PP INC OTT'S
MANUALS
m
PRODUCTIVE
SHEEP
HUSBANDRY
BY W.C.COFFEY
'The first farmer was the first man, and all historic
nobility rests on possession and use of land."
— EMERSON.
LIPPINCOTT'S
FARM MANUALS
EDITED BY
KARY C. DAVIS, PH.D. (CORNELL)
PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY
COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE; AUTHOR OF
PRODUCTIVE FARMING, ETC."
PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY
BY WALTER C. COFFEY
PROFESSOR OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
LIPPINCOTT'S
FARM MANUALS
Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D.
SECOND EDITION REVISED
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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
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SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED
PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS
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COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS
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LiPFiNCOTT's FARM MANUALS
EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pn.D. (CORNELL)
PRODUCTIVE SHEEP
HUSBANDRY
BY
WALTER C. COFFEY
PROFESSOR OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
" If vain our toil,
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil."
POPE — Essay on Man
PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
- »
COPYRIGHT, IQl8. BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
AGRIC. DEPT,
MAIM
UJtT 4.
Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A.
DEDICATED TO
THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER
WHO LOVED SHEEP
402468
PREFACE
ALL indications at the present time point to the beginning of a
new period in the sheep industry of the United States. For the first
time in our history we are attempting to give attention to the whole
problem of mutton and wool production. We are awakening as
never before to the fact that successful flock husbandry is based
upon a careful consideration and attention to breeding, feeding,
shepherding, and marketing. As a result, farm flocks are emerg-
ing from the depraved stage of scavengers, and bands of sheep on
western ranges no longer have " to take pot luck " on the natural
feed of the range.
The sheepman now realizes that " the march towards the setting
sun " in search of new and cheap range is over, and that various
phases of agriculture are demanding and receiving recognition in
regions which he once regarded as solely his own. He also realizes
that land values have advanced and the cost of operation increased
to the point where the haphazard and wasteful methods once prac-
ticed in handling sheep can no longer be depended upon to yield
profits.
All of these changes presage a better and more successful sheep
husbandry, and this book is offered with the hope that it will be of
use both to the student and to the sheep raiser in comprehending the
place which sheep justly deserve in our agriculture and the methods
of handling which will result in permanent occupancy of this place.
The author fully realizes that this volume is not a complete
treatise on sheep husbandry. He also realizes how unfortunate it
would be for sheepmen generally to attempt to apply without any
modification whatever all of the suggestions this book contains; for
no absolute rule can be laid down for each and every practice in
flock husbandry.
To my various friends engaged in sheep raising, most grateful
acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and help they have
given me in preparing this volume, and especially do I feel indebted
to my colleague, Prof. J. A. Detlefsen, for his helpful suggestions on
vii
viii PREFACE
the discussion pertaining to sheep breeding, and to my assistants,
Mr. Claude Harper and Mr. E. K. Augustus, who have rendered me
most valuable assistance in various ways. I also wish to express my
very great appreciation of suggestions given by Miss Anna Cushman
Glover, Secretary of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station,
and by my brother, Professor J. S. Coffey, on the arrangement of
the material for this book.
WALTER C. COFFEY.
August, 1918.
CONTENTS
PART I— HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND OF SHEEP BREEDING
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 3
II. PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING IN LEADING SHEEP
COUNTRIES 20
III. PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 27
IV. METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 37
PART II— STRUCTURE AND JUDGING
V. STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 45
VI. THE NATURE OF SHEEP 59
VII. TYPES 70
VIII. JUDGING SHEEP 82
PART III— BREEDS
IX. THE MUTTON BREEDS 99
X. THE SOUTHDOWN 102
XI. THE SHROPSHIRE 110
XII. THE HAMPSHIRE 122
XIII. THE OXFORD DOWN 132
XIV. THE SUFFOLK 137
XV. THE DORSET HORN 140
XVI. THE CHEVIOT 145
XVII. THE LEICESTER 150
XVIII. THE COTSWOLD. 156
XIX. THE LINCOLN 161
XX. THE ROMNEY MARSH 164
XXI. BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN THE UNITED
STATES 168
XXII. THE CORRIEDALE 180
XXIII. THE AMERICAN TUNIS 184
XXIV. BREEDS OF THE WOOL TYPE 188
XXV. THE AMERICAN MERINO 190
XXVI. THE DELAINE MERINO 200
XXVII. THE RAMBOUILLET 203
XXVIII. THE KARAKUL (A FUR-BEARING BREED) 212
ix
X CONTENTS
PART IV— THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK
XXIX. ESTABLISHING THE COMMERICAL FARM FLOCK 219
XXX. THE BREEDING SEASON 230
XXXI. CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 236
XXXII. THE LAMBING PERIOD 246
XXXIII. GROWING THE LAMB 267
XXXIV. SUMMER MANAGEMENT 291
XXXV. THE WOOL CROP .314
-
PART V— SHEEP FEEDING
XXXVI. HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN THE UNITED STATES 335
XXXVII. MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 340
XXXVIII. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SHEEP AND LAMB FEEDING. . 355
XXXIX. SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE AND
ECONOMY OF GAIN 369
XL. FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN THE FIELD THROUGH A PART
OR ALL OF THE FEEDING PERIOD 387
PART VI— SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN THE
WESTERN STATES
XLI. NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 393
XLII. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON RANGES IN THE WEST 402
XLIII. SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS DURING THE
PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS 426
PART VII— MISCELLANEOUS
XLIV. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 4o.r>
XLV. PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 449
INDEX . . 461
PART I
HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND
SHEEP BREEDING
PRODUCTIVE SHEEP
HUSBANDRY
CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Early Domestication and Importance. — It is thought that
sheep were first domesticated in Asia, probably in Turkestan. There
is evidence that they may have been under domestication in Europe
in prehistoric times, for the bones of sheep have been found in caves
and lake dwellings, where the primitive people of that continent
lived. We can only surmise that primitive man used the skins for
raiment and shelter, and the meat and milk for food.
As man advanced in civilization and became more settled in his
habits, his principal wealth often consisted of flocks and herds. The
Old Testament contains many passages which refer to the pastoral
occupation of sheep herding. Rome developed skill in handling her
flocks, and sheep abounded in Spain prior to the Christian era.
The development of sheep raising as it concerns those now in-
terested in the production of mutton and wool centered in England
and in Spain. Before the year 1000 both of these countries attached
great importance to their flocks, and by the year 1500 they were
recognized as the greatest sheep countries of the world. Although
their wools were considerably unlike, they were regarded as com-
petitors for several hundred years on the great wool markets of
Flanders.
Sheep Raising in Spain. — Spain, at a very early period, de-
veloped the Merino, a type of sheep which produced wool of
unusually fine fiber, suitable for making such fine, soft fabrics as
broadcloth (Fig. 1). This wool met with so large a demand
and was so fertile a source of revenue, that the most powerful
classes, the nobility and the clergy, engaged in sheep husbandry.
They collected great flocks for which they secured almost un-
3
4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
limited privileges. Carefully tended by shepherds of long exper-
ience, these flocks were travelled from the southern to the north-
ern part of the kingdom and back again each year in order to
secure the best grazing and the most favorable climatic conditions
for the sheep (Fig. 2). Certain laws of the kingdom stipulated
that the owners of large flocks should be allowed a path 90 paces in
width for their sheep through enclosed lands. The use of this
privilege often brought hardships upon the peasants, who often com-
plained of having their crops and vineyards devastated.
FIG. 1. — Old type of Spanish Merino. These old sheep had long necks, high shoulders and
were comparatively free from wrinkles.
The production of sheep and of wool of a type unlike that of any
other country became so important in Spain that the owners of
flocks, being very few in number, easily established a monopoly which
they maintained for many years. To allow a sheep to leave Spain
alive was a crime punishable by death. The king was the only one
exempted under this law. Sheep owners reinforced statute with
argument, contending that in any other country their sheep would
deteriorate in quality of fleece because of different soil, climate, and
vegetation, and also because of inefficient shepherding. But later
events proved them wrong in their contention.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MERINOS IN SPAIN 5
Spain's Monopoly Broken. — There came a time when Spain's
wool monopoly was broken and her sheep industry went into a
period of decadence. Early in the nineteenth century Napoleon
invaded Spain and overthrew the government. In connection with
this conquest he seized large numbers of Merino sheep and shipped
them to other countries where they added new chapters to the history
of sheep raising. A few years later Spain tried hard to regain her
FIG, 2. — The heavy dark lines and the lighter double lines indicate the ancient routes
over which travelling flocks were driven in Spain. The black areas indicate the pastures
on which these sheep were grazed. (From "Annales de Geographic," 1910.)
former place as a great sheep country, but Napoleon's act really
marked the beginning of her steady decline as a producer of
Merinos.
Characteristics of Merinos in Spain. — Mention should be
made of three characteristics of Merino sheep in Spain that have
had an important influence upon their subsequent history: first,
the production of very fine wool ; second, the hardiness of the mature
6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
sheep and their ability to travel ; third,, the disposition to stay close
together when feeding, resting, or travelling.
Stationary Flocks. — Spain also had stationary flocks, some of
which had coarse wool and others wool resembling that of the
travelling flocks. These stationary flocks were of importance num-
erically in Spain, but they contributed little or nothing to sheep
raising in outside countries.
Sheep Raising in England.— England, instead of developing
one or two general types of sheep, saw fit to encourage several types
that were markedly different in the length and fineness of their
wool. None of the wools from these breeds was as fine as that of
the Merino, but they sold readily in the markets nevertheless, for
they were more suitable for a variety of uses than wool from Spain.
Aside from the difference in the nature of the wool, the sheep
industries of England and Spain were dissimilar in other ways. The
flocks of England were not in the hands of a very few powerful
owners as they were in Spain. Travelling flocks were not established.
The great problem of the Eaiglish sheep farmer of earlier times was
to procure sheep that were adapted to his particular locality. This
largely accounts for the fact that there were many types. Another
factor may have been the poor conditions for travelling, which kept
the English farmer close to his home. With cold winters, scarcity
of winter feed, and diseases to contend with, conditions were hard,
and the owner was content with a type of sheep that would best
withstand these hardships whether or not it would produce the kind
of wool he most desired.
Events Affecting Sheep Raising. — The great plague, or Black
Death, of 1348, served as a great impetus to sheep growing in Eng-
land. Laborers were so reduced in number by this plague that land
owners were obliged to turn their lands into pastures. As sheep
paid better than other classes of livestock, owing to the high price of
wool, sheep raising became the " sheet anchor of English farming.'7
Flock husbandry, however, was still only a partial success because of
inability to cope with the severe winters. The fact that it was
profitable at all shows what a great demand there was for wool.
During the reign of Edward TIT (1327-1377) a grant of special
protection made in favor of all Flemish weavers, dyers, and fullers,
who would settle in England for the purpose of following their
trade, resulted in securing artisans skilled in the then most improved
methods of cloth making. Soon afterwards, English wools came
ROBERT BAKEWELL 7
more and more to be made up at home so as to more nearly suit
home demands. Later, in the reign of Elizabeth (1557-1603), still
more of these artisans, as well as others of their countrymen, came
to England as refugees. Thus was laid the foundation of England's
great expansion in manufacturing.
Settlers from Flanders also brought the root and clover crops, the
cultivation of which soon became of far-reaching benefit to the sheep
industry, for they made possible an adequate supply of good winter
feed. As a result the death rate of sheep was greatly reduced, and
the production of wool per sheep was increased.
Robert Bakewell. — Aside from improvement resulting from
FIG. 3. — Mutton sheep of the present-day type on a pasture in Great-Britain. They are
wide, deep and compact in form. They mature early and fatten easily.
better feeding, there was no great progress until the time of Eobert
Bakewell, 1725-1794. Wool had declined in price until, with the
rapidly advancing values of English lands, it alone would no longer
justify the keeping of sheep. With the enormous expansion of
manufacturing and of other industries in England, there were
developing great urban populations demanding meat. Bakewell was
able to see that these changed conditions demanded a new type of
sheep, and accordingly he set to work to make of the long, ungainly^
coarse- wooled, late-maturing sheep of his community a compact,
early-maturing, easily fattened animal. He succeeded so well and
his work impressed breeders so profoundly that he is generally
acknowledged as the first great improver of livestock. He demon-
strated that certain fundamental laws of breeding aided in attain-
8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
ing what he sought. He thus inaugurated a period of improvement
in the sheep industry of his country such as the world had never
seen. It was essentially an improvement securing better mutton
and early maturit}^ but many other points received careful atten-
tion. The work Bake well started attained such importance that
England became the native home of nearly all of the modern mutton
breeds, and sheepmen from all parts of the world still go there for
breeding stock (Fig. 3).
Importance of Wool in New Countries. — From the foregoing
it is seen that sheep first advanced to great importance both in
Spain and in England because of their wool rather than because of
their flesh. It is not to be supposed that they were of no value as
meat-producing animals, but it was the demand for wool that first
made sheep raising profitable in these countries. Likewise, it was
the demand for wool that first caused sheep to gain prominence in
FIG. 4. — Wagon train drawing wool from the interior to shipping point. It is the
sheep's fleece that makes it suitable for remote regions where there are neither railroads
nor highways.
the newer lands, the lands which now rank with the great sheep
growing countries of the world. Why should this be so ? Because
those who begin ths development of a new country are through
necessity interested in products which can be marketed at a long
distance from the place of production. Usually, too, they want
products which can be profitably handled in spite of poor trans-
portation facilities. Value considered, wool is light in weight, and
it is imperishable with respect to time involved in getting it to
market. It was only natural, therefore, that the colonizers of
Australia, of New Zealand, and of Argentina should turn to the
production of wool. In our own country the significant expansion
of sheep growing did not begin until a few years after the republic
was established (Fig. 4).
WESTWARD MOVEMENT OF SHEEP 9
Sheep Raising in North America. — Colonial Times. —
Domestic sheep were brought to North America by early colonists.
It is thought that the Spaniards who founded old Santa Fe, New
Mexico, brought with them the sheep from which the multi-colored
flocks of the Navajo Indians have descended. If, as is generally
supposed, sheep of this original stock were taken out of Spain,
special permission to do so surely must have been granted by the
king. The colonists along the Atlantic seaboard introduced the
English, and a few other mutton breeds. As a rule the flocks were
not large, the main object in keeping sheep being to supply wool
for making homespuns, and only incidentally to furnish a part of
the family meat supply.
The Embargo Act. — In the year 1807, the people of the United
States were forbidden by the Embargo Act to trade with foreign
powers. Although this statute was frequently violated, its effect
upon foreign trade in general was keenly felt. Among other things
it so restricted imports that it caused a shortage of woolens, and
American manufacturers found more demand for such goods than
their supply of raw wool would satisfy. Moreover, because it turned
many people in New England away from commerce into manu-
facturing, it still further increased the demand for raw wool. Men
active in the affairs of the nation, realizing the need of more wool
to supply the woolen mills, devoted both time and means to the task
of getting more sheep into the country. Napoleon had ruined
Spain's monopoly on Spanish Merinos. But years before this,
Saxony in Germany, through a gift of a number of Merinos to her
chief ruler from the king of Spain, had demonstrated that at least
one other country besides Spain could grow Merino sheep and that
she could even surpass Spain in the quality of wool produced.
Saxony's success gave confidence to Americans who were interested
in getting more fine-wooled sheep into their country. Merinos
accordingly were imported, and soon they showed that they could
thrive and produce wool of good quality in their new environment.
There soon arose a craze for these sheep which continued from 1808
until about 1816, during which time quite impossible claims were
made for them. Nevertheless they proved to be the type of sheep
needed not only then but for many years afterwards, for they were
adapted to grazing on undeveloped lands and to the production of
that fine wool for which there was so strong a demand.
'Westward Movement of Sheep. — The westward movement of
10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
sheep began early in the nineteenth century during the period of
mania for Merinos. Gradually flocks, mainly of Merino breeding,
spread over the fertile, virgin lands of the Ohio Valley and of the
Great Lakes region. When these lands became somewhat thickly
settled and high in price, many sheepmen, desiring to operate on a
large scale, moved farther west where range was cheap and extensive.
It was chiefly because of vast stretches of cheap range in the West
that certain of our sheepmen almost constantly kept on the march,
first over the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, thence west
to the Rockies and southwest into Texas, and finally through all the
Rocky Mountain Region.
Changes in Centers of Sheep Population Shown by Census
Reports. — In 1840, as the census reports clearly show, the regions
of densest sheep population were Vermont, New Hampshire, and
New York. At that time there were no sheep in the far West except
those of the Navajo Indians in northern New Mexico. In fact, the
only state west of the Mississippi having sheep in considerable
numbers was Missouri. Ten years later that part of Ohio lying
south of Lake Erie was the region of densest sheep population.
There was a noticeable thinning out in New Hampshire, Vermont,
and New York, and a pronounced increase in southeastern Michigan,
and in all of Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illinois. Flock?
had also made their way into southern Wisconsin and southeastern
Iowa. The census of 1860 shows sheep in eastern Texas and the
coast and central parts of California. Although the census report
of 1870 does not show much new territory occupied by sheep in the
Mississippi Valley and the far West, it does show with a great deal
of significance a great increase in numbers in those regions and a
great decrease in such eastern states as New York, Vermont, and
New Hampshire. In 1880 southeastern Wisconsin, along with
southeastern Michigan and much of Ohio, were the regions of
densest sheep population. Such states as the Dakotas, Nebraska,
Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming, which ten years before were almost
unoccupied, now showed a liberal sprinkling of flocks. By 18'90 all
the western states and territories were occupied and by 1900 the
Rocky Mountain region had become the most important sheep
section of the country. The census of 1910 showed that 58.41
per cent of the sheep of the United States were in the West
(Figs. 5 and 6).
CENTERS OF SHEEP POPULATION
11
h
12
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
SHEEP RAISING IN AUSTRALIA 13
Flocks in Farming Regions. — When sheepmen first skimmed
over the country with their extensive flocks their methods were
somewhat similar to those of the large owners in the West to-day,
who operate under what are called range conditions. That is, range
or pasture was plentiful and in such states as Illinois and Iowa sheep
were occasionally ranged in the open under the care of herders. But
gradually the large flocks disappeared and in their place there arose
small flocks which were kept in comparatively small, fenced fields.
These became known as farm flocks, and they now typify the sheep
industry of the United States in all but the western states.
Mutton Blood. — At first the Merino predominated in nearly
all farm flocks, but gradually English mutton breeds were intro-
duced until now nearly all such flocks are of mutton blood. The
change to mutton blood was the result of the decline in the price of
wool and the increase in the demand for mutton. The rise of land
values also had an influence, for there came a time when the sheep
yielding principally a fleece could not return a profit to the owner
of high-priced land. For the same reason mutton blood has also
been introduced in the far West, where range conditions still exist,
but it will probably always be necessary to keep on the range sheep
that carry a large proportion of Merino blood in order to preserve
the close-flocking instinct and a fleece that will withstand semi-arid
conditions.
Increase in Value. — The importance of the sheep industry in
the United States now as compared with the past cannot be deter-
mined by merely comparing numbers. Sheep are considerably more
valuable on the head basis than they were years ago, because the
revenue from each sheep is much greater than in days of wool grow-
ing only. The breeding ewe yields not only wool but also lambs
which are sold for mutton, and when she has passed her period of
usefulness as a breeder or a wool producer, either on the farm or on
the range, she still has a value as a mutton product.
Sheep Raising in Australia. — -Prior to 1830, sheep growing in
Australia had not attained commercial significance. Merino sheep
were introduced from the Cape of Good Hope as early as 1788 by
Captain Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales. In 1825 a
group of English capitalists formed a land company and founded a
large pastoral estate in Tasmania, which was then known as Van
Diemens Land. Between 1825 and 1830 this company spent more
than $145,000 in importing Merinos from Saxony ,and some of the
14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
mutton breeds of England. The majority of the purchases were of
the best Saxony types, descended from Spanish Merinos. A Mr.
Warrington of Tasmania, in 1829, formed two separate breeding
flocks from two noted families of Spanish Merinos.
England had long since ceased exporting wool and it is said
that the original aim of the Tasmanian flock owners was to grow
wool for England, and, ultimately, to render that country inde-
pendent of Spanish, German, an^l other foreign sources of supply;
but for many years their most valuable work was the breeding of
Merino sheep for the rapidly multiplying "stations" around the
coastal fringe of the Australian mainland. When wool from the
Australian Merino flocks came into the hands of English manu-
facturers it met with a ready demand, and the growers were told
that if they could supply such wool in bulk to the English trade,
they would find a large and profitable market for it.
From 1830 on, the Australian wool growing industry made great
progress. As owners found in the early days of sheep raising in our
own country, so too the owners in Australia have found the wool
type most profitable; and, largely because their country has been
populated at a much slower pace than ours, they have been much
slower to change to the mutton type than we. Merino blood still
predominates in Australian flocks, although the mutton breeds are
gradually gaining ground and the mutton qualities of the Merinos
are being improved. As the supply of both mutton and wool in
Australia far exceeds the home demand, sheep raisers are obliged
to depend largely on foreign markets. Until recent years very little
of the wool intended for export was sold before it left Australian
ports. It was consigned to commission firms in England, who dis-
posed of it by means of auction sales. But the custom of selling
wool in Australian seaboard cities is now rapidly growing.
Australia disposes of her surplus mutton by shipping frozen car-
casses to England. Until refrigeration for ocean liners was per-
fected, she had practically no outlet for her surplus supply of meat,
and hence there was no great incentive for encouraging the mutton
types of sheep.
Present Importance. — Australia has no superior as a sheep
country. It is a large country where pastorial agriculture has been
emphasized for many years and sheep seem to have been the animals
best adapted to her grazing lands. There has always been room for
expansion; which fact, together with the demand for wool and
POLITICAL UNREST IN SHEEP COUNTRIES 15
mutton, has been the main factor in the steady growth of the sheep
industry in spite of such difficulties as periodic drouths, ravages by
rabbits, and lack of transportation lines extending far into the
interior. The government is fostering the industry and those en-
gaged in it are investing money to protect themselves against rab-
bits and to prevent excessive losses in years of drouth.
Sheep Raising in New Zealand. — Sheep were not taken into
New Zealand until 1840, which was shortly after the first settle-
ment established there by Europeans. Merinos exclusively were im-
ported in the beginning, but as the needs of the trade developed,
mutton breeds were introduced and it was found that they did
unusually well. After 1882, the year in which the first shipment of
frozen mutton was made from the country, the mutton breeds gained
on the Merinos so rapidly that by 1910 the wool from pure Merinos
did not form over three per cent of the total clip.
Density of Sheep Population. — New Zealand has less than
twice the area of the state of Illinois, and yet in 1910 she reported
23,792,947 sheep. Think what a dense sheep population that is as
compared with similar areas anywhere in our own country ! Mutton
is the staple meat in New Zealand. It is even more common in the
private homes of both country and city, and in public eating places
than is beef in our own country.
Practically all sheep in New Zealand are managed under the
" paddock," or " fencing/' system. This is also true of Australia.
Many of the fences are rabbit proof and cost about four hundred
dollars per mile. As a general practice, the herding system char-
acteristic of our sheep industry in the West ceased in Australia and
New Zealand in the latter part of the last century.
Sheep Raising in South America. — At the time of the con-
quest of Peru there already existed a breed of supposedly indigenous
sheep possessing enough good about them to be prized by the Incas
Indians and by the conquering Spaniards. Gibson tells us that wool
was first exported from the River Plate as early as the year 1600.
However, the beginning of an extensive sheep husbandry in South
America did not come until a much later time.
Political Unrest, in Leading Sheep Countries. — The great
sheep countries in South America are the Argentine Republic and
Uruguay. In 1813 a shipment of pure Spanish Merinos arrived in
the province of Buenos Aires. Upon this shipment was founded
the first flock of improved Merinos in South America. Although
16 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
the number of sheep in the Argentine Republic greatly increased
after the founding of this flock, the progress of the industry was
greatly hindered by the numerous political revolutions which were
common throughout all of the River Plate region and sheep raising
was later in attaining great commercial importance than in the
United States and Australia.
Importance of Merino Blood. — Like each of the other coun-
tries mentioned above, South America found the wool type, or
Merino sheep most profitable at first. Southdowns, the premier
mutton sheep of England, were introduced as early as 1825, but
because of their low yield of wool and predisposition to foot rot,
they did not win wide favor. Then, too, the Merino had the
gregarious instinct intensely developed, which was valuable to South
American owners for the same reason that it is of value to any
community where sheep are in the care of herders.
Use of Mutton Breeds. — Merino blood is still present in most
of the flocks, but in many cases it is mingled with the blood of the
English mutton breeds, — chiefly with the Lincoln and Romney
Marsh. Both of these are long-wooled breeds which, when crossed
with the Merino, produce a beautiful lustrous wool and a lamb thac
is suitable for the frozen carcass trade with England.
Present Status of Sheep Industry. — It has been said that there
is probably no region where the shepherd's life is easier than in
Argentina. Predatory animals are few. Except along the base of
the Andes, no preparation of feed for wrinter is necessary, and,
except in marshy regions, or in seasons of unusual rainfall, disease
is rare. Nevertheless, in many parts the sheep industry has passed
its meridian. The beautiful expanses of land, furnishing the plenty
which has made life so easy for shepherds, are valuable for agri-
cultural purposes, and the coming of cultivated fields is not only
desirable but inevitable. But Mr. Joseph Wing, who visited the
Argentine and contiguous countries as a special agent for Presi-
dent Taft's Tariff Board, says there is still much land in South
America suitable for sheep production which is not fully occupied.
Sheep Raising in South Africa. — Although Merino sheep were
imported into South Africa one hundred and fifty years before they
were introduced into Australia, it is only recently that the wool
markets of the world have begun to receive considerable amounts of
pure and grade Merino wool from South African flocks. For
various reasons the progress of sheep husbandry has been compara-
THE IMPORTANT SHEEP COUNTRIES 17
lively slow. Sheep scab has been very hard to contend with, and
measures adopted by the Government have not yet proved adequate
for keeping it under control. The black natives upon whom many
sheepmen have had to depend for labor., have not been very reliable,,
and, therefore, because of the poor quality of labor, it has not been
possible to produce as good mutton and wool as natural conditions
would warrant. Further, predatory animals, jackals especially,
have hindered the growth of the sheep industry by enforcing expense
in erecting fences and by making it hazardous to keep sheep in
certain sections. And finally, South Africa, like Australia, is sub-
ject to drouths which visit great hardships on sheep owners ; in fact,
they are the worst drawback to sheep raising. They are most pro-
nounced in that part of the interior known as the Karroo, but
periodically they also extend over the Transvaal, Orange Free State,
and parts of Natal. Their effect is all the more severe because
they usually come just after a period of such good feed in the veld
districts that sheep owners have been tempted into overstocking.
But in spite of the drawbacks, which after all every country pos-
sesses to greater or less extent, South Africa is making marked
progress in wool production. Sheep owners are very much interested
in breeding; they are giving much more attention to classing and
grading wool for market than formerly, and in still other ways they
are manifesting keen interest in sheep husbandry.
The tendency of recent years has been in favor of the big-framed
robust-wooled type of Merino, — the -Wanganellas and Rambouillet,
whilst at the present time, the crossing of strictly mutton breeds,
such as1 the Southdown, Suffolk, and Shropshire, on Merino ewes
is attracting attention.
It is a significant fact that American breeders, more especially
Ohio and Michigan men, annually exported a number of Rambouil-
lets and Merinos to South Africa until the outbreak of the war in
1914.
The Important Sheep Countries. — In the foregoing brief his-
torical review of sheep raising the countries mentioned have each
received separate attention, not only because they belong at the top
of the list of the great sheep countries of the world, but also because
they are the most important of the newer countries. Of course,
other countries than these keep large numbers of sheep and the fol-
lowing tabulation shows the importance of sheep in various coun-
2
18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING
tries and it also gives some notion of where the world's supply of
wool is produced.1
A — World Production of Sheep and Wool: 1916
Sheep — approximate number ..................... 614,857,418
Wool — approximate number of pounds ............ 2,717,223,100
B-Leadmg Sheep Counties. ™P^e NuSmheep°f
Australia and Tasmania . . . * 1915 82,011,606
Argentina .................. 1912 83,545,931
United States ____ 1916 48,483,000
Census of 1910 ............ 52,183,423
British South and East Africa. . 1913 43,009,843
United Kingdom of Great
Britain ..................... 1915 27,552,136
New Zealand ................. 1915 24,607,868
Russian Empire .............. 1911 80,874,000
Ottoman Empire .............. 1910 and 1912 48,284,678
Uruguay ..................... 1908 26,286,296
C — Wool Produced in Different Countries, According to Latest Estimate*
Available in 1916: Pounds
Australia and Tasmania . ......................... 463,750,000
Russian Empire .................................. 380,000,000
United States .................................. 288,490,000
Argentina ....................................... 264,500,000
New Zealand ..................................... 181,282,880
United Kingdom of Great Britain .................. 121,200,043
Ottoman Empire and Balkan States ............ 90,500,000
British Africa ................................... 157,761,470
Uruguay .......... .............................. 143,293,000
France .......................................... 75,,000,000
British India ................................... 60,000,000
Spain .................................... " ....... 52,000,000
China ........................................... 50,000,000
Austria-Hungary .......................... . ...... 41,600,000
Algeria ......................................... 33,184,000
' Germany ....................................... 25,600,000
Italy ................................ ....... ..... 21,500,000
Chili . .............. 20,000,000
1 Compiled from Annual Wool Review of the National Association of
Wool Manufacturers.
QUESTIONS 19
Pounds
Greece 16,000,000
British Canadian Provinces 11,210,000
Portugal 10,000,000
Peru 9,420,707
Mexico 7,000,000
QUESTIONS
1. Where were sheep first domesticated? What uses were probably first
made of sheep?
2. In what condition was sheep husbandry in Spain when Columbus dis-
covered America ?
3. How does Spain rank as a sheep country to-day?
4. How did England and Spain differ in methods of sheep raising?
5. What was Bakewell's contribution to the sheep industry of Great
Britain?
6. What of the importance of sheep raising in North America at the time
Bakewell lived?
7. What of the importance of wool growing in new countries?
8. When did significant expansion of sheep raising in North America take
place and what were the circumstances that augmented it?
9. Recount the changes in the distribution of sheep in the United States
between 1840 and 1910; the changes in the breeding of sheep during
that time.
1 0. Of what importance was sheep raising in your state at the time it was
admitted to the Union?
11. Compare the t>heep industry of Australia with that of New Zealand.
12. What are the leading sheep countries in South America?
13. Name the countries which produce the bulk of the world's supply of
wool.
14. Where do Australia, New Zealand, and South America market the bulk
of their mutton and wool ? How far are they from these markets ?
CHAPTER II
PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING IN LEADING
SHEEP COUNTRIES
Range Method, Using Herdfers. — In the western part of the
United States sheep raising is commonly carried on in the large
flock or band under the care of a herder who keeps the sheep on a
comparatively large, area of unenclosed land — plains, foot-hills, and
mountains. A band varies in number from 1500 to 3000, and
besides the herder, requires the services of a camp tender, whose
duties are to get provisions, move camp, select a new site where there
is comparatively good feed, assist in cooking, and count the sheep
(Figs. 7 and 8).
Range Supplemented by Cultivated Crops, — At first range
sheepmen in the United States depended solely upon the wild growth
of the land for their sheep feed. Aside from selecting as good
natural range as possible no preparation was made for feeding in
the stormy periods of winter when the snow covered the feed too
deep for the sheep to get to it. Consequently many starved. But,
now very few deaths result from lack of feed because the winter
range is supplemented with such feeds as corn, cottonseed cake,
barley, oats and alfalfa hay. The corn and cottonseed cake are
shipped in, but the other feeds are raised in the West in dry farm-
ing and irrigated regions. Alfalfa ranks first in importance for it
is used more extensively than any other feed in supplementing the
winter range, and the practice of using it for summer range is
increasing (Fig. 9).
Ranging on Enclosed Lands. — Many of the large flocks of
Australia and New Zealand are kept on large tracts of enclosed
land where no herders are required. It is claimed that the sheep
can make much better use of the range under this system than they
can under the herding system. Under the herding system each sheep
regularly maintains a fairly definite position in the band. For
example, certain sheep are always at the front while others are
always in the rear. Those in the rear do not find as much to eat as
those at the front; hence the band as a whole cannot be so uni-
20
RANGING ON ENCLOSED LANDS
21
formly fed as when it is kept within an enclosure because in the
enclosure the band breaks up into a number of small flocks that
live and feed more or less independently of each other. Then, too,
the sheep in a band tended by a herder must be driven a great deal.
They must be rounded toward camp and bedded down for the night ;
they must be kept from other bands of sheep ; and frequently they
must be driven to a watering place. All this driving is not so
beneficial to the sheep as exercise taken at their own inclination.
FIG. 7. — World distribution of sheep. It will be noted that there are six world centers
of sheep raising, of which four, the South American countries, South Africa, Australia, and
New Zealand, are new land with sparse population and are all located in the Southern Hem-
isphere. The two centers in the Northern Hemisphere are the Balkan States and Great
Britain. In Asia Minor and in the Balkan States conditions of topography, climate, and
the nomadic habits of the people in the recent past cause sheep to be important farm
animals. In Great Britain many factors combine to make sheep raising a prominent indus-
try in spite of high land values and extreme industrial concentration of population. The
Russian Empire and the United States, although they rank high in total number of sheep,
are, owing to large area, far down the list in number per square mile.
Still other advantages of the enclosure system are that the fences
are said to cost less than the extra labor required in the herding
system and to a large extent they are proof against animals that
make sheep their prey.
In Australia and New Zealand, where both the herding and the
enclosure methods have been tried, sheep owners favor the enclosure
system.
22
PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING
THE HURDLING METHOD
23
The Farm Flock Method. — The flocks kept on the farms of
the East, South and Middle West of the United States often contain
fewer than 25 sheep and seldom more than 400 or 500. They are not
under the care of special herders or shepherds, but of persons en-
trusted with other duties connected with the farm. As a rule these
flocks are a factor of secondary importance in a scheme of diversified
farming. Often they are kept for the purpose of destroying weeds,
and they are commonly given the compliment of converting into
mutton and wool what otherwise would be waste. But farm flocks
FIG. 9. — Supplementing the winter range with hay and other feed reduces the losses of
old sheep, increases the vitality of the oncoming crop of lambs, and fills the udders of the
ewes with milk for the lambs.
that are made to subsist mostly on weeds and waste are neither in-
telligently handled nor profitable. Since farm flocks represent the
type of sheep raising followed in so many parts of the United
States, much of the discussion which follows will be devoted to
their selection, care and management (Fig. 10).
The Hurdling Method. — The hurdling method of sheep raising
may be seen in its perfection in England, where thousands of sheep
are kept within hurdles for several months in the year. It is also
much in use in Scotland. It is a type of sheep raising extremely
different from the range method. It is intensive, supporting several
sheep 011 each acre of land.
24
PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING
As an appurtenance of sheep raising, hurdles are light, movable
panels of fence which a man can carry with ease. With them the
shepherd makes a temporary enclosure for his flock. The lambs are
FIG. 10. — The farm flock usually numbers less than one hundred sheep.
FIG. 11. — In Great Britain thousands of sheep are kept within hurdles which are moved
often to furnish fresh feed.
usually permitted to go through creeps ahead of the ewes and in
this way they get the best of the forage while their less fastidious
mothers,, having access to it a day or two later, make the most
economical use of it by trimming it down close. As soon as a
growth is eaten, the ground is turned and sown to another crop. Of
PURE-BRED FLOCK METHOD 25
course crops, like the grasses and clovers, are not treated in this way,
but are left to grow up again.
The hurdling method aims not only at securing a maximum
growth for sheep from a given area of ground, but also at furnishing
almost a constant change of feeding ground. Sheep thoroughly
enjoy a new feeding place, a fact which English shepherds have
fully recognized as essential to successful flock husbandry. Anyone
who has seen the sheep of England within hurdles cannot question
FIG. 12. — Meal time for western sheep fattening on a corn-belt farm.
the efficiency of the hurdling method for bringing sheep as nearly as
possible to their perfection. Any type of movable fencing can be
used in the hurdling method (Fig. 11)..
Pure-Bred Flock Method. — -Owners of pure-bred flocks have
for their principal object the selling of breeding stock. They sell to
the owners of commercial flocks who wish to use pure-bred rams but
who do not care to keep pure-bred females, and of course, they also
sell to each other. Since the object of the man who raises for breed-
ing purposes is so different from that of the man who raises for the
open market, it is natural to call his method of sheep raising a dis-
26 PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING
tinct type. He has to take certain things into consideration which
do not enter into the operations of the owner of a commercial flock ;
for instance, the location of his farm, the study of individual sheep
rather than of flocks or bands, the ability to make matings that will
produce animals with great inherent possibilities, to feed so that
these possibilities will be made apparent, and finally, the finding of
a market for this product. In fact, the successful management of
the pure-bred flock requires a proprietor of a special type with a
special training.
Sheep and Lamb Feeding. — A great many western sheep and
lambs are fattened for the market in the Middle West and in certain
parts of the East.
These western sheep and lambs are purchased in the autumn
when large numbers are reaching the central markets. In such
states as Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri they are usually allowed to
run first in the fields, where they feed on pasture stubble, corn
stalks, weeds, and in some cases, soybeans and rape. They accom-
plish what may be termed a general " cleaning up " of the farm,
and many farmers depend on them for this as others depend on the
small flock for the same function. Before the fattening process is
finished it is almost always necessary to supplement the feed of the
fields with grain and hay. Further east, as in Ohio, Michigan, and
New York, feeding sheep and lambs are not often given a run in the
fields, but are placed in the barns immediately after their arrival at
the farm and are fattened on various harvested feeds. In a few
sections of the country sheep and lambs are still fed in large plants
especially constructed for the purpose. This kind of feeding is very
largely a speculative business as both the animals and the feeds used
have to be purchased (Fig. 12).
QUESTIONS
1. Name the types of sheep raising commonly practiced in the prominent
sheep countries.
2. Which type is followed in your community?
3. In your opinion which type requires the most labor per sheep? Which
gives the greatest returns per sheep ?
4. Which types are most likely to be followed in communities where land
is very fertile and costly?
5. Which types are likely to become more general in the United States
than at present?
CHAPTER III
PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
Appearance of Unimproved Sheep. — In countries practicing
modern methods of breeding and feeding, the domestic sheep (Ovis
dries) is markedly different in appearance from its unimproved
kind. Judged according to our conception of right proportions, un-
improved sheep are ill-shaped, with long, thin legs, long necks, and
narrow bodies. As a rule their wool is coarse, characterless, ad-
mixed with hair, variable in color, and does not extend well over
the lower parts of the body. It may be of good quality on the
shoulders, but coarse and very little different from hair on the
thighs, and in color it may be white, brown, gray, or black on
different individuals, or sometimes two or more of these colors
appear in the same fleece. The sheep belonging to the Navajo
Indians of New Mexico and Arizona furnish the most interesting
study of unimproved strains to be found in North America
(Fig. 13).
Breeding Problems. — When man first started to domesticate
sheep, he probably recognized certain valuable characteristics in
them, and he likely bred for these, or it may be that he recognized
some of their more valuable characteristics before he began the work
of domestication ; for Shaler says that man attains some of the
mechanic arts before he begins to domesticate animals. Weaving,
a very old art, was supplanted by the practice of pressing moist wool
into a felt, which itself was an advance over the custom of using
skins with hairy or woolly covering for clothing and shelter.
Improvement of Wool. — From all we can learn it would appear
that the problem of improving wool must have early attracted the
attention of sheep owners. Probably the first step consisted in
getting a longer, heavier growth of wool more nearly free from an
admixture of hair. Very likely such improvement was sought to
make the wool easier to handle in the process of weaving, which was
a considerable task among the nomads whose raiment, tents, and
beds were woven from wool and hair.
Fine Wool. — As the art of weaving developed and as the people
cultivated a taste for fine raiment and furnishings, wool of fine
27
28
PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
quality undoubtedly began to be prized. The Romans went to much
trouble to produce this kind of wool. They kept their sheep covered
with cloths and confined in barns in order to make the wool fibers
fine and soft. At frequent intervals they washed their sheep, combed
their fleeces to keep the wool from matting, rubbed fine oil into their
skins, and moistened their fleeces with wine. By selecting rams with
fine fleeces they succeeded in developing breeding stock which pos-
sessed very fine wool.
The production of fine wool has been a problem of considerable
importance ever since the time of the Romans, if not before.
Breeders in Spain, Germany, France, and England have worked at
FIG. 13. — Sheep and goats belonging to the Nayajo Indians. The sheep are ill-shaped and
not uniform in color.
it and it still receives attention in leading sheep countries such as
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, North America, and South
America.
Color of Wool. — In improving wool, color has received careful
attention. Variety of color was perhaps regarded favorably in early
times, but when various dye stuffs came to be used, white wool was
preferred, because none but a black dye can be used on wool which
is black, brown, or gray. It may be that white sheep were once
uncommon, for after Spain attained prominence as a wool-growing
country her wool was reported as being black. But in all countries
where improved methods of sheep husbandry are practiced, the con-
stant elimination of blacks, browns, and grays has been so effective
DURING THE PAST 125 YEARS
29
that color scarcely enters into the problem of wool improvement at
the present time, although in a few breeds some difficulty is ex-
perienced in preventing a light scattering of dark fibers in the fleece
(Fig. 14).
Combining Various Properties of the Fleece. — The problem
of associating length, strength, and weight with quality of fleece has
caused improvers of wool a great deal of effort. Length combined
FIG. 14. — The Mouflon — a wild sheep. Note the lack of uniformity in color. Exterior of
coat is hair.
with quality and strength became very important within the past
century when fine worsteds, fabrics requiring long, fine, strong
wool, came into fashion, and it was the desire to make wool growing
pay that led to increase in weight of fleece.
During the past 125 years Saxony in Germany, Australia, and
the United States have contributed most to improvement in wool
growing. Experts in Saxony studied the wool of breeding rams in
minute detail, and made great improvement in fineness of fiber and
in uniformity of the quality of the fleece. Vermont and Ohio
30 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
breeders taught the world a great deal about growing strong, fine
fiber and fleeces of exceptional weight. Australian breeders con-
tributed much in combining quality, length and weight and by
determining the types of wool suited to different environments ; in
fact they have led the world in the general merit and integrity of
their wool product.
Although sheep breeders have by no means ceased to pay atten-
tion to wool, yet it is perhaps safe to say that the day of improve-
ment, as characterized by an aftempt to get into the fleece the
maximum of fineness, length, and weight, has begun to wane. Great
changes have come about in the manufacturing processes of wool.
Long, fine wool, although still much sought after, is not so valu-
able, relatively, as it once was because combs have been invented
which will comb comparatively short wool. Manufacturers have
learned to make all sorts of blends in order to meet the demands of
fashion and it seems that they are capable of meeting almost any
demand likely to be made. The world product is easily brought to
their doors and they can combine quality, length, and strength
through mechanical devices more cheaply than the grower can
through breeding. The rise in the importance of mutton has re-
sulted in a large amount of crosst-breeding in countries where the
bulk of the wool was formerly produced by pure Merinos. Reports
of the great wool sales in Bradford, England, show enormous in-
creases in amounts of cross-bred wool in recent years. This is a
pretty sure indication of either a check to progress in wool im-
provement through breeding, or of a readjustment of the notions of
wool improvement. In the writer's opinion it is an indication of
the latter (Fig. 15).
Improvement of Mutton. — Although the flesh of sheep lias
always been used for food, it seems that the improvement of the
mutton qualities was a much later problem in sheep breeding than
was the improvement of wool. Whether the first object in improv-
ing mutton was to secure a more palatable product or a cheaper one
is not altogether clear, but the weight of evidence is in favor of the
latter, for it was said of Bakewell that when he was confronted by a
man who told him his sheep were so fat a gentleman could not eat
them, he declared that he was not breeding sheep for gentlemen,
but for men. More mutton, — on fewer acres, produced in less time,
to furnish more to eat with less waste, — was the object, rather than
to tickle the palate of the epicure. But before economy of produc-
IMPROVEMENT OF MUTTON
31
32 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
tion had gone very far, palatability was joined with this primary
object, so that the epicure, too, can now make his selection of a
mutton joint from the improved mutton breeds.
. Changes. — Mutton improvement has involved changes in form,
quality, fattening properties, age at maturity, feeding capacity,
milking function, and prolificacy. With the possible exception of
the last two, these factors are so interdependent that they all had to
be considered at the same time. And it is clear that mutton im-
provement could not go very far without considering milking prop-
erties because the making of a good mutton lamb depends in large
part on its getting plenty of milk. But sheep's milk was a human
food in very early times, hence the milking function may have
received considerable attention before the era of mutton improve-
ment, still it was woefully neglected in flocks of fine wool sheep in
Italy and Spain.
Prolificacy has to do entirely with the economic phases of pro-
duction and whether or not an attempt is made to increase it depends
on conditions. Until mutton became important as a commodity for
sale, there was certainly no great incentive to try to fix such a thing
as the twinning habit because it was possible to keep up the size of
flocks for wool production by a rate of increase of one lamb a year
from each ewe. Even where mutton is an important consideration,
the supply of feed must be liberal before breeders attempt to en-
courage great prolificacy, because ewes with twins must not only
have the tendency to milk well, but they must have plenty of feed
so that they can produce enough milk to grow their lambs well.
Partly on account of a lack of a liberal supply of feed, there are
places devoted to the production of mutton and wool in which single
lambs are much to be preferred to twins, but in places where ewes
can easily take good care of two lambs, marked prolificacy is usually
desired.
England was the center of mutton improvement. Beginning
with Bakewell, conditions were favorable for encouraging English
farmers to effect this improvement. They had the climate and crops
necessary to grow sheep well ; they received a fair remuneration for
their efforts, and numerous livestock shows created keen competition
in the effort to secure perfection of animal form and finish. A great
amount of improvement was effected in a comparatively short period,
so much in fact, that many English breeders of the present time
doubt whether significant further improvement has been made in
the last quarter or half century.
ADAPTABILITY 33
Combining Mutton and Wool. — Combining mutton and wool
qualities became a problem after mutton attained importance.
Obviously this problem did not arise at the same time in all the
large sheep-growing countries because mutton did not become im-
portant in all of these countries at the same time. For example,
Australia and New Zealand had comparatively little demand for
mutton until the inception of ship refrigeration in 1882 permitted
them to engage in the exportation of frozen carcasses. And in
the United States, the West had little use for mutton sheep until
transportation facilities were developed so that the live sheep could
be sent to the large central markets.
Until Bakewell began mutton improvement,, he was disposed to
give the wool no attention. Perhaps the size of his task in the field
of mutton betterment justified him in this attitude, but his suc-
cessors saw the folly of it if continued, and hence they did not fail
to give wool attention commensurate with its importance.
When the production of mutton became profitable in the newer
sheep countries such as North America, South America, and Aus-
tralia, there was a sheep stock that had been maintained primarily
for its wool, and the wool from this stock was still too valuable to
be altogether disregarded. Under such conditions the real prob-
lem of combining mutton and wool qualities began. Crossing wool
breeds with mutton breeds was the first step, and with a few ex-
ceptions progress has not gone much further than this. In New
Zealand a new type has been fixed from crosses between Merinos
and the English long-wool mutton breeds. In the United States
progress has been made in improving the mutton qualities of some
of the wool breeds.
A desirable combination of mutton and wool is still a large
breeding problem on the ranges of the United States. As yet a
type possessing what is desired in wool and mutton properties,
together with certain other characteristics, has not been fixed, but
the Federal government is directing work along this line.
Adaptability. — Adaptability always has been, and without doubt
always will be a problem in sheep breeding. When sheep were in
a wild state their adaptability was measured by their ability to live
and procreate their kind. When they came under domestication
they had to be able, with the aid of man's protection, not only to
live and procreate but also to produce something which man de-
sired. Moreover, they had to produce the thing he wanted at a
3
34 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
cost he was willing to pay and in such a way that he got it with
less trouble than he could have secured it, or an equally desirable
substitute, from other known sources.
Man may not have demanded much from sheep and he may not
have removed them far from their natural habitat in the early
stages of domestication. Hence, adaptability may not have been a
serious problem at first. But as they were moved out of their
natural environment under the guidance of man into lands differ-
ent in altitude, soil, climate and vegetation, and as the demands on
them for such products as wool, milk, and meat become greater than
what they had yielded in the wild, then undoubtedly the serious
side of the question of adaptability arose; then attention had to
be given to such things as constitution, hardiness, and fecundity.
In Italy, fine-wool sheep were developed, but at the sacrifice of a
high degree of adaptability, for the ewes were very poor mothers
and the lambs were delicate. The ewes often had difficulty in par-
turition; they were very deficient in the milking function, and
they frequentty refused to own their lambs. To a certain extent
the Merinos of Spain possessed the same faults, for it was said that
frequently a percentage of their lambs were deliberately killed in
order to allow each remaining lamb to suckle two ewes. In both
Italy and Spain conditions seemingly were such as to permit the
sheep industry to prosper with this low degree of adaptability, but
the fact that it is recorded in history shows that it received some
attention. Spanish owners seemed to think that much travelling
added to the hardiness of their sheep, and undoubtedly dropping
along the wayside lambs unable to make the marches, helped to keep
up a stronger race for the conditions) to which their flocks were
subjected.
At an early time in England severe winters, scarcity of feed in
winter, and foot rot weeded out the weak sheep, and frequently
conditions were so severe that many of the very strongest animals
died. Dealing with adversities, the English sheep farmer thor-
oughly learned the importance of constitution and hardiness, and
if he has neglected these characteristics at any time he has done so
with his eyes open. He has done a great deal, indeed, in finding or
evolving breeds adapted to different altitudes. Though England is
a small country, the breeds on mountains, hills, and lowlands are
markedly different and in such a way as to show that adaptability is
the main cause.
ADAPTABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES 35
Neglecting Adaptability. — In seeking certain desirable char-
acteristics in their sheep, breeders have often been guilty of at
least temporarily overlooking adaptability and hardiness; or, as
may have been the .case in Italy and Spain, they have been willing
to sacrifice these things to a certain extent in order to gain the
characteristics especially desired. BakewelPs Leicesters lost in
fecundity and hardiness ; bretxlers of Shropshires allowed their sheep
to lose in constitution in order to gain extreme covering with wool
on head and legs; following the Civil War Merino breeders in
America sacrificed stamina in their sheep for the sake of extreme
weight of fleece in proportion to body weight.
Whether or not adaptability should be sacrificed, to a certain
extent depends on the degree to which it is present and on the im-
portance of the thing involved in making the sacrifice. Italy and
Spain certainly were not in position safely to sacrifice further the
mother instinct and milking function of their ewes even though
this would have gained for them in a per head return; American
Merino breeders in the period mentioned above went too far in
reducing the stamina of their sheep, and Shropshire breeders made
an economic mistake by permitting a loss in constitution for the
sake of extreme covering of head and legs with wool.
Importance of Adaptability in the United States. — As a
problem, adaptability in sheep breeding or finding the right type
is important in the United States for the following reasons : First,
it has not received sufficient attention generally. With a few ex-
ceptions, breeders of pure-bred mutton sheep in this country con-
tinue to import breeding rams and ewes from English flocks; this
goes to show that little has been done toward developing mutton
types suitable to American conditions. Second, consumers are
changing and may continue to change with respect to the kind of
mutton and wool they want. Third, in many localities agricul-
tural practices are changing and probably will continue to change
for some time to come and hence the type of sheep suitable in a
certain community at the present time may be out of date in a
few years. The future will see more attention given to adapt-
ability in sheep breeding in this country because, as the land comes
to be more and more intensively handled the crops grown on it, both
plant and animal, will have to be more and more efficient and any
crop that does not fit well will have a hard time to retain a place.
36 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the problems that have been involved in the improvement
of sheep and indicate which pertained to the products yielded by
sheep; which to the sheep themselves.
2. What are the important problems in breeding at the present time in
the United States?
3. Show how breeding problems have changed in the United States.
4. Why would you expect British breeders to excel American breeders
in mutton improvement?
5. Why did breeders in Australia first give attention to the improvement
of wool rather than mutton?
6. When does high degree of prolificacy become a breeding problem ? Early
maturity ?
CHAPTER IV
METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT
Feeding and Shepherding. — Good feeding and shepherding
have played an important part in the making of the modern breeds
of sheep. The providing of better feed through bringing the root
and clover crops to England helped to pave the way for the breed
improvement that came later. Evidently Bakewell recognized the
value of good feed and care, for he kept about him faithful old
herdsmen and grooms who were very painstaking in the feeding
of the animals under their care. Doubtless he and other great
breeders since his time would say that any method of breeding con-
ducted with poorly nourished animals will fall short of marked
results, for if the animal is not well fed, it cannot exhibit its maxi-
mum possibilities and these must be seen if substantial progress-' is
to be made.
Methods of Breeding. — Selection has been the keynote in breed
improvement no matter what the method followed may have been,
and the success of great breeders has been traceable, in no small
degree, to their superior judgment in selecting breeding stock.
Mass Breeding. — Selection without special reference to ances-
try, or what has been termed mass breeding, was one of the first
methods of breeding to be employed in the improvement of sheep.
Breeders took the native sheep in their community and began their
work by breeding what they considered the best. Perhaps some of
the less desirable females were rejected, but mass breeding, as
practiced in earlier times, extended little farther than the selection
and use of what were judged to be the best rams. The Spaniards
must have improved the wool of their sheep by this method. They
also kept flocks pure within themselves, but their reason for so
doing was that each of the large breeders considered his flock the
best in the kingdom and believed that the introduction of blood
from other flocks would cause retrogression rather than improve-
ment. In England some improvement was made by selecting the
best of the native stock for breeding purposes, but before Bakewell's
time, unwarranted emphasis was often placed on very minor points.
For example, in a certain community breeders would have nothing
37
38 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT
to do with rams whose horns did not curve in front of their ears,
while in another community they insisted that if rams did not have
horns curving back of the ears they were unfit for breeding. It
was Bakewell's good common sense in singling out points of utility
for improvement quite as much or even more than his insight into
laws of breeding that made him invaluable to livestock improvement.
As a method, mass breeding possesses a great deal of merit and
the amount of selection it invol^s is about all that is practiced at
present by those breeders who raise sheep merely for the wool and
mutton they produce.
A Study of Matings. — When men became thoroughly absorbed
in the problem of sheep breeding, they doubtless began to study the
animals to be mated, and this naturally led to attaching a history
of the parents or an ancestry to an animal, for men soon learned
that the physical make-up of the offspring was not dependent solely
upon the appearance of the immediate parents. So far as is known,
it was Bakewell who first studied matings closely, and unquestion-
ably this study contributed, in no small way, to the far-reaching
results of his work. At the present time the most skillful sheep
breeders are close students of matings. A few years ago, the writer,
while visiting a prominent breeder in England, was shown records
which contained both pedigrees and carefully worded descriptions of
all the rams that had been used in the flock. In each breeding season
these records were brought into use as a help in determining matings.
Before time for breeding, each ewe was studied critically, then refer-
ence was made to the breeding and appearance of the sire, grand-
sire, and perhaps great grandsire. The decision as to the ram with
which to mate her was not final until all of this study had been
made. The flock bore ample evidence of the value of exercising such
care in mating.
A careful study of mating stimulated the tendency to observe
associations which, when correctly noted, became a means of assist-
ance in the selection of rams and ewes for breeding purposes. For
example, when breeders observed that rams having suitable wool
and body conformation, and strong, bold features about the head
and neck sired stronger and better offspring than rams having simi-
lar wool and body conformation, but lacking in strength and bold-
ness of features, an important association in the degree of develop-
ment of characters was discovered which has since been a useful
guide in breed improvement. It is perhaps erroneous to say that all
PEDIGREE OR THE ANCESTRAL HISTORY 39
associations were entirely ignored until matings were studied closely.
Boldness of features in males and refinement of them in females
undoubtedly attracted the attention of the very earliest breeders,
but there were many important associations overlooked until matings
became a matter of close study. When they were recognized and
seized upon as an agency in selection, there was often a tendency to
exaggerate them and to declare that they existed when in reality
they did not.
Pedigree or the ancestral history of the animal is really an
outgrowth of the study of matings. When pedigree is not over-
estimated, it serves as a valuable agent in helping to direct con-
structive breeding. But often when depended upon at all, too much
reliance has been placed on pedigree and not enough on individual
excellence. Too often it has been assumed that animals identical in
pedigree are alike in breeding powers, but we now know that this
is not necessarily true. Although two sheep may be twins, and hence
alike in pedigree, it does not necessarily follow that they have in-
herited equally from each of their ancestors. One may have the
stronger dose of inheritance from the ancestors in the sire's line
and the other a stronger dose from those in the dam's line ; or, one
may inherit strongly from the grandsire on the side of the dam and
the granddam on the side of the sire, while the other may inherit
in converse manner. Many combinations are possible, and hence
the possibility of animals as closely related as twins being unlike
in the degree of the development of characters is relatively large.
And any breeder makes a mistake who practices selling the better
of a pair of twins and retaining the poorer for breeding purposes,
thinking that the latter will breed just as well as the former.
Then, too, pedigree is frequently over-estimated in another way.
It is not uncommon for breeders to take a fancy to an animal be-
cause a certain great individual of the breed appears in its pedigree.
This great animal may be as far removed as great grandparent and
the individuals closer up in the pedigree may have been at best only
average specimens. If such is the case, the animal in question
should be of outstanding merit in order to draw marked attention,
and even, then he (in case it is a ram) should not be used exten-
sively until his capacity as a breeder is determined from an exami-
nation of his offspring. But too often faith in a pedigree con-
taining a celebrity, even though he be two or three generations
removed, goes far toward offsetting the commonness in an animal.
40 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT
In-and-in breeding, such as breeding sire to daughter, son to
mother, or brother to sister, was another step forward in methods
of improving sheep through breeding. Undoubtedly this practice
occurred long before BakewelFs time, but, as far as we know, he
was the first to employ it as an agency for improvement. We do
not know whether he deliberately resorted to in-breeding or whether
he took it up because he did not know where to procure animals that
would better serve him in accomplishing his desired ends.
As is well known to breeders with experience, in-breeding is a
means by which the degree of development of characters is intensi-
fied and fixed. Manifestly, then, it cannot be a means for doing
good until there has been a careful study of matings, because it
intensifies and fixes the bad as well as the good in an animal, and
any breeder who does not possess keen judgment had better not try
to make use of it.
Line Breeding. — Line breeding which involves breeding to-
gether animals of the same family or -strain, but less closely related
than those used in " in-breeding," has appealed to sheep breeders
as being less erratic in behavior than in-breeding. It has been a
great agency for improvement, especially among the English flocks,
and perhaps it has been depended upon more than any other method
in developing and fixing the type of the various breeds prominent
in that country. Among great Shropshire breeders in England it
has been the prevailing practice for a breeder to select a strain from
which he draws his rams year after year, and it is only now and
then that he uses a ram that could be considered foreign to the
strain adopted. Bams belonging outside of the adopted strain are
almost invariably used with caution, and if they do not combine and
recombine, " nick " well, as breeders would say, with those characters
already prevalent and desirable they and all their offspring are
immediately discarded.
Cross Breeding. — The first step in the making of many of the
most prominent mutton breeds of the present time consisted in
crossing one breed upon another. It was the improvement secured
by crossing the Southdown upon the old Cannock Chase and Morfe
Common sheep around Shrewsbury, England, that gave impetus
to the formation of the Shropshire breed. When Southdown rams
were bred to the old Wilts and Bants ewes in South England the
initial step had been taken in the making of the Hampshire. Bake-
well's Leicesters were used on the old sheep of the Cotswold Hills
CROSS BREEDING 41
and the outcome of this crossing was the modern Cotswold. The
Hampshire when bred to the modem Cotswold produced the founda-
tion from which the Oxford has been developed, and it is possible to
continue, if necessary, with the enumeration of still other breeds that
have had their beginning from a cross between breeds.
Apparently promoters of such breeds were inclined to consider
origin through crossing a discredit to the breed, for frequently they
attempt to prove that they did not originate in this way. Presum-
ably they believe that any breed which traces back to a cross will not
breed as true to type as one developed by selecting and breeding
together the best of a type or breed long common in a community,
as was the case with the Southdown. But this view is not necessarily
true. A type which undoubtedly breeds true, as we understand the
term, can be developed from animals resulting from crossing distinct
breeds. It takes time, however, to do this because the hereditary
material handed down by the original parents is capable of coming
together in so many different combinations. Characters which
seemingly have been eliminated reappear and breeders become dis-
couraged over the behavior of the strain they are trying to " fix "
so that it will be worthy of being called a breed. When Shrop-
shires were first shown at the annual show of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England they were markedly lacking in uniformity.
This was in 1857, but 15 years or more before the close of the
century they were breeding true to type, and when crossed on other
breeds their characteristics were sufficiently impressed on the off-
spring. What may be said of the Shropshire may also be said of
other breeds that trace to a cross between breeds.
One of the latest breeds to be developed from a cross is the
Corriedale. In Xew Zealand three long-wool mutton breeds, Lin-
coln, Cotswold, and Leicesters, were crossed on Merino ewes. The
cross-bred animals were bred together and by eliminating the unde-
sirable types a breed has been evolved in the last 30 or 40 years
which is very popular with those New Zealand and Australian
breeders who wish to grow sheep for both mutton and wool.
In the western part of the United States cross breeding has
helped sheepmen to solve the question of adaptability and at the
same time to meet the demands of the market. It has been found,
however, that mere crossing is a temporary expedient and that when
regions as a whole adopt it there is no economical way to breed in
order to get desirable breeding ewes. Therefore, western breeders
42 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT .
are now casting about for a way to get breeds which possess the
good points of the cross-bred animals they have been producing.
Corriedales are being " tried out/' and there is some tendency to
develop a breed or breeds by a method similar to that pursued in
evolving the Corriedale.
Cross-breeding is still extensively practiced in England by
breeders who plan to sell their lambs for mutton. It is likely, too,
that it will be resorted to, to greater or less extent, in all countries
recognized as being important in the production of mutton, be-
cause the cross-bred lamb is. .as a rule, unusually vigorous and in
many regions breeders find it to their advantage to keep ewes of
such breeding that a foreign breed must be crossed on them to get
the best possible market lambs from them.
QUESTIONS
1. What part has better feeding had in the improvement of sheep?
2. Enumerate the different methods of breeding by which improvement has
been effected.
3. What are the methods followed in mass breeding?
4. What were some of the effects from the early study of matings?
5. What can be said of the importance and limits of pedigrees?
6. Explain the meaning of in-and-in breeding.
7. Of line breeding.
8. What may be some uses of cross breeding?
PART II
STRUCTURE AND JUDGING
CHAPTER V
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
Position in the Zoological Scheme. — The following outline,
according to Lydekker,1 shows the position of the domesticated sheep
in the subkingdom of Vertebrata:
Subkingdom Vertebrata — Vertebrates, or Back-boned Animals.
Class Mammalia — Mammals.
Order Ungulata — Hoofed Mammals, or Ungulates.
Suborder Artiodactyla — Even-toed Ungulates.
Section Pecora — Typical Ruminants.
Family Bovidce — Hollow-horned Ruminants.
Subfamily Caprince — Sheep and Goats.
Genus Ovis — Sheep.
Species Ovis aries — The Domesticated Sheep.
The Sheep a Ruminant. — The sheep chews its cud; that is,
it brings its food back from the stomach to the mouth for thorough
mastication. This characteristic distinguishes it as a true rumi-
nant. It belongs to the family of ruminants termed Bovidce, of
which the ox (Bos) is a typical representative. Besides cattle and
sheep the family Bovidce includes such classes of animals as goats,
muskoxen, chamois and antelopes, but sheep represent a distinct
genus for which the name Ovis has been adopted, and as a species
the domesticated sheep has been given the name Ovis aries.
How the Sheep Differs from Other Animals in Its Family. —
Although very much alike in general structure the sheep and ox
present some interesting differences, the most marked being in size
and nature of hairy covering. The sheep carries its head higher, and
its cranium is relatively broader and higher at the center and much
narrower toward the extremities. Instead of having a broad, naked,
undivided muzzle like the ox, its muzzle is narrow, covered with
short hairs, and divided by a vertical cleft. Owing to the fact that
its muzzle is so much narrower and its lips more mobile, the sheep
can graze much closer than the ox.
1 R. Lydekker, " The Sheep and Its Cousins," p. 12, Pub. by E. P. Button
& Co., New York, 1913.
45
46
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
Sheep are different from any other class of animals belonging
to the family Bovidce in that they possess suborbital face glands,
and glands in the groin and between the two main toes of the feet.
All of these secrete sebaceous or fatty substances. The suborbital
face gland is situated in a shallow depression called the lachrymal
pit in the lachrymal bone of the skull. In the live animal its location
is indicated by a furrow in the skin extending downward from the
inner corner of the eye (Fig. 16 ).^
FIG. 16. — Furrow in skin over lachrymal pit.
The secretion from the foot-gland or interdigital pouch is car-
ried to the surface of the skin through a small duct called the inter-
digital canal, the round opening of which is to be found 'near the
top of the triangular depression on the front of the pastern, a little
above the hoof (Fig. 17). This opening is large enough to be
seen easily with the naked eye and is often referred to by sheepmen
as the hole in the foot.
Different functions have been ascribed to the foot glands. It is
thought by some that they secrete a substance 'that scents the ground
THE SKELETON
47
over which sheep pass and thus assists members lost from, the flock
to trace their fellows. It is also thought that the secretions are
waste products which if not eliminated will cause inflammation and
lameness. The likelihood of plugging the hole in the foot and thus
preventing the escape of the secretions is regarded as one important
reason why sheep should not be made to walk through mud.
In sheep, the foot glands are present in all four feet. They are
usually absent in goats, but sometimes small glands appear in the
fore feet.
FIG. 17. — The interdigital pouch. (From "Sheep and Its Cousins," Lydekker. Courtesy
of E. P. Button & Co.)
The Skeleton.2 — The vertebrae forming the spinal or vertebral
column are grouped as follows: 7 cervical, 13 dorsal or thoracic, 6
to 7 lumbar, 4 to 5 sacral, and 3 to 24 coccygeal. The last are not
perfect vertebra?, as the spinal canal does not extend through them
(Fig. 18).
With the exception of the cervical vertebras all of these groups
vary in the number of bones they contain. There are usually 13
vertebrae in the thoracic group, but occasionally there are 14, and
more rarely, only 12. In the lumbar group the occurrence of 7
vertebras is almost as frequent as 6, but the reduction to 5 seldom
takes place. Seyffurth indicates that there may be 4 or 5 sacral
2 See Sisson, " The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals," 1914.
48 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
vertebrae, but Sisson recognizes only 4. With the exception of the
last vertebra, these are fused into one bone in the adult animal.
The number of coccygeal vertebrae present largely determines the
length of the sheep's tail, and that this number varies is apparent to
any one who has handled a large number of lambs before their tails
have been cut off.
The Ribs. — Ordinarily the sheep has 13 pairs of ribs, 8 pairs
being sternal or true ribs, 4 pairs asternal or false ribs, and one
pair floating ribs. True ribs are distinguished from false ribs by
the fact that the cartilaginous bars extending from them articulate
with the sternum or breast-bone, while those of the false ribs over-
lap and are attached to each other, forming what is known as the
FIG. 18. — Skeleton of sheep. (Courtesy of Win. R. Jenkins Co.)
costal arch. The cartilages extending from floating ribs are unat-
tached. Sometimes there are 14 pairs of ribs, in which case the
fourteenth rib is also floating.
The sternum, or breast-bone, is composed of 7 segments (some-
times only 6) and there are indentures in the sides for the reception
of the cartilages extending from the ribs.
Effects of Variations in Skeletal Structure. — No attempt will
be made to describe the bones of the skull and of the thoracic and
pelvic limbs because the chief object of discussing the skeleton in
this connection is to show how the external form may be influenced
by differences in those regions of the skeleton subject to variation in
number of parts. Undoubtedly many sheep which are relatively
longer than others have more than the average number of vertebras
EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN SKELETAL STRUCTURE 49
forward of the coccygeal group. When a sheep is unusually long
in the middle, speculation as to whether it possesses an extra rib is
quite justifiable, and if the space between the last rib and the junc-
tion of the ilium (hip bone) with the spine is abnormally wide there
is basis for assuming that there is an extra vertebra in the lumbar
group. If, on the other hand, the sheep has a short middle and if
the space from the last rib to the hip is also very short, it may be
that the lumbar vertebrae are reduced to 5 in number (Fig. 19).
FIG. 19. — A long and a short sheep, illustrating the probable variation in the number of
vertebrae in the spinal column.
Aside from the variations noted, little is known of how much
sheep vary in skeletal arrangement. / Judging from exterior form,
some individuals seem to carry a wider and higher arch to their
ribs than others, but just how much of the difference is due to
thickness of flesh and fat, and how much to the actual shape of the
ribs has not been definitely determined. The processes extending
upward from the vertebrae in the region of the shoulders seem longer
in some sheep than in others, or else the top of the blade is set lower
down, for in certain instances the spinal processes are so prominent
that any amount of fattening will not cover the shoulder top. In
practically every improved breed there are occasional specimens
4
50
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
FIG. 20 — Rump well carried out.
Fid. 21. — Rump drooping. Variation between Figs. 20 and 21 probably due to differ-
ence in skeletal position of sacral vertebrae.
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES
51
having low-set tails and sharply drooping rumps. Surely the sacral
and coccygeal vertebrae and probably the pelvic bones are not in the
same position in these specimens as in those whose rumps carry out
almost level to the dock from the surface between the hips. And
there can be no doubt as to the variation in the shape, position,
relative length and size of the leg bones (Figs. 20, 21, and 22).
FIG. 22. — Showing variation in length of leg bones.
The Skin and Its Appendages. — The skin of sheep varies in
extent, thickness and color. According to Sisson, the variation in
thickness is from one-half to three millimetres. In Merinos there
is a great expanse of skin due to numerous wrinkles and folds, and
as a rule their skin is thick, thus making a great weight of pelt in
proportion to body weight. In the English mutton breeds, be-
cause the skin covers the body smoothly, the weight of pelt is rela-
tively less. Rams have considerably thicker skins than ewes of the
same breed.
In all improved breeds producing white wool except those with
52
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
very dark faces and legs, the skin, if healthy, is bright pink or
cherry in color, but in the exceptions noted and in sheep bearing
dark wool it is often bluish and in some cases almost black. In
nearly all breeds the naked skin around the muzzle is black.
The skin 3 consists of the cutis or skin proper and its epidermal
appendages, the hair, wool, hoofs, and horns. The cutis is com-
posed of two layers, the epidermis, a superficial epithelial layer,
FIG. 23. — Diagrammatic section of skin, showing (a) shaft of hair arising from the
follicle, (b) sebaceous glands and (c) sweat glands. (From "Structure of the Wool Fi-
bre," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.)
and the derma or corium, a deep, connective-tissue layer, which is
supplied with blood vessels and nerves and contains glands and
hair-follicles.
The hair-follicle is a modification of the skin and, according
to Sisson, may be regarded as an invagination or a folding-inward
of the epidermis. It seems, however, that the follicles of the larger
human hairs contain both epidermal and dermal elements4 (Fig.
23).
The hair originates at the bottom or base of the hair-follicle
from an extension of the corium called a papilla, to which the
8 See Sisson's "Veterinary Anatomy," 1911.
* Bailey, "Text Book of Histology," 1916.
THE HAIR 53
materials necessary for the growth of the hair are supplied. Being
a development of the epidermis, the hair is composed of epithelial
cells, and these are arranged in three layers. From within outward
these are medulla, cortex and cuticle (Fig. 24).
Bailey gives the following description of these layers:
(1) "Tine medulla occupies the central axis of the hair. It is
absent in small hairs, and in large hairs does not extend throughout
their entire length. It is from 16 to 20 m.5 in diameter, and con-
sists of from two to four layers of polygonal or cuboidal cells with
FIG. 24. — Longitudinal section of a human hair. (From "Structure of the Wool Fi-
bre," Bowman. Courtesy of Macmillan Co.)
finely granular, usually pigmented protoplasm and rudimentary
nuclei.
(2) " Tine cortex makes up the main bulk of the hair and con-
sists of several layers of long spindle-shaped cells, the protoplasm
of which shows distinct longitudinal striations, while the nuclei
appear atrophied. As these striations give the hair the appearance
of being composed of fibrill^e the term ' cortical fibers ' has been
applied to them. In colored hair pigment granules and pigment
in solution are found in and between the cells of this layer. This
pigment determines the color of the hair.
(3) " The cuticle has a thickness of about 1 m. and consists
of clear, scale-like, non-nucleated epithelial cells. These overlap
one another like shingles on a roof, giving to the surface of the hair
a serrated appearance/'
5M. refers to a micron which is 1/1000 of a millimeter in length, and
the millimeter is 0.03937 part of an inch.
54: STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
Structure of Wool. — The structure of wool is similar in many
respects to that of hair. Both grow from hair follicles in the skin ;
both are nourished in the same way ; both consist of epithelial cells
arranged in three layers, but the medullary layer may be absent in
wool. The striking and essential difference between them is in the
cells forming the outer layer or cuticle. In hair these cells are
rather rounded in form and smooth along the edges, while in wool
they tend to be pointed and irregular along the edges.6 In the hair
the overlapping cells are attached to the under layer up to the very
25
FIG. 25. — Coarse hairs, showing regular scales unsuitable for interlocking or felting.
Fio. 26. — Typical wool fiber, showing irregular scales. Such fibers felt easily. (From
"Structure of the Wool Fibre," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.)
margin of the cell, while in wool they are free for about two-thirds
of their length and they turn slightly outwards. Because of their
shape, position and manner of attachment to the cells beneath, the
cuticle cell of wool fibers will interlock, but those of hairs will not
to any marked degree. It is this property of interlocking, called
felting, that makes wool so much more valuable than hair in the
manufacture of fabrics (Figs. 25 and 26).
As a rule wool is smaller in diameter than hair, and in white
wool, as in white hair, there is little if any pigment or coloring
matter in the cortex layer. Wool is also more wavy than hair,
the waves in the finer wools being so short arid distinct as to be
called crimps.
Function of Wool. — Wool is a protective covering for the
animal. The cuticle 'cells point outward from the skin and serve
to keep out foreign substances such as dirt and chaff. Sheep with
fairly dense, oily fleeces are less subject to colds than those having
• Bowman, "Structure of the Wool Fibre," 1908.
GLANDS OF THE SKIN 55
more open fleeces. The reason for this is that the wool is a non-
conductor of heat and hence protects against variation in tem-
perature, and when it is dense and oily it prevents the rain from
penetrating to the skin.
Variations in Hairy Covering. — With the exception of the
Barbadoes breed, all of the domesticated breeds in the United
States are covered with wool over all parts save the head, legs, arm-
pits and groins. In nearly all of these breeds wool extends partly
over the head and legs, and in the Merinos it is not uncommon for
it to grow over the surface of the armpit and most of the groin.
Breeds exhibit marked variation in length, fineness and density
or thickness of wool. Density may vary from 600 to 1500 fibers
to each square inch of skin; fineness from one three-hundredth or
more to one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter; and length
attained in twelve months from less than one inch to fifteen inches
or more. As a rule the shortest wool is the finest and densest.
White wool prevails among the domesticated breeds of the United
States and of other countries giving special attention to the pro-
duction of wool, but the color of the hair on face and legs varies, the
most common shades being white, reddish brown, light soft brown,
and deep brown or black. In various parts of the world there are
domesticated breeds, in most cases not highly improved, however,
that grow gray, brown and black wool.
Wool is rarely if ever uniform in length, fineness and density
over all parts of the sheep. The finest and densest wool is in the
regions of the shoulders, about midway between the top and bottom
lines of the body; the coarsest wool grows on the outer thighs and
at the dock ; and the shortest wool is to be found on the belly.
The horns and hoofs are modifications of the epidermis. Most
of the modern breeds are hornless ; in a few breeds only the males
have horns, and in a few others they appear in both sexes, but the
males always have them much more strongly developed than the
females. Males unsexed while young resemble the females of the
breed in the degree of development of the horns. Hoof tissue and
also horn tissue, if present, are white only in those breeds in which
the naked skin at the muzzle is pink.
Glands of the Skin. — The sweat glands, secreting water and
potassium salts, and the sebaceous glands, secreting a fatty or oily
substance, are the most important glands in the skin. Their com-
bined product, less most of the water secreted by the sweat gland, is
56
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
the yolk. This functions in various ways as a preservative of the
wool. The sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin, but
the sebaceous glands are usually connected with the follicles' and
they pour their secretion around the wool fibers just beneath the
surface of the skin. It is said that there is no relation between the
Groat
culun
OWOS1
Fio. 27.— Stomach of sheep; right view. ("Anatomy of Domestic Animals," Sisson. Cour-
tesy of W. B. Saunders Co.)
size of the gland and the fiber connected with it, the smallest fibers
often being associated with the largest glands. Also, the thicker
the fibers on the surface of the skin, the greater the number of
glands. These observations suggest why the wool of Merinos is
more oily than that of breeds bearing coarser, less dense wool
(Fig. 23).
THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
57
The Digestive Tract. — Teeth. — Sheep grow two sets of teeth ;
the first or temporary teeth number 20, and the second or perma-
nent teeth number 32; of the permanent teeth, 8 are incisors, 12
FIG. 28. — -Abdominal viscera of sheep; superficial ventral view. ("Anatomy of Domestic
Animals," Sisson, W. B. Saundera Co.)
premolars and 12 molars. There are no teeth in the front part of the
upper jaw in either lambs or sheep, but instead a cartilaginous pad,
on which the incisor teeth of the lower jaw impinge. As a rule, the
58 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP
lamb has some of its teeth when it is born, and by the time it is a few
weeks old it has all of the temporary set. The permanent teeth
begin to replace the temporary teeth when the lamb is about one
year old. More will be said about the teeth in the next chapter in
connection with the indications of age in sheep.
Stomach. — The stomach has four compartments: the rumen,
the recticulum, the omasum, and the abomasum. The first three,
of which the rumen is by far the largest, serve as places for storing
and softening or macerating the food, while the fourth, the aboma-
sum, is the compartment in which most of the digestive processes
characteristic of the stomach occur. According to measurements
made by the writer, the capacity of the stomach of a fat sheep
weighing from 175 to 180 pounds is about 21 quarts. Sisson,
however, gives it as 16 quarts, and Henry and Morrison as 31.3
quarts. Based on Henry and Morrison's figures, the capacity of
each of the various compartments is as follows: Rumen, 24.7
quarts; reticulum, 2.1 quarts; omasum, 1 quart; abomasum, 3.5
quarts; the total being 31.3 quarts (Fig. 27).
Intestines. — As given by Henry and Morrison, the small in-
testine of the mature sheep is about 85.9 feet long and has a capacity
of 9.5 quarts; the large intestine is approximately 21.4 feet long
and has a capacity of 5.9 quarts. Digestive processes take place in
both the small and large intestines (Fig. 28).
QUESTIONS
1. What distinguishes the sheep as a ruminant?
2. How does it differ from the ox; from all other classes of animals be-
longing to the family Bovidce?
3. Enumerate common variations in the skeletal arrangement of sheep.
4. How may variations in skeletal structure affect the form of the sheep?
5. How are wool and hair different in structure?
6. To what extent do sheep vary in hairy covering?
7. How many temporary teeth have sheep? Permanent teeth?
8. What large glands pour their secretions into the digestive tract of
sheep ?
9. What is yolk in wool; where does it come from?
10. Of what advantage is the rumen or paunch to wild sheep? To domestic
sheep ?
11. Gently pressing a wool fiber, draw it back and forth between the thumb
and forefinger. Can you distinguish which way the cuticle cells
are pointed?
CHAPTER VI
THE NATURE OF SHEEP
The Life of a Sheep. — Most sheep are fully grown at eighteen
to twenty-four months of age. The manner in which they are fed
has some influence on their rate of development; sheep that are
forced by heavy feeding may at one year of age show indications of
being two years old. As a rule, the Merino breeds are later in devel-
oping than the mutton breeds, but whether this later development is
altogether a breed characteristic is not wholly clear. The method
of growing Merinos generally in vogue may be different enough
from that employed in growing the mutton breeds to cause some
of the difference in rapidity of development. But the early im-
provers of the mutton breeds apparently sought early maturity
more persistently than the early improvers of the Merinos. It is,
therefore, only fair to assume that the mutton breeds are disposed
to develop at a more rapid rate.
In general, sheep are old at five or six years of age. But there
are many exceptions to this rule, so many, in fact, that the flock-
master ought to be his own judge as to when his sheep are old. On
the ranges in the western part of the United States where the flocks
are very large, it is common practice to discard ewes when they
become five or six years old solely on account of their age, because
they usually begin to decline in yield of wool after their fifth year.
But the owners of small flocks can afford to base their discarding on
a study of individuals, for not infrequently seven- and eight-year-
old ewes when members of a small group, produce quite as well or
even better, than younger ewes.
Unfavorable environment and improper care, exposure, and poor
feed often hasten the approach of old age. In dry, sandy countries,
sheep may become old at a comparatively early age through the teeth
being worn down short by the excessive amounts of sand both in and
on the vegetation. Then, too, a scanty supply of feed on the range
may require the sheep to do so much travelling when it is not ade-
quately fed that physical decline sets in prematurely.
It frequently happens that sheep which have become too old for
one set of conditions are moved into more favorable surroundings
59
60 THE NATURE OF SHEEP
where they prove profitable for two or three more years. In England
and Scotland ewes which are too old to be kept in the hills where
feed is rather scarce, are often moved into the lowlands where there
is an abundance ; here they thrive and produce two or three crops
of lusty lambs, and are finally fattened for market.
Sheep normally inclined to develop slowly do not, as a rule,
begin to break down until well along in years. Thus the Merino
breeds are perhaps longer lived than the mutton breeds. Un-
doubtedly, longevity of life has its* advantage, but the usefulness of
a breed cannot be determined on this alone.
FIG. 29. — Old sheep; prominent Shropshire prize winners when in their prime. They
were each eleven years old when photographed. Their lean necks and general lack of flesh
were due to advanced age and not to poor care.
Indications of Age. — (1) Teeth. — One of the* best indications
of the age of a sheep is the teeth. The temporary or lamb teeth
are small ; the permanent teeth are broader and longer. If a lamb
develops normally, the two temporary teeth in the middle of the
front part of the lower jaw are replaced by permanent teeth at
about twelve months of age. Therefore, when a sheep shows two
broad teeth with small teeth on either side, it is an indication that
the animal is a yearling; if there are four broad teeth, that it is
two years old; if there are six, that it is three years old. At four
or five years of age all of the eight temporary teeth in the front
part of the jaw are likely to be replaced by permanent teeth and it is
impossible to determine the age with any degree of accuracy.
It should be borne in mind that the teeth indicate the degree of
m
INDICATIONS OF AGE
61
*»
ll
SJ«i
S-^
O^ C±
g-p'pio
^?p
iHI
S-
62
THE NATURE OF SHEEP
development rather than the absolute age of the sheep in calendar
months ; hence, they are not infallible indications of age. If devel-
opment is slow, the first permanent teeth may not appear until the
sheep is fifteen or sixteen months old ; if it is rapid, they may appear
at ten months of age. A yearling sheep that has been forced by
heavy feeding may have four broad teeth in front instead of two
(Fig. 29).
The teeth of an old sheep are Jikely to be spread apart, missing,
or worn down short. Other indications of advanced age are a
sunken appearance over the eyes, a comparatively short fleece with
sunken places on the surface, and a general lack of fullness of body
outlines (Fig. 30).
(2) The Break Joint. — On our large livestock markets, an index
often depended upon for
determining whether an ani-
mal belongs in the sheep or
lamb class is what is known
as the " break joint." This is
the temporary, or epiphyseal
cartilage located immedi-
ately above the pastern joint.
Without it bones could not
elongate and hence it is pres-
ent until the lamb is pretty
well along in body develop-
ment. It can be distin-
guished best on the live ani-
mal by rubbing up and down
on the foreleg just above the
pastern joint with the thumb and forefinger. If temporary cartilage
has not disappeared, a great deal of prominence will be felt; if
it has, the bone will be comparatively round and smooth (Fig. 31).
Feeding and Drinking Habits.— Being ruminants, sheep are
adapted not only to the consumption of grain, but also of bulky
feeds, such as grass and hay. They eat all of the grasses except the
very coarsest varieties and are very fond of the cultivated legum-
inous plants. They eat most of the weeds common to farms, and in
the West, weeds on sheep ranges are considered very valuable feed.
Sheep feed on young tree growth more than any other of our domestic
animals except goats.
FIG. 31.— (a) The break joint; when an imma-
ture sheep is slaughtered its forelegs are severed
at this joint— its presence being a sure indication
that the animal was young. (6) The regular articu-
lating joint below the break joint; the forelegs of
mature sheep are severed at this joint.
FEEDING AND DRINKING HABITS
63
Sheep prefer short herbage on an extensive range to a rampant
growth on a limited area. When placed on a tall plant growth
they nip off the ends of the plants and trim off the leaves, but usually
leave the stems standing. They are structurally adapted to feeding
on short herbage, because of their very mobile lips and sharp incisor
teeth. The upper lip is very mobile, which is in part due to the
vertical fissure in the center which permits one-half of the lip to
move somewhat independent of the other half.
FIG. 32. — The paths or terraces to the left and high up on the hillside were made by sheep
while grazing. (From Morris and Kirby, Chinook, Montana.)
The inherent love which sheep have for change of feeding
ground is well known, and is always plainly indicated in the eager
and playful way in which they feed just after they are turned into
a fresh pasture.
It is thought that the native home of the domesticated sheep was
in the high, treeless plateaus and mountains. Most sheep especially
enjoy feeding on the high places in their pastures, but some of the
modern breeds have been kept on low, level lands so long that it is
THE NATURE OF SHEEP
doubtful whether they would take to the hills from choice. It is
interesting to note how sheep feed on hills. In a hilly country,
where sheep are grazed in large numbers, the traveller is sure to
see along the hillsides many sheep paths which look like little
terraces, indicating that in grazing, the sheep do not pass over the
hill, but rather along the side, gradually working to the top
(Fig. 32).
Sheep are able to exist without water longer than most domes-
ticated animals. Craig says thai this is probably due to the fact
that they have unusually large salivary glands; very likely it is
also due in part to still other physiological characteristics. It has
often been thought that sheep
do not need to have daily access
to water, but such an assumption
is erroneous, for even in cold
weather they will drink from two
to four quarts daily. They pre-
fer running to still water.
Folding Habits. — S h e e p
that have been allowed to choose
between shelter and the open,
f prefer to lie out of doors on high
H| places. This may not be true,
however, of sheep that have been
raised in barns. Their prefer-
ence for high, well-drained, and
airy resting and sleeping grounds
is very marked, for it is only in the severest of winter weather that
they abandon such spots for lower, wind-protected places. After
the lamb is a few hours old it constantly seeks some eminence,
such as its mother's back, a bale of hay, a log, or a rock. It has
been observed that young sheep seek high places more readily than
do the older ones ; yearlings will feed higher up on a hillside than
old ewes (Figs. 33 and 34).
Breeding Habits. — Most domesticated breeds of sheep are
monoestrous. That is, the ewes come in heat (oestrus) in but one
season of the year, which, in the United States, is in the autumn and
early winter months ; hence, it is not possible to have lambs born at
any time in the year. But there are a few breeds, such as the Tunis
and Dorset Horned, for which it is claimed that the ewes will breed
FIG. 33. — The little Iamb aspires for heights
affording wider outlook upon the world.
BREEDING HABITS
65
to produce lambs at the time desired by the owner. Such breeds
are especially useful to those who desire to grow fancy lambs out of
season in order to supply a high-priced commodity to a limited
few. If, as it seems, ewes are induced to a certain extent to come in
heat by the cool of the autumn nights, it may be that there are
localities in which climatic conditions will cause ewes to breed out
of their normal season and perhaps twice a year. Summer nights
in the hills may correspond to the autumn nights on the plains and
by moving ewes from the plains to the hills, one may succeed in
breeding them out of normal season.
FIG. 34. — Sheep enjoy being on high places.
A ewe remains in heat for about two days ; if she is not bred, or
if she fails to get in lamb from the service of the ram, the period of
heat, or cestrus, recurs in approximately sixteen days. On this point
there is variance of opinion and some writers mention twenty-one
days as the length of time between cestrus periods. In the Middle
West of the United States, however, the intervening time, although
varying all the way from twelve to twenty-eight days, is most often
sixteen days. In case the ewe is not bred, she is likely to recur in
heat regularly for three or four months, beginning in late summer
or early autumn and continuing until late December.
About one hundred and forty-six days is the normal gestation
period for ewes. At the Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio Stations, it
5
66
THE NATURE OF SHEEP
has been observed that the period of gestation for Rambouillet and
American Merino ewes is more frequently one hundred and fifty-two
than one hundred and forty-six days. And one hundred and forty-
four days has been given as the normal period for Southdowns.
From this it would seem that breed may be the cause of some varia-
tion in the length of the period of pregnancy.
It is common for each ewe to give birth to one or two lambs.
Occasionally a ewe has three lambs at one parturition period, and
there are instances of even more, but since the ewe has but two
teats that function (in rare cases there are four), she is not well
FIG. 35. — A capacious, matronly type of ewe capable, as the photograph shows, of taking
good care of a pair of lambs.
prepared to take care of more than two lambs. By carefully select-
ing parent stock, promoters of certain breeds have succeeded in
developing e™e stock having a marked tendency to produce twins
(Fig. 35).
Recognition of Young. — A ewe recognizes her new-born lamb
wholly through the sense of smell, but in a few days she can dis-
tinguish it at sight. In cases of perplexity, however, she always
relies on her nose for recognition. Apparently the odor by which a
ewe identifies her newly-born offspring is due to something coming
from her, for in case she refuses to own her lamb she may be in-
duced to receive it (but not always), by placing some of her milk
GREGARIOUSNESS
67
on its rump, the point where she usually sniffs at the lamb to
recognize it.
Gregariousness. — Sheep have the gregarious instinct; that is,
they like to keep together. The nocking instinct is not so pro-
nounced in some breeds as it is in others, but there is no breed or
variety known that does not possess it. Of the well-known breeds,
the Merinos have this trait most strongly developed, for, as stated
in Chapter I, they stay close together whether grazing or resting.
On range where herding is practiced this statement applies to the
whole of a large band. On the other hand, nearly or quite all of
FIG. 36.— Following the leader. (By courtesy of The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia.)
the English mutton breeds are less inclined to stay close together
while grazing. Flocks of any of the mutton breeds seem to prefer
to spread out over a rather large area while feeding, yet if some-
thing frightens them, as the bark of a strange dog, they show their
gregarious instinct by bunching up as fast as they can. One of the
breeds least inclined to close nocking is the Black-faced Highland,
a mountain breed of Scotland. In their native country, one may see
the hill or mountain sides dotted with small groups consisting of
from three to ten of these sheep picking at the heather, apparently
oblivious of their flock-mates more than half a mile away.
The flocking instinct is so strongly implanted in sheep that when
an individual is separated from the flock, it is an indication that
68 THE NATURE OF SHEEP
something unusual has happened. The first thought of the trained
shepherd when he sees a sheep alone and some distance from its
mates is likely to be that it is ill or has been injured.
The instinct to flock in large numbers is of great value where
herding is practiced, as in the western part of the United States.
In extensive., unfenced, and undeveloped lands any herder would
lose large numbers from his band ftirough straying and through the
attacks of predatory animals if his sheep were not disposed to con-
tinue in a rather compact body.
Closely associated with the gregarious instinct of sheep is its
instinct to follow a leader. There is an old saying, " Where one
sheep goes, all others will follow," which really is not an exaggera-
tion. If the leader passes on, the others will take a chance on a
long leap, a narrow path, or even a plunge into the water in order
to follow (Fig. 36).
Timidity and Defenselessness. — In the presence of foes sheep
are sadly lacking in ability to defend themselves and they become
so frightened that they run wildly hither and thither. Although
they fear all animals disposed to prey upon them, their worst
enemies are the wolf and kindred animals, such as the coyote, the
dog, and the jackal. The jackal furnishes trouble for the sheepmen
of South Africa; the dingo, a wild dog, makes depredations on flocks
in Australia, and the wolf and particularly the coyote, seriously
handicap sheep raising on the western ranges of the United States.
In farming communities the dog is the worst hindrance to the keep-
ing of flocks. While any of these animals may kill outright, their
attacks are almost as deadly if they only chase and bite because the
sheep are badly frightened and run so hard that a physical break-
down is likely to fo^ow. In case they are bitten, death may result
from infection of the wound. Other predatory animals in the1
western part of the United States are the bob-cat and mountain
lion. In New Zealand and Australia the kea (a parrot-like bird)
often attacks sheep on the back in the region of the kidneys.
Being easily stampeded by fear, sheep really encourage dogs
to chase them, for if a dog full of vigor and eager for exercise, but
with no intention of mischief, enters a field where sheep are feeding
or resting, the entire flock may dash away at top speed at the sight
of him. Their action stirs the dog to the depths of his desire for
the chase, and he is after them in what he considers a rollicking
good game, but it means disaster to the owner of the sheep.
QUESTIONS 69
Horned breeds of sheep are said to be less afraid of their enemies
than hornless breeds. Strong, masculine rams are also more
aggressive and somewhat less afraid than ewes; but spirited ewes
with lambs at side will defend their young. Both ewes and rams, in
their attempt to scare away the enemy, have a habit of vigorously
stamping the forefeet.
Non-Resistance to Disease. — Sheep do not show much evidence
of illness until they are very sick, and this is perhaps the reason for
the oft-repeated statement, "A sick sheep is as good as dead." A
careful and observant shepherd, however, takes many a sick sheep
in hand in time to save it and any sheep raiser to be successful must
learn to discover that something is wrong with his sheep before they
are " as good as dead." Certain breeds apparently resist disease
better than others; hence it seems probable that general hardiness
may have been more or less disregarded in the development of
some of our modern breeds.
QUESTIONS
1. Can you tell how a healthy sheep acts when it is separated from its
fellows? A sick one?
2. Why are the attacks of predatory animals so injurious to sheep?
3. Do you know what parts of the sheep's body are most frequently bitten
by dogs?
4. By what may the age of a sheep be estimated?
5. Compare the period of growth in sheep with that in man.
6. Can you give reasons why sheep select high, well-drained places for
sleep and rest?
7. Do sheep prefer extensive or limited range?
8. How do they graze over hills?
0. Do you know how a goat grazes over a hill?
10. In what seasons are lambs born in the United States?
11. How many lambs can a ewe conveniently nurse?
12. What proportion of lambs to ewes have you observed?
CHAPTER VII
TYPES
The term type as applied to •sheep is used in various ways.
Breeds developed primarily for mutton are grouped under the
mutton type, and those developed especially for wool belong under
the wool type. As regards development for mutton and wool, a
few breeds are dual in type, but the term dual-purpose type has
not yet been widely applied to sheep. An acceptable specimen of a
breed possesses what are termed breed characteristics. These con-
stitute breed type and serve to distinguish the specimen from indi-
viduals of other breeds and of no breed. Sexes differ in 'other char-
acters than sex organs, so there is what may be termed sex type.
There exists a market type which coincides in most respects with
the mutton type, but, because of special emphasis laid on certain
points, is somewhat different.
The Mutton Type. — The ideal type, which is sought in all of
the prominent mutton breeds, consists of a relatively broad and
deep body and such a development of head, neck, legs and body
parts that the whole conformation suggests symmetry, thickness,
compactness, and quality. This is regarded as the most suitable
type for producing growth and finish economically and for yielding
the kind of carcass the consumer wants (Fig. 37).
Head. — As between the different breeds, the head varies more in
shape and size than any other part of the animal, but in general it
is short and wide, and its various features are developed and pro-
portioned so as to suggest hardiness and strength. The mouth is
large ; the nostrils are well expanded ; the eyes are large, round and
bright ; the nose is short, rather wide, and varying in profile from
slightly dished to pronouncedly Roman, and both the .eyes and the
ears are wide apart. The ears harmonize in size and quality with
the other features of the head and are set so as to contribute to
the carriage and style characteristic of the breed to which the animal
belongs.
The neck, though free from coarseness, is strongly muscled and
joined neatly to both the head and shoulders. It is comparatively
straight underneath from the junction with the jaw to the brisket,
70
THE BODY
71
and there is no depression on the top just in front of the shoulders.
Breeds differ with respect to length and set of neck, but in general
a short neck is preferred provided it carries the head stylishly. In no
case should the neck be placed so that the head is carried lower than
the top of the body.
The body, consisting of the fore quarters, hind quarters, and
middle or barrel, possesses lines and dimensions which indicate sub-
FIG. 37. — The mutton type — wide, deep, compact, evenly d
stance, capacity, and vigor. It is broad, deep, and of medium
length and its lines are comparatively straight. Low and full flanks
and a short space between the last rib and the hip contribute to the
thick, compact appearance of the body.
The fore quarters, which include the shoulders and the brisket,
fit up smoothly with the neck in front and with the middle behind
them. The shoulder blades come snug to the spine and level with it,
thus forming a smooth, compact, wide top which is covered with
72 TYPES
flesh and fat. The sides of the shoulder also are well covered and
free from prominence of bone. The brisket is wide, full, and extends
well in front of the legs, and its anterior contour is rounding rather
than pointed. In fat sheep there is no depression between the brisket
and the lower part of the shoulder.
The parts forming the middle or barrel of the body are the ribs,
back, loins, and flanks. The ribs aft long and widely arched, a con-
formation that gives pronounced width to the back, which extends
from the shoulders to the loins, and also forms a deep, wide,
capacious chest indicative of stamina and constitution. The back
extends from the shoulders to the last ribs and the loins) from the
last ribs to the hips. Besides being wide and level, both are covered
with firm flesh and fat to such an extent that the processes of the
spine are scarcely noticeable to the touch. Since the back and loins
contain valuable cuts, their extreme development is always sought.
The floor of the body is wide and slightly convex.
The parts of the hind quarters are hips, rump, thighs, and
twist. The hips are level, wide in proportion to the width of the
body, and free from prominence at the points. The rump, which
extends from the hips backward, is long, level, wide, and thick at
the dock. Sheep with this conformation of rump produce more
mutton, and the ewes have slightly less trouble in giving birth to
their young than those with peaked or drooping rumps and with
low-set tails. The thighs, which join the rump a few inches below
the top line, are full and wide at the top, while down toward the
hocks they stand out boldly, indicating sturdiness and strength.
The twist, formed by the meeting of the thighs at the rear of the
body, is wide, low, and relatively firm to the touch. If the rump,
thighs, and twist are not well developed, a leg of mutton from the
carcass cannot be first class in form nor up to proportionate weight.
The legs, both in front and behind, are straight, strong, free
from coarseness at the joints, and placed far apart, with the pasterns
strong and the toes neither close nor sprawling. In front the arm
is full and heavily muscled. Behind, the hocks are straight and
placed so that they neither bow outward nor come in close to each
other. In a ram, particularly, either sickle-shaped or badly placed
hocks are serious faults because they are likely to render him in-
capable of service.
Quality. — Although some of the mutton breeds have large,
strong bones and rather large, bold head features, qualitv receives
THE WOOL TYPE
73
important consideration in each and every breed. In all cases coarse-
ness, as characterized by rough legs with large joints, fat heads and
faces, coarse, staring hair on the face and legs, and soft tallowy
flesh, is to be avoided.
Skin, Wool. — In general, pink skins of fine texture are preferred
because they indicate health, quality, arid disposition to make good
use of food. The wool of the mutton breeds varies greatly in length
FIG. 38. — The extremely developed wool type — with large wrinkles on ail parts of the
body the pelt (skin and wool) of this sheep constitutes a large per cent of its total weight.
and fineness, but in all breeds clean, white wool free from kemp
and dark fibers is sought after.
The Wool Type. — Fineness, density, and weight of fleece have
been the prime objects of those who have developed the wool-type
breeds and in these particulars breeds of other types do not equal
them. Because of dissimilarity in form, skin, and wool, the extreme
wool type is markedly different in' appearance from the mutton
type of sheep. But increasing consideration is being given to muttoij
74 TYPES
form and quality in breeds belonging to the wool type; hence the
difference between the two is not quite so pronounced as it once
was (Fig. 38).
Comparison with Mutton Type. — As compared with the mut-
ton type, the wool type lacks in straight ness or evenness of lines,
fullness of outline, and disposition to lay on a great deal of external
fat. It is common for the spine rfl project considerably above the
shoulder blades, for the back to sag slightly, for the ribs to be flat,
and for the rump to droop sharply. Often, the body as a whole
lacks in width or thickness, the ribs being rather flat, the shoulders
thin, and the thighs hollow. Since the floor of the body lacks width,
the legs in most cases are close together and frequently very close
at the knees and hocks. As a rule, the face of the wool type is pro-
portionately longer than that of the mutton type and the same
can be said of the neck. Less stress is laid upon the smooth junction
of neck and shoulders and frequently there is a depression in the
neck just in front of the shoulders. Although sheep of the wool
type differ so much from the mutton type in form, they are neverthe-
less hardy, and quite as carefully bred for what they are intended as
any of the breeds belonging to the mutton type.
Folds and Wrinkles. — In the wool type there are usually parts
of the body on which the skin forms wrinkles or folds, thus giving
proportionately more surface on which to grow wool than in the
mutton type. Sometimes the wrinkles extend over nearly all parts of
the body, but there is an increasing tendency to eliminate them al-
most altogether from the body proper and to permit of only a few
large wrinkles or folds on the neck and perhaps one on the body just
behind the shoulders and one or two more at such places as the
thigh, dock, and rear flank. Although high-class specimens possess-
ing very many wrinkles are still rather numerous the owners of
commercial flocks are finding less and less use for them, and unless
demand changes so as to make the production of wool relative to
the production of mutton much more profitable than it has been
during the past two decades the preference for smooth bodies will
continue and it will sooner or later prevail in determining type.
Breed type is determined by considering, in connection with the
general type to which the sheep belongs, the standard adopted for
the particular breed in such matters as size, style or carriage, general
quality, color of skin and hair, size and shape of head, length of
legs, and the wool with respect to length, fineness, and extension
SEX TYPE OR SEX CHARACTER 75
over various parts. When a sheep is judged as a representative of a
breed it should not be favorably considered if it is very poor in
either general type or breed type. In a breed belonging to the mut-
ton type, such as the Shropshire, an individual having a bare, nar-
row, sagging back should not be rated high no matter how nearly
perfect it may be in those features characteristic of the Shropshire
breed. On the other hand, should it be perfect in mutton type, but
markedly deficient in features pertaining solely to the Shropshire
breed, it should not receive favorable consideration as a Shropshire
sheep. And a fault in breed type may be such as to disqualify an
animal as a breed representative. No enlightened judge would per-
.mit a sheep with a pure white face to take a place in a ring for
Shropshires because the typical face color for this breed is deep,
soft brown.
The general type and the breed type are inseparable and a
problem constantly arising in judging is to know just how far per-
fections in the one recompense faults in the other. It is easy for
the student fresh in the study of judging sheep to ask such a
question as how much should the shape of head be sacrificed for
filling at the twist, but only a few, if any, of long experience would
attempt to give him a definite answer.
Constitution is weighted most when considered in connection
with breeds, and is, therefore, closely associated with breed type.
To properly estimate constitution the whole make-up of the sheep
must be considered. Were a low-headed, wobbly-gaited, flabby sheep
perfect in spring of rib and extension of brisket, it would not be
rated high by a competent judge because he would know that such
a specimen is lacking in stamina. Compactness of build, strong,
well-placed legs, large, firm muscles, wide loins, and a properly
molded head are quite as important in determining constitution as
a deep, wide chest.
Objectionable Points. — In considering breed type it is very
necessary to know what supporters of the breed are trying to get
rid of. Dark skins are discriminated against more in some breeds
than in others; kemp (structureless fibers) is very objectionable in
the fleeces of the fine wool breeds, and vestiges of horns are not tol-
erated in certain breeds.
Sex Type or Sex Character. — Whenever a sheep is judged as a
breeding animal, the development of certain of its features, aside
from sex organs, should clearly indicate the sex to which it belongs.
76 TYPES
This development is known as sex character or sex type; in rams
it is called masculinity and in ewes femininity.
Pronounced masculinity is indicated by boldness and ruggedness
of head features; strong, thick neck, massive development in the
fore quarters; a proud, stylish, active, and bold carriage which
suggests domineering disposition. In general, a ram with a truly
masculine head has a fairly large Aouth ; big, round, well-expanded
nostrils; a pronounced spread of nose (commonly called the knob)
just above the nostrils if the animal is mature; wide-open, bright,
prominent eyes; and pronounced width between the eyes and ears.
The strongly masculine neck sets to the shoulder so that the head
can be carried well up. The neck is very thick at the junction with
the shoulders, so thick, in fact, that there is scarcely any depres-
sion between it and the shoulders. On the top of the neck just
behind the head there is usually a rise or prominence which really
appears more like a feature of the head than of the neck. (1ommcni
on the massive development in front is hardly necessary, but per-
haps it is well to call attention to the full, strong forearm which
should accompany the wide, deep chest, and the full, rounding, well-
extended brisket (Fig. 39).
In order to have an active, bold, or fearless carriage, the ram
must have a deeply-muscled body supported by strong, well-placed
legs. When one touches a ram possessing outstanding masculinity,
there is the sensation of having in hand an individual with the
fibers and sinews of a giant. The study of such an animal is never
finished, for there is something present which defies accurate meas-
urement with the hand, and the 'whole make-up of the animal sug-
gests something which is beyond the estimate of the eye.
No ram is really masculine if his sex organs are not well de-
veloped. Undersized testicles indicate sex weakness, and when they
are less than normal size the animal is usually lacking in strength
of features about the head. English shepherds often comment on a
ram having a deep bleat as a sheep with a real ram's voice. In the
breeds in which the males have horns, the development of horn
should be in harmony with the other features of strength about
the head.
Importance of Masculinity. — Experienced breeders usually
select rams showing much masculinity because they believe such in-
dividuals will impart more vigor and transmit their characters to
their offspring in greater degree than rams that are weak in mas-
IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY
77
78 TYPES
culinity. Several years ago, while visiting various pure-bred flocks
in Great Britain, the writer was greatly impressed by the unusual
masculinity of most of the stud rams he inspected. It seemed to
him then, as well as now, that the English sheepbreeder places higher
value on masculinity than the American breeder. This is a matter
to which American breeders shoul^ give careful consideration, with
a view to determining whether they or the British breeders are
more nearly right.
Femininity is manifested by refinement of features, matronly
appearance, and relatively great development in the hind quarters.
All of the above characteristics combine to produce an effect which is
quite the opposite of that produced by masculinity. The truly
feminine ewe has proportionately less substance in her neck and
front of body than the masculine ram, her features are much less
rugged and her body lines are more gracefully turned. But the
refinement characteristic of femininity is not over refinement to the
point of delicateness. At this point the breeder needs to exercise
care. Strong bone, provided it shows quality, size of body, or
roominess, with features to match do not necessarily indicate lack in
femininity, but rather that very essential development of characters
which should be associated with it (Fig. 40).
Mild expression has often been spoken of as indicative of femi-
ninity in ewes. If this term implies meekness and submissiveness,
then it is wrongly applied, because the desirable breeding ewe pos-
sesses vigor and snap. She is upheaded, alert and conscious of what
is in progress around her almost to the point of appearing to be
nervous. She may be of retiring disposition so long as she is not a
mother, but with her young at the side she is courageous and stands
between her young and what she senses as danger with defiant
fearlessness. In parturition such a ewe is very nervous, apparently
so anxious to see her lamb that she cannot wait for it to come ;
but when it does come she usually not only protects it, but also feeds
it well.
Successful breeders discard masculine or " staggy " ewes because
usually they are not profitable as producers. Often they do not
breed at all. When they do, they may have trouble in lambing;
and they are usually poor both in maternal instinct and milking
properties.
Wethers (castrated males) if unsexed when only a few weeks
old, tend to resemble ewes in the various characters influenced by
IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY
79
80
TYPES
FIG. 41. — A wether.
Not so strongly developed in the head and neck as a ram, but coarser
in these features than a ewe should be.
sex. But a wether cannot be ,said to possess femininity; in fact,
it is decidedly uncomplimentary to a ewe to say that she looks like
a wether. That is, the wether retains a little of the masculine in
his various features (Fig. 41).
Market Type. — The mutton type approximates closely the mar-
ket type. But in fat sheep the market puts more stress on eondi-
Fio. 42. — Market sheep carrying the degree of fatness desired by American consumers of
mutton.
QUESTIONS 81
tion, quality, and weight than on form. . Market quality consists in
freedom from coarseness and from undue weight of pelt (skin and
wool combined), while in the mutton type a heavy fleece is not
necessarily a criticism against quality. Ideal market condition
requires an even, firm covering with fat, but it does not call for'
excessive fatness such as is expected of breed specimens and fat
wethers in classes for single sheep at large exhibitions. The fact is
that show specimens are often made too fat. The weight desired of
market sheep is a matter that varies with the different classes,
lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes; it is also a matter that varies
somewhat with the different seasons (Fig. 42).
In selecting feeder sheep, condition, quality, weight, form, and
thrift are the factors to be considered. The ideal feeder should not
be fat, neither should it be so thin as to seem lacking in vigor and
health. Its quality should correspond with that of the fat sheep
and it is best in form when it corresponds to the description 'of form
given under mutton type, but perfection of form cannot be ex-
pected in a sheep that is not fat.
QUESTIONS
1. Which is easier to determine, general type or breed type? Why?
2. List the large differences between the mutton type and the wool type.
3. Which would grade the higher on the market, the wool type or the
mutton type? WThy?
4 Compare the head of a ram with that of a ewe of the same breed.
5. How are the differences noted to be accounted for?
CHAPTER VIII
JUDGING SHEEP
Preparation for Judging. — Regardless of whether judges arc
born or made, skill in judging sheep is attained at the expense of
•much practice. The men who judge best are nearly always at it,
not in the arena, of course, but wherever they see sheep. It is this
irresistible tendency constantly to compare and contrast animals
that builds up in the mind of the judge a rich store of experiences
which serve him well, and in fact come to his rescue when he is
making awards where competition is keen and close. These ex-
periences mold his standard and set it out in bold relief. Organized
class study, although of great help, is after all only one step toward
proficiency in judging. It is a step which many of the best judges
hate never taken, and one which is not used to proper advantage
unless it is supplemented by extensive practice in field and fold
(Fig. 43).
Examining the Sheep. — Capable judges, realizing the impor-
tance of careful examination, first look the sheep over from a dis-
tance and then go over it with their hands. It does not make any
difference which view of the animal is noted first so long as the
examination is thorough and systematic. The writer prefers to
begin with the front of the sheep, then observe its sides, and lastly
its rear, for the reason that in handling he examines the rear first.
Looking the Sheep Over. — Following this plan, there are cer-
tain points which should be noted from each view.
(1) The front view gives the best opportunity to study the
make-up of the head, the width and depth of brisket, and the
length, shape and placing of the forelegs. Very close attention
should be given to the head because its quality is indicative of the
quality of the animal and in breed specimens it reveals a great
deal of what is known as breed type. The stamina or constitu-
tion of the animal is also indicated in the way certain features
of the head are developed.
(2) Side. — In taking a side view, the size, style, and general
lines of the sheep attract attention first. Then comes an analysis
of the general impression thus gained which takes note of the
82
LOOKING THE SHEEP OVER
83
length and depth of body, the carriage of the head, the length and
setting of the neck, the extension of brisket, the evenness or true-
ness of top and bottom lines, and length and shape of legs, and
12
13
14
FIG. 43. — The external parts of a sheep. 1, muzzle broad, lips thin, nostrils large;
2, face short, features clean-cut; 3, eyes large and clear; 4, forehead broad; 5, ears alert
and not coarse; 6, poll wide; 7, top of shoulder compact; 8, neck short, thick, blending
smoothly with shoulder; 9, shoulder thickly covered with flesh; 10, back broad, straight,
thickly and evenly covered; 11, ribs long, well sprung, and thickly covered; 12, loin broad,
thick, and well covered; 13, hips wide and smooth; 14, rump long, level, and wide to dock;
15, dock thick; 16, twist deep and firm; 17, thighs full, deep, and wide; 18, legs straight,
short, and bone smooth; 19, cod or purse in wethers, scrotum in rams, udder in ewes; 20,
flank full and deep; 21, forelegs straight, short and strong; 22, chest deep, wide, and full;
23, forelegs wide apart and forearm strong; 24, brisket full and rounding in outline; 25,
breast well extended.
lastly, the relation of neck, shoulder, middle, and rump, in turn, to
total length.
84
JUDGING SHEEP
Sample Score Card Useful as Beginning Step in Judging
MUTTON SHEEP MARKET
SCALE OF POINTS
Perfect
Score
Student Score
Corrected Score
1
2
1
2
GENERAL APPEARANCE— 37 per cent.
1 Weight pounds *•
2. Form, straight top and underline; deep,
broad, lowset, compact, symmetrical. . . .
3. Quality, hair tine; bone fine but strong;
features refined but not delicate; pelt
light
12
10
15
4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh.
Points indicating finished condition are:
thick dock, thick covering over loin, back,
ribs and shoulders, fullness between
shoulder and brisket
HEAD and NECK— 9 per cent.
5. Head, features clean cut; mouth, large; lips,
thin; nostrils, large; eyes, large, clear;
face, short; forehead, broad; ears, alert,
not coarse, considerable width between
6. Neck, short thick, full at junction with
4
8
1
1
:
6
G
1
5
5
5
1
3
3
3
FORE QUARTERS— 10 per cent.
7. Shoulders, covered with flesh; compact on
top, smoothly joined with neck and body
8. Brisket, rounding in outline and well ex-
9. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong,
full forearm bone smooth
BODY— 18 per cent.
10. Chest, wide, deep, full
11. Ribs, well sprung, long, close and thickly
covered
12. Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly
covered
13. Loin, thick, broad well covered
HIND QUARTERS— 17 per cent.
14. I'ips, far apart, level, smooth
15. Rump, long, level, wide to dock thick at
dock
16. Thighs, full, deep, wide
17. Twist, plump, deep, firm
18. Legs, straight, short, strong, bone smo; th . .
WOOL— 9 per cent.
19. Quantity, long dense, even in density and
length
20. Quality, crimp distinct and even through-
out fleece
21. Condition, slight amount cf yolk, foreign
material not excessive
Total
100
STUDENT.
DATE. ..
HANDLING THE SHEEP 85
(3) Rear. — From the rear the width and evenness in width of
body are to be noted; then the development of rump, thighs and
twist, and the placing of the hind legs.
Handling the Sheep. — After surveying the animal in this sys-
tematic manner the judge is ready to verify his visual impre'ssions
by handling. This is necessary because the wool may cover defects
in form and handling is the only sure way to determine the amount
and quality of flesh. In the show ring it is a common practice to
FIG. 44. — Laying the hand on deliberately and firmly with the fingers together is the best
way to measure the amount and quality of flesh.
trim the wool in order to conceal defects in form. Then, too, the
wool and skin should be inspected at close range (Fig. 44).
The proper way to handle a sheep is to keep the fingers together
and lay them down flat on the animal except where it is necessary
to grasp the parts, as is the case with the lower thighs. This
manner of handling gives the most accurate impressions and does
not disarrange the wool. Correct touch is a matter of study. The
hands should be laid on deliberately and firmly, but without undue
pressure, and pounding or clawing are entirely out of order. At
the same time the judge must keep his mind with his hands, com-
paring the information they give him with the impression he
86 JUDGING SHEEP
already has of the animal. If he really has his mind on just what
he is doing there is no possible excuse for anything but a correct
touch (Fig. 44).
After looking the sheep over as is suggested here, the logical
place to begin handling is at the rear, and a right-handed judge
should stand on the left side of the sheep.
(1) The Rear, Including Thighs, Twist, Dock., and Rump. —
The first thing to investigate with the hands is the development of
FIG. 45. — Left hand on back of thigh, right hand at rear flank to measure the
lower thighs.
the lower thighs. This is done by putting the left hand at the
back of the thigh and the right at the rear flank (Fig. 45). In this
way the amount of flesh on both the outer and inner thighs can be
ascertained. Next, the right hand should press upward on the
twist to estimate the amount and firmness of flesh at that point.
The development of the upper thighs is determined by placing the
hands flat on them and pressing the hands toward each other. In-
stead of doing this, many judges press one hand against the thigh
while resting the other on top of the rump (Fig. 46).
HANDLING THE SHEEP
87
After finishing with the thighs, the judge may either examine
the rump or pass one hand along the entire top of the sheep to get
an idea of its levelness and covering. The first movement in judg-
ing the rump is to grasp the dock with one hand and note its size
and fullness. A wide, thick dock is taken to indicate deep, strong
muscling along the spine (Fig. 49). A good filling of fat on either
side between the dock and the rump indicates high condition ; hence
a great deal of importance is attached to this part of the investi-
gation. The next- thing is to determine the width at the hips and
FIG. 46. — Determining the amount and firmness of the filling at the twist and the depth
from the top of the rump to the lower boundary of the twist.
the evenness with which this width carries back. This is done by
pressing one hand on either side of the rump from the hip points
to the dock (Figs. 47 and 48).
(2) The Middle, Including Loin, Back,, and Ribs. — The loin is
examined for width and thickness by placing one hand straight
down on either side of it. This movement is often difficult for be-
ginners, who are unable to hold the hands straight and who have
considerable difficulty at first in correctly estimating width. Ex-
perienced judges often get an idea of width and thickness of loin by
reaching across it with one hand. The covering of loin is judged
by placing the fingers flat over the spine and noting whether the
88
JUDGING SHEEP
FIG. 47
FIG. 48
FIG. 47. — Pressing the upper thighs between the hands.
FIG. 48. — Press? ng the rump between the hands to note how the rump carries in width
from the hips to the dock.
bones are prominent or cushioned over with flesh and fat.
The back may have been examined already for levelness and
covering, but re-examination will do no harm. Width of back, a
good point in any breed, seems to depend mainly on long ribs,
HANDLING THE SHEEP 89
arching high and wide as they leave the spine, and special atten-
tion should be given to the degree of arch, or rather of width, just
back of the shoulders (Fig. 51) . There are two ways of ascertaining
this: First, place the fingers of the hand on one side of the spine
and the thumb on the other ; or, second, place one hand on either
side of the spine. The spring of the last rib should also be noted
carefully as the width of a properly shaped barrel or body increases
gradually from the shoulders back to the last ribs (Fig. 50).
In addition to being long and arching well, the ribs should be
covered with firm flesh and fat, and the spaces between the ribs
FIG. 49. — A wide dock; a narrow dock. A wide dock indicates deep muscling along the
spine; a dock well cushioned over with fat indicates that the animal is in high condition.
should be well filled and firm. These points can be determined by
rubbing the hands back and forth over the ribs. If they are
prominent to the touch and if the flesh and fat are soft, the covering
is poor in both extent and quality. In examining the ribs the
hands should also be placed over the fore flanks to proximate the
width of chest (Fig. 52).
(3) The Front, Including Shoulders, Chest, Brisket, Neck, and
Head. — By placing one hand on top of the shoulders it is possible to
learn how compactly the shoulder blades are set up against the
spine and how well these parts are covered with flesh (Figs. 53 and
54). Next, the hands should be placed first on the sides of the
shoulders to examine the depth of flesh, then they should be moved
90
JUDGING SHEEP
Fia. 50
FIG. 51
FIG. 50. — Examining the loins for width and depth.
FIG. 51. — A hand on either side of the spine just back of shoulder to note whether the
ribs spring high and wide from the spine.
forward to the neck vein to determine whether the neck blends
smoothly with the shoulders as fullness here indicates both high
condition and well-muscled neck. The lower points should next be
HANDLING THE SHEEP 91
touched to note whether or not the bones are unduly prominent and
coarse. Finish or high condition is estimated by placing the hands
just in front of the lower points where the brisket joins the lower
part of the shoulders. At this point there is a noticeable depression
in the thin animal which is scarcely discernible in the fat one. One
hand should be passed on down to the floor of the brisket and chest
to examine width. By keeping the other hand on the top of the
shoulders, a notion of the depth of chest can be gained. The front
FIG. 52. — Placing the hands on the ribs to determine the depth and firmness of covering.
of the brisket should be touched for the purpose of getting an idea
of its extension and contour (Fig. 55).
A good way of determining the setting and size of the neck is to
grasp it on top, with one hand, just in front of the shoulders at the
neck vein. With the thumb on one side and the fingers on the other,
a good idea can be gained of its fullness, both at the top and on the
sides. A similar grasp should be made just behind the ears to
ascertain whether the neck is coarse or smooth where it joins the
head (Fig. 56).
It is not necessary to handle the head much, but in woolly-
headed breeds handling helps in estimating the width of head, and
92
JUDGING SHEEP
HANDLING THE SHEEP 93
touching the various features assists in determining quality. In
judging rams of the hornless breeds, it is always advisable to place
the fingers in the horn holes to note whether there is any growth of
horn. Most judges practise parting the lips and looking at the
teeth for the purpose of estimating age. This is necessary even
though the teeth do not proximate age closely. While handling the
head it is a good thing to examine the eyes closely.
(4) Fleece and Skin. — After the conformation of the sheep has
been determined, the fleece and skin must be examined. Since the
best wool grows on the side of the shoulder or just behind it, the
fleece is first opened in that region. This should be done by laying
the hands down flat on the surface of the fleece and gently forcing
it to part so that the density, quality, color, luster, and condition of
the wool,1 and the color of the skin can be noted (Fig. 57).
Similar examination should be made at mid-side and on the
thighs in mutton breeds, and in wool breeds at the points mentioned
and wherever else the judge deems necessary, but especially along
the spine, at the hip point, dock, and on the belly. In breeds in
which dark fibers in the wool and dark spots on the skin are likely
to be present, the fleece should also be parted on the top of the head
just behind the ears, on the fore part of the shoulder, and just above
the hocks.
(5) Noting Defects. — In connection with the handling of rams
it is advisable to note whether the scrotum is normally developed.
Occasionally the testicles are very small. When this is the case, the
features about the head usually lack masculinity. Again one testicle
1 Density of ileece is determined wlien the wool is parted. The smaller
the amount of skin exposed the denser the wool. Or density can be esti-
mated fairly well by grasping a portion of the Ileece between the thumb
and fingers; if the wool feels compact and fills the hand well, it is likely
to be dense. Quality of fleece is indicated by the waves or crimps in the
wool fibers. If these are short, carry regularly from the skin to the outer
tips of the fibers, the wool is fine and even in quality. Luster is a
factor in the quality of luster wools. It is a brightness, similar to
that of polished metals and its presence depends on the size and shape
of the cuticle cells or scales forming the outer layer of the fibers. It is
most marked in the longer, coarser wools, and least in the fine, short wools.
Condition of fleece refers to color, yolk, and the foreign material in the wool.
To be in good condition t'ie wool should be bright, not dingy; it should
be practically free from dirt, chaff, and burrs; and the yolk should be
evenly distributed.
JUDGING SHEEP
HANDLING THE SHEEP
FIG. 57
95
FIG. 58
FIG. 57. — Examining the wool and skin.
FIG. 58. — Detecting overdone condition which is characterized by soft, flabby fat
that can be shifted by pressure with the hand.
may be abnormally small or not let down in the scrotum sack. Such
defects are to be discriminated against largely according to their
intensity. The testicles may be so small that the judge feels con-
96 JUDGING SHEEP
fident that the ram is not a breeder, in which case he should not
be awarded a prize. In judging ewes, it is well to examine the
udder. If it is hard or otherwise defective some discrimination
should be made. There are also such defects as large, lumpy
growths under the throat, which because the wool is trimmed
closely or because it hangs over them in large mases as in the long-
wool breeds, may not be discovered except by handling. Wrinkles
under the throat in breeds not supposed to have them are often so
well concealed by close trimming that they can be discerned only
by touch.
Soft, blubbery fat, due to " overdone " condition, often escapes
the notice of beginners in judging. There are two places on the
body where this fat is present in largest quantity; namely, on the
fore ribs and on the rump. A good way to get an estimate of this
soft, blubbery fat is to place one hand near the top of the animal
and the other lower down and push them toward each other. In
the United States and Canada it is not customary to award a prize
to sheep in badly "overdone" condition (Fig. 58).
The judge should always know the sex of the animal he is
examining.
Faults of Beginners. — Beginners especially possess the fault of
viewing too little and handling too much. Before getting a good
impression of the animal they pounce upon it and begin to handle.
Defects easily discovered by viewing may be entirely overlooked. It
is hard for the beginner to understand why viewing before handling
is of importance, because many experienced judges appear to lay all
of the emphasis on handling, but the old judge sizes the animal up
quickly and he is soon ready to see whether handling will confirm
his impression of it.
QUESTIONS
1. From what view can you best determine whether a sheep has strong
or weak pasterns? Sickled hocks? Sprawling toes?
2. From viewing how would you determine whether a sheep has a narrow
chest?
3. Describe the difference in feel between a bare and a well-covered back.
4. Determine the difference in width between a wide and a narrow sheep.
5. Handle a sheep carefully along the top and determine whether the wool
is uniform in length at all points.
6. Handle two sheep over the ribs and describe the difference you note.
7. Write up a comparative study of the heads of two sheep, noting differ-
ences in ears, eyes, profile of face, nostrils, mouth, width between
ears, and between eyes.
PART III
BREEDS
CHAPTER IX
THE MUTTON BREEDS
ALL of the mutton breeds kept in the United States, excepting
the Tunis and Corriedale, were developed in Great Britain. Be-
ginning with Bakewell the era for evolving these breeds covered
almost; a century. Roughly speaking, they were evolved from two
general types. One of these was a large, coarse, slow-maturing sheep,
growing long, coarse wool and yielding a fleece weighing from seven
to twelve pounds. With the exception of a few dark spots, the black
hoofs and black skin around the nostrils, its face and legs were white.
It was kept principally on the low fertile lands in the counties of
Lincoln, Leicester, and on the hills of Gloucester. The other type,
being .smaller, was suited to the hills and lighter soils. It grew
short, fairly fine wool and produced a fleece weighing from two to
five pounds. Some strains had black faces and legs; others were
white in their markings, and still others had speckled or gray faces
and legs. As a rule the sheep belonging to the smaller type were good
travellers and were adapted to herding on the commons or downs
in fairly large number,*. A rather common practice was to fold
them on the arable land at night in order to get the manure for field
crops, and to drive them several miles out during the day to feed
on the downs.
From the large, coarse-wool type such breeds as the modern
English Leicester, the Border Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln, Romney
Marsh, Devon Long Wool, South Devon, and Wensleydale have been
developed. From the smaller type producing short and fairly fine
wool we have secured most of the down breeds, such as the South-
down, Shropshire, Hampshire, Suffolk, and also such breeds as the
Dorset Horn and Ryeland. In a few cases a breed has been de-
veloped by crossing improved' sheep descended from each of the old
types. A notable case is that of the Oxford Down, produced by
crossing the Hampshire with the Cotswold.
British breeders are thoroughly grounded in the belief that dif-
ferent environments demand different types of sheep. In their
opinion sheep adapted to the lowlands are not profitable in the hills
and on the mountains. And the soils in regions of similar elevation
99
100
THE MUTTON BREEDS
QUESTIONS ''IS!
may be so different as to demand different types. Consequently
many breeds have been developed as is indicated by the fact that
twenty-five breeds, all native of Great Britain, have been given a
place in the premium lists of the annual show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England (Fig. 59).
QUESTIONS
1. Why were so many different breeds developed in Great Britain?
2. When did Bakewell live?
3. Was he interested in other classes of livestock besides sheep?
4. Make a list of the breeds of sheep kept in the United States.
5. Which were developed in Great Britain?
0. Where wore the others developed?
CHAPTER X
THE SOUTHDOWN
•
History. — Of the widely distributed improved mutton breeds,
the Southdown, next to the Leicester,, is the oldest. John Ellman,
who lived in southeastern England near Lewes, Sussex County, on
the hills known as the South Downs, began to improve the old
Southdowns or native sheep of Sussex in the latter half of the
eighteenth century, and Arthur Young, who saw this flock in 1776,
pronounced it the best in the country. Forty-five years later (1821)
Jonas Webb, living 100 miles further north in a more fertile country,
near Cambridge, purchased Ellman sheep and further improved
them. Although other men had something to do with the improve-
ment of the Southdown, most of the credit for developing it to its
present state of mutton perfection is usually given to Ellman and
Webb (Fig. 60).
The Southdowns are low, chalky hills which Ellman described
as being twenty-six miles long and five miles wide. In his day about
one-half of the land was arable and the other grass land. Wheat,
oats, barley, clover, vetches, or tares, and roots were some of the more
common crops cultivated, while the grass land grew a short, fine,
sweet herbage. The vegetation which was not rampant was better
suited to a small active breed such as the old Southdown was than
to a larger, heavier breed. Ellman most likely recognized this fact
and probably it had some weight in his choice of the stock he
selected for improvement. He took note of the hardiness of the old
Southdown, of its ability to thrive when the land was heavily
stocked; of its fine fleece; and of its good leg of mutton. On the
other hand, he clearly saw its two worst faults, an ill form and a
light fleece.
The Old Type. — As a type the old Southdown was small, with
long, slim neck, light fore quarters, bowed back, narrow body, low-
set tail, coarse bone, and thick leg of mutton. The fleece, though
fine, was short, thin, and did not extend over the lower parts of
the body. In face and leg markings there were variations ranging
from white-brown mottled to solid deep brown or almost black.
102
IMPROVEMENT BY ELLMAN 103
Improvement by Ellman. — Long before Ellmjan began his work
there was a widespread conviction amongst sheep raisers on the
Southdowns that fine fleeces and ill forms were closely associated,
and hence that in order to grow fine wool ill-formed sheep had to be
tolerated. But Ell man did not believe this and he proposed to
make out of the old Southdown a better sheep by improving both
its form and fleece. In connection with the improvement of mut-
ton form he also sought more fattening power and quality with
respect to the percentage of offal in dressing. He rapidly attained
FIG. 60. — Southdown ram exhibited by Robert McEwen, Byron, Ontario. The thick,
compact body, combined with the quality denoted by the trimness about the head are
characteristic of the breed.
considerable improvement and, so far as is known, entirely by selec-
tion, although it is probable that the selections he made resulted
in inbreeding or line breeding. He selected the best for his pur-
pose wherever he could find it, but always within the native Sussex
breed. He fixed a type which was shorter in neck, thicker in fore
quarters, more nearly level on top, wider sprung in the rib, and
better in fleece with respect to length, quality, density and exten-
sion than the original stock from which he started.
Mr. Ellman's career as a breeder extended over a period of 54
years or more. In 1829 he dispersed his flock of about 1400 head.
He died in 1832.
104
THE SOUTHDOWN
DESCRIPTION 105
Improvement by Webb.— Mr. Webb, who carried on the im-
provement of Southdowns from the point where Ellman left it,
studied matings closely and never allowed price to keep him from
buying the best rams. Being in a country where the soil was more,
fertile and where the liki-ng for large sheep was more pronounced
than in Mr. Ellman's region, he bred for more size. He practically
perfected the breed as regards mutton conformation and quality.
FIG. 63— S9uthdown ewe bred and exhibited by Robert McEwen, Byron Ontario
def tedV t0™ at leading fairs in Canada and the United States in 1915 and 1916, was
defeated but once.
Fortunately he lived to reap the fruits of his good work, for his
ram lettings and sales became noted events in the world of animal
breeding. He was also very successful in the show ring and, being
of persuasive personality, he did much to popularize the breed. His
flock was dispersed in 1862 at a memorable auction sale (Fio-s 61
and 62).
Description.— Form and Weight.— The best specimens of the
present-day Southdown closely approximate the ideal ,mutton type
106 THE SOUTHDOWN
in form. The body, which is oval on top, is wide, deep, low set and
evenly covered with deep, firm flesh. The neck is short, thick, and
placed to the shoulders so that the head is carried just a little above
them. The legs are placed far apart, thus giving to the body width
at the bottom about equal to that at the top. The arch of rib, the
smoothness at hip and lower shoulder point, the fullness at fore-
arm, thigh and twist suggest a rotund rather than a rectangular
conformation. A compact, symmetrical block of mutton fittingly
summaries Southdown form. Mature rams in breeding condition
weigh from 185 to 220 pounds; ewes from 135 to 155 pounds.
Features. — The features are neither refined nor coarse, but are
developed to harmonize with those of the body. The mouth and
nostrils are fairly large and the lips somewhat thick as compared
Fio. 64. — Southdown ewes bred by the University of Illinois. Note the width and compact-
ness, both typical of the breed.
with the development of other features. In ewes the profile of the
nose or face is slightly dished ; in rams it is almost straight. The
eyes are large, round, bright, and prominent, suggesting alertness.
The ears are short and erect, giving an expression of smartness.
The legs are short and straight. As a rule the bone of the fore legs
is a little more nearly round than in the other mutton breeds
(Fig. 63).
Markings, Wool, and 8Hn. — The color of face and legs varies
from light steel gray to a light soft brown, frequently referred to as a
mouse brown. The face should not approach black in color nor be
speckled with white. Clear, pink skins are preferred, as sheep
having dark skins are regarded as hard feeders. The weight of
HARDINESS AND FEEDING QUALITIES 107
fleece ranges from 5 to 8 pounds and in twelve months it attains a
length of about two inches. In addition to covering the neck it
extends as clean white wool over the head to form a cap on the fore-
head and a covering on the cheeks, but it does not extend down over
the face much below the eyes. Below it extends to the knees in front
and to the hocks behind. Frequently a downy, incipient growth of
wool runs down on the hind legs to the pasterns.
Disqualifications. — The English Flock Book publishes the foL
lowing reasons why judges should not at breeding stock shows award
a prize to otherwise good sheep :
(a) Horns or evidence of their presence.
(b) Dark poll.
FIG. 65. — Southdown lambs bred by the University of Illinois. These lambs won
first prize in the competition for pen of four Southdown lambs at the 1917 International
Live Stock Show, Chicago.
(c) Blue skin.
(d) Speckled face, ears, and legs.
(e) Bad wool, probably meaning decided departures from typical
Southdown wool (Fig. 64)
Properties. — The Southdown is preeminent among mutton
breeds for the quality of its mutton. It is famous for the fine-grain,
firmness and juiciness of its lean and for the whiteness, flakiness
and sweetness of its fat, which is not excessive in amount. Whether
it is consumed as baby lamb, ordinary lamb, or mature mutton, these
qualities are present to the satisfaction of the most exacting epicure.
Hardiness and Feeding Qualities. — On the whole the South-
down is considered hardy, but it is not adapted to the rigorous con-
106 THE SOUTHDOWN
in form. The body, which is oval on top, is wide, deep, low set and
evenly covered with deep, firm flesh. The neck is short, thick, and
placed to the shoulders so that the head is carried just a little above
them. The legs are placed far apart, thus giving to the body width
at the bottom about equal to that at the top. The arch of rib, the
smoothness at hip and lower shoulder point, the fullness at fore-
arm, thigh and twist suggest a rotund rather than a rectangular
conformation. A compact, symmetrical block of mutton fittingly
summaries Southdown form. Mature rams in breeding condition
weigh from 185 to 220 pounds; ewes from 135 to 155 pounds.
Features. — The features are neither refined nor coarse, but are
developed to harmonize with those of the body. The mouth and
nostrils are fairly large and the lips somewhat thick as compared
FIG. 64. — Southdown ewes bred by the University of Illinois. Note the width and compact-
ness, both typical of the breed.
with the development of other features. In ewes the profile of the
nose or face is slightly dished ; in rams it is almost straight. The
eyes are large, round, bright, and prominent, suggesting alertness.
The ears are short and erect, giving an expression of smartness.
The legs are short and straight. As a rule the bone of the fore legs
is a little more nearly round than in the other mutton breeds
(Fig. 63).
Man-kings, Wool, and Skin. — The color of face and legs varies
from light steel gray to a light soft brown, frequently referred to as a
mouse brown. The face should not approach black in color nor be
speckled with white. Clear, pink skins are preferred, as sheep
having dark skins are regarded as hard feeders. The weight of
HARDINESS AND FEEDING QUALITIES 107
fleece ranges from 5 to 8 pounds and in twelve months it attains a
length of about two inches. In addition to covering the neck it
extends as clean white wool over the head to form a cap on the fore-
head and a covering on the cheeks, but it does not extend down over
the face much below the eyes. Below it extends to the knees in front
and to the hocks behind. Frequently a downy, incipient growth of
wool runs down on the hind legs to the pasterns.
Disqualifications. — The English Flock Book publishes the fol-
lowing reasons why judges should not at breeding stock shows award
a prize to otherwise good sheep :
(a) Horns or evidence of their presence.
(b) Dark poll.
FIG. 65. — Southdown lambs bred by the University of Illinois. These lambs won
first prize in the competition for pen of four Southdown lambs at the 1917 International
Live Stock Show, Chicago.
(c) Blue skin.
(d) Speckled face, ears, and legs.
(e) Bad wool, probably meaning decided departures from typical
Southdown wool (Fig. 64)
Properties. — The Southdown is preeminent among mutton
breeds for the quality of its mutton. It is famous for the fine-grain,
firmness and juiciness of its lean and for the whiteness, flakiness
and sweetness of its fat, which is not excessive in amount. Whether
it is consumed as baby lamb, ordinary lamb, or mature mutton, these
qualities are present to the satisfaction of the most exacting epicure.
Hardiness and Feeding Qualities. — On the whole the South-
down is considered hardy, but it is not adapted to the rigorous con-
108 THE SOUTHDOWN
ditions under which some breeds are able to live. At birth the
lambs weigh about eight pounds and, as a rule, they are strong,
active, eager for feed and disposed to grow from the start. Both
the mature sheep and the lambs take kindly to all well-known sheep
feeds and they are especially fond of grazing on pasture grasses,
to which they are perhaps somewhat better adapted than to luxuriant
forage crops. Under average conditions with respect to feed and
shepherding, it is characteristic of the mature sheep to remain plump
and in good condition through practically all seasons, and the
lambs early attain plump form and a firm, ripe condition which
give them distinction as a prime baby lamb product. The lambs do
not attain weight as rapidly, however, as do those of some of the
FIG. 66. — Grade Southdown lambs bred by University of Illinois. The granddams —
the western ewes in Fig. 138. These lambs, two crosses removed from Western ewes, possess
the characteristics of Southdowns to such extent that none except expert judges could
distinguish them from pure breds.
other breeds, but unquestionably they make good use of the food
they consume. In America they weigh approximately 50 pounds
when three months old (Fig. 65).
Breeding Qualities. — In Southdown flocks, the per cent of
lambs born to the number of ewes bred ranges from 125 to 150. The
ewes are good mothers ; they seldom disown their lambs and they
suckle them well. When in the lambing fold, the ewes, although
smart and alert, are not wild, nervous or reckless to the detriment
of their lambs.
In cross-breeding and in grading up, Southdown rams are ex-
tremely prepotent. No matter what kind of ewes they are mated
with, their offspring bear unmistakable resemblance to the South-
QUESTIONS 109
down breed not only in external appearance, but also in manner of
feeding and growth, and in quality of mutton. For this reason
Southdown rams are especially suited to crossing on Dorset Horned
and Merino ewes when early or winter lambs are desired for special
markets (Fig. 66).
Distribution. — The Southdown has been introduced into prac-
tically all countries where the production of mutton has received
attention. But in spite of its trimness, which is always a delight
to the eye, and its superior quality of mutton, it has not become
the prevailing breed in many regions outside of its native hom'e. In
America, and in various other countries as well, England excepted,
its distribution is characterized by occasional flocks. The reason
for this is that it is not big enough and its fleece is too light in
weight to suit the average sheep raiser. But unquestionably there
are many places in the United States where the grain and grass
crops are admirably suited to the Southdown, and .since the Amer-
ican markets always welcome neat, tidy lambs, there is no good reason
why pure and grade Southdown flocks should not be more numerous.
Both in England and in the United States societies have been
organized for the promotion of the breed. The English society^
which succeeded the English Southdown Sheep Breeders' Associa-
tion, organized in 1890, is known as the Southdown Sheep Society
and it annually publishes a volume enittled " The Southdown Flock
Book."
The American society was incorporated in 1882 as the American
Southdown Association, and its annual volume is entitled " The
American Southdown Kecord."
QUESTIONS
1. Compare the work of Ellinan and Webb.
2. What desirable features did the old Southdowns possess?
3. What undesirable features?
4. Enumerate the superior points of the Southdown as a mutton sheep.
5. What criticisms have been made against the Southdown?
6. On what kind of land do you think Southdowns would return as much
or more than any other breed?
7. On what kind of land do you think it would be inadvisable to keep them?
8. Would you gather from the history of the Southdown that it strongly
impresses its characters when crossed with other breeds?
9. What can be said of the prolificacy and milking qualities of Southdown
CHAPTER XI
THE SHROPSHIRE
History. — Old Types. — The Shropshire was developed into a
distinct breed in the counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire, in
central western England. Because of extensive areas of pasture on
both hill and cultivated lands, flock husbandry was a prominent
feature in the agriculture of these counties long before the time
of modern Shropshire. Certain types of sheep were confined to
different parts, the more important of these being Morfe Common,
Cannock Chase, Long Mynd, and Whittington Heath. The sheep
were named after the locality to which they belonged, and, although
they bore an unmistakable resemblance to each other, they were
somewhat different and were regarded as separate types. It is also
probable that they were not markedly unlike the old stock on the
Southdown Hills from which the Southdown breed was developed.
They were active, hardy, accustomed to running at large without a
shepherd, and little subject to scab or foot rot. They yielded from
two to three pounds of wool, which was graded with the choicest
produced in England. As a rule, they matured slowly and when
fatted at two or three years of age, weighed from 75 to 110 pounds.
Lack of width and a drop behind the shoulders were their most
pronounced faults in conformation. They varied in face and leg
markings from spotted to dark brown or black, and with the excep-
tion of the Cannock Chase, they were horned (Fig. 67).
Method of Development. — Writers are not agreed as to the
way in which the Shropshire was made. Some maintain that it was
formed by selecting and mating the best from the old native breeds
of the two counties, while others say that it came into existence
through the crossing of improved Southdowns. Leicesters, and Cots-
wolds on the native stock. Alfred Mansell, Secretary of the .Eng-
lish Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association, and a leading author-
ity, states that there are no reliable records she-wing how improve-
ment in size, in uniformity of character, and in value and weight of
fleece was effected. He further says : " In the early days, some his-
torians say that the Southdown ram was introduced for this purpose,
whilst others equally well qualified to express an opinion assert that
110
METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT
111
uniformity of character and perfection of form are the result of
selection from home-bred sheep of the best type. Speaking from
personal knowledge far back into the last century, I am in a position
to assert that no one who has achieved any success as a breeder or
exhibitor has deviated from a line of pure breeding for the past 60
or 70 years" (Fig. 68).
There seems to be a preponderance of evidence, however, that
cross breeding was practised prior to and during the time the breed
was coming into existence. Wilson, Plymley, Tanner, Melden,
FIG. 67. — Shropshire ram, Tanner Royal. First prize, two shear ram, English Royal
and International Show in Chicago, 1913. Bred by Alfred Tanner, England. A great-sire
in the flock of Arthur Broughton and Sons, Albany, Wis.
Clarke, Spooner, and Wrightson are practically agreed on this point.
John Algernon Clarke states that two of the most celebrated found-
ers of the breed, Samuel Meire and George Adney, practised crossing,
the former using both Southdown and Leicester blood, and the latter
only the Southdown cross. W. C. Spooner in an article on cross-
breeding, published in volume 20 of the Koyal Agricultural Society
Eeport, quoted the following as a part of a speech that M. J. Meire
made before a farmers' club in Shropshire County : <e It is not
112 THE SHROPSHIRE
attempted to be denied that the Shropshire is a cross-bred sheep;
the original breed was homed, and the first attempt at improvement
was to get rid of these incumbrances, and there is little doubt. that
this was effected by the cross of the Southdown. This sheep was well
adapted for the Downs, but for the enclosures of Shropshire some-
thing more docile was required, consequently recourse was had to
the. Leicester." It is altogether* probable that most, if not all, of
this crossing was done before there was a conscious movement toward
the formation of a new breed, and it is certain that selection has
been the great agency in the improvement of the breed. The leading
breeders have been thorough students of blood lines, and in the main
FIG. 68. — First prize yearling Shropshire ram, England Royal Show, 1909. Bred and
exhibited by Sir Frank Bibby. A smoot^ low- set thick type that has helped to develop
popularity for the Shropshire.
they have practised closely restricted line breeding. Except from
the standpoint of historical interest it little matters how the breed
was developed because it is a notable fact that at the present time it
breeds true to a uniform type (Fig. 69).
Cooperation of Breeders. — A comparatively large number of
farmers, with a few leading, worked together to bring the Shropshire
into prominence. As stated elsewhere, a certain Samuel Meire and
a George Adney were two of the earlier and more prominent im-
provers. These two men did their most effective work in the early
RECOGNITION AS A BREED
113
fifties of the nineteenth century, although, according to the "Farmers'
Magazine/' Adney's flock must have been founded as early as 1820.
Other early improvers of note were Messrs. Henry Smith, J. and E.
Crane, Green, Horton, Farmer, W. 0. Foster, G. M. Kettel, H. J.
Sheldon, Thomas Mansell, John Coxon, Edward Hollow, Thomas
Harley, John Stubbs, E. Thornton, Sampson Byrd, Colonel Dyoot,
and Mrs. Annie Baker. Others coming into prominence a little later
were Messrs. Henry Mathews, Pryce, W. Bowen, J. H. Bradburne,
R. H. Masfen, Joseph Meire, Maddox, John Preece, John Stubbs,
C. R. Keeling, William Grindle, J. B. Green, T. C. Whitmore,
Edward Thornton, Lord Wenlock, and still others. This large group
of breeders worked together for the perfection and advancement of
the breed and that they succeeded is a well-known fact. One thing
FIG. 69. — Stud Shropshire rams in field condition. Property of Thomas Buttar,
Coupar Angus, Scotland. With the exception of the sheep in the center of the group, these
sheep, although not in pretty show-yard bloom, possess the characteristics Shropshire
breeders desire in their breeding rams.
they did which displayed farse'eing and intelligent cooperation was
to petition the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society to appoint
well-known judges to act for a term of years at the Royal Show
for the purpose of fixing the true type and character of the Shrop-
shire. The Council took heed of this petition and the decisions of
the judges it appointed were studiously noted. With the awards in
mind, breeders returned to their homes and carefully determined
the good and bad points in their own sheep and the direction in
which their efforts in breeding should be turned. No other group of
8
114 THE SHROPSHIRE
breeders has done a more significant thing than this in its bearing
on uniformity of type (Fig. 70).
Recognition as a Breed. — Shropshires were first exhibited at
the Eoyal Show of England in 1845, but no class was made for them
at that time. In 1853 they were placed in a special class for short-
wooled sheep, not Southdowns, and they were given a class of their
own in 1859, which was the firsftime that any of the short-wooled
breeds broke up the classification, " Short-wooled sheep which are
not Southdowns,'7 Their rapid rise in prominence at the shows can
FIG. 70.— Shropshire ewe. Bred by T. S. Minton, England, and exhibited by J. C.
Andrew, West Point, Indiana. Female champion of the breed at the International Live
Stock Show, Chicago, 1916. The extension white of wool over the face and legs, the turn
of the neck, smoothly set high on the shoulders, and the rounding line of the body are
desirable.
be appreciated by a statement of the entries at the Royal Show in
1884. At Shrewsbury, the center of the home of the breed, 875
Shropshires from fifteen counties were on exhibition, while the total
of all other breeds was 420. This exhibit further stimulated home
breeding and created a strong foreign demand.
Description. — The Shropshire is the result of great skill and
judgment on the part of breeders during the past sixty years and it
THE PRESENT-DAY SHROPSHIRE 115
is very different from the most typical specimens that appeared at the
English shows between 1850 and 1870. Speaking of the show-
yard celebrities of that period, Mansell says: "They were for the
most part brown with speckled legs, fine in the bone and devoid of
wool, with bare bellies, and too often sickle-hocked, and crooked
spines were the rule rather than the exception. The head of the
males lacked masculine strength and character, and carried little
or no wool on the poll, and the sheep generally stood on much
longer legs than the modern Shropshire. Little attention at this
early date had been paid to the wool, which was generally of a soft
open character and greatly lacking in that density, length of staple
FIG. 71. — Fitted Shropshire ewes adorning the pastures of J. C. Andrew, West Point,
Indiana.
and fineness which is now one of the leading attributes of breed "
(Fig. 71).
The Present-Day Shropshire. — Form and Weight. — The
Shropshire is similar to the Southdown in build of body and length
of legs, but considerably different in various other features. The
neck is longer and more arched ; the head is carried higher and is
proportionately broader between the ears and eyes, slightly longer
and stronger in face profile ; the ears are attached a little lower down
on the sides of the head and are not quite so nearly erect; the hair
on nose, ears, and legs is a darker shade of brown, being called a
deep, soft brown, and the wool is longer, not as fine, and extends
farther over the face and legs. Shropshires are larger than. South-
116
THE SHROPSHIRE
downs, mature rams weighing from 200 to 250 pounds; ewes from
150 to 180 pounds.1
Style. — In style and show-yard finish the Shropshire is impres-
sive and it leads the mutton breeds in drawing attention and admira-
tion at American livestock exhibitions. With its head set proudly
upon a gracefully turned neck, and with its smoothly turned sym-
metrical body, and its picturesque extension of downy, white wool
over the face and legs, it possesses an air of grandeur rather than
of smartness and nattiness which is characteristic of the Southdown
(Fig. 72).
FIG. 72. — Eleven typical Shropshire ewes sired by "Senator Bibby," a famous stud
ram in the flock of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin.
Wool. — In twelve months Shropshire wool attains a length of
from two and one-half to three inches and fleeces average between
8 and 10 pounds in weight. The wool is fairly fine and sufficiently
dense to protect the animal well from unfavorable weather. No
other mutton breed equals the Shropshire in extension of wool over
the face and legs. With the most typical specimens all of the face
except the nose or muzzle is covered with white wool and the legs
are covered to the pasterns. Also the ears are often covered with
1 Weight standards are hard to fix and at best only an estimate can
be made. For the Shropshire and all other breeds discussed in this volume
the weights given apply to sheep that are in fairly high condition, but not
exceedingly fat.
THE PRESENT-DAY SHROPSHIRE 117
wool. In most cases the leg covering is not complete, particularly
on the forelegs, and frequently it is not clear white. White wool
should extend to the knees and hocks, however, and on the hind
legs it should extend on down from the hock to the pasterns, but
between these points a slight admixture of dark wool is permissible.
Dark wool also often appears on the head and face, the places of its
most frequent occurrence being the horn holes and -the regions just
above the eyes. In show sheep such wool is objectionable, but if
present to only a slight extent it is largely overlooked in flock
specimens (Fig. 73).
FIG. 73. — Shropshire lambs bred by Henry Wardwell, Springfield Center, New York.
Few animals are as winsome as four-month-old Shropshire lambs covered with baby fat
and encased with downy white wool from nose to toes.
Breeders attempt to grow white wool on the head and legs of
their sheep for two reasons : first, pure white wool on the extremities
almost invariably indicates freedom from dark fibers in the body
of the fleece; second, the sharp demarcation between white wool
and deep brown hair has a much more pleasing effect than the merg-
ing of dark wool and brown hair. Dark wool in the body of the
fleece detracts from its value because white wool admixed with dark
fibers can not be dyed to a pure color other than black. For this
reason any Shropshire having a noticeable amount of dark wool
anywhere above the knees and hocks and back of a line drawn from
ear to ear should be discarded as a breeding animal. Regarding the
covering of head and legs with wool, it should be stated that it is
seldom uniform in extent through all seasons of the year. Breeding
ewes particularly are likely to begin shedding it a few weeks after
they lamb and both sexes are likely to lose some of it during the
hot summer months.
118 THE SHROPSHIRE
Markings and Skin. — Although a deep soft brown is the most
typical color for the hair on the nose, ears, and legs, considerable
variation exists and is permissible. Bluish or steel gray markings
are not objected to by many American breeders, as they are regarded
as indicative of robustness, easy feeding qualities, and pure white
fleeces. Rusty brown or faded out brown, particularly when asso-
ciated with very thin short hair*on the nose and ears, are undesir-
able shades of color, and spotted markings, characteristic of cross-
bred or grade down sheep, are undersirable to such extent that they
usually disqualify the animal.
The skin of the typical Shropshire is a bright pink or cherry red.
No other group of breeders of dark-faced sheep has been so exacting
FIG. 74. — Shropshire ewe lambs, eight months old, bred by the University of Illinois.
with respect to the color of skin as the Shropshire men. In spite
of this fact, however, bluish skins and pink skins with numerous
bluish spots are not uncommon. Pink skins are thought to indicate
easy feeding qualities and freedom from a tendency to grow dark
wool (Fig. 74).
Horns or evidence of their presence are regarded as a disqualifica-
tion. They never appear in females, but in males their presence or
absence should always be determined by the examiner.
Properties. — The mutton of the Shropshire is of high quality,
being fine grained, firm, and of desirable color both in lean and fat.
Tne lambs when well finished and weighing about eighty pounds are
of especially high quality and rank with the best as lamb mutton.
Hardiness and Feeding Qualities. — In ability to withstand
hardship and disease the Shropshire is no hardier than most of
BREEDING QUALITIES
119
the mutton breeds, but it is unusually well adapted to average con-
ditions with respect to feed and care. It responds well to rich
pastures, but it also does well where the grazing is of only average
quality. The Shropshire thrives on forage crops and it takes kindly
to the dry lot if soiling crops are available. Whether in the north
or south, on lowlands, hills, mountains, or semi-arid plains, it
grows into a pretty good Shropshire and satisfies the demand for
a good mutton sheep. Although the lambs grow at a fairly rapid
rate, they are not inclined to be as plump and firm at an early age
as the Southdown, one reason being that so many of them are
FIG. 75. — Lambs by Shropshire ram in Fig. 150 and out of western ewes shown in Fig. 148.
