',  Changes  to  which 

it  is  liable,  628. 
Mtee  Mouri^'  Frocesa  of  preparing 

Wheat  Floor,  626. 
UeteoTological       ObaerraUonB       on 

SlOTms,  428. 
Metrology   of   the   Great   Pyramid, 

198. 
Holecnlai  Constitatlou    of   Organic 

Componnde,  868, 
MolluBca,    Nndibranehiate,     of     8t 

Andrews,  887. 
Hollnscoida  and  Ctalenterata,  Moi> 

phological  Belationahipa  of,  156. 
Mont  Blanc,  Topographical  Surrey 

of  the  Chain  of,  S86. 
Motion  of  a  Heavy  Body  along  the 

Circumference  of  a  Circle,  408. 
• ■  of  Interpenetrating  Media, 

441. 
Moir  {John,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.),  Sketch 

of  the  Recent  Progress  of  Sanskrit 

Literature,  90. 
on  the  Ooda  of  the  Rigveda, 


Necker,  Professor  Lonis  Albert,  Bio- 
erapbical  Accoant  of,  by  David 
James  Forbes,  D.C.L..  F.it.S.,  63. 

Neill  Medal,  Preaenlation  of,  to 
Professor  Itamsay,  638. 

NeiU  Prize,  89. 

Presentfttion  of,  to  Dr  Greville, 

98. 


^  665 

Obitdaby — 

Allan,  Kobert,  130. 

Aytoun,  Wm.  Edmonalonne,  481. 

Barker,  Thomas  Herbert,  481. 

Blot,  Jean-Baptists,  26. 

Botaeld,  Beriah,  131. 

Burn  Murdoch,  John,  84. 

Cockburn,  John,  84. 

Conoell,  Arthur,  186, 

Duff,  Admiral  Norwich,  88, 

Enke,  John  Frsncis,  469. 

Fyfe.  Andrew,  38. 

Gordon.  John  Thomson,  480. 

Hamilton,  Sir  WiUiara  Eowan,  478. 

Hooker,  Sir  William  Jackson,  471. 

Homer,  Leonard,  294. 

Keith,  James,  183. 

Maclagan,  David,  476. 

Maconochie,  Alexander  Welwood, 
28. 

Maxwell,  Sir  John,  477. 

Sir  Williani  Alexander,  478. 

MiUer,  James,  298. 

Hitschertich.  Eilnid.  186. 

Morrieson,  Robert,  300. 

Necker,  LoaU  Albert,  27. 

Newbigging,  Patrick  Small  Keir, 
SOI. 

Fillana,  James,  808. 

Plana,  Baron  Oiovanui,  298. 

Beid,  David  Boswell,  188. 

Richardson,  Sir  John,  470. 

Robertson,  Archibald,  806. 

Bussell,  James,  84. 

Russell,  John,  82. 

Skeno,  James,  478. 

Smyttan,  George,  806. 

Stnive,  Frederick  George  William, 
468. 

Swinbome,  Thomas  Robert.  807. 

Thomson,  Robert  Dundas,  307. 

Tiederaann,  Friedrich,  27. 

Traill,  Thomas  Stewart,  80. 

Walker,  James,  29. 

Wood,  Alexander,  809. 
Observations,  Hourly,  made  at  Leith 

Fort  in  1826  and  1827,678. 
Onomatopoeia,  On  the   Principle  of, 

in  Language,  827. 
Ophinridan,  a  new  Fossil,  101. 
Organic  Compounds,  Molecular  Con- 
stitution of,  863. 
Orthogonal  Isothermal  Surfaces,  62B. 

Palate,  Cleft.  Morphology  of,  575. 
Parallel  Lines,  On  the  Theory  of,  1 26. 
ParalleU,  Theory  of,  156. 
Feat  Mosses  of  Scotland,  635. 
Perigal'a    Problem,   concerning    the 
Contact  of  Epicycloids!  Cnrvee,886. 


...GooqIc 


Petrolenin,  American,  miMt  Volatile 

CoDBtituanta  of,  176. 
Fettigrew  (Jamee  B.,  M.D.)  on  the 

Anatomy  and   Physiology  of  the 

Mitral,  Tricnspid,  and  Semilaoar 

Valves  in  Mammals,  Birds,  Bep- 

tiles,  and  Fisheg,  1S8. 
on  the  Ganglia  and  Nenw 

of  the  Heart,  462. 
Paiia  mrugmovt,   Colotuing  Hatter 

of,  4S9. 
Pfailosophy,   Natural,    Sealed    Note 

deposited  with  Secretary.  166. 
Phlogistic  Theory,  Note  on,  828. 
Pictiah  InBcription   in    the  Chnrcb- 

yard  of  St  VigeuiB,  113. 
Playfair  (Dr  Lyon)  on  the  Food  <£ 

the  Boyol  Engineers  statianed  at 

Chatbam,  421. 
PolarlBation  of  Bongh  Surfaces,  96. 
Polariaation     of    the    Atmosphere,  - 

100. 
Polarisation  of  the  Atmosphere,  Oh- 


Frince  of  Wales,  Address  to,  120. 

Projectiles,  Elliptic  Hotion  of  onre- 
stticted,  666. 

Fteropod,  External  Anatomy  of  a  new 
Mediterranean,  156. 

Fygepttrut  Cketnodai  (Agassiz),  De- 
scription of,  697. 

Pyramid,  Qrest,  Metrology  of,  198. 

Recent  Meamree  at,  640. 

Qnatermon  Transfonnatioii,  Note  on, 

lie. 

BanUne  (W.  J.  Macqnom)  on  Satn- 
rSitei  Vapoars,  449. 

Bef^ctoT  at  Elchies,  Remarks  on, 
by  Professor  C.  Fiazzi  Smyth,  47. 

Heilly'a  Topographical  Sorvey  of  tbe 
Chain  of  Mont  Blanc,  385. 

Retina,  New  Property  of,  578. 

Bichler  (Otto,  Ph.D.)  on  the  Chemi- 
cal ana  Physical  Principles  in  con- 
nection with  the  Specific  Gravity 
of  Liquid  and  Solid  Snbslancea, 
226. 

Rigreda,  Oode  of  tbe,  188. 

Bonslds  (Edmund,  Ph.D.)  on  the 
most  Volatile  Constitnenta  of  Ame- 
rican Petroleum,  176. 


Sang  (Edward),  on  tbe  SolntioQ  of 
Perigal's  Problem  concerning  the 
Contact  of  Epicycloidal  Curve8,83B. 

on  the  Motion  of  a  Heavy 

Body  along  the  Circumference  of  a 
Circle,  408. 

< on   the    Third   Co-ordinate 

Branch  of  the  Higher  Calcnlns, 
566. 

on  Functions  with  Becnning 

Derivatives,  594. 

Sanskrit  Literature,  Sketch  of  the 
Recent  Progress  of,  by  John  Unir, 
D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  90. 

Scoresby-Jackson  (B.  E..  H.D., 
P.B.O.P.)  Du  tbe  TuBaence  a 
Weather  upon  Disease  and  Horia- 
lity,  86. 

i  on  the  Temperature  cd' certain 

Hot  Springs  in  the  Pyrenees,  ISO. 

Seller  (WiUiam,  M.D.)  on  Vital 
Agency  with  reference  to  the  Cor- 
relation of  Forces.  209. 

ShelIs,Arctic,01acial-Clay  with,  267. 

Drift  Beds  with.  167. 

Fossil  Arctic,  96. 

Simpson  (Fnifeasor  J.  Y.),  Note  on 
the  Anatomical  Type  in  the  Fun  is 
Umbilicolia  and  Hacenta,  112. 

■ Note  on  a  Pictieh  Inscription 

intheChurchyardof8tVigeanB,nS. 

■  Notices    of    Bome    Ancient 

Scnlptures  on  the  Walls  of  Cavsa 
in  Fife.  621. 

Skene  (W.  F.)  on  the  Celtic  Lan- 
guages in  their  Relation  to  etob 
other,  and  to  tbe  Teutonic  Dia- 
lects, 202. 

on  the  Celtic  Topogr&phy  of 

Scotlajid,  432. 