These lambs are the kind that command top prices at the market.
twins. At three months of age they average about fifty pounds
in weight.
Breeding Qualities. — In prolificacy the Shropshire is unsur-
passed by any other widely-distributed improved breed of sheep. A
flock of one hundred breeding ewes will often average from one hun-
dred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five lambs, and even a
larger percentage is not uncommon. Undoubtedly this marked pro-
lificacy is due in no small degree to the attention given it by the
early improvers of the breed. At birth the lambs weigh about eight
pounds. As a rule the singles are considerably heavier, but the
average birth weight is cut down materially by the great number of
twins. The ewes suckle very well and the lambs are fairly strong at
120
THE SHROPSHIRE
birth. In the selection of breeding ewes most American breeders
need to emphasize the practice of retaining females that are able
to produce strong lambs and grow them well. Unless this is done
there is danger of marked prolificacy being a hindrance rather than
a help to the breed. There was a time when Shropshire breeders
would sacrifice too much, in such essentials as constitution and
ability to make rapid growth, for*the sake of extreme wool covering.
Distinctive and picturesque as are Shropshires with woolly heads and
legs, they do not conform to the " rent-paying " idea early conceived
by improvers if they do not possess the power of growing strong,
FIG. 76. — Keeping watch for the fellow -in front. Shropshire rams.
lusty, sappy lambs. It is better to have only a moderate wool
covering than to be without this power, a fact which all Shropshire
breeders should keep in mind.
Shropshire rams, because they impart their mutton qualities
uniformly to their lambs, have been widely used in the United
States and elsewhere in cross-breeding and grading up. Their off-
spring from either pure or grade Merino ewes develop into splendid
market lambs (Fig. 75).
Distribution. — Because of inherent good qualities and efficient
promotion, the Shropshire breed has been widely distributed. It
QUESTIONS 121
is more nearly a cosmopolitan than any of the other mutton breeds;
exportation have been made from its native home to all of the
leading sheep countries and to many others of lesser importance.
In the farm flocks of the United States and Canada there is more
Shropshire blood than that of any other breed; it has also been
widely distributed over the range regions of these countries. In
England the members of the Shropshire Sheep Society have coop-
erated .in making their breed prominent, chiefly by making large
and attractive displays of their sheep at the leading shows. The
volumes published yearly since the organization of the society con-
tain much interesting material concerning the breed. The American
Shropshire Society, organized in 1884, is the largest separate sheep
society in the world. It also publishes an annual volume (Fig. 76).
QUESTIONS
1. In what direction and about how far is the native home of the Shrop-
shire from that of the Southdown?
2. Contrast the method of developing the Shropshire with that of de-
veloping the Southdown.
3. When were Shropshires first recognized as a distinct breed at the Royal
Show of England?
4. Compare a typical Shropshire with a typical Southdown.
5. What properties of the Shropshire have had an influence on its dis-
tribution ?
6. Discuss the prolificacy of the Shropshire.
CHAPTER XII
THE HAMPSHIRE
History. — The Old Stock.— The Hampshire breed originated
on the rolling, chalky, light land of south central England in the
county of Hampshire, the southern border of which touches the
English Channel. Early in the nineteenth century the Southdown,
as improved by Ellman, was extensively used by the farmers in the
general region of Hampshire for crossing on the old Wiltshire and
Berkshire Knot breeds. The old Wiltshires have been described as
white-faced, large, imposing looking animals with long legs, high
withers, sharp spines, big heads, Roman noses, and curling horns.
Their wool was moderately fine and the fleeces from ewe flocks
averaged from two to two and one-half pounds. Originally they
were kept primarily for their wool and dung. They were well
adapted to folding on the arable land and to travelling out several
miles each day for their feed on the closely cropped downs. Before
the introduction of Southdown blood, the Wilts farmers were in-
creasing the size and improving the conformation of the Wiltshire
to such extent that they were accused of breeding for beauty and
not for utility. With the exception of dark faces and legs, the
Berkshire Knots resembled the Wiltshires (Fig. 77).
In many cases pure Southdowns replaced the native sheep of
both Wiltshire and Hampshire and crossing with Southdowns be-
came so general that the native types were merged into the old
Hampshire, which was a sort of modified Southdown but not suffi-
ciently uniform in type to deserve the distinction of being called a
breed. According to James Eawlence the last flock of the old
Wiltshire horned breed disappeared about 1819. Probably the
Southdown, with its superior quality and attractive character would
have entirely replaced the old breeds had it not been that Wiltshire
and Hampshire farmers awakened to the indispensable value of
the hardiness, early maturity, and large size which the flocks carry-
ing some of the blood of the old sheep possessed. The value of
these characteristics became apparent not long after the down lands
were enclosed, treated with artificial manures and planted to such
crops as turnips, rape, vetches, clover, rye, and Italian rye grass.
122
HISTORY
123
124 THE HAMPSHIRE
These crops, secured at considerable expense, had to be fed to sheep
capable of handling large quantities of rank forage and of turning
off big wether lambs rather than yearling or two-year-old wethers
(Fig. 78).
Work of Humphrey. — By 1^35 Hampshire sheep, according to
Wrightson, had taken their general form, but there yet remained
the task of reducing them to ^ uniform type with the power of
transmitting their characters regularly to their offspring. In this
work Mr. Humphrey, of Oak Ash, near Wantage, in Berkshire, led
all others to the extent that he is generally credited with giving
the breed its present character and position. He attained his suc-
cess by carefully selecting those ewes which in his judgment were
the best of the old Hampshire Downs, then known as West Country
FIG. 78. — Hampshire ewes in England cleaning up a growth of forago, v/hich has been
partially consumed by their lambs.
Downs, and mating them with Southdown rams from the flock of
Jonas Webb. His method of procedure is well brought out in his
historic communication to W. C. Spooner in 1859.
" About twenty-five years since, in forming my flock, I pur-
chased the best Hampshire or West Country Down ewes I could
meet with. Some of them I obtained from the late Mr. G. Budd,
Mr. William Pain, Mr. Digwee, and other eminent breeders, giving
40 shillings when ordinary ewes were making 33 shillings, and
using the best rams I could get of the same kind until the Oxford
Show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society. On examining the dif-
ferent breeds exhibited there, I found the Cotswolds were beautiful
in form and of great size, and, on making inquiries as to how they
were brought to such perfection, I was informed that a Leicester
WORK OF HUMPHREY 125
ram was coupled to some of the largest Cotswold ewes, and the
most robust of the produce was selected for use. The thought then
struck me that my best plan would be to obtain a first-rate Sussex
Down Southdown sheep to put to my larger Hampshire Down .ewes/
both being the Short-woolled breed. . . . With this object I wrote to
Mr. Jonas Webb to send me one of his best sheep, and he sent me a
shearling by his favorite sheep Babraham. I went down the next
two years and selected for myself, but the stock did not suit my taste
so well as the one he sent me, and I did not use them. I then com-
missioned him to send me the sheep which obtained the first prize
at Liverpool, and from these two sheep, the first and last, by mark-
FIG. 79. — Twenty-two thousand Hampshires in pens made with hurdles, Salisbury
Fair, England.
ing the lambs of each tribe as they fell, then coupling them together
at the third and fourth generation, my present flock was made "
(Fig. 79).
Some time after Mr. Humphrey began his work he drafted
twenty-five ewes from a purchase of one hundred, made in con-
junction with his neighbor, Mr. Rawlence. This was the only time
he introduced outside blood through females. Before using any of
his rams extensively he tested them on a selected few of his ewes
and if they did not breed to suit him, they were sent to the butcher.
His greatest difficulty was the loss of size which was overcome by
regularly disposing of his smallest ewes. In fact, his skill as a
breeder was due in large part to his diligence in weeding out
126 THE HAMPSHIRE
animals that did not promise to contribute to the end he had in
view. After his death, in 1868, his flock was sold at auction. Mr.
James Bawlence, of Bulbridge, who from time to time purchased
stock of Mr. Humphrey, proved to be a worthy successor as a leader
in still further improving and promoting the breed. In founding
his flock his method was just the opposite of that of Mr. Humphrey ;
he selected Southdowns for his female stock and mated them with
Hampshire rams (Fig. 80).
Fio. 80. — A prominent prize-winning Hampshire ram bred by H. C. Stephens, England.
Massiyeness of body, heavy bone, thoroughly masculine features in the head, and a strong
neck rising rather high where it joins the head are desirable characteristics of a Hampshire
breeding ram.
Cause of Early Maturity. — Among Hampshire breeders most
of the rams in flock service are lambs, and the belief that the early
maturity of the breed has been brought about by the consistent con-
tinuance of this practice is prevalent. That it has been a contribut-
ing cause is altogether likely, but E. P. Squarey and J. E. Eawlence,
in their history of the Hampshire Down as it appears in the first
volume of the English Society, maintain that early maturity was
characteristic of the old Wiltshire (Fig. 81).
DESCRIPTION
127
Description. — Form and Weight. — The Modern Hampshire is
a bold, massive, thick-fleshed, hornless sheep with a long, deep,
symmetrical body, heavy bone, and striking head features. Mature
rams in breeding condition weigh from 250 to 300 pounds; ewes
from 180 to 225 pounds. The head is large and the face profile is
slightly Roman in females and distinctly so in males ; the ears are
long, fairly wide and thick and attached so as to fall slightly out-
ward and forward when the animal is at attention. The neck.
FIG. 81. — Hampshire ewe. The ears are typical of the breed — rather long, set almost
horizontal to the head with the inside turned frontward.
although rather long, is thick and muscular and set to the shoulders
so as to permit the sheep to carry the head above the body rather
than horizontal with it. The legs, being of medium length are
properly proportioned to the large body that they support.
A fault rather common in the Hampshire about twenty years
ago was a falling away behind the shoulders, but this defect has
been almost eliminated.
Wool. — Hampshires, when properly cared for, yield approxi-
128
THE HAMPSHIRE
mately eight pounds of unwashed wool, which is about two and one-
half inches long, fairly dense, and a trifle coarser than Shropshire
wool. To be typical the fleece must be all white, but an admixture
of dark fibers is not uncommon. Pure white wool extends over the
head, cheeks, and forehead to a line a little below the eyes. Of late
years breeders, especially those in the United States, have been in-
clined to favor an extension of wool over the face, and lambs with
almost as much face covering as Shropshires have appeared at shows.
On the legs white wool should extend to the knees and hocks. Most
show specimens, however, have the wool carried down almost, or
FIG. 82. — Hampshire ewes in show bloom: Two to left are yearlings; two to right are
lambs and are almost as large as the yearlings.
quite, to the pasterns. Some American breeders have observed that
the woolly-faced ewes are not as heavy milkers and as a result do
not grow their lambs as well as the open-faced ewes (Fig. 82).
Markings and Skin. — The color of face, ears, and legs", is a very
rich, dark brown approaching black, which makes a sharp but
pleasing contrast with the white wool on the head, forehead, cheeks
and legs. Breeders are particular about color. A dark tinge in the
head wool is sure to give an animal a low rating in a high-class
show and a bar of light brown or gray hair across the face, just
below the wool cap, is unfavorably regarded in rams.
BREEDING QUALITIES 129
The skin of the typical Hampshire is pink, but there is a strong
tendency toward very dark or bluish skins. Horns or evidence of
their presence amount to a disqualification (Fig. 83).
Properties. — Rate of Growth. — Hampshires are famous for their
size, rapid rate of growth, early maturity, and ability to thrive on
forage crops between hurdles. When liberally fed they are without
an equal in rapid rate of growth. In England, where they are kept
between hurdles a great part of the time, the lambs often make
more than a pound of gain per day through periods of one hundred
days or more. They attain what seem like preposterous weights
before they are a year old. Eight- and nine-month lambs can be
made to weigh two hundred pounds and even more. As a pure-bred
FIG. 83 — First-prize pen often Hampshire ram lambs, Salisbury Fair, England, July, 1909.
Note the size and maturity of these lambs, all born after Jan. 1, 1909.
sheep they undoubtedly belong in a system where- liberal feeding is
practiced ; otherwise their most valuable properties cannot function.
The ewes winter well on roughage.
In quality of mutton the Hampshire shows its Southdown in-
heritance; the lean meat is fine-grained and firm and as large
mutton it has no superior.
Breeding Qualities.— Hampshire ewes are prolific, strong in
maternal instinct, and good milkers. The lambing record of thirty-
seven English flocks was kept by the English Society in 1903;
15,482 ewes raised 18,462 lambs or 119.17 per cent. Numbers con-
sidered, this speaks well for the prolificacy and hardiness of the
breed. At birth the lambs are large, weighing around ten pounds,
9
CHAPTER XIII
THE OXFORD DOWN
History. — The Oxford Down or Oxford, as it is commonly called,
originated in the county of Oxford in central England. Oxford
County is the meeting ground of the strongholds of the Hampshire
just south, and of the Cotswold immediately west. The Oxford
sheep was made by crossing these two breeds. Mr. Samuel Druce,
of Ensham and several other Oxfordshire farmers began to breed
Cotswold rams to Hampshire ewes in 1833 or thereabouts. Druce
and William Gillet also used Southdowns to some extent in the
early days before the Hampshires were settled to a uniform type by
Humphrey, when Hampshire breeders, themselves, occasionally used
Southdown rams. Cross-breeding probably continued for a number
of years. Wrightson quotes C. S. Bead as saying: "The (flock)
owner formerly divided his flock into three parts, putting the half-
bred ram to the ewes that were about right, a Cotswold to the small
ones, and a Down (Hampshire Down) to the coarser sheep/' Draw-
ing upon the words of someone else, Wrightson further says : " Mr.
Druce early found that good qualities can better be secured by
employing the cross-bred animals on both sides than by using the
first cross/' Gradually the breed type evolved from a more or less
heterogeneous group of cross-breds. After 1854 pure-breds from
either of the parent breeds or from any other breeds were no
longer employed (Fig. 86).
Beginning in 1840, J. T. Twynam did much to draw the atten-
tion of the public to the new breed. It was given a place as a
distinct breed by the Boyal Agricultural Society at its show at
Battersea in 1862.
Description. — Form and" Size. — The Oxford is a large, some-
what upstanding sheep with strong bone and a high, graceful car-
riage of head which it doubtless inherits from the Cotswold. The
top of the body is very wide and in contour approaches the rectan-
gular, rather than the oval characteristic of the Southdown and the
Shropshire. The head and ears are a trifle smaller and the face
profile less inclined to be Roman than in the Hampshire. Mature
rams in breeding condition weigh from 275 to 300 pounds and ewes
200 pounds or more (Fig. 87).
132
FIG. 86
FIG. 86. — Oxford-Down ram. Shown by N. W. Harris, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. The
Oxford-Down has a longer fleece than the other Down breeds.
FIG. 87. — Oxford-Down ewe, a prominent winner. Property of George McKerrow and
Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin.
134 THE OXFORD DOWN
Wool— There is a little more of the face covered with wool in
the Oxford than in the Hampshire; the growth on the forehead is
long enough to form a distinct top knot which is intensified in show
specimens by leaving the forehead wool long at shearing time. In
twelve months Oxford wool grows to a length of from three to four
inches ; it is strong and lustrous and ranks with Hampshire wool in
fineness. Unwashed fleeces average from ten to twelve pounds in
weight. As a producer of wool no other Down breed equals the
Oxford.
Markings and Skin. — The color of the face, ears and legs in the
Oxford is a lighter brown than in the Hampshire. In fact the
typical Oxford brown has no suggestion of black about it, as there
is in the case of the Hampshire and Shropshire. Breeders allow
'f f
w*
FIG. 88. — Oxford-Downs bred by the veteran, R. J. Stone, Stonington, Illinois.
considerable variation in color markings, however, and shades rang-
ing from steel gray to dark brown pass as being typical. Oxford
breeders prefer sheep with bright pink skins to those with spotted
or bluish skins. Dark wool either on the head or body is objection-
able. The breed is hornless; hence, any evidence of horns in rams
is undesirable (Fig. 88).
Properties. — Great size, outstanding weight and quality of wool
for a Down breed, prolificacy and deep milking properties are
attributes which Oxford breeders claim for their sheep. In addi-
tion it may be said that although the mutton is hardly as fine in
quality as that of the Southdown, it is good enough markedly to
improve the carcass when the Oxford ram is used in cross-breeding
and up-grading.
Oxfords are fully as hardy as any of the dark-faced breeds and
DISTRIBUTION
135
the ewes continue to breed until they reach a ripe old age. Although
they are large sheep and quite capable of handling heavy forage
crops, they are also able to do fairly well on the feed furnished to
the average farm flock in the eastern and central parts of the United
States. This ability, together with their superior shearing qualities,
makes them desirable as a farmer's sheep (Fig. 89).
On account of their heavy yield of milk and strongly developed
maternal instinct, Oxford ewes are splendid mothers. Twins are
frequent and the lambs are large, weighing about ten pounds at
birth. Singles frequently weigh more. The lambs grow rapidly
but they do not attain weight quite so rapidly as the Hampshire.
FIG. 89.— Lambs bred by the University of Illinois; sired by Oxford- Down ram in
Fig. 152 and out of Western ewes in Fig. 148. These lambs, born in March, made rapid
growth and were pronounced prime for the market before July 1st.
Both in the United States and Germany, Oxford rams have
proved satisfactory for crossing on Merino and Merino-grade ewes.
Especially is this true when the female offspring are to be retained
as breeding stock for, in addition to the mutton qualities imparted,
a beautiful fleece of desirable weight is obtained.
Distribution.— At present the breed is well distributed over
Great Britain, the United States, and Canada, and flocks are to be
found in nearly or quite all of the leading sheep countries. The
American Oxford Down Sheep Kecord Association was organized in
1884 and the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association of England
in 1888. Both associations issue an annual volume.
136 THE OXFORD DOWN
QUESTIONS
1. Compare the histories of the Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire and
Oxford and determine in which the origin of the breed seems to
be most clearly known.
2. In what respects are Oxfords most different from Hampshires?
3. Do Oxfords resemble Cotswolds?
4. Can you think of any reason why it would be better to make a breed
by crossing the Hampshire and the Cotswold than by crossing the
Hampshire and the Romney Marsh?
5. How far is the native home of the Southdown from that of the Oxford?
6. Aside from the first cross between Cotswolds and Hampshires how was
breeding conducted to develop the Oxford?
CHAPTER XIV
THE SUFFOLK
History. — The native home of the Suffolk is northeast of Lon-
don, England, in the counties of Suffolk, Cambridge, and Essex. In
this region there existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century
and before, a horned breed known as the Norfolk. It was a hardy,
active sheep and produced mutton of superior grain and flavor. Be-
tween 1800 and 1850 the Southdown was extensively used in the old
Norfolk flocks for the purpose of improving form and fattening
properties. By the middle of the century the resulting Southdown-
Norfolks were widely known as " Black-faces," and in 1859, at the
annual meeting of the Suffolk Agricultural Association, they were
given their present name, "Suffolk" (Figs. 90 and 91).
Description. — Suffolks are little if any larger than Shropshires,
mature rams weighing about 250 pounds and ewes 165 pounds.
They are hornless and the head, ears, and legs are black and free
from wool covering. Their ears are long and their faces are long
and distinctly Roman. In conformation they tend to ranginess,
but when well-finished they are plump and well-developed in the
parts most valuable for meat. The wool is short and similar to
the Hampshire in quality. As one would surmise from the fact
that it does not extend over the head and frequently not as far as
the knees and hocks, it often fails to cover the under side of the
body. Although reports of nine pounds per fleece have been made,
it is doubtful whether pure-bred flocks will average more than
seven (Fig. 92).
Properties. — The Suffolk is very highly regarded for the quality
of its mutton. It has no superior for a large proportion of lean and
the grain is fine and firm. It has more than held its own with
other breeds at the great Smithfield fat stock show in London in
both the live and carcass classes.
Returns made annually since 1887 by owners of registered
Suffolk flocks show that on the average 100 ewes will raise 133
lambs. The lambs grow rapidly if well . grazed and are ready for
the English butcher when six months old. At eight to ten months
of age they often yield carcasses of eighty to ninety pounds weight.
137
138
THE SUFFOLK
FIG. 90
FIG. 91
FIG. 90. — Suffolk 'ram. There is no wool on the head of the Suffolk nor on the legs
below the hocks and knees. The hair on face and legs is more nearly black than in any
other Down breed.
FIG. 91. — Suffolk ewe. The muzzle showing an "undershot" jaw is not typical.
QUESTIONS
139
Hardiness is one of the strong claims made for the Suffolk. They
are good at travelling and hence do well where their feed must be
gathered from large areas. It is this ability which seems to cause
them to be favorably regarded at present in South Africa.
In North America little is known of the value of the Suffolk
for crossing purposes. Supporters of the breed claim that Suffolk
blood improves the carcass of long-wooled breeds by increasing the
proportion of lean meat.
Distribution. — The Suffolk is not so widely distributed as some
of the other breeds in the Down group to which it belongs. Flocks
FIG. 92. — Suffolk ewes, property of Wm. T. Paul, England. Note the uniformity in
markings and the thick, firm legs of mutton.
exist in a number of counties in England, but its native home is
still its chief stronghold. Modest importations have been made to
various sheep countries. In Canada and the United States, Suffolk
flocks are rare and altogether too little is known about them. The
Suffolk Sheep Society of England was organized in 1886. Its
volumes, published annually, contain valuable data concerning the
breed. An association was formed in the United States at Des
Moines. Iowa, but up to 1918 it had published no flock book.
QUESTIONS
1. Where was the Suffolk developed?
2. Compare the Suffolk with the Hampshire.
3. How does the Suffolk rank in the quality of its mutton?
4. Compare the Suffolk with the Oxford Down for wool production.
CHAPTER XV
THE DORSET HORN
History. — The Old Stock. — llie native home of the Dorset Horn
is in the counties of Dorset and Somerset in south central England.
In soil and climate these counties are similar to those adjoining
them on the east in which the Hampshires were developed. No
accounts are given to show exactly how the Dorset Horn was made,
but as nearly as is known it was developed entirely by selection
from a native stock bearing a close resemblance to, but not iden-
tical with the old Wiltshire that was so prominent as one of the
progenitors of the Hampshire. Descriptions of this parent stock
refer to its horns, fine wool, and also to the color of the lips and
nostrils which in the main were black but occasionally were flesh-
colored. The flesh color of nostrils and lips characteristic of the
modern Dorset Horn seems to have prevailed first in Somerset,
where the sheep were somewhat larger and more rangy than those
in Dorset.
Development of the Modern Dorset Horn. — During the first
half of the nineteenth century Leicesters, Southdowns, Merinos,
and still other breeds were crossed on the old Dorset Horn stock.
For a time the Southdown became very popular and it seemed as
though the native sheep in their purity of breeding would disap-
pear. About 18'50, however, the tide began to turn in their favor,
evidently because a few breeders in West Dorset had been steadily
improving them by selecting toward the type desired without losing
any of the fecundity and hardiness characteristic of the old stock.
By thickening the shoulders the form was greatly improved and
through selecting for flesh-colored nostrils and lips and for horns
that curled around by the side of the face without rising above
the head or inclining backwards, a uniform, distinctive and pleas-
ing type was secured.
Richard Seymour, living in southwest Dorset, near Bridport, a
little city close by the coast of the English Channel, was the first
notable improver, of Dorset Horns. Between 1830 and 1840 he
increased size and improved symmetry to such an extent that his
flock was the best to be found. A group of twenty or more fol-
140
DESCRIPTION 141
lowed his example and made further improvement along the same
lines, and it was largely through the sale of stock from their flocks
that the improved type became prevalent in the county (Fig. 93).
Description. — Form and Size. — The Dorset Horn is really a
Down breed, but strikingly unlike the other prominent Down
breeds because of its horns and its all-white color. The body is
long, the bone and head features are strong and the whole make-up
is more suggestive of ruggedness than of quality. The face is
inclined to be long, and the muzzle is thicker than in the other
FIG. 93. — The Dorset Horn ram has massive horns which give his head a most
masculine appearance.
Down breeds. High, open shoulders with a noticeable drop behind
them and a rump deficient on either side of the spine are not of
infrequent occurrence. Before the day of their improvement,
Stevenson said of the Dorset that the ewes were much more com-
plete in form than the wethers or rams, an observation wrhich
applies to a certain extent to the modern type. Dorset Horns are
large, mature rams weighing approximately 275 pounds and ewes
180 to 200 pounds.
Wool. — A tuft of compact wool covers the forehead, and there
is wool on the cheeks, but none on the face. On the legs the wool
142
THE DORSET HORN
extends to the knees and hocks, and sometimes from the hocks to
the pasterns. The growth on the belly is short and thin, and bare
bellies are not uncommon. In twelve months the wool attains
about two and one-half inches in length. It is of good commercial
quality, but since flocks do not average as much if any more than
seven pounds per head, the. fleeces weigh less than farmers think
a large sheep ought to shear (Fi^. 94).
FIG. 94. — The Dorset Horn ewe has horns, but they are much more refined than those
of the ram.
Markings and Skin. — The face and legs of the Dorset Horn are
white. The lips and nostrils are free from dark pigment, and the
same is true of the hoofs. In rams the horns come from the
crown of the head on a straight line from each other and well
apart. They are long and thick, and curve backward and around
spirally, " coming as close to the face as may be without cutting/'
while those of ewes are much smaller and curve slightly backward,
then outward, down and in, the tips being about level with the eyes.
Males, unsexed when they are only a few weeks old, develop horns
of about the same size and shape as those of ewes.
In presenting a standard of excellence for the breed, the Dorset
Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, of England, names the follow-
ing as being objectionable : " Spots on the skin, fleece, or markings
PROPERTIES
143
on the horns, coarse hair on legs, tendency of horns to grow back "
(Fig. 95).
Fir,. 95. — Dorset Horn flock of James Flower (deceased), England.
Properties. — The Dorset Horn does not rank as high in quality
of mutton as the dark-faced Down breeds, but the lambs are favor-
FIG. 96. — Dorset Horn lambs grow rapidly.
ably regarded as a meat product, and they grow so rapidly that
they early develop to marketable weight. '
Dorset Horns are considered hardy, and on either pasture or
forage crops they are good feeders. They have abundant capacity
144 THE DORSET HORN
for feec^ and in order to look well, must be fed rather liberally.
Especially is this true when the ewes have lambs at side, because
they yield too much milk for their food requirements to be ignored.
Modern Dorset Horns are famous for their habit of breeding
earlier than any other of the improved mutton breeds. They have a
comparatively large number of twins and it is possible to get two
crops of lambs from them withiti twelve months. This habit was
peculiar to the old stock and was made use of during the first part
of the nineteenth century in the production of what was then known
as house lambs. Being disposed to breed early and to grow their
lambs rabidly, the ewes are unsurpassed as producers of lambs for
special seasons. When they are bred to Southdown rams the lambs
are the very best to be had for marketing when young to an ex-
clusive out-of-season trade. The Dorset Horn-Delaine Merino
Cross is said to produce a capital farm flock ewe, the fleece being
heavier than that of pure Dorset Horn and the breeding and milk-
ing powers almost as well developed (Fig. 96).
Distribution. — Chiefly on account of their light shearing qual-
ities, Dorset Horns have not become widely distributed. In Eng-
land there are not many flocks outside the native home of the breed.
Of the other countries, the United States and Canada probably
lead in the number of flocks. The Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders'
Association, of England, published its first flock book in 1892. In
1891 the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders of America organized, but a
disagreement among the members in 1897 resulted in a second and
presumably rival organization known as the Continental Dorset
Club.
QUESTIONS
1. Where was the Dorset Horn developed?
2. Is it a lowland, upland, or mountain breed?
3. State the desirable and undesirable characteristics of the old stock from
which the Dorset Horn came.
4. Under what conditions would you consider the Dorset Horn one of the
best breeds to raise?
5. Would you consider Dorset Horns better able to defend themselves
against dogs than Southdowns?
G. Which would grade higher on the open market, Dorset Horns or South-
downs ?
7. Do you think it would be advisable to raise two crops of lambs from
Dorset Horn ewes in one year?
CHAPTEK XVI
THE CHEVIOT
History. — The Cheviot is a native of the Cheviot Hills, which
form about 30 miles of the border country between England and
Scotland. These hills rise gradually from an elevation of 1600
feet in the west to a little .over 2600 feet in the east. Their flanks
are scored by deep narrow glens that run in every direction and
on the numerous smooth declivities, short nutritious grass furnishes
pasture upon which sheep feed and thrive in spite of storms and
rough weather (Fig. 97).
No authentic account can be given of the origin of the Cheviot.
Like all of the native sheep from which the modern English breeds
have descended, they come from a stock that was ungainly and
deficient in mutton form. Wrightson says : "The monks of the
Middle Ages bred 'Cheviots around the monasteries, and to the
churchmen of Teviotdale are we indebted for the first improvement
of the breed." Crosses were made with the Leicester, Black-faced
Highland, and probably the Merino, but the most significant im-
provement was brought about through careful selection after 1854,
in which year John Eobson, a great improver of Cheviots, made use
of rams from Lincolnshire.
After 1800 Cheviots gained rapidly in popularity in the border
country and they practically drove their rivals, the Black-Faced
Highlands from all the farms in southern i Scotland except in the
more mountainous districts of Ayrshire and Lanarckshire. After
1860, however, the tide turned back to the Black Faces in those
districts where conditions were a little too rigorous, even for the
Cheviots (Fig. 98).
Description. — The Cheviot possesses the characteristics requisite
of a hill or mountain breed. Its high shoulders necessary in hill
climbing, trim build, alert carriage, and active movements indicate
that it is well adapted to its rugged native home. The face profile is
Roman; the eyes are very bright and prominent and the ears are
short and erect. In the typical Cheviot the face and head bones are
rather prominent and very suggestive of quality. The legs are
10 145
146
THE CHEVIOT
FIG. 97.
FIG. 98.
FIG. 97. — Cheviot ram. The clean cut head, pure white face and short alert ears are
typical.
FIG. 98. — Cheviot ewe. Too many American Cheviots tend to have long, coarse
is the case with this specimen.
PROPERTIES 147
neat and trim, and free from wool below the knees and hocks.
Mature rams in breeding condition weigh about 175 pounds and
ewes from 135 to 150 pounds.
Wool. — The Cheviot has no wool on the head and ears nor on
the legs below the hocks and knees, but the body is well covered. The
wool is pure white, about four inches long when of twelve months'
growth and contains very little yolk. Fleeces weigh from six to
eight pounds.
FIG. 99. — Cheviots on the way to market.
Markings and Skin. — The head and the ears are covered with
short, hard white hair free from a reddish tinge. Distinct black
spots often appear on the ears and occasionally on the face, and the
nostrils, lips, and hoofs are black. The skin is a deep rich pink.
The ewes are hornless, but not all of the rams (Fig. 99).
Properties. — Hardiness is the leading property of Cheviots.
Although a hill breed, they do surprisingly well on the level lands
of the Corn Belt in the United States. They are distinctly a grazing
breed, and they fatten quicker on the grass than in the feed lot. In
regions where the grass is more luxuriant than in their native home
they are inclined to become larger and coarser than the border
country Cheviot.
148
THE CHEVIOT
Either Cheviot mutton or lamb is of excellent quality, being firm
and free from an undue amount of fat. Because of their lighter
weight at maturity, Cheviots have an advantage as mutton in the
American markets (Fig. 100).
Cheviot ewes are prolific and, although somewhat nervous, are
excellent mothers. The lambs ar^ so vigorous that they seldom chill
and die when born out of doors in stormy weather. They grow at a
fairly rapid rate, but they do not attain weight and finish as fast as
some of the Down breeds.
In England and Scotland, aged Cheviot ewes are taken from the
hills to the lowlands, where feed is more abundant and here they
are bred to Border Leicester or Lincoln rams. The resulting half-
breds are very popular, both as a lamb-mutton product and also as a
breeding ewe to be bred to rams of the same breed as the sire ; or
half-bred ewes may be bred to
half-bred rams. The half-bred
is appreciated to such extent
that a class is made for it at the
annual show of the Highland
Agricultural Society of Scot-
land. Oxford rams are also
favorably regarded for crossing
on Cheviot ewes brought out of
the hills to the lowland country.
Cheviots have not been used
extensively for cross-breeding in
America, although some use has
been made of them on the western range both in the United States
and Canada. One serious drawback to putting them on the open
range is their disinclination to stay in a comparatively compaci band
while feeding.
Distribution. — Few Cheviots are to be found outside of Eng-
land, Scotland, and North America. In the border country there
are many large flocks. In North America there is a sprinkling of
flocks in Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the east and middle
western states. The Cheviot Society of Great Britain was organ-
ized in 1891 and the American Cheviot Sheep Society in 1900.
FIG. 100. — Cheviot lamb bred by the Univer
sity of Illinois. The alert pose is typical.
QUESTIONS 149
The latter is an amalgamation of the American Cheviot Sheep
Breeders' Association, organized in 1891, and the National Cheviot
Society, organized 1894.
QUESTIONS
1. How far is the native home of the Southdown from that of the Cheviot?
2. What breed lives higher up in the Scotch Mountains than the Cheviot?
What breed in the valleys below the home of the Cheviot?
3. How is the Cheviot different in conformation from the other mutton
breeds studied thus far?
4. Contrast the Dorset Horn and the Cheviot in markings and skin.
5. How does the Cheviot rank in hardiness?
CHAPTER XVII
THE LEICESTER
•
Two Types of Leicester. — There are two types of Leicester,
the English or Improved Leicester and the Border Leicester. In
England, Scotland, and New Zealand, the Border Leicester is re-
garded as a breed distinct from the English Leicester, but in the
United States and Canada no such distinction has been made. In
fact, American breeders have mingled the two types, and in so doing
some breeders think a better sheep has been secured than either
the English or Border Leicester (Fig. 101).
The English Leicester. — History. — About 1760, Robert Bake-
well, who lived in central England near Loughborough in the county
of Leicestershire, began improving the old Leicester sheep. They
were large, coarse, ill-formed, slow maturing animals with long
coarse wool and flesh of poor quality. Nothing is known concerning
their origin, but probably they were gradually evolved into a type
considered suitable for a rather fertile country. By the middle of
the eighteenth century conditions surrounding agriculture had
changed to such extent that the old sheep were not sufficiently
profitable. No one was more fully aware of their faults than Bake-
well, and hence his objects in improvement were well-defined and
definite. He wanted earlier maturity, more propensity to fatten,
more carcass in proportion to the live weight, and better quality
of flesh. These objects necessarily involved improvement in body
conformation and general quality. In addition, Bakewell linked
utility of form with beauty of form, and unhesitatingly sought for
a more beautiful sheep than the old type.
Bakewell's Method. — For a man of his time and occupation,
Bakewell travelled extensively in search of specimens which he
believed would breed toward the type of sheep he wished to secure.
Just how far away he went for some of the animals he used is not
definitely known, but very likely most of his selections were made
in his home community and in nearby counties. He was a keen
observer of animals and skillful in mating them so as to make
progress toward the type he desired. So far as is known he was the
150
BAKEWELL'S METHOD
151
first animal breeder to make deliberate use of in-and-in breeding.
Instead of selling rams he let them for a season. This gave him an
opportunity to call in and use those whose progeny favorably im-
pressed him. In his hands the old Leicester sheep was changed to
a broad-backed, thick-fleshed, easy-feeding, early-maturing breed
with much less waste in dressing and more quality in their mutton.
But in getting these things it is said that he lost some of the con-
FIG. 101. — English Leicester ram. First prize R.A.S.E., 1904, bred by E. F. Jordon,
England. The English Leicester has a small tuft of wool on the forehead. The long wool
lies in ringlets or "pirls." (From "Farm Livestock in Great Britain," by Wallace).
stitution, prolificacy, milking qualities, and heavy shearing qualities
characteristic of the old sort.
Because of his achievements in improving sheep, Long Horn
cattle, and other stock, Bakewell became a noted person, and visitors
from various parts of England and Continental Europe came to his
place to see his flocks and herds. He was genial and charming as a
host, but evidently he was not fond of telling how he got his results,
for little is known of the various steps taken in changing the old
sheep into the New Leicester breed. What he accomplished, how-
ever, was plainly evident and enough of the principles and methods
152 THE LEICESTER
he followed became known to have a " beneficial effect upon all the
different breeds of domestic animals."
Description. — The English Leicester is a white-faced breed
with a very wide, deep, rectangular-like body and a short, thick
neck which does not carry the head much above the shoulders. The
general form of the face is wedge-shaped ; the nose is slightly narrow
and Roman ; the ears, which extenfl about straight out from the head,
are well-proportioned and in size harmonize with the size of the
FIG. 102. — Border Leicester ram. The Border Leicester has no wool on the head, and depth
of body in proportion to its length and width is not as great as in the English Leicester.
head. Mature rams in breeding condition weigh from 225 to 250
pounds; ewes from 175 to 200 pounds.
The wool of the English Leicester forms a tuft on the forehead
and extends below to the knees and hocks. It terminates in " short
twisted curies " which give a striking and pleasing external appear-
ance to the fleece.
Markings and Skin. — With the exception of an occasional black
speck, the face, ears, and legs are covered with short, bluish-white
hair, but the hoofs and the bare skin on the nose are black. The body
skin is pink or cherry in color. Both sexes are hornless (Fig. 102).
PROPERTIES OF LEICESTERS 153
The Border Leicester. — History. — The Border Leicester was
developed by the Cully brothers, who lived near Wooler, in the east-
ern part of the border country between England and Scotland. In
their community there was a popular long-wooled breed known as
the Teeswater, from which they selected ewes and mated them with
Bakewell rams. They continued to use Leicester rams until they
established a flock of Leicesters of a type which has become known
as the Border Leicester.
Description. — According to Wrightson, the Border Leicester is
" larger and longer than the English Leicester, and the belly is not
quite so full in outline, being carried rather the more lightly " and
adding to the appearance of legginess. But the most noticeable dif-
ferences between the two are to be seen in the head, which in the
B'order Leicester is free from wool, clear-white, bold and carried
high. The nose is aquiline, the muzzle large, the nostrils wide, and
the ears erect. As a whole the Border Leicester is of bolder and
more stylish appearance than the English Leicester.
Properties of Leicesters. — None but capable, painstaking sheep-
men should attempt to keep Leicesters, for they are not adapted to
shifting for themselves over rough ground without an abundance of
feed and without protection from the rougher elements of the
weather. They are lacking in fecundity, although under good care
one hundred per cent lamb crops can be raised and the lambs grow
rapidly.
Mutton from pure-bred Leicesters tends to be coarse, lacking in
flavor and too fat. It is best when procured from lambs six to eight
months old, for then the fat is not so excessive nor the joints or cuts
so large.
For the purpose of producing fat lambs Leicesters cross well
with Merinos. The lambs grow much faster and develop more ex-
ternal fat than the pure Merino. This cross was first tried in
France and from it was developed the Dishley Merino, a hardy
sheep with desirable mutton properties. This same cross has since
been frequently made in North America, South America, Australia,
and New Zealand for the purpose of producing lambs for market.
In some regions Leicesters are crossed with the Down mutton
breeds, the result being growthy, easy-feeding lambs, good enough in
quality of flesh to give satisfaction as a mutton product.
In North England and South Scotland the Border Leicester-
Cheviot cross is favorably regarded for producing a hardy and
154 THE LEICESTER
prolific ewe flock for poorer soils. These sheep are so much in
favor that classes are provided for them at the annual Highland
Show in Scotland. Either half-blood or pure Leicester rams mated
with the ewes produce lambs that are very popular on the British
markets (Fig. 103).
Distribution. — Leicester sheep have been sent to all of the irc-
Fio. 103. — Border Leicester ewe. The Border Leicester carries its head higher than does
the English Leicester.
portant sheep countries. At the beginning of the nineteenth century
they were widely distributed in England, but breeders found it better
to modify the local breeds rather than to maintain Leicesters. In
many instances they did not take kindly to conditions and it was
found that their mutton was lacking quality.
At the present time pure-bred flocks are not numerous in any
country. In North America they are perhaps more prominent in
Ontario, Canada, than elsewhere.
In BakewelFs time, the Dishley Society was organized for the
purpose of assisting in establishing the new Leicester breed. It
adopted some almost iron-clad rules and was very influential for
QUESTIONS 155
many years. At the present time there is a Leicester Sheep Breeders'
Society in England and the American Leicester Sheep Breeders'
Association was established in 1888.
QUESTIONS
1. When did Bakewell live?
2. In what ways did Bakewell improve the old Leicester? What did he
lose in getting this improvement?
3. What is known of Bakewell's methods?
4. Compare the English Leicester with the Border Leicester.
5. Compare the making of the Southdown with the making of the Leicester.
6. Compare the mutton of the Leicester with that of the Suffolk.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE COTSWOLD
History. — The native home of the Cotswold is in the Cotswold
Hills of Gloucester, where the land, though not fertile, is rich in
lime and grows a short nutritious grass.
As nearly as can be determined the Cotswold Hills formed one
of the first seats of sheep husbandry in England, and it seems that
long-wooled sheep have been kept there since the occupation of the
country by the Romans. According to tradition, the sheep gave
the name to the hills, for the name Cotswold is supposed to be
derived from two words, " cote," meaning a shelter for small
animals, and " wold," referring to a wild, open country. The Cots-
wold sheep were noted for their long wool, which was in demand
both at home and abroad. In general appearance they resembled
the old Leicesters, but they were somewhat superior to them in
quality of wool (Fig. 104).
The closing years of the eighteenth and the first quarter of the
nineteenth century formed the period of transition from the old
to the modern Cotswold. Improved Leicesters were used by a
number of leading breeders, who in addition to introducing this
blood, practiced careful selection, having in view the improvement
of the form and quality of the breed without diminishing size or
materially reducing the weight of fleece. Marked improvement
was secured and the Cotswold took its place beside the Leicester
as an improved breed. A practice which undoubtedly contributed
to the excellence and popularity of the Cotswold was the holding
of annual ram sales on the farms of the breeders. These events
stimulated healthy rivalry and furnished opportunities for fruitful
studies of breeding (Fig. 105):
Description. — The Cotswold is a large, upstanding, up headed
sheep which resembles the English Leicester, but it is more stylish,
being about on a par with the Border Leicester in this respect.
Its head is rather long and -the head features are fine in outline.
The nose is more nearly straight than that of the Leicester and
the ears are longer, more flexible, and inclined rather upward,
while the Leicester's ears extend almost straight out from the head.
156
FIG. 104.
FIG. 104. — Prize-winning Cotswold ram. Imported by Frank Harding, Waukesha,
Wisconsin. The Cotswold is upstanding, high headed and grows a heavy tuft of wool on
FIG. 105.— Prize-winning Cotswold ewe. Imported by Frank Harding, Waukesha,
Wisconsin. Sometimes the face and frequently the legs of the Cotswold are not pure white.
158 THE COTSWOLD
It is somewhat larger than the Leicester, mature rams in breeding
condition weighing 275 to 300 pounds, and ewes from 180 to 225
pounds. Highly fitted show specimens frequently attain such enor-
mous weights as 400 pounds and possibly more.
The wool on the forehead is much longer than on the English
Leicester, and in show specimens it is never shorn off and hence
falls down over the face in lon^f, flowing locks, thus making the
head very attractive. The wool lies at the surface of the fleece in
large open curls; it covers the body well and not infrequently
FIG. 106. — Yearling Cotswold rams in their native hills on the farm of Robert
Game, England.
extends as short, downy wool below the knees and hocks. It is per-
haps somewhat coarser than the wool of the Leicester, but it is
lustrous and sells well as a long, coarse wool. The Cotswold is a
heavier shearer than the Leicester. In twelve months the wool
attains a length of from ten to fourteen inches, and unwashed fleeces
weigh from ten to fourteen pounds. According to Wrightson, fleeces
from the best English flocks average nine and one-third pounds, but
presumably this weight refers to washed wool (Fig. 106).
Markings and Skin. — The hair on the face is either white or
white with light gray specks, and frequently the cheeks and the
regions around the eyes are bluish-white. The hair on the legs is
either white or white and mixed with light gray. The lips and
PROPERTIES
159
nostrils are black as in the Leicester, and so is the skin next to the
eye. The body skin is a deep, rich pink, approaching red in color.
Properties. — From its size and nature of fleece, one would judge
the Cotswold to be a lowland breed, but it is necessary to keep in
mind that it is a hill breed. In its native home and in similar
regions it is regarded as unusually hardy for a large, open-wooled
breed. It is better adapted to comparatively light stocking on short
pastures than to heavy stocking on a luxuriant plant growth. When
exposed to heavy rains its wool parts along the spine and allows
the water to reach the skin, thus causing colds and catarrhal
troubles. On this account Cotswolcls, although once common, have
FIG. 107. — Cotswold lambs on ranch of J. R. Allen, Draper, Utah. The Cotswold
ram is popular in the West, for crossing with Rambouillet ewes. The offspring carry heavy
fleeces of high commercial value and their wool withstands range conditions well.
almost disappeared from the farms in eastern and central United
States.
Like the Leicester, the Cotswold yields mutton of secondary
quality. It is often too fat, and the muscle fibers are long and
coarse.
Cotswold ewes are fairly prolific, and since they yield a large
quantity of milk and are strongly developed in maternal instinct,
they are excellent mothers. The lambs are fairly strong at birth
and grow at a fair rate, but as a rule they do not become plump
and firm at an early age. If placed on a fattening ration late in
the autumn they make excellent gains at comparatively low cost.
When Cotswolds are mated with Merinos the offspring are large,
hardy, and favorably regarded as producers of both mutton and
160 THE COTSWOLD
wool. In western United States, Cotswold blood has been intro-
duced into many pure Merino flocks for the purpose of improving
the mutton properties without sacrificing much, if any, in the value
of the wool product. About 1860 to 1870 Cotswold rams were
used rather extensively in England for crossing with the Down
breeds, but this custom has practically died out (Fig. 107).
Distribution. — The Cotswold is known in all of the important
sheep countries, but its distribution is less general than it was fifty
or more years ago. In England it is to be found chiefly in its
native hills, whereas a half century ago, there were many flocks in
outside regions. In the United States and Canada there is a
sprinkling of flocks. Breeders in Utah have demonstrated by the
superior sheep they have bred that the Bocky Mountain Region
affords locations second to none for the production of high-class
Cotswolds.
The Cotswold Sheep Society of England was organized in 1802,
and the American Cotswold Sheep Association in 1878.
QUESTIONS
1. How far from the Cotswold Hills is Loughborough, where Bakewell lived?
2. Give reasons for the disappearance of Cotswold Hocks in the Middle
West of the United States.
3. How would yon distinguish a Cotswold from an English Leicester; a
' Border- Leicester?
4. Would pure or high-grade Cotswolds be suitable for producing early
market lambs ?
CHAPTER XIX
THE LINCOLN
History. — The native home of the Lincoln is in the low country
on the east coast of England in Lincolnshire. Long before the day
of the improved Lincoln the rich pastures on the Lincoln fens
were the feeding grounds of long-wooled sheep reputed for their
great weight of fleece. They were white-faced sheep, coarse, un-
gainly, and bred for wool with practically no attention given to
their mutton qualities. They were large consumers of feed and
matured slowly, but nevertheless, they were popular with Lincoln-
shire farmers and when the practice of using English Leicester rams
was begun there was bitter opposition on the part of a number of
breeders. But without losing much in weight of fleece, the offspring
from the Leicester sire matured earlier and possessed better mutton
form than the pure Lincoln, and as a result the use of Leicester
rams continued until the improved Lincoln was finally evolved
(Fig. 108).
Description. — There is a strong general resemblance between
the Lincoln and the Leicester, but the Lincoln has greater size,
more robust appearance, firmer flesh, and more wool. The head of
the Lincoln is longer, the face broader, the profile of the face fuller
and bolder, and the ears larger and thicker than in the Leicester.
The Lincoln lacks the quality of the Leicester, but makes up for it
in substance. From brisket to twist the carcass is thick and heavy,
and in these respects it is not surpassed by any breed. Large devel-
opment in the leg of mutton is especially emphasized. Mature rams
in breeding condition weigh about 300 pounds, ewes 250 pounds,
but highly fitted specimens greatly exceed these weights. The wool
covers the body and forms a tuft on the forehead, but it does not
extend over the top of the head just above the eyes. On the legs it
extends to the knees and hocks.
The Lincoln leads the mutton breeds for length and weight of
wool. On the average, the length of staple representing one year's
growth is about twelve inches, and sheep producing less than eight-
inch staple are considered unworthy of registration by the National
Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association. The wool is rather coarse,
11 161
162
THE LINCOLN
but very strong and highly lustrous. Sheep in well-kept pure-bred
flocks should average fifteen pounds in weight of fleece.
With the exception of the hoofs and skin at the lips and nostrils,
the markings of the Lincoln are white. Sometimes a little dark
FIG. 108. — Lincoln ram, champion at English Royal Show. The Lincoln is the largest
ot the long wool breeds.
Flo. 109. — Lincoln ewes, champions at English Royal Show, 1913. The Lincoln
grows a tuft of wool on the forehead which is larger than that grown by the English Leicester
and smaller than that grown by the Cotswold. The long, heavy growth of wool is typical
of the breed.
color is seen on the ears and legs. The skin is a very healthy pink,
approaching a cherry red, in color. Both rams and ewes are horn-
less (Fig. 109).
QUESTIONS 163
Properties, — Lincolns are noted for great size and for weight
of fleece. Being a heavy feeder it is not adapted to scanty pastures
and hence it is not a cosmopolitan breed. In such matters as
quality of mutton, fecundity, and milking properties it is not of
first rank.
Distribution. — In England the Lincoln is confined mainly to
its native home and nearby counties where there are many pros-
perous breeders. During the past twenty years it has been in strong
demand in the Argentine for crossing on Merinos, and English
breeders have carried on prosperous export trade with that country.
They have also exported considerable numbers to New Zealand
and Australia,
On the fertile pastures in the Argentine, the Lincoln-Merino
cross makes a large growth and develops the high finish essential
for the foreign frozen mutton trade. The wool is heavy, long,
strong and lustrous, but not so desirable in fineness and softness as
the Australian and New Zealand wools. In New Zealand, the
Lincoln has been used in developing the new breed known as the
Corriedale, a sheep derived from crosses between English long-
wool breeds and Merinos.
Lincoln flocks are not numerous in the United States and
Canada, but they can be grown into good specimens in many parts
of these countries. In Ontario some grand sheep have been pro-
duced and they can be developed to a high state of perfection in the
Coast Region of Oregon. Lincolns have been used to advantage
in the range flocks in western United States, where, because of the
wool and mutton to be secured, still greater use should be made of
them, particularly in those regions in which feed is fairly abundant.
Breeders in England organized the Lincoln Long-wool Sheep
Breeders' Association in 1892, and the National American Lincoln
Sheep Breeders' Association came into existence in 1891.
QUESTIONS
1. How does the improved Lincoln differ from the old Lincoln?
2. What of the value of the Lincoln for crossing purposes?
3. Where do Lincoln breeders in England find a market for their sheep?
4. For what are Lincolns noted?
5. What sections in the United States are well adapted to pure-bred
Lincolns ?
CHAPTER XX
THE ROMNEY MARSH
History. — The native home ^)f the Eomney Marsh or Kent 5
sheep is in southeastern England in Kent on the alluvial plain
known as liomney Marsh. This plain, nearly on a level with the
sea and protected from it by strong walls, has an alluvial clay soil
with occasional outcroppings of sand or gravel. It is flat and every
few rods there are open ditches almost full of water, which are quite
as effective as fences for keeping the sheep confined to definite areas.
The climate is moist and in winter, cold, damp winds sweep over
the marsh and make it an uninviting place in which to live. In
summer the line, rich pastures which are never turned by the plow,
will carry as many as twelve two-faundred-pound wethers to the
acre, and even with this heavy stocking it is sometimes necessary
to put a few bullocks in with the sheep to gra/e down the grass that
is beginning to grow long, for utilizing it to advantage depends on
keeping it grazed close (Fig. 110).
Sheep have been kept on the Marsh for several centuries. The
old type, similar in many respects to the old Lincoln, but perhaps
even, worse in its shape, was a coarse, loose-jointed, big-bellied sheep,
yielding long, coarse wool. Improvement was brought about by the
use of Leicester rams and careful selection, but it is claimed that
the modern Eomney Marsh does not carry as much of the Leicester
blood as the improved Cotswold and Lincoln breeds. It was found
that the introduction of Leicester blood beyond a certain point
produced sheep too tender in constitution to withstand the hard-
ships attending poor feed on the bleak, unsheltered winter pastures.
Through the use of Leicesters, a more compact, earlier maturing
type was secured, and the fleece was improved in fineness and felt-
ing properties, but reduced somewhat in weight. Eomney Marsh
breeders have shown a great deal of enterprise during the past half
century in still further improving their breed (Fig. 111).
Description. — The Eomney Marsh is a large, rugged, rather
low-set sheep noted for its constitution and strength of bone. The
1 The American Romney Breeders' Association has adopted the word
Romney instead of Romney Marsh.
164
PROPERTIES 165
forehead is very broad and the head features as a whole indicate
the stamina characteristic of the breed. With the exception of
black hoofs and dark nostrils and lips, the markings are white and
there is no wool on the face or on the legs below the knees and
hocks. As a rule, there is a tuft of wool on the forehead. As
compared with the Cots wold and Lincoln the wool is not so long nor
as lustrous, but it is thicker on the skin and finer, and the weight
of fleece about equals that of the Cotswold.
FIG. 110. — Romney Marsh ram owned by Robert Kenward, England. The deep body,
full brisket and heavy bone are typical of the breed.
Properties. — Hardiness has always been an outstanding prop-
erty of Romney Marsh sheep. The old practice of making them
get all of their feed from the marsh pastures through all seasons is
still in vogue, and none but hardy sheep can subsist on these pastures
in winter, for the feed is poor and the. exposure to the cold, damp
wind is a drain on vitality. No breed is better suited to low pas-
tures, and it has proven itself adaptable to higher, more rolling
regions than its native marsh.
It is said that foot rot and liver fluke (liver rot) seldom affect
Romney Marsh sheep and they are regarded as being highly re-
166
THE ROMNEY MARSH
siatant to the diseases commonly affecting sheep. Since they graze
and lie singly, they do not taint their pastures to as great extent as
do sheep that are more gregarious in instinct.
The Eomney Marsh is superior as a grazing sheep. Big wethers,
grazing on the Marsh, attain prime condition without the use
of grain.
In quality of mutton, the Romney leads the coarse-wool breeds
and crosses between it and Southdowns or Hampshires are said to
produce mutton of superior quality.
Romney breeders have aimed at a strong lamb to each ewe rather
than toward a large percentage of twins. The ewes are good
mothers and suckle well.
FIG. 111. — Romney Marsh rams. For a large breed the Romney Marsh is low set.
Distribution. — During the last twenty years the Romney has
become much appreciated in the Argentine, New Zealand, and
Australia. Breeders in the north island of New Zealand lay claim
to having developed a more useful type than the English Romney,
but this is stoutly denied by the English breeders. As yet Romneys
are not to be found in the United States and Canada in large
numbers, but they have been introduced to these countries and it
has been found that they do exceedingly well in the low costal region
of Oregon and on the ranges of Washington. Undoubtedly there
are many other districts in the United States where they will do
equally well.
The Kent or Romney Marsh Sheep Breeders' Association of
England was formed in 1895. The American Romney Breeders'
Association was formed in 1911.
QUESTIONS 167
QUESTIONS
1. How far is Kent from Lincolnshire?
2. Compare the properties of the Romney Marsh with those of the Leicester.
3. Compare the native home of the Cotswold with that of the Romney
Marsh.
4. At the present time where are the breeding grounds of the Romney
Marsh ?
5. What of the Romney Marsh in North America?
CHAPTER XXI
BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN
THE UNITED STATES
THE SCOTCH BLACKFACE HIGHLAND
History .—The Scotch Blackface Highland, or the Blackface as
breeders frequently call it, is a mountain breed, native to the High-
lands of Scotland. Its origin cannot be definitely traced, and as
for the methods used in improving it, Usher says : " The prob-
ability is that they were allowed for ages to pick up a precarious
subsistence as best they could, and multiply and replenish the earth
according to their own natural instincts. No doubt it (improve-
ment) was brought about gradually by men of intelligence and
judgment, in careful selection . . . but as Blackfaced flocks occu-
pied wide tracts of country where fencing was unknown, the benefits
of such selection were often, in a measure, lost by the tups (rams)
being put to them indiscriminately" (Fig. 112).
Description. — The Blackface is a wild, active, small sheep with
black or mottled face and legs. In case of mottled markings, the
spots should be quite distinct, thus leaving the face and legs free
from tinges of gray. There should be no wool on the head or on
the legs below the knees and hocks. The wool is coarse, wavy,
and loose, and when of twelve months' growth, hangs down almost
to the ground. Ewe fleeces weigh from four to five pounds, and
two-year-old wether fleeces as much as seven pounds. The make-up
of the Blackface suggests its' adaptability to the difficulties it must
encounter in its mountain home. The body is short and muscular
with the shoulders high and " formed for freedom of action." The
nose is broad and prominent; the eyes are bold and flashing; in
rams, the horns are large, taking one or more spiral turns, accord-
ing to age ; in ewes, they are small, flattened and curved, but not
spirally formed. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks, and
it is customary among breeders to leave it undocked.
Properties. — The Blackface is the hardiest of the mountain
breeds and it thrives best on pastures which require much travelling
168
THE LONK
169
to obtain food. Hence, it is better adapted to the high mountain
pastures, yielding moss, heather, and a little grass, than to the suc-
culent green pastures of lower altitudes. When Blackfaces are
taken to shelter for fattening, however, they do exceedingly well.
Blackface mutton is famous for its superior flavor and quality,
and crosses with either Cheviot or Border Leicester are said to yield
mutton almost or quite as good as that of the pure Blackface
(Fig. 113).
Distribution. — Outside of their native home few Blackfaces are
to be found. Their mission seems to be to occupy high altitudes
presenting conditions too severe for other breeds. Years ago the
FIG. 112. — Blackfaced Highland ram. The long coarse wool is typical. Often there are
areas of white hair on the face.
Cheviot threatened to drive them out of the Scottish mountains, for
they were preferred to the Blackfaces where soil and climate were
at all suited to their production; but continuous cold, stormy
weather in 1859-60 and 1860-61 killed vegetation to such extent
that the Cheviots died in great numbers, while the losses in Black-
face flocks were comparatively email.
THE LONK
The Lonk is a native of the wet, hilly districts of North England.
It resembles the Scotch Blackface, but it is larger, and more up-
standing, and its wool is finer and heavier. It is a very hardy
breed and its mutton is of very high quality (Fig. 114).
170
BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
THE LONK
FIG. 114.
171
TIG. 115.
FIG. 114. — Lonk ram. The Lonk resembles the Blackfaced Highland but is larger
FIG. 115. — Herd wick ram. The Herd wick is small and has coarse wool.
172
BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
THE IIEKIMYLCK
The Herdwick is a small hardy mountain breed that is little
known outside of its native region in North Lincolnshire, Cumber-
land, and Westmoorland. The face is either light gray or white,
and often the wool on the belly is gray, and an all gray fleece is not
considered objectionable. The wool is coarse and in old sheep
inclined to be kempy. The rams have horns, but the ewes are
hornless (Fig. 115).
FIG. 116. — Exmoor ram. The Exmoor bears SOUK- resemblance to the Dorset Horn.
Herdwick mutton ranks very high in quality. Ewes drafted
from the pure-bred flocks are often taken to lower altitudes, and
mated with Leicester and Wensleydale rams for the purpose of
producing fat lambs.
THE EXMOOR
The Exmoor is a native of the hills of West Somerset and
North Devon. It resembles the Dorset Horn somewhat, but it is
smaller and the skin at the muzzle is black.
It is a hardy breed and one of the best to place on poor natural
pastures. The ewes are good mothers, and after raising three crops
THE DORSET DOWN 173
of lambs in the hills they are sent down to the low country to raise
market lambs (Fig. 116).
THE WELSH MOUNTAIN
The Welsh Mountain is a very old breed native to the highest
hills of WTales. It is a small hardy sheep with white or tan mark-
ings and fine, dense wool which is not altogether free from kemp.
In conformation, it is a rather long, narrow sheep, and light in the
fore quarters. The ewes are hornless, but the rams have strong
curved horns. The mutton is of such quality as to rank with
Southdowns and Blackfaced Highlands.
In disposition the Welsh Mountain is wild and restless, and hard
to keep within fenced enclosures. The ewes are good mothers and
they are taken to lower ground in large numbers to raise fat lambs
(Fig. 117).
THE RYELAND
The Ryeland originated in Herfordshire, early in the nineteenth
century, from crossing Leicesters on a small white-faced polled
breed that produced about two pounds of exceedingly fine wool.
The Leicester cross improved the size of body and weight of fleece
without materially reducing the quality of mutton, fineness of
wool, and hardiness, characteristic of the old breed. In conforma-
tion, the Ryeland resembles the earlier type Shropshire so much,
that it has been spoken of as the white-faced Shropshire. Its lambs
grow rapidly and Ryeland rams are known to be good sires of lambs
intended for market,
Ryeland flocks are to be found mainly in Herfordshire. At
one time they were largely replaced by flocks of the Down breeds,
but in Decent years the Ryeland has been regaining its old-time
popularity (Fig. 118).
THE DORSET DOWN
The Dorset Down originated in Dorsetshire from original stocks
that closely resembled the parent stock of the Hampshire. In fact
the Dorset Down is a modified Hampshire which Dorsetshire farmers
have found suitable to their conditions. It is smaller than the
Hampshire and more refined in head and bone. The face, ears,
and legs are lighter in color, being a grayish-brown, rather than a
deep brown, bordering on black.
Dorset Downs are adapted to grazing either on pastures or on
174 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
FIG. 117.
FIG. 118.
FIG. 117. — Welsh Mountain ram.
FIG. 118. — Ryeland ram. Except for its white face and legs the Ryeland resembles
the earlier type Shropshire.
THE DEVON LONG WOOL 175
forage crops where the hurdling system is in vogue. Their mutton
is said to be of excellent quality.
Wallace states that they shear about five pounds/ but he very
likely refers to washed wool (Fig. 119).
THE KERRY HILL (WALES)
The Kerry Hill is a breed that has been developed in Wales
since 1840, from a stock that was more or less of a mountain type.
In general appearance it looks like a grade Down sheep, because its
face, legs, and ears are speckled black and white. Its fleece
resembles that of the Shropshire, but it is not so good in quality.
Horns in either sex are objectionable, but sometimes they appear
in rams (Fig. 120).
In size, the Kerry Hill about equals the Shropshire. It is hardy
and produces a superior quality of mutton. The ewes are excellent
mothers and in grazing districts, they are sought after as producers
of fat lambs.
THE AVENSLEYDALE
The Wensleydale sheep was made by crossing English Leicesters
on native sheep in Yorkshire. It is a large, long, upstanding, firm-
fleshed sheep, growing long wool which is very lustrous and which
separates into distinct wavy locks or staples. The skin on the face,
ears, and legs of the Wensleydale has a decidedly bluish tinge, and
frequently this shade of color extends all over its body.
For a long-wool breed, the mutton of the Wensleydale is of good
quality. It is an active, hardy breed, but a little slow in maturing
(Fig.'m).
THE DEVON LONG WOOL
The Devon Long Wool is a very large, coarse-wool breed of
sheep that is kept in large numbers in Devon and Somerset. It
was made by crossing English Leicesters and possibly Lincolns on
two old native breeds, the " Southern Notts/' and " Bampton
Notts." These were large, coarse sheep that produced long, heavy
fleeces.
1 Wallace, "British Breeds of Live Stock," 1913.
176 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
FIG. 119. — Dorset-Down ram. The Dorset-Down resembles the Hampshire,, but is
smaller and more refined in general features.
FIG. 120.— The Kerry Hill Ram.
FIG. 121.
FIG. 122.
FIG. 121. — Wensleydale ram.
FIG. 122. — Devon long wool ram.
12
178 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
FIG. 123.
FIG. 124.
Fio. 123. — South Devon ram.
FIG. 124. — Dartmoor ram.
QUESTIONS 179
The South Devon, which resembles the Devon Long Wool, is a
breed that is kept in Cornwall and South Devon. It is said to be
robust in constitution and adapted to either grazing or feeding on
forage crops between hurdles.
The Devon Long Wool, the South Devon and also the Dartmoor
resemble the Lincoln in many respects (Figs. 122, 123, and 124).
QUESTIONS
1. Which breeds mentioned in this chapter are mountain breeds? Hill
breeds ? Lowland breeds ?
2. Which breeds resemble the Down breeds? The Long wool breeds?
3. How are mountain breeds different from Hill and Lowland breeds?
CHAPTER XXII
THE CORRIEDALE
-
History. — The Corriedale is regarded as a new breed, having
been developed in New Zealand since 1880. Prior to this time most
of the sheep in New Zealand were pure Merinos, but when it became
possible to ship frozen carcasses to London, New Zealand sheepmen
realized the need of producing sheep of better mutton quality. Ac-
cordingly, rams of the various English mutton breeds were placed
with the Merino flocks. It was found that the crosses between the long-
wool mutton breeds and the Merino produced the kind of sheep best
suited to New Zealand conditions. These half-breeds grew rapidly
upon the luxuriant pastures, yielded a heavy fleece of valuable wool,
and developed a carcass of high finish and quality. No known
breed of sheep seemed so well adapted to certain New Zealand con-
ditions as they, and so a number of breeders set about to fix a type
similar to these cross-bred sheep. Lincoln rams and some Leicester.?,
but to a lesser extent than Lincoln, were crossed upon Merino ewes
and after close culling toward the type desired, the hybrids (half-
breds) were mated together. In each generation close culling was
practiced, and as a rule each breeder limited his selections of breeding
stock to his own flock. That this procedure in breeding has brought
gratifying results is indicated by the fact that it is now claimed
that the Corriedale shows no more variation in type than exists in
many of the older breeds (Fig. 125).
Description. — In all essential characteristics the Corriedale is
a blend between the fine-wool and coarse-wool types from which it
came. In mutton conformation and disposition to fatten it is
superior to the Merino, but not equal to the Lincoln or Leicester.
Its wool being of medium quality, strong, even in structure, com-
paratively light in yolk, and three inches or more in length, fulfills
the requirements of the wools bringing the highest price on the
markets. The fleeces average from ten to twelve pounds in weight.
The face, ears, and legs of the Corriedale are white. Both sexes
are hornless, but there is a tendency for horns to appear in the rams
(Figs. 126 and 127).
180
FIG. 125. — Corriedale ram bred by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and sold at
auction for $275 in Salt Lake City, August, 1917. The Corriedale was developed from
cross-bred sheep produced by mating English Long Wool rams with Merino ewes.
FIG. 126. — Corriedale stud rams. Property of Leonard White, New Zealand
182
THE CORRIEDALE
Properties. — Corriedale mutton is better than that from any of
its parent breeds. It is thicker and fatter than Merino mutton and
free from 'the coarseness and excessive fatness characteristic of the
mutton produced by Lincolns and Leicesters. On the great Smith-
field market, London, Corriedale lamb carcasses are known as
Canterbury lambs. As a rule, they show the finish and quality
characteristic of prime carcasses. '
Fia. 127. — Corriedale ewe, champion at Christ Church, New Zealand.
It is said of Corriedale ewes that they are prolific, and that
120 per cent lamb crops are not uncommon. It is also claimed for
Corriedales that they are adaptable to different climates, as is
shown by their ability to thrive on mountains six to seven thousand
feet above sea level, and also in the arid tropics of Queensland,
Australia. The United States Government and a few private com-
panies have imported a number of rams and ewes for the purpose
of determining whether or not they are adapted to the climate and
QUESTIONS 183
methods of sheep husbandry on the western ranges, where much
interest is being taken in types similar to the Corriedale.
Distribution. — Very few Corriedale flocks are to be found out-
side of New Zealand and Australia. The first flock book for the
breed was published in New Zealand in 1911.
QUESTIONS
1. What circumstances led to the development of the Corriedale?
2. By what methods of breeding was it evolved?
3. Do you know of breeds that have been developed by the same methods
as those used in developing the Corriedale?
4. Why is the Corriedale being tried in the United States?
5. Discuss the mutton and wool properties of the Corriedale.
CHAPTER XXIII
THE AMERICAN TUNIS
History. — In the Arizona Experiment Station Bulletin (>!) Pro-
fessor F. W. Wilson gives the following account of the American
Tunis :
" The .history of Tunis sheep in America dates from 1799, when
General William Eaton, U. S. Consul at Tunis, bought ten head of
the fat-tailed sheep of that country from the Bey of Tunis and sent
them to America on the man-of-war Sophia. Only one pair, Car-
melli and Salena, survived the voyage. They were placed on the
farm of Judge Richard Peters, of Belmont, near Philadelphia, and
lived to a ripe old age, when both were killed by dogs. Selena raised
her last lamb in her sixteenth year.
" Judge Peters offered the free use of his rams to breeders, and
was so well patronized that, in a short time, flocks had found their
way to Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia. During the Civil War
the breed was exterminated with the exception of the sheep held by
Col. Maynard R. Spigler, of Columbia, South Carolina. The
present Tunis blood in America has been preserved through this
flock of Colonel Spigler, who bred them for over fifty years. Several
other importations of Tunis sheep have been made; namely, in
1806, by Commodore Barren, of the U. S. Navy, to Virginia and
the District of Columbia; later, a ram and a ewe by President Jef-
ferson, and, in 1825, thirteen head to New York, one pair of which
was sent to General Rensselaer, of Albany.
" In 1894, J. A. Guilliams, through correspondence with Colonel
Washington Watts, of Laurens, South Carolina, learned of the flock
of pure-blood Tunis sheep on the plantation of Colonel Spigler.
He bought ten head and shipped them to Putnam Count}7, Indiana.
They were exhibited at the fair at Crawfordsville, Indiana, where
they attracted much attention. Their quaint conformation and
lack of wool, however, gave them an unfavorable introduction.
Nevertheless, Charles Roundtree, near Crawfordsville, Indiana, who
is now the largest breeder of Tunis sheep in America, purchased
additional animals from the Spigler flock, and with several other
farmers became interested in the breed. He conceived the plan of
184
Fia. 129.
FIG. 128. — American Tunis ram. The hair on the face and legs of the Tunis is usually
reddish brown.
FIG. 129. — American Tunis ewe. The long pendulous ears are typical of the breed.
186
THE AMERICAN TUNIS
improving the breed by introducing outside blood, and for this pur-
pose selected two Southdown ewes. The Roundtree type contains
one-sixteenth Southdown blood, and is a marked improvement over
the original Tunis breed" (Fig. 128).
Description. — As suggested in the above account, Tunis breeders
are attempting to breed a sheep that approximates the ideal mutton
type in conformation. In most "pecimens, however, the neck is
rather long, the chest lacks somewhat in width, and the legs tend
FIG. 130. — American Tunis ewe and her lamb. Note the tendency toward excessive fatty
development at the dock of the lamb, which is more or less characteristic of the breed.
to be close together at the knees and hocks. With the exception
of the long, pendulous ears, the head features indicate quality.
In rams the face profile is slightly Roman, while in ewes it is almost
straight, Mature rams in breeding condition weigh between 150 and
175 pounds ; ewes about 125 pounds. As a whole, the breed is horn-
less, but stubs of horns occasionally appear in the males. The color
of the hair on the face, ears, and legs varies from a reddish browri
QUESTIONS 187
to white and not infrequently a wide bar of white hair extends from
the nose to the forehead while the remainder of the face is brown
(Fig. 129).
The Tunis has a long, combing wool which is to be criticised for
coarseness. As a rule it is white, but in every flock there is to be
found a number of gray fleeces. At birth the lambs are either
spotted or a reddish brown. Judge Richard Peters, writing of the
Tunis in 1810, said that the lambs were white, red, tawny, bluish,
and black and that all except the black lambs grew to be white in
general color of fleece, though most commonly they were colored
in spots, and around the cheeks and shoulders either tawny or black
wool appeared. The fleeces average from eight to ten pounds in
weight.
Properties. — Hardiness, prolificacy, early maturity, and good
quality of mutton are the properties which Tunis breeders emphasize
as characteristic of their sheep. Professor Wilson also shows that the
Tunis sheep more than any other breed except the Merino remain
in a compact band while feeding on the range. In their North
African home, the Tunis breeds twice a year, and American breeders
maintain that this property has been retained. The lambs are
strong at birth and the ewes are good nurses; hence, the Tunis
ewe has, to a certain extent, met with favor in America as a producer
of winter lambs (Fig. 130).
QUESTIONS
1. Locate the country of Tunis.
2. Give the favorable qualities of the Tunis as advocated by Tunis breeders.
3. Criticise the Tunis.
CHAPTER XXIV
BREEDS OF THE WOOL TYPE
ALL of the existing wool breeds have descended from the Merinos
of Spain, hence wool sheep and Merino sheep are practically synony-
mous terms. Outside of Spain, distinct types have been developed in
Germany, France, Australia, and North America.
Origin of Merinos. — There is no definite information as to
just how the Merino came into existence, but it is thought that it
was developed from sheep imported into Spain from Italy and
Northern Africa centuries ago. There were two great groups of
Merinos in Spain, the Estantes, or stationary flocks, and the Tran-
shumantes, or travelling flocks. The latter, owned by the nobility
and the clergy, outnumbered the former four to one and were con-
sidered the more important. They were maintained in very large
flocks numbering into the thousands, and. they were handled by
shepherds who herded them over a range of two or three hundred
miles, so that they obtained their living almost entirely by grazing.
The owners of these flocks did not make a practice of going to out-
side sources for their breeding stock; hence each flock possessed a
type peculiarly its own. Yet all of them were maintained for the
distinct purpose of producing fine wool.
Merinos in Various Countries. — When other countries took up
Merinos they drew from various flocks in Spain, and in many cases
Spanish types were commingled to breed the kind of sheep most de-
sired. In Saxony, Germany, close attention was given to fineness
of fleece, the result being the Saxony Merino which possessed wool
finer than any produced by the Spanish flocks. In France attention
was given to size and form in the hope of producing both mutton
and fine wool; the result was the Kambouillet, now famous as a
large mutton-type Merino. In Australia three types were developed :
one comparatively small and growing very fine wool impregnated
with much yolk or oil ; another a large, robust sheep having coarser
and longer wool and much less yolk; and the third a type midway
between the two already mentioned. In North America emphasis
was first placed upon weight, length and fineness of fleece, the result
188
QUESTIONS 189
being the American Merino, a rather small sheep with great folds or
wrinkles on the neck and body, and dense fine wool heavily impreg-
nated with yolk. Another evolution was the American Delaine,
with a smooth mutton-like body and long, fine wool suitable for
combing into worsteds.
QUESTIONS
1. Review Chapters I, III, and VI for additional information on Merinos.
2. Where did Spanish breeders procure breeding stock?
3. Can you give reasons why various countries developed special types of
Merinos ?
4. Select a characteristic which you think distinguishes the Merino from
all other strains of sheep.
CHAPTEE XXV
THE AMERICAN MERINO
History. — -Importations. — Merino sheep were brought to the
United States as early as 1793, but they did not begin to get a
substantial footing in this country until commercial difficulties
arose with England and France in 1807. In that year the Embargo
Act was passed and wool soon rose to one dollar per pound. This
started a boom for Merinos which resulted in the importation of
6000 to 8000 head in 1809, 1810, and 1811. Before the close of the
War of 1812, wool sold for two and one-half dollars per pound.
During the period, 1808—1813, it was no unusual thing for im-
ported Merino rams to sell for a thousand dollars each and ewes
sometimes sold for as much. Then came the Peace of Ghent (1815)
which reopened commerce and practically ruined the infant manu-
factures of the United States. The decline in value of raw wool
was so violent that before the close of the year 1815, pure-bred
Merino sheep sold for one dollar per head. According to Kandall,
wool did not materially rally in price for nine succeeding years, and
during that period most of the full-blood flocks of the country were
broken up or adulterated in blood.
Stephen Atwood. — During those dark and discouraging years
one man, however, held on faithfully to his Merinos and pursued a
definite policy in breeding. This was Stephen Atwood, of Wood-
bury, Connecticut. For foundation stock, Mr. Atwood purchased a
six-year-old ewe in 1813 and five ewe lambs in 1810. These females
were descendants of the very choice sheep imported by Colonel
David Humphreys, of Derby, Connecticut, in 1802. All of Atwood's
breeding rams were also descendants of Humphrey's stock and when
he could no longer find pure Humphrey's blood in other flocks, he
resorted to his own for sires. He was a progressive breeder, pro-
ducing better and better sheep as years advanced, but his great
contribution to the evolution of the American Merino lay in the
fact that he preserved a pure strain of Spanish Merinos through a
dark period when all but a very few either crossed their Spanish
sheep with Saxony Merinos or in various ways permitted their
flocks to degenerate.
190
POPULARITY OF THE HAMMOND SHEEP 191
Edwin Hammond,1 of Middlebury, Vermont, a customer of
Atwood for the first time in 1844, is regarded as having done more
than any other one breeder in developing the American Merino.
Randall said of him that he effected quite as much of an improve-
ment in the American Merino as Mr. Bakewell effected among the
long-wool sheep of England. Using Atwood sheep, he wrought
great improvement in both form and fleece in a comparatively short
time. He purchased " Old Black " in 1849, a sheep described as
being "long, tall, flat-ribbed, rather long in the neck and head,
strong-boned, a little roach-backed, deep chested, and moderately
wrinkled ; his wool was about an inch and a half long, of medium
thickness, extremely yolky, and dark colored externally ; face a little
bare and not much wool on shanks. He weighed about one hundred
and thirty-five pounds and cut about fourteen pounds of wool
unwashed." Contrast with " Old Black " the ram " Sweepstakes "
bred by Hammond in 1856 and regarded by many as one of the best
he produced. " Sweepstakes " weighed about one hundred and
forty pounds and was almost perfect in form, being defective in no
essential particular. His head and belly were admirably covered
and he was strongly wooled to the feet. In full fleece, his wool
was two and one-half inches long, fine and extremely even, and he
yielded a year's growth weighing twenty-seven pounds.
Popularity of the Hammond Sheep. — Prominent breeders
began to be attracted by Mr. Hammond's, sheep about 1850. In a
few years they were eagerly sought by both home and foreign breed-
ers. On several occasions he could have sold his breeding rams for as
much as $2500 each. So many visitors came to his place that his
hospitable home is reported to have resembled a prosperous hotel.
Through the hundreds of people who inspected his flock and the
many sheep he distributed far and wide, the distinctive type he
bred came to be pretty generally known and was regarded as better
suited to American conditions -than the old Spanish type.
As suggested elsewhere in this chapter, Mr. Hammond's sheep
were different from their Spanish ancestors, both in form and fleece.
They were thicker, shorter in neck and legs, stronger in bone, and
somewhat heavier. They were more nearly perfect in wool covering
and much superior in length, density, fineness, and weight of fleece.
1 Associated with Edwin Hammond was his brother William, who acted
as shepherd and manager.
192 THE AMERICAN MERINO
Their greater weight of fleece was due not only to increased density
and length o¥ wool, but also to the development of larger and more
wrinkles or folds in the skin, thus giving a greater surface upon
which to grow wool.
Other Pioneer Breeders. — Although the prominent part Ham-
mond had in developing the American Merino is generally acknowl-
edged, it is perhaps too sweeping to say that it originated solely
from his work. For, during his time and shortly after, there were
a number of capable breeders who deserve mention as belonging in
the pioneer ranks. Not all of them can be mentioned here, but
important ones include the names of Charles Rich, of Shoreham,
Vermont, and his sons, John T. and Charles, and also his grand-
sons, J. T. and Virtulan; Tyler Stickney, also of Shoreham, and
William R, Sanford, of Orwell, Vermont. All these stand out
prominently in the history of the American Merino. For years
Vermont was a Mecca for Merino breeders in search of stud stock,
but there were many splendid flocks further west in New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and a few in Illinois and Wisconsin.
In fact, in order to be just to New York, Ohio, and Michigan, they
should be mentioned with Vermont as the regions in which the
American Merino attained its highest degree of perfection
(Fig. 131).
Description. — A single description will not fit the American
Merino of to-day, or of any other time for that matter. This is
true because breeders vary type somewhat with respect to form of
body, wrinkles or folds in the skin and properties of fleece. Ham-
mond kept three strains of blood, the representatives of which AVCMV
said to be easily distinguishable because of differences in external
characters. In the best of flocks three types are usually to bo
found. These have come to be known as the A, B, and C types.
Since they come from the same parent stock, they are very much
alike in many respects. The rams, as a rule, have heavy, spirally-
turned horns and the ewes are hornless. The hair on face, ears,
and legs is white, fine and silky, although reddish-brown spots
sometimes appear around the muzzle and eyes, and on the ears ; the
lips, nostrils, and skin are deep pink and the hoofs are white. The
wool completely covers the body and extends well over the face and
legs, and although it varies with each type in length, density, fine-
ness, and amount of yolk or oil, it has a marked resemblance in all
three types. The wool is very fine and uniform in structure, as is
THE A-TYPE
193
indicated by the evenness with which the waves or crimps are
carried along the whole length of the fibers ; and there is an unusual
degree of uniformity of fineness of fibers throughout the fleece. In
the best specimens there are no kempy fibers, that is, coarse, hair-
like fibers and bluish-white, structureless, tender fibers that will
not take the vegetable dyes used in coloring wool. Because the yolk
is liquid and comparatively free from coloring matter, the wool is
a rich, creamy white. This is not true, however, of the external
appearance of the fleece, because the yolk, upon coming to the
FIG. 131. — A-type Merinos bred by S. M. Cleaver, Delaware, Ohio. Although these
sheep are covered with folds and wrinkles they are thick and compact, showing that extreme
development in wool need not be wholly divorced from mutton qualities.
outer end of the wool fibers, hardens and darkens into a dark gray
or brownish-black.
The A-Type. — Extreme development of folds on neck and body
is the outstanding characteristic of the A-type Merino. Because of
its great surface of skin, dense wool, and large percentage of yolk,
it yields a very high percentage of unsecured wool to weight of
body. In twelve months the wool attains a length of about one and
one-half inches. Rams will shear from 25 to 30 pounds of grease
wool (wool just as it comes from the sheep's back) and ewes from
15 to 20 pounds, but exceptional specimens have yielded consider-
ably more than the weights mentioned here. The shrinkage of the
wool in the process of scouring is often as much as 75 per cent.
The description already given of the conformation of the wool
13
194
THE AMERICAN MERINO
FIG. 132.
FIG. 133.
FIG. 132. — A-type ram. The A-type Merino is distinguished by the folds and
wrinkles extending over the entire body.
FIG. 133. — A-type Merino ewe.
THE A-TYPE
195
EIG. 134. — B-type Merino ram. The B-type has heavy folds on the neck and few
wrinkles on the body.
Fia. 135. — B-type Merino ewe in field condition
196 THE AMERICAN MERINO
type in Chapter VI fits the A-type Merino fairly well. Mention
should be made, however, of its deep body and comparatively short
legs. Mature rams in full fleece weigh from 130 to 160 pounds and
ewes from 90 to 125 pounds (Figs. 132 and 133).
The B-Type. — As compared with the A-type, the B-type carries
more mutton and fewer folds or wrinkles. Three to four large
folds are to be found on the neck* fairly prominent ones appear at
the flanks and around the dock, and a goodly number of small ones
on the thighs and sides of the body. As a group, the representa-
tives of the B-type are somewhat fuller in the thighs, wider and
higher sprung in the ribs, and perhaps slightly thicker through
the shoulders than those of the A-type. Mature rams weigh from
140 to 170 pounds and ewes from 100 to 125 pounds.
In most respects the wool of the B-type is similar to that of the
A-type, but the fibers tend to be a little longer and there is slightly
less yolk, which, together with the fact that the surface of 'the skin
is relatively less, makes the percentage of fleece to body weight less
than in the A-type. The average run of stud rams will shear close to
25 pounds and the ewes about 16 pounds (Figs. 134 and 135).
The C-Type or Delaine. — The body of the C-type is free from
folds and only two or three small ones appear on the neck. It is
considered objectionable if the neck folds are at all prominent on
top of the neck. As compared with the B-type American Merino,
the C-type is more desirable as a mutton animal not only because its
pelt is smooth, but also because its body is wider, the thighs better
filled, and the flesh thicker. Most C-type strains are somewhat
larger than the A-type sheep. Earns range from 150 to 200 pounds
in weight, and ewes from 100 to 150 pounds. The rams are both
horned and hornless, as the owners of the various strains are not
agreed on the matter of horns in males. All of the ewes are
hornless.
The wool of the C-type is at least three inches long when of
twelve months' growth. All things considered, it is the best grease
wool, i.e., wool just as it comes from the sheep's back, produced in
America, being fine, strong, soft, and of lighter shrinkage than
other fine wools. To be typical the fleece should be carried evenly
with respect to length and fineness over all parts of the body and it
should extend well over the face and legs. Earns shear from 15 to
25 pounds of unwashed wool and ewes from 10 to 15 pounds
(Figs. 136 and 137).
THE C-TYPE OR DELAINE
197
FIG. 136. — C-type Merino ram. With the exception of slight folds and wrinkles on the
neck the C-type is smooth.
FIG. 137. — C-type Merino ewe.
198 THE AMERICAN MERINO
Properties. — Hardiness is an outstanding property of all three
types of the American Merino. The lambs are somewhat tender at
first, but after they are a few days old they are hardy and no breed
in America is equal to the Merino for withstanding indifferent care
and at the same time yielding fairly good returns. Its dense, oily
coat is a good protection against rain and fluctuations of tempera-
ture; therefore, it can stand outdoor exposure under conditions
wholly unsuited to a number of the mutton breeds. The Merino
also fares pretty well when forced to subsist on a scanty supply of
feed. Fine-wool breeders have observed that when their sheep are
given just a little more feed than is necessary for maintenance,
they produce finer wool than when they are liberally fed. Between
1820 and 1830, when the Merino breeders of Saxony received great
prices for their exceedingly fine wool, they resorted to light feeding
in order further to increase the fineness of fleece. And so accus-
tomed were the old Merino breeders in the United States to light
feeding that they vigorously contended that liberal feeding would
have a pronounced effect toward reducing the vitality of the flock.
The twinning habit has not been bred into the Merinos, hence
their prolificacy is not marked, nor are their milking properties any
too well developed. At birth the lambs weigh about eight pounds.
They do not mature rapidly, but apparently their longevity is com-
pensation for their slow rate of growth. Sometimes the ewes are
not bred until they are well past two years old, but many a Merino
ewe is sound and in her prime as a breeder when eight years old.
Because of their slow rate of growth they do not yield their heaviest
weight of wool until about the third fleece, while in the mutton
breeds the first fleece is as heavy as any other.
Distribution. — At the present time, Ohio, Vermont, and New
York are the strongholds of the pure-bred flocks of American
Merinos. Because of the demand for mutton they are not as
popular as they used to be, the A-type particularly, but there is
fair demand for them in the regions in which they are produced and
in a few places in the West. Prior to the outbreak of the European
War in 1914 annual exportations of these sheep were made to
South Africa.
The Merino breeders of the United States deserve the compli-
ment of having developed consummate skill in sheep breeding, but
they have never been closely and efficiently organized. Such men
as Atwood, the Hammonds and the Riches, were extremely indi-
QUESTIONS 199
vidualistic and, therefore, poorly adapted to promoting a breed
organization. The strength of their personalities showed not only in
the sheep they bred, but also in the manner in which the American
Merino was developed and promoted. There came to be known the
Eich Merinos, the Hammond Merinos and many others, taking, as a
rule, the name of the man who developed them, and each individual's
sheep possessed certain peculiarities which made possible their
existence as a separate family or strain. Then state organizations
came into existence under various names, some of which suggested
an attempt to gather all of the breeders of the country under the
same banner, but if such was the hope it was never realized. What
more could have been accomplished had breeders efficiently organized
themselves in a national society is, in part, a matter of conjecture,
but had such action taken place, surely some of the conservatism,
which resulted in clinging blindly and doggedly to certain types
long after their appropriate day, would not have developed. In the
writer's opinion this conservatism has been responsible to a degree
for the passing of the Merino from many sections. Had the type
been modified to more nearly suit conditions it would have stayed
longer and much to the advantage of the sheep industry of the
country.
QUESTIONS
1. Indicate the formative period of the American Merino.
2. What circumstances led up to the first wave of popularity for Merinos
in the United States?
3. Contrast the work of Atwood and Hammond.
4. Compare the A-, B-, and C-types of American Merinos and indicate the
conditions under which each would be most popular.
5. Compare the prolificacy of the American Merino with that of the
Shropshire.
6. Compare the milking functions of Dorset Horns with American Merinos.
7. Suggest a breed that is more efficiently promoted than the American
Merino.
8. What breed seems to you as most unlike the American Merino in rate
of growth?
CHAPTER XXVI
THE DELAINE MERINO
History. — The Delaine Merino is a pure Merino descended from
the same original stock as the American Merino, but distinguished
from it by its smooth body and its long, fine wool, which attains a
length of three inches or more in twelve months. Breeders devel-
oped the smooth bodies in order to get a sheep suitable for mutton,
and they bred for long, fine wool with a view to getting a product
suitable for making worsteds, a type of cloth requiring wool long
enough to be combed out so that the fibers are arranged parallel to
each other.
There are several types of Delaine Merino to which various names
have been given. These types have been supported by different
societies, but they are very similar and really should be considered,
not as separate breeds, but as strains of the same breed. Some of
the original importations of Merinos were bred to maintain a smooth
body and a neck with a light fold, which were characteristic of the
sheep as they were bred in Spain. A notable example was the flock
of Counsel Jarvis, but the owners of flocks of this sort did not aim
consistently at increasing the length of fleece or at improving the
mutton conformation.
The breeding which resulted in the development of the real
Delaine Merino occurred in eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania.
About 1809, W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio, got possession of
some of the sheep that Humphrey imported in 1802. He maintained
these in their purity until 1830, when he disposed of his flock-. At
the time the flock was dispersed, Adam Hildebrand, formerly in
the employ of Dickinson, bought a few of the ewes, and James
McDowell, who also had been in the employ of Dickinson and was
then working for Hildebrand, received as a part of his remunera-
tion two of the best ewe lambs and the second best ram lamb in the
last crop bred by Dickinson. These lambs were sired by a large, fine
ram known as Bolivar, and it is said that they were the foundation
from which the Dickinson Delaine descended.
Over in Pennsylvania, the foundation stock was an importation
made in 1820 by R. W. Mead. The sheep first came into the
200
PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION 201
hands of Alexander Reed, and their descendants were furnished to
a half dozen or more breeders, who developed important flocks, but
the final steps in developing the real Delaine type in the Pennsyl-
vania flocks consisted in using two rams, one being Spanish Black
Top, a ram bred by C. J. Beal, of West Virginia, and used in a
flock belonging to the sons of Ebeneezer McClellan, and the other a
Spanish ram named Victor, bred by J. M. Miller and used by R.
H. Russel and J. C. McNary. Just what is meant by the term
Spanish and Black Top as descriptive of the breeding of these rams
is difficult to explain, but it seems that Victor and the Beal ram
more nearly resembled the American Merino in folds and properties
of fleece than the smooth ewes upon which they were bred. In
fact many Delaine breeders, after years of experience, have advo-
cated the use of rams bordering on the American Merino type, when
the ewe flock begins to slip backward in weight of fleece. They
observe that such a cross greatly improves weight of fleece without
having a material adverse effect on the length of wool and the
mutton properties of the carcass. In Volume 2 of the Standard
Delaine Register this statement is made : " It is with great diffi-
culty that covering and density can be kept up in the absence of all
folds." And there appears another statement to the effect that
breeding a ram of the class B Merino on ewes free from folds has
been most satisfactory and encouraged by Standard Delaine breeders.
Both the Black Top Spanish Merino and the Improved Black
Top Merino are smooth Merinos of the Delaine type and should be
regarded as belonging in the Delaine group. Their distinctive
character is their very dark exterior due to a rather abundant clear,
flowing yolk that becomes very dark in color when it hardens on the
surface of the fleece. These sheep were first selected out from their
lighter colored flock mates because they seemed more hardy. As
separate strains they are unusually well developed in mutton prop-
erties, for they carry even, solid backs and well-filled thighs.
Description. — The description of the C-type American Merino
coincides with that of the Delaine.
Properties and Distribution. — In producing the Delaine
Merino, breeders have sought to produce a useful farmers' sheep.
Therefore, they are more prolific, heavier milkers, and more reliable
mothers than the American Merinos. Also the lambs are stronger at
birth and hence more easily raised.
202 THE DELAINE MERINO
It is doubtful whether a better breed than the Delaine could be
found for certain sections in Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Vir-
ginia, and farmers who own them in these regions will do well by
going slow in deciding to replace them with some other breed.
Delaines have been very popular in various regions of the West, one
especially being the interior of Oregon, which served as a breeding
ground from which sheepmen of Washington, Idaho, and Montana
drew heavily.
At the present time it is impossible to make a sharp distinction
between the C-type American Merino and the Delaine in either
appearance or breeding.
QUESTIONS
1. What characteristics distinguish the Delaine from the A-type American
Merino ?
2. What characteristics in the Delaine were of especial importance to
farmers?
CHAPTER XXVII
THE RAMBOUILLET
History. — The Rambouillet, a pure descendant of the Spanish
Merino, originated in France. In 1785, Louis XVI, being im-
pressed by the importance of wool and wool manufactures in the
industrial growth of his country, asked the King of Spain, as a per-
sonal favor, for " permission to import from the celebrated Spanish
flocks a flock of sheep with the highest quality of fine wool." His
request was granted, and in October, 1786, 318 ewes and 41 rams,
representing the best that M. Gilbert, the French agent, could find,
were quartered in their new home on the government farm at Ram-
bouillet, near Paris. Henceforth, these sheep were to take the name
of this farm, which was formerly the property of the Marquis
de Rambouillet, the famous Savant of the time of Louis the XIV,
but taken over by the government during the French Revolution
and ever since maintained for experimental purposes.
With the possible exception of the Leicesters, no other well-
established breed of sheep has been developed with as definite a
purpose in view, and beyond any question the progress of any other
breed has not been so faithfully recorded as that of the Rambouillet
in its original home. From 1786 to the present time the carefully
kept records of the French flock have been preserved without a
break. It is only by taking into consideration the various changes in
directors, periods of discouragement and depression, and especially
the recklessness and confusion of the Napoleonic wars, that one can
realize what it has meant to keep these records.
The purpose uppermost in the minds of those who directed the
making of the Rambouillet was to produce a fairly large, robust
sheep yielding a fine fleece of good weight and a carcass of desirable
mutton. In other words, they aimed at a dual-purpose sheep. In
certain periods the emphasis seemed to be laid somewhat more
strongly on the fleece than on the carcass, and in others the emphasis
seemed to be reversed, but the net result has been a sheep suitable
for both wool and mutton. It is doubtful, however, whether the
carcass was ever developed quite so much for mutton in the gov-
ernment flock as it was in some of the privately owned flocks first
of France and later of Germany.
203
204 THE RAMBOUILLET
Most of the privately owned flocks of France were founded on
stock bred at Rambouillet, and probably all of them secured animals
from that source. These were either sold or distributed as gifts for
the purpose of encouraging the keeping of improved sheep. During
the rule of Napoleon, and immediately afterwards, a great many
Spanish Merinos were driven into France and blood from this
FIG. 138. — Rambouillet ram, B-type; a prize-winner bred by F. S. King Bros. Co.,
Laramie, Wyoming. The heavy folds on the neck and the wrinkles on the body back of
the forelegs, on the thighs and at the dock indicate that this sheep is a B-type.
source may have been commingled with that received from the gov-
ernment farm.
The Germans got their foundation stock from the privately
owned flocks of France, but they called it Rambouillet just as the
French breeders had done.
Importations to the United States. — Rambouillets were
brought to the United States in 1840, but at that time the American
IMPORTATIONS TO THE UNITED STATES
205
Merino was coming to the front and the French sheep did not get a
favorable reception in the East. When California began to be a
place of importance, shortly after the gold craze of 1849, these
French sheep were gathered up and sent to the Pacific coast, where
they served as the foundation stock of the California French
Merinos.
Although a few breeders in Ohio and Michigan bred Eambouillets
in a rather quiet way, it remained for a German, Baron Von
Homeyer, to introduce 'the Rambouillet as such to the United States
FIG. 139. — Rambouillet ram, C-type. Bred by University of Illinois, sold at auction,
Salt Lake City, August, 1917, for $675. This sheep shows no wrinkles on the body and his
conformation indicates the mutton qualities characteristic of the C-type.
and to attract the attention of the sheep breeders of this country
toward them. This he did at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago
in 1893 through W. G. Markham, of Avon, New York, who acted as
his American agent. Baron Von Homeyer's sheep were so excep-
tional in size and shape that people gazed on them in wonder. To
the breeders of American Merinos they seemed an almost impos-
sible creation out of Merino blood. But they were what was wanted,
for the wool market was depressed and the demand for mutton was
rapidly growing, and just as soon as the country began to recover
from the financial panic following 1893 these sheep attained a
popularity that has never waned (Figs. 138 and 139).
206 THE RAMBOUILLET
Description. — Compared with other fine-wool breeds, the Ram-
bouillet is a big sheep, somewhat upstanding, strong in bone, and
distinctly robust in appearance. It bears evidence of mutton char-
acteristics in thickness of body and fullness of thighs. The sheep
with smooth bodies show more mutton than those tending toward
numerous folds in the skin ; in fact, many of the smooth Rambouillets
have almost as good backs as some*of the prominent mutton breeds.
Mature rams in full fleece, and in good breeding condition weigh
from 225 to 250 pounds, and ewes from 140 to 170 pounds. Show
specimens usually exceed these upper limits in weight, and it is not
uncommon for pregnant flock ewes to tip the beam at close to 200
pounds. Most of the rams have large spirally-turned horns, but
the ewes are hornless.
In twelve months Rambouillet rams grow from 15 to 25 pounds
of wool, and ewes from 10 to 18 pounds, but exceptional individuals
often greatly exceed the upper limits given. The length of fleece
varies from one and one-half inches to three or even more. The
wool of the average Rambouillet is not as fine nor is it as even in
structure throughout the fleece as that of the American and Delaine
Merino. It is also more often open to criticism in color on account
of the deposition of gummy yellow yolk.
Most Rambouillet breeders emphasize great extension of wool
over face and legs, a matter which has been carried too far for prac-
tical purposes. Many specimens being completely covered with wool
over the head and face are blind, and a blind sheep in a flock or
band is a nuisance because it is crazy. Extreme covering over the
legs collects mud and snow and hence is an inconvenience. It is
time for Rambouillet breeders to revise their notions a little on
head and leg covering.
The color of hair on face, ears, and legs of the Rambouillet is
white, and the hoofs are also white. Either deep or light brown spots
sometimes appear on the lips, ears, and around the eyes, and occa-
sionally there are stripes of black in the hoofs. These small areas
of dark pigment in either the hair or hoofs do not amount to dis-
qualifications, but they are tolerated rather than desired. Soft,
silky-like hair is regarded favorably, but, taken as a whole, the Ram-
bouillet does not grow hair on face and legs as fine as does the
American Merino (Figs. 140 and 141).
Type. — No standard of excellence has ever been constructed for
the Rambouillet and, with respect to folds in the skin, the breed
TYPE
207
FIG. 140. — Rambouillet ewe, B-type, bred by the University of Illinois. This ewe is
what may be termed a light B-type. Note the heavy folds on the neck and the fold dropping
from the underline.
FIG. 141. — Rambouillet ewe, C-type. Note the smooth mutton-like body.
208 THE RAMBOUILLET
varies almost as much in type as the American Merino. Certain
breeders favor very strong folds on the neck and also a few on the
body at such places as the dock, upper thighs, and fore and rear
flanks. Such sheep when shorn may show many small wrinkles
(called pin wrinkles) on the body. These heavily folded Ram-
bouillets carry comparatively dense and oily fleeces and the wool
tends to be shorter than in the snfobther types. On the outer sur-
face of the large neck folds, the wool is often so coarse that it is
more like hair than wool. This kind of growth has been encouraged
by a few breeders because they consider it indicative of a robust cpn-
FIG. 142. — Rambouillet ewes bred by University of Illinois. The strong, rugged features
of the head are characteristic of the breed.
stitution, but it is a bad fault that should be discouraged, for it
reduces the value of the fleece.
Certain other breeders do not favor the type showing folds on
the body and still others go so far as to object to pronounced wrinkles
on the neck. As a rule, the smooth or plain Rambouillets are the
more popular in the West because, with their better shape and lighter
pelts, they sell for more as mutton and professional shearers object
to shearing the wrinkled kind. In Ohio, New York, and Michigan,
where sheep with heavy folds and wrinkles have been kept for a
hundred years and where there was export demand for heavy fleeced
sheep before the outbreak of the war, Rambouillets carrying wrinkles
and folds are favorably regarded.
Many breeders think they cannot produce heavy fleeces by using
smooth rams. An inspection of flocks throughout the country would
PROPERTIES 209
probably show that all but a small percentage of the ewes are com-
paratively smooth over their bodies and there would not be a large
percentage with large wrinkles or folds on the neck. In other words,
breeders differ with respect to type, mainly on the make-up of
breeding rams used in stud flocks, some being willing to sacrifice
considerably in mutton for the sake of extreme fleece qualities,
while others insist upon a well balanced sheep as regards wool and
mutton (Fig. 142).
The Ohio State Fair management has provided two classes for
Rambouillets known as Class B and Class C. Class B includes the
FIG. 143. — Rambouillet lambs bred by Purdue University, LaFayette, Indiana. Note the
small wrinkles on the body which disappear as the wool grows longer.
sheep having the more extreme development in fleece as indicated
by wrinkles on the body, density and extension of wool over the
body and the amount of yolk in the wool, while Class C includes
the smooth sheep carrying only a few light folds on the neck and no
wrinkles on the body (Fig. 143).
Properties. — Rambouillet mutton does not rank so high as that
of the leading mutton breeds, but when well finished it is good mut-
ton, good enough to satisfy an educated and discriminating palate.
Of the fine wool breeds, all of which are hardy, none are more
so than the Rambouillet. Being large, strongly muscled, and capable
of a long stride, they are able to travel far and to handle various
kinds of forage. The ewes are fairly prolific, and the number of
lambs, born to the number of ewes bred, ranges from 125 to 150 per
14
210
THE RAMBOUILLET
cent. They are also good in maternal instinct and fair in yield of
milk. At birth the lambs are strong and large, averaging about
10 pounds. If well fed they grow rapidly, and few if any of the
mutton breeds produce lambs that increase in weight more rapidly
after they are four or five months old.
Bambouillets, like the other fij,ie-wool breeds, stay close together
when on the open range, and of course this trait helps to make them
popular in the West. But at present they are more popular in our
FIG. 144. — Rambouillet ram, Big Chief, bred by F. S. King Bros. Company, Laramie,
Wyoming, and sold at auction, Salt Lake City, August, 1917, for $1300. This elephantine
specimen of the breed weighed 375 pounds and walked with ease, showing that he was
in no wise fatted to overdone condition.
range regions than the other fine-wool breeds, due doubtless to their
superior size, greater prolificacy, and mutton qualities equal to the
Delaine and C-type American Merino. When crossed with rams of
the mutton breeds, the ewes produce excellent market lambs
(Fig.^144).
Distribution. — Eambouillets are still kept in considerable num-
bers in France and Germany. Of both the older and newer countries
the United States is their stronghold, but they have attained promi-
nence in the Argentine, and South Africa is trying them out now.
QUESTIONS 211
The American RambouiUet Sheep Breeders' Association is the most
prominent organization promoting this breed of sheep.
QUESTIONS
1. How was the RambouiUet breed developed?
2. When and why did the RambouiUet become popular in the United
States ?
3. In what respects do the Rambouillets differ from the American Merino?
4. In what parts of the United States are Rambouillets most popular?
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE KARAKUL (A FUR-BEARING BREED)1
•
History. — The Karakul 2 comes from the province of Bokhara.
Its history is not definitely known, but it is thought that the
foundation stock was the Arabi, whose blood has been combined
with that of the Black Danadar to produce the sheep in the vicinity
from which the Karakul derives its name. It is said that owners
of sheep in Bokhara do not follow systematic methods of breeding
and that on this account the Karakul can be regarded as a breed
only in a general sense (Fig. 145).
Description. — The conformation of the Karakul clearly indi-
cates that it has not been bred for mutton production because the
top of the body is too narrow and too uneven to permit of a large
quantity of meat in the regions of the valuable cuts. As a rule the
leg is lacking in fullness, the rump is steep, the loin high, and the
back depressed just behind the shoulders. It is characteristic for a
triangular mass of fat weighing five or six pounds to develop at the
upper part of the tail, and hang down toward the hocks. Because
of this characteristic, the Karakul is known as a broadtail breed.
The wool of the mature sheep is very coarse and wiry, and it is
brown in color. When the lambs are born, they have lightly curled,
glossy black coats; and in order to get good fur they should be
slaughtered before they are five days old, for if they are allowed to
live longer their coats rapidly deteriorate as a fur product.
Properties. — Undoubtedly the Karakul is hardy and suited to
arid and semi-arid conditions. It has been observed in the United
States that the lambs grow rapidly until they reach about 100 pounds,
which is almost the mature weight of females. Whoever contem-
plates growing Karakuls should bear in mind that although thev
are hardy, they have been accustomed to arid and semi -arid con-
ditions and hence may not do well in a moist climate. In the main,
1 See account of Karakul in 1915 Yearbook of U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
2 The word Karakul is derived from Kara Kul, the name of a village in
the eastern part of Bokhara.
212
DISTRIBUTION
213
it is yet to be seen to what extent they should be introduced into
countries where improved breeds are widely distributed (Fig. 146).
Distribution. — Several countries have recently become inter-
ested in the Karakul on account of the value of the skins of the young
lambs. Large numbers have not been brought into the United
States because of the long distance from Bokhara, and other diffi-
culties incident to getting sheep out of that country. About fifty-
four head have been imported and at present the number of pure-
FIQ. 145. — Karakul ram. The great gaudy rump consists of a mass of fatty tissue
breds cannot be large. The pure-bred rams have been crossed with
the well-known breeds of sheep, such as the Merino, Cheviot, Lin-
coln, Leicester, and Cotswold. The best results for fur bearing
have been obtained by crossing with the long-wool breeds producing
luster wools, and the poorest with the Merino cross. Just how
valuable the crosses and grades are as breeding animals has not
yet been definitely determined. It seems, however, that half or
three-quarter blood rams, when crossed upon ewes containing no
Karakul blood, are of little or no value as sires of fur-bearing lambs.
214
THE KARAKUL
Types of Lamb Fur. — The fur taken from young lambs is
known as Persian, Astrakhan, Broadtail, and Krimmer, and with
the exception of Krimmer, which is supplied chiefly from the
Crimean peninsula, it is obtained in large part from the Karakul,
of Bokhara. Since they have the best defined, most uniform, and
tightest curl, the Persians are of greatest value. The Astrakhans
FIG. 146. — Karakul ewe and lamb. The wool of the mature sheep is coarse and wiry,
but the lamb has a soft, glossy, black coat which can be made into valuable fur if the animal
is slaughtered when it is only a few days old.
have less luster or gloss, longer hair, and a more open curl than the
Persians. The Broadtail skins, which are taken from lambs pre-
maturely bom, are soft, pliable, and light in weight, with shorter
hair than the Persian, and instead of being tightly curled have a
very attractive wavy pattern. The Krimmer is a gray fur, while
the other types are black.
Lambskins vary greatly in value, according to quality. At the
annual summer fair at Nijni Novgorod, in Eussia, where prac-
tically all of the Bokhara skins are sold, the average wholesale
QUESTIONS 215
value of skins in 1913 was $6.25. By the time they reach New
York, the best dyed skins sell in small lots at from $12 to $20,
while the inferior ones may sell for no more than $3.
QUESTIONS
1. In what particulars is the Karakul different from any other breed of
sheep you have studied?
2. Where is the native home of the Karakul? What of its climate?
3. W7hen should the Karakul be slaughtered to yield good fur?
4. WTiat crosses have been made between the Karakul and other breeds
with a view to producing fur?
5. What do you think of the Karakul as a mutton sheep?
PART IV
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK
CHAPTER XXIX
ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
Methods of Establishing the Farm Flock. — There are two
methods of establishing the farm flock. One is to begin with a
few ewes and through increase of progeny gradually build up in
numbers until the flock is of suitable size. The other method con-
sists in beginning with as many ewes as the farm should maintain
in the system of farming being followed.
For the beginner with sheep, the first method is the better,
particularly if he has had little experience with other classes of
livestock, because in the small flock the performance of individuals
can be studied, while in a large one observations have to be limited
largely to the performance of the flock as a whole. When the flock
is small the owner can easily become familiar with the character-
istics of the best and the worst ewes. He fixes in mind the kinds
that produce the largest, fattest lambs and yield the heaviest fleeces.
He also takes note of the kind that remain rugged through a long
period of profitable production. Then, too, he becomes so familiar
with each of his sheep that he develops the power to detect slight
disorders in his flock, and this power is a fundamental qualification
of the successful shepherd.
But not all of the advantage lies with the man who begins with
the small flock. He who buys a flock of the size he thinks suitable
for his farm has assurance of keeping his land stocked more nearly
up to its capacity than can he who adds to his flock slowly.
He also has an advantage in that he can make more economical
use of his labor and can market to better advantage. The man with
the small flock often is embarrassed in attempting to find an outlet
for the few lambs he has for sale, while the owner of a large flock
may have enough lambs to justify shipping to a central market.
Whether the beginner starts with a few or with all he should
ever have, really depends on whether or not he counts on perma-
nently staying in the sheep business. If his plans are temporary
and his intentions more or less speculative, he had better begin
fully equipped ; if he aims at permanence he would do well to begin
219
220 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
modestly in order to educate himself through observing the per-
formance of particular individuals. Should he begin with only a
few he should plan ultimately to have a flock of sufficient size to
make it well worth his while to give it adequate care. When the
flock is very small, the temptation to neglect it for larger interests
is strong when labor is costly or scarce.
Where Ewes for the Farm Ffcck May Be Secured.— There
are two main sources from which to draw ewes for the farm flock.
FIG. 147. — Fancy selected native breeding ewes, showing uniformity in breeding. (Illinois
Station Bulletin 129.)
First, they may be secured locally in almost every part of the country
where farm flocks are kept. Second, they may be purchased during
the summer and early autumn months on the large livestock markets
where both native and western ewes are sold as foundation stock
for farm flocks (Figs. 147 and 148).
Selecting Ewes for the Farm Flock. — One of the first features
to consider in selecting ewes for the breeding flock is uniformity.
They should be as nearly alike as possible in breeding and size
because uniformity in these particulars is necessary if a uniform
lot of lambs is to be secured. When the owner has a uniformly
SELECTING EWES FOR THE FARM FLOCK
221
good lot of lambs he can market all of them at the same time and
such lots always meet with ready demand on the market. Should
the ewes be very unlike in breeding their lambs are almost sure to
lack in uniformity, even though they are all by the same sire. Then,
too, the wool from ewes lacking in uniformity of breeding is likely
to vary so much in quality that it can not be disposed of to the best
advantage.
Second, ewes selected for the farm flock should be well grown
and thrifty. If they look as though they have been well cared for
and have had a chance to become fully developed, the owner has
FIG. 148. — Choice Western breeding ewes suitable for producing prime market laml
when mated with pure bred rams of proper mutton type. See lambs from these ewes in
frontispiece and in Figs. 75, 85 and 89.
reason to feel that their inherited maternal powers will function to
full extent. Sometimes stunted ewes are good producers of lambs,
but more often they are not. It is seldom advisable to start with
unthrifty females for the reason that they are usually infested with
internal parasites, such as stomach worms, lung worms, and tape-
worms. Unthrifty ewes may do exceedingly well when placed
where sheep have not been grazed for years, in which case their
purchase seems to be a bargain, but they are likely to infest the
pastures with the result that before the owner is aware of it he is
beset with parasitic troubles (Fig. 149).
Third, breeding ewes should be not only well grown and thrifty,
but they should also bear evidence of strong constitution. They
222 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
should be active in their movements and alert to strange sights and
sounds. They should carry their heads well up ; their chests should
be wide and their bosoms full; their legs should be fairly short,
wide apart and placed so that they support the body well. Their
whole contour should suggest style, compactness, capacity, and
vitality. Without hardihood and productive power, breeding ewes
are of little use to their owners, and these properties are not present
to the fullest extent in ewes having weak constitutions.
FIG. 149. — Old thin ewes past their day of usefulness for breeding purposes. As a
rule such ewes do riot have good teeth nor sufficient vitality for growing either lambs or
wool. (Illinois Station Bulletin 129.)
Fourth, ewes selected for raising market lambs should possess
good mutton form. If they are undesirable in form their lambs,
even though sired by a ram that is ideal in form, may reach market
finish and weight too slowly, or they may not be sufficiently good
in form ever to develop into a choice or prime market product.
Fifth, ewes intended for the farm flock should have dense, com-
pact fleeces. Wool, being a non-conductor of heat, tends to lessen
the effect of sudden changes in temperature on the body and the
structure of the wool fiber is such that to a certain extent it holds
water and foreign substances away from the skin. Therefore, sheep
that are clothed in dense, compact fleeces extending over all parts
SELECTING EWES AFTER THE FLOCK IS ESTABLISHED 223
of the body are much better prepared to withstand the hardships
brought about by changes in weather than are those bearing scant,
open fleeces. It should also be remembered that even though wool
may be comparatively low in price, it brings in some revenue and
helps somewhat toward making the flock profitable. The best types
of wool for farm flocks are those that grade from " one-fourth
blood," "three-eighths blood" or "half blood" combing. These
wools range from two and one-half inches to four inches in length,
and in fineness they correspond to the wool produced by the Down
breeds. •
Sixth, the flock mothers should be of quiet disposition. This
statement is in no sense a contradiction to what was said in dis-
cussing the constitution of breeding ewes. We are here distinguish-
ing between the ewe possessing sense and the one devoid of sense.
Reject the fools; they are always upsetting something, most often
the shepherd's temper.
Seventh, breeding ewes should be sound and in their prime.
Their teeth should be in good condition, that is, they should be
intact and not worn down short. Their udders should be soft and
pliable, the teats intact and free from hard cores. Very fat in-
dividuals should be rejected, for they are either non-breeders or so
filled with internal fat that their lambs are likely to be small and
weak. It is not safe to buy ewes that are lame or addicted to
coughing. As a rule, ewe lambs should not be selected for breed-
ing, as they are too young to be sufficiently developed al lambing
time. Hence, they are likely to have trouble in lambing and to be
deficient in maternal instinct.
Eighth, the purchaser of breeding females should know his
needs and select accordingly. If he is in a neighborhood of good
lamb raisers he would do well to buy ewes that will produce lambs
about like those of his neighbors. By so doing, he will be in position
to cooperate with them in the disposal of his lamb crop. If he has
a great deal of heavy, coarse feed to dispose of he can handle large
ewes to advantage. If he has hilly, extensive range with sparse
vegetation, smaller and more active ewes are what he should select.
If he wishes to engage in a specialized business, such as winter
lambs, the selecting of his ewes is a special problem requiring a
great deal of painstaking: care.
Selecting Ewes After the Flock is Established. — There may
be two reasons for selecting breeding owes after the flock has been
224 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
established. One is to increase the size of the flock, the other is to
replace individuals which for good reasons should be disposed of.
For example, it is advisable to dispose of ewes which do not pro-
duce regularly, that is, raise a lamb or lambs each year. Such
ewes are often the handsomest in the flock, and because of their
good appearance the owner may be tempted to keep them, but if he
acts wisely he will let them go. Again there are ewes inclined to
breed late and out of season with the main flock. When it is appar-
ent that a ewe is fixed in this habit she should be rejected, because
her lamb, coming late, will not be ready for sale when the main
part of the lamb crop is ready to go to market. Then, also, ewes
that are failing in general condition should be " culled out " of the
flock, because they are becoming more susceptible to disease and are
likely to get too low in condition to nourish lambs well.
In case the owner replaces ewes " culled out " or adds to his
flock with ewes of his raising, he has an opportunity to take ad-
vantage of several important factors. First, he should select early
maturing ewe lambs of approved type. By so doing he will accom-
plish something toward building up a flock which will produce
early maturing lambs. This is a matter of no little importance, for
the lambs which grow into a marketable product in a short time are
likely to be the most profitable. Second, the ewe lambs should be
from heavy milking dams. This will be accomplished if early
maturing lambs are selected because they are usually well fed on
mother's milk. But, since desirable milking properties, as such,
should be sought by the man who aspires to grow a good lamb crop,
he should know whether or not the dams of the ewe lambs he pro-
poses to reserve for breeders are desirable milkers. Third, the ewe
lambs reserved for the breeding flock should be nearly of the same
age, and preferably from the first, rather than from the last of the
lamb crop. By all means, the very late born ewe lambs should not
be retained, for there is a tendency for them to breed late and they
oftentimes fail to develop into large, thrifty ewes. Those of nearly
the same age may be expected to breed at about the same time and
hence contribute toward a crop of lambs that is uniform with respect
to age. Young ewes are not sufficiently mature to place with the
ram until after they are one year old.
Selecting the Ram for the Farm Flock. — The ram should be
pure bred and of correct market or mutton type. It has already
been conceded that the ewes of the farm flock are likely to be grades
SELECTING THE RAM FOR THE FARM FLOCK 225
which, if true, make it imperative that the ram be a pure-bred. If
the ewes should be pure-bred, it would be ridiculous, of course, to
FIG. 150.
FIG. 151.
FIG. 150. — Pure-bred Shropshire ram suitable for siring market lambs and. sire of
lambs in Fig. 75.
FIG. 151. — Pure-bred Southdown ram, sire of lambs shown in frontispiece.
advocate Ihe use of a grade ram. A pure-bred ram should be used
in the grade flock because he carries a greater concentration of
blood than a grade ram. When bred to grade ewes his get have a
15
226 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
FIG 152. — Pure-bred Hampshire ram suitable for siring market lambs and sire of
lambs in Fig. 85.
FIG. 153.— Pure-bred Oxford-Down ram which is the sire of lambs in Fig. 89.
SELECTING THE RAM FOR THE FARM FLOCK 227
tendency to resemble him in greater degree than they resemble
their dams (Figs. 150-153) while such is not likely to be true of
the get of the grade sire.
Since lambs sired by a pure-bred ram will so often resemble him,
it is necessary, indeed, that he be of desirable market or mutton
type. He should be wide and deep for his length. He should be
symmetrical, that is, evenly developed. Well sprung ribs, wide
loin, well-filled thighs, a wide, full twist, and a deep, even covering
of firm flesh are all points of mutton excellence which should be
sought. He should be active an:i vigorous in order to sire lambs
FIG. 154. — Common rams with shallow bodies and narrow chests. Mixed in breeding.
The kind that should never be used for breeding purposes.
full of life and vigor, the kind of lambs that will have the advantage
in the race toward market perfection. Indications of activity and
vigor are bold, brisk, direct movements, stylish carriage, wide-open,
bright eyes, wide nose and well-expanded nostrils, deep chest, and
well-extended brisket.
As in the case of ewes selected for the flock the ram should be
well grown, though it is not necessary that he be an unusually large
representative of his breed. In fact, it is safer to select a ram of
medium size, since the over-large animal is in many cases coarse,
and this coarseness, if transmitted, will reduce the value of the
lamb crop when it reaches the market (Fig. 154).
If the owner intends to reserve ewe lambs for breeding purposes,
228 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK
he should select a ram with a compact fleece of good length, quality,
and weight, but if he plans to sell the whole lamb crop he can afford
to disregard fleece qualities. He can also afford to ignore breed type
in the ram to considerable extent. It would not be advisable to
select an individual so badly " off type " that he does not show to
what breed he belongs. There is often an opportunity, however, to
buy a ram of excellent conformation but deficient in some of the
" fancy " points of the breed and such an animal would no doubt
beget first-class offspring for market purposes. If the ewe lambs
are saved for breeding purposes it is desirable that the successive
rams be of the same breed so that a uniform flock may be secured.
FIG. 155. — Range rams, Hampshires. These rams are pure-breds, uniform in type and
thrifty and hence highly satisfactory for range or any other breeding for market purposes.
It is well to select the ewes before choosing the ram to mate
with them. If they are inclined to excessive length of neck and
legs, particular emphasis should be placed on short legs and neck in
the ram. Whatever the general defect in the ewe flock, an attempt
should be made through the ram to correct this fault in the off-
spring. But in so doing, it is not advisable to use a ram with any
pronounced defect merely because he happens to be strong where
the ewes are weak. Remember that the lambs may inherit the
defects of both parents, hence the necessity of using a sire well
developed in all his parts.
Selecting Ewes for Range Flocks. — In selecting ewes for range
flocks about the same rules apply as in the selection for the farm
flock. If the range flocks are to be handled by herders on un-
enclosed land it is necessary that the sheep have enough Merino
QUESTIONS 229
blood to preserve their herding instinct and to prevent their fleeces
from becoming too open and dry. As range ewes must be able to
travel, their feet should be sound and strong. They must also be
able to withstand rather hard conditions. Knowing this, the range-
man never selects old ewes.
Selecting Rams for Range Flocks. — As a rule rams are sub-
jected to very hard service on the range, and unless they are
acclimated to range conditions, they are likely to be of little use.
All those qualifications which are indispensable in the rams for
i I »**
FIG. 156. — Range rams, Rambouillets, bred by Butterfield Livestock Company, Weiser,
Idaho.
farm flocks must also be possessed by the ram selected for the range
flock, with special emphasis placed upon activity and hardiness
(Figs. 155 and 156).
QUESTIONS
1. What are the methods of establishing farm flocks?
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method; which
method would you follow were you establishing a flock?
3. Where would you secure ewes to establish a farm flock?
4. Name the features to consider in selecting the ewes. Discuss each.
5. After the flock is once established need the owner practice selection?
Why?
6. What are the advantages of raising your own ewe lambs?
7. Discuss the selection of the ram.
8. When is it necessary to pay particular attention to the character of the
ram's fleece?
CHAPTER XXX
THE BREEDING SEASON
•
Condition of the Ewes. — To be in proper condition at mating
time, ewes should be gaining rather than losing in weight. When
they are thriving instead of " standing still " or " going back " in
condition, they are more likely to come in heat and the whole flock
will breed within three or four weeks. As a result the owner suc-
ceeds in having the lambs come at the time desired and, since they
are all of about the same age, they develop into a uniform lot with
respect to size. It is also reasonahle lo suppose that the condition
ol' the ewes at the time of mating will have an influence on (he
number of offspring she will produce, for if she is well supplied with
healthy blood and gaining in weight she will likely secrete more
reproductive cells (ova) than she would were she in unthrifty con-
dition. But should this not be true, it is certainly true that the
healthy, thriving ewe at mating time is in proper condition to give
the developing foetus a good start toward becoming a lusty, vigorous
offspring at birth (Fig. 157).
How to Condition the Ewes. — As the time for breeding ap-
proaches, ewes that have raised lambs are often in thin condition,
l:ut since the breeding season usually comes at a time when the days
and nights are becoming cooler, all healthy ewes are disposed to take
on flesh if sufficient feed is available. Hence, about ten days before
the ram is to be turned with them, it is advisable to begin giving
them extra feed by turning them into more luxuriant pasture than
they have had, or by giving them a light grain ration of about one-
half pound per head daily in addition to their usual pasture.
Pumpkins broken and scattered over the pasture serve as a
supplement to it, and when fed in this way furnish a means for
"flushing," as this practice of stimulating the ewes with extra feed
is called. Fresh growths of rape can also be utilized to advantage.
In England, white mustard seed is frequently mixed in the feed for
the purpose of inducing the ewes to come in heat, and there are also
other stimulants, but natural feeds should be tried before these
more or less artificial measures are employed.
230
PREPARING THE EWES FOR MATING 231
Very succulent grazing, such as green second-growth clover, even
though it be of rampant growth, is not very satisfactory for ewes at
breeding time. They do not improve in condition on such feed to
any great extent and they often come in heat several times before
getting in lamb. As regards other green growths, however, there
is no other way of flushing which is more efficient or as convenient
as turning the ewes in on a fairly luxurient pasture of bluegrass,
timothy, or mixed grasses.
Sometimes good producing ewes are inclined to be overfat.
They should be kept on very scant grazing for some time before the
breeding season, and then, about the time the breeding season begins,
}> laced on good feed.
FIG. 157. — These ewes being thrifty and gaining in flesh are in proper condition for mating.
Feeding the Ewes Just after Mating. — Mansell, a prominent
English authority, advocates keeping ewes on a rather scant ration
for several days after they are mated with the rams. He thinks that
continuing them on abundant and stimulating feed causes them
to recur in heat two or three times and thus the time of becoming
pregnant is delayed.
Preparing the Ewes for Mating. — If the owner wishes to
keep an accurate breeding record, he should place numbered metal
tags in the ears of the ewes and on their sides he should stamp num-
bers corresponding with those on the tags with either wood or iron
stencils. Then by turning the ram in with the ewes for an hour
or so each day the owner can manage to keep a record of the service
(Fig. 158).
It is always well to clip the wool close around the docks of the
232
THE BREEDING SEASON
ewes ; it prevents them from befouling themselves and removes ob-
stacles for the ram in serving. In case ewes are very fat and gaudy
at the rump, the wool should also be clipped close on the top of the
rump (Fig. 159).
Condition of the Ram. — The ram should be active, vigorous
and in medium flesh during the breeding season. To do effective
service, he should be strong in his pasterns and well supported by his
hind legs (Eig. 160).
FIG. 158.
FIG. 159.
FIG. 158. — It is easy to record the date of breeding of a ewe with stencil mark on
her side.
FIG. 159. — A ewe thus trimmed around the dock is properly prepared for mating
with the ram.
Feed and Exercise. — In many flocks the ram is turned in with
the ewes and allowed to go without any special attention. Such a
method seems careless and inadvisable ; nevertheless, it possesses
some merit. Usually an active, vigorous ram is of nervous tempera-
ment and if he is removed from the flock for a part of each day he
spends the time in worrying. Sometimes he may even refuse to
eat while away from the flock, and he reduces in condition faster
than if he were allowed to remain with the ewes. With such a ram
it would be better to allow him to remain with the ewes most of
FEED AND EXERCISE
233
the time, taking him away just long enough each day to have a feed
of grain. Should the ram be of quiet disposition and not disposed to
fret when taken from the flock, it is advisable to keep him by him-
self for about half the time, or with wethers or perhaps with two
or three ewes in a lot where he will take a moderate amount of
exercise.
It is not always possible to have the ram in good condition in
the breeding season. He may be old or lame, or for unknown reasons
thin in flesh. Pie may be fit for some service, but in order to have
FIG. 160. — A vigorous, active ram in proper condition for breeding season.
him sire a considerable number of lambs his energies must be con-
served. He should be allowed with the flock for only an hour or two
each day and should have a liberal supply of choice green feed.
Whether or not the ram is allowed to run with the flock in breed-
ing season practically all of the time he should be given grain, the
amount to depend on his size. If he be of medium size, he should
eat at least one pound per day of some such mixture as three parts
oats and one part wheat bran by weight. These feeds are excellent
for a ram at service, as the bran acts as a mild laxative and the
234
THE BREEDING SEASON
oats are invigorating. In case the ram is in thin flesh, it may be well
to add corn and linseed oil meal to the grain part of his ration,
making a mixture of corn, five ; oats, ten ; bran, three ; and oil meal,
two parts by weight.
Preparing for Mating. — As a rule the ram will copulate with
greater ease if the wool on his belly is clipped short for several inches
• in front of the penis. Fat,
clumsy rams should be shorn
close all over the body, as they
are more active and less subject
to overheating after the fleece
is removed. In England what
is known as a "teaser" is em-
ployed if the breeding ram is so
fat and heavy on his feet that
circulating through the flock in
search of ewes "in heat" tires
him. The "teaser," a light,
active ram with an apron tied in
front of his penis so that he can-
not effect copulation, is allowed
to circulate through the flock in
order to locate the ewes "in
heat." By removing and placing
them in a small pen or lot with
the breeding ram his strength is
conserved and he can breed many
more ewes than would other-
wise be possible (Fig. 161).
By smearing a paint, non-
injurious to the wool, between
the fore legs of the ram each
day, a paint mark will be left on all the ewes he serves. This is
a material aid in keeping a record of the breeding service which
English shepherds use extensively. At the end of every sixteen days
they either change the color of the paint or smear it where it will
mark the ewe in a new place. Then it is possible to discover which
ewes recur in heat (Fig. 162}.
The number of ewes a ram will serve in a season depends on his
age and vigor, and to a certain extent upon his breeding.* Western
sheepmen claim that a ram of any of the English mutton breeds will
serve more ewes than a Merino of similar age and state of thrift.
FIG. 161. — Wool sheared from belly of
ram prepares him better for breeding service.
QUESTIONS
235
The method of handling the ram also has an influence on the num-
ber he will serve. If he is allowed with the flock a short time each
day his energy will be conserved to such an extent that he will get
more ewes in lamb than if he were allowed with them all the time.
.-•
,
FIG. 162. — Smearing paint on ram in order to mark ewes when mating.
The above statement may not hold for a very nervous ram. A vigor-
ous ram from one to four years of age is sufficient for 35 to 50 ewes
if allowed to run with them all the time ; if allowed with them for a
short time each day he is sufficient for 50 to 75 ewes.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the necessity of having the ewes in a gaining condition in breed-
ing season.
2. How would you condition the ewes?
3. What is the advantage of keeping the ewes on rather scant rations
for a few days directly after they are mated?
4. Outline a good method of keeping records on the ewes at mating time.
5. Discuss the condition of the ram at breeding time.
6. When is it advisable to turn the ram in with the ewes at breeding time
and let him go without any special attention? When is it not
advisable?
7. Would you give the ram grain during the breeding season? Why?
8. What is a "teaser"?
9. Is it possible to have the ram mark the ewes at the time of service?
10. How many ewes will a ram serve in one season?
11. Upon what factor may this depend?
CHAPTER XXXI
CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY
Condition. — Ewes should not be given a fattening ration during
the period of pregnancy, but they should be put in rather high con-
dition, for the following reasons : First, they are more likely to give
birth to strong, vigorous lambs, and to have the amount of milk
necessary to make their offspring grow rapidly. Second, being well-
fed, and having an adequate supply of milk, they are less likely to
disown their lambs than are thin, improperly nourished ewes.
Third, when the lambs are born, the ewes should have a considerable
reserve of fat to assist in carrying them through the suckling period,
for this is a time when the demands on them are so great that they
usually fail to maintain their weight even though they are liberally
fed. So important is this matter of proper condition at lambing
time that in ease a number of ewes are in very thin condition at the
close of the breeding season they should be taken out to themselves
and given an extra amount of feed (Fig. 150).
Feed in Fields. — On most farms, particularly in the corn belt
of the United States, there are pastures, oat or wheat stubble, and
corn stalks to be utilized in the fall of the year. It is the best
policy to make use of the stubble and stalks as early as possible before
they have deteriorated in feeding value through exposure to rains
and frosts. Bluegrass and timothy pastures and even old clover
fields can be left for use until late autumn and early winter in case
the stubble and stalks furnish an abundance of food. In fact,
pastures in the corn belt can be grazed with sheep most of the time
during all of the winter months, but they should not be injured by
over-pasturing and, unless they constitute a large acreage for the
number of sheep kept, they should not be depended upon as the only
source of feed during that time.
If the amount of pasture is limited, some succulent autumn and
winter feed may be obtained by sowing rye late in August or early in
September at the rate of one bushel per acre. In the northern states,
however, rye as a winter pasture should not be regarded as a feed
236
HARVESTED FEEDS 237
of considerable sustaining and fattening power, but it furnishes
some succulence, and grazing gives ewes the exercise they need.
Harvested Feeds. — Ordinarily it is best to begin feeding preg-
nant ewes grain or hay or both not later than January first, and
often it is advisable to begin a month earlier than this. In fact, it is
impossible to set a definite time for beginning to use harvested feeds,
and the owner must be guided solely by the supply of feed in the
fields and the condition of his flock. Unless the ewes are in thin
flesh the amount of grain fed should not be more than five-tenths
to seven-tenths pound per head per day to individuals weighing
FIG. 163. — Ewes in proper condition for lambing. These ewes are in rather high condition
with respect to flesh and fat and being so will have enough milk for their lambs.
140 to 175 pounds. Whole oats are always considered good feed
for sheep, but other grains and concentrated feed products can
be used. Corn alone is not considered by many of the best shepherds
as a good grain feed for breeding sheep because they "think that it is
too heating. Tbe writer, however, believes corn has been too harshly
criticised by many shepherds, for it is a good feed when used
with discretion. If it is mixed with oats or with several concentrates
palatable to sheep, it can form a useful part of the ration. Breeding
sheep will do fairly well on a moderate amount of grain composed
entirely of corn, provided good leguminous hay is fed.
Economy and efficiency are what the owner must think of when
compound ino; rations. Such feeds as linseed oil meal and bran are
usually costly and hence, when placed in the ration, add to the cost
of maintaining the-flocL If the flock can be kept in good condition
238 CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY
with less expensive feeds than oil meal and bran it would be better
not to use them. In most cases, it is possible to keep pregnant ewes
in desirable condition by feeding oats, corn, and some leguminous
roughage, as clover, alfalfa hay, soy bean or cow pea hay. Indeed,
it is often unnecessary to feed any grain when these roughages are
available, but should it be desirable to make use of less nutritious
roughages rather low in protein, »s oat or wheat straw (and there
should be a desire to use these roughages), then it is advisable to
put easily digested feeds of high protein content in the concentrate
part of the ration. It is better, too, to make use of the poorer
roughages before lambing time than it is after, because, owing to the
many demands made upon them, ewes with lambs at side should have
nutritious, easily digested feeds.
Silage.1 — Of late years the question has been frequently asked :
" Is corn silage a good feed for pregnant ewes ?" Indeed, it is a
good feed, provided certain precautions are observed- in making it
and feeding it. It should be made when the grains on the ears
of corn are passing out of the dough stage and beginning to harden.
In the process of making it the corn plant should be cut very fine
and distributed evenly in the silo so that there will be a minimum
of moldy silage. In feeding it care should be taken not to give the
sheep any that is moldy or frozen, and in no case should it be fed
to excess. For ewes weighing about 150 pounds one and a half to
three pounds per head daily is enough, although it may be possible
to feed more with safety. Along with the silage the ewes should
get some palatable dry roughage, and they should also have some
grain, for silage is essentially a roughage and should not be regarded
as a substitute for grain.
Because of its- succulent nature the use of silage should make
ewes more healthy and thrifty, particularly if no green feed is
available in the fields. And in the northern states there are nearly
always periods in winter when the fields either contain no feed or
when for some other reason they should not be pastured.
Silage is regarded as a cheap feed. On this account it should re-
ceive favorable consideration as a part of the ration for pregnant
ewes. But it is doubtul whether the owner of flocks of one hundred
ewes or less can afford to build a silo solely for his sheep, becaiLse
with a small number it is difficult to feed the silage off fast enough
1 See Chapter XXX T'X for further discussion on silage and roots.
ROOTS 239
to keep it in good condition. In most instances, however, this
trouble does not arise, for owners oi' farm Hocks usually have other
classes of livestock that will help in eating the silage.
Roots. — In England, Canada, and northern United States, roots
are an important sheep feed. Swedish turnips and mangels are the
kinds most commonly used. For pregnant ewes the turnips are
preferable, because the mangels require a long period of storage
before they are sufficiently ripened to be liberally fed without in-
jurious results. The chemical analysis of roots shows them to be
comparatively low in food nutrients. Mr. John Campbell, of
Canada, who was regarded as one of the most successful sheep
raisers in America, said that there is something in roots good for
sheep which chemists have not found. That was his way of em-
phasizing their importance. In the corn belt region of the United
States and in other regions having about the same weather with
respect to summer temperature, much of the growing season is too
hot for Swedish turnips. Instead of growing firm and solid they
become hollow and worthless. Mangels, however, can be grown suc-
cessfully in the corn belt and in other regions of similar climate,
but the yields are not as large as in regions farther north. More-
over, they, and turnips as well, require a great deal of hand labor,
which is very scarce on American farms. Hence in corn-growing
regions silage largely takes the place of roots. But if the flock is
small and if no other classes of livestock that consume silage are
kept it will pay to seed an acre or two to mangels. The writer was
taught by R. J. Stone, Storiington, Illinois, that the best yields
of mangels are secured in the corn belt when the seed is sown as
early in the spring as possible.
Silage and roots are similar in that each furnishes succulence,
the importance of which has long been emphasized by many of the
most successful sheepmen, and, like silage, roots must be fed with
care if good results are to follow. In regions where large root crops
are grown there is a temptation to save the hay and grain and to
feed roots to excess, which, if yielded to, often results in abnormal
losses of both ewes and lambs at lambinfe time. Wrightson in his
" Sheep, Breeds, and Management " advises against feeding more
than twelve pounds of roots per head daily to pregnant ewes, and he
advocates this quantity only for a short time before the parturition
period. That quantity would seem excessive to most sheepmen, and
evidently Wrightson refers to sheep of great feeding capacity. Most
240 CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY
American sheepmen would not feed more than three or four pounds
per head daily.
Water. — Plenty of good drinking water is very necessary to the
health and thrift of pregnant ewes ; in fact, some one has made the
apt remark that good drinking water is the cheapest of all good sheep
feeds. In coldest weather ewes receiving nothing but dry feed will
drink from two to four quarts per* head daily. They should not be
made to depend on snow and ice water when water of proper drinking
temperature can be had.
Exercise. — Daily exercise is good for pregnant ewes because it
stimulates the circulation of blood and assists in keeping the diges-
tive organs in good condition. It does ewes the most good when they
take it upon their own initiative, but if they are not inclined to
exercise, which is often the case toward the close of the pregnant
period, they will be benefited some by being driven from fifteen to
thirty minutes each day at a moderate pace. It is not always ad-
visable, however, to follow this practice, because some ewes become
so heavy and clumsy that they ought not to go more than a few
steps at a time. A good way to induce ewes to take exercise is to scat-
ter their dry roughage over the ground for a considerable distance.
This can be done without wasting feed if the ground is frozen, and
corn stover is one of the best roughages to use in this way. Another
good scheme is to have the hayracks distributed over a well-drained
and well-bedded open lot. In moving from one rack to another the
ewes get about all the exercise they need. Still another scheme is
to have a feed lot some distance from the place where the ewes are
kept the greater part of the time and to give them a little feed in
this lot each day. They go to and from this lot of their own accord
and hence get exercise in a manner which is good for them. The
writer has found that corn stover set up in the form of a huge shock
in a lot of this sort serves as a strong objective for the ewes and
they feed upon it without causing excessive waste.
All violent exercise should be avoided, particularly after their
pregnant condition becomes apparent. Few things can be more
disastrous to the prospective lamb crop than to have the ewes chased
by dogs. The effects of such an experience are abortion and defec-
tive lambs. It is a mistake to allow pregnant ewes to walk through
deep stiff mud. In so doing there is danger of straining to such
an extent that abortions may result. The same thing may occur
SHELTER
241
if ewes are made to jump over obstacles or if they are allowed to
crowd through narrow doors (Fig. 164).
Shelter. — It is necessary to protect pregnant ewes from the cold
rains of autumn and winter. Many people make the mistake of not
housing their ewes until they have become wet, when practically all
of the damage has been done. As soon as it begins to rain they
should be driven to shelter and kept there until the storm is over.
Snow, unless very wet and heavy, does little harm to ewes because
FIG. 164. — Ewes advanced in pregnancy should travel at a leisurely gait.
they shake off that which collects on their backs. As a rule, they
like to bed down in a deep, dry snow, and generally they may do
so without injurious results.
The barn or shed provided for ewes should be well ventilated
but free from strong draughts that blow directly on them. The
floor should be dry, and the surrounding lots should be well drained.
16
242
CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY
During the pregnant period there should be no particular effort
to make the shelter warm, as the chief danger with respect to tem-
perature lies in making it too warm (Fig. 165).
The Ram. — As to what should be done with the ram after
breeding season depends upon his disposition and behavior toward
the ewes. If he becomes " bossy " and butts and crowds them about
lie should be removed and placed fh a separate pen. In case the
owner prefers not to have very late bom lambs in his flock it will
FIG. 165. — A good barn for pregnant ewes — note the wide doors.
be necessary, of course, to take the ram from the flock after the
breeding season is considered closed unless it is certain that all of
the ewes are with lamb.
Rations for Pregnant Ewes. — The following tabulations indi-
cate the amount of feed given to pregnant ewes in various
experiments.
(a) From the Illinois Station :
Table 1. — The ewes in this experiment were two-year-old west-
erns, weighing 100 pounds. They were on experiment for 84 days
previous to the time they began lambing. All feeds tabulated aro
given in pounds and refer to the daily feed per ewe :
RATIONS FOR PREGNANT EWES 243
Ration No. 1 Ration No. 2
Corn silage 9 Corn silage 2
Clover hay , 2.0 Clover hay 4
Daily gain 0.1 Pasture in old clover field and in
corn stalks.
Daily gain 00
Ration No. 3
Corn silage 5
Clover hay 7
Pasture in corn stalks.
Daily gain 07
Table 2. — The ewes in this experiment were three-year-old west-
erns, weighing 115 pounds, and they were fed for 100 days previous
to the time they began lambing.
Ration No. 4 Ration No. 5
Shelled corn 55 Cottonseed meal ,. .125
Alfalfa hay 2.5 Alfalfa hay 2.5
Daily gain 25 Daily gain 15
Table 3. — The ewes in this experiment were four-year-old west-
erns, weighing 115 pounds. They were fed for 114 days previous to
the time they began lambing.
Ration No. 6 Ration No. 7
Shelled corn 25 Shelled corn 30
Alfalfa hay 2.50 Alfalfa hay 1.50
Daily gain 17 Oat straw 1.25
Daily gain 08
Ration No. 8
Shelled corn 06 Bluegrass pasture and corn stalks.
Alfalfa hay 80 Very little grain and roughage fed
Oat straw 25 in the barn until the last 40 days.
Daily gain 07
(b) From the Annual Report of the Wisconsin Station for 1902 :
Table 4. — The average weight of the ewes was 145 and 147
pounds.
Ration No. 9 Ration No. 10
Shelled corn 5 whole oats 5
Corn silage 2.5 Corn silage 2.5
Mixed hay 2.0 Mixed hay 2.0
Daily gain .23 Daily gain 23
244
CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY
Ration No. 11
Wheat bran 5
Corn silage 2.5
Mixed hay 2.0
Ration No. 12
Dried brewers' grains 5
Corn silage 2.5
Mixed hay 2.0
Daily gain 20 Daily gain 24
(c) From the Indiana Station, Bulletin 147.
natives, weighing about 160 pounds : 2
Table 5. — Feeding period, 90 days.
The ewes were
Ration No. 13
Oats 35
Corn silage 1.70
Mixed hay 2.96
Daily gain 16
Ration No. 14
Oats 35
Corn stover 90
Mixed hay 3.10
Daily gain 12
Table 6.— Feeding period, 130 days.
Ration No. 15
( oats — 2 parts )
Gram J COrn— 1 part > L35
( bran — 1 part )
Clover hay 3.17
Corn silage 3.95
Daily gain 18
Ration No. 16
( oats — 2 parts ^
Grain J bran— 1 part >• • 1-57
( corn — 1 part )
Clover hay 4.78
Daily gain 14
Table 7. — Feeding period, 120 days.
Ration No. 17
( oats — 2 parts }
Grain J bran— 1 part > • • • i-05
( corn — 1 part )
Clover hay ... 2.53
Corn silage 4.59
Daily gain 17
Ration No. 18
( oats — 2 parts )
Grain J bran— 1 part >- 1-04
( corn — 1 part )
Clover hay 4.00
Daily gain 14
Writer's estimate.
QUESTIONS 245
QUESTIONS
1. What pasture crops can be utilized to good advantage by pregnant
ewes in the fall?
2. Of what value is rye as a late fall and winter pasture crop for pregnant
ewes ?
3. Is it advisable to feed the ewes grain during the period of pregnancy?
4. How should the owner be guided with regard to feeding harvested feeds
to pregnant ewes ?
5. What is the average grain requirement for a pregnant ewe for one day?
6. Discuss the value of corn as a feed for pregnant ewes.
7. What precautions should be taken in making and feeding silage?
S. Why are roots important as a sheep feed?
0. Outline a method whereby the ewes will receive plenty of exercise dur-
ing the period of pregnancy.
10. When is shelter necessary for sheep?
11. Under what circumstances should the ram be removed from the flock
as soon as the breeding season is over?
CHAPTER XXXII
THE LAMBING PERIOD
Preparation for Lambing. — Quarters. — Lambing is usually
conducted under shelter and more space is needed for the flock at
this period than at any other time of the year. It should be broken
up into smaller divisions and ewes should be taken from the flock
and penned with their offspring. Under such circumstances every
nook and corner of the barn is occupied.
If lambs are born in cold weather warm quarters are a necessity.
The young lamb is most in need of a warm place immediately after
it is born, because it is wet and, not having had a fill of its mother's
milk, is more susceptible to the cold than at any other time. When
the weather is cold, the ewes almost due to lamb should be placed
in the warmest part of the barn and watched very closely. If it is
very cold it is well to place a comparatively large number together
so that the heat from their bodies will furnish enough warmth for
new-born lambs.
The barn, as a whole, may be too open for lambing in cold
weather. But it should be possible to make a section into a warm
room by partitioning off that part which is most protected from
the cold winds, and by closing up the cracks and crevices that admit
the cold. Such a room will be warm enough unless the weather
should be extremely cold, in which case boards can be nailed about
four inches from the walls of the room and straw stuffed in between
them and the walls. In the attempt to make the room warm pro-
vision for ventilation should not be overlooked (Fig. 166).
Lambing Pens.1 — The lambing pen is a necessary part of the
equipment for early lambing. Before or soon after a ewe has lambed
she should be placed in a pen about four feet square and having no
openings large enough to allow the lamb to escape. In this small
pen the ewe and her lamb become acquainted and accustomed to
each other much more quickly than they do when they are with the
flock, for upon first getting to its feet the lamb is without its " bear-
1For construction of lambing pens see chapter on "Buildings and
Equipment."
246
SUPPLIES
247
ings " and is inclined to wander wherever its legs will take it. It is
such an awkward little thing that the ewe has difficulty in getting it
to nurse and in protecting it. It is likely to be bunted over or
trampled by other ewes, or it may creep under a trough or through
an opening and become chilled. Should the ewe have two lambs
they may wander apart so that she cannot give adequate attention to
either. Under these circumstances she tends to abandon one and
give her undivided attention to the other, the result being that the
shepherd has a disclaimed lamb to deal with. Thus it is apparent
that the small enclosure, known as the lambing pen, is effective
because it keeps mother and offspring together. It is effective also
FIG. 166. — An open-shed type of shelter with lambing apartment for cold weather. (From
Kentucky Agricultural College.)
because it directs the attention of the shepherd to the ewe and her
lamb, should anything be wrong with them, more quickly than if
they were with the whole flock or a portion of it. And if they need
his special attention he can care for them more easily when they
are in the lambing pen (Fig. 167).
How long the ewe and her lamb should be left in the lambing pen
depends on the readiness with which they become accustomed to each
other and on the strength of the lamb. As a rule they can be placed
with the other ewes and lambs when the lamb is three or four
days old.
Supplies. — There are a, few drugs and appliances which should
be secured before the lambing season starts. The more important
drugs are carbolic acid or liquid sheep dip, to be used as a deodorant
and disinfectant ; epsom salts, castor oil, and raw linseed oil, to be
248 THE LAMBING PERIOD
used as physic; olive oil (sweet oil), to form the body of useful
lotions ; fluid extract of belladonna for dilation of parts ; sweet spirits
of nitre for urinary troubles ; tincture of iron, gentian and ginger,
to be used as a tonic ; soap to be used in making an enema for animals
suffering from constipation ; vaseline to use on the hand if it is neces-
sary to give the ewe assistance in lambing; a mixture of lead acetate,
zinc sulfate and boric acid to be use6 on inflamed udders; and tinc-
ture of iodine, to be used on umbilical cords and swollen udders.
FIG. 167. — A lambing pen showing an arrangement for converting it into a lamb creep.
When used as lambing peri, the larger opening is closed with the wide board.
The following appliances (Figs. 168, 169) are important: Rub-
ber nipples, a glass graduate sufficiently small that a nipple can be
slipped over it, small necked bottles, a small and a large syringe, a
funnel, three or four feet of half-inch rubber tubing, a sheep pelt
with a good lot of wool on it, a large jug, and facilities for heating
water. The small graduate is useful in case the lamb will not nurse
from the teat or if the ewe has very little milk. By milking into the
graduate and adjusting the nipple the lamb can be given a little
milk without delay. This cannot be done so easily with a bottle, but
in case a rather large amount of milk is to be fed the bottle is prefer-
able. The large syringe is needed in case the ewe should need injec-
tions or " flushing out," as are also the funnel and rubber tubing.
SUPPLIES
FIG. 168.
249
FIG. 169.
FIG. 168. — Appliances for lambing. 1, syringe with long small nozzle—suitable for
treating lambs or grown sheep with injections; 2, swan-bill nipple; 3, rubber piping; 4, small
glass graduate over which a nipple may be placed; 5, a type of docking iron; 6, drenching
or nursing bottle; 7, syringe with large nozzle — suitable for drenching or giving injections
to grown sheep.
FIG. 169. — Appliances useful around the sheep barn at nearly all times in the year.
1, sheep shears; 2, knife for trimming feet; 3, punch for making holes in ears, or for notching
ears; 4, pruning shears— suitable for trimming feet; 5, drenching horn — type used in Austra-
lia; 6, drenching or nursing bottle; 7, wooden stencil for painting letters or figures on body
of sheep.
250
THE LAMBING PERIOD
The small syringe is useful should the lamb be constipated and need
injections of soapy water. Warm water, the sheep pelt, and the jug
are brought into service in reviving a chilled lamb.
The Shepherd. — No matter how good the equipment may be,
the preparation for lambing is poor if the flock is without a good
caretaker. He needs to be a man who knows how to take ewes through
the lambing period and he must*be willing to stay on the job both
day and night. It is no time to
leave home when the lambs are
coming. For this reason alone it
is advisable to have the lambs
come early if the shepherd must
help in the fields when the crop-
ping season begins.
The right kind of a shepherd
has the confidence of his flock ; he
knows when lambing is to begin;
he sees to it that there are no
openings in the barn walls close to
the ground that are large enough
to let a young lamb creep through ;
and he keeps his flock where pigs
can not get to it, for he knows what a dainty morsel a young
lamb is for a pig (Fig. 170).
Caring for the Ewe. — Before Parturition. — During the last
days of pregnancy the ewe should be where she can be quiet and
contented. She should have plenty of room so that all jamming and
crowding can be avoided. Her ration should consist mainly of
clean, palatable roughage, such as clover hay. A little grain and
succulent feed will do her no harm, but it is dangerous to be gen-
erous as to quantity of grain, as some who have neglected their ewes
are inclined to do, because milk fever may develop after parturition.
When the ewe is very woolly about the udder she should be sheared in
order to allow the lamb to get to the teats. A new-born lamb will
suck a lock of wool almost as readily as it will the teat, and thus
lead the shepherd to believe it is getting its feed. But an experienced
shepherd cannot be fooled in this way, and it may not be necessary
to shear the udder until after the lamb has come. It is not advisable
to shear off a large amount of wool because the udder may be injured
from exposure to cold.
FIG. 170. — The good shepherd has
the confidence of his flock.
CARE DURING PARTURITION 251
Care During Parturition. — It is easy to tell when the time for
giving birth to the lamb has arrived. The ewe becomes uneasy and
paces about or turns around a great deal. She is very likely to paw
at the bedding with her fore feet and if she is possessed of a great
deal of mother instinct, she looks about and bleats for her lamb. In
advance of any of these indications, however, the physical appear-
ance of the ewe often shows that the time of parturition is very
near, for she is usually abnormally sunken in front of the hips and
on the rump at either side of the spine.
When the ewe is of the right conformation, vigorous, and in
good condition as a result of proper care, she seldom has difficulty
in lambing unless the lamb is not in proper position for birth. Dur-
ing the first stages of labor she should not be disturbed, but she
should be helped if she labors hard and shows little progress after the
normal lapse of time. Or if she quits laboring for a longer period
than the normal intermission between the recurrence of labor pains
an examination should be made to see whether the lamb is alive
and in normal position. If it is in normal position the fore feet are
coming first and the nose is placed down snug on the fore legs.
Occasionally the head is back over the shoulders, or one leg is back, or
the body -is doubled up with the back coming first. If possible the
shepherd should insert his hand, push the lamb back and get it
into normal position. Before this is done the shepherd should
take proper precautions to guard against the infection of either the
ewe or himself by trimming his nails close and bathing his hand and
arm in disinfectant. He should also grease them with vaseline to
make the entrance easier. It is usually easier to introduce the hand
if the head of the ewe is lower than her rump. In case the pressure of
her labor is too great to permit the introduction of the hand it is
advisable to elevate her rear parts high enough to cause the lamb to
fall back into the womb. If this takes place it will then be compara-
tively easy to introduce the hand. After the lamb is placed in
normal position birth will probably be effected without further diffi-
culty. If it is found that the breech is coming first it may not be
necessary to put the lamb in normal position, as it is often possible
. to safely deliver it when it is in this position by getting hold of the
hind legs and pulling steadily outward and downward toward the
udder (Fig. 171).
Frequently ewes have trouble in lambing because the lamb is too
large to pass through the parts. If the attendant can get the fore
252
THE LAMBING PERIOD
legs and head delivered it is usually comparatively easy to complete
the birth, although there are cases where the shoulders are so large
that it is hard to get them through. One of the best ways to assist
in the delivery of the head is to pull steadily on the fore legs and
press in on the vulva just back of the lamb's head. Professor
Kleinheinz,2 of the University of Wisconsin, says that he has found
it to be of assistance to smear rifw linseed oil in the outer part of
the vagina just above the lamb's head. This makes the interior
of the vagina more slippery and serves to dilate it further. After
FIG. 171. — Proper position of lamb in the uterus of the ewe for normal birth.
the head and feet are delivered, the shepherd should pull on the
fore legs outward and down toward the ewe's udder in order to
deliver the shoulders. After the shoulders come through, the birth
of the lamb is practically completed.