Skey  (WiUiam)  on  tbe  Abaorptioa  of 
Substances  from  Solution*  by  Cai- 
bonsceons  Matters,  and  the  Growth 
thereby  of  Coal  Seams,  648. 

Skull,  Human,  Congenital  Deforml- 


i  Anatomi- 


«of,  1^ 
Skulls,  Human,  allied  ii 

cal  Cbaroctera  to  the  Engia  mwi 

Neanderthal.  161. 
Skulls  of  OoriUa,  Observations  rela- 
tive to  their  Anatomical  Fealorea, 

841. 
Small    (John,    HA.),   Biogruhical 

Sketch  of  Adam  Ferguson,  LL.D., 

F.R.S.K.,  214. 
Unpublished  Letter  of  the 

late  Professor  Dngald  Stewart,  216. 
Smith  (John,  M.D.)  on  certain  Points 

in  tbe  Morphology  of  Cleft  Palate. 


j.Googlc 


Smith  fjohn  Ales&nder,  H.D.),  Dft- 
BcriptioD  of  Calfttnoaiebthys,  a  new 
Oenai  of  Ganoid  Piah  from  Old 
Calabar.  654. 
Smjth  (PtofetaoT  C,  Piazzi)  on  the 
Great  Refractor  at  Elchiea,  and  its 
Powers  in  Sidereal  ObaerratJan,  47. 

Concluding  Note  on  the  Btai 

ObflarrationB  at  Elchies,  160. 

Note  on  Lead  from  Nelson's 

Mannment,  injured  b;  Lightning, 
105. 

on  same  Folute  fn  the  Metn>- 

log;  of  the  Oreat  PjTamid,  198. 

Accoant  of  Recent  Hoamree 

at  the  Oieat  Pyramid,  640. 
Spar,   CalcareoDB,   Influence  of  the 
Bebacting  Force  of,  on  PoIariM^ 
ban,  175. 
Specific  Oravlty  of  Liquid  and  Solid 
Substaucea,  Chemical  and  Phjreieal 
PrincJ^eaof,  226. 
Bpectra,  Paragenic,  Snperpoeition  of, 

4S4. 
Stalagmite,    Notice   of   large    Cal- 

oareooi,  423. 
Star  ObeervationB  at  Elohiea,   Con- 
cluding Note  on,  100. 
Sterility  ofWowen.Lawg  of  the,  67*. 
Stewart  (Balfoar,  M.A.,   F.R.S.)  on 
Earth  Cnrrenta  dnring   Magnetic 
CalmB,  and  their  connection  with 
Uagnetic  Changes,  112. 
— on  Son  Spots,  and  their  con- 
nection with  Planetary  ConBgnra- 
tions,  218. 

Note  on  a  Paper  by,  617. 

Stewart     (ProfeBior     Dngald),    Un- 
published Letter  of,  216. 
Snlphnr,  Atomicity  of,  618. 
Sun  Spots,  and  their  connection  with 

Planetary  Configurations,  218. 
Superposition,  ISO. 
Survey,    Qeological,    In     Scotland, 
Account  of  the  Progresa  of,  S65. 

Tait  (HagDDB  H.,  F.C.S.)  on  the 
Action  of  Terchloride  of  Phos- 
phorus on  Aniline,  177. 

Tait  (Professor),  Noteou  a  Qoatemion 
Transformation,  116. 

on    the     Conserratiou     of 

Energy,  121. 

on  Fermat's  Theorem,  181. 

Note  on  the  Law  of  Frequency 

of  Error,  885. 

Note  on  Action,  404. 

on  the  Application  of  BamiJ- 

ton'a  Characteristic  Function  to 
Special  Casee  of  Constraint,  407- 


ia.  667 

Tait  (Frofeseor},  Behaviour  of  Iron 
Filings,  strewn  on  a  Vibrating 
Plate,  and  exposed  to  the  action 
of  a  magnetic  pole,  444. 

Orthogonal  iBotbermal  Sur- 
faces. 626. 