There are instruments for dismembering the foetus in case either
the ewe or the lamb is so abnormally developed that delivery cannot
be effected in any other manner. This is a last resort and since
the life of the ewe is the whole consideration great care should be
taken to avoid such injury to the womb as will cause her death. Just
before starting to operate the instruments should be sterilized and
2 See "Sheep Management and Breeds of Sheep," by Kleinheinz.
WATER 253
the hands of the operator thoroughly disinfected with a two per cent
solution of carbolic acid or some other good disinfectant.
Every shepherd should realize the importance of skill in de-
livering the lamb. In pure-bred flocks, particularly where it is
nearly always advisable to retain good breeding ewes long after
they have begun to decline in vigor, the ability to know when things
are not going right in lambing and the further ability to make them
right are invaluable. Some are blessed more than others with the
natural ability of knowing what to do and how to do it, but it requires
much practice on the part of any one to develop the skill necessary
to deal successfully with the various emergencies that arise. Dia-
grams and written descriptions will give some assistance, of course,
but the skill is developed by actually handling cases.
After Parturition. — -For several days after the lamb is born the
shepherd should keep the ewe under close observation. He should
see to it that she casts the placenta (after birth) ; that her bowels
and udder are in good condition; that she is not exposed to cold
draughts, and that she is properly provided with drink and sound,
easily digested feed.
Feed. — AVhen the ewe is in good condition it is well to feed grain
sparingly or not at all for the first three or four days after the lamb
is born, but if she is in thin condition and has very little milk it
may be advisable to begin giving her grain when the lamb is only
a few hours old. Sometimes the ewe has no appetite, in which case
she should be offered the most palatable and most easily digested
feeds such as bran, linseed oil meal, and the very best clover or
alfalfa hay. Loss of appetite for a few hours may not be a serious
matter, but if the ewe continues to have no desire for feed the shep-
herd should note whether or not her bowels are in good condition.
A good physic with 4 ounces of raw linseed oil or 4 ounces of epsom
salts 3 often brings a ewe to her feed in a short time, and a teaspoon
each of tincture of gentian and ginger in a half pint of tepid
water given three times daily will stimulate her appetite. If she is
thin in flesh a teaspoon of tincture of iron added to each dose
may assist in building her up so that she can take care of her lamb.
Water. — Since she is usually in a feverish condition the ewe is
very thirsty just after parturition and, although she should be
3A quick acting physic is made by mixing 2 ounces of raw linseed or
castor oil with 4 ounces of Epsom salts. An injection of soapy water is
good in case the ewe is constipated.
254 THE LAMBING PERIOD
allowed to drink, she should not be permitted to take a large " fill "
of water. She should not be given very cold water, and if the
shepherd has the time one of the best ways to treat her with respect
to drink is to give her about a quart of almost tepid water at intervals
of about two hours until her thirst is satisfied.
Caring for the Ewe That Has Had Difficulty in Lambing. —
The ewe that has considerable difficulty in lambing is likely to be-
come very weak and in need of a stimulant. Two tablespoonfuls
of whiskey or gin in a little water are the stimulants most often
given by professional shepherds. If the ewe fails to regain her
strength the dose 'should be repeated after about an hour.
A ewe that has assistance in lambing is likely to be more or less
lacerated inwardly, and hence in need of something soothing and
healing for the torn places. A good remedy is a wash composed of
one-half ounce zinc sulfate and two ounces of tincture of opium
in a quart of water. If the ewe is lacerated or if she fails to cast the
afterbirth soon after the lamb is born she should be " flushed " once
or twice daily with the zinc sulfate and opium wash or with a care-
fully prepared one per cent solution of carbolic acid or other suitable
disinfectant. A disinfectant rather than the zinc sulfate-opium wash
is advisable if there is an offensive odor. The flushing, which
can be done either with a large syringe or with rubber tubing,
should be continued until all odors and unnatural discharges have
ceased. In case the tubing is used the part inserted should be
coated with vaseline. The other end, in which a small funnel is in-
serted, should be held well up above the ewe while the solution is
being poured into the funnel. Injected washes should be lukewarm.
Occasionally a ewe suffers from eversion of womb after lambing.
As a rule this is caused by great difficulty in lambing. For treat-
ment " Shepherd Boy " in " Modern Sheep : Breeds and Manage-
ment " gives the following directions :
" The operator should have an assistant who lays the ewe on her
back and, grasping her hind legs gently, lifts her hind quarters about
a foot from the ground. By this method the organs can be readily
replaced. The operator should next take a pint of lukewarm water
and put into it two teaspoonfuls of sugar and one of pulverized alum
and inject the same into the womb twice a day. In stubborn cases
a leather band may be placed so as to prevent the womb from coming
out." Two stitches across the vulva are effective.
UDDER TROUBLES
255
Udder Troubles.— After the lamb is born, if the shepherd does
not give close attention to the ewe's udder serious disorders may
gain considerable headway before they are discovered. The udder
may become very much inflamed and so sore that the ewe refuses
to allow the lamb to suck. This condition, known as garget, may
be brought on by bruises, colds, chills, lying on wet ground, and
inability of the lamb to take enough of the milk.
As soon as the trouble is discovered the udder should be thor-
oughly milked out, and if the swollen part is feverish it should be
reduced by the applica-
tion of hot compacts
wet with a solution of a
tablespoonful of equal
parts of lead acetate,
zinc sulfate and boric
acid in a quart of water.
Keep the compacts in
place all the time by
placing over the udder
an apron which can be
held in position by at-
taching it to a harness
fitted to the body of the
ewe (Fig. 172).
In case the swollen part is not feverish it can be reduced by
rubbing twice a day with tincture of iodine until the swelling
begins to subside. Thereafter one application daily is sufficient
until the treatment can be discontinued. This treatment is also
good for feverish, swollen udders. Since tincture of iodine is rather
expensive, it woi'ld not be recommended were it not powerful in re-
ducing inflammation. Should pus form, an opening should be
made in the udder to permit drainage and the diseased part should
be thoroughly disinfected once a day with a one per cent carbolic acid
solution or some other effective antiseptic wash. If mortification
sets in the discolored portion should be kept painted with iodine.
Whether or not garget is contagious seems to depend on whether
it results from bruises and colds or from erysipelas. If due to the
latter, the disease may spread very rapidly. Since it is difficult to
distinguish one form of garget from the other it is best to isolate
all ewes whose udders are affected. It is also well to wash the udders
FIG. 172. — An apron over the udder to keep compact
in place.
256 THE LAMBING PERIOD ,
of the other ewes in the flock with disinfectant and to disinfect the
pens from which the diseased ewes are removed. Close watch should
be kept for fresh outbreaks of the disease.
From instances noted in the lambing fold and from experience
with other classes of animals it would seem best to prevent the lamb
from sucking the diseased side of the udder, because in the majority
of cases the lamb becomes so poisoned from the milk that it either
dies or makes very little growth.
A very common trouble with the suckling ewe is sore teats.
This condition may arise from either of two causes. One is the
chewing or biting of the teats by the lamb and the other results
from pock-like sores that appear on the teats and on the udder.
Should the soreness arise from the lamb biting the teats it is well to
examine its teeth. If they are long and sharp the cure may be
effected by filing them off. This is not always successful, however,
and it may be better to dispose of the lamb than to allow it to ruin
the udder of a good ewe. If the trouble arises from pock-like sores,
the best proceeding is to open these sores and wash them with a
disinfectant. A solution of liquid sheep dip made up of one part dip
to about twenty-five parts water is very good for this purpose and a
few applications usually effect a cure. The shepherd should watch
every day for sore teats, for it is a trouble which appears suddenly
and causes a great deal of loss and annoyance. If the sores become
large the udder is almost sure to be injured and not infrequently it is
spoiled, thus making the ewe practically worthless for breeding
purposes.
Occasionally a ewe fails to give milk through what seems to be
a sound teat. Upon close examination it is found that there is a
hard core in it. Some authorities state that the insertion of a small,
hot rod, such as a knitting needle, will open the teat so that the milk
can be drawn. The writer has never tried this remedy, but he knows
of persons who have tried it without success. A teat that has had
the end cut off rarely functions satisfactorily.
Caring for the Young Lamb. — As soon as the lamb is born the
mucus should be wiped from its nose and mouth. It is not impera-
tive that the shepherd perform this duty, for it is well known that
many a lamb not receiving this attention comes through safely, but
occasionally the amount of mucus in the mouth and nostrils is suf-
ficient to cause strangulation. If the ewe is strong and possessed
of mother instinct she gets to her feet and devotes her attention to
HELPING THE LAMB TO NURSE
257
the lamb shortly after- it is born. If she is too exhausted to arise
the shepherd should place the lamb near her nose. In fact, it is a
good practice to pinch off the umbilical cord about four inches from
the body and place the lamb at the ewe's nose before she has time
to arise, for then she can both rest and give the lamb the attention
which is prompted by her mother instinct. As soon as it is apparent
that she intends to care for her lamb it is best to go away and leave
them for from twenty to thirty minutes. During this interval the
FIG. 173. — The kind that needs no help. His legs are sturdy and strong, his chest is deep
and wide and his head carried high bespeaks health and vigor.
ewe removes much of the mucus from the lamb's body, and by so
doing she hastens drying and arouses the lamb's instinct for feed
(Fig. 173).
Helping the Lamb to Nurse. — If the lamb is able to nurse
without the assistance of the shepherd, well and good, but often
assistance is necessary. Sometimes the ewe, especially with her
first lamb, refuses to let it nurse because she is nervous and desires
17
258 THE LAMBING PERIOD
to see it. When this is the case the shepherd is obliged to hold the
ewe while the lamb takes its first feed, but if it is strong and an
eager feeder the one holding is usually all that is necessary.
Often a strong lamb, eager to feed, but unable to find the teat,
can be trained by being helped once or twice. When assisting such
a lamb it is best to let the ewe stand rather than to lay her on her
side. By backing her into a corner and placing a knee against her
brisket to hold her the shepherd has both hands free to guide the
lamb to the teat, which should be done by gently pushing the lamb
at the tail with one hand and holding obstructions away from the
teat with the other.
Helping a Weak Lamb. — A strong lamb is up on its feet,
bleating and searching for food a few minutes after it is born. A
weak lamb (and there are almost sure to be a few) is very slow in
getting to its feet; its bleat is feeble and it does not have much
desire for food. Often the teat has to be placed in its mouth and
some milk squeezed into its throat before its appetite is aroused.
Since it cannot stand while it nurses, the shepherd, if he is without
a helper, usually has to lay the ewe on her side in order to get the
lamb' to the teat. But if it can be avoided it is better not to put
the ewe on her side, because the lamb will learn to help itself much
more quickly if she is left in normal position.
A good fill of mother's milk generally works wonders for a weak
lamb. After it has had its feed it should be placed where it will
keep warm and can have an undisturbed sleep. In about two hours
after the feed is taken it is usually markedly improved in strength.
By the time three or four feeds have been taken the weak lamb,
possessing an appetite, is about able to get to the teat unassisted.
The weak lamb, unwilling to feed, presents a more serious
problem. Usually such a lamb cannot be induced to suck, and
enforced feeding must be resorted to. If the shepherd squeezes
some of the ewe's milk into a small glass graduate, slips a swan
bill nipple over the end, places the nipple in the lamb's mouth and
pours the milk down its throat, the lamb will gain some strength and
perhaps will develop such a desire for food that subsequent feeding
will be easier.
Occasionally lambs are so weak as to appear almost lifeless at
birth. A careful shepherd can often save such lambs by quick action.
Eespiration can best be started by blowing into the lamb's mouth and
by gently beating it on the chest. After the breathing becomes
YOUNG LAMB TROUBLES 259
normal the procedure is the same as outlined above for weak lambs.
When a lamb is born with a thickened tongue it is impossible
to handle it successfully. Although strong, it is drowsy and utterly
unable to nurse. It is best to give up a lamb of this sort at once.
Handling the Chilled Lamb. — If the lambing occurs when the
weather is cold there will probably be some chilled lambs. There is
hope for the chilled lamb as long as life is not extinct. One of the
best ways to proceed with it if it is badly chilled is to immerse all
but its head in water as warm as the elbow can bear. As the water
becomes cool hot water should be added to maintain the proper tem-
perature. The purpose of the bath is to start and to invigorate the
circulation, hence when the lamb becomes somewhat lively it should
be removed. Immediately upon being taken from the water the
lamb should be enveloped by a large towel and rubbed briskly until
dry. It should then be fed and placed in a warm spot for its sleep.
If the lamb is not so badly chilled as to require the bath it may
be revived by wrapping it well and giving it a stimulant, such as
a teaspoonful of gin or whiskey in a little warm milk. If it is
placed near a heated stove it should be well wrapped in a cloth or
a sheep pelt, because the air currents about the stove and direct
contact with the heat seem to have a detrimental effect.
Joe Wing advocated placing a chilled lamb in a barrel half
filled with bran and containing a good sized jug of warm water;
and Herbert Radwell, shepherd for R. J. Stone, Stonington, Illinois,
keeps a barrel half filled with straw near the furnace in the base-
ment of the house. If a ewe lambs on a cold night he takes her
lamb away from her before she has seen it and keeps it in this
barrel until morning. He says he avoids a great many cases of chill-
ing in this way and the ewe never refuses to own her lamb when it
is returned to her.
One important thing to remember about the chilled lamb is that
it should be fed as soon as it has become revived. Another im-
portant thing is that it should be kept away from its mother no
longer than is absolutely necessary, for there is danger (Radwell's
case excepted) of her refusing to own it if it has been away from
her very long (Fig. 174).
Young Lamb Troubles. — The Disowned Lamb. — It is very
annoying to have a ewe disown her lamb, because it not only brings
about trouble, but her desertion of it appeals to one as being unjust.
We do not know what makes a ewe refuse to claim her lamb. Many
260 THE LAMBING PERIOD
cases have come to notice in which a ewe has taken one of a pair of
twins and has refused the other, an action which is scarcely trace-
able to lack of mother instinct. Again, a ewe may be very good to
her lamb for the first two or three days of its life and then turn
against it. It is not an uncommon occurrence for young ewes to
fail to claim their lambs, this being particularly noticeable in ewes
that are only a year old when ftie lambs are born. Such ewes
are not sufficiently mature to have the maternal instinct well
developed.
The first duty of the shepherd toward the disowned lamb is to
try to make the mother claim it. As soon as the lamb is born it is a
FIG. 174. — A lamb blanket used in the West to avoid chilling. A young lamb thus blanketed
can withstand rough weather.
good practice to take some of the mucus from its mouth and nose
and smear it over the nose of the ewe as a case of disowning may be
avoided in this way. For the first few days the ewe seems to recog-
nize her lamb solely by means of the sense of smell, and smearing
her nose with the mucus from the lamb seems to aid her in recog-
nizing it. If she refuses to own her lamb after it is dry she may
be induced to take it after some of her milk has been rubbed on the
lamb's rump and also on her nose. She turns her head to smell of
the lamb -when it is placed to the teat, and the odor of the milk
being both on her nose and on the lamb frequently serves to estab-
lish recognition of her offspring. In case the ewe seems undecided
whether or not to claim her lamb, another means for forcing her
to take it is to tie a strange dog in a pen next to the one in which
YOUNG LAMB TROUBLES 261
she and her lamb are confined. The fear of the natural enemy
makes her seek the companionship of her offspring and arouses her
latent mother instinct. Use this as a last resort.
Sometimes it is possible to induce a ewe to take her lamb by
keeping her and the lamb in the lambing pen and by holding her
frequently to allow the lamb to nurse. This plan will work if the
ewe's antipathy for her lamb is not marked. After the lamb becomes
pretty strong and has learned well the source of its feed it will
persistently tease at the mother for the privilege of nursing, which
helps to break down her stubbornness and hastens the time when she
will claim her lamb.
Sometimes the ewe exhibits great dislike for her lamb, and she
does all she can to prevent it from nursing. She bunts it over when-
ever she has opportunity; she may even savagely trample it under
foot. An extended struggle is usually necessary for inducing such a
ewe to own her lamb. She should be tied up short so that she has
small chance to harm the lamb. As often as the shepherd can get
around to her he should force her to allow the lamb to nurse, since
in so doing he may make progress in breaking down her stubborn-
ness. It may be necessary to build a device which will not allow her
to move the rear of her body from side to side. As a last resort she
may lie down to keep her lamb from nursing, in which case some-
thing should be placed under her to hold her up. After every
scheme has been tried, from the mildest to the most severe, the ewe
may still remain unconquered. But if her lamb is strong and
plucky it may manage to get along if the shepherd can find time
to hold the ewe for it to nurse several times each day.
When it happens that a ewe refuses to own one of a pair of
twins the shepherd finds himself in an exasperating situation,
especially during the first few days after the lambs are born, be-
cause the more the ewe dislikes one lamb the more she seems to like
the other. She attempts to give the favored lamb a great deal of
nursing, thus exhausting her supply of milk, so that there is noth-
ing for the disowned lamb when the shepherd comes around to give
it assistance. But if the unclaimed lamb can be carried through
until it has learned to go after food when its mate does the ewe
will soon be obliged to allow it to feed. The unclaimed lamb can
be given an equal chance with its mate by keeping both lambs in a
pen close to the mother where she can see them. Then when the
262 THE LAMBING PERIOD
shepherd comes around he can put both lambs with her and see to
it that the chances of each for food are equal.
The Orphan Lamb. — A lamb may be orphaned through the
death of its mother or because of her inability to suckle it. In
caring for it the shepherd's first thought is to find a foster mother
and it may be that some ewe has lost her lamb about the time the
orphan was born. If so, the dead lamb should be skinned and its
pelt kept on the orphan for a few days. The scent from the pelt
will cause the ewe to think the orphan is her own lamb. Should it
happen that the ewe lost her own lamb some time before a certain
lamb became an orphan she may be induced to become its foster
FIG. 175. — Wearing a dead lamb's skin to induce the mother of the dead lamb to believe
that, her offspring is still living.
mother by some of the methods already outlined for making the
ewe claim her lamb. Another plan is to rub sassafras oil or kerosene
on the lamb and also on the ewe's face and nose. Every shepherd
should endeavor to keep a lamb with each ewe that is able to raise
one. Should there be no orphans at the time a ewe loses her lamb
it is advisable to place with her one of a pair of twins belonging
to some ewe that is unable to suckle two lambs well (Fig. 175) .
If there is no chance to place the orphan witW a foster mother
it will have to be fed by hand on cow's milk. Several authorities
state that to prepare cow's milk for lambs it should be diluted
with an equal amount of water, but since the analysis of ewe's milk
AILMENTS AND DISEASES 263
shows it to be richer in fat, sugar and total solids than cow's milk
this practice is entirely unnecessary.4
Casein and
No. of Water Albumin Fat Sugar Ash
Analyses. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Ewe's milk (Sartori) 2,700 78.70 6.30 8.94 5.06 1.02
Cow's milk (Konig) 705 87.27 3.39 3.68 4.94 .72
For the first week the orphan should have some ewe's milk. A
good way to get it is to take the lamb to ewes whose lambs are not
yet old enough to take all of the milk.* The orphan should be fed
milk often, but it should not be given a large amount at one time
until it is two or three weeks old. On the first day of its life an
ounce (two tablespoonfuls) is a liberal feeding, and it is safer to
feed only half that amount. But it should be fed at least every
two hours. It is most convenient to feed the milk from a bottle
to which is attached a medium sized nipple of the rt swan bill "
type. The bottle should be kept thoroughly clean and- the milk
should be fresh and at natural temperature; that is, at approxi-
mately 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to maintain this tem-
perature the bottle containing the milk should be kept in a vessel
partly filled with water heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit or slightly
above. After the lamb is two or three weeks old it is not necessary
to feed it more than three times a day (Fig. 176).
Sometimes a ewe has two lambs and only enough milk for one.
In such a case, it is usually possible to bring the lambs along
nicely by supplementing her supply with cow's milk. At first they
may be reluctant to nurse from the bottle, but by persistent en-
couragement they soon take to the additional feed eagerly. As they
learn to eat grain and hay the milk feeding can be gradually dimin-
ished and finally discontinued (Fig. 177).
Ailments and Diseases of Young Lambs. — Pinning.— «-What
is known as " pinning " is the collection of feces at the anus so that
evacuation cannot be accomplished. The first feces voided are
almost as sticky as glue and hence often cling to the wool and skin
of the tail. When this happens the anus is " plugged " and the
lamb, unless attended to, may pine away and die. All the treatment
that is necessary is to scrape the collection away with a stick or cob
and wash with warm water.
^Composition of ewe's and cow's milk (from "Feeds and Feeding," by-
Henry and Morrison ) ,
264 THE LAMBING PERIOD
Constipation. — Young lambs may be constipated. The symp-
toms are straining and distress in the attempt to pass feces. Usually
this trouble is relieved by injections of warm, soapy water. If this
treatment fails, a half to a tablespoonful of milk of magnesia (sul-
fate of magnesia) or a teaspoonful of castor oil may effect a cure.
White Scours. — White scours are caused by digestive disorders
in the stomach, which usually resist from mistakes in feeding the
FIG. 176. — Happy orphans.
ewes. If they be given clean, wholesome feed and if the nature of
their ration is not changed abruptly, white scours do not often occur
in the lambs. In fact, nearly all digestive disorders in very young
lambs may be due to the feed and physical condition of the ewes.
Sulfate of magnesia, given as in constipation, may be of some
help to lambs suffering from white scours.
Indigestion. — Sometimes lambs are seized with a violent attack
AILMENTS AND DISEASES 265
of indigestion. It is marked by great distress and frothing at the
mouth. Castor oil (a tablespoonful) is the most efficient remedy
the writer has found.
Sore Eyes. — Lambs are frequently afflicted with sore eyes. The
eyes take on a milky appearance or, in very severe cases, an angry
reddish hue. Tears flow profusely. A few drops of silver nitrate
solution, known to all druggists as an " eye wash," placed in the
eye each day usually relieves the trouble. Argyrol, a preparation
FIG. 177. — A milch goat is useful in lambing time.
often used as a remedy for sore eyes in people, is also a good remedy
for sore eyes in lambs. Wing, in " Sheep Farming in America/'
says that a strong solution of sheep dip is a sure cure for sore eyes.
He states that the disease is due to the presence of bacteria which
will be destroyed by a thorough bathing with the dip in and all
around the eyes. A strong solution of dip applied to the eyes is very
painful and hence the other remedies mentioned are to be preferred
to using the dip.
266 THE LAMBING PERIOD
Sore eyes are often caused by the eye lashes turning inward
against the eyeball. The remedy is to sew the eye open with a needle
and silk thread by stitching the loose turned in part of each eyelid
to the parts above or below. In a few days the stitch will come out,
but in the meantime the eyelid will have thickened so that the lashes
will not turn inward.
Sore Mouths. — Scabs and pock»like sores on the lips and nose are
also common afflictions of young lambs. Undoubtedly this trouble
is traceable to bacteria. Before treatment the scabs should be
rubbed off and the sores opened. A thorough application of sheep
dip will soon effect a cure. A solution of copper sulf ate of medium
strength is also a good remedy, but care should be taken not to
allow the lamb to swallow any, for it is poisonous.
Navel III. — This disease is characterized by swollen knee and
hock joints, and it results from infection through the umbilical
cord. It can be avoided by disinfecting the cord with tincture of
iodine shortly after the lamb is born.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe a lambing pen and its use.
2. How long should a ewe and lamb be left in the lambing pen?
3. What general supplies and drugs would you have in the medicine chest
in the lambing season?
4. Discuss the management of the ewe just before parturition.
5. If it is necessary to help the ewe at the time of parturition how would
you proceed?
6. How should a ewe be fed the first few days after lambing?
7. What is garget? Discuss causes and treatment.
8. What are the general causes of sore teats?
9. In case the new born lamb gets chilled how should it be handled ?
10 What causes a ewe to disown her lambs? Discuss remedies.
11. How would you handle the orphan lamb?
12. Discuss the feeding of an orphan lamb.
13 Name six common ailments of young lambs.
14. What is pinning?
15. Give remedies for constipation and white scours.
16. How should sore eyes be treated?
CHAPTER XXXIII
GROWING THE LAMB
Importance of Growth. — In producing lambs for the market
an effort should be made to keep them growing rapidly until they
attain the weight desired. A lamb that is strong and hearty at birth
begins to gain at once if it is properly fed, and it pays to feed it well
while it is very young, for at that time the cheapest growth can be
secured because the lamb is capable of making its highest rate of
gain for the amount of feed it consumes. If there are exceptions to
that part of the above statement which pertains to cost of growth,
they occur under. circumstances when feed is abnormally high while
the lamb is young, and unusually cheap when it grows older.
Methods of Feeding. — There are two ways of feeding lambs:
First, indirectly through the ewes ; second, directly by giving them
feed such as grain and hay as soon as they are able to take it. Both
ways of feeding should be followed if the lambs are to be marketed
before they are five months old.
Feeding the Ewe.1— In order to do her best for her lamb the
ewe must have good feed in liberal quantities, because she is not only
producing milk, but she is also growing wool and maintaining her
own body. If possible her ration should be made up of several
feeds rather than of one, because variety stimulates the appetite
and assists in keeping the body in good thrift. She should have a
ration fairly rich in protein, for sheep's milk is rich in nitrogenous
substances and fat. Some succulent feed, such as roots, silage or
pasture, should be a part of the ration for the sake of the influence
on the amount of milk produced and also for the toning and regu-
lating effect these feeds have on the body. Too often American
flock-owners are disposed to overlook the importance of succulence
in the rations of nursing ewes. They rely too much on grain and
on fields whose plant growth early in the spring is of questionable
value; but now that silage is coming into more general use we
should be able to compound a better ration with respect to succulence.
On beginning to feed after lambing, the concentrate part of the
ewe's ration should be light in nature and small in quantity.
1 A #00(1 suckling ewe gives about 3 pounds of milk daily,
267
268 GROWING THE LAMB
Although not indispensable, bran is one of the very best concen-
trates to begin with. After feeding it for a day or two, oats can
be added, and in about a week corn and linseed oil meal can be
introduced. Not all of these concentrates are absolutely necessary,
and whether or not they are to be used should be determined by their
cost and by the nature of the succulent feed and roughages available.
The best roughages are leguminous hays, such as clover, alfalfa,
cowpea, and soybean hay. The hay should be sweet and clean, for
damaged hay is always likely to lead to digestive troubles, both
in the ewes and in the lambs. When plenty of choice leguminous
hay is available there is less need for nitrogenous concentrates.
Carbonaceous roughages, such as corn stover and straw can be
used, but when they are fed the concentrate part of the ration
should be rich in protein and if possible these roughages should be
used up while the ewes are pregnant.
Just how much suckling ewes should be fed depends on so many
variable factors aside from their variation in size and condition,
that the owner must make a special study of his flock after the lambs
are born. If the lambs are born early, say in February or March,
and if the weather is cold, making what is called a backward spring,
the demand of the ewes for feed will be heavy. If there is a large
percentage of twins, more feed should be given than when such ;s
not the case. In England it is common practice for the ewes with
twins to be placed in a separate flock in order to give them more
feed than is given to the ewes with but one lamb. This is a prac-
tice which could undoubtedly be followed with profit in many Amer-
ican flocks. In the foregoing it is assumed that stored feeds, such
as grain, hay, roots, and silage are referred to. If climatic con-
ditions have been favorable for the growth of grass or forage, such
as rye, and if there is a considerable area of these growths available,
the demand on the stored feeds is much lessened. But too much
reliance is often placed on field growths early in the spring before
the growing season begins. If the pasture is good when the pastur-
ing season opens it should not be necessary to continue longer to
give stored feed to the ewes.
An abrupt change in the rations of suckling ewes may cause
digestive disturbances, the effects of which may be transmitted to
the lambs through the milk. In spite of the fact that sheep are
unequaled among domestic animals in their power of adaptation
to grazing it is not always best completely to set them at liberty
DRY LOT RATIONS 269
from the dry lot into pasture, for they may get indigestion from
gorging themselves on green feed. This is particularly true of
suckling ewes. If they have been confined in the dry lot for several
weeks it is best to let them pasture at first for only an hour or two
a day.
Variety of feed has often been confused with change of feed.
That is, a ration composed of several feeds is advisable, but chang-
ing every little while from one feed to another is inadvisable. If
possible, before lambing, the ewe should be placed on the kind of
ration she is to receive after lambing. If it is a good ration there
is no danger of her tiring of it or of failing to thrive on it.
Water and salt are indispensable to all classes of sheep, but their
value for suckling ewes should be especially emphasized. When
confined in the dry lot they drink large quantities of water, and also
when they are in the pasture, if the weather is hot and the grass has
become rather dry.
In spite of liberal feeding, ewes are inclined to lose in weight
during the first few weeks of the suckling period. No other fact so
strongly emphasizes the need of having them in rather high con-
dition when the lambs are born. If such is the case one need not
be so much concerned when he observes them losing in condition
and the criterion by which one should judge as to whether the ewes
are being properly fed is to note whether or not they are growing
their lambs well.
Dry Lot Rations. — The following rations taken from various
experiments are regarded as satisfactory for suckling ewes. All
weights of feed are given in pounds and in terms of "per ewe"
" per day."
(a) From the Illinois Station :
Table 8. — The ewes in this test were two- and three-year-olds
from western ewes and by pure-bred Shropshire and Southdown
rams. The ewes weighed 130 pounds and were fed in the dry lot for
56 days. The water consumption does not make allowance for what
was drunk by the lambs.
Ration No. 19 Ration No. 20
( linseed oil meal — 1 part ^ ( linseed oil meal — 1 part ")
Grain \ corn— 3 parts L I.Q Grain •< oats— 6 parts (. 1>0
( oats — 6 parts ) ( corn — 3 parts j
Alfalfa hay 4.0 Corn silage 4.0
Water 14.0 Alfalfa hay 2.0
Water . 12'.0
270
GROWING THE LAMB
Table 9. — The ewes in this experiment were westerns weighing
110 pounds, that were fed in the dry lot from about March 27 to
May 5. Shortly after being turned out to pasture they were given
no additional feed.
Ration No. 21
Shelled corn 5
Whole oats 5
Alfalfa hay 3.0
Ration No. 22
>Shelled corn 5
Whole oats 5
Corn silage 3.0
Alfalfa hav . .1.5
(b) From Ohio Station, Bulletin 270:
Table 91/2. — The ewes in this experiment were grade Delaine
Merinos weighing about 85 pounds. They were on experiment (>#
days, from December 19 to : e'.n-uary 19, and they made an average
daily gain of .095 pound.
they would consume.
'1 hey were given all the hay and silage
Ration No. .>,!
(shelled corn — 4 parts ) n
Grain.},. >-.99
j linseed oil meal — 1 part)
Corn silage 3.23
Alfalfa hay LOG
Ration No. 24
(^helled corn — 5 parts
I oats — 2 parts
j wheat bran — 2 parts
i linseed oil meal — 1 part
.00
Corn silage 3.30
Alfalfa hay 1.0'S
Table 10. — The ewes in this experiment were grade Delaine
Merinos weighing a little more than 90 pounds. They were fed for
95 days, from December 24 to March 28. Their average daily gain
was .013 pound.
Ifntiini \o. .><}
Ration No. 25 (corn— 5 parts )
( corn-j— 4 parts j oats — 2 parts I ,.~
in ( linseed oil meal— 1 part > >6 Grain wheat bran— 2 parts j ' '
Hay (clover and alfalfa) ....... 95
Corn silage ................. 3.26
^linseed oil meal — 1 part J
Hay (alfalfa and clover) ...... 97
Corn silage .................. 3.35
Feeding the Lamb. — Quarters. — Lambs born in cold weather
(January, February, and March) should remain in the warm part
of the barn until they are at least a week old. After this time they
are able to withstand considerable cold, but they should not be
FEEDING GRAIN 271
exposed in severe weather nor housed where they are not well pro-
tected from cold draughts, for they will not make rapid growth
when they are uncomfortably cold (Fig. 178),
Aside from food, nothing seems to " tone " lambs and invigorate
more than a good sun bath, and in order to permit of every oppor-
tunity to have the sunshine, their quarters should be arranged
where there is a south exposure (Fig. 179).
Quarters for lambs should be well bedded with straw. Whoever
FIG. 178. — A temporary shelter; well bedded and comfortable for lambs past two
weeks old. Shropshire ewes and lambs on the farm of J. C. Andrews, West Point, Indiana.
has observed lambs has learned that they seek a dry place for sleep-
ing; in fact, they often bed down in the soft warm wool on their
mother's back.
Feeding Grain. — Lambs intended for market should be fed
grain as soon as they will eat it, and they will begin to nibble some
when from 10 to 16 days of age. At first there is a little advantage
in feeding ground grain, but after the lambs are five or six weeks
old whole grain is as good or better than the ground grain. Sheep
and lambs with good teeth masticate their feed thoroughly. Ex-
periments conducted at the Illinois Experiment Station indicate
that western lambs six months old or past will make more gain from
whole shelled corn than they will from ground corn.
A good grain mixture for lambs just beginning to eat is ground
272
GROWING THE LAMB
corn, two parts; crushed oats, two parts; linseed-oil meal, one part;
and wheat bran, one part. The wheat bran is very essential to this
mixture because it contains the mineral matter the growing lambs
need and being somewhat like a roughage it adds bulk to the ration
and aids in developing capacity for feed. The hulls from the oats
serve the same purpose. Lambs can be successfully raised without
the use of bran, but if it is not to b5 had, leguminous roughages such
as clover or alfalfa hay of the very best quality should be used.
Even if bran is available some first-class leguminous hay should be
FIG. 179. — Enjoying a sun bath.
placed where the lambs can get it, for they will take to it as soon as
they do to grain.
The idea has been advanced that the different kinds of grain to
be fed to the lambs should be placad in separate compartments so
that each lamb can feed on the kinds it likes best. The writer has
had some experience along this line with corn, oats, bran, and
linseed oil cake (pea size). The difficulty lay in the fact that the
lambs preferred the most expensive feed, oil meal, and they did
not make enough more gain than lambs that were fed on a grain
mixture to justify feeding according to the free-choice system.
Lamb Creeps. — In order to feed the lambs grain and hay so
that they can eat at will, prepare a feeding place for them where
their mothers cannot follow. Such a place is called a creep. It
should be placed in the most comfortable part of the barn where
HOW TO FEED THE LAMBS
273
the lambs would choose to play and sleep. If there is a somewhat
sunny place, that is the best spot for the creep.
In construction the creep is very simple.2 The only point to be
taken into consideration is that there are to be openings through
which the lambs but not the ewes may pass. Inside the creep there
should be troughs for grain and racks for hay. A flat-bottomed
trough, nine inches wide, three or four inches deep, with a six-inch
HHffiHBSf
FIG. 180. — A partition in a box rack making it possible to feed little lambs grain on one
side and hay on the other.
board supported eight inches above to keep the lambs from placing
their feet in the trough proper, is a suitable type. Any device for
the hay which will keep the lambs from wasting or befouling it is
satisfactory. Combination grain and hay racks may be used, but in
most cases it is better to feed grain and hay separately, because in
the combination rack the hay becomes mixed with the grain and this
seems to make the feeds less palatable (Fig. 180).
How to Feed the Lambs. — Cleanliness should be the motto of
any sheep feeder, but special emphasis should be placed on this
2 For details see chapter on buildings and equipment.
18
274 GROWING THE LAMB
motto by the caretaker of young lambs. The troughs and racks
should be carefully cleaned every day, and it is a good policy to scrub
them with lime-water whenever they become noticeably soiled. The
lime seems to make the odor about the troughs pleasant to the
lambs. Any surplus feed taken from the troughs and racks can be
fed to the ewes, or used for bedding.
When beginning to feed little lambs, only a small amount of
grain should be placed in the bottom of the troughs. They are very
curious creatures and are inclined to do a great deal of investigat-
ing, so that it is not long until some lamb is nibbling at the feed.
They are also much given to imitation and on this account often
learn to eat through imitating either their mothers or the lamb that
first takes to the feed. The writer has induced lambs to start eating
grain by quietly offering it to them from his hand. Their curiosity
caused them to sniff about the hand with the result that they took
to the feed. Scattering a little sugar over the grain may serve to
get the lambs started on grain. It is better to give them about the
amount of feed they will clean up in a day than to place a large
quantity before them to nose over and spoil. The ewes will eat the
feed the lambs refuse unless it is mixed with dung, but it is not as
palatable as fresh feed.
After lambs learn to eat they increase rapidly in their power to
consume feed. Whether or not they should be given all they want
depends on the end in view. If they are to be marketed as fat lambs,
they should be liberally fed with grain until they are of marketable
weight and condition. If all of them are to be marketed, a large
part of the grain ration should be carbonaceous in nature, like corn,
but if a number of the ewe lambs are to be retained for breeding
purposes, not more than half of the grain mixture should be corn,
the other half consisting of oats and possibly bran and oil meal.
Amount of Feed Consumed by Lambs. — At first the lamb eats
only a very little, but by the time it has been nibbling at grain for
three or four weeks it will be eating about one-fourth pound daily.
If it is confined in the dry lot all the while and is permitted to have
about all the grain it wants it will consume about three-fourths of a
pound of grain daily in the seventh week after it has begun to eat.
When it is on grass or forage it will not eat more than half as much
grain as a lamb of the same age confined to the dry lot.
Green Feed Before Grass Season. — Eye, old clover, and grass
pastured before the beginning of the grazing season are good for
FEEDING LAMBS ON GRASS 275
both ewes and lambs. Such feeds do not produce much growth, but
the exercise the lambs get and the regulating effect of what they
consume are beneficial to them. It is doubtful whether ewes with
lambs at side should be out in rye and clover fields throughout the
day so early in the season, for the ground is very cold and damp.
From two to four hours is long enough. If it is possible, however,
they should be allowed their own choice between the time spent in
the field and in the barn.
.Feeding Lambs on Grass. — When lambs are intended for
market at weaning time they should be fed grain up to the time
they are to be shipped, for they not only make larger gains, but they
ship with less shrinkage and make a better meat product than do
lambs finished without grain.
If they are to be taken entirely away from the barns or sheds, a
creep should be placed somewhere in the field where they are to
graze. One of the best locations is a place where the flock rests and
sleeps because such a place is one of the highest and driest spots in
the field, and the lambs will take to the creep and feed while their
mothers are resting.
Lambs upon pasture should have plenty of shade, and if there is
no natural shade in the pasture an improvised shed should be built
near the creeps. Such a shed can be built at small expense and
arranged so that it can be transferred from one pasture to another.
As suggested above, lambs eat a great deal less from the creep
after they are turned to grass or forage than they do before that
time, and unless the creep is well located they may cease eating
grain altogether. The grass is so tender and palatable that they are
inclined to forget the grain, and hence it is necessary to exercise
care in locating the creep and in keeping the grain fresh and clean.
Occasionally it may be a good plan to cease feeding grain through
May and the first week in June when the grass is most sweet and
tender and then commence again and continue until the lambs
are sold.
If the lambs are born late so that the flock is placed on grass by
the time they are learning to eat, it is almost impossible to make
use of the creep. Sweet, tender grass and the mother's milk seem
to satisfy all demands for feed. Since late-born lambs cannot be
marketed until autumn or winter, there is really no need to feed
grain while they are very young. The writer has found, however,
that it is rather difficult to get late-born lambs to eat grain in the
276 GROWING THE LAMB
late summer and autumn months even though the pastures are very
short and dry. In fattening such lambs a plan worth trying is to
place them in the dry lot and limit the amount of roughage fed and
thus force them to develop an appetite for grain. After this is done
it may be possible to give them the run of the fields and still get
them to consume enough grain to fatten them.
Pastures and Forage Crops.—The standard pasture in nearly
all parts of the United States where farm flocks' are kept is blue-
grass. Sheep relish it and thrive and fatten on it if kept free from
the parasites so harmful to them, but being a permanent pasture
grass it is difficult to handle so that these parasites will not be
present in such numbers as to greatly reduce its value. It is
best in the spring and fall and is not an all-season pasture unless
there is a very large area available. In midsummer it is too dry, too
fibrous, and too unbalanced in nutrients to be an ideal feed for
growing lambs or an economical maintenance feed for ewes. There-
fore, it is inadvisable to depend on bluegrass alone for carrying the
flock through the entire pasturing season. When bluegrass is young
and tender, which is in May and the first half of June in the
northern states, it is so palatable that lambs abandon almost all
other feeds for it, but later they tire of it (Fig. 181).
Timothy is excellent pasture in the spnng, for it is very
palatable and nutritious. When it gets above six inches in height,
it becomes too coarse for lambs ; when it begins to head it is not a
first-class pasture for older sheep. In midsummer it makes so little
growth that its feeding value is very low; but should there be suffi-
cient moisture, it makes an ideal fall pasture. Timothy is damaged
if kept grazed down very closely by sheep, because the grass
blades grow from bulbs which the sheep will eat when the pasture is
very short.
Mixed pastures are not very common in the United States, but
they are prevalent in England. The writer has had limited experi-
ence with a pasture composed of blueglass, timothy, Italian rye-
grass, and white clover. It made splendid feed and was capable of
carrying a large number of sheep and lambs. The Italian rye-grass
coming on very early made this pasture ready for grazing at least
two weeks earlier than the regular season for blueglass and timothy.
The rye-grass, being rather coarse, was not so palatable as the other
grasses and there was a tendency to graze the bluegrass and timothy
too close. By rather heavy stocking, however, it was possible to
CLOVER AND ALFALFA 277
graze the rye-grass down and then by resting the pasture for two
weeks, it was at least as good as average grass. When growing
lambs for early summer market, the two weeks of early grazing is
important and it may pay well to have a small pasture composed
of some mixture such as the one mentioned here.
Clover and alfalfa may be classed either as pasture or as forage
crops. On account of being so watery while very young they are
best in feeding value when above six inches in height. Except
for a tendency to cause bloat, both are good feed for sheep and
lambs. There is little danger of the lambs bloating, however, so
long as they are getting milk. There are fewer fatal cases of
bloat from clover than from alfalfa; in fact, sheepmen are not
FIG. 181. — On the blue grass.
much afraid of clover, but they are afraid of alfalfa. Clover seldom
causes severe bloating except when it is very wet, but alfalfa in any
condition will develop bad cases. Some of the worst cases have been
caused by grazing in the afternoons when everything except the
green alfalfa plants was dried and parched. The danger is greatest,
however, when the alfalfa is wet, and no matter what condition it is
in, it is inadvisable to turn the sheep on it when they are very
hungry. It is said that there will not be so much bloating if sheep
are kept on alfalfa all the time while it is being grazed.
Alfalfa is freakish in causing bloat. Flocks may have no losses
from it in one season and then suffer severe losses the next. A
prominent sheepman in the western part of the United States who
uses alfalfa extensively as pasture, said, upon being asked whether
he lost many sheep from bloat : " Oh, in some summers I hang lots
of pelts on the barbed wire, and in others, none."
Keeping alfalfa grazed down close will kill it. This, together
with its tendency to cause bloat, does not permit it to be regarded as
278 GROWING THE LAMB
a dependable sheep pasture. In most regions, more good can be
secured from it in the form of hay.
How to Treat Bloated Sheep. — When sheep are grazing on
pasture that will cause bloat, they should be watched closely, for
dangerous cases develop very rapidly. Many methods of treatment
have been given, but the one whic.li is most likely to be successful
is the trocar and canula. These should be inserted three OT four
inches in front and a little below the hip bone on the left side of the
animal. The writer uses the trocar as a last resort because of bad
after-effects. It punctures the paunch and it is several weeks before
the wound heals. In the meantime, a part of the contents of the
paunch may run out into the wool and cause an offensive odor which
attracts the flies that cause maggots. Kleinheinz 3 says that freshly
drawn cow's milk will cure all but the very worst cases of bloat. He
emphasizes the need of having the animal heat in the milk in order
to have it absorb a maximum amount of gas. One-half pint should
be given and if the bloating does not begin to go down in a few
minutes, another dose should be given. A man once told the writer
that he had reduced bloat in western lambs by putting a whole egg
in the mouth of the animal and forcing him to crush and swallow it.
Probably the egg, like the milk, absorbs the gas.
Another method of reducing bloat which has been employed with
success is to put a round stick about three-fourths of an inch in
diameter in the mouth just as one would place a bridle bit, except
that the stick is drawn up close to the corners of the mouth. A
heavy string, a small rope, or a light strap can be used for a head
stall to attach to the stick in order to hold it in place. The stick, by
keeping the mouth open and the jaws working, assists in expelling
the gas.
Sometimes the gas can be expelled by pressing in on the sides of
the sheep. This should be done, no matter what other method is
employed, except in cases where the amount of bloating is so great
that pressure may cause suffocation or the walls of the paunch to
burst.
The Kentucky Station tried a two per cent solution of formalin
as a method of reducing bloat in cows. A quart of the solution was
given to the cow and a stick placed in her mouth. In a short time
after the formalin was given all signs of bloat had disappeared. It
3 "Sheep Management and Breeds of Sheep."
RAPE 279
was assumed that the formalin stopped the rapid fermentation of
certain sugars contained in the green feed which had been eaten.
Sweet clover is more like a forage crop than a pasture. Not
much is known about its value as a green feed for sheep and lambs,
but they will eat it and it has been used here and there with success.
It makes luxuriant growth and undoubtedly has high carrying
power for a short period at least. Because of its tendency to grow
rank and coarse, one should start pasturing it rather early and a
comparatively large number of sheep should be kept on it. From
present indications, it would seem that a small area of it would be
a splendid asset in dry seasons as in fertile soil it makes a good
growth in hot, dry weather. In the corn belt and similar regions,
an early spring seeding of sweet clover makes good feed from about
the middle of June until late fall.
Little lambs and, in fact, old sheep are not fond of sweet clover,
and its use is more or less questionable.
Rye. — In the northern states, rye is of most use in the early
spring months. If the pasture season opens about the first of May,
one can place the sheep on rye about March 25. When it begins to
joint it is not palatable ; hence, to get the most out of it with ewes
and lambs, it must be kept closely grazed. The animals must not
be moved to some other green feed with a view of bringing them
back to the rye later, for then they will not eat it.
In central Tennessee, rye is used all winter as pasture. It is an
important factor in producing the early fat lambs which come from
that region.
Winter oats furnish good forage in the winter and spring in
many parts of the South.
Rape is one of the best known forage crops for sheep and lambs,
and since it is hardy it is suitable for sowing early in the spring.
If sown early it attains sufficient growth to supply feed before the
lambs are old enough for market. For this purpose it should be
sown just as soon in the spring as it is advisable to work the ground
into a good seed bed. Three to four pounds of seed should be sown
to the acre and covered lightly by harrowing. Being a luxuriant
grower, rape is adapted to a fertile soil and a plentiful supply of
moisture. When sown in unfertilized, poor soil it is almost sure to
prove a disappointment and a financial loss. Sheep and lambs
should not be turned on rape until it has attained a growth of six
or eight inches because it produces so much more feed if allowed to
280 GROWING THE LAMB
develop a great deal of leaf surface. Some care must be exercised in
feeding rape in ^rder to avoid bloat, scours, and poisoning. The
worst cases of bloat and scours occur when the sheep are allowed
to feed on it when it is wet. Frozen rape is very likely to cause
death if eaten by sheep that have not been feeding regularly
on unfrozen rape for several days or weeks. In getting sheep
accustomed to rape, it is best to tifrn them on it for an hour or two
each day after the dew is gone and after the sheep have had a partial
fill of hay or grass.
Best results come from rape when it is alternated with something
else, such as timothy, bluegrass, or clover. In hot weather par-
ticularly, a field of tall rape drenched with clew is a poor run for
sheep. They should be kept on the grass until the rape is dry,
because first getting wet and then being exposed to the hot sun is
hard on them.
Rape has a great deal of fattening power; for this reason it is ;i
good feed during the last few weeks before the lambs are to go
to market.
Eape is often sown in corn just before the corn is cultivated for
the last time. When sheep and lambs are turned in the com the
rape serves as a first-rate supplement. Being hardy, it is good
feed until well into the winter, provided the sheep have become
accustomed to it before it becomes frosted or frozen (Fig. 182).
Oats and Canadian peas sown together make a good green feed
for ewes and lambs, but they are better suited for soiling purposes
than for grazing. The peas should be sown two and one-half inches
deep and the oats covered lightly by harrowing so that they will get
a start before the peas come through the ground. Sow four perks
each of peas and oats to the acre. This mixed growth is best for
sheep feed when the oats are about ready to head. Before that time
the oats are so soft and watery that it takes a very large amount to
satisfy the appetite.
Soybeans, either broadcasted or sown in rows, make a fairly
good forage crop in late summer and early fall. When sown in
corn they serve as an excellent supplement to the corn for fattening
lambs. If pastured by alternating the grazing in different parts and
not allowing any particular section to be too closely eaten, a field of
soybeans may be used for a fairly long period. When most of the
leaves have been eaten off, it is time to move to a fresh portion
of the field so that the plants on the grazed part will have a chance
GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS COMPARED 281
to leaf again. A heavy fill of wet soybean forage may cause bloat.
As the pods begin to develop, the grazing must be limited to a short
time each day or the sheep will get too much of the grain. Soybeans
cannot withstand frost.
Cowpeas have many of the same qualities as soybeans, but they
are not so palatable and they require a warmer climate.
Missouri lamb feeders have made good use of this crop by plant-
ing it in the corn, thus producing a great deal of forage which
FIG. 182. — In the rape at the University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
remains green until frost. The ripened pods make an excellent
nitrogenous supplement to the corn. This is excellent feed for ewes
that are being conditioned for the breeding season, but it is difficult
to get native lambs to eat cowpeas when other, more palatable, feeds
are available.
Grass and Forage Crops Compared. — It is impossible to make
a clear-cut comparison between grass and forage crops as sources of
green feed for sheep and lambs. Permanent pastures are old
standbys which nothing else can completely replace as convenient
feeding grounds, for they can be, and usually are, made use of in
every month of the year. Their worst feature lies in the fact that
parasites harmful to sheep accumulate in them. In many instances
282 GROWING THE IAMB
they become so badly infested as to be almost useless. Fortunately
there are permanent pastures in regions where sheep parasites are
to be found that for some reason do not become badly infested.
Sheep thrive on them year after year,
On the other hand, annual forage crops and such crops as
clover and alfalfa are by no means parasite proof, but if they are in
a rotation system of cultivation, the chances are that they will not
become so badly infested as permanent pastures.
In recent years many permanent pastures in the middle west of
the United States have had to give way to grain crops. Instead of
roomy pastures once so common, are now seen little cramped, over-
stocked grass lots. These are undoubtedly relatively less efficient for
sheep than larger pastures, because the grass is not allowed to get
enough leaf surface to grow well, and the ground, besides becoming
badly infested with parasites, is tainted with the droppings from
the sheep and other farm animals.
The circumstances related above, coupled with the fact that
such pastures as bluegrass do not last through all of the grazing
season, raises the question as to whether sheep husbandry can be
successfully followed by depending largely on forage crops. Un-
doubtedly, it can. Prime lambs can be produced on farms that do
not have a foot of permanent grass, and the future will furnish
numerous instances of it. With clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, rye,
rape, soybeans, and cowpeas to work into a scheme for handling
the flock, it will be possible to produce better lambs in the central
part of the United States than have been produced in that region
during the last twenty years.
It is possible to raise choice market lambs in the dry lot, and
the time may come when it will be found profitable in certain regions
to grow them in this way. Or they may be grown on a partial dry-
lot basis. That is, the ewes may be kept in the dry lot and the
lambs let out to pasture, or vice versa (Fig. 183).
The writer would not belittle the value of permanent pasture.
There are places where nothing else equals it and sheepmen living
in such placs are happily located. The only interest they have in
forage crops is to see whether they can use them to supplement
their pastures.
Docking and Castrating Lambs. — A necessary operation in
the production of lambs is docking and castrating. Owners of farm
DOCKING AND CASTRATING 283
flocks often fail to do this, but they are always criticized as being
guilty of neglect. It is better to dock and castrate when the lambs
are from eight to sixteen days of age, as the resulting " set-back "
in growth is least at that time. For the sake of convenience, both
docking and castrating should be done at the same time. Opinions
vary as to whether the operation should be performed early in the
day or in the evening, but it seems that the lambs bleed less if they
are operated upon either before they become active in the morning
or when they are about to bed down for the night. A bright clear
day with a prospect of several more to follow is the best kind of
FIG. 183. — Raised in a dry lot, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
weather for docking and castrating; healing proceeds faster then
than when the weather is damp and cold.
The operation should be conducted under sanitary conditions.
While the wounds are healing the lambs should not be exposed to
storms and they should be on dry, clean bedding at night.
In docking, the tail should be cut about an inch from the body,
leaving it a little shorter on the side next the buttock. The opera-
tion can be performed with a knife, chisel, or docking iron. The
latter is an instrument with a blunt blade, which upon being heated
to a dull red, burns its way through the tail and sears over the
stump or dock so that there is no bleeding. At present a number
of sheepmen in the western part of the United States are enthusi-
astically advocating the use of the docking iron (Figs. 184 and 185) .
In castrating, the end of the scrotum should be cut off so as to
permit drainage. The testicles should be grasped firmly between
the thumb and fingers and drawn out. The work should be done
284
GROWING THE LAMB
quickly but not roughly, and the wound should be bathed with an
antiseptic wash (Fig. 186).
There are many methods of castrating and there have been pro-
longed controversies as to which is the best, hence, it does not seem
advisable to outline any particular method.
FIG. 184.
FIG. 185.
FIG. 184. — Docking a lamb with knife.
FIG. 185. — Docking a lamb with iron. The tail should be severed about one and one-
fourth inches from the body.
Market Lambs at Weaning Time. — As a general rule, it is
better to have the lambs in farm flocks come early (February or
March), for then one can devote more time to them. They learn to
eat grain before the grass season opens and are ready to market
whei} they are old enough to wean, which is when they are from
three to four months of age. At this time they should still have
their "baby fat" and they should weigh 65 to 70 pounds. In
regions where the summers are hot, lambs make very little gain
RATIONS FOR SUCKLING LAMBS
285
through July, August, and early September, in fact they may lose
in weight. During this time they are likely to become infested
with parasites, and as a result some die, others lose weight, and only
a few remain thrifty and plump. Some of them may be killed by
If they are sold more feed is left for the ewes and the ewe
FIG. 186. — Holding a lamb for castrating, (a) head up, (b) head down. The operator
cuts off the end of the scrotum and draws out the testicles one at a time. The work should
be done quickly and carefully.
lambs that are to go into the breeding flock. If the owner has
extensive grass lands and is not in position to grow grain and hay,
he may have good reason for handling late-born lambs. Otherwise
the comparatively early lamb looks to be the better proposition.
Rations for Suckling Lambs. — The amount of feed consumed
by lambs from the time they were old enough to eat until they were
286
GROWING THE LAMB
ready for market at weaning time is reported below in pounds per
head per day.
(a) From experiments conducted at the Illinois Station:
Table 11. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-bred
Shropshire ram and out of western ewes weighing about 115 pounds
when pregnant.
RatiortNo. 27
Lambs and ewes kept in the dry lot
Period
1st
Age Weight
At beginning At close
2-6 wks. 16.0 29.5
Feed Consumed Daily
2 parts bran
2 parts cracked corn
2 parts oats
1 part L.O.M. 4
.09 alfalfa hay
.12 grain
2nd
3rd
6-10 wks.
10-14 wks.
29.5
45.0
45.0
5.9.0
3 parts corn
grain ^ 2 parts oats
1 part L.O.M.
.3 alfalfa hay
C 6 parts corn
1.0 grain J 3 parts oats
( 1 part L.O.M.
.7 alfalfa hay
Ration No. 28
Sixteen ewes and twenty lambs pastured on 1 acre of rye, 1 acre of alfalfa,
and 1 acre of rape
Period
1st
Age Weight
At beginning At close
2-6 wks. 16.5 30.0
Feed Consumed Daily
,2 parts bran
.06 grain]2 Parts cracked corn
\ 2 parts oats
(l part L.O.M.
.05 alfalfa hay
2nd
3rd
6-10 wks.
30.0
48.0
10-14
48.0 63.0
.3 grain
.4 grain
4Linseed oil meal.
3 parts corn
2 parts oats
1 part L. O. M.
6 parts corn
3 parts oats
1 part L.O.M.
RATIONS FOR SUCKLING LAMBS
287
Ration No. 29
Lambs and ewes in dry lot first four weeks; on bluegrass second and
third periods of four weeks each.
Feed Consumed Daily
2 parts bran
2 parts cracked corn
2 parts oats
1 part L.O.M.
.10 alfalfa hay
Period Age Weight
At beginning At close
1st 2-6 wks. 16.5 30.0
.14 grain
2nd
6-10 wks.
30.0 44.5
f 3 parts corn
.10 grain J 2 parts oats
( 1 part L.O.M.
3rd
10-14 wks. 44.5
50.5 f 6 parts corn
.15 grain J 3 parts oats
( 1 part L.O.M.
Table 12. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-bred
Hampshire ram and out of western ewes weighing about 115 pounds
when pregnant.
Ration No. 30.
Lambs and ewes kept in dry lot
Feed Consumed Daily
Period Age Weight
At beginning At close
1st 2-6wks> 15.5 28.0
"2 parts cracked corn
1 2 parts crushed oats
1 part bran
1 part L.O.M.
.16 alfalfa hay
.11 grain
2nd 6-10 wks. 28.0 46.0 ,2 parts corn
2 parts oats
1 part bran
1 part L.O.M.
.46 alfalfa hay
.50 grain
3rd
10-14 wks.
46.0
60.0
1.0 grain
1.0 hav
6 parts corn
3 parts oats
1 part L.O.M.
288
GROWING THE LAMB
Ration Jf.o. 31
Sixteen ewes and twenty lambs pastured on 1 acre of rye, 1 acre of alfalfa,
and 1 acre of rape
Period Age Weight
At beginning At close
1st 2-Gwks. IS 35
Feed Consumed Daily
2 parts cracked corn
2 parts cracked oats
1 part bran
1 part L.O.M.
.04 alfalfa hay
*.08 grain
2nd
(MO wks.
.45 grain
52 C 2 parts corn
2 parts oats
1 part bran
I part L.O.AI.
.40 alfalfa hay
3rd 10-14 wks. 52 72 i 0 parts corn
.7 grain J 3 parts oats
( 1 part L.O.M.
.2 alfalfa hay
Ration No. 32
Lambs and ewes kept in the dry lot and given free choice of the different
feeds. Compare with Ration No 30, where the same feeds were
given but the concentrates were mixed
Feed Consumed Daily
1st Period 2nd Period 3rd Period
(Lambs 2-6 wks. old) (Lambs 6-10 wks. old) (Lambs 10-14 wks. old)
Shelled corn 02
Ground corn 01
Whole oats 04
Ground oats 02
Bran 03
Linseed oil meal . . .09
Alfalfa hay 25
Weights at beginning 15 Ibs.
Weight at close
.13
.04
.18
.03
.07
.24
.4.1
28
Ibs.
.330
.180
.380
.007
.110
.540
.570
45 Ibs.
60 Ibs.
QUESTIONS
289
(&) From Ohio Station, Bulletin 270, by J. W. Hammond:
Table 13. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-bred
Southdown ram and out of grade Delaine Merino ewes weighing
about 85 pounds. The lambs were developed as winter or hot-house
lambs, and were fed all they would eat from December 19 to
February 18 in a dry lot. Since it is very difficult to breed for
fall lambs, it is almost impossible to have a considerable number of
them born within a brief period. These lambs ranged from 2 to 9
weeks in age when the experiment began. They averaged 27 pounds
in weight at the beginning of the experiment and they were slaugh-
tered when they attained a weight of about 55 pounds.
Ration No. 33
Shelled corn ................ .'65
Alfalfa hay .................. 05
Daily gain ................. 441
Mothers were fed grain mixture
consisting of corn, 4 parts; linseed
oil meal, 1 part; corn silage and
alfalfa hay.
Ration No. 34
Shelled corn ................. GO
Alfalfa hay .................. 07
Daily gain ................. 411
Mothers were fed grain mixture
consisting of corn, 5 parts; oats, 2
parts; bran, 2 parts; oil meal, 1
part; corn silage and alfalfa hay.
Table 14. — The lambs in this experiment were similar in breed-
ing to those in the experiment referred to in Table 13. They were
fed 95 days, beginning December 24. Their initial weight was
about 16 pounds, and since they were not intended for hot-house
lambs, they were not forced so rapidly as were the lambs in the
experiment given in Table 13.
Ration No. 33
Shelled corn .................. 333
Alfalfa hay .................. 343
Daily gain ................. 322
n
Ration No. 36
Corn — 5 parts
Oats— 2 parts
Bran— 2 parts
^Oil meal — 1 part
Alfalfa hay .................. 325
Daily gain ................. 315
QUESTIONS
1. What are the general methods of feeding lambs?
2. At what time during the suckling period should the ewe receive the
most grain?
3. What feed would you use to keep up the milk flow?
4. Discuss the most useful roughages to use at this period.
19
290 GROWING THE LAMB
5. How much silage may be fed to a ewe during the suckling period ?
6. Is a variety of feed necessary for the ewes at this period ? Why ?
7. Give six rules that may be applied to the feeding of suckling ewes.
8. When will the lambs begin to eat grain?
9. What are lamb creeps?
10. Describe a method of starting the lambs on grain.
11. How does a pasture crop affect the^ consumption of grain by the lambs?
12. Of what value are forage crops in producing market lambs?
13. Name six common forage crops and the time of year they are available
for pasture.
14. Is it necessary to dock and castrate? Why?
15,. Describe common methods used in docking.
16. In castrating.
17. Give five reasons why it is advantageous to sell market lambs early
in the summer.
CHAPTBB XXXIV
SUMMER MANAGEMENT
Weaning the Lambs. — Proper Age for Weaning. — When the
lambs are not taken from the ewes and sent to market, provision
must be made for weaning them. They should not be weaned before
they are three and one-half months old, and if they are doing well,
and the ewes are still furnishing them with a good quantity of milk,
it may be best not to wean them until they are four or five months old.
Oftentimes the lambs are not separated from their mothers
early enough. The ewes reach the point where they no longer give
much milk, and the lambs, depending more than they should upon
what little they can get, annoy them by persistently wanting to
nurse. When a ewe without much milk nurses a pair of robust
lambs weighing sixty-five pounds or more, she goes through a
pretty rough experience that is none too good for her udder, because
the lambs in suckling hunch at the udder so hard that the rear
parts of the ewe are almost lifted from the ground. In hot weather,
if only a little milk is to be had, it does a big lamb, old enough
to wean, little good to keep thrusting its nose after the teat under
the hot flanks of the ewe. Both mother and lamb are better off
if separated. There is a natural weaning period, that is, there
comes a time when the ewes will wean the lambs, but they ought
to be weaned before this time comes.
If the lambs are weaned fairly early and placed on pasture or
forage that has not been grazed by the sheep, they are less likely to
become badly infested with parasites. This is an important con-
sideration in places where parasitic troubles must be kept constantly
in mind. If the weaning is not delayed beyond the proper time, the
ewes will have time to recuperate and get in proper condition for
the breeding season.
If possible, all of the lambs should be weaned at the same time,
but in case there are some very late ones, they should be allowed to
stay with their mothers until they are of sufficient age not to be
checked in growth or stunted by being deprived of milk.
Procedure in Weaning. — In flocks kept primarily for produc-
291
292 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
ing market lambs, it is best to separate the ewes and lambs and not
allow them to be together again. The ewes should be taken from
the lambs, that is, the lambs should not be removed to quarters
entirely strange to them. A week or so before they are to be weaned,
they should be allowed to graze on the feed intended for them
through the weaning period. If it is not possible to do this, they
should be left for a few days on the field to which they are accus-
tomed, as they do not seem to miss their mothers so much when they
are in familiar surroundings. It is better, however, to have them
where the feed is fresh and good, even though the place is strange
to them, than to leave them where the feed is poor.
Another method of weaning is to get the ewes and lambs gradu-
ally accustomed to being separated. This is a very good method if
it does not cost too much in labor, for one can begin when the lambs
are not old enough to do without milk. A fine opportunity is
afforded to place the lambs on the cleanest, best pasture while the
ewes are finishing up the old second-rate pasture. By beginning
early enough, and by allowing the ewes and lambs to be together
only when they are in the dry lot, one can in large measure keep
parasites out of the lambs. For this purpose, the plan is even better
than the English method of hurdling, in which the lambs are
allowed to run with the ewes and also ahead of them on fresh forage.
Feeding Lambs after Weaning. — In addition to the best of
pasture or forage, lambs should receive some grain during the wean-
ing period and all through the hot months. Oats, corn, wheat, and
barley can all be utilized as well as such concentrates as wheat bran,
linseed oil meal or cake, and cottonseed meal. Usually it is not
necessary to feed more than one-half pound grain per head daily
if the pasture or forage is good. Oats alone will serve as a good
grain feed. If the forage or pasture is a leguminous crop, corn
alone will do very well as the grain part of the ration, but usually
a mixture such as oats, five parts; corn, five parts, and wheat bran,
two parts, by weight, is preferable to any one feed. Linseed oil
meal or cottonseed meal should not form the sole grain ration, as
they are not suitable for using in large quantities in summer.
Feeding the lambs a little grain each day affords an opportunity
for seeing them often and hence for detecting troubles before they
become unmanageable.
Salt and good water are just as essential to the thrift of lambs
at weaning time as at any other period of their lives.
SHELTER AND SHADE IN SUMMER 293
Separating Lambs. — In case some of the male lambs are left
entire, which should be the case only in pure-bred flocks, it will be
necessary to place them by themselves when their sex instinct
becomes marked. This is necessary because some of the older ewe
lambs are likely to breed in the autumn months and also because the
ram lambs will cause both themselves and the ewes to lose flesh by
almost constantly teasing the ewes.
Treatment of Ewes after the Lambs are Weaned. — When
taken from the lambs the ewes should be placed upon rather dry,
scant pasture in order to reduce the secretion of milk. Every two
or three days those that have full, tight udders should be milked.
After the secretion of milk has been checked so that there is no
danger of the udder spoiling, the ewes should be given good graz-
ing in order to get them in fairly good condition before the
beginning of the breeding season.
Ewes enjoy gleaning over the farm, and after the lambs are
weaned, no other run is better for them. At this time they are active
and hence able to feed over large areas. If given the job of cleaning
up the neglected fence rows, nooks, and corners, they do so with
much relish and to their own benefit. When handled in this way
they often eat down the weeds along the fence rows to such extent
that mowing is not necessary. In this way weeds are prevented from
forming seeds and their spread over the farm is greatly reduced.
Insect breeding places are also destroyed.
If it is not advisable to allow the ewes to glean over the farm
after the lambs are weaned, they should be given good pasture.
They do not need as succulent pasture, however, as is needed by the
lambs, and they often fatten on what seems to be a dry, unwhole-
some pasture of bluegrass or timothy.
Like the lambs, the ewes should have access to salt and good
water throughout the summer season.
Shelter and Shade in Summer. — Shade is of great importance
in summer to both ewes and lambs. No field in which they are
confined during the day should be without protection from the hot
sun (Fig. 187).
There is difference of opinion as to what constitutes the best
shade. Trees, of course, are natural provisions for escape from the
intense heat of the sun, and to the lover of sheep there is no more
comely sight than a well-fed flock contentedly lying beneath the
294
SUMMER MANAGEMENT
widespreading branches of a big shade tree. It is not always con-
venient or economical to have ample shade trees in every field,
besides, there is a reason for partly condemning trees for shade
because they cannot be moved from place to place. On this account
the grass around them is likely to become so badly infested with
parasites that they are undesirable^ as resting places for the flock.
By exercising proper precautions in guarding against parasites, this
FIG. 187. —A good shade tree.
last objection does not necessarily obtain, in which case a good shade
tree should be regarded as beneficial to the flock (Fig. 187).
It is more difficult to provide shade in fields having no trees
and so situated that the sheep cannot conveniently come to the
buildings. In such fields, shades should be built, either temporary
or permanent in nature. A cheap permanent shade can be built by
simply setting posts in the ground to serve as a support to a roof
made of boards. In rainy weather, however, a roof of this sort lets
the water through and the resting place of the sheep becomes muddy.
At somewhat increased cost, this fault can be remedied by covering
the boards with roofing paper. A shade similar to the one above
can be placed on dimension pieces four by six inches and thus be
made movable. Roofing paper does not necessarily need to be
SHELTER AND SHADE IN SUMMER
295
placed on the movable shade because it can be moved when the
ground beneath it becomes muddy (Fig. 188).
Light movable shades can be made by using hurdles covered with
burlap. . Set up such a hurdle with the length running north and
south. Then lay a hurdle on top of this one so that the two form
a T- This arrangenient furnishes shade for both forenoon and
afternoon, and one man can do all the work involved in setting it up.
There are still other types of both permanent and movable shades
V
FIG. 188. — A movable shade. A shade of this sort can be moved from time to time
to the spots in the fields that are mot in need of manure or to places where the circulation
of air is best. It thus has some advantages over the shade tree. (From Pennsylvania State
College Circular 49.)
that are quite as good, and possibly better than the types dis-
cussed here.
Protection from Summer Rains. — Sometimes in summer there
are protracted periods of excessive rainfall to which the sheep should
not be continually exposed. It is well to draw them in close around
the barns and allow them to stay under shelter the greater part of
the time. The' severest of all times for sheep are periods of ex-
cessive heat accompanied by great humidity. Such periods are still
more severe upon them if they are constantly wet from rain.
A well-arranged barn is always a convenience in summer as a
refuge both from the sun and rains, and an attempt should be made
to have pasture or forage near it so that in the worst periods, this
can be utilized bv the flock.
296 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
Summer Enemies of the Flock. — After the shepherd has pro-
vided ample pasture, forage, water, salt, shade, and shelter for his
flock in summer, he must still remember that there are certain
insidious enemies which he must guard against. Most, of these
enemies are parasitic in nature and hence hard to combat. The
most common and the most dreaded of these parasites in farm
flocks is the stomach worm.
Stomach Worm. — The stomach worm (Hcemonchus contortus)
made its first deadly attack upon the flocks in the central part of
the United States in 1893 and 1894. It was probably brought to
this country in sheep imported from England. At any rate, it was
a new enemy to those who had handled Merinos, and when the
savage attack of 1893 and 1894. came, nearly all flock owners in the
middle-western section of the United States were nonplussed and
helpless. Thousands of lambs and many old sheep died in Ohio,
Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. Hundreds engaged in sheep rais-
ing were so discouraged that they closed out their flocks and gave
up sheep forever. Since that time, a large percentage of the native
lambs sent to the open markets have been badly infested with
stomach worm. Being unthrifty and unfinished, they have been
the object of scathing criticism on the part of commission men
and buyers for the packers. Sheepmen are gradually learning how
to keep the stomach worm in check, but it is still an insidious
enemy that is sure to bring trouble to the farm flock owner who
is not always keenly alive to the possibility of its presence (Fig.
189).
Life History of the .Stomach Worm. — To Ransom,1 of the
Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, more than
to anyone else, belongs the credit of determining the life history of
the stomach worm. He learned what takes place from the time the
worms mate until the sheep become infested, or perhaps reinfested.
The mating process takes place in the abomasum (known as the
fourth or true stomach of the sheep), -where all of the worms live
while in the host, except a few that drift over into the duodenum.
The eggs, which are microscopic, are deposited in the abomasum
and pass out of the body in the feces. Heat hastens the time of
hatching, which may occur in a few hours, days, or weeks, accord-
circulars 03 and 102, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington,
P. C.
LIFE HISTORY OF STOMACH WORMS
297
ing to the temperature. Either dryness or freezing temperature
will kill the eggs and the very young larvae. The newly hatched
larva feeds upon the fecal matter in which it lives until it de-
velops into the final stage outside the sheep or host. This is called
the final free living stage, and the time from hatching until this
stage is reached is also a matter of temperature, ranging from a few
days to a few weeks. On attaining the final free living stage the
FIG. 189.
FIG. 190.
A EC
FIG. 189. — Stomach worm (Hcemonchus contortus), A, female larva X 5; B, male;
C, anterior end of body showing: n.r., nerve ring; c.p., cervical papilla; es, oesophagus. (From
Bureau of Animal Industry Bui. 127.)
FIG. 190. — Ensheathed stomach worm. In this stage the worm is highly resistant to
iiot, cold and dry weather, and hence is hard to destroy. (From 22d Annual Report South
Carolina Station.)
larva becomes enveloped in a thin, horny-like coat, called a chitinous
sheath, is no longer able to take in food, and hence must obtain its
nourishment from material stored up in its own intestine (Fig. 190) .
At temperatures above 40 degrees F. the ensheathed larva or
embryo can move about, very slowly of course, and it becomes more
active as the temperature rises. It is very unlike the newly hatched
larvae and eggs in that it is not killed even by long periods of
freezing or drying. When the vegetation is wet from rain or dew,
298
SUMMER MANAGEMENT
the sheathed larvae crawl up grass or weed blades and stems, coming
to rest when the moisture evaporates and resuming the journey
when the vegetation is again wet. In this way they get up high
enough to be taken in by a sheep or lamb when grazing. After
being swallowed, they continue their development and attain ma-
turity in two or three weeks (Fig. 191).
All that is known of the life kistory of the stomach worm has
been very briefly reviewed in the foregoing. So far as the writer
is aware, no one has yet determined how long an individual worm
FIG. 191. — The ensheaved larva of the stomach worm on grass blades. (From Bureau of
Animal Industry Circular No. 93.)
may live in the stomach of the host. If, as is maintained, none of
the eggs hatch in the stomach, then it would seem possible to
determine this point, and it would be valuable information. The
writer has observed very heavy infestation in sheep after they have
been confined continually in dry lots during the winter months.
Lambs born in the same dry lots were carried through entire
summer seasons without becoming infested. Therefore, it would
seem that the worms that were in the sheep when they came from
the pastures remained in them throughout the entire winter.
Examining for Stomach Worms. — Mature stomach worms are
from three-fourths to an inch in length. They look like a red and a
white thread intertwined. In conducting a post mortem for the
purpose of determining whether there is an infestation of stomach
ERADICATION OF STOMACH WORMS 299
worms it is well to examine the animal shortly after death — be-
fore it has become cold, if possible — for otherwise the worms may
be dead and disintegrated beyond recognition. Before opening the
stomach, it should be placed so that a slit can be cut in it which
will permit of examining the liquids before they escape. If many
live worms are present, they can be seen wriggling in the liquids,
and are found on the inner wall of the stomach.
How the Worm Does Harm. — How does the stomach worm do
harm? By sucking blood from the mucus lining of the stomach.
It has a spear-like instrument called a buccal tooth, which it thrusts
into the blood-vessels and draws nourishment from the blood of
the host. After knowing the manner in which the worm lives, we
can easily understand why a sheep or lamb heavily infested may
have a pale skin, lusterless wool, very little blood in the veins of the
white of the eye, disordered digestion characterized by a depraved
appetite for dirt, or by scours. It is also easy to understand why
heavily-infested animals get so thin in flesh and why lambs' become
so weakened that they die. When any of the above symptoms appear,
an examination should be made to ascertain whether the worms are
present even if it involves killing one or two of the most suspected
animals. If an animal is heavily infested, hundreds of worms are
present. A hundred or less would of themselves check the well-
doing of a lamb but little, although the presence of such a number
is indicative of the possibility of gathering more from the pastures
on which the animal has been running.
Eradication of Stomach Worms. — Unfortunately, we have
not learned how totally to eradicate stomach worms from a flock
of sheep, nor have we learned how to handle pastures or other
growths from which sheep graze, so that we can feel sure they will
not pick up a new infestation. But we have learned how to hold
the infestation in check to such extent that except in occasional
instances, the flock will appear thirfty and the lambs will grow into
a choice product.
Changing Pastures. — Undoubtedly changing often to new graz-
ing grounds helps a great deal to check infestation. If it were pos-
sible to move to new pasture every ten days, the lambs would seldom,
if ever, have outward indications of stomach worms. Such a
method of handling may be impracticable for all except owners of
pure-bred flocks, but a rotation on three to five different grazing
grounds would help a great deal. On a well-fenced farm where
300 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
diversified farming or livestock farming is practiced, this much rota-
tion is perhaps possible without involving too much expenditure in
fencing. The number of grazing places can be increased by the
use of temporary fencing if there is a field which is to be used by
sheep only. A fence three feet high and made of No. 11 wire serves
admirably for temporary use and with it the flock can be placed on
fresh grazing every few days. In* this method of handling, shade
and water often have to be provided. Light, movable shades can be
made at moderate cost, and since sheep are not heavy consumers of
water, the problem of drink is seldom serious.
Plowing the land and sowing to forage crops upon which sheep
can graze helps a great deal in keeping down infestation. For
example, a pasture in which there are many stomach worms may be
thoroughly plowed and sown to rye which will furnish pasture in
late autumn, through the winter, and in early spring. Then the
rye may be turned under and the land sown to rape, which will
furnish a great deal of green feed in summer and early autumn.
But there is danger of over-estimating the protection these growths
give against stomach worms. Evidently some have assumed that
the ensheathed larvae do not crawl up rape and rye stems and blades,
but they do. One of the worst infestations the writer has ever seen
in lambs came from grazing continuously on a small rape lot for
several weeks, and the veteran Shropshire breeder, George Allen,
states that he had a similar experience. In case animals are infested
when they go on such a growth, it is obvious that they will become
reinfested just as soon as the worm eggs they cast in their feces
hatch out, attain the ensheathed stage, and crawl up on the plants
upon which the sheep or lambs feed. Nevertheless the man who
uses forage crops rationally will have in his flock fewer stomach
worms than the man who depends on old permanent pastures.
Keeping Host Animals Off Pastures. — Is there a way of ridding
an old pasture of a bad infestation of stomach worms? There is.
It consists of keeping sheep and other animals which serve as host
to the worm entirely off the pasture for practically one year's time.
Stomach worms also infest cattle, goats, deer, American bison, etc.,
and therefore none of these animals should graze on the pasture, but
horses and hogs could be allowed upon it.
Drenches. — Infestation of stomach worm can also be held in
check by drenching, and there are a number of proprietary remedies
ERADICATION OF STOMACH WORMS 301
(salts, powders, and liquids) which many farmers evidently believe
help in keeping the worm under control.
(1) Gasoline. — Of the drenches, gasoline is the one most com-
monly used by flock-owners in the United States. It should be given
on three successive mornings after the animals have been kept away
from all food and drink for 16 hours, and after the dose is given
they should be fasted for two or three hours more. Each dose
should be measured separately and given in milk, linseed oil, or
flaxseed tea. Whole sweet milk, about five ounces with each dose
for both sheep and lambs is the medium most frequently employed.
One-fourth ounce of gasoline for lambs and one-half ounce for sheep
are the sizes of doses most frequently advised. The writer, how-
ever, after considerable experience, has adopted larger doses because
they seem more effective. Lambs at weaning time are given one-
fourth ounce on the first morning, one-half ounce (one tablespoon-
i'ul) on the second, and three-fourths ounce on the third. Sheep
are given one-half., three-fourths, and one ounce, respectively, on
succeeding mornings. Just before drenching, the gasoline and milk
or other medium should be shaken vigorously in order to have the
gasoline mixed with the medium while the drench is being swal-
lowed. It is said that gasoline should never be given with water.
(2) Coal-tar Creosote. — Coal-tar creosote solution is made by
shaking together one ounce of coal-tar creosote and ninety-nine
ounces of water. The doses of this one per cent mixture recom-
mended by Stiles are as follows : Lambs 4 to 12 months old, 2 to 4
ounces ; sheep, 3 to 5 ounces. Coal-tar creosote, so-called, seems to
vary considerably in composition and this has been a serious
objection to its use.
(3) Copper Sulfate. — Copper sulfate solution is prepared by
dissolving one pound of pure copper sulfate crystals finely pow-
dered in 9% U. S. gallons of warm water. It is better to dis-
solve the crystals in a gallon of boiling water and then add cold
water and mix thoroughly. The dose for a three-months-old lamb
is % ounce; for a six-months-old lamb, iy2 ounces; a yearling 2y2
to 3 ounces, and an old sheep 3% ounces. As with gasoline, the
animals should be deprived of all feed and water prior to the
drenching, if either coal-tar creosote or copper sulfate is given, and
those treated with the latter should not have water for from 12 to 24
hours after dosing. But unlike gasoline, neither of these remedies
must be given on three successive days.
302
SUMMER MANAGEMENT
How to Drench,. — The animal should be allowed to stand while
being drenched, as it is less likely to become strangled. It should
be backed into a corner or against a wall and the man giving the
drench should stand astride or at the side in order to \eep it from
twisting about. The nose should be lifted no higher than neces-
sary to get the dose down, for the higher it is lifted the greater
the probability of causing strangling. If the drench is given from
FIG. 192. — Drenching a sheep. Back the sheep into a corner so it cannot twist about,
keep the head in as nearly natural position as possible, introduce the neck of the bottle at
the corner of the mouth— tip the bottle up and down to prevent the liquid from running
into the throat too fast.
a bottle it should have a long, slim neck which should be inserted at
the corner of the mouth. In order not to give the dose too fast, the
bottle containing it should be tipped gently up and down while the
drench is being swallowed (Fig. 192).
A metal syringe with a nozzle about three inches long and a
barrel large enough to hold one dose (i.e., the milk and gasoline)
is a splendid instrument for drenching, although the work proceeds
a little slower than with a bottle. By placing the dose in a glass
graduate, such as druggists commonly use, the gasoline and milk
NODULE DISEASE 303
can be thoroughly churned together by working the piston of the
syringe. Then too, when drenching, the pressure from the piston
forces the liquid so far down the throat that the sheep or lamb does
not seem to notice the gasoline. This is an important point, for if
the animal is not excited and struggling when the dose is being
swallowed, it goes directly to the fourth stomach, where the worms
are located, but otherwise it is likely to go into the first stomach, or
paunch, where it will do practically no good.
When to Drench. — The whole flock should be drenched at wean-
ing time and again about ten days later. In case the infestation is
very bad, it may be necessary twice or three times more at intervals
of about thirty days.
Prevention of Stomach Worms by Use of the Dry Lot. —
There is one way in which it is possible to raise lambs so that they
will be practically free from stomach worms, even though their dams
are badly infested. That way is to raise them in the dry lot — a lot
in which no plant is to be found growing. Such lambs have all the
manifestations of health and post mortems show them to be almost
free from infestation. Out of a number of stomachs examined, 22
was the largest number of worms found in any individual by
the writer, and this animal had a wool ball in its stomach. In
case of pure-bred flocks becoming heavily infested, it may be advisable
to raise a crop of lambs in the dry lot, for in §0 doing, clean,
vigorous breeding animals can be secured. Then^too, other un-
desirable internal parasites may be avoided at the same time.
Nodule Disease. — Nodule disease is due to a parasite (CEsoph-
agostomum columbianum) , the embryos of which form knots or con-
cretions inside both the large and small intestines. In the worst
cases these concretions are thickly studded on the -intestine along its
entire course, and their harmful effects come from their interfer-
ence with the processes of digestion and absorption of food materials.
The life history of the parasite which causes nodule disease is
not well known. It seems that the mature female lays her eggs in
the intestine, where they hatch in a short time, and in some manner
pass through the mucus lining of the bowel and become embedded
or encysted in the intestinal wall. As nearly as is known the irrita-
tion caused by the embryos give rise to the concretions. Dalrymple,
of the Louisiana Station, found that the parasite which causes
nodule disease is swallowed by the sheep .while grazing; what hap-
pens to the parasite from the time it leaves the concretion in the
304 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
intestine until it is swallowed by a grazing animal is unknown. The
parasite is beyond the reach of drugs while it is encysted in the walls
of the intestines.
The effects of an attack of nodule disease are not immediate,
since it takes some time for the knotty concretions to develop. Nor
is the attack often fatal in the north central and eastern states. But
deaths frequently result from the Cfisease in the southern states. Its
effects are most injurious when combined with those of other diseases
such as stomach worm or tape- worm (Fig, 193).
FIG. 193. — Nodule disease. Note the knots or nodules that have been caused by the
parasites. (From Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletin 143.)
If one has a flock badly infested with nodule disease he can
secure a crop of lambs free from it by raising them in a lot entirely
free from vegetation.
Tape-worms are of six types. They are found in sheep in
nearly all parts of the world. In the United States it is somewhat
more common in the western than in the central and eastern parts,
where stomach worms are worse. In the adult stage, it inhabits
the small intestine, and since it develops great length of body (sev-
eral feet), it is needless to say that it is a greedy feeder and that it
saps the vitality of the host. The symptoms of tape-worm are very
much the same as those of stomach worm, except that the infested
THE MAGGOT FLY 305
animal often has a rapacious appetite. Ransom, of the United
States Bureau of Animal Industry, after making an extensive study
of tape-worm in sheep, did not advise a remedy that will remove
it from the live animal. However, the following is recommended by
several writers : Oil of male shield fern, 1 dram ; raw linseed oil,
2 to 4 ounces. Give the dose after the animal has been fasted 16
to 20 hours.
Some types of tape-worm infest sheep in the cyst or- larval
stage only, the adults living in dogs, etc. The cysts are found in
brain, liver and muscles, and may cause sheep much discomfort.
Grub in the Head. — The sheep bot-fly (Estrus ovis) deposits
larvae instead of eggs. Its favorite place for deposition is in the
nostrils of the sheep whence the larvae work their way up into the
nasal cavities. The fly causes the sheep a great deal of annoyance
at the time it deposits its larvae, both by its buzzing about, and by
its coming in contact with the sheep's nose. Anyone who has ob-
served sheep much in summer has seen certain individuals in the
flock stamping their feet, ducking their heads, and rubbing their
noses in the dust or dirt. All of these actions are caused by the
bot-fly.
After the larvae have reached their destination, up in the nasal
cavities, they fasten themselves to the lining membranes by means
of little hooks. These, along with the pressure of the growing grub,
cause a great deal of irritation, and the sheep resorts to a violent
snorting cough in its effort to dispel the grub. Not infrequently the
grub so affects the brain as to cause death, and they always cause
much discomfort, which is attended by loss of flesh.
The most effective means of combating bot-fly is to keep the
noses of the sheep smeared with pine tar through the summer
months. The tar repels the fly and the larvae are not deposited
where they can gain access to the head. Some sheepmen say that
the sheep will attend to the smearing of their own noses if salt or
grain is placed in a trough containing tar.
It is doubtful whether bot-fly causes as much trouble on the
prairies as it does in wooded regions. In fact, the writer does not
recall having seen flocks affected with grub on the prairie farms
of Illinois.
The Maggot Fly (Musca vomitorium). — Wounds and places
befouled by dung or urine are likely to attract the maggot fly. The
oily, gummy wool about the base of Merino rams' horns may also
20
306 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
attract them. The larvae hatch out within a lew hours after the
eggs are deposited in the befouled places. They grow very fast
and cause the sheep a great deal of discomfort. They can be
killed by applying a strong solution of sheep dip or spirits of
turpentine. Kerosene is also effective in killing them. The dip,
mixed one part to fifty parts of water, is to be preferred to the other
remedies as it is less severe on the skin of the sheep. A sheep plainly
shows when it has maggots by squirming and twisting in an effort
to get its mouth to the irritated spot. Maggots should not be
allowed to remain on the sheep long, since they soon eat through
the skin and recovery from the injury is very slow. After they
have been killed, the injured place should be treated with some
soothing ointment, such as carbolized oil or vaseline. Saratoga
ointment, a rather expensive remedy, is very effective in restoring
the broken skin and in bringing the injured part back to normal
condition.
Ticks, Lice, and Scab Mites are external parasites that' may
give trouble at any time of the year. They should be exterminated
in the summer or fall while the weather is warm and the wool
is short.
Lice (Trichoceplialus sperocephalus) . — Sheep lice are white and
reddish-brown parasites having almost the same color as the skin of
the sheep. They are about one-twentieth of an inch long, but be-
cause of their color are rather hard to see when on the sheep. They
are usually present in largest numbers on the back just behind the
shoulders, but in bad cases they are on nearly all parts of the body.
On account of the irritation they cause, the sheep is very uncom-
fortable and often rubs out a large portion of its fleece in trying to
get relief. A thorough dipping will kill lice, but since the eggs are
not destroyed by the dip, it requires a second dipping completely
to get rid of them. It pays well to dip lousy sheep, for if it is not
done, a great deal of the wool crop will be lost, and if nothing more
were accomplished than the relief to the animals, the dipping
would be well worth while. When dipping is not possible, Baker 2
advises rubbing the affected parts with a mixture composed of equal
parts of lard and sulfur (Fig. 194).
Ticks (Melopliagus ovinus). — The sheep tick is a flat, brownish,
wingless fly that subsists on the blood it sucks from the skin of the
2 Baker, "Sheep Diseases," 1916.
THE SCAB MITE
307
sheep. It travels all over the sheep's body, but it seems to have a
preference for the belly and under side of the neck. In piercing the
skin, it causes more or less irritation, and a sheep with many ticks
on it 'suffers and loses in weight and strength. It also loses wool
from rubbing. When the first warm days come, the ticks leave the
old sheep, and take to the lambs. If they are not eradicated, the
lambs are checked in growth and stunted.
Ticks seldom prove fatal to the host and are such common pests
that flock-owners are many times unaware of the amount of injury
they do. By consistently following the prac-
tice of dipping it is possible to eradicate them
and there is no- good excuse for having them
in the flock.
The whole flock should be dipped shortly
after the shearing has been completed. At that
time the weather is usually warm and favor-
able for dipping; the old sheep just out of
their coats carry very little of the dip out
of the vat, and most of the ticks have gone
over to the lambs, making it imperative that
they be dipped. Ten days after the first dip-
ping, the whole flock should be dipped again
to get rid of ticks hatched from eggs that were
deposited before the first dipping. In the
autumn before the warm days have passed,
careful examination should be made for ticks and lice, and if any
are present, the whole flock should be dipped twice as before.
When sheep are badly infested with ticks in winter, it is good
practice to remove the wool if warm quarters can be provided.
Many of the ticks are taken off with the wool and the sheep destroy
with their teeth most of those left on the body (Fig. 195).
The Scab Mite (Psoroptes communis ovis). — Scab mites are
much smaller than either ticks or lice, but if they are placed on
a dark background they can be seen with the naked eye. They are
light-colored and the females are about one-fortieth of an inch long
and the males one-fiftieth of an inch.3 By piercing the skin of the
sheep in the act of feeding, the mite causes inflammation and irrita-
tion. As the mites multiply, serum oozes from the skin, and as the
FIG. 194.— Adult sheep
louse. (From Kentucky
Station Bulletin No. 143.)
Baker, " Sheep Diseases," 1916.
308 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
exudation dries a scab or crust is formed. Beneath this crust the
mites continue to irritate the skin and to multiply with great
rapidity. As they increase in numbers, they spread over the body
of the sheep until practically the whole of it is covered unless some
method is adopted to check them. The wool drops off where the scab
or crust forms, and the sheep presents a very haggard and sorry
appearance. But the disease oughf to be detected long before this
stage is reached.
The first symptom of scab is uneasiness caused by itching, which
FIG. 195.— Adult sheep tick. (From Kentucky Station Bulletin 143.)
the sheep tries to allay by biting or pulling at the wool near the
affected spot and by rubbing. This scratching and rubbing against
posts, fences, and buildings will distribute many of the mites, which
adhere to the bits of scab and wool that have been rubbed off. It is
largely in this way that other individuals become infested.
When scab is found in a flock the only thing to be done is to
dip the entire flock before the trouble has time to spread farther.
This work must be thoroughly done. Since many of the mites are
under the scabs, they are hard to reach with the dip unless the
scabs are first soaked or broken down by rubbing with some rough
object, such as a corn cob or piece of wood. One dipping is not
sufficient in that it does not destroy the eggs. After the first
dipping the sheep should be turned back into their pen, where they
LIME-SULFUR DIP
309
will continue to rub and disinfect the walls or fences. The second
dipping should occur ten days after the first.
Scab has been eradicated from most sections of the United
States. By enforcing dipping and quarantine, the U. S. Bureau
of Animal Industry has done a splendid piece of work in cleaning
up the flocks of the western states. In this work lime-sulfur dip
has been used more than any other solution (Fig. 196).
FIG. 196. — Sheep scab mite, dorsal view — male and female.
Industry Bulletin 142.)
(From Bureau of Animal
Lime-sulfur Dip. — The formula for the lime-sulfur dip used by
the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry is as follows :
Unslaked lime 8 pounds
Flowers of sulfur 24 pounds
Water 100 gallons
In preparing the mixture, slake the lime in a little water, to
which add the sulfur slowly and stir constantly. Transfer the
mass to a vessel containing thirty gallons of hot water and boil for
two hours with frequent stirring to prevent the lime-sulfur paste
from caking on the bottom of the vessel. Add water from time to
310 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
time to replace that lost by evaporation. The boiling causes the
lime to combine with the sulfur, making calcium sulfide, which is
the active agent in the dip that kills the mite. This mixture, a
chocolate-colored mass, is then transferred to a barrel and allowed
to settle for several hours, after which the clear solution is dipped
from the top of the barrel or else drawn from it by making a hole in
the side about three or four inches*from the bottom. The sediment
is largely uncombined lime and sulfur, and if stirred up into the
clear solution will injure the wool. Enough water should be added
to the clear solution to make 100 gallons. The water added should
be hot enough so that the temperature of the preparation in the vat,
after being well mixed, will register from 100 to 105 degrees F.
Kentucky Station Bulletin 143 gives the following comment on
lime-sulfur dip:
" This well-known dip is very effective in the treatment of sheep
scab. It is also one of the cheapest of dips. It does, on the whole,
a slight damage to the wool, even if properly prepared — more
noticeable in fine than in coarse wools. It is caustic to the oper-
ator's hands. Some dealers object to it because it gives the wool
a washed appearance, consequently the sheep do not look in as good
condition for immediate market as where some other dip is used.
" The U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry has reached the con-
clusion that it has but little effect in destroying the sheep tick, hence
should not be used if the sheep are afflicted with both scab-mite and
tick. However, with these objections to the lime-sulfur dip, a few
of the large sheepmen in this state use it when their sehep have
become badly affected with the scab mite."
Tobacco dips are effective remedies for scab and they are said to
be non-injurious to the wool. The active agent in them which kills
the scab mite is nicotine. These dips also kill sheep lice and ticks,
and, therefore, can be made use of as general dips.
Various arsenical dips have been prepared, but as home-made
decoctions prepared by a formula little use has been made of them.
If the writer mistakes not the famous proprietary dip manufactured
by William Cooper and Nephews is regarded as an arsenical dip.
The various coal-tar dips are among the most pleasant to use.
They are easy to prepare; they are healing and disinfecting, and
they leave the skin in healthy condition. Many of the manufactured
or proprietary dips contain coal-tar products.
Manufactured Dips. — Various prescriptions are available for
OVERHEATING 311
making dips at home. But in treating for lice and ticks (scab is
rare in the United States, except in a few states) it is cheaper and
more satisfying to rely on the manufactured dips. As a rule, they
are efficient, and reliable directions for their use are always sent out
with them.
Foot-rot is an old, old ailment with sheep, and directions for its
control have been written for centuries. There are two forms:
One, non-contagious, caused by too much wet weather ; the other is
contagious, and is caused by the microorganism, Bacillus necropho-
rous. The contagious form is hard to deal with, as in. the worst
cases the animal is very lame for a long time. The foot is hot and
swollen around the coronary band. In this region soft, greenish
spots develop which break and emit pus having a very putrid odor.
A good remedy is a strong copper-sulfate solution applied once or
twice daily. In chronic cases a good method of treatment consists
of packing copper-sulfate crystals in the pus openings around the
coronary band. These crystals attack the dead tissue and destroy
the cause of the trouble, the bacteria.
Sheep having contagious foot-rot should not be allowed to run
with the flock.
Goitre. — Sheep sometimes develop goitre. The writer is in-
debted to E. J. Stone for the following remedy :
Iodine ( crystals ) 1 oz.
Potassium iodide 6 drs.
Vaseline 4 oz.
Mix thoroughly.
Shear off the wool and apply with a swab every other day.
Overheating. — When the temperature gets above 88 degrees F.
and the humidity is great, there is danger of one or more members
of the flock becoming overheated. An overheated sheep or lamb is
stiff. It trembles while on its feet and is unable to walk far without
lying down. The first thing to do for it is to carry it to a cool,
shady place. It should then be given Epsom salts, dissolved in
water (two and one-half ounces for a lamb and four ounces for a
sheep) and a teaspoonful of tincture of aconite.
When an overheated sheep is so badly affected that it can not
get up, E. J. Stone gives the following treatment : Strychnine, one-
fiftieth grain, three times a day for three days, then one-twenty-
fifth grain at night, and one-fiftieth grain in the morning and at
noon, and increasing gradually to one-twenty-fifth grain three tirnes
312 SUMMER MANAGEMENT
daily until recovery or until the animal is able to walk about. Re-
duce doses gradually for about one week.
It is advisable to shear an overheated sheep, but care must be
used because the animal will die if it gets excited and exerts
itself much.
Predatory animals are a menace to the flock in all seasons of
the year, but especially so in sunfmer when the sheep are in the
fields far out from the winter quarters.
Of all the predatory animals, the dog is the worst in the middle
west and eastern parts of the United States, but in a few places
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains wolves
and coyotes must be contended with.
In many places farmers have been forced to quit keeping sheep
because of dogs. Were dogs controlled, farm flocks would be much
more numerous than they are. In 1914, the United States Bureau of
Animal Industry, upon inquiring as to what prevents the keeping of
sheep on farms, received many replies, over 58 per cent of which gave
dogs as the cause. These replies vividly picture the need of laws
that will eliminate cur dogs and keep all other dogs under proper
control. When good laws are secured, sheepmen must have courage
enough to have them enforced.
There is no way of equipping the flock to insure it against an
attack of dogs. Putting bells on a number of sheep assists some,
but the discordant jangling characteristic of American sheep bells
will not stop a bold dog bent on mischief. If the field in which the
sheep are running is near the farm residence provision can per-
haps be made for allowing them a road to the farm buildings, so that
when they are chased by dogs they can come near enough to awaken
someone to come to their rescue. But this plan cannot be depended
upon, as often neither the sheep nor the dogs make enough noise
to awaken persons sound asleep. One other recourse is to place the
flock in dog-proof pens at night. This requires a great deal of
labor, and it prevents the flock from feeding at the most desirable
time.
As soon as it is discovered that sheep have been wounded and
worried by dogs, they should be brought to the barns, where there
are conveniences for giving them the necessary attention. The
first thing to do is to locate all the wounds, including even the
slightest tooth marks, and to rub them thoroughly, though gently,
with carbolized oil (olive oil, 99 parts; concentrated carbolic acid,
QUESTIONS 313
1 part). Keep up this treatment every day until the wounds are
healing nicely. Thereafter, treat occasionally to insure keeping the
wounded places disinfected.
For some time after sheep have been worried by dogs they are
very nervous and become easily excited even though the cause is
slight. Therefore, they should be kept in a quiet place where they
may receive nutritious feed and where it is not necessary to take
more than a moderate amount of exercise.
Coyotes, wolves, bobcats, and mountain lions are a great annoy-
ance and expense to the owners of sheep in the western part of the
United States. The coyote is the worst in the lot, and an organized
effort to exterminate it is being prosecuted. The Federal Govern-
ment is assisting by appropriating money to pay trained hunters and
trappers. Several states give liberal bounties for coyote scalps and
the sheepmen themselves are doing all they can, not only to ex-
terminate the coyote, but also other predatory animals.
QUESTIONS
1. When should the lambs be weaned?
2. What are the disadvantages of weaning lambs too early?
3. Discuss the two methods of weaning as practiced by shepherds.
4. Of what value is bluegrass as a pasture?
5. What are the dangers of pasturing alfalfa and clover ?
6. Discuss fully the treatment of bloat.
7. Name three common forage crops for summer pasture.
8. What feed should be given the lambs when they are weaned?
9. Of what value is shade in summer?
10. What are some of the common summer enemies of the sheep?
1 1. Give the life history of the stomach worm.
12. What are the symptoms of stomach worms?
13. Give a treatment for stomach worms.
14. Where does' the sheep bot-fly deposit its larvae?
15. In what way would you treat a sheep with maggots?
16. How do external parasites injure sheep?
17. How can the presence of lice be detected?
18. What is the remedy for scab?
19. What are the best times for dipping sheep?
20. What are the symptoms of overheating in sheep?
21. What predatory animals give the most trouble to the sheepman?
CHAPTER XXXV
THE WOOL CROP
•
Importance of Wool. — A statement often made in favor of
keeping sheep is that they yield two products, mutton and wool;
but, in many cases, the wool crop is taken as a matter of course and
its value is not fully appreciated. In flocks where the production
of lambs for market is the chief object, the income from the wool
is about thirty per cent of the total income from the flock. This
estimate is based on the assumption that the average weight of
fleece is eight pounds and that there will be one lamb marketed for
each sheep shorn. If receipts were carefully itemized for a series
of years, they would very likely show that the wool constitutes
more than thirty per cent of the total income from the flock, for
the breeding ewe produces one fleece before she raises a lamb.
Further, she always produces a fleece, but she does not always
raise a lamb.
By giving careful attention to the wool product, the income
from the flock can be materially increased. Ewes should be selected
for their wool characteristics as well as for their mutton character-
istics ; there should be an ambition to market not only prime lambs,
but first-class wool as well.
The Requisites of Wool. — (Jood wool is true in structure,
uniform in fineness, strong, not excessive in yolk, and comparatively
clean.
Trueness of Structure.1' — A fleece is not true in structure if it
contains " off-colored " fibers and kemps. Kemps are abnormal
fibers composed of horny material, which are objectionable because
they are brittle and do not take dyes well. They indicate inferior
breeding. Wools containing them in quantity are worth several
cents per pound less than they would otherwise be. Black fibers
or " off-colored " fibers mixed in with white wool reduce the value
because the wool cannot be used in making white cloth. Yellow-
ish, buff-tinged, and1 dingy wools are often less desirable than white
because they do not always scour out pure white (Pig. 197).
1For structure of wool fibre see Chapter V.
314
STRENGTH OF FIBER
315
Uniformity. — A fleece is uniform in fineness when all the fibers
are about the same in diameter. It is practically impossible to get
absolute uniformity in this respect throughout the fleece and it is
not expected. The wool on the hips seldom equals that on the
shoulder in fineness, but the variation in the wool grown on these
two regions of the body is much less in some individuals than
in others, and when this is the case, the fleece as a whole is much
more nearly uniform in quality.
Strength of Fiber. — Wool is regarded as strong when individual
fibers do not have a weak place somewhere in their length. These
weak places are due largely to periods of sickness and undernourish-
FIG. 197. — Kemp, structureless like fibers that are brittle and do not take the color
dyes. A, longitudinal section, B, cross-section, compare with Fig. 24. (From "Structure
the Wool Fiber," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.)
ment, or to abrupt changes from dry to green feed, or vice versa,
while the sheep is growing the wool. Hence, strength of fiber is
a factor which depends more or less upon good feeding and shep-
herding; and the kind of care necessary to produce a good crop
of lambs is the best for growing wool. Tender wools, especially
if they are two and one-half inches or more in length, sell for less
than wools of similar length and finish because they break in the
process of combing and must be used as short wools.
It is often possible to see the weak or tender place or to deter-
mine its location by pulling on a lock of wool and noting where
it breaks. Such a test is only an approximation of whether the
316 THE WOOL CHOP
wool is too weak at its tenderest point to stand the strain of
combing in the process of manufacture. Strong, well-nourished
wool, upon being released from pressure, springs back to its natural
bulk. It thus displays life or loftiness, a very desirable character-
istic. Another way to determine the strength and life of wool is
to twist a number of fibers into a cord and then note the sound
this cord gives off when it is drawn tight and touched much as
one would touch the strings of a violin when tuning it. If the
sound is somewhat like a metallic ring instead of a dull thud,
FIG. 198. — Well-grown wool, even in strength as indicated by the waves or crimps of even
length from the bottom to the top. (U. S. D. A. Bulletin 206.)
one may be sure that the wool is sound and strong (Figs. 198
and 199).
Condition, which depends on the amount of yolk and foreign
matter in wool, is a very important factor in determining its value.
If the amounts are excessive, the shrinkage in weight from scouring
is great and hence such wools are worth less in the unsecured
state than lighter shrinking wools. A certain amount of e< free-
flowing " yolk is necessary to keep the wool fibers in good condition,
CLEANLINESS 317
but there should be no justification for breeding excessive quanti-
ties of it merely for the sake of increasing the weight of the fleece.
Cleanliness. — Dirt, sand, burs, straw, and chaff in wool not only
decrease its scoured yield, but also affect its value. It is impossible
completely to scour out burs, straw, and chaff, and if the wool con-
taining them is to be made clean it must be treated with a weak
solution of sulphuric acid and heated, a process known as car-
bonizing and one which is likely to weaken the wool. The con-
ditions under which the sheep must be kept may make it impossible
FIG. 199. — Tender wool, showing break caused by disease or improper nourishment of the
animal on which the wool was grown. (U. S. D. A. Bulletin 206.)
to keep out dirt and sand ; on some of the ranges in the western
parts of the United States, it is not altogether possible to keep
out burs, but on farms the presence of chaff, straw, and burs in
wool is largely the grower's fault. Backs should be used that will
not let chaff fall into the wool on top of the neck and shoulders
and the flock should not be allowed to feed continually at stacks
of straw.
Branding sheep with insoluble paint is very detrimental to
the condition of wool because the paint cannot be scoured out.
318 THE WOOL CROP
The only way to get rid of it is to clip it off, an expensive process
because it must be done with hand labor (Fig. 200).
Classes of Wool. — Wool is classed either as combing or cloth-
ing. Combing wools are used in worsted manufacturing where it
is necessary to place the fibers parallel to each other in the yarn.
In order to meet the combing requirements, the fibers should be
strong and two and one-half inches or more in length. The
broken, short, and tangled fibers are discarded as " no?. Is " to be
used in the manufacture of woolens. What is known as the French
combs can make worsted yarn from wools somewhat shorter than
two and one-half inches; nevertheless, length and evenness in
strength of fiber remain important factors in estimating the value
of wool.
Clothing wools are shorter than combing wools. They are
used in the making of woolens, felts, and fabrics of similar type.
No attempt is made to keep the fibers parallel; in fact, the more
they can be mixed in every direction the better they serve the
purpose desired.
Combing wools are worth from two to six cents per scoured
pound more than clothing wools. On this account it is generally
advisable to attempt to grow combing wool, but it is not always
possible to secure the length and strength of fiber necessary to
put wool into this class. This is especially true of wools from
flocks where Merino blood predominates, and unless care is used
in selecting breeding stock with wool having adequate length of
fiber a considerable percentage of the fleeces in flocks where Down
blood predominates (Oxford Down excepted) will be classed as
clothing. Age is another factor which influences the class of
wool that may be produced, for old sheep past their prime of life
do not grow as much length of fiber as do young sheep of similar
breeding.
Coarse, kempy, poorly-bred wool is classed as carpet wool.
It is not produced except in very small quantities in regions where
improved methods of breeding and feeding are followed.
Grades of Wool. — The wool that comes under each class is
divided into various grades according to fineness. Trade journals
giving reports of wool sales on the large markets contain a maze
of quotations arranged so as to bewilder rather than to enlighten
persons not thoroughly familiar with the wool trade. But when
GRADES OF WOOL . 319
reduced to simplest terms, these quotations indicate the classes
and grades of wool to be as follows : 2
Classifications and Grades of Wools Produced by Flocks in the
Eastern, Middle Western, and Southern Parts of the United
States. —
Combing Wools
Delaine, the finest combing wool; sometimes quoted as fine Delaine and
medium Delaine.
Half-blood.
Three-eighths-blood.
Quarter-blood.
Low quarter-blood.
Braid, the coarsest combing wool.
Clothing Wools
XX and X, washed or fine unwashed; the XX and X are used almost
exclusively to refer to wool from sheep that were washed before shearing.
Half-blood clothing.
Three-eighths-blood clothing.
Quarter-blood clothing.
At one time these last three terms were supposed to refer to wool from
sheep of half, three-eighths, and one-quarter blood Merino but they have
no such significance now.
Classifications and Grades of Wools Produced on the Ranges
of the "West and Southwestern Parts of the United States.: —
Combing Wools
Fine staple ^
Fine medium staple \ Usual]y ™e grade.
Half-blood staple.
Three-eighths-blood staple.
Quarter-blood staple )
Low quarter-blood staple f Often one -rade'
Coarse, common, low, or braid.
" Staple " as applied to wools coming in the above classification refers
to combing wools.
2 See U. S. Agr. Bulletin No 206 by F. R Marshall and L. L Heller.
320 THE WOOL CROP
Clothing Wools
Fine clothing. •
Fine medium clothing.
Half-blood clothing.
Three-eighths-blood clothing.
Quarter-blood clothing, or
Short quarter blood.
Practically all the wool of these last two grades is of combing length.
Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, and Wash-
ington wools are called "territory wools " in distinction from the
clips from Texas, California, Oregon, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Quotations are often given for the wools from different states.
While these wools undoubtedly differ somewhat, it is almost impos-
sible to tell in general descriptive terms what the differences are,
and to be able further to subdivide the classifications given above
requires an expert knowledge of the whole wool trade.
United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 206 gives
the following description of how the quality of foreign wools is
often designated by the counts or number of hanks to the pound.
"The coarser wools are represented by the lower counts, as
18's, 24's, 36's, etc., and the finer ones as 64's, 70's, 807s, etc.
These numbers or counts represent the hanks per pound of top
into which the wool is supposedly capable of being spun, each hank
representing 560 yards. Thus, wool of 50's quality should spin
50 X 560 yards per pound to top, if spun to the limit. This classifi-
cation is based on the worsted system of manufacture.
" Foreign Wool Classes and Corresponding Counts for American Qrade
American grades. Foreign classes- Counts often
top-maker's spun to in
quality. America.
Fine 60's-70's 50's-60's
Half-blood 56's-60's 40's
Three-eighths-blood 50's-56's 36's
Quarter-blood 46's-50's 32's
Low quarter-blood 40's-46's 20's
Low, coarse, common, or braid 3G's-40's 16's
" As a matter of fact the top-maker's quality does not actually
represent the counts to which the wool can be spun. The lower
GRADES OF WOOL 321
grades will not spin up to their number, while the finer ones will
spin much higher than their designated numbers. Some fine Ameri-
can wools have been spun to 200 counts for exhibition purposes.
Short wool will not spin as high as similar wools of greater length,
hence this factor also influences the counts to which the woo]
will spin.
" Another fact worthy of mention is that the wools are rarely
spun to their limit; that is, to as fine a yarn as is possible to spin.
Wool can be spun several counts higher in England than it can
in America. This is due to the fact that the air is moister there
and that the labor of the mills is more capable than in the United
States. This does not imply that American fabrics are inferior
to imported, as a better cloth results if the wool is not so
highly spun."
The following interesting tabulation on the grades of wool
from the different breeds of sheep is taken from United States
Department of Agriculture Bulletin 206. It is made clear in the
bulletin, however, that it is imposible to grade wool solely on the
basis of the breeding of the sheep, and that in the mutton breeds
particularly there are wide variations within a breed and even
within flocks.
Breed Grade of wool produced
Merino (eastern states) . . . Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed, etc.
Merino (range states) Fine and fine medium staple or clothing.
Rambouillet Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and a
small amount of half-blood.
Southdown Half and three-eighths blood ( chiefly three-
eighths combing or clothing, chiefly clothing).
Shropshire Mainly three-eighths-blood, combing or clothing.
Some quarter-blood.
Hampshire Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or
clothing.
Dorset Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or
clothing.
Suffolk Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing.
Cheviot Quarter-blood combing.
Oxford Quarter and low quarter-blood combing.
21
322 THE WOOI/ CROP
Corriedale Three-eighths-blood combing.
Cotswold ^|
Lincoln v. Low quarter-blood combing or braid.
Leicester I
Crossbred: Long wool on
Merino or Rambouillet. Half-blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-
Crossbred: Shropshire or blood combing.
Hampshire on Merino
or Rambouillet Half-blood and three-eighths-blood combing or
clothing.
Shearing. — To a limited extent, the condition of the wool de-
pends upon the time when the shearing is done. It is not always
possible to shear at the time when the wool is in condition to
most nearly suit market requirements. Oftentimes in the western
part of the United States, the shearing must be done either be-
fore the sheep are started from the winter range or while they
are being moved from the winter feeding grounds to the spring
or summer range. If this were not done the sheep would get
so far away from railway lines that the cost of hauling the wool
would be greatly increased. Besides this, various other factors are
involved in determining the time when the shearing shall be done.
It is different, however, in regions where farm flocks are kept,
and if good shelter is available, it is possible to shear more nearly
at the time when the wool is in best condition for being removed1.
The usual time for shearing in the middle western and eastern
parts of the United States is from the middle of April to the
middle of May, after the cold weather is over and there have been
a few d'ays a little too warm for the comfort of unshorn sheep.
On the whole, this is a good time to shear, as the oil has risen
in the wool in sufficient quantity to make it " full of life " and
the shearing easy. If shearing is deferred too long the wool be-
comes dead and lifeless. As a rule the wool from breeding ewes
would be in somewhat better condition if they were shorn before
they lamb because the feverish condition frequently resulting from
lambing often causes them to lose some of their wool. Moreover
the wool that is grown while they are expending so much energy
in the production of milk is likely to be tender.
With early shearing there will be fewer dung tags if it is done
before the sheep are turned out to pasture. The extreme succu-
lence of the fresh young grass causes the feces to soften and collect
PLACES FOR SHEARING 323
around the rear parts, and if the stained wool is not trimmed off
when the feces first start to collect, a great mass will accumulate
and greatly damage the wool. If the weather should be warm,
the dung will also attract flies and the sheep will be attacked by
maggots.
There are some objections to shearing early, one of which is
that the weight of fleece is considerably lighter than it would be
later on because there has not been enough warm weather to cause
the yolk to rise in large quantity. Hammond, of the Ohio Station,
lias experimented on this point and his conclusion printed in
Ohio Station Bulletin 294 is as follows: "Washed sheep shorn
April 12 produced more grease wool than did washed sheep shorn
June 1, while unwashed sheep shorn April 12 produced less grease
wool than did unwashed sheep shorn June 1." This indicates
that between these two dates there was an increase in weight of
fleece due to the accumulation of yolk or other foreign matter
in the wool.
In feeding a lot of western lambs, the writer3 sheared half of
them March 1 and the other half May 25. The late shorn fleeces
contained a much greater amount of yolk and they averaged 2.6
pounds more in weight than the early-shorn fleeces. In this case
the difference in weight was due to the difference both in the
amount of yolk and in the actual amount of wool. From Ham-
mond's conclusion, however, it is clear that there would be no
advantage in securing the greater weight of fleece from late
shearing if wool were purchased strictly on the scoured basis. With
small lots but very little discrimination is made in this respect
unless the wool is excessively heavy in amount of yolk. But, even
if wool were purchased on the scoured basis, it would not always
pay to shear early, for there are places where the spring season
is so variable that shelter will not adequately protect the health of
shorn sheep. Sudden changes from warm to cold, windy weather
may cause colds in the worst form, and when this happens, fatalities
are almost sure to occur.
Places for Shearing. — Where large bands of sheep are kept, as
in the western part of the United States, sheds are built solely for
the purpose of shearing, but where small flocks are kept the shear-
ing quarters are usually of a temporary nature. In arranging a
B 111. Sta. Bull. 167.
324 THE WOOL CROP
place, every precaution should be taken to keep the wool clean.
While the fleece is being removed the sheep should be placed on
a smooth board platform about ten feet square; the sheep awaiting
shearing should be penned where they will not drag manure and
litter with them as they are brought to the shearing place.
Requirements for Good Shearing. — A good job of shearing
consists in cutting the wool off snfoothly close to the body.
The power machine will cut closer than the hand shears, but
satisfactory work may be done with the latter if the operator is
careful and possesses some skill. It is the tendency of the unskilled
shearer, whether using the machine or hand shears, to fail to
cut close to the sheep's body. For example, the shearer may start
to cut close to the body, but in advancing the shears he cannot
follow the shape of the animal, and hence some of the wool is cut
from a half to an inch away from the skin. He can, and usually
does, back up and cut close where he failed in his first attempt.
This makes what is known as second cuts. Because they are so
short they are of low value for manufacturing purposes. It is
also obvious that the evil of making second1 cuts makes the fibers
in the main body of the fleece shorter and uneven in length, and
therefore less desirable.
In doing good shearing it is also necessary to get the fleece off
without getting it torn apart. After setting a sheep on its rump,
there is a knack of holding it so that it will not kick and struggle
violently. Its body should be tilted1 back towards the knees of
the operator so that its hind legs cannot get sufficient contact with
the floor to make effective resistance. It is the adjustment of this
position that is equivalent to the knack of holding.
Power shearing machines are gradually replacing the hand
shears. The power machine does smoother work, makes fewer
second cuts, and does not cut the skin of the sheep so badly.
The amateur shearer can do much better with the power machine.
In various places in the western part of the United States, the
hand shears are still used because the power machine cuts so close
that the sheep will blister if it turns hot or they will suffer if it turns
cold. If thick combs are used, however, it is not necessary to cut
extremely close with the power machine.
Tying the Fleece. — Several things must be done to make a
good job of tying the fleece. First, in order to make an honest
package, all tag lots must be removed whether they be of dung,
TYING TWINE 32S
or of grease and dirt. The tags have about one-third the value
of clean wool. Second, the fleece should be carefully rolled up
by hand with no ends and stray locks protruding and with the
flesh side out. -This greatly adds to the appearance of the fleece.
It also prevents mixing the wool in different fleeces. Third, the
fleece should be tied with a hard glazed twine, not larger than
one-eighth inch in diameter. Special care should be taken to make
a firm hard knot that will not slip (Fig. 201).
Tying Twine.4 — " The use of wrong kinds of tying twine has
caused the manufacturer more trouble than any other one thing,
with the wools marketed from the farms of the central and eastern
FIG. 200. FIG. 201.
FIG. 200. — Insoluble paint in scoured wool due to paint that was used in branding
the live sheep.
FIG. 201. — A fleece properly tied, the flesh side outward, no loose locks straggling, the
whole fleece flufly or soft in appearance. (From Illinois Station Circular 161.)
United States. A hard, glazed twine should be used in order to
avoid getting any of its fiber mixed with the wool. In recent
years paper wool twine has been introduced which is entirely
satisfactory to the manufacturer. Rough, loosely woven twine
made of vegetable fiber is not desirable because some of the fiber
gets into the wool. It is impossible to remove it. It will not
take the dyes used in coloring wool and it is detrimental to the
strength and finish of the cloth. The only way to get rid of
it is to pick it out of the finished cloth, which is an expensive
process. Sisal twine is the most objectionable of all employed for
tying wool. The mills have objected to it so strenuously that its
use is being largely discontinued. In no event should it be used;
better not tie at all than use it. There have been placed on the
4 111. Sta. Circ. 161.
326
THE WOOL CROP
market jute products, called wool twine, which are not at all
satisfactory. They are so loose and rough that many of the fibers
cling to the wool and cause defects in the goods. Undoubtedly
the wool trade the world over will institute a war against this
type of twine. These so-called wool twines are also unnecessarily
heavy. The best wool buyers obiect to excessive size and length
of string. A well-known wool house in the middle west informed
the writer that they had removed more than one pound of twine
from a single fleece. The use of so much cheap stuff amounts to
unfair packing. It is not
necessary to wrap the string
more than three times around
the fleece — twice is usually
sufficient — and the size of (he
siring should be no greater
than needed to give it the
strength to stand the strain
of drawing it in tightly on the
wool for the purpose of tying.
As stated above, it should not
be more than one-eighth inch
in diameter. India three-ply
size No. 41/2 is a type suitable
for tying wool; so are the
paper wool twines. Some of
the latter, however, are still',
and therefore difficult to tie in
a firm, hard knot that will not slip and release the wool. In
selecting from them care should be taken to secure a kind that is
soft and pliable (Fig. 202).
" Packing and Storing. — When packing, the fleeces of ewes,
lambs, rams, and wethers should be packed separately. In small
flocks it is hardly advisable to pack them in separate bags, but
they can be separated in the bag by sheets of stiff, strong paper
so that they can be easily sorted at the market. A bag containing
a certain kind or kinds of wool should be marked so that its con-
tents are known. Tags and wool from dead sheep should be
packed separately.
FIG. 202. — Wool twine. A, taken from a
fleece and showing the use of an excessive quan-
tity. B, showing the proper kind and quantity
to use in tying a fleece. (From Illinois Sta-
tion Circular 161.)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WOOL TRADE 327
" Black or gray fleeces should not be allowed' to come in contact
with white fleeces; burry fleeces should be packed to themselves
(Fig. 203).
" If the wool is not sold immediately after shearing, it should
he stored in a clean, dry place. It should not be left on the
bare ground even though it is placed in bags. It is best to store
and market wool in bags, as it is the more likely to be kept clean.
The bags should be closely woven, so that they will effectively keep
out dust and dirt. They should also be of a type that will not shed
particles of fiber into the wool. The loosely woven jute bags com-
monly used, are satisfactory in neither particular."
FIG. 203. — Wrong method of packing wool. Various grades and colors varying from 9 to
24 cents per pound in value packed in the same bag.
Marketing Wool. — The claim is made that there is no open
market for wool in the United States. For this reason it is difficult
for the grower to know what his wool is worth. An open market
would be a great help to the grower, but without a knowledge of
about how much his wool would shrink in scouring, he would
still be more or less in the dark. Owners of small clips are, as a
rule, at great disadvantage in selling, for they cannot get in
touch with agencies whose chief business consists in handling wool.
With the development of more interest in farm flocks, conditions
for selling small clips will undoubtedly improve.
Glossary of Terms Used in the Wool Trade. — Bulletin 206,
United States Department of Agriculture, gives the following
glossary of terms used in the wool trade:
Black Wool. — Includes any wool that is not white.
Braid Wool. — Grade name, and synonym for luster wools.
Brilcli Wool. — Wool from the lower thighs of the sheep ; usually
the coarsest on the body.
328 THE WOOL CROP
Carbonized Wool. — That which has been treated with a solution
of aluminum chlorid or sulfuric acid to remove vegetable matter.
Carbonizing is rarely practiced with worsted wools.
Carding. — Consists of opening the wool staples, separating to
a certain extent the fibers, and condensing and delivering the
opened wool in a continuous strand or sliver.
Carpet Wool. — Low, coarse wo<fl used in the manufacture of car-
pets. There is very little produced in the United States.
Combing. — An operation in worsted manufacture which
straightens the fibers and separates the short, weak, and tangled
fibers known as noils from the continuous strand of long parallel
fibers known as top.
Come-back. — In America this refers to a wool fine in quality
and having more length than would ordinarily be expected. In
Australia it is the result of breeding crossbreds back toward pure
Merinos, one of the parents being a pure Merino.
Condition. — Refers to the degree of oil in grease wool. It
largely regulates the price. In scoured wool it is used to indicate
the degree of moisture.
Cotted Fleeces. — A cotted fleece is one in which the fibers
are matted or tangled'. The cause may be ill health of the sheep
or the absence of the proper amounts of yolk or grease in the wool.
Cow Tail. — A very coarse fleece, more like hair than wool.
Crimp. — The natural waviness of wool fiber. Uniformity of
crimp indicates superior wool.
Crossbred Wools. — In the United States the term generally
refers to wool from a long-wool and fine-wool cross.
Defective. — Denotes that something will show disadvantageous^
after the wool is scoured. Fire, water, or moths may cause defec-
tive wools. California burry wool is quoted as defective.
Delaine Wool. — Delaine originally referred to a fine type of
women's dress goods. Delaine wools are fine combing or worsted
wools, from Ohio and vicinity, but not necessarily from the
Delaine Merino.
Fall Wool. — Wool shorn in the fall where shearing is practiced
twice a year, as in California and Texas. The fall wool is usually
dirtier than the spring clip. It represents from four to six
months' growth.
Filling (Weft}. — Threads that run crosswise and1 fill in between
the warp.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WOOL TRADE 329
Fribs. — Short and dirty locks of small size. Dungy bits of wool.
Frowzy Wool. — A lifeless appearing wool with the fibers lying
more or less topsyturvy. The opposite of lofty wool.
Grease Wool. — Wool as it comes from the sheep with the grease
still in it.
Hogget Wool. — English term for the first wool from a sheep.
Kemp. — Not a dead hair, but an abnormal fiber made up
entirely of horny material,, such as is on the outside of ordinary
wool fiber. It will not dye as well as the ordinary fiber and does
not possess spinning qualities.
Line Fleeces. — Those midway between two grades as to quality
or length.
Lofty Wool. — Open wool, full of life. Springs back into normal
position after being crushed in the nand.
Luster Wool. — That from Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold
sheep. It is known as luster wool because the coarse fibers reflect
the light.
Modock. — Wool from range sheep that have been fed and
sheared in the farm states. The wool has qualities of both regions
Noil. — A by-product of worsted manufacture consisting of
short and tangled fibers. It is used! in the manufacture of woolens.
Off Sorts. — The by-products of sorting. In fine staple or any
other grade there are certain quantities of short, coarse, stained,
and colored wools. These are the off sorts.
Picklock Wool. — Formerly a grade above XXX. Picklock was
the product of Silesian Merino blood. There is no American
market grade of that name at present; a little of this quality of
wool is produced in West Virginia.
Pulled Wool. — Wool taken from the skin of a slaughtered
sheep's pelt by slipping, sweating, or the use of depilatory.
Quality. — The diameter of the wool. It largely determines the
spinning quality.
Run-out Fleece. — One that is not uniform but much coarser on
the B'ritch than elsewhere. It may be kempy.
Shafty Wool. — Wool of good1 length and spinning qualities.
Shearlings. — Short wool pulled from skins of sheep shorn be-
fore slaughtering. Also English term for yearling sheep.
Shivy Wool. — A somewhat broad term. It refers to the pres-
ence of vegetable matter in the wool,
330 THE WOOL CROP
Shoddy. — Wool that has been previously used for manufacturing
purposes, torn apart, and made ready to use again.
Skirting. — Skirting fleeces consists in removing the pieces and
the low-quality wool of the britch from the ed'ge of the fleece.
Spring Wool. — Six to eight months' growth; shorn in the
spring where sheep are shorn twice a year.
Stained Wool. — That which is discolored by urine, dung, etc.
Staple. — (a) A lock or bunch of wool as it exists in the fleece.
(b) Western combing wool.
Stubble Shearing. — Shearing some distance from the skin,
leaving a "stubble/'
Suint. — Excretions from sweat glands deposited in the wool.
Sweating Sheds. — Sheds in which sheep are " sweated " before
shearing. The purpose is to raise the yolk and make shearing
easier.
Tags. — Large dungy locks.
Territory Wools. — ^Territory wools are in general those that
come from the territory west of the Missouri Eiver.
Tippy Wool. — Wool in which the tip or weather end of the
fiber is more or less incrusted.
Top. — A continuous untwisted strand of the longer wool fibers
straightened by combing. After drawing and spinning it becomes
worsted yarn.
Top-maker's Qualities or Counts. — Top-maker's qualities or
counts are the numbers used in designating the quality of certain-
foreign wools. They range from 12's upward. The numbers are
supposed to indicate the number of hanks of yarn a pound of top
will spin to. Each hank represents 560 yards.
Tub Washed. — Wool that has been washed1 after having been
sheared. Very rare in America; was formerly practiced in
Kentucky.
Virgin Wool. — Wool that has not previously been used in
manufacturing.
Warp. — The threads that run lengthwise in cloth.
Washed Wools. — Those from which the suint has been removed
by washing the sheep before shearing.
Wether. — In English wools it refers to wool other than the
first clip from the sheep. In sheep, a castrated male.
Yolk. — The fatty grease deposited upon the wool fibers from the
oil glands.
QUESTIONS 331
QUESTIONS
1. Review Chapter V and tell how the quality of wool is determined.
2. Why is excessive yolk objectionable in wool? Burs? Chafl'?
3. What kinds of twine should be used in tying wool?
4. What is kemp? Is it desirable in wool?
5. What is necessary in order to grow strong wool ?
6. Of what advantage is uniformity of breeding in growing wool?
7. What is clothing wool? Combing wool? How is each used?
8. Give arguments for and against early shearing.
PART V
SHEEP FEEDING
CHAPTER XXXVI
HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN THE UNITED
STATES
Sheep Feeding Defined. — The following discussion of sheep
feeding deals with the feeding of western sheep and lambs on farms
and in feed lots. Although it is taken for granted that in all cases
the animals involved in the feeding process are to be purchased by
the feeder and that they are to be western sheep and lambs, much of
the discussion also applies to cases in which owners fatten lambs of
their own raising in autumn and winter.
Origin of Sheep Feeding. — It is only since about 1890 that the
practice of fattening western sheep and lambs has developed and
become widespread. This practice had its origin around the large
flour mills of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and other cities in the North-
west. Previous to 1890 the screenings or waste from these large
mills was looked upon as useless material and each year thousands of
tons were dumped into the streams.
In 1892 William Wyman, of Hamline, Minnesota, upon conceiv-
ing the idea of using the waste from the large flour mills for fin-
ishing western sheep, constructed a feeding yard midway between
Minneapolis and St. Paul. His venture was a success, and his
demonstration encouraged others to take up the business of sheep
feeding. Immense yards, each accommodating several thousand
sheep, were built around Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago and other
cities where large flour mills were located.
The common practice was to fill the yards with sheep and lambs
from Montana, Oregon, Wyoming, Idaho, and other western states
early in October, have them ready for the market about midwinter,
and then fill the yards again. The second crop was usually shorn
before time for marketing, which was near the first of June.
For a few years after the practice of fattening sheep and lambs
on screenings began, both the animals and feed were obtained for a
small outlay of capital. Owners in the West, on account of not hav-
ing enough feed to fatten their surplus sheep and lambs, were glad
to dispose of them at very moderate prices, and, of course, the
335
336 HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN UNITED STATES
screenings, being a waste product, were very cheap. Screenings-fed
sheep and lambs soon became very popular with the packers and
commanded good prices. The result was that the business of sheep
and lamb feeding netted large profits.
The Day of the Large Operators. — The men who built large
yards and fed great numbers of sheep were known as the large
operators. Most of them were located near the cities which had
large flour mills, but some established themselves in Kansas and
Nebraska, where corn and hay were cheap. Their business was
speculative in nature, and it was easy to determine whether or not
profits were made. So long as both feeds and feeder animals were
cheap and there was a margin of two dollars or more per hundred-
weight between the purchase and sale price of the sheep the business
could not help being profitable. Its profitableness awakened the
interest of people not only in the feeding of sheep, but also in
screenings, the feed that was being so successfully used in the process
of fattening. As a result, the demand for feeders increased and
prices for them advanced. Other uses were found for screenings,
and they, too, advanced in price. Therefore it was not long before
the large operators had to give close attention to their sheep feed-
ing in order to make it profitable. Following these changes they
could not make profits and, worse still, many failed financially.
It is now more than a decade since the majority of the large
operators around the great flour-making centers ceased operations.
Occasionally a few attempt feeding in a large way at the accumu-
lating centers which are located near the large markets on the rail-
roads that lead in from the West. These extensive feeders may
or may not use screenings. As a rule they are preferred, but the
price placed on them may make it necessary to select some other
feed. When prices for corn and hay drop considerably below the
normal level in Kansas and Nebraska a little sheep feeding is done
on the old-time plan. Colorado is the only place where large
operators now feed regularly, and it is doubtful whether they will
continue for many years more because the time has come when
they cannot be fully assured of profits from the business (Fig. 204).
From the foregoing statements it is evident that the day of the
large operator in sheep feeding is practically over. There should
be no regret, for sheep feeding properly belongs to those who raise
a part or all of the feed.
THE DAY OF THE LARGE OPERATORS
337
22
338 HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN UNITED STATES
Rise of Farmer Feeders. — Not long after the large operators
started to feed sheep farmers saw opportunities for profits in the
business. Within a short time they were able to demonstrate that
they were in better position to engage in sheep feeding than were
the large operators. Their advantages were these: First, they
owned the land on which the feeding was done, while, as a rule,
the large operators did not; second, they considered the manure a
valuable item, while to the large operators it was often an incum-
brance. In fact, it was the need for manure which led certain
farmers in Michigan to engage in sheep feeding. Their farms had
been depleted in fertility by continued cropping with wheat and
something had to be done to restore fertility. Profitable sheep feed-
ing, with the attendant production of manure, caught the attention
of these farmers and they began to engage in the business about
1893. Anyone who travels through south central Michigan will be
impressed by the number of large red barns that have been erected
for the purpose of conserving all of the roughages grown on the farm,
such as hay, straw, corn stover, and bean hulls, and for housing
sheep and lambs to which the roughages are fed. Most of the con-
centrates are shipped in. Thus more fertility is carried back to the
land in the form of manure than was taken away from it in the form
of roughages. The crops produced on the farms where the large red
barns are located bear ample evidence that something has been done
to restore fertility, and those acquainted with conditions unhesi-
tatingly give the credit to the feeding of sheep.
Since farmers own the land on which they do their feeding they
have still another advantage over the large operator in that they
produce a great deal of their own feed. In the early days, when
screenings were ridiculously cheap, this was not such an advantage,
but now that a market has been established for them, the man
who grows all or a part of his feed near the base of his operations
is in better position to feed than the man who is compelled to buy all
of his feeds.
Again, the landowner, particularly in the corn belt, usually has
a great deal of growth on his land which he considers waste unless
consumed by some such animal as the sheep. The utilization of
this growth gives the farmer or landowner a tremendous advantage
over the large operator, for whatever gain the sheep make from it
is counted clear profit. With this and the other advantages enum-
erated, it is clear that in time sheep feeding must be almost entirely
QUESTIONS 339
in the hands of the farmer fedeers, or of those who feed on a
similar basis. In fact, the great bulk of the sheep feeding of to-day
is done by owners or operators of land who feed from a few hundred
to a few thousand sheep and lambs in a season.
QUESTIONS
1. When did the sheep-feeding industry originate?
2. Who first practiced the feeding of sheep on mill screenings?
3. How did the large feeders operate?
4. Why did the farmers become interested?
5. In what ways do farmer feeders have advantage over the speculative
feeders?
CHAPTER XXXVII
MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
•
THE sheep feeder should have a comprehensive knowledge of
the classes of sheep sold on the open markets and of the require-
ments for the grades within these classes. On these markets all
sheep raised in the West are called western sheep ; those raised on the
farms in the Middle West, East, and South are called native sheep.
Native sheep are not classed as feeders because they are so often
infested with parasites that they are disappointing in the feed lot
after they have undergone the hardships incident to passing through
a market.
The classes and subclasses of sheep are as follows :
Classes Subclasses
\ Lambs
| Yearlings
Mutton sheep (native and western sheep) 1 Wethers
I Ewes
( 15 neks and stags
I Lambs
Feeder sheep (western sheep) _ '
Ewes
Breeding sheep (native and western sheep) J wes
I Bucks
The three main classes are determined by the use to which the
sheep are put. The mutton class includes all sheep sold for slaugh-
ter ; the feeder class, all sheep sold for the purpose of being sent to
farms and feeding establishments to be fattened ; and the breeding
class, all sheep sent out to be used as breeding stock.
Either the age or sex, or both, determine the subclass to which
the animal belongs. Lambs include all sheep under twelve or four-
teen months of age except those that are so forward in their develop-
ment of body as to resemble mature sheep. If any of the temporary
340
GRADES 341
teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth the animal would not be
classed as a lamb. Lambs constitute about 75 per cent, of the sheep
sold as mutton. They are preferred to older sheep because their
meat is tender, free from strong flavor, and they yield cuts of con-
venient size.
Yearlings are castrated males and they are properly called
yearling wethers. As a mutton product they a,re used as a substi-
tute for lamb, and in order to serve this purpose they must bear
considerable resemblance to lambs in form, quality, weight, con-
dition and immaturity. They are identified by the two broad teeth
in front of the lower jaw and by the epiphyseal cartilage, or " break
joint." The presence of the latter is determined by grasping the
foreleg between the forefinger and thumb and rubbing up and
down just above the pastern joint, where a rather sharp prominence
will be felt if the epiphyseal cartilage has not disappeared.
By removing the forefoot at the epiphyseal cartilage a reddish
indented surface is exposed which is quite different in appearance
from the surface exposed when the foot is removed at the regular
articulating joint, as must be the case with mature sheep because
the cartilage is knit or ossified. On this account the presence of
the cartilage is important, for it furnishes evidence that the carcass
is that of an immature animal. Yearling ewes are not classed as
yearlings, because they mature earlier than yearling wethers and
often fail to show the " break joint " soon after they pass out of the
lamb class.
Wethers are castrated males that are too mature in development
of body or too inferior in quality to class as yearlings. In case a
male is not castrated until it develops the coarseness of feature
characteristic of a mature ram it is classed as a stag. Yearlings
and wethers form only a small part of the sheep that are sold for
mutton.
Ewes are females too far advanced in maturity to class as lambs ;
the class includes all ages from yearlings up.
Bucks and stags include entire males too mature to class as
lambs and castrated males showing the coarseness of feature com-
mon to mature rams. This class forms a very small part of the
offerings on the market.
Grades. — Each subclass, bucks and stags excepted, is divided
into from three to five grades, the full list being prime, choice, good,
medium, and common or culls. The term " prime " is replaced by
342 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
the term " fancy selected " in feeder and breeding classes. A prime
animal represents the best and a common one the worst in a given
class. In mutton yearlings the two lower grades are omitted be-
cause yearlings corresponding to those grades are either classed as
mutton wethers or yearling feeders. The term " fancy selected "
is applied only to the best grade of lambs in the feeder class and to
the best grade of ewes in the breeding class, and it is but seldom
used in these classes.
Grades of Mutton Sheep. — The grade to which a sheep in any
of the subclasses of mutton sheep belongs is determined by its form,
quality, condition, and weight. Of these factors, quality and con-
dition are the most important, but any animal that is markedly
deficient in any of the factors mentioned can not grade as prime.
In all particulars except weight the following description of a
prime mutton lamb, taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 129, serves
fairly well as a description of prime animals in the other subclasses
of mutton sheep:
" It is understood that when lambs are graded as prime they
are the very best of the class that may generally be expected on the
market. Prime lambs are taken largely for fancy city market, hotel,
and restaurant trade. Such lambs are practically above criticism in
quality, condition, and weight. They are usually secured by sorting
the best out of a band. This is especially true of native lambs,
where the offerings in one shipment are likely to be very uneven.
" Before a lamb is graded as prime it is determined by sight
and touch that it possesses the form, quality, condition, and weight
demanded by the dealer in high-class mutton.
" Form. — The butcher demands the form that shows the most
development in the loin, back and leg of mutton. He demands
development in these regions because they are the parts from which
the high-priced cuts are secured. The animal should show a great
deal of depth and breadth and no tendency to be paunchy, for
paunchiness adds to the percentage of waste in slaughtering. The
prime lambs should present a general fullness and smoothness of
outline, both of which attributes indicate thickness and evenness of
flesh. There should be an absence of roughness, for the waste in
the dressing of the rough, ungainly lamb is large in proportion to
the carcass, and, furthermore, the appearance of the carcass of such
a lamb fails in attractiveness when .placed on exhibition in the
market. It is generally conceded that form is enhanced if the bo'dy is
QUALITY AND CONDITION 343
supported by short legs. However, many prime lambs have only
moderately short legs. Very long legs detract from the dressed
yield and from the appearance of the carcass when displayed, and
on this account lambs that are decidedly upstanding do not grade
as prime.
" Quality and Condition. — (1) General Quality. — The degree
of development in quality is one of the most important factors in
determining the value of fat lambs. General quality is indicated
by a medium-sized, clean-cut head, ears of fine texture, fine but
strong bone, a light pelt, and full, well-rounded outlines. All these
attributes suggest a freedom from that degree of coarseness which
adds to the waste in dressing, and from the unattractiveness which
works against the value of the carcass.
" Of the items of general quality enumerated, lightness of pelt
is the most essential. By pelt is meant the skin and wool combined.
With a light-weight pelt, the skin will be comparatively thin
and free from folds or wrinkles, and the wool not very dense or
oily. The only time when the heavier weight of pelt seems to be
favored is in the spring, when both shorn and unshorn sheep and
lambs are being marketed. During these months the difference in
price between shorn and unshorn lambs varies from seventy-five
cents to one dollar and twenty-five cents per hundredweight in
favor of the unshorn lambs. The amount of difference depends on
the condition of the wool market and the time in the season when
the lambs are slaughtered. The difference usually becomes less as
the hot weather approaches, because it is believed that the carcasses
of unshorn lambs deteriorate in quality on account of the discom-
fort the lambs suffer in hot weather from being left in their fleeces.
It should be remembered, however, that this discrimination in favor
of the heavier pelt holds only when shorn and unshorn sheep or
lambs are compared. Of two lambs in the wool, the one with the
lighter pelt is always preferred, provided they are equal in other
respects.
'( The question is often asked why sheep or lambs with heavy
pelts are discriminated against when they carry a greater weight of
wool than those with light pelts. This question arises naturally
because wool is worth a great deal more per pound than mutton,
and it would seem that lambs with heavy fleeces should be credited
with the greater amount of wool which they produce. In a large
packing plant the slaughtering department usually delivers pelts
344 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
having wool at about the same stage of growth to the wool pullery
department at a uniform price. Hence the department buying the
lambs does not discriminate in favor of those having heavy fleeces.
If the buyer for the packer were required to base his bids upon the
wool as well as the mutton yields his task would be greatly com-
plicated because, in estimating the yield of wool, he would be
obliged to determine how much of*the pelt was wool and how much
of it skin. Hence the packer instructs the buyer to be governed
chiefly by the percentage of marketable meat which the lamb will
yield and not by the combined product of mutton and wool.
"The weight of pelt may differ appreciably according to the
amount of foreign material and moisture in the wool. Should lambs
be very wet, buyers may refuse to bid on them until they become
nearly dry ; and if bids are made on lambs whose wool contains an
unusual percentage of moisture, the buyer attempts to allow for it
by the price he offers. Foreign material, such as mud, sand, or dung,
may be lodged in the wool, and in such case the buyer protects him-
self from loss by bidding less per pound for the animals than if their
wool were clean. Such bids usually work against the owner, and
hence it pays to market lambs in clean condition.
" Occasionally the general quality of lambs may be developed
to such a marked degree that they will sell as prime even though
they are somewhat deficient in form. A notable example is the fat
Mexican lamb. From the standpoint of form, the Mexicans arc not
especially attractive, since they have narrow, upstanding bodies and
long necks, but they are unequalled in fineness of features and light-
ness of pelt. Without their high development of general quality
they would not receive favorable consideration from buyers, but
because of it, when fat, they top the market.
"(2) Quality of Flesh and Condition.— The terms 'quality'
and ' condition ' are frequently used interchangeably on the market,
chiefly because the quality of the flesh of an animal is largely de-
pendent upon condition. By condition is meant degree of fatness.
The reasons why a lamb should be fat are: (a) other things being
equal, there will not be so high a percentage of offal as in the half-
fat or the thin lamb ; ( b ) the fat adds to the attractiveness of the
carcass and thus makes it more inviting to the purchaser; (c) the
comparatively fat carcass loses less in weight in the process of cool-
ing out in the refrigerator and also in cooking; (d) some fat on
the outside of the lean meat and a considerable amount deposited
WEIGHT 345
through it adds to its palatability by making it more juicy and of
better flavor.
" Desirable quality of flesh is indicated by firmness along the
back, at the loins ovei the sides and at the leg of mutton. ' Hard
as a board ' is a favorite phrase with many sheepmen to describe a
back having a desirable quality of flesh, but with this single idea
in mind bareness or lack of flesh might be mistaken for firmness
of flesh. While the flesh should have that firmness which would
seem hard to an inexperienced man, it should have just enough
springiness to yield slightly to the touch.
" It rarely happens that lambs are made too fat for the prime
grade, but very often they fail to grade as prime because they are
not fat enough. Because lambs are finished for market before they
have ceased growing, they do not have the tendency to lay on fat in
large, soft bunches at the rump and in rolls at the girth, and hence
it is difficult to carry them to the point of excessive fatness. The
development of fat essential to the prime lamb is indicated by a thick
dock, a full, mellow purse, thickness and smoothness on the back and
over the ribs, fullness at the neck and a plump well-filled breast.
" By merely looking at a lamb in the wool, one can not tell its
condition with exactness, and hence it is necessary to judge condi-
tion by placing the hands on the animal. Experts rely upon placing
the hand but once; for example, by spreading the hand so that the
back and ribs will be touched by one stroke, or by grasping the loin,
or by getting the thickness and fullness of the dock ; but none risk
their judgment upon sight alone. A great deal is determined by
the stroke that touches the back and ribs because it not only reveals
the condition as evidenced by the degree of smoothness present, but
also the amount and quality of the flesh by the thickness and firm-
ness of it. This stroke also aids in determining the kind of pelt a
lamb may have with respect to thickness of skin, density of wool,
and presence of foreign material.
" Weight. — Weight is a factor that varies somewhat with the
different seasons of the year, but, in general, the lamb of prime
quality and condition and weighing 80 pounds sells at the highest
price. When spring lambs first appear on the market they weigh
little more than 60 pounds; but if they have the quality and the
finish they easily command top prices. During the summer months,
when people are apt to eat less meat, consumers of mutton, as a rule,
desire small cuts, and this gives rise to a strong demand for lambs
346
MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
ranging in weight from. 65 to 70 pounds. There never is a time,
however, when lambs weighing 80 pounds will not sell as prime
provided they are prime in form, quality, and condition. Occasion-
ally native lambs showing the best form, quality, and condition, will
sell as prime lambs even though they reach 100 pounds in weight.
Such cases are exceptional, and no one could expect to market
lambs of this weight regularly and Always have them grade as prime.
" Quality and condition are of direct interest to the packer in
that they influence the percentage of marketable meat secured, but
FIG. 205. — Prime lambs, uniform, shapely, showing quality fat and tree from wrinkles.
weight is a factor regulated almost entirely by the consumer, who
may be very exacting if prices are high. It is believed that in the
combination of tenderness, juiciness, and flavor the flesh from the
lighter lamb is not superior to that of the heavier lamb. But in
making selections from the lighter carcass the average consumer
feels more fully assured that he is getting lamb and not mutton, and
the size of the cuts from the smaller carcass is more convenient
for his use.
"What has been said in the above discussion about the form,
quality, and condition of the prime lamb is in the main true of any
subclass of mutton sheep. Any animal that is markedly deficient in
either form, quality, or condition will not meet the demnads of the
THE COMMON GRADES
347
dealer in high-class mutton, and hence can not grade as prime"
(Figs. 205-208).
The Common Grades. — Animals in the common or cull grades
are nearly always very deficient in condition, as shown by lack of
covering over the back and ribs. Coarseness and overweight, as
frequently occurs with ram lambs, may cause them to be graded as
common lambs or culls. Wethers in medium to good condition,
but having heavy pelts and coarse features, may be graded as com-
mon. Advanced pregnancy in ewes as well as lack in condition or
quality may contribute toward placing them in the common grade
(Figs. 209-211).
FIG. 206. — Prime yearlings, tidy and not much larger than lambs.
The intermediate grades, choice, good, and medium, indicate
various degrees of deficiency in condition, quality, form, and weight.
Animals markedly deficient in either condition or quality rarely
grade higher than medium, but bad form unless accompanied by
paunchiness, is not so much discriminated against. Weight has a
variable influence in determining the grade. When the supply of a
certain class of sheep is not great enough to satisfy the demand it
does not have much influence, but if there is a plentiful supply its
influence is easily noticeable.
The desirable weights for the prime grades in the various sub-
classes of mutton sheep are lamibs, 55 to 85 pounds, according to
the time of year; yearlings, 70 to 90 pounds; wethers, 95 to 110
pounds, also 140 pounds; and ewes, 90 to 140 pounds.
348
MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
FEEDER SHEEP
349
The dressing percentage of animals in the prime grades of un-
shorn sheep ranges from 52 to 54 .per cent. Very fat animals will
dress out as much as GO per cent, of carcass to live weight, but
FIG. 208.— Prime ewes.
FIG. 209. — Common lambs.
Thin in flesh, not docked and castrated.
Station Bulletin 129.)
(From Illinois
when the dressed percentage is this high the mutton is too fat to be
used economically.
Feeder Sheep. — Condition or the amount of flesh is the one
thing which determines whether or not sheep belong in the feeder
class. When they are too thin to suit the needs of the packer they
350
MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
are classed as feeders, provided they are healthy western sheep and
not extremely coarse and advanced in age. Occasionally a few
FIG. 210.
FIG. 211.
FIG. 210. — Common wethers. Thin in flesh, heavy pelts. (From Illinois Station
Bulletin 129.)
FIG. 211. — Common ewes. Very thin in flesh. (From Illinois Station Bulletin 129.)
natives are taken out as feeders, but so rarely and in such small
numbers that they can not be listed as belonging to the feeder class.
CHOICE FEEDER LAMBS
351
Grades of Feeders.— --The grade to which a feeder sheep belongs
is determined by its form, quality, constitution, condition, and
weight. In all particulars except weight the following description
of a choice feeder lamb, taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 129,
FIG. 212. — Choice feeder lambs thrifty and free from coarseness.
Fia. 213. — Choice feeder lambs showing compactness and quality.
serves as a description of "choice animals in the other subclasses
(Figs. 212 and 213) :
" Choice Feeder Lambs. — Choice feeders, if properly managed,
will develop into choice and prime mutton lambs. Of all the grades
that generally come to the notice of buyers, this one is probably more
uniform than any other. In order to get a fixed standard from
which to make comparisons this grade is described in detail.
" What the buyer expects of choice feeders is the ability to finish
352 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
into prime or choice mutton lambs, and to produce gains at eco-
nomical figures. The selection of such lambs is based upon form,
quality, constitution . condition, and weight.
" Form, in Feeder Lambs. — In general, the form should be
deep, broad, well-knit, of medium length, and low-set. This con-
formation indicates early maturity, good constitution, capacity for
growth, and a likelihood of finishiflg into an attractive carcass with
a relatively high percentage of valuable cuts. Very leggy, gaunt,
narrow, loosely-made lambs usually fatten slowly and lack the
ability to make economical gains or to reach choice mutton finish.
The choice feeder should be of medium length rather than very
long or very short. Great length is usually attended with general
ungainliness and a tendency to finish slowly. Since lambs of this
conformation are usually very long in the coupling they lack, when
at their best, the compactness desired in the choice mutton lamb.
On the other hand, the unusually short lamb as a rule behaves on
feed as though it had been stunted. It is often fastidious in its
eating; it frequently presents a paunchy appearance and improves
but slightly during the feeding period. It has been said that choice
feeders should be low-set, but only a comparatively small number
of strong, western lambs have legs that would be termed short. In
making selections and keeping the other requisites in mind, the less
leggy type should be preferred.
" Quality of Feeder Lambs. — Quality is a very important con-
sideration in the selection of feeder lambs. It is characterized by a
medium-sized, clean-cut head; medium-sized ears; bone that is free
from coarseness at the joints; skin, thin and without folds or
wrinkles. A smooth skin without folds or wrinkles and carrying
wool of moderate weight is the most important requirement of desir-
able quality in feeder lambs. Lambs with heavy pelts are discrim-
inated against because they do not, as a rule, gain so rapidly as lambs
with smooth skins, and they never command top prices when re-
turned to the market fat, because the excessive weight of pelt
materially reduces the percentage of the dressed weight.
" Constitution of Feeders. — The conformation which indicates
a strong constitution is described above under form. A wide, deep
chest, fullness in the heart-girth, and depth and breadth of body
indicate sufficient space for well-developed vital organs, which means
a strong constitution. Another important point, which if not a
part of constitution is closely akin to it, is thrift. The intelligent
WEIGHT CONSIDERED IN FEEDERS
353
buyer of choice feeders rejects all lambs that appear in the least
unthrifty, such as lame ones and those inclined to lag behind when
the band is moving.
" Condition. — While it is understood that no grade of feeder
lambs is what we would call fat, choice lambs should be fairly full in
FIG. 214.
FIG. 215.
FIG. 214. — Common feeder lambs. Very thin, and unthrifty in appearance. (.From
Illinois Station Bulletin 129.)
FIG. 215. — Common feeder yearlings. Very heavy pelts which are objectionable in any
class of feeders. (From Illinois Station Bulletin 129.)
their outlines and without any suggestion of emaciation. Such
condition is of importance for two reasons : First, the exceedingly
thin lamb usually does not finish in a normal feeding period; and,
second, a lamb of this description often fails to make gains as
economically as those in higher condition.
" Weight to be Considered in Feeders. — The question of
23
354 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP
weight should receive consideration. Choice feeder lambs range in
weight from 55 to 62 pounds. Lambs weighing less than this are
regarded as either too young or too much retarded in growth to grade
as choice. It is expected of choice lambs that they will finish into
the most desirable weights in a normal feeding period, which is from
75 to 120 days, and hence the initial weight should not be much less
than 55 pounds."
In determining the proper form of a feeder sheep, it is not to
be expected that the amount of depth and breadth in proportion
to the length is to be as great as in the fat lamb, for high condition
adds materially to these dimensions.
Fancy selected feeder lambs (one grade higher than choice
lambs) are usually above 60 pounds in weight and lacking only
10 to 15 pounds to put them in prime condition for the mutton
class.
The Common Grades. — The following may cause feeder lambs
to grade as common : Lack of thrift, light weight (35 to 45 pounds),
extreme weight of pelt, and coarseness in features. Common feeder
yearlings are so heavy in pelt and heavy in weight that they may be
classed as wethers when fat. Common feeder wethers may be very
thin, advanced in age, coarse and pelty. Common feeder ewes are
very thin, and as a rule have defective teeth (Figs. 214 and 215).