Note  on  the  Compresdon  of  Ai  r 

in  an  Air-bubble  under  Water,  668. 

on  some  Geometrical  Con- 

structiona  connected  with  the  El- 
liptic Motion  of  Vniesisted  Pro- 
jectiles, 666. 

on  some  Capillary  Pheno- 
mena, 698. 

Talbot  (H.  F.,  LL.D.)  on  Fagnani'a 
Theorem,  126. 

on   the  Theory  of  Parallel 

Linet,  126. 

on  Confocal  Conies,  482. 

Telescope,  Curious  Binocular,  181. 
Temperature  of  the  Earth's  Surface 
^^uced  by  Underground  Heat, 

Thomson  (Profeasor  W.,  F.ILS-)  on 
some  Kinematical  and  Dynamical 
Theorems,  113. 

■ on  Centrobarie  Bodies,  190. 

• on    the    Eleration    of    the 

Earth's  Surface  Temperature  pro- 
duced by  Underground  Heat,  200. 

on  the  Protection  of  Vegeta- 
tion from  deetmctJTe  Cold  erery 
night,  208. 

Address  on  the  Forces  con- 
cerned in  the  Laying  and  Lifting 
of  Deep-Sea  Cables,  496. 

on  the  Dynamical  Theory  of 

Heat.    Part  7,  610. 

The  Doctrine  of  Uniformity 

in  Geology  briefly  Refuted,  512. 

Todhonter  ( I.,  MA.),  Note  on  a  Paper 
by  Balfour  Stewart  in  the  Trans- 
actioDs  of  the  Royal  Sodetjr  of 
Edinburgh,  617, 

Topez,  Specimens  of,  with  Pressure 
Cavities,  96. 

Transvervals,  408. 

TT«quair(BamsRyH.,M.D.), Descrip- 
tion of  Pyjopttru*  Qnamdiii 
(Agassiz),  697. 

—  —  on  the  Interna]  Structure  of 
CalamatidUkst  Cal^ariait,  667. 

Tnnicata,  on  the  RepresentatiTe  Rela- 
tionships of  the  Fixed  and  Free, 
by  John  Denis  Hacdonald,  R.N., 
F.R.S.,  46. 

Tnmer  (William,  H.B.)  oa  Eaman 
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bility in  Hnman  Strnctare,  irith 
illmtiBtioDB  from  the  Flexor  Mub- 
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Congenital  Deformitieeof  the 

Humaa  Skull,  444. 

Od  the  Bridging  ConTolntions 

in  the  Brain  of  the  Chimpanzee, 
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Three  Skqlb  of  the  Oonlla,  re- 
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ObservationB  relative  to  Uieii  Ana- 
tomical Featnrea,  341. 


188. 

Vaponn,  Batnraled,  149. 
Vegetation,    Open-Air,    in    Botanio 

Garden,  Itifi. 
Protection  of,  from  Deatruc- 

tiTO  Cold,  208. 


WatBon  (Eev.  Robert  Boog),  Notw  on 

the  Geology  of  Liineburg,  in  the 

Kingdom  of  Hanover.  79. 
on  the  Great  Drift-Beds  with 

Sheila  in  the  soath-weet  of  Arran, 

157. 
Notes  on  the  Bonlder-Clay  at 

Greenock  and  Port-Ql««gow,  268. 
Weather,  on  the  Inflnence  of,  npon 

Diseue  and  Mortalitj.  hj  R.   B. 

Scoresby-Jackson,  H.D.,  60. 

Bepoit  on,  172. 

Wilson  (Professor)  on  M.  H£ge  Hou- 

rifs'  Process  of  preparing  Wheat 

Flonr,  626. 
Wines,  old,  Composition  of,  437. 
World,  as  a  Dynaioical  and  Imma- 
terial World,  381. 
Wjld  (Robert  a.)on  the  World  as  aDy- 

namical  and  I  m  material  World ,  38 1 . 
the  World  governed  by  Law, 

Teleologically  considered,  696. 

Zooli^,  Marine,  of  Horth  Uiat,  600. 


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