Weights for the various subclasses of feeders are as follows :
Weights of Proper weight when returned
choice grades to the market as
of feeders mutton sheep
Lambs 55-65 Ibs. 80 Ibs.
Yearlings 65-70 Ibs. 85-90 Ibs.
Wethers 80-90 Ibs. 95-110 Ibs.
Ewes 70-80 Ibs. 1)5-100 Ibs.
Breeding sheep were discussed in the chapter on establishing the
commercial flock.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the important difference between mutton and feeder sheep?
2. What are the most important factors in determining the grade of a
mutton lamb?
3. What does the market mean by pelt?
4. Why are lambs preferred to older sheep?
5. What are yearlings?
6. How are they used in the mutton trade?
7. What grade is applied to the best mutton lamb? The worst?
CHAPTER XXXVIII
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SHEEP AND LAMB
FEEDING
Sheep and Lamb Feeding Conducted in Autumn and
Winter. — By far the greater part of sheep and lamb feeding is con-
ducted in the autumn and winter. There are two reasons for this.
One is that many persons are not prepared to feed except at this
time of year, the other is that feeder sheep and lambs are not
shipped from the range to the markets in large numbers until the
autumn months.
Feeder sheep and lambs reach the markets in largest numbers in
the autumn, because the moving of the sheep at this time from the
summer range in the mountains to the winter range on the plains
furnishes one of the best opportunities to dispose of surplus stock.
Often it is absolutely necessary to dispose of part of the stock being
moved out of the mountains on account of the winter range not
being sufficient to maintain all of it. Of the number which owners
are obliged to sell, a fair percentage is classed as feeders.
As a rule the autumn and winter are the best seasons for farmers
to feed sheep and lambs. At that time the general farm work does
not require so much attention and feeding can be followed to an
advantage because it furnishes a means for retaining the regular
force of laborers on the farm.'
Types of Sheep and Lamb Feeding. — The Dry Lot. — Feed-
ing altogether on harvested or stored feeds is commonly referred to
as dry-lot feeding. It is practiced in various places in the West, in
Michigan, and to a certain extent, in Ohio and New York. In
Michigan it is the common practice to place the sheep or lambs in
barns and keep them there continuously through the feeding period.
In other places the plan is frequently modified by providing a run in
an outside lot in addition to the shelter, and in the West, where the
fall and winters are usually dry, the animals are kept entirely in
open lots.
As a rule, Michigan feeders produce the necessary roughage and
store it in the barn where the feeding is to be done, but the greater
part of the concentrates required are purchased. Just what con-.
355
356 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
centrate is procured depends largely upon cost. Tons of salvage
are used (salvage is damaged grain, such as corn and wheat taken
from elevator fires), but corn of the better commercial grades is
frequently shipped in.
Those who feed entirely under shelter would prefer to finish two
different bands of sheep or lambs each season. If possible, they
would like to receive the first shipment soon enough in the fall to
be able to get it to market early in the new year. Then the second
shipment, which is always shorn before it leaves the barn, can come
in any time after the first has been shipped. Of late years the
scarcity of feeders has prevented many from feeding two bands in a
season. Instead, they have purchased the one shipment rather late,
fed them so as to produce a fair rate of gain, and have marketed
them after shearing. It is not an uncommon practice for Michigan
and other feeders east of Chicago, to buy the unfinished sheep and
lambs from the stalk fields further west. These are very suitable
for feeding late in winter and shearing before marketing.
Feeding under shelter has several advantages which other
methods lack. First, there is no waste of feed. Second, there is no
waste of manure. The latter, though overlooked hitherto by many
feeders, surely will not be disregarded much longer. Third, adverse
weather conditions are not so serious a matter where the feeding is
done under shelter. Fourth, certain types of feeders, such as little,
weak, cheap " peewee '? lambs can be handled, which could not be
used at all under any other method. An attempt to feed them in
the open would he an immense risk.
The disadvantage, if any, of feeding under shelter lies in the
cost of equipment.
First Over Fields and Then Under Shelter. — This is a type of
feeding practiced by those who have a great deal of land and who
produce nearly or quite all of their feed. They have a -great deal of
feed left in the fields which either could not be harvested or which
they do not see fit to harvest. By allowing the sheep to run on these
fields, at least a part of this feed is consumed and the cost of finish-
ing the animals is thereby lessened. When the weather turns bad
the sheep or lambs are brought to the barns and finished on the feeds
stored for the purpose.
Those who follow this method usually feed out but one shipment
of sheep or lambs in a year. Generally they ship back to market
.rather early, but they may keep the animals on the fields until late
and not market until after shearing time.
SPECIALIZED PLANTS
357
Feeding Altogether in Fields. — This plan is becoming more
and more widely practiced, but when it consists solely in feeding in
corn stalks, it is usually a failure. When sheep eat down corn in
which rape or soybeans are grown economical gains and prime finish
may.be secured, or if good pasture can be utilized in connection with
the corn, the feeding operation can be made successful (Fig. 216).
In feeding altogether in the fields, the feeding period may be
either short or long. A long period amounts really to a rather
FIG. 216. — Shceping down corn. Rape, soybeans, the clovers, or pasture grasses form good
supplements to use with the corn.
extended period of stocking through the winter and a short fattening
period in the spring.
Specialized Plants. — The feeding stations or accumulating
stations mentioned in the previous chapter, are to be classified
under specialized plants. In sucji places all the feeds are pur-
chased and the manure, instead of being hauled out on the land, is
put through a drying and pulverizing process and sold as com-
mercial fertilizer. Those who feed at the accumulating stations are
persons who either are attempting to do business as did the old-
time operator, or have started to feed at some other point and for
358 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
some reason have been obliged to move. Feeders in the far West
sometimes exhaust their supply of grain and then move up to the
accumulating stations for finishing.
There are also specialized plants quite different from the accumu-
lating station, of which the plants located at pea canning factories
are good examples. At the time the peas are canned, the pea hulls
and vines are made into silage by a very simple and inexpensive
process. No silo is needed, and all that is necessary is to stack them
neatly and tramp them well. The silage is unusually palatable to
sheep and lambs and when used with fattening concentrates and a
little dry roughage produces an excellent market finish.
Nature of the Business of Sheep Feeding. — Whoever under-
takes to feed sheep and lambs should realize that there is a hazard
in the business. In other words, both risk and chance are involved
in it to a certain extent. Risk arises from the probability of losses
during the feeding period and of low gains for the feed consumed.
Chance arises from the probability of high prices for feeders and of
low prices for fat sheep or lambs or vice versa. It is hardly fair,
however, to call- the businesss of sheep feeding purely speculative
when conducted by those who follow it regularly year after year.
But it is speculative when it is conducted by those who do not in-
tend to follow it up regularly, and who engage in it only because
they have an impression that the conditions surrounding it are such
as to assure large profits irrespective of the lack of skill with which
it is conducted.
It has often been said that the success of the feeding operation
depends largely upon buying well and selling well. By this is meant
that the selling price per hundredweight should be considerably
higher than the purchase price. Unless the market for feeders be
unusually low, no one can be reasonably sure of a much higher
market for fat sheep and lambs than for feeders. There are certain
indications, however, as to the future of the market which should
be studied. Some of these indications are as follows :
First, the number of feeder sheep and lambs that are being sent
to the country from the markets* If the supply of feeders seems to
be small it is more than likely that prices will be high both for
feeders and for fat sheep and lambs. Under such circumstances,
one should exercise caution in buying, and he should be reasonably
sure that the total supply of feeders is small before he makes his
purchase.
NATURE OF BUSINESS OF SHEEP FEEDING 359
Second, the supply of feed in the regions where feeding is done.
If there is a heavy supply of feed, prices are likely to be high for
feeders and low for the finished animals. Whenever there is an
abnormally large supply of feed inexperienced persons are inclined
to take up feeding. As a rule they are wanting in discrimination,
both in buying and in selling. They boost the prices for feeders
and depress the prices for fat sheep and lambs.
A large supply of feed does not necessarily indicate that one
should not engage in feeding. But it does indicate the need of
exercising care in buying and of planning to avoid the probable
weak spots on the market. If there is a hungry demand for feeders
to eat off a fall growth, it is probable that there will be a heavy run
back to market late in the autumn or early in the winter. In such
a season one should plan to market his animals late in the winter or
during the spring months.
Third, the supply of other meat animals. If there is a scarcity
of cattle or of swine, one may be reasonably sure of a good market
for sheep. This is not always a safe indication because some ab-
normal situation may exist which causes such a heavy marketing
of sheep as to be detrimental to prices.
Fourth, the price of wool. Undoubtedly high prices for wool
tend to stimulate the prices for fat sheep because the packer is
anxious to handle the wool of the sheep sent to slaughter. If the
prices of wool were low the prices offered for feeders would be some-
what lower.
Fifth, the general prosperity of the people. If the prosperity of
the people is threatened, prices for sheep and lambs are likely to be
on a low level. Owing to the flurry in Wall Street late in the
autumn of 1907, the prices for mutton and lamb were low through-
out the following winter. It has been said that mutton and lamb
are for the tables of the rich, but adverse financial conditions in-
dicate that they are also for the tables of the salaried and wage-
earning classes.
Sixth, the general level of meat prices. Meat can soar too much
in price. After it reaches a certain point, people begin to refuse to
buy and the result is a lowering of prices. The level of meat prices
is a consideration only for the very near future. That is, if one
should be feeding a band of lambs that is just about ready to
market, and should the market be growing stronger each week,
attaining higher and higher levels, it is best not to be too optimistic
360 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
as to the continuance of the rise, for so high a level may be reached
that people will refuse to buy.
Feeding a Fattening Process. — Before starting to feed sheep
or lambs one should fully realize that the object of the feeding
operation is to convert animals in thin flesh into a finished product
for slaughter. It would seem that no one would entertain any other
idea, but each year thousands of western sheep and lambs are turned
back to the large markets from corn-belt farms in unfinished con-
dition. In fact, many of these sheep and lambs must be resold as
feeders. Although many reasons can be given for this lack of finish,
experience has shown that many feeders are not impressed as they
should be by the importance of finish. They do not seem alive to
the fact that in order to sell well, their offerings must be well
fattened (Fig. 217).
Equipment for Feeding. — Supply of feed. Any one who is
contemplating the feeding of either sheep or lambs should make a
careful study of how well he is equipped to engage in the work. First
of all he should ascertain whether he has an adequate supply of the
proper kind of feed, both grain and roughage, to make his animals
fat. In case his supply of feed is not adequate he should know
definitely whether he can purchase it at a price that will justify his
using it in the feeding process. Lack of feed is one of the reasons
often given for so many sheep and lambs returning to the market in
unfinished condition. In the corn belt, particularly, too many per-
sons attempt to feed when they know they do not have enough
of the proper kind of roughage. Their supply is exhausted before
their sheep or lambs are finished and since concentrates alone can
not be used, the feeding operation is carried on at a loss. Attempts
to fatten on grass and roughages alone are rarely profitable because
in fall and winter the feeding of some concentrate feed is required
to make sheep or lambs fat. Therefore, it pays to look over the
supply of feed carefully, and make sure that one does not purchase
more sheep or lambs than he can finish to good advantage.
Bedding. — There is a variance of opinion as to the amount of
bedding required by fattening sheep. Many provide nothing but
the roughage waste. If there is a large quantity of this waste, it is
quite sufficient, but if there is not, extra bedding should be pro-
vided. To the Michigan feeder, however, who mows away all of his
straw for sheep feed it may seem like extravagant waste to use it for
bedding. But in regions where so much straw is wasted, it is good
SALT 361
economy to use it for bedding, because it will not only keep the
sheep in better condition, but it will serve its purpose better as a
fertilizer.
Water. — Fattening sheep or lambs need clean, wholesome water,
every day. In cold weather, lambs that are receiving nothing but
dry feeds will drink a half -gallon (four pounds) daily, and on warm
days they will drink much more. Care should be taken to keep the
watering troughs clean and sweet. The water can be kept in more
wholesome condition if the troughs are located out of doors, but if
FIG. 217. — This man, who is sorting out the fat sheep to send to market, realizes that
feeding is a fattening process.
this is done, some provision has to be made to keep it from freezing.
Salt. — All sheep kept on feeds that are produced in the Middle
West and East crave salt. The reason for this is that there is not
enough of this mineral in the feeds to satisfy the demands of the
body for it. Salt may be given periodically, say twice a week, or it
may be kept before the sheep all the time. As a rule the latter is the
better practice, as it more nearly insures that the animals will get
all the salt they need. But it should not lie kept before them con-
stantly until they have become accustomed to it. Cases have been
reported of sheep and lambs dying because of their almost constant
362 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
consumption of salt. Such cases do not seem to be numerous, but
should a few animals in a band Have a craving for salt which cannot
be satisfied it would be better to feed it periodically.
Sheds and Lots. — Suitable feeding grounds and sufficient
shelter are of importance in successful sheep and lamb feeding.
Practically all feeders emphasize the need of having dry, well-
drained feeding grounds. Sheep dislike mud. A prominent Illinois
farmer who has been successful in feeding sheep and lambs for the
past fifteen or twenty years has made the statement that rather than
let a band of lambs wade through a muddy gateway, he would make
a passage for them by tearing down a section of fence where it is
not muddy.
Opinions differ as to the value of shelter for sheep and lambs on
feed in regions where the fall and winter climate is variable. A few
advocate no shelter whatever, while others maintain that the feeding
process is more profitable if conducted entirely under shelter. Still
others, in fact the majority, take the intermediate position, which is
that sheep and lambs should be provided with enough shelter to
protect them from storms, but that in fair weather they should be
allowed to run in lots or in fields. Those who believe shelter is not
essential to successful feeding usually have some natural protection,
such as timber or hills to which the animals may go during stormy
periods. With the aid of this protection they endure all but the
worst storms without going back in condition, and many a band
of western sheep and lambs has been made fat in the Middle West
without having had access to shelter.
Shelter is essential to the most successful feeding. There are
seasons when persons who have the best natural protection find it
hard to handle their sheep and lambs because of the frequent and
long storm periods. At such times, these men would be much better
equipped if they had sufficient shelter to house the animals on feed.
There is a saying common on the Chicago market to the effect that
farmers will start shipping half-fat sheep and lambs when the first
snow flies, which means that they attempt to do their feeding in the
cornstalks and are not adequately equipped with shelter. Daily
reports of the livestock markets have frequently called attention to
the fact that sheep and lambs from the cornstalks in the Middle
West have been returned to market in lower condition than they were
when they were sold out as feeders. No stronger statement can be
made to indicate that such a practice is unprofitable, and perhaps no
SHEDS AND LOTS 363
stronger statement can be made to emphasize the fact that in general
shelter should be provided for feeder sheep and lambs wherever the
climate is variable.
If the shelter is constructed for no other purpose than for hous-
ing fattening sheep, it need not be of an expensive type. From five
to seven square feet, exclusive of space for racks, should be allotted
2ep feeding shed at feeding yards, Kirkland, Illinois.
FIG. 219. — A suitable trough for feeding sheep.
to each sheep and the chief consideration should be to provide a
shelter that is dry and well-ventilated. There is no need of extra
effort to make it warm (Fig. 218).
If outside lots are desired they should be located adjacent to the
sheds or barns in order to prevent the sheep from taking needless
exercise. These lots should be well drained, free from mud and not
very large. It is a good plan to bed them deep with stalks or straw
in order to keep a clean footing. The writer recalls an instance
364 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
where sheep were given a run to an outside paved lot. In rainy
weather this lot was hard to handle because the dung, soon after it
was dropped, became a semi-liquid mass which was injurious to the
feet of the sheep. It is inadvisable to provide large lots because
the sheep will take too much exercise and there is a great loss of
manure. About the only useful function of the lots is to furnish
an outlet for the sheep and thus\eep the barns more nearly free
from the strong odors which tend to depress the appetite of the
animals.
Troughs and Racks. — It is advantageous to use troughs and
racks that can be kept clean, for sheep and lambs will rarely eat
dirty feed. They are especially averse to consuming feed befouled
by dung. Many feeders, knowing that sheep prefer to eat clean
feed out of clean troughs, locate the troughs for grain outside the
barns or sheds. Sometimes they are located in a lot in which the
sheep are not allowed to run except at feeding time. In this way
the feeding place for grain is kept clean and appetizing. It is said
that certain successful feeders in Ohio wash the grain troughs occa-
sionally with lime water in order to keep them free from odors
disagreeable to sheep (Fig. 219).
Both troughs and racks should be constructed so that sheep
cannot get into them with their feet. In nearly every band of
feeders there are a few animals that desire to stand in the troughs
and racks while they eat. It is needless to say that they would soil
a great deal of feed if they could realize this desire.
Length of Feeding Period. — The age, weight, and condition
of the animals to be fed are factors which should be taken into
consideration in determining the length of the feeding period. As
a rule it does not pay to keep sheep or lambs on harvested or
stored feeds for a long period. Yet there are justifiable exceptions
to this statement. If the feeder has a supply of feed of rather low
grade, he may find it profitable to produce gains at a slow rate and
to keep his sheep a long time. Those who buy little, weak lambs
have no other alternative than a long feeding period; yet good
profits have been made with such lambs by those equipped with com-
fortable shelter and nutritious feeds. In general, however, the
motto of feeders who follow the dry-lot method is large daily gains
and rapid finish. They finish wethers in from 30 to 70 days;
yearlings in from 40 to 80 days, and lambs io rfnm 75 to 120 days.
In case a large number of animals are being fed, some of them
FIRST STEPS IN FEEDING 365
may be sorted out and sent to market in 25 or 30 days after the
feeding period begins. This is possible because all of the feeders
purchased are rarely if ever in the same condition, and it requires
but a few pounds of gain to make some of them ready for the
mutton market. If there are enough of them to make one or more
carloads, and if the market is satisfactory, it is better to market
them before the thinner animals are ready to go.
First Steps in Feeding. — Sheep and lambs should receive very
close attention for the first two or three days after they arrive at
the place of feeding. The reason for this is that, as a rule, they
have been through several days of rather rough treatment while
en route to the market and passing through it. During this time
they may not have had enough feed to satisfy their appetite and
perhaps not enough water to quench their thirst. Care should be
taken not to allow them to rush to the watering troughs and drink
all they can hold; it is better to allow them to drink a little every
few hours until their thirst is satisfied. In dry weather it is a good
plan to scatter the first feed on the ground. In case it is advisable
to feed from racks, there should be sufficient space to accommodate
all of the animals and the feed should be in place before they are
turned in. If these precautions are not taken the sheep are likely to
" pile up " in their anxiety to get to the feed and, as a result, some
of them may be smothered.
Xothing but dry roughage should be given at first. Succulent
feed is likely to cause scours, and western sheep and lambs are not
accustomed to a large amount of grain.
There is practically no danger in giving feeder sheep and lambs
all the choice roughage they will eat as soon as they arrive at the
place of feeding. Alfalfa hay may prove an exception because a
large quantity of it causes scours and occasionally bloat.
The chief problem in getting sheep or lambs on feed in the dry
lot or in the fields, is to get them accustomed to feeds which are
entirely new to them and which may cause physical disorders if not
fed with caution. Clover hay may be entirely new to them — it
usually is — but fortunately they may eat all they want of it from
the very first. On the other hand, all heavy concentrates, except
linseed oil meal fed in cool weather, must be fed in small or at
least moderate quantities at first and gradually increased. Nor is
it advisable to feed corn silage in large amounts until the animals
have become accustomed to it.
366
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
The following tabulation from unpublished data at the Illinois
Station indicates the daily amount of feed that was given per lamb
in each week of the feeding period. It also serves to show about
how fast feeds should be increased. Too much caution was taken
in the amount of corn and silage given in the first two weeks, as the
lambs lost when they should have gained in weight. At the begin-
ning of the experiment the average weight of the lambs was 65
pounds.
Changes in Rations for feeding period of Seventeen Weeks.
Sample Ration No. 1
Sample Ration No. 2
Week
Shelled
corn
Clover
hay
Water
Daily
gain
Shelled I Corn
corn ' silage
Clover
hay
Water
Daily
gain
Ibs.
Ibs.
It*.
/6s.
Ibs. ' /6s.
<bs.
/6s.
/6s.
1
.22
.70
2.85
.15
.20
.32
1.43
2.38
.38
2
.45
.70
3.43
.05
.40
80
1.24
2.19
.14
3
.78
.35
3.37
.34
.36
18
1.06
2.79
.34
4
.81
.39
3.68
.05
.75
.03
1.00
2.89
.11
5
.96
.37
4.12
.23
.83
.29
1.05
3.25
.25
6
.06
.26
4.09
.25
.94
.50
.94
3.47
.32
7
.19
.14
3.96
.34
1.06
.75
.92
3.27
.57
8
.36
.03
4.55
.29
1.06
.98
.72
3.66
.29
9
.38
.02
4.36
.16
.06
2.00
.69
3.45
.23
10
.47
.96
4.14
.39
.13
2.38
.56
3.70
.59
11
.59
.98
6.17
.43
.22
2.63
.51
4.51
.41
12
.71
.98
4.82
.45
.34
2.63
.52
4.47
.39
13
.81
.97
5.45
.54
.44
2.63
.43
4.38
.41
14
.81
.97
4.96
.21
.44
2.44
.51
3.10
.27
15
.82
.94
2.90
.14
.48
2.63
.55
2.58
.68
16
.71
.93
5.13
.54
.63
2.61
.52
4.08
.27
17
.87
.93
5.45
.36
1.63
2.63
.53
3.95
.38
Increasing Feed. — Emphasis has already been placed on the
fact that certain feeds should be fed in small quantity at the
beginning of the feeding period and then gradually increased. If
possible, the increases should be made on clear, cool days. It is on
such days that the appetite of sheep or lambs is keenest; hence they
will eat an increased amount of feed with more relish than at any
other time. Warm weather and great humidity have a depressing
effect upon the appetite of sheep. If they are on full feed at such
times it is frequently necessary to reduce the amount of the ration.
When are sheep or lambs on full feed? Sheep or lambs which
are fed by hand may be considered on full feed when they fail to eat,
within a few minutes, all of the concentrate part of their ration.
They have more roughage than they should be fed when they leave
IMPORTANCE OF EVEN CONDITIONS 367
any considerable amount that is edible. This applies to the more
palatable roughages, such as clover hay, alfalfa, and corn stover.
What is known as the self-feeder method was generally used by
the old-time operators and it is still employed in many large feeding
plants. With this method the sheep or lambs are on full feed almost
from the beginning of the feeding period. The system is carried
out as follows : A large quantity of feed is placed in racks or feed
boxes to which the animals have free access. Hence they may have
all they will eat. The feed is usually, but not always, a mixture
of concentrates and chaffed roughage. At the beginning of the
feeding period, the proportion of roughage is much greater than the
concentrates. As the feeding period advances this proportion is
changed gradually until the amount of concentrates becomes greater.
Manner of Giving the Ration. — Where hand-feeding is prac-
ticed, the concentrates should be fed first because that part of the
ration should be eaten in a few minutes. After the concentrates
should come the succulent feed, if any is being used, and finally the
roughage. If combination grain and hay racks are being used, the
succulent feed may be placed in the troughs and the hay or dry
roughages in the racks. Then the sheep or lambs may take their
time in consuming the feeds. If there is danger of freezing, how-
ever, it is best to give the succulent feed some time before the
roughage is placed in the racks.
Feed regularly and twice each day. If the animals receive their
feed at a set time, they remain quiet and contented at all other times.
It is better to give all feeds twice each day, because in this way
there is less chance to gorge the stomach with any one feed. This is
true particularly of all concentrates and to a certain extent of corn
silage. Because of the succulent nature of silage it may be advisable
to feed it three times a day. If more than one dry roughage is being
fed it may be just as well, and perhaps advisable for the sake of con-
venience, to feed one in the morning and the other in the evening.
Since most of the feeding is done in the winter when the days
are short there may be a tendency on the part of the feeder vto feed
before daylight. If other work about the place does not make it
necessary, this should not be done. Sheep or lambs will lie at rest
until daybreak if not aroused, and their rest should be disturbed as
little as possible.
Importance of Even Conditions. — Because the rest of fatten-
ing sheep or lambs should be disturbed as little as possible, their
368 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING
quarters should be kept in the same condition each day with respect
to noise. Many expert shepherds insist on quiet surroundings for
the sheep under their care. And they have good reason for doing
so, but it is better to move about in the barn in a straightforward,
deliberate manner than to tiptoe cautiously about. Unusual noises
and circumstances are what cause sheep to jump to their feet and
stampede to the opposite side of fhe barn or lot.
Animals " Off Feed." — In spite of good care, good feeds, and
good water, fattening sheep or lambs will go " off feed v occasionally.
If a large percentage of the animals are indifferent towards their
feed it is advisable to reduce immediately the amount of feed, it
being often advisable to omit entirely the concentrate part of the
ration for one or two feeds. In case a few refuse to eat for two or
three successive feedings, they should be placed in a pen by them-
selves and drenched with three ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in
water. Use just enough water to get the salts into a solution. Al-
though only a few may refuse to eat, it is usually advisable to reduce
the quantity of concentrates being fed to the main flock for at least
two or three feeds.
QUESTIONS
1. Why do feeder sheep and lambs reach the market in largest numbers
in the fall?
2. What is the purpose of sheep feeding?
3. What must one take into consideration when starting in the business
of feeding?
4. What things would you conbuu i in trying to determine a future
market ?
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of feeding in a dry lot.
0. Is there any advantage of first feeding in the fields and then finishing
in the dry lot?
7. What kind of shelter is needed to protect the feeder sheep?
8. What is the variation in length of the feeding period for lambs?
9. How would you start the sheep or lambs on feed?
10. What is the chief problem of starting them directly in the dry lot?
11. Discuss a method of increasing the feed.
12. When are sheep and lambs on full feed?
13. How would you proceed if the sheep or lambs get "off feed"?
CHAPTER XXXIX
SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
AND ECONOMY OF GAIN IN FATTENING
SHEEP AND LAMBS
The Effect of Age. — On Rate of Body Development. — The
rate of growth in sheep decreases as they approach maturity.
Senequier,1 in investigating the body development of ten ewes of
the milking breed of Larzac, observed that the most rapid increase
in weight was during the first two months, and three-fourths of
the increase was made during the first year. During the second
year the rate of gain was slower and it was still slower from the
twenty-fifth month to maturity. The weight at two months was
about one-third of the average weight at maturity; at the fifth
month, one-half; between the sixth and seventh months, two-
thirds; and between the eighth and ninth months, three-fourths
of the adult weight. They were considered mature at the comple-
tion of the second dentition, which was reached at from thirty-
eight to forty-one months.
Fattening Sheep of Different Ages. — Lambs of feeder age
(above five months) and in feeder condition gain somewhat more
rapidly in weight and make considerably more economical use
of feed than do older sheep. But since they grow as well as fatten,
they require a little longer feeding period and a ration containing
a higher percentage of protean. As compared with yearlings and
wethers, they are not so well adapted to handling coarse feeds and
feeds in slightly damaged condition, although it is seldom good
policy to give feed of poor quality — as musty or mouldy feed-
to any class of fattening sheep. Lambs also require a little more
careful supervision than do yearlings and wethers, for they are
more likely to go " off feed/' and they are not quite so well adapted
to running in the open without shelter.
As a rule, feeders who are properly equipped' with shelter and
feed, prefer to handle lambs because they not only ma.ke more gain
1 " Ahnales Agronomiques " 21, 1885, No. 9.
24 369
370 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
from, a given weight of feed, but they sell better as a prime product.
That is, one year with another, the margin on prime lambs is
likely to be greater than the margin on the prime grade of older
sheep. Feeder lambs cost more per hundredweight than do yearlings
and wethers, but in cases where the margin between cost and
selling price is the same, the higher cost is an advantage.
Yearlings and wethers, provided the latter are not greatly
advanced in age, are about the same in their rate of gain and in
the amount of feed they use to produce a pound of gain. Both
are well adapted to making use of rations rather low in protein.
At the Illinois Station the writer fed a lot of yearlings for 84
days on corn, corn silage, and oat straw, that made almost as much
gain and were judged to be equal in market iinish to a lot fed
corn, corn silage, and alfalfa hay.
Care must be exercised in feeding yearlings, for they Avill
sell as wethers if they are mad'e too heavy for the mutton yearling
class, or if they become too mature to break at the epiphyseal
cartilage (break joint) when they are slaughtered.
Only a few feeder yearlings and wethers can be purchased
on the open market. They have largely disappeared because in
many places in the West where wethers were kept, sheep hus-
bandry has been superseded by other types of agriculture, and in
many other places in the West, conditions have changed so that
breeding ewes are regarded as more profitable than wethers, There
is a demand and hence a market for yearling and wether mutton,
but in times of normal supply they are not logical mutton products,
for if everything goes well so that the wether lamb is a fit product
for mutton, it should be sold before it passes out of the lamb class.
Old ewes make very good use of feed if their teeth are
in good condition, but if they cannot masticate their food well,
they must receive close attention. Their grain should be ground
and their roughage should be of good quality. In Colorado it has
been found that they make good use of beet pulp, and undoubtedly
silage would serve well as one of the roughages in their ration.
The following data obtained by Shaw at the Montana Station 2
show the results of fattening sheep of different ages. Particular
attention should be given to the amount of hay each class consumed
daily for a period of 88 days.
2Montana Station Bulletin 35.
THE INFLUENCE OF SEX
371
Fattening Sheep of Different Ages.
Animals
Initial
weight
Feed per head per day
Gain per
head per
day
Ibs.
.27
.27
.28
.177
Feed required for one
pound gain
Barley
Clover hay
Grain
Hay
Lambs
Ibs.
63
95
116
92
Ibs.
.68
.68
.68
.68
Ibs.
2.05
3.77
4.05
2.33
Ibs.
2.53
2.56
2.48
3.86
Ibs.
7.63
14.15
14.67
13.18
1 year wethers . .
2 year wethers . .
Aged ewes
The writer,3 in a study of the effect of age and weight on the
rate and economy of gains, fed three lots of native lambs for a period
of 98 days. The results are given in the following table :
Rate and Economy of Gains with Lambs of Different Weights.
Average feed con-
Feed required for
Age at
sumed daily
one pound gain
Lot
beginning
of experi-
ment
(months)
Initial
weight
Average
daily
gain
Concen-
trates
Grain,
Corn 4
parts; oats
Clover
hay
Clover
hay
1 part
Lambs :
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
1-10
8.5
95.4
1.71
2.25
.28
6.0
8.0
2-10
7.0
77.9
1.59
2.06
.28
5.6
7.3
3-10
5.5
62.6
1.39
1.57
.30
4.6
5.6
The Influence of Sex. — Sex is a consideration chiefly in feeding
lambs as this is the only class in which ewes and wethers are
placed together. Wether lambs are inclined to gain a little faster
than ewes, but since the ewes are slightly superior in general quality,
they attain market finish quite as soon as the wethers and sell for
as much per hundredweight. Both sexes are practically the same
in the consumption of feed.
Carcasses from wethers are slightly thicker in lean meat than
those from ewes, but in the general meat trade no distinction is
made between ewe and wether lamb mutton.
Mature wethers usually sell for more per hundredweight than
ewes because they dress out a higher percentage of carcass to live
weight and their carcasses are somewhat more shapely.
3 Thesis — Illinois Agricultural College.
372
FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
The following comparison between wether and ewe lambs fed
for a period of 90 days is taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 167 :
Comparison of Wether and Ewe Lambs as to Feed Consumed and Gains Made.
Proportion
of corn to
hay •
Shelled
corn
per head
Alfalfa hay
per head
Gain
per head
Fed alike:
Lot 1( 20 wethers)
Lot 5 (20 ewes) . . .
1:0.99
1: 1.00
Ibs.
111.6
110.4
Ibs.
110.4
110.4
Ibs.
27.05
27.14
Fed alike:
Lot 2 (20 wethers)
Lot 6 (20 ewes)
1:1.36
1: 1.34
- 94.3
93.5
127.7
125.3
24.22
22.05
The Influence of Shearing. — Where good housing facilities
have been available, shearing before the fattening period has be-
come far advanced has been extensively practiced chiefly for the
purpose of stimulating the appetite and increasing the rate of gain.
This practice undoubtedly increases the appetite, but it does not
materially increase the rate of gain unless the animals are made
more comfortable by removing the fleece. When the barn is large
and the system of ventilation such that cold draughts can be
avoided, a large number of sheep crowded in close will probably
be more comfortable out of the fleece even in cold weather. But
it seldom pays to shear when the weather is cold except under such
circumstances as the necessity of getting more sheep into the shelter
available or of getting rid of ticks.
If the feeding period advances into the spring months, after
the weather has become warm enough to make sheep in the fleece
uncomfortable, then it will pay to shear, for the rate of gain will
be considerably increased.
It may pay to shear just before marketing. More sheep can be
placed in a car, and if the margin between clipped and undipped
sheep is small, some money may be made by removing the fleeces.
But before proceeding to do it, the feeder should be sure that a good
weight of desirable wool will be secured, and he should know
something of how to dispose of it.
Self-feeders.— -When the practice of feeding western sheep and
lambs first began, nearly all of the large operators used self-feeders
and they are still used in various places. Whether or not the self-
PROPORTION OF GRAIN AND ROUGHAGE 373
feeder can be successfully employed depends upon the nature oi'
ohe feed to be used. Chaffed or finely cut roughage mixed with
the concentrates serves to lighten the ration and when this is done
good results are generally secured. Feeders who use mill screen-
ings begin the feeding period with light screenings; that is, those
containing a proportionately large amount of straw and chaff;
then as the period advances, they gradually work up to the heaviest
type of screenings they can secure, and frequently they mix in
some ground corn. Usually roughage of some sort is available in
separate racks.
Where large numbers are fed, the self-feeder undoubtedly saves
labor, and shortens the feeding period, but the losses are usually
greater, and experiments show that more feed is required to pro-
duce a hundred pounds of gain where the self-feeder is used than
where the feed is given in definite quantities twice a day. After
60 or 70 days on the self-feeder, sheep and lambs tend to go
"off feed."
In order to feed corn and alfalfa in self-feeders it would be
necessary to grind the corn, chaff the hay, and mix them. The
cost of doing all this would be almost or quite as great as the cost
of feeding twice daily and the amount of gain from the feed
consumed would be less. Therefore, the use of the self-feeder IP
not advisable where the cost of preparing the feed is an item of
considerable expense.
Proportion of Grain and Roughage. — Sheep are regarded as
animals unusually well adapted to the consumption of roughage
and even in the process of fattening they can make economical
use of relatively large quantities of it. But the attempts that have
been made to fatten entirely on dry roughage have not resulted in
producing enough finish to satisfy the demands of the market.
On the other hand, when an attempt is made to feed entirely
on concentrates, the animals go "off feed/5 and if roughage is
not supplied serious digestive disorders develop. The digestive
tract of the sheep is adapted to bulky feed, therefore roughage
cannot be dispensed with. It is possible, however, successfully to
vary the proportion of concentrates and roughage in the ration
of fattening sheep and lambs. This is a matter of importance,
for in some seasons the supply of grain is relatively large while in
others the opposite situation exists. Then, there are regions where
the supply of the best of roughage always overbalances the supply
374
FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
of grain and the problem in fattening consists in determining how
little grain can be used with hay supplied ad libitum.
In fattening lambs at the Illinois Station/ the writer found
that it was possible in a period of 98 days to feed 100 pounds of
corn to every 8G pounds of alfalfa ha}r. This ration produced
a prime market finish and was satisfactory in all respects except
that it required close watching af times to keep the lambs from
going " off feed." In the first third of the feeding period, 100
pounds of corn was fed to every. 157 pounds of hay; in the last
third, 100 pounds wa^ fed to every 66 pounds of hay. In a period
of 90 d'ays it was not possible to get lambs fed 100 pounds of
corn to every 242 pounds of hay in choice market condition. The
gains made seemed to be more in the nature of growth than of fat.
But lambs fed 100 pounds of corn to every 203 pounds of hay
for a period of 98 days were graded as prime.
The table which follows gives further details of these experi-
ments on the proportions of corn and alfalfa hay for fattening
lambs as reported in Illinois Station Bulletin 167.
Average Feed, Gain Per Lamb Per Day, and Feed Required Per Pound Gain
(All weights expressed in pounds)
Eroportion
of corn to
Lot hay
Average
corn per lamb
per day
Average
alfalfa hay per
lamb per day
Gain per
lamb per day
Corn required
for one pound
gain
Alfalfa hay
required for
one pound
gain
corn hay
Experiment No. 1. — Feeding period 90 days, Oct. 23 to Jan. 20. Twenty
wether lambs in each lot. Approximate initial weight per lamb, 69 pounds.
1 1:0.99
1.24
1.22
.300
4.12
4.08
2 1:1.36
1.05
1.41
.269
3.89
5.27
3 1:2.42
.71
1.71
.216
3.27
7.91
4 1:3.45
.54
1.87
.203
2.66
9.18
Experiment No. 2. — Feeding period 98 days, Feb. 19 to May 27. Twenty
wether lambs in each lot. Approximate initial weight per lamb, 65 pounds.
1 1 : 0.86
1.36
1.17
.331
4.11
3.53
2 1:1.31
1.14
1.49
.320
3.56
4.66
3 1:2.03
.88
1.78
.294
2.99
6.06
The Form in Which Feeds Should Be Given.— The grinding
or crushing of grain does not materially improve it as a feed for
4See table on this page.
FORM IN WHICH FEEDS SHOULD BE GIVEN 375
fattening sheep and lambs having sound teeth. Apparently the
reason for this is that the sheep so thoroughly masticates its feed
that very little of it passes into the stomach without being pre-
pared for the various processes of digestion. It may be of some
advantage to grind very small or unusually hard seeds if the grind-
ing does not make them less palatable. Faville 5 in feeding bald
or hulless barley to lambs noticed that some of it was passed undi-
gested ; and Cochel at the Kansas Station secured a given amount
of gain from less feed with ground kafir than with whole kafir corn.
Grinding seems to reduce rather than increase the palatability
of grain. If not consumed soon after grinding it is likely to
become rancid or musty, and even if it is fresh it is usually not eaten
with so much relish as whole grain because it gets into the nostrils
and also forms a pasty mass inside the mouth. Cooke 6 found the
latter to be an objection to ground bald barley.
A heavy grain like corn should be ground when it is to be
mixed with lighter feeds and1 placed in self-feeders. If whole
corn were mixed with chaffed hay or with wheat screenings, it is
possible for the animals to sort out the corn and leave the other
feed., or vice versa. Even when whole corn and whole oats form
a mixture, it is possible for the animals, to take one and leave
the other.
Under the conditions in which most sheep feeding is done,
corn is most convenient to use when it is in the shelled form,, but
it can be used as ear corn, shock corn, or ground corn. When it
forms the sole concentrate in the ration, grinding never improves
its feeding value for sheep able to masticate it. When fed as
corn-and-cob meal, the cob replaces a little hay, but the total
feeding value of the corn is reduced. Ear corn is as- efficient
as sihelled corn for producing gain, hut when feeding in lots or
sheds it is difficult to keep the sheep from wasting feed by dropping
some of the ears on the ground and there is a tendency for the
ears to roll up and bunch up so that there is an unequal distribution
of feed in the troughs. Shock corn is better suited to feeding on
grass sod than in barns or lots. When placed in racks the ears
are likely to be very unevenly distributed.
At the Illinois Station the writer conducted an experiment in
5Wyoming Station Bulletin 103.
6 Colorado Station Bulletin 40.
376
FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
which clover hay and corn in various forms were fed for a period
of 98 days to lambs weighing 65 pounds. The results are shown
in the following table:
Methods of Preparing Corn for Fattening Lambs.
Lot Average ration
Daily gain
Feed for 100 Ibs. gain
Corn
Roughage
1 Ear corn, 1.6 Ibs.; clover hay, 1.3 Ibs
2 Shelled corn, 1.3 Ibs.; clover hay, 1.3 Ibs.. .
3 Ground corn, 1.3 Ibs.; clover hay, 1.3 Ibs. . .
4 Corn-and-cob meal, 1.5 Ibs.; clover hav,
1 2 Ibs
Ibs.
0.293
0.295
0.264
0.264
0.247
/6s.
439*
432
483
489*
23
Ibs.
453
449
505
475
406
l,lllt
5 Shelled corn, 0.06 lb.; clover hay, 1.0 lb.;
shock corn, 2.7 Ibs
* Reduced to shelled corn basis.
t Shock corn, containing 53 per cent of ears.
The widely-used protein concentrates, linseed oil meal and
cottonseed meal, are in more convenient form to use with whole
grain if they can be secured in the form of what is known as pea-
size cake. They are also more palatable in this form because they
do not get in the nostrils or become sticky in the mouths of the
animals.
Roughages. — Most roughages should be fed in the form in
which they are harvested and stored. Coarse, stemmy hay may
be consumed with less waste if it is cut or chaffed. Should bloating
result from the use of alfalfa the trouble may be obviated by
cutting or chaffing the hay. Shredding or cutting corn stover makes
it more convenient to feed in racks, but if it is shredded there is
some danger of indigestion from eating the pith in the stalks.
The economical use of roughage depends mainly upon feeding
no more of it than the sheep want, and in having racks that will pre-
vent it from being wasted. In feeding choice clover or alfalfa,
there is no need of wasting any hay, but as a rule the more or less
unpalatable roughages such as oat and wheat straw can not be
fed up so closely.
Succulent Feeds. — Silage. — Sheep utilize silage to best advan-
tage when the corn plant is cut very fine. Tn making the silage, all
of the knives should be in the cutter and they should be kept sharp.
The use of mouldy and frozen silage should be avoided.
DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FATTENING RATION
377
Roots, such as turnips and mangels, should be cut or chopped
before they are placed in the troughs, for if fed in the whole form,
they roll about, and in cold weather they are likely to freeze
before they are eaten.
Condition of Feed. — Mouldy, musty, and frozen feeds should
not be given to fattening sheep because they are likely to cause
serious digestive disturbances. But salvage (grain damaged in
elevator fires) is frequently used by experienced feeders. Stack-
burned clover and alfalfa hay, although lower in feeding value than
sound hay, have been found to be very palatable and useful.
The Digestible Nutrients in the Fattening Ration. — The
digestible nutrients in a ration made by properly combining corn
and legume hay represent what is commonly regarded as the
standard requirement for fattening sheep and lambs. A ration
of this sort produces about three-tenths of a pound gain per sheep
per day and puts the animal in prime condition in 80 to 100 days.
The following table compiled from Illinois Station Bulletin 167
indicates the digestible nutrients in rations made by combining
corn and alfalfa hay in different proportions. These rations were
fed for a period of 98 days to lambs with an initial weight of 65
pounds, and since the lowest daily gain per lamb was 294 thou-
sandths of a pound, each ration was satisfactory for the purpose of
fattening.
Digestible Nutrients in Each Day's Ration.
Average feed per day
Digestible nutrients per day
Lot
Corn
Alfalfa hay
Protein
Carbohy-
drates and
Nutritive
ratio
Daily gain
per Iamb
fat*
Ibs.
Ibt.
Ibs.
Ibs.
1
1.36
1.17
.258
1.651
1:6.4
.33
2
1.14
1.49
.281
1.641
1:5.8
.32 -
3
.88
1.78
.290
1.460
1:5.0
.29
* Fat reduced to carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying by 2%.
The lower rate of gain in Lot 3 as compared with Lot 1 was
in all probability due to the greater amount of roughage and
the smaller amount of grain in the ration rather than to the pro-
portionate amounts of protein and carbohydrates and fat. In fact,
various experiments tend to show that the rate of gain is slightly
increased when the corn and legume hay combination is supple-
378 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
merited so that a nitrogenous concentrate such as linseed oil meal
or cottonseed meal forms about 15 per cent of the concentrate part
of the ration.
Apparently sheep are adapted to making good use of compara-
tively large quantities of protein. At the Illinois Station, Carroll 7
fed three lots of lambs from the time they were old enough to eat
grain until they were about ten months old as follows :
Concentrates ~\ Roughage
Lot 1, Corn 50 per cent; linseed oil meal 50 per cent ( Alfalfa in green
Lot 2, Corn 75 per cent; linseed oil meal 25 per cent [ ,to
Lot 3, Corn 95 per cent; linseed oil meal 5 per cent ) ary *
The lambs given the largest quantity of protein were the heaviest
and they were thrifty in every respect. But owing to the high
price of linseed oil meal, the cost of growth was greater than in
the lots where more corn was consumed.
The Lemar Brothers of South Omaha, Nebraska, after years
of experience in feeding lambs on a large scale have come to use
a ration composed of linseed oil meal and prairie hay. The oil
meal is placed in self-feeders and the lambs are brought in direct
from the market and' allowed to eat all they want. After about
two weeks have elapsed, the self-feeders are filled with a mixture
half corn and half linseed oil meal. This ration which seems to be so
greatly overbalanced with protein is regarded by the Lemar
Brothers as the best they have ever used. They get very rapid
gains and the lambs are ready for market after a short period
of feeding. They report a little larger percentage of losses since
they have adopted this system, but these are more than offset by
the increased rate of gain over other methods they have employed.
The larger losses are not due to the large percentage of protein
in the feed, but rather to the fact that the lambs are allowed to
eat all they want of a heavy concentrate from the beginning of
the feeding period.
On the other hand, skillful Michigan feeders, when feeding corn
or salvage, use equal quantities of straw and legume hay. That is,
they give hay at one feeding and straw at the other, and they
think that they get as good results as they do when they use
legume hay altogether as roughage.
TDoctor's thesis, under direction of Prof. Grindley.
CONCENTRATES FOR FATTENING
379
In a compilation from various experiments on lamb feeding,
Henry and Morrison 8 show that when corn silage (a carbonaceous
succulent which would reduce the percentage of protein in the
ration) has been fed in conjunction with corn and clover hay, the
lambs fed silage ate six-tenths of a pound less hay and one-tenth
of a pound less corn daily and yet gained slightly more than those
fed clover hay and shelled corn. Experiments conducted by
Skinner and King,9 however, show that when cottonseed meal
formed from 12 to 19 per cent of the grain part of the ration,
the rate of gain was increased from 1 to 2 per cent.
In general, such a balance in digestible nutrients as is, to be
found in a ration composed of corn and clover hay is about what
is required for fattening lambs. The advisability of using a
larger amount of protein depends chiefly on whether it can be. pro-
cured at such a price that it will pay to use it. If a palatable suc-
culent, such as corn silage, is used to supplement corn and legume
hay, the amount of digestible protein can be reduced somewhat
and the ration will still be satisfactory for fattening purposes.
Older sheep can be fattened on rations containing relatively
less protein than is contained in those suitable for lambs. From
investigations by Bull and Emmett 10 of the Illinois Experiment Sta-
tion the following feed requirements for fattening lambs have been
determined, and the requirements for the third group (lambs
weighing from 90—110 pounds) may be regarded as similar to the
requirements for sheep.
Variation in Rations for Lambs of Different Weights. — Per Day Per 1000 Ibs.
Live Weight.
Weight of
lambs
Nutritive ratio 1:
Dry matter
Digestible crude
protein
Total digestible
nutrients
Ibs.
50- 70
70- 90
90-110
5.0-6.0
6.7-7.2
7.0-8.0
Ibs.
27.0-30.0
28.0-31.0
27.0-31.0
Ibs.
3.1-3.3
2.5-2.8
2.3-2.5
Ibs.
19.0-22.0
20.0-23.0
19.0-23.0
Concentrates for Fattening.— Grains. — Corn, barley, wheat,
emmer, kafir corn, and oats are the grains used in the United
""Feeds and Feeding," 1910.
"Indiana Station Bulletins 162, 168, 179.
"Illinois Station Bui. 166.
380 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
States for fattening sheep and lambs. All of these give best results
when supplemented with a legume roughage. If they are fed with
carbonaceous roughages, a nitrogenous concentrate such as linseed
oil meal or cottonseed meal should form from 20 to 25 per cent
of the grain part of the ration. There may be exceptions to this last
statement when sheep (not lambs) are fed and when a succulent
such as corn silage forms part of the roughage.
Of the various grains, corn, the feeding value of which has already
been discussed, is the best and most widely used. Wheat is seldom
used unless it is in such condition as to be of low value for milling
purposes. It compares favorably with corn, as it produces about
the same gains and requires only 2 per cent more total feed to
produce a pound of gain.
Barley is used extensively in the West, especially in Colorado.
It is riot quite equal to corn as measured by rate of gain and the
amount of feed required to produce a pound of gain, but it com-
bines well with alfalfa hay.
Emmer is being used as a sheep feed in the Dakotas and in the
northern Eocky Mountain states. Experiments indicate that it
.requires more feed and does not produce gains as rapidly as corn
and probably it is not quite so good as barley. Nevertheless, it
is a useful feed for fattening.
Kafir corn is coming more and more into use as a crop in the
West and Southwest, and the indications are that it can be profit-
ably employed as a grain for fattening sheep. Cochel, of the Kansas
Station, compared1 it with corn in feeding 56-pound lambs for
60 days. An average daily ration of 1.4 pounds1 alfalfa hay,
1.1 pounds sweet sorghum silage, 0.19 pound cottonseed meal, and
0.9 pound whole kafir produced a daily gain of 0.35 pound, while
an equal amount of corn, replacing kafir, produced 0.40 pound gain.
Oats are not widely used as a sole concentrate in fattening sheep
and lambs because they are usually high in price and they produce
growth rather than fat. If they do not ad'd too much to the cost
of the ration, they can be used to advantage when mixed with
other grains. If they are mixed with a heavy grain such as corn,
they serve to " lighten " the grain ration and make it more suitable
for lambs starting on feed.
When two or more of the grains mentioned above are available,
there is no objection to making a mixture of them. In fact, there
is some advantage when variety is added to the ration. It is doubt-
COMMERCIAL CONCENTRATES 381
ful, however, whether oats should form a large part of the ration
throughout the feeding period.
Peas and Beans. — Various kinds of peas and beans are nearly
always too high in price to be used as the sole concentrate for fat-
tening sheep and lambs, but being rich in protein, they can often
be profitably utilized as a supplement to carbonaceous feeds. Field
peas and soybeans are unusually palatable and when added to less
palatable feeds serve as a means for increasing the consumption
of feed.
Commercial Concentrates. — Linseed and cottonseed cake or
meal are used extensively in sheep feeding for balancing rations too
low in protein. They both have practically the same value for this
purpose. Cottonseed meal contains more digestible protein than the
cold-pressed cottonseed cake.
Wheat bran, wheat middlings, gluten feed, dried distillers'
grains, fish meal, dried blood, and tankage are not widely used
in the United States in the rations of fattening sheep and lambs.
Wheat bran is palatable and if price warrants it, it may be used
to " lighten " the grain part of the ration at the beginning of the
feeding period. Gluten feed is not palatable and hence very
little of it is used. Morrison and Kleinheinz u found that tankage
mixed with 9 parts of coarsely ground corn was readily eaten by
lambs and when fed with corn and poor quality, over-ripe blue-
grass hay, 10 per cent tankage was equal to 18 per cent linseed
meal in balancing the ration.
Beet by-products are carbonaceous in nature. Dried beet pulp
compares favorably with corn as a fattening feed, and the wet pulp
is very effective for fattening old ewes.
Various molasses products have been used to limited extent
and1 in the main are reported to be appetizing.
Wheat screenings, an elevator and flouring-mill by-product,
are a complete sheep feed. That is, on account of chaff and bits
of straw in them, they can, if necessary, be used without any
roughage. Their fattening value is variable and indefinite because
they do not run even in the proportion of grain and seeds they con-
tain. Nevertheless, feeders who operate on a large scale learn to
judge their feeding value fairly closely and they like to use them
when they are to be had at reasonable prices.
""Feeds and Feeding," 191G.
382
FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
Comparison of Various Concentrates, — The following table
from " Feeds and Feeding " by Henry and Morrison gives the
digestible nutrients in .the various concentrates used in sheep
feeding :
Composition of Various Concentrates.
Feeding stuff
T*otal
dry
matter
in 100
Ibs.
Digestible nutrients in 100 Ibs.
Crude
pro-
tein
Carbo-
hy-
drates
Fat
Total
Nutri-
tive
ratio 1:
Concentrates
Dent corn
Ibs.
89.5
89.6
91.3
89.8
89.9
90.8
90.7
91.3
88.2
92.5
92.1
90.9
90.4
87.2
88.4
90.8
90.1
91.8
Ibs.
7.5
6.1
21.6
9.2
12.5
9.7
9.0
9.5
9.0
37.0
21.1
30.2
31.7
18.3
19.4
19.0
30.7
4.6
Ibs.
67.8
63.7
51.9
67.5
41.6
52.1
66.8
63.2
65.8
21.8
33.2
32.6
37.9
54.3
54.5
55.8
22.8
65.2
/6s.
4.6
3.7
3.2
1.5
3.0
3.8
1.6
1.7
2.3
8.6
7.4
6.7
2.8
0.8
1.1
0.6
14.4
0.8
Ibs.
85.7
78.1
80.7
80.1
60.9
70.4
79.4
76.5
80.0
78.2
70.9
77.9
75.9
74.4
76.4
76.2
85.9
71.6
10.4
11.8
2.7
7.7
3.9
6.3
7.8
7.1
7.9
1.1
2.4
1.6
1.4
3.1
2.9
3.0
1.8
14.6
Corn-and-cob meal
Gluten feed, high grade
Wheat, all analyses
Wheat bran, all analyses
Oats
Barley
Emmer (spelt)
Kafir grain
Cottonseed meal, choice
Cold-pressed cottonseed cake
Linseed meal, old process
Linseed meal, new process
Bean, navy, cull
Cowpea
Pea, field
Soybean
Beet pulp, dried
Roughages for Fattening. — Legume Hay. — Eoughages made
from the legumes are the best for fattening sheep as they are
palatable and properly supplement the various grains commonly
used. Eed clover and alfalfa lead in popularity because they are
widely grown and they are not so stemmy and coarse as the hay
made from soybeans, cowpeas, etc. Furthermore, there is no grain
in the hay to make the adjustment of the ration more or less
difficult. Experiments show clover hay to be slightly superior to
alfalfa pound for pound, but the difference between them is very
slight. Alsike clover compares favorably with red clover, but
English or mammoth clover is stemmy. Little is known of the
feeding value of sweet clover hay.
Trials with soybean and cowpea hay of good quality indicate
that they are about equal to alfalfa in feeding value.
ROOTS AND SILAGE 383
Field bean straw and bean pods are prized by feeders in Michi-
gan as they are valuable substitutes for clover hay.
Carbonaceous Roughages. — In making use of carbonaceous
roughages, the concentrate part of the ration as stated elsewhere
should be comparatively rich in protein. Corn stover is palatable
and it is a good roughage if the corn plant is cut fairly early, cured
well and1 kept in good condition. On account of the coarse stalks
the percentage of waste is high and the discarded parts do not
make very good bedding.
Sorghum hay is about like corn stover in feeding value.
Oat and wheat straw are unsuited as the sole roughage in the
fattening ration. They can perhaps be used to best advantage in
combination with corn silage, but good use can be made of them
in connection with legume hay. It is best to feed straw in rather
small quantities as the animals will eat more of it when fed in
tli at way than when given a supply large enough to last for
several days.
The value of straw for feed depends in large part on its
quality. Short, fine, and bright oat straw, cut before the oat plants
are thoroughly ripe, is almost as palatable as legume hay. If straw
of good quality is available at one-third of the cost of legume
roughage, it will pay to feed some of it if given no oftener than
twice or three times a week. It furnishes a harmless change
which stimulates the consuming power of the animals.
Timothy hay, market value considered, is an exceedingly poor
roughage for sheep as it is unpalatable and constipating. A mix-
ture of timothy and1 clover, however, makes a very good roughage
provided at least half of the mixture is clover. Marsh hay ranks
with timothy hay as a poor roughage. Neither is as good as good
oat straw.
Prairie hay has been used extensively in fattening sheep where
self-feeders are used. It is fairly palatable, but considerably lower
in feeding value than the legume hays. A combination of legume
hay and good bright straw should give better results than prairie hay.
Roots and Silage. — Eoots and silage are succulent feeds suit-
able for being used as supplements to grain and! dry roughage. On
account of the cost of production, very little use is made of roots
in fattening sheep and lambs in the United States, but if they
384 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
should be available, three to four pounds per head daily could bo
used to advantage. It is not safe, however, to feed .mangels for a
long period as they tend to cause disorders in the urinary tract
of males, by producing calculi or stones in the kidneys.
Of late years, corn silage has come into pretty general use in
many sections of the country as0a sheep feed. It is not a con-
centrate and it is a mistake to regard it as such. Experiments
have also demonstrated that it is not a complete roughage. It has
been used as the sole roughage, but the appetite is better, the animals
are easier to keep " on feed," and the gains are larger if some dry
roughage is used with it. Roughages of rather low feeding value,
such as wheat and oat straw, added to grain and silage, materially
increase the effectiveness of the ration. In fact, one of the best
ways to make good use of these roughages consists in supplementing
them with silage and a concentrate comparatively rich in protein.
As a rule silage when added to a well-balanced ration such as
corn and legume hay lowers the cost of fattening, but it does not
materially increase the gains. Evidently the succulence has a
beneficial effect which is offset by the carbonaceous nature of the
silage, for when a nitrogenous concentrate is added the rate of gain
is increased. But whether it will pay to add the nitrogenous sup-
plement will depend upon how nearly its cost corresponds with the
cost of grain forming the bulk of the concentrate part of the ration.
When fattening lambs are fed grain, legume hay, and silage,
their average consumption of silage is about 1.5 pound's per day.
It replaces about 0.1 pound of corn and 0.6 pound of hay. If the
supply of dry roughage is limited, it is possible to replace still
more of it with the silage, but as suggested above, silage should
not be the sole roughage in the ration.
Sorghum silage has been used to a limited extent in the South-
west and very good results have been obtained from it.
Pea silage has been successfully used in fattening sheep and
lambs in the vicinity of canning factories. This silage is greatly
relished and lambs can eat as much as 7 pounds daily at the
beginning of the feeding period without scouring or going "off
feed." Several years ago the writer inspected' the feeding opera-
tions of the Columbus Canning Company, Columbus, Wisconsin.
This company was putting what the market calls fancy-finish on
SUCCULENT FEEDS COMPARED
385
lambs by feeding screenings and corn in self-feeders, a little hay
and all the pea silage the lambs would take.
Roughages Compared. — The following table taken from
" Feeds and Feeding," by Henry and Morrison, gives the digestible
nutrients in various roughages for sheep.
Composition of Roughages.
Feeding stuff
Total
dry
matter
in 100
Ibs.
Digestible nutrients in 100 Ibs.
Crude
pro-
tein
Car-
bohy-
drates
Fat
Total
Nutri-
tive
ratio 1:
Dried Roughage
Clover, red, all analyses
Clover, alsike, all analyses
Clover, mammoth red
Alfalfa, all analyses
Ibs.
87.1
87.7
81.3
91.4
91.4
89.4
90.6
81.0
59.0
83.7
90.2
88.4
Ibs.
7.6
7.9
6.4
10.6
11.7
12.6
2.2
2.1
1.4
1.7
4.6
3.0
Ibs.
39.3
36.9
37.2
39.0
39.2
34.6
47.8
42.4
31.1
43.1
45.9
42.8
Ibs.
1.8
1.1
1.8
0.9
1.2
1.3
1.0
0.7
0.6
1.3
1.2
1.2
Ibs.
50.9
47.3
47.6
51.6
53.6
50.1
52.2
46.1
33.9
47.7
53.2
48.5
5.7
5.0
6.4
3.9
3.6
3.0
22.7
21.0
23.2
27.1
10.6
15.2
Soybean hay
Cowpea, in bloom to early pod
Corn stover (ears removed) , very dry
Corn stover, medium in water
Corn stover, high in water
Kafir stover dry
Red top all analyses
Tomothv all analyses
Succulent Feeds Compared. — The folowing table from " Feeds
and Feeding/' by Henry and Morrison, gives the digestible nutrients
in various succulent feeds for sheep.
Composition of Succulent Feeds.
Feeding-stuff
Total
dry
matter
in 100
Ibs.
Digestible nutrients in 100 Iba.
Crude
pro-
tein
Car-
bohy-
drates
Fat
Total
Nutri-
tive
ratio 1:
Fresh Green Roughage
Beet pulp wet
Ibs.
.9.3
13.0
9.4
Ibs.
0.5
0.9
0.8
1.0
1.1
0.6
1.6
Ibs.
6.5
9.1
6.4
7.7
15.0
11.6
11.6
Ibs.
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.7
0.5
0.8
Ibs.
7.4
10.2
7.4
9.4
17.7
13.3
15.0
13.8
10.3
8.2
8.4
15.1
21.2
8.4
Beet common
IVfangel
Rutabaga
10.9
26.3
22.8
23.2
Corn well matured, recent analyses
Sorghum
Pea-cannery refuse. .
25
386 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING
QUESTIONS
1. What effect has age on the rate of growth in sheep? Upon the utiliza-
tion of feed?
2. What factors influence the efficiency of a ration for fattening sheep
and lambs?
3. Would you attempt to fatten sheep solely on silage and dry roughage?
4. Would you attempt to fatten sheef) solely on grain?
5. Of what advantage are self-feeders in fattening sheep? In what par-
ticulars is hand-feeding more advantageous?
6. When would it pay to shear fattening sheep and lambs; just before
marketing ?
7. How much gain should a fattening lamb make in 90 days?
8. How much corn and alfalfa hay will it require to feed a fattening lamb
for 90 days?
9. How much corn, corn silage, and clover hay will it require to feed a
fattening lamb for 90 days?
10. Construct a fattening ration for sheep from clover hay, oat straw,
corn, and linseed oil meal.
11. What is the distinguishing difference between a legume and a carbon-
aceous roughage?
CHAFFER' XL
FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN THE FIELD
THROUGH A PART OR ALL OF THE
FEEDING. PERIOD
ONLY rugged sheep and lambs should be selected for feeding in
fields and they should be purchased before the feeds have deteriorated
greatly in feeding value through exposure to winds, rains, and frosts.
Hard frosts lessen the value of clover and similar growths and high
winds and heavy rains rapidly reduce the value of corn stalks.
Usefulness of Various Field Feeds. — Grass. — Grass is a very
great help to the man who feeds sheep on his fields. A successful
feeder in central Illinois has said : " I have found that I must have
an area of good grass in order to fatten sheep or lambs in the fields.
I once tried plowing up all of my pastures in order to grow more
corn. I thought that sowing rye in the corn stalks would take the
place of my fields of grass, but I was mistaken. I was obliged to
reestablish my pastures."
A bluegrass pasture that has been rested through the summer
furnishes palatable feed which has a great deal of fattening power.
A pasture of this sort is also an excellent place on which to scatter
such feeds as ear corn and shock corn, and no better place can be
found in the open for the sheep or lambs to rest and sleep.
Bluegrass fits in very well with the other feeds available on the
farm. Being palatable and succulent, it is a splendid alternate
feed with corn or stalks, and if the sheep or lambs are given a chance
to run on both corn stalks and bluegrass they will divide the time
between these runs each day. Early in the autumn, before it is time
to turn in on the corn stalks, bluegrass alternates well with clover.
As the sole feed, green clover is too sappy to make a good rate of
gain, but sheep and lambs make good use of it if it is fed with blue-
grass, field corn or corn stalks.
Timothy is also a good grass for fattening purposes and no
better pasture can be found than one composed of several grasses
and legumes, such as bluegrass, timothy, rye grass, and the clovers.
Rape makes a very heavy growth in fertile soil if there is plenty
of moisture and light, and when combined with grass it will fatten
sheep or lambs without the use of any ether feed. In Missouri a
387
388 FEEDING IN THE FIELD
number of feeders have finished lambs at very low cost by running
them on bluegrass and in corn fields sown to rape and cowpeas.
They purchase the lambs early in the autumn and turn them first
on the bluegrass and cowpeas. The cowpeas are fed first because the
leaves drop after the first frost. After they are gone, the lambs
alternate between the bluegrass 'and the rape. By the time the
greater part of the rape is consufned the lambs are fat enough to
send to market. If the corn stands up well, the lambs eat very little
of it ; hence the bluegrass, cowpeas, and rape produce practically all
of the gains.
Rape is of most value in September and October, but it can be
pastured well up into the winter, provided the sheep and lambs have
become accustomed to it before it freezes. At first it should be
pastured for only an hour or two in the middle of the day when it
is dry, but it does not take more than a week or ten days to get the
animals accustomed to it so that they can feed upon it at will.
Three generally practiced ways of getting rape for fall fattening
are as follows : First, by seeding it in the normal way as the sole crop
in the ground; second, by sowing it with oats1 at the rate of two
pounds of seed to the acre; and, third, by seeding it at the rate of
about three pounds per acre in corn at the last cultivation. When
there is sufficient moisture, rape sown in oats grows rapidly after the
oats are cut and furnishes feed that is ready to be pastured by the
first of September. A good growth of rape in corn depends on seed-
ing earl}', on the supply of moisture and the density of the corn
foliage,- but if the corn is to be pastured with sheep it usually
pays to sow rape, for around the edges of the field at least there wi 1 1
be a good growth of it which will be large enough for pasturing by
the middle of September or the first of October.
Corn Fields. — If the corn plants are tall, and if they stand
well, lambs may run in the corn fields before the corn is husked
without doing much damage to the corn crop. They feed on the
lower blades of corn, weeds, and grass, and frequently make good
gains for several weeks.
Sheep and lambs are often used to harvest the corn crop.
Several years ago Baker Brothers, large sheep feeders in Illinois,
made this a regular practice. They sowed rape in their corn, got
their lambs in early, and kept them in the fields until practically
all of the corn was consumed. When the rape was pretty well eaten
out they broke down some of the corn stalks in order to encourage
CORN FIELDS 389
the lambs to eat the corn. Late in the season all stalks with ears
beyond the reach of the lambs were broken down. After the lambs
were removed from the fields pigs were allowed to gather up what
corn had been left. Baker Brothers were fairly successful with this
method of feeding, but they made it their chief business and gave
close attention to their lambs. They drove them out of the fields
each evening and kept them in lots or in pastures at night where
they had access to salt and water. As the lambs became fat they
were sorted out and shipped. The unfinished ones that were left
after all of the corn in the fields was consumed were placed in dry
lots and fed until they were fat (Fig. 220).
Another Illinois feeder, G. Firoved, has successfully harvested
corn with sheep. He begins pasturing the corn fields, which are
FIG. 220. — All that was left of an ear of corn and a corn stalk after the sheep were through
with them.
seeded to rape, about the middle of September, but at first he
gives the animals access to approximately half the area that will be
required to fatten them. He turns them in on the second half
before the supply of feed in the first half becomes so low that the
sheep or lambs have to hunt for feed. He keeps close watch over
the supply of roughage and endeavors to have pastures that can be
used at the time the corn is being consumed. When the supply of
roughage seems to be running low, the animals are given all the
hay they want. In fact, the successful harvesting of corn depends
on having plenty of roughage in the form of grass, forage and hay.
The Fauts Brothers, successful feeders in Indiana, follow the
practice of seeding soybeans in the corn and harvesting both the
corn and the beans with lambs. They have been so successful with
390 FEEDING IN THE FIELD
this method of feeding that their operations have received wide
notice in the agricultural press.
Corn Stalks. — All corn gatherers leave some corn. This, to-
gether with the dry blades on the stalks, makes good feed for sheep
and lambs for a time. Stalks are of greatest value as sheep feed in
comparatively dry autumn and winter seasons. Wet weather de-
teriorates their feeding value and tne mud in the fields is hard on the
feet of the animals.
General Suggestions for Feeding in Fields. — -Those who feed
their sheep in fields should observe the following suggestions : First,
inspect the sheep or lambs each day. Watch closely for bloat, scours,
and lameness. Second, see that the animals have access to salt and the
best of water each day. Third, do not force the sheep or lambs to
eat the feed in a certain field too closely. It is better to allow them
a new field and to let them pick over the old field at will. They
will clean it up in time. Fourth, do not allow them to run at will
on corn stalks when there is a deep snow. They will search for
corn and neglect to eat roughage. Fifth, avoid a great deal of driv-
ing, for it is much more detrimental to gains than allowing the
animals to take exercise at will.
Gains. — The gains which sheep and lambs make in the fields
will vary with the nature of the feed. They sometimes lose instead
of gaining in weight. One should have feed of such a nature that
the gain will be from 6 to 10 pounds per head per month.
Shifting to the Dry Lot. — Some feed ought to be given in the
dry lot before the feeds in the fields are exhausted. Otherwise, the
sheep or lambs miay go back in condition before the feed in the
fields is gone. Feeding ear corn on bluegrass is a good start toward
the transition from fields to dry lot. If the shift is made at the right
time one will find that the gains made on very cheap feeds in the
fields will materially reduce the cost of gains and hence make the
feeding operation more profitable.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the usefulness of grass to the feeder.
2. Of what value is rape in the corn belt?
3. Is it advisable to turn sheep and lambs in the corn field before the corn
is harvested?
4. When should corn stalks be pastured?
5. How much gain can be expected from field feeding?
6. Review treatment for bloat, Chapter XXXIII.
7. Review the discussion on forage crops, Chapter XXXTII.
PART VI
SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN
THE WESTERN STATES
CHAPTER XLI
NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP
Nature of the Range. — The sheep ranges of the West are often
arranged' in three geographical groups as follows: (1) the south-
western ranges of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado;
(2) the ranges of California; and (3) the northwestern ranges of
Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Washington, and Oregon.
These groups differ most in climate, but they are also somewhat
different in the methods employed in raising sheep and in the quality
of their mutton and wool products.
Types of Land Utilized as Range. — The unenclosed types of
lands over which sheep are herded are plains, foothills, and moun-
tains. In order to have ideal conditions all three types of range
should be available. Plains serve as an excellent winter range, but
in summer they are too hot and too dry. Mountains furnish ideal
range in summer because they are cool, well supplied with water,
and comparatively luxuriant in plant and shrub growths, but with
the exception of a few places in the southwest, they cannot be used
in winter because of severe snowstorms. Foothills are located
between the summer and the winter range and hence furnish feed
during spring and fall. On each type of range, three to fifteen
acres are required for one sheep.
Plains. — In practically every state in the West there are vast
stretches of arid and semi-arid plains which present a monotonous
picture of sage and sand. To the person accustomed to running
sheep on luxuriant pastures, these plains would seem entirely inade-
quate, for as a rule, the edible plants and shrubs are small and
thinly distributed on the ground. The scanty growth on which
the sheep feed, however, has the power to produce growth and fat
to a degree which always surprises those who have had no experience
with it. The sheep grazing over a large area in the course of a day
nip off a grass blade or a weed here and there, or trim an occasional
palatable shrub, but they come to the bedding ground at nightfall
with a fairly well-satisfied appetite (Fig. 221).
Foothills and Mountains. — As a rule the feed in the foothills
and mountains is more luxuriant and succulent than that on the
393
394 NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP
OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE 395
plains because there is more moisture. There is a greater variety
of feed; hence, foothill and mountain districts are more suitable
for growing and fattening lambs than the plains. In fact, lambs
are almost never sold for mutton directly from the plains while
those grown on the best mountain ranges frequently attain suitable
condition and weight for slaughter when only four and five months
of age (Figs. 222 and 223).
Cultivated Areas. — In a few regions cultivated areas are utilized
as sheep range. In California, alfalfa 'fields, wheat stubble, and
even vineyards, serve for a part of the year as feeding grounds.
After the last crop of grapes has been harvested for the year in
the great vineyards around Hanford and Fresno, sheep are turned
in to feed on the leaves. On the whole this practice is regarded
as beneficial to the vines, for the sheep consume the thrips, little
insects that would do a great deal of damage later through their
attacks on the new foliage (Fig. 224).
In many places the winter range is supplemented by harvested
crops. There are two reasons for this practice: First, there are
storm periods during which the snow is so deep that the sheep can
not get to the feed on the range; and second, owners frequently
do not have enough winter range to carry their sheep. In recent
years, carloads of corn from Kansas and Nebraska have been sold
for winter feed to the sheepmen on the eastern slope of the Rockies,
and now cottonseed cake is becoming so popular that in various
places in the northern part of the Rocky Mountains it has almost
entirely replaced corn. Alfalfa hay is used extensively in Washing-
ton, Oregon, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado to
supplement the winter range (Fig. 225).
Ownership of the Range. — The ranges consist of public do-
main, National Forest, Indian reservations, reclamation lands, state
lands, and lands owned by corporations and by private individuals.
The only free land is the public domain. Practically all of this con-
sists of plains or winter range, as nearly all of the foothills and
mountains not owned by private individuals and by corporations
are included in the National Forest.
The National Forest is under the control of the Department of
Agriculture and is in the direct charge of the Forest Service.
In all cases where sheep are allowed to graze on it, a definite allot-
ment is made to the owners and a charge per head fixed for a speci-
fied period of grazing. For example, an owner with 5000 ewes
396
NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP
OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE
397
398
NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP
and their lambs may be charged eight cents per ewe on a definite
allotment which he may use from June 15 to November 1. To a
certain extent the rate charged depends' on the quality of feed on
the allotment and the length of time it mav be used.
FIG. 224.
FIG. 225.
FIG. 224. — Lambs in clover in Oregon. Here and there in the West a more intensive
method than herding on the open range is being practiced.
FIG. 225. — Supplementing the range when snow is on the ground with corn, cottonseed
cake and hay.
In every state of the range country, all sections of land bearing
the survey numbers 16 and 36 are at the disposal of the common-
wealth. They are often leased to sheepmen, the price depending
on the location and the quality of feed growing on them. As a rule
the sheepmen have little to say in adjusting rentals on these lands
because they are so distributed among the other lands they propose
BREEDING OF THE SHEEP ON THE RANGE 399
to use that they are obliged to pay the price asked, whether or not
it is reasonable.
Railway Land Grants. — When the various railways were pro-
jected through the West, the companies received encouragement
horn the Federal Government in the form of great land grants
which extended in alternate sections for 20 miles or more on either
side of their roads. Although much of the land in these grants
has been disposed of, the railway companies still own large areas
which are leased for grazing purposes. Should the alternate sec-
tions still be public domain the person leasing from the railroad
will have twice as much land as he leases,* but he can make little
use of fences for it is unlawful to fence public domain. In recent
years, however, many of the intervening sections have been occupied
by homesteaders who, as a rule, do not care to rent their land for
pasture ; this makes the railroad1 land inconvenient to use.
Other Lands. — In addition to the above there are certain lands
in the control of the Xational Reclamation Service and there are the
lands in the various Indian reservations which may be leased for
grazing; and finally, there are lands owned by private citizens. In
the Southwest, and in New Mexico particularly, there are large
tracts of land that were granted to private individuals at an early
time by the Government of Spain. A number of these tracts are
leased for grazing purposes. In many cases the sheepmen own con-
siderable tracts of land. Usually these tracts are strategically
located so that the owner may control extensive lands which he
does not own.
Cost of Leases. — From the foregoing it is clear that a sheep-
man may be so located that he must have his pockets full of leases
and permits before he can operate. The cost of leases on land
grants, reclamation lands, reservations, and private lands ranges
from two and one-half cents to twenty-five cents per acre per year.
This applies to wild range or uncultivated lands. Cultivated lands
rent at much higher prices and according somewhat to the urgency
of the sheep owner's need of them. Permits in the National Forest
cost from six to fourteen cents per sheep per season. At present
the tendency is to increase the rates of rent for sheep on all types
of range.
Breeding of the Sheep on the Range. — In general, range sheep
should be of a type that produce both mutton and wool of good
market quality under range conditions; they should be hardy, that
400 NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP
is, they should be able to thrive when kept in large flocks or bands,
and they should have the habit of staying close together while
grazing.
Breeds for Range. — Until a few years ago range breeding ewes
were largely or altogether of Merino parentage, but at present
there is a disposition greatly to reduce the percentage of Merino
blood in breeding stock and a befief is growing that it ought to be
dispensed with in some regions. The Merino has been popular
because it is hardy and better adapted to herding than any other
breed. Its wool, being dense and oily, has been better than that of
any other breed for withstanding alkali dust and the penetrating
dryness of a semi-arid climate. The recent decline in the popular-
ity of Merino blood is traceable to a number of factors. Methods
of handling sheep in many parts of the West have improved so
much that the extreme hardiness, characteristic of the Merino, is
no longer indispensable. The high prices paid for lambs during
the past five years have stimulated the desire to produce as much
mutton as possible from a given number of ewes. This has given
rise to a demand for rather large, strong, deep milking ewes, capable
of raising a large percentage of lambs and growing them rapidly.
Trials with lambs carrying a preponderance of mutton blood have
shown that they make rapid gains and attain heavy weights on
mountain range by the time they are old enough to wean. In
addition to all of these influences, the conditions surrounding the
sheep business have been such as to thoroughly arouse the interest
of sheepmen in such matters as breeding, and this interest of itself
has had some bearing on changes in breeding.
At this time it is difficult to predict how much change will
ultimately be made in the breeding of range sheep. Aside from
the herding qualities which all range sheep must have, the kind
of sheep wanted is a type that represents the most effective com-
bination of mutton and wool. It has been found that an excellent
market lamb can be produced by crossing a pure-bred mutton ram
on a grade Merino ewe, but the trouble with this practice is that
it makes no provision for the future supply of the ewe stock. It
was once possible for the mutton lamb raisers to renew their breed-
ing ewes from regions that were not well adapted or located for
raising lambs for the market, but very few such regions exist at
the present time.
So long as sheep are herded on open ranges, it is improbable that
Merino blood will be dispensed with. The percentage of it in bands
QUESTIONS 401
of breeding ewes may be reduced or the type may be changed so
as to suit more nearly the needs of range sheepmen, but the Merino
has characteristics which are too valuable to justify anyone in
supposing that its blood will be wholly discarded.
Mutton Breeds for Range. — Of the various mutton breeds that
have been used in the West, the Cotswolds, Lincolns, and, Hamp-
shires seem to have given best results. The cross between the
longwools (Cotswolds and Lincolns) and Merinos makes a very
good sheep for both mutton and wool. The fleece is long and
heavy and does not pull out badly when the sheep graze on brushy
range. At present the Hampshire is, very popular because of its
ability to produce a big, strong lamb that is ready to market as
mutton at weaning time. Shropshires are to be found in large
numbers in Colorado, New Mexico, and California. Romney Marsh
and Corriedales have been imported from New Zealand and
Australia, and are now undergoing trial.
The Eambouillet is by far the most popular of the various
Merino breeds.
Sheep of All Classes. — Breeding ewes, yearlings, rams, wethers,
and lambs may be found on the ranges, but ewes and lambs lead in
numbers and importance. After they are five years old ewes begin
to decline in wool production and they are usually drafted at this
age and sent to market where they are disposed of as mutton, or
for breeding or feeding purposes. In a few regions, however, they
are retained until they are seven or eight years old. When from
four to six months of age, the lambs are sent to market, where the
fat ones are slaughtered for mutton while those in thin condition
are sent to farms and feed lots to be fattened. Yearlings that are
not intended for breeding on the range are no longer produced in
large numbers. They are grown by those who are not in a position
to make their lambs fat enough to sell well when four to six month s
old. In a very few regions wethers are kept for their wool produc'
and for the growth they make, but they should be marketed before
they are five years old as they become coarse and decline in condition
after that age.
QUESTIONS
1. Classify geographically the three general divisions of the range country.
2. What are the types of land utilized as range? Discuss each. ,
3. Who claims ownership of the range country? How leased?
4. What distinct characteristics do range sheep possess?
5. At what age do rangemen usually begin to cull their ewes?
26
CHAPTER XLII
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON RANGES IN THE
WEST
Basis of Management. — The management of sheep on the
ranges of the West is based on the handling of a band which varies
in size from 1200 to 3000 animals, depending on the nature of
the range and the kind of sheep. For instance, if the grazing has
to be conducted over narrow stretches of land part of the time,
the band has to be comparatively small, for if it is not, the sheep
in the rear will find; very little to eat. Ewes and lambs have to be
kept in small bands, because the lambs are inclined to stray out
where predatory animals may get them, and caring for a very large
band of them requires more work than the average herder can do.
It is customary to place 1250 ewes and their lambs in one band.
In total this amounts to a considerable number, but as a rule
sheepmen regard bands of ewes with their lambs as being small.
Large bands are composed of dry sheep, that is sheep not suck-
ling lambs. After the lambs have been weaned and the sheep placed
on the winter range, the bands are usually of good size, provided
the range is extensive and narrow stretches of grazing can be
avoided. Under such conditions as many as 3500 sheep can be
placed in a band.
Labor Required to Handle a Band of Sheep. — Aside from
the lambing and shearing periods, only two men, a " herder " and
a " camp-tender," are required to manage a band.
The Herder. — It is the duty of the herder to care for the sheep.
If he is faithful and efficient, he is up and after them as soon as
they begin to move in the morning, which is usually at daybreak.
For two or three hours he guards and guides them or until they
are ready to lie down and to chew the cud. He takes this oppor-
tunity to prepare his breakfast unless he arose early enough to eat
before his sheep started from their bedding ground. Really the
latter is a better procedure, for by carrying his lunch with him,
he can be near his sheep throughout the day. The herder plans
402
THE CAMP TENDER 403
to have his sheep back to the camp and bedding ground by night-
fall, so when they have gone such a distance out that it will require
the remainder of the day to return, he turns them about and allows
them to take a leisurely pace characteristic of contented grazing.
A good herder never rushes his sheep to camp and beds them down
early for he knows that they will do better if given their time to
come in, and also that they will not move out so early in the
morning. During manorial days in England, it was a common
saving that lame men were the best shepherds. So, too, the quiet,
patient type of herder on the western ranges outclasses the nervous
irascible type.
Although caring for the sheep is the chief duty of the herder,
lie also has part responsibility in the preparation of food for him-
self and the camp-tender. Many herders are adept in the cooking
and baking of the plainer, forms of food, such as bread, meat,
potatoes, beans, and dried fruit.
The camp-tender's duties consist in keeping the camp provided
with food and other necessities for himself and the herder, feed
for the horses or burros, and salt for the sheep. He also attends
to moving camp, assists in the cooking, and counts the sheep. As
camp-mover he assumes considerable responsibility, as he must first
select a camp site, which should be located where the feed* is
good. His count of the sheep is more nearly like an estimate
than an actual count. It is mad'e by counting the black or partially
black sheep, of which there are a few in every band, and since
each sheep maintains about the same position in the band day after
day, the camp-tender merely ascertains whether all of the black-
sheep are present and whether their position in the band seems
normal.
Of the two, herder and camp-tender, the latter has the more
responsibility, and usually he receives more pay. When the sheep
go to the mountains for the summer, the camp-tender is often
given the privilege of drawing checks on the owner's account to
pay for whatever is needed.
Should the owner have several bands of sheep on an extensive,
undivided range, one camp-tender may be sufficient for as many
as three hands. Under such conditions, a comparatively large store
of provisions is kept at ranch headquarters, hence the distance of
hauling is not very great. Usually, too, these conditions exist on
404 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
the plains, where hauling is much less difficult than in the foothills
and mountains (Fig. 226).
Kind of Men Employed as Herders and Camp-Tenders. —
On the southwestern ranges nearly all herders and camp-tenders
are Mexicans. It takes a larger number of them to handle a given
number of sheep than it does of Bother types of laborers and they
do not stick continuously to herding for more than three or four
months at a time, but while they are in the employ of the ranch.
FIG. 226. — Meal time in summer sheep camp in the mountains.
they can, as a rule, be depended upon to stay with the sheep.
Numerous cases have been cited of Mexican herders having lost
their lives through faithfully caring for their sheep in severe storms.
Mexican herders receive lower pay and they do not require so
large an expenditure for provisions as do other types of herders.
Their demands for provisions, however, depend somewhat on
whether they are working for Mexicans, Spaniards, or Anglo-
Saxons. Oftentimes the Mexican employer can keep a man on
sixty per cent of what the same man would demand of an Anglo-
Saxon employer.
The fol lowing tabulation shows the supplies which the Golden -
berg ranch of Corona, New Mexico, furnished to two men every
fifteen days in the year 1011, and the cost of the same. Of course,
the cost of these* pro visions are now much greater.
KIND OF MEN EMPLOYED 405
Article Amount Cost
Coil'ee . 0 Ibs. $0.90
Beans 15 Ibs. 1.13
Sugar 5 Ibs. .32
Flour 50 Ibs. 1.90
Bacon 15 Ibs. 2.25
Potatoes 25 Ibs. .03
Onions 8 Ibs. .40
Fruit 5 Ibs. .50
Rice 5 Ibs. .20
Soda 1 lb. .10
Salt 2 Ibs. .05
Chili 1 lb. .30
Lard 5, Ibs. .65
Syrup 1/2 gal. .30
Kerosene % gal. .10
Soap 1 bar .05
Matches . 1 box .05
Total $9.83
On this particular ranch, herders and tenders were not permitted
to kill sheep for consumption in camp, as is customary on many
ranches in all parts of the West, but instead they were furnished
with mutton from ranch headquarters whenever they wished it.
Taken as a whole throughout the West, it requires about two mut-
tons per man per month. In the Southwest fewer are required
than in the Northwest because the Mexican herder seldom keeps
a dog. Many Mexican herders prefer goat meat to mutton ; hence it
is common for a few goats to be seen with each band of sheep.
The herders and camp-tenders in California are either Span-
ish and French Basques, or men of Anglo-Saxon blood. Basque
herders are reputed for their efficiency and many of them have risen
from the position of wage earner to that of proprietor. In this
state it is customary for camp-tenders to receive considerably higher
wages than herders. While the cost of wages and provisions per man
is from 25 to 40 per cent greater than in the Southwest, the cost
per 1000 sheep is perhaps less, because the number of sheep handled
by one man is considerably greater.
The herders and camp-tenders on the northwestern ranges
are mainly of Anglo-Saxon stock. As a rule they receive much
higher wages than are paid in the Southwest and their provisions
cost a great deal more. Articles of food are supplied to the sheep
406 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
camps of the Northwest which are prohably unknown in the
majority of camps in the Southwest. Some of these articles are
butter, eggs, honey, canned goods such as peas, beans, high-grade
fruits, and maple syrup. It is a common saying, more or less
seriously intended, that the bills of fare in the sheep camps of the
Northwest are of better quality and of greater variety than those
in the best hotels in the larger cfties of that region.
Labor Required to Handle a Band of Sheep in Shearing and
Lambing Seasons. — Shearing is always done at so much per head
by parties who make it a business. The cost varies a great deal,
according to the region in which the shearing is done and the kind
of sheep to be shorn. Extra charge is made for sheep having many
wrinkles in the skin and double charges are usually made for
shearing rams. In 1911 the cost of shearing, including all expense,
ranged from 8 to 18 cents per head. The cost now ranges from
12 to 27 cents or even more.
Lambing extends over a period of from -1 to G weeks. The
amount of labor required to lamb a band of 1250 ewes depends
both on the efficiency of the laborers and on the conditions under
which the lambing is conducted. The minimum number required is
two and the maximum ten. During the lambing period the rate
of wages is higher than for the remainder of the year for both
regular and special employees because at that time laborers are
scarce and the nature of the work requires extra hours.
Ranch Headquarters are maintained in cases where the hold-
ings of sheep are large, and various other laborers aside from
herders and camp-tenders are required for such tasks as making hay,
seeing after watering places, cooking, etc. Then, too, a superin-
tendent is usually required for a large holding.
Although the scale of wages is hardly less than thirty per cent
higher at the present time, the report made by the Tariff Board
in 1911 showing the wages per month, including board, paid in
the different western states to the various employees connected with
sheep ranching is, nevertheless, of interest.
Since the number of sheep to one man is also indicated in
the tabulation, one sees that what may be comparatively cheap
labor when based on per man per month is dear when based on
the number of sheep one man is able to handle. The conditions under
which sheep herders and camp-tenders live undoubtedly add to tne
cost of labor, for their nomadic living causes a great deal of waste,
and their type of living attracts only a few peculiar types of mind.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR A BAND OF SHEEP
Camp Expenses, per Month.
407
Superin-
tendent
Camp- '
tenders
Herders
Extra
labor
Number
of sheep
to one man
Arizona
$84.80
$5038
$49 18
$4938
867
California . . .
94.05
6875
54 18
55 13
1335
Colorado
76.24
4583
41 44
37 20
897
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
101.98
102.22
111.50
69.03
68.39
64.93
66.66
62.70
59 42
65.70
62.72
6302
1359
1788
1088
New Mexico
6621
39 61
33 03
32 72
7^
Oregon
85.52
62.52
5804
57 87
1418
Utah
89.08
63.06
64 34
62 13
1247
Washington
89 60
61 33
6085
57 54
1100
Wyoming
113 80
6900
64 64
66 61
1112
The region . .
9072
5982
52 40
50 3/
1119
Equipment Required for a Band of Sheep. — The equipment
necessary for handling a band of sheep may be divided into three
classes as follows: winter, summer, and lambing equipment. In
some places, particularly in the Southwest, topography of the sum-
mer and winter range is so nearly alike that the same equipment
will serve for both.
'In winter when the sheep are on the plains, the equipment
centers about the sheep wagon, which is a large, strongly-built
vehicle with a canopy top. It has to be capacious, for it serves
as a dwelling for 'two men, and it must be strong in order to with-
stand the strain incident to travelling over rough ground. It pro-
vides room for a bed, a stove used both for cooking and heating,
a complete kit of the utensils necessary for cooking and eating, and
a store of food for the men, and grain for the horses. Two good
horses of draft type are needed to draw the wagon and they must
be fitted with good strong harness (Fig. 227).
In addition to the horses for the wagon there must be at least
one saddle horse which a camp-tendler uses in various ways. Fre-
quently two light horses and a spring wagon form a part of the
equipment. With this light wagon the camp-tender goes for
provisions for the camp.
The cost 1 of a fully equipped sheep wagon, which will wear from
four to seven years according to the treatment it receives and the
nature of the ground over which it is drawn, is .approximately
$350. The teams used on these wagons cost from $400 to $600
Costs obtained before the United States entered the war.
408
MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
and they wear about as long as dlo horses at other types of draft
work. As a rule the horses used under saddle or at light wagons
cost from $80 to $125 and they wear out in three or four years.
Saddles vary in cost from $35 to $60, and light wagons cost approxi-
mately $125. Saddles should last for a number of years, but light
wagons are junk in two or three years. Thus one sees that the cost
FIG. 227. — Camp wagons, which are really dwellings on wheels, are used on the plains
in wintertime.
FIG. 228. — Trailing to the mountains in California where burros and horses must
be used to carry supplies because the surface is too rough for wagons.
of equipment for handling a band of sheep in winter is at least
$800 and often considerably more.
In summer when the sheep are in the mountains, equipment
and stores have to be carried on pack horses or burros because the
travelling is too rough for wagons (Fig. 228) .
EXTRA EQUIPMENT NEEDED AT TIMES 409
If burros are used, as is the case in many parts of the Southwest
and in California, five are required for each band of sheep. Three
horses, two to be used as pack animals and the other as a saddle
horse, are needed with each band. The pack horses carry the
equipment and stores, which consist of a tent, blankets, a cooking
and an eating outfit and food supplies. Large quantities of the
latter can not be carried so the camp-tender has to make frequent
excursions with his pack horses to a base of supplies. The follow-
ing enumerates the articles of equipment necessary for a summer
camp, their approximate cost, and period of wear :
Article Cost Wear
3 horses $450 3 years
1 saddle 40 5 years
2 pack saddles 20 1 season
1 tent 16 1 season
4 pairs of blankets 40 2 seasons
3 sets of hobbles 6 2 seasons
Cooking and eating outfit 16 2 seasons
$588
The above equipment does not serve for as many sheep as
the winter sheep wagon because summer bands are usually smaller
than winter bands.
Extra Equipment Needed at Times. — First of all, there is
extra equipment in the way of tents, blankets, and cooking utensils
for the extra help in lambing time. More than the usual number
of horses are needed for carrying or hauling provisions or perhaps
for hauling water. Often extra wagons are needed for various
purposes. Many lanterns must be on hand to guide the workers
at night and to scare away predatory animals. Guns and ammuni-
tion are also needed to guard against coyotes and other animals from
preying on the young lambs. In some places there must be a
plentiful supply of lambing tents to house ewes and their new-born
lambs from the cold and storms, or buildings have to be constructed
especially for the lambing season. .
The equipment in lambing varies so much under different con-
ditions that it is almost impossible to give a concrete illustration
of its cost. Generally it takes on the form of extras to the regular
equipment, although in various places equipment such as barns and
sheds is employed which is used only during the lambing period.
410 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
Fall and Winter Management. — Fall and winter management
may be said to begin when the sheep are moved from the mountains
to the plains, an event which usually takes place in the month of
October. This is no small task, as often the distance is great and
the range or feed along the trail is exceedingly limited. In many
cases the trails have been closed and the transfer has to be made
by rail.
At the time the transfer is made surplus stock, such as lambs,
cast ewes, yearlings, and wethers are disposed of at shipping points
between the summer and the winter range. Upon reaching the
plains, the lambs and wethers, should there be any retained, are
separated from the ewes preparatory to the breeding season. If
advisable, they may all be placed together after the breeding season
has closed.
The Breeding Season. — The breeding season occurs in either
November or December on most ranges, although earlier breeding
than this is now common in Idaho, Washington, and California.
Earns are placed with the ewes at the rate of one and one-half to
three to every 100 for a period of four weeks. This period of service
makes the period of actual lambing extend over five weeks. The
objects in thus limiting the breeding season are to keep the lambing
period from extending over too great a time and to have all the
lambs of about the same age.
Care of Rams. — Since the breeding season is a strenuous period
for the rams (rams are always called bucks in the West) many
owners practice feeding them liberally with grain in order to keep
them in fairly good condition and vigor. Often when the ewes are
grazing across an extensive plain the rams are shipped to them and
when the breeding season is over, shipped back to ranch headquarters.
Either very cold or very dry weather seems to affect the ability
of rams adversely for service. Sheepmen in eastern Colorado have
observed that rams will desert the ewes in very cold weather and
stand about the corrals in search of feed.
Men who have used both Merino and mutton-bred rams claim
that the latter are the more vigorous in breeding season and capable
of more service. Some have maintained that it takes only half as
many of them as Merinos for a definite number of ewes.
Since rams on the western ranges live under hard conditions
they are useful in service for only about three years. Except in
breeding season, they are run in what are known as buck bands.
SHEARING 411
Frequently owners combine their buck flocks and put them in the
care of a herder who finds range for them at so much per head per
month or for the season. Some owners merely let them run at large
without a herder, and when left to themselves, the rate of loss
among them is very large. Then, too, range rams fight amongst
themselves a great deal and this is a source of depreciation and loss.
Winter Management. — After the breeding season winter man-
agement is chiefly a matter of herding. In herding on extensive
plains which can be used only in winter when snows furnish water,
bands of ewes go as far out as 200 miles, making a total distance of
400 miles by the time they have returned to the home ranch. In
most places, however, the winter range is not so extensive. The
supply of feed may be so limited, or the periods of snowstorms so
bad, that hay and grain have to be fed part of the time. In fact,
shelled corn and cotton-seed cake are hauled out on the plains in
many regions and stored so that they will be available when needed.
At the present time there are various ways of supplementing the
winter range and it is possible to carry bands of sheep through on
areas which years ago would have been considered entirely in-
adequate. Alfalfa. and grain, such as barley, oats, and wheat, are
available in regions where formerly nothing but the wild range was
to be had.
Shearing. — Shearing is an event which frequently marks the
transition from winter to spring management and often precedes
the lambing period. As stated elsewhere, the shearing is done by
men who make it a profession. Early in March they are busy in
Arizona and New Mexico, and they finish in Montana late in July.
The season is then over except for a little fall work in California
and some winter shearing in the large accumulating and feeding
stations tributary to the markets from the West.
Shearing camps, equipped with shearing pens, corrals and sack-
ing frames or balers are established at places usually located on
the trail between winter and summer range. Whenever possible
they are located beside a railroad so that the wool may be loaded in
cars without a long haul in wagons. The sheep are driven into the
shearing camp where they are sheared and made ready to return to
the range in a few hours if the plant is fairly large and well-
equipped . Owners having several bands to shear endeavor to have
but one band at a time in the shearing corrals, for by handling in
412 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
this way they do not have to feed on costly feeds while in the
shearing camp.
Both hand and machine shearing are practiced. The latter is
the more rapid, saves more wool, and perhaps causes fewer cuts in
the skin of the sheep, but apparently there are good reasons for
supposing that some regions will never adopt it. There are places
where a sudden drop in temperature is likely to occur shortly after
shearing. Unless thick combs are used machine shearing takes the
wool entirely too close to enable the sheep to go through such
periods without injury. In some other places the hot sun will
blister the skin if the wool is removed by machines equipped with
thin combs.
•In practically all shearing camps, helpers called " wranglers "
drive the sheep into small pens bordering the shearing floor, so that
by merely turning about the shearers find the sheep within their
reach. If machines are used the fleeces are tied and the shearing
floor kept clean by laborers called " tyers " and sweepers. Hence,
all the shearers have to do is to remove the fleece, but in camps
where hand shearing is done it is common for the shearers to tie the
fleeces. In such camps there is seldom a common shearing floor,
but a series of pens in which half of the ground space is floored. The
shearing is done on the floored part while the sheep awaiting shear-
ing stand on the unfloored part. After the fleeces are tied they are
pitched out of the pens into a long, flat-bottom trough, thirty inches
wide, from which they are gathered and sacked.
Hand shearers vary widely as to the number they are able to
shear in a day. The poorest may not shear more than 50 by be-
ginning at seven in the morning and ending at five in the evening
while the best may shear 125 and sometimes more. Expert machine
shearers will shear 200 sheep in a day. In both hand and machine
shearing the number of fleeces removed in a definite period of time
depends on the size of the sheep, the nature of their skins with re-
spect to wrinkles, and the density and condition of their wool. It
takes longer to shear a big, strong ram than it does to shear a ewe of
ordinary size and it is impossible to remove the fleece from a sheep
having numerous wrinkles in the skin and extremely dense oily
wool as quickly as that from a smooth, less oily sheep. For these
reasons, extra charge is usually made for rams and if a band of sheep
carries more wrinkles and folds than is common to the region, an
extra charge is usually made.
SHEARERS 413
On the whole shearers in the West do fair work, but long, ugly
cuts in the skin should be matters of less occurrence than they are.
Then, too, shearers are too careless in catching their sheep and
setting them down. In plants having machines, particularly, the
shearer retains his hold on the shearing shaft and brings his sheep
down by grasping a hind leg and giving the animal a vicious swing.
Such handling should not be tolerated and it is no wonder that
those who practice having their ewes shorn while pregnant do not
like to place them in plants where machines are used. In a few sheds
recently constructed according to the general plan used in Australia,
swinging doors between the shearing floor and the sheep make it
Fia. 229. — Shearing shed at Bitter Creek, Wyoming, modeled after a type common
in Australia.
impossible for the shearer to drag a sheep in by the leg. He must
pick it up and carry it in. This clever arrangement of doors should
be greatly appreciated by sheepmen (Fig. 229).
Shearers. — Operators of shearing plants often have difficulty
with shearers. The shearers lead a more or less nomadic life and
if they hear of better wages further on in the way of more money
for each sheep shorn or of easier shearing, they are likely to leave
the plant before the shearing season is over. The operators have
been forced to protect themselves by requiring the shearers to sign
a contract which keeps them on the job till the last band of sheep
contracted for has been through the pens.
Sheep shearing is hard work and it requires strong men whose
backs are as untiring as springs of steel. They must be well fed
and comfortably quartered. Since they live a nomadic life they are
not given to accumulating much, for gambling is a game which puts
their wages in the hands of the few who are cleverer at it than
the rest.
414
MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
Marketing Wool. — Getting the wool to market is a task which
follows soon after shearing. As stated above, whenever possible,
shearing plants are located alongside railroads in order to avoid a
long haul to a shipping point, but some shearing must be done in
the interior, fifty miles or more from the railroad and a long haul is
involved in getting the wool to a place of shipment. Trains con-
sisting of several wagons, each loaded high with sacks of wool
aggregating a ton or more in weight, are formed for this purpose.
These trains have to go over a great deal of rough ground and it is
advantageous for the wagons to move in trains rather than to go
singly because extra teams are needed for the rough places and the
steep hills. When the haul is a long one, the cost is a large item, for
Fia. 230. — Wool graded, baled and awaiting shipment from a shearing shed.
breakdowns are not uncommon and necessarily the travelling is
slow (Fig. 230).
Contracting. — Wool is sold in a number of ways in the West.
In some years the practice of contracting it at so much per pound
several weeks or months before it is removed from the sheep's back
is widespread. A certain amount of money is advanced on the pros-
pective clip, and sheepmen financially embarrassed find relief by
selling in this way. There is difference of opinion as to the under-
lying motives of the large commission firms and manufacturers who
buy direct from the range, when they contract wool prior to the
shearing season. These firms, speaking for themselves, say that
they buy in order to accommodate sheepmen who are badly in need
of money, while sheepmen and others think they buy because there
is a strong prospect for a marked advance in the wool market.
Commission Houses. — Another way of handling the wool is
to consign it to some eastern commission house immediately after
the shearing. The house may sell at once or it may hold the ship-
ment for an indefinite period. Should the consignor desire money,
COOPERATIVE SELLING 415
the house will advance a loan upon which interest is charged. With
many this method of handling is unsatisfactory because it has
speculative features which only add to the numerous uncertainties
of the sheep business.
Taken one year with another, the method of marketing most
prevalent is to sell the wool to agents of dealers' houses and
manufacturers who first inspect the wool either in the shearing
camps or in warehouses located at shipping points. As a rule, this
is about as satisfactory to the grower as any method of selling prac-
ticed because he can see the whole transaction through and experi-
ence a feeling of finality about his wool clip in a comparatively
short period of time.
Auction Sales. — In a few places auction sales have been con-
ducted in warehouses located at shipping points. Before sale day
purchasing agents inspect the wool and turn in sealed bids to the
proprietor of the warehouse, who opens them on the day of sale in
the presence of the owner, who passes judgment on them. He may
reject all of them or he may select a bid which is not the highest
made on his wool. If he is not present, the proprietor of the ware-
house follows his instructions relative to probable bids. Immediate
payment is made by the purchasing agent, who, as a rule, accepts the
weights taken by the proprietor of the warehouse as he receives the
wool from the owner. Those concerned with the organization of
auction sales had in mind first, the securing of competitive bidding,
and second, furnishing to owners an opportunity to compare the
selling merits of their wool. It is doubtful whether much has been
accomplished through the latter, as owners are inclined to attribute
differences in prices paid to circumstances wholly aside from the
differences between the lots of wool sold.
Cooperative Selling. — Several years ago a cooperative company
established warehouses in Chicago and Boston for the purpose of
securing a square deal in disposing of their wool and also for cut-
ting down intermediate charges. This company further undertook
to teach their stockholders better methods of preparation for market,
even going so far as to grade the wool at the shearing sheds at a
nominal charge. It has met, as it justly deserves, with a measur-
able degree of success in its various purposes. The Australian
methods of observing and grading have also been taught by an
enterprising organization, so that the West is making progress in
developing an understanding of the value of wool.
416 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
Expense of 'Marketing Wool. — There is a great deal of ex-
pense involved in preparing and marketing wool in the West.
Charges for shearing,, sacking, storing, and shipping make large
inroads on the gross receipts. Prior to government control of the
railroads, the cost of shipping by rail to Boston, based on 100
pounds, varied from $1.32 to $2.60; the cheapest transcontinental
rate is on the Pacific Coast, where*the railways meet the competition
of water transportation. It costs more to ship wool to Boston from
points in the inter-mountain region of the West than it does from
the interior of Australia by the way of Liverpool.
Spring and Summer Management. — The Lambing Period. —
In general, one may say that spring management on the range really
begins with the lambing period. Careful preparation has to be
made for lambing, not only in such matters as help and equipment,
but also in locating and preparing the lambing ground or bed.
The location should be where feed and water are plentiful.
This is necessary because a large number of sheep have to be re-
stricted to a comparatively small area for a considerable length of
/time, and it is also necessary because good feed and wrater are
essential in starting the ewes to suckle well soon after the lambs are
born. In some regions, the Yakima Valley in Washington being
one, harvested feeds are the chief reliance during lambing. In the
Southwest it is not uncommon for owners to have to haul water
five to ten miles and store it in large metal tanks at the lambing
grounds before lambing begins. Men who own large areas often set
aside tracts for lambing on which they erect buildings .or corrals
and dig wells. An attempt should be made to locate the lambing
ground where there is natural shelter from cold winds and storms,
but when this is not possible, artificial protection should be pro-
vided. Elsewhere mention has been made of tents used for housing
ewes with their new-born lambs. In the Northwest, where the
weather is often cold and stormy in the lambing season, immense
barns are constructed at heavy cost. In places further south, brush
and small trees are often cut and arranged so as to provide fairly
effective protection against cold, chilling winds. Should shelter
from the cold not be needed there is always need, however, of corrals
and pens so that ewes and lambs can be sorted from time to time.
If possible, the lambing grounds should be located where they
will not draw an unusual number of predatory animals. In many
regions it is impossible to locate where the attacks of such animals
RATE OF LAMBING 417
as coyotes, wolves, bob cats, mountain lions, and bears will not be a
serious problem. Young lambs are toothsome morsels to these
animals, and they will risk a great deal to get them. Owners, think-
ing that they will gain by getting out where feed is plentiful, some-
times make the mistake of locating their lambing grounds in an
isolated region far away from other lambing bands, and as a result,
predatory animals from far and near prey upon them.
As a rule, extra helpers have to be employed in lambing, whose
sole duty is to guard against the animals that would play havoc
among the ewes and lambs. They kill as many of these predatory
prowlers as they can by shooting, trapping, and placing poisoned
bait, and they scare them away during the night by firing blank
cartridges, building fires, and hanging out lanterns.
Method of Handling. — During lambing the method of handling
consists in dividing the band up into small groups as the ewes lamb,
and of combining these groups as the lambs grow old enough to
keep from becoming lost from their mothers when placed in larger
groups. The smallest groups are the " day drop " and the " night
drop." That is, the ewes which lamb through the day constitute
one group and the ewes which lamb at night form another. About
24: hours after the " night drop " these two groups are combined
and in 72 to 96 hours this newly-formed group may be combined
with another made by combining the succeeding day and night
drops. To make the above clearer, suppose the day and night drops
of Monday are combined on Wednesday morning and the day and
night drops of Tuesday, on Thursday morning. Then the two
groups made by combining the day and night drops of Monday and
Tuesday may be combined on Friday or Saturday morning. This
process of combining into larger and larger groups continues accord-
ing to the judgment of those in charge until the whole band is
together again and readv to move away from the lambing grounds
(Fig. 231).
Rate of Lambing. — Usually the rate of lambing is greatest dur-
ing the second or third weeks of the period. When the rate of
births is at its highest the lambing camp is a very busy place and
there is seemingly more or less crudeness in the way much of the
work is done. As a rule, a greater supply of trained laborers would
save more lambs and cut down the loss of ewes, but trained laborers
are very scarce and in many instances it is impossible to get an
adequate force. In these days when much depends on a successful
27
418
MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
lambing period most sheepmen do their best to get a large per-
centage of lambs. Still, in all but a comparatively few regions, a
large percentage of twins is not wanted because, first, the feed on
the range is not plentiful enough to permit a ewe to grow two lambs
well and secondly, one of a pair of twins is likely to become lost
from its mother through the contusion which necessarily exists in
the lambing band. Such a lamb becomes a " bummer " and gains
FIG. 231. — A permanent lambing camp consisting of a wooden frame and canvas roof and
walls.
a living by stealing from several ewes. It does not develop well and
it hinders the growth of those lambs from whose mothers it steals.
Last Task of Lambing. — Finishing the docking and castrating
is the last task of the lambing period. All the lambs not docked
and castrated are gathered together in a corral and handed out to
operators, who work on them at a rate of speed which varies witli
the size of the task and the familiarity of the operators with it. A
skilled operator can keep two men very busy catching lambs for him.
The testicles and tail are removed in a remarkably short time and
the lamb is in a large measure saved from the nervous exhaustion
TRANSFER TO SUMMER RANGE 419
which results from a slow bungling operation. As a rule, lambs are
operated upon when they are about fourteen days old.
Percentage of Lambs. — Immediately after docking a count of
the tails is made, from which the percentage of lambs is determined.
This figure depends, however, upon the percentage of ewes that
lambed as well as upon the success in saving the lambs born.
Should there be a 90 per cent crop of lambs, the lambing is con-
sidered very successful, indeed, for more often it is very much lower.
The following tabulation shows the investigation of the agents
of the Tariff Board with respect to the percentage of lambs saved in
various flocks in the different western states. The figures are based
on the total number of ewes of breeding age owned and the number
of lambs saved up to the time they were old enough to market.
State Percentage of lambs
Arizona 59.3
California 76.4
Colorado 01.9
Idaho 67.2
Montana 71.9
Nevada 74.6
New Mexico 57.7
Oregon 79.6
Utah 72.5
Washington 92.5
Wyoming 62.4
Dipping. — Before going to the summer range all sheep and
lambs should be dipped in order to prevent the scattering of in-
fectious skin diseases. Dipping is under the control of the Bureau
of Animal Industry in the United States Department of Agricul-
ture and is done when the employees of that Bureau consider it
necessary.
Transfer to Summer Range. — When lambing and shearing are
finished it is generally time to move to the summer range. This is
more tedious and difficult than the transfer from summer to winter
feeding grounds because the ewes must get enough feed to supply
the lambs with milk and the lambs are not strong enough to travel
east. Oftentimes the country lying between the winter and summer
r;uigo is in the hands of private parties to such extent that unusual
trouble is experienced in making the transfer.
420 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
LOSSES FROM SNOW STORMS 421
Management on the summer range consists. chiefly in keeping
the sheep and lambs on good feed and in protecting them from
predatory animals. It requires faithful and skillful herding to keep
ewes and their lambs on good feed in the mountains because they
are run on definite allotments and it is hard regularly to locate
camp so that feed is always easily accessible. Then, too, the fact
that the mountains are rough makes it hard to protect sheep, for
there are numerous canyons and draws in which they can become
lost and exposed to the attacks of their enemies.
The outcome of the sheep business as regards profit and loss
depends in large measure upon how the lambs develop on the sum-
mer range. In certain regions there is no hope of their becoming
fat enough or heavy enough to go direct from the range to the
markets as mutton. Owners, in such regions, must dispose of
their lambs as feeders and manage on a smaller return per
head than those who can grow them to marketable condition and
weight.
It is now rather common for lambs to be marketed before the
summer season closes. In order to get them to market in good con-
dition it is necessary to drive the ewes along with them to the point
of shipment and to have a feeding ground nearby so that the lambs
will have a supply of feed and milk up to the time they are loaded
on cars. While the shipment is a long one, lambs from the National
Forests in Washington reach the Chicago market in very good con-
dition and sell as choice and prime lambs (Fig. 232).
Problems in Both Winter and Summer Management. — The
report of the Tariff Board, 1911, has an excellent discussion of
losses, which is as follows :
" Losses. — The question of losses is one which haunts the west-
ern sheepman day and night. When the sheep are on the winter
ranges, he dreads the possibility of a deep snow, which will cover up
the feed and make moving the sheep difficult, if not impossible.
This is particularly true in the Northwest, where, in the winter of
1910, for example, many sheepmen found their flocks snow-bound
miles away from feed of any kind.
" Losses From Snow Storms. — In many cases the owners were
forced to buy hay at unusually high prices, have it baled and shipped
to the nearest railroad point, and then moved out either in wagons
or packed on horses and mules to where the sheep were, the snow
422 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
FIG. 233.
FIG. 234.
FIG. 233. — Outside lots arranged so that wagons can drive close to barn to clean it.
FIG. 234. — Gates in normal position to form outside lots for sheep. Sheep barn,
University of Illinois.
being so deep and the road so difficult that wagons could not always
be used.
" Others hired teams, and with snowplows a trail was broken
POISONOUS PLANTS 423
through the snow for many miles across the range, over which the
starving sheep were carefully driven, some of them so weak that it
was necessary to pick them up along the trail and haul them on
sleds to where the hay was placed.
" In the Southwest, during the same winter, the snow would
have been more than welcome, for there they faced a drought which
caused heavy losses. The sheep had been moved to the desert ranges,
as usual, with expectation of lambing there. Neither rain nor snow
fell, and at the critical time, just as lambing was at hand, the
owners found they must either move the sheep or lose everything.
The sheep were worked to the railroad shipping points by means of
hay hauled into the desert, and in some cases water was hauled out
in tank wagons and given the sheep in troughs from the wagon. In
this way the animals were moved to ranges where water and feed
were to be had and their owners were saved from a total loss,
although the expenses and losses were heavy enough to offset any
profit on the year's business.
" During the winter of 1899, owing to deep snows, one New
Mexico sheep owner lost, of his entire flock of 40,000 sheep, a total
of 18,000 old sheep, while in the spring of 1909 another New
Mexico owner lost over 12,000 spring lambs — his entire crop.
" Lack of Shelter. — A study of the situation and conditions
frequently shows losses to be due to a lack of shelter on the range.
A ' norther ? sweeps clown across the country, and one flock finds
shelter under a low range of hills or a few scattering cedars, while
the other, lacking these essentials, drifts into some ravine or dry
wash, under the sheltering banks of which they find apparent security
from the storm. But the drifting snow falls into the wash, and the
sheep are rapidly covered by it, smothering to death before they can
be moved. Hundreds of sheep are lost every winter in this manner.
" Poisonous Plants. — -Losses from poisonous plants are also
very frequent. On a good range with plenty of feed few sheep are
lost from such causes, but when the range is over-grazed or the sheep
have been driven many miles over sheep trails almost as bare of
feed as a floor, they will eat greedily plants which they otherwise
would not touch.
" Every sheepman in the Rocky Mountain region counts upon a
certain percentage of losses each year from poisonous plants which
infest the ranges, and against which there seems to be but little
protection.
424 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST
" Predatory Animals. — There are also regular losses from pred-
atory animals, which are taken into account by all sheepmen.
Thousands of dollars are annually paid out by the State govern-
ments as well as the sheepmen in bounties for their destruction.
These bounties, often doubled by the sheep owners, are turned over
by them to the herders to encourage them in the work of extermina-
tion, and they are also freely furrftshed with ammunition and rifles,
as well as traps and poison.
" Strays. — Losses by ' cuts ' or small bunches of animals which
get cut off from the main band and are not discovered by the herders
are quite frequent. Sometimes the ' stray gathers ' find and return
part or all of these cuts, but more often they are picked off one by
one by the coyotes, wild cats, and other predatory animals which
continually hang along the flanks of every sheep herd the year round.
" Coyotes. — The coyote is the one great scourge of the western
sheepman. Unlike other wild animals, the coyote takes kindly to
civilization and rather flourishes under it. Every year thousands
upon thousands are killed, and yet there seems to be but little
reduction in their numbers. To these predatory animals the western
sheepman pays a heavy annual toll and one which cuts deeply into
his expected profits.
" Losses of Young Lambs. — In addition to the losses among
the old sheep, there is a regular loss among the lambs between the
time of ' marking up/ which takes place when they are about two
or three weeks old, and the time of selling.
" This loss is due to a great variety of causes. Two bands are
sometimes accidentally mixed on the range. In the worry and
' milling ' attending the separation many lambs lose their mothers,
and if too young soon die, or if they live are stunted.
"A good many lambs die from docking operation and many more
from castrating.
" Taking the various causes into consideration, it is a con-
servative estimate to place the loss among the lambs between mark-
ing-up time and selling time at 10 per cent. That is, if 1000 lambs
are e marked up ' in May the owner will do well if, counting every
lamb in the bunch, whether a ' top ' or a ' cut-back/ he has 900 to
sell in November."
The Range Problem. — Another problem which confronts the
western sheepman is the matter of range. He may have an abund-
ance of winter range or vice versa, but comparatively few are com-
QUESTIONS 425
fortably fixed with respect to both. There are so many in control
of the range that he has no long time assurance of what will be at
his disposal. Harvested feeds help a great deal in tiding over a
shortage of winter range, but there is no such comforting supple-
ment for a short supply of summer feed.
Selling Price. — Still another problem for the western sheepman
lies in the fact that the products he sells are subject to wide fluctua-
tion in price. Perhaps no other one thing would more nearly place
him at his ease than a fair degree of stability in the wool and
mutton markets. A season of soaring prices unbalances his poise
and he over-reaches himself by investing deeper than he should while
a season of low prices forces him to cash in so that he can not be
heavily stocked with wool and mutton when prices are high.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the size of the bands in which sheep are handled on the range?
" 2. How much labor is required to handle a band of sheep?
3. What are the duties of the herder?
4. What are the duties of the camp-tender?
5. Discuss the equipment required in handling sheep in summer and in
winter on the range.
6. When is the surplus stock shipped to market ?
7. When are ewes bred and how long is the breeding season?
8. How are the rams handled during the breeding season?
9. Discuss winter management after the breeding season.
10. How are the ewes handled during the lambing period and until the
lambs are docked and castrated?
11. How is shearing conducted on the range?
12. How many sheep can a man shear in a day?
13. Describe the methods of getting the wool to market.
14. How is wool sold in the West?
15. What are the problems that confront the sheep owners on the range?
Discuss each.
CHAPTER XLI1I
SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS
DURING THE PAST T^WENTY-FIVE YEARS
Changes in Range Areas. — When sheepmen first went into the
West there was very little land which was permanently occupied.
Whenever the obtaining of sufficient range was a problem it con-
sisted chiefly in competing with cowmen whose rights could be
defined by no other than that shadowy and shaky term " priority "
or " previous occupation," yet these rights were defended to the
point of open conflict and not infrequently at the expense of human
life. But in the end the sheepmen were bound to gain occupation
of what was justly their share because it required less capital to
get into the sheep business than into the cattle business, and hence
more people were attracted to sheep, and they secured their range
through the advantage of superior numbers. In time, however, the
homesteaders, a more numerous class than the sheepmen, appeared
on the scene, too, and they were bound to triumph in occupying
land, not only because of superior numbers, but also because they
were armed with legal rights.
When homesteaders became numerous the range began to change
to the disadvantage of sheepmen. The homesteader was a poor man
whose " claim " was his all, and he resented trespass to the point
of demanding payment for damages. He located on the lands hav-
ing water, and either forced sheepmen to find new supplies of water
by digging wells and building reservoirs or to hunt new range. Those
who thought themselves shrewd enough to hold large sections of
free range for all time by gaining ownership of the land on which
natural watering holes were located were in the end defeated by
homesteaders who settled on all the free lands around the water
holes.
After the homesteader began to collect rents and damages, or
fenced his land entirely away from sheepmen, those in control of
state and railroad lands were in position to demand rentals for their
holdings. Then immense National Forests were created which
resulted in bringing vast areas under the control of the Federal
426
ADDED COST OF RANGES 427
Department of Agriculture. State and railroad lands in National
Forest areas were given over to the National Forest in lieu of equal
areas of government land located elsewhere. This amounted fo a
double restriction of free land. Moreover, the National Forest
service made definite allotments on which only a stated number of
sheep were allowed for a specified time at a consideration of so
much per head. Often these allotments were situated so that
transfer from them to the plains, was difficult.
Added Cost of Ranges. — Because of the changes outlined above
it is impossible to run as many sheep in many sections as formerly
and obviously these changes have added to the cost of running
sheep in various ways, as follows :
First, charges are made for all lands except public domain, which
is becoming more and more restricted.
Second, the alternation of tracts of private lands withdrawn
from grazing with tracts of public and private lands rented to
sheepmen has raised the cost of maintenance by requiring additional
labor and has reduced the possible returns through lowering the feed-
ing capacity of the range. In eastern Colorado, where homesteaders
who have enclosed their lands are numerous, only alternate sec-
tions are open for grazing. Under such conditions the bands of sheep
have to be about half normal size in order to give the sheep in the
rear a chance to find feed. That is, the band does not have the
same opportunity to remain spread out while feeding as formerly
because of having to pass around the sections in the hands of home-
steaders. Thus, one sees that more labor per thousand sheep is
required in eastern Colorado now than in the days before the
coming of homesteaders. Then, it is impossible for sheepmen in
that section to get their sheep in as good condition as formerly,
even though the area per head remains the same, because they
have to travel so much more than they used to. Since, oftentimes,
owners of several bands can not secure all of their summer range in
one body in the National Forest more labor is required than when the
area of mountain range was not definitely fixed. It used to be
common for one tender to look after two or three camps in the
mountains, but now he is seldom responsible for more than one.
Allotment lines are generally irregular, making many corners and
pockets, which prevent radiating out from camp as in the good old
free-for-all days. On this account summer bands are not as large
as they used to be.
428 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS
Third, the ownership and withdrawal of so much land has made
trailing from one range to another both difficult and expensive.
The trails are narrow and must be travelled over by many bands
of sheep. Feed becomes scarce, the sheep go backward in condition,
and lambs are often permanently stunted by the hardships of the
trail. In many sections the land between summer and winter range
has become occupied to such exteirt that the sheep have to be trans-
ferred by rail.
Fourth, the changes which have come about in control of lands
have forced sheepmen to invest heavily in lands. In recent years
homesteaders all over the West have sold lands worth not to exceed
$3 per acre at from $5 to $15 per acre. There was a time when it
was not necessary for the sheepman to own a foot of land, but that
day has passed. Pie who owns land has advantage in controlling
lands for which rentals are paid. Besides, sheepmen should own
land on which cultivated crops are grown for the purpose of sup-
plementing range and those who bought land a number of years
ago are now best prepared to continue in the sheep business. Not
only that, but they purchased when prices were extremely low and
the advance of land values have been such that their investments
were very profitable.
Changes in Labor. — During the last fifteen or twenty years
there have been significant changes in labor on sheep ranches with
respect to the amount required, its efficiency, and its cost in wages
and provisions.
Throughout the West more labor per thousand sheep is re-
quired now than a number of years ago. Statements have already
been made which show that this is true. As compared with the
past, sheepmen now operate under what may be termed crowded
conditions. There are the homesteaders on the plains, allotments in
the mountains, ranch headquarters for producing and storing feed,
all of which did not exist in the past and which add to the amount
of labor needed. It is harder now to keep different bands from mix-
ing and to prevent trespassing; hence, bands have to be either cut
down in size or tended by more men. Then, too, lands are now
used as range which were once discarded because they were of such
nature that too much labor was needed in handling the sheep.
Sheepmen emphatically assert that the labor procured now is
not as good as that which they used to employ. There are more
densely populated communities in the West now which attract many
BETTER PROVISION REQUIRED 429
of the best laborers, and the wage-seekers who enter sheep camps
to-day do not possess the kind of motives that insure efficiency. In
the early days the sheep camps were occupied by ambitious young
men who needed money to be sure, but who also wanted the ex-
perience that would prepare them for engaging in business for them-
selves. Therefore, they were up and doing and they were efficient.
But now, when it is not easy for the ambitious, poor young man to get
into the sheep business for himself and since labor is scarce, prac-
tically any one who will go to herd sheep is acceptable. Those who
do go are usually wanderers who go from place to place without
becoming fixed to any occupation and, although they may work well,
they herd sheep poorly because they do not stay with the job long
enough to learn how.
The cost of labor has increased. In the past twenty years the
increase in monthly wages has been very great. The report of the
Tariff Board, issued in 1911, states that in 1895, or thereabouts,
there was no difficulty in hiring herders at $15 per month in New
Mexico and that in California their services could be secured for
$25 per month. It would take from three to four times these wages
to get herders at the present time.
There is also increased cost incurred in securing labor. In the
past a goodly supply of reliable help was easily obtained close to the
ranches. That is, it was largely a matter of the laborers seeking the
job, but the reverse is the situation now. Owners and superin-
tendents have to go to town and spend several days in finding
laborers. This may occur several times in the year, and when
special labor is needed, such as in the lambing season, the hunt for
men is so strenuous that an owner or superintendent spends time
in town which would better be spent on the ranch if help were pro-
curable in any other manner.
Better Provision Required. — It requires a greater expenditure
per month to provide for sheep herders than formerly. This has
come about mainly through the adoption of a higher standard of
living which is traceable in part to the scarcity of labor. When
efficient laborers began to be scarce the more aggressive sheep owners
improved the quality and increased the variety of provisions in
order to attract more men and particularly the best herders to their
camps. In a short time all owners were forced to provide well in
order to get laborers at all. Then with the inception of more settled
conditions there was perhaps a general rise in the standard of living
430 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS
which was bound to extend to the sheep camps. But in the South-
west the assertion is commonly made that special help can be secured
because the liberal supply of provisions in camp afford an oppor-
tunity for the village loafers to get a good fill. And it is doubtful
whether laborers in villages receiving wages comparable with those
paid to sheep herders have as much to eat. In fact, it is well known
that they do not. Constant reference is made to the relatively simple
list of provisions which was furnished to the old-time herders and
comparing it with the list of to-day, provisions must cost several
times as much as they did in the early days.
Greater Investment Required. — Still another significant
change in range conditions is the much greater investment in im-
provements and equipment. The large tracts of land which owners
have felt obliged to purchase must be fenced at a cost of about
$150 per mile. In many places water has been secured at great
expense by digging wells or by building reservoirs. Because of
the rise in the cost of operation and in the value per head of the
sheep, buildings and corrals have been erected which were not
deemed necessary at an earlier time. Horses and machinery for
working the cultivated lands are now items of considerable cost
which at one time did not appear on the inventory.
All of the changes enumerated above have been in the direction
of raising the cost of maintaining sheep in the West. But a few
changes have been made which either help to reduce the cost of
operation or to increase the returns possible from the sheep.
Beneficial Changes. — For example, railway facilities have been
constantly improving. As railways grew more numerous it was
easier to get both wool and sheep to points of shipment, and the ex-
pense of getting supplies and equipment to the range was consider-
ably lessened. In the earlier days of sheep ranching in the West,
mutton could not be of much importance, for facilities for getting it
to market were not developed. In very recent years little spurs of
railway have penetrated regions here and there which permit of
getting fat lambs out of the mountains to the great central markets.
As a practice, however, shipping sheep out of the West has been in
vogue for thirty years or more.
The introduction of cultivated crops has made earlier lambing
possible in a number of places. This, together with the better feed
and improvement in breeding, has changed the lamb crops into a
better and more seasonable product.
COST PER HEAD
431
Sheepmen are becoming more and more tolerant in their views
concerning the control of the National Forests ; this indicates that
those in charge are earnestly seeking means of allowing sheep
owners to get a maximum amount of good from the Forests.
How Changes Affect Cost of Production. — After considering
all of the favorable changes on the range the fact remains that most
of the changes have tended to raise the cost of production and to
render the sheep business more complex. He who engages in the
business must be equipped with both sheep and capital, whereas in
the early days the latter could be very largely ignored. Again, there
was a time when anyone who could herd sheep might enjoy a fair
degree of success as an owner. That day has passed, for now it
requires business instinct and organization to make a sheep outfit
pay. He who does not take an inventory and size himself up
annually is likely to have to find a new business. Those days when
sheep herders rambled around in solitude with their flocks furnished
accounts of experiences and adventures which are read with intense
interest, but such days could not always exist. The picturesque and
romantic period of the sheep business on the western ranges has
passed beyond recall. Cold figures, close calculations, and clever
organization rule now and business men hold the reins wherever
profits are made.
Cost Per Head. — A Government report, issued in 1890, esti-
Expenses in Maintaining Sheep, per year.
States
Value per
head of
buildings
and im-
prove-
ments
Labor per
head
(including
shearing)
Mainte-
nance
per head
Miscel-
laneous
and selling
expense
per head
(including
provisions)
Total
expense
per head
Arizona
California
Colorado
$0.89
.79
.44
$0.79
.55
.60
$0.15
.81
.26
$1.13
.99
.90
$2.07
2.35
1.76
Idaho
1.02
.59
.96
1.30
2.95
Montana
1.42
.54
.54
.97
2.05
Nevada . .
.95
.76
.36
1.11
2.23
New Mexico
Oregon
.59
1.30
.56
.56
.18
.63
.91
.80
1.65
1.99
Utah.
Washington
.71
.87
.69
• .74
.38
.62
1.20
.77
2.27
2.13
\Woming
.75
.72
.36
1.01
2.09
Average
.89
.63
.46
1.02
2.11
432 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS
mated the cost of running sheep in the West at from 25 to 50 cents
per head. From figures secured on more than 3,000.000 sheep in
the West in 1911, the report of the tariff board estimated that the
cost of maintenance had risen to $2.11 per head per year. The
table taken from that report shows the distribution of expenses
and the total expense in maintaining sheep in the various western
states. The cost of maintenance now (1918) is much greater than
the figures given for 1911.
QUESTIONS
1. What were the conditions under which sheepmen occupied the range?
2. How did the homesteader affect range conditions?
3. What did the state and railroads demand from the sheepmen for the
use of their lands ?
4. How have the changes affected the cost of growing sheep in the West?
5. How has labor affected the sheep raising?
G. What changes have been made to reduce the cost of operation and to
increase returns?
7. How have all these significant changes in range conditions affected the
business ?
PART VII
MISCELLANEOUS
28
CHAPTER XLIV
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
9 '
THE point which has been emphasized more than any other in
connection with the construction of buildings for sheep is that this
class of animals does not require an expensive type of shelter.
While this is true it does not follow that care in planning a sheep
barn or shed is unnecessary. In fact, it pays well to erect a type of
building which bears ample evidence of planning for the health of
the sheep and for the convenience of those responsible for their care.
Essential Features of Buildings for Sheep. — Location. —
Sheep buildings should be located on dry, well-drained ground
where there are no obstructions to sunlight and good air 'drainage.
A southern slope having the possibilities of a bank barn serves as
an excellent building site. The ground to be converted into lots
about the building should also be dry and well-drained, for dry
footing is one of the essentials to the health of sheep (Fig. 233).
If possible, the barn or shed should be located only a short dis-
tance from at least a part of the area that is to be iised as pasture or
forage for the flock. This will permit of the barn being used
throughout the year and it is a much more convenient place than
the fields for feeding grain to the lambs in late spring and in
summer. In order to economize time in caring for the flock the
sheep barn should be located near the other farm barns, provided
this can be done without sacrificing the other important factors
mentioned above. If only a shed is erected it will be necessary for
the sake of convenience to locate it near buildings where winter
feed is stored.
Shape of Barn. — In general the rectangular barn is the most
convenient type for housing a breeding flock of sheep. During
certain periods it is necessary to divide the main flock into various
smaller groups for which it is easier to provide pens in a rectangular
barn than in either a square or a round barn. But in case it is
unnecessary to arrange for small groups, the square and round types
of barns may be quite as desirable as the rectangular type (Fig. 234) .
Warmth. — Sheep do not require an expensive type of building
because they do not need especially warm quarters, which, together
435
436 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
FIG. 235.
FIG. 236.
FIG. 235. — Sheep barn, University of Illinois. On well-drained ground, no obstruc-
tions to sunlight and located close to the pasture and forage areas.
FIG. 236. — Sheep barn of B. F. Harris, Banker Farmer, Champaign, Illinois. Capacity
1,000 sheep. Skylights in the roof of the annex to the main barn.
with the fact that they are easy to keep under restraint, makes it
unnecessary to use heavy building materials. Except in cases where
lambing occurs in cold weather, single walls will provide ample pro-
FLOORS 437
tection, and, as stated in the discussion of lambing in Chapter
XXXII., a warm room can be easily arranged for young lambs in
one section or corner of the barn.
Dryness. — Any sheep barn which does not keep the feet and the
coats dry is practically a failure. In addition to placing the barn on
a dry, well-drained site, it is advisable to raise the ground inside the
foundation three or four inches by filling in with clay. The lots just
outside should be graded so that water will drain rapidly away from
the barn and whenever possible they should be coated with gravel
(Figs. 235 and 236).
Light. — A barn which does not admit an abundance of light
invites the collection of dirt and filth, both of which are detrimental
to the health and thrift of sheep. Especial attention should be
given to arranging the barn so that it will admit a maximum of
sunlight in winter and early spring for no other natural agency
equals sunlight in destroying germ life and it is of especial benefit
to both ewes and lambs in the lambing season.
Ventilation. — No other class of animals suffers more from con-
finement in close, poorly ventilated quarters than do sheep, and
hence it is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of good
ventilation. The barn should admit an abundance of fresh air, but
strong drafts should be avoided. This is not easily accomplished in
cold weather, especially if there are young lambs that must have
warm quarters. But it should be possible to admit a sufficient
amount of fresh air by opening doors and windows on the side of
the barn opposite the direction from which the wind is coming.
In order to avoid drafts in large barns where there is a large
amount of unbroken space, it is usually necessary to construct one
or two partitions extending from the floor to the ceiling.
One of the best fresh-air types of shelter for sheep is a shed
which is open on one side. Foul air never collects in such a build-
ing, and there are seldom any injurious drafts. Systems of ven-
tilation having no connection with windows and doors have not
been extensively installed in sheep barns, but doubtless they can be
used to advantage in cold climates (Figs. 237-239).
Floors. — Earth floors are the cheapest and best for sheep. A
floor surfaced with clay will soon become so firmly packed by the
sheep tramping over it that very little of the liquid manure can
escape. The alleys, the foundation, and possibly the feeding floors
should be made of concrete, but a wooden floor is quite as satisfactory
as concrete for feed rooms.
438 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
Breeding ewes require from 12 to 16 square feet of floor space,
exclusive of space for racks; feeding sheep and young stock being
FIG. 237. — Shed, open on one side, University of Illinois; foreground showing fences made
of movable panels.
x. v«^\H ^rcJ^r -- •
Vv^ ^. L^_^** ^^-v^
FIG. 238.— A closed sheep shed. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
developed for the breeding flock require only from 5 to 8 square
feet of floor space.
The interior arrangement of a building for sheep should aim
at providing for the following: A minimum of waste space; the
FEED RACKS
439
comfort of the animals, and convenience in feeding and watering,
and in cleaning the pens. Since sheep are easily restrained, the
partitions between pens should be movable and made of compara-
tively light material and then the penning arrangement of the barn
can be changed from time to time to suit the needs of the flock.
Often it is of advantage to construct movable racks which may also
serve as partitions between pens.
Feed Racks. — A feed rack for sheep should hold a sufficient
quantity of feed, but it need not be a great, cumbersome thing; it
^<?'- o "-
II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II irfTOTflT II II II II II II II II II II II I
COMB//YAT/ON HAY
ii ii ii ii ii n ii n ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii nnnni n n n n IITTTT
Stffff* /»£•* 6-'6"*2<?-'-O
FIG. 239. — Floor plan of shed shown in Fig. 238. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
should be planned so that the animals can get to the feed easily
without wasting it or getting it in their wool, and there should be
no sharp corners or rough surfaces to pull out the wool or to cause
injury to the animals. If possible, racks should be built of sur-
faced lumber.
In nearly all types of racks for hay or similar roughage, the feed
is drawn out between slats. These should be either so close to-
gether that it will be impossible for a sheep to thrust its head
between them or so far apart that the head will pass between them
without danger of becoming fast. Three and one-half to four-inch
spaces are sufficient for drawing out feed without inserting the
440 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
head, while six- to eight-inch spaces will permit of ample freedom
for passing the head through (Figs. 240-242).
Where large numbers of sheep are fed, as is the case in large
plants where western sheep and lambs are fattened, the grain is
FIG. 240.— Rack with
slats four inches apart and with trough for grain below the slats.
Suitable for wall rack or partitions.
often fed in troughs separate from the racks in which the hay is
placed. In handling a flock of ordinary size, a combination grain
and hay rack is usually the most convenient type of receptacle for
FIG. 241.
FIG. 242.
FIG. 241. — Combination grain and hay rack in which slats are upright and four inches
apart, suitable for partitions only. This is an uncommon type of rack but very satisfactory
for fitting show sheep.
FIG. 242. — Rack 24 inches wide with slats 6 to 8 inches apart to permit the sheep to
thrust their heads between them. Suitable for partition only.
feed. Combination racks are of two types ; in one the hay is placed
in a rack above the trough for the grain (Fig. 240) ; in the other,
the hay and grain are placed on the same bottom (Fig. 239). In
LAMBING PENS
441
using the latter type, the grain is consumed before the hay is fed,
and generally the same method is followed with the type in which
the rack for the hay is placed above the grain trough. Combination
racks are much more suitable than separate racks for preventing
waste with hay containing a high percentage of loose leaves. These
are very largely lost in racks intended for hay only, but in com-
bination racks they fall on the bottoms intended for the grain and
are saved (Fig. 243).
/o-o
FIG. 243. — A combination hay and grain rack which may be entered by the attendant
when feeding grain or hay — for partitions only. (From U. S. D. A. Farmer's Bulletin 810.)
Troughs for grain, silage, and roots should be from 8 to 10
inches wide in combination racks and 12 inches or more in separate
pieces of construction. The sides should be about 5 inches high
and should slope slightly outward. The bottoms should be flat in
order to keep the sheep from eating too rapidly and should stand
about one foot from the ground. Separate troughs should be con-
structed so that they can not be easily pushed over, and there should,
be a railing above them to keep the sheep from standing or lying in
them (Figs. 244 and 245).
The amount of rack or trough space required depends upon the'
size of the animals. Feeding lambs should be allowed about 12
inches each and large breeding ewes as much as 18 inches.
Lambing pens are almost indispensable to successful lambing
and the movable type is the more convenient to use. Since they are
442 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
A
Fia. 244. — A reversible stationary grain trough which is easy to keep clean because it
reversible. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
..O
FIG. 245. — A light movable trough for feeding grain, silage and roots. The long
dimension pieces resting on the ground make it difficult for the sheep to turn the trough
pver. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
A LAMB CREEP
443
to be moved from place to place, they are best if made of light
boards, preferably white pine seven-eighths inch by three inches,
planed on both sides. The pens consist of two four-foot panels or
hurdles hinged together. By opening tnese panels at right angles
in a corner of the barn where the free ends may be fastened to walls,
a pen four feet square is made which provides sufficient space for
the average-sized ewe and her lambs (Fig. 246).
The panels are sometimes arranged by using but one wall, so as
to form a triangular pen for a ewe that refuses to own her lamb.
Fia. 246.— Hinged panels for lambing pen. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
If tied up in one corner of the pen she cannot move away from her
young far enough to prevent it from nursing. By unfolding the
panels so that they stand end to end, they may be made to serve as
partitions in the barn. They can also be constructed so that they
can be used as lamb creeps (Fig. 146).
A lamb creep is a device that admits the lambs to a feeding
place but excludes the older sheep. Its construction should- be a
very simple matter. Provision should be made for adjusting the
size of the openings for the lambs and as a rule there should not be
more than two or three places for admitting them, so that in the
event some of the older sheep are small enough to gain admittance,
444 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
which is frequently the case after shearing, the creep can be easily
closed after the lambs have passed into it. Rather expensive devices,
FIG. 247.
FIG. 248.
FIG. 247. — Small lamb creep made of hinged panels which permit the lambs to eat
from same trough as their mother. Useful in teaching lambs to eat.
Fig. 248. — Rack for water pail.
0
such as rollers for uprights between which the lambs pass in and
out of the creep, have been constructed. While such an arrange-
ment is practically above criticism as a " creep " opening, it is really
WATERING TROUGHS
445
FIG. 249.— Farm dipping plant. Tank to the left; dripping pen in center, and chute from
dripping pen at the right.
57 IN ti x. n :[ i; n n it it n B . r
'—** — * — * * »*— * K — * K X X * * X X * M
4\Z
4Z
4
FIG. 250.— A dog-proof fence. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.)
unnecessary, as the woolly coat of the lamb gives it sufficient pro-
tection in passing between stationary uprights having the sharp
corners rounded off (Fig. 247).
Watering Troughs. — Tn many cases it is just as well, or perhaps
better, to have the water supplied outside of the barn, for it is
446 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
likely to be somewhat more wholesome, but it should be easily
accessible at all times and hence it is often advisable to have it in
the barn. The troughs should be located in light, airy places and
they should be so constructed that they can be kept clean, which is
perhaps easiest done by installing a system of under-drainage, mak-
ing it possible to drain the water off frequently. Also provision
should be made, if possible, to "keep the water from freezing in
winter.
FIG. 251. — Temporary fence supported by iron posts.
In lambing time, it is usually necessary to water some of the
sheep from pails. A rack in which to place the pail to keep it from
overturning is shown in Fig. 248.
Shearing Floor. — The shearing floor, which should be about ten
feet square, can be made of hard pine boards twelve inches wide and
surfaced on one side. After the shearing is over, these can be
taken up and stored where they will keep in good condition.
Wool Room. — While a wool room is a good feature in a sheep
barn, it is not absolutely necessary to have it. But if the wool is not
sold at once after shearing, it should be stored in a clean place. The
FENCES AND HURDLES
447
feed room or some of the grain bins in the barn may not be in use
after shearing time, in which case it will be easy to find a place for
the wool. Should storage for a long period be contemplated, how-
ever, a separate room for the wool should be provided. It need not
<H> be large, as the fleeces can be packed
into a comparatively small space.
Equipment Outside of the Barn.
— Silo. — In case a silo is desired, it
should be located outside the barn
close to the feeding room ; in fact, the
chute should be arranged so that the
silage will fall from the silo into the
feeding room.
Dipping Plant. — -In connection
with every sheep barn there should be
an inexpensive dipping plant, located
where it will not interfere with every-
day handling of the flock. Portable
galvanized iron vats can be purchased
from supply houses, which are ade-
quate for dipping flocks of ordinary
size. When set in 'place, the top of
the vat should be about six inches
above the ground. At one end of it
there should be a small pen to hold
sheep awaiting dipping, and at the
other, a draining platform where the
sheep are allowed to stand for a few
minutes after they are dipped, in
order to let the liquid drain out of
their wool and run back into the vat.
A walk-way can be built as an ap-
proach to the vat, and there are vari-
ous devices for sliding the sheep into
it. But, if the sheep are not let down gently into the liquid, a
great deal of it is splashed out and lost. In dipping small flocks it
pays to lift each sheep and carefully place it in the vat (Fig. 249).
Fences and Hurdles. — If possible sheep should be protected by
boundary fences that will exclude dogs. (It is doubtful whether
I
.*.
FIG. 252.— The iron post. The
bottom wire of the fence is caught in
the crotch formed by the junction of
the elbow piece with the long rod
and the top wire rests in the notch
indicated in the diagram.
448 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS
any fence is absolutely dog-proof.) The fence shown in Fig. 250,
having a barbed wire close to the ground and three barbed wires at
the top would be found proof against most dogs. Division fences
FIG. 253. — A wooden panel, suitable for temporary fencing. (From U. S. D. A.Bulletin 810.)
thirty-six inches high and made of woven wire are adequate for
keeping most sheep in place. These fences may be either temporary
or permanent in nature, or the temporary fence may be made of
wooden panels (Figs. 250-253). The iron post shown in Figs.
251 and 252 was designed by the writer to use with temporary
wire fencing.
QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the essential features of a sheep barn.
2. Why is it possible to build a good sheep barn at comparatively low cost?
3. What are the essential features of a good sheep rack?
4. Why should the bottoms of troughs be flat?
5. How much floor space do mature ewes require?
CHAPTER XLV
PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
Importance of Mutton and Lamb in the Meat Dietary. —
Mutton and lamb form a very small part of the meat diet of
farmers in the United States. The chief reason why they eat so
little of these meats is that they believe all mutton and lamb has
the so-called disagreeable " woolly flavor." In the majority of cases,
this belief is based merely on the " say so " of some one else, but it
is so firmly fixed that few attempt to prove or disprove it for them-
selves. It, no doubt, originated in the early days of sheep hus-
bandry when the wool breeds were popular and mature sheep were
the chief source of the mutton supply. The introduction of mutton
breeds and the increased demand for mutton and lamb in the
larger cities has brought about a great improvement in the quality
of the mutton produced, and to-day this " woolly flavor " is almost
never noticeable in lambs and yearlings, and seldom in mature
sheep (Fig. 254).
Another reason why the farmers have not utilized this source of
meat supply is because they think it difficult to properly slaughter
and dress a sheep. This, however, is even more fallacious than the
belief regarding flavor, for neither the process of slaughter nor of
cutting the carcass is any more difficult than killing a hog and
cutting and curing the meat, a task which is ordinarily considered
quite simple.
Care Before Slaughter. — The animal to be slaughtered should
be in healthy and as nearly normal condition as possible at the time
of slaughter. It should be handled carefully to prevent bruises on
the carcass ; all undue excitement should be avoided, and if possible,
it should be fasted from eighteen to twenty-four hours, but allowed
free access to water. Attention to these details facilitates thorough
bleeding, insures more rapid cooling of the carcass, lessens the
danger of cutting the internal organs, and tends to prevent the
disagreeable flavor of the meat caused by the fermentation of feed
material in the stomach. The fleece should be dry and reasonably
clean, as it is practically impossible to hang up a clean carcass if
the fleece is wet or dirty. Shearing is often advisable, since the pelt
29 449
450 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
is easier handled and removed with the wool out of the way, and the
wool alone can usually be sold for as much or more than the un-
sheared pelt.
Method of Slaughter. — Equipment Required. — A clean, dry
place to work is the first essential. A low bench or box upon which
to lay the animal, a sticking knife, and some provision for hanging
the carcass is all the equipment required for slaughtering a sheep.
Method of Sticking.— The sheep is laid on a low box or bench
on its left side with the head extending over the edge. It is held in
this position by standing behind the sheep and placing the right
Fio. 254.— 4, mutton deficient in quantity of fat; B, properly finished mutton; C, mutton
carrying too much fat.
knee in the fore flank. The lower jaw is grasped with .the left hand
and the knife is stuck into the neck just back of the angle of the jaw
slightly below and behind the ear. The knife should go through the
neck at one thrust, with the edge of the knife toward the head. If
desired, the beginner may then turn the knife and cut out through
the neck, thus severing all the blood-vessels. To stun the sheep after
sticking, the neck is broken by either placing one hand on the fore-
head and pulling up on the jaw, or by severing the spinal cord at
the atlas joint with the knife (Fig. 255).
Removing the Pelt. — The removal of the pelt is begun at the
front legs by cutting out a narrow strip down the front of the leg
from the neck to the ankle joint, holding the foot, in the meantime,
between the knees. The legs, the point of the brisket, and the un-
der side of the neck are then skinned. Following this the flesh of
REMOVING THE PELT
451
FIG. 255. — Slaughtering.
452 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
the neck is cut through in order to loosen the windpipe and gullet.
In lambs and yearlings the feet are removed at the " break joint " x
by cutting across the raise on the cannon just above the ankle and
twisting the foot. In mature sheep, this joint will not break, and
the feet are removed at the ankle-joint.
The removal of the pelt at the hind legs is begun by cutting out
a strip of skin down the back of the leg from the anus to the lowest
point where the feet are removed. The feet should never be removed
at the ankle-joint, because the tendons will pull out when the carcass
is hung. The hind legs should not be skinned out to as great extent
as the front legs ; the pelt should be merely loosened along the sides
and back of the leg. The leg of mutton is a valuable cut, and by
leaving the pelt on as long as possible, it is much easier to keep
it clean.
Beginning at the brisket and cod, or udder, the pelt is loosened
over the belly by forcing the fist between the skin and flesh. Like-
wise the pelt over the sides is fisted off, care being taken not to tear
the thin muscles at the flanks. This is easiest avoided by fisting
first down over the center of the side, and then working each way
from this point over the flank muscles.
The tendons in the hind leg are loosened between the hock and
the ankle by cutting between them and the bone. The legs are then
tied with a cord and the carcass hung at a convenient height. The
pelt is further removed by splitting it down the center and fisting it
off over the sides, flanks, and legs, and working up over the hind
flank and leg, and down over the shoulder. Next the hide is loosened
around the tail with the knife and the pelt is pulled down the back
to the neck, where it is removed with the head at the atlas joint
(Fig. 256).
Removing the Viscera. — The first step in removing the viscera
is to cut around the rectum and pull it out a short distance to
loosen it. The carcass is then opened down the middle line from
the cod (or udder) to the breast-bone, care being taken to shield
the point of the knife between the fingers to avoid cutting the
intestines. The large intestine is then pulled downward carefully
to avoid loosening the kidney fat. The operator uses the knife to
1 The " break joint " or " lamb joint " is a temporary cartilage which
forms a dentate suture in tbe head of the shank immediately above the
ankle. It will not break in mature sheep because the cartilage is knit
or ossified (Illinois Bulletin 147).
CARE OF THE CARCASS
453
detach the paunch and liver from the back, pulls the viscera for-
ward and either cuts the gullet or pulls it out with the stomach. The
liver upon being removed from the viscera and the gall-bladder cut
away from it should be placed in a pail of cold water. By cutting
around the diaphragm the heart and lungs are removed. The in-
side of the carcass is then carefully wiped out with a damp cloth,
care being taken to see that the chest cavity is thoroughly drained.
To facilitate rapid cooling, the breast-bone may be split and a short
spread stick used to hold the carcass open (Fig. 259).
FIG. 256. — Removing the pelt.
A, skinning around forelegs and neck; B, skinning
around hind legs.
When dressing sheep for market, the forelegs are folded back
at the knee and fastened to the shank with a skewer. This gives the
carcass a thicker and neater appearance. Likewise, lamb carcasses
are given a fatter, more finished appearance by spreading the caul
fat over the legs and flank (Fig. 260).
Care of the Carcass. — The mutton or lamb carcass should be
allowed to hang until it is thoroughly cooled, at approximately 40
degrees F., if possible. After it is cooled throughout it may, in the
winter months, be allowed to freeze and can be preserved almost
indefinitely if a frozen condition is maintained. Alternate freezing
and thawing is detrimental to the quality and flavor of the meat. If
carefully protected from flies by some such means as wrapping a
454
PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
FIG. 257. — Last four stages in removing the pelt. A, "fisting" over belly and sides;
B, cutting through skin on ventral side; C, "fisting" over shoulder; D, "fisting" over
hind legs.
METHOD OF CUTTING THE CARCASS
455
piece of cheesecloth loosely about it, the carcass may be cooled in
the cellar in the spring and summer months.
Method of Cutting the Carcass. — The sheep carcass is very
easily divided into the various cuts for table use, since each main
division yields a cut of suitable size for the average family (Fig. 258) .
FIG. 258. — Mutton and lamb cuts. Each half carcass is divided into: 1, leg; 2. loin;
3, rib; 4, shoulder; 5, breast.
The additional equipment required for cutting are a sharp
butcher knife, a meat saw, a cleaver, and if possible, a solid bench or
block upon which to work.
There is a thin, papery membrane covering the entire carcass
known as the "fell," which should always be removed from every
456
PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
•••••••••I
FIG. 259. — Removing viscera.
FIG. 260.— The carcass, a, showing spread stick in place; 6, showing how forelegs are folded.
LOIN
457
FIG. 261.
FIG. 262.
FIG. 261. — Dressed for special market. The pelt is not removed and the caul fat is
spread over the opening in the ventral side.
FIG. 262. — Wrapped first with muslin and then with burlap in preparation for shipment
to special market.
458 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
cut of mutton and lamb before it is cooked. It is 'very tough and
the woolly flavor is often attributed to its presence.
For home use, the carcass should first be divided into halves.
With the carcass hanging, the aitch bone is cut through with a
knife. The hind legs are spread apart and the carcass sawed down
the center of the backbone. Each half of the carcass may then be
further divided into the following cuts:
Breast. — The breast consists of the flank, plate, and front shank.
It is the cheapest cut of the carcass and is used principally for
stews. To remove this cut the operator starts at the cod (or udder)
and cuts straight forward through a point just above the elbow-
joint. The excess fat is then trimmed off and the thin, tough mem-
brane on the inside of the flank is removed, after which the ribs are
cracked with a cleaver and the fore shank is sawed through in OIK;
or two places.
Leg. — The leg of mutton is used chiefly as a roast, but may be
used for steaks. Because of the thick lean and small amount of
bone, it is the most popular roast cut of the carcass. The point at
which it is removed varies with the size of roast desired. Ordinarily
it is cut off on a line parallel with the ribs at the point where the
spinal cord bends upward. The shank may either be removed at the
stifle joint and the strip of shank meat skewered over the joint
(American or plain trimmed), or it may be sawed off just above the
hock and the meat scraped off the bone for a distance of three-
fourths to one inch (French trimmed). The most desirable roast
for carving is made by removing all bones and tying the meat in a
roll. In all cases the thin flank muscles, the tail bones, and excess
fat should be trimmed off.
Loin. — The most palatable mutton or lamb chops are cut from
the loin because it contains the most tender muscles of the carcass.
It extends from the leg to the twelfth or next to the last rib. In
preparing this cut the kidney is removed and the chops are cut
across the loin about three-fourths of an inch thick. The loin also
makes a good roast, although the lean is not as thick as that of the
leg or shoulder. To prepare a loin roast, the joints of the backbone
are cut through with the cleaver or may be removed and the roast
tied in a roll. Boneless rolled chops may be cut from a boned loin,
skewers being used to hold them in shape.
Rib. — The rib extends from the last to the fourth or fifth rib
and is used for chops and roasts. Rib chops are cut one rib wide,
and the roasts prepared in the same manner as those of the loin. A
SLAUGHTERING LAMBS FOR SPECIAL MARKETS 459
crown roast is also made 1'rom the rib cuts. The flesh is rolled back
from the lower end of the ribs, the spinal process sawed off, and the
two cuts tied end to end, bending the ribs backward.
Shoulder. — The shoulder is used for either roasts, chops, or
stews. The large amount of bone it contains makes it undesirable
for roasting unless boned and rolled, when it practically equals the
leg in quality. If not boned, its preparation consists of trimming
off the neck square, and cutting through the joints of the backbone
with the cleaver. Shoulder chops are cut either parallel to the ribs
or across the lower part of the shoulder at the point where the shank
was removed.
Slaughtering Lambs for Special Markets. — Prime young
lambs weighing from fifty to sixty pounds that are ready for sale
from one to three months before the regular crop of lambs is large
enough to market, are often slaughtered on the farm and sold
direct to clubs and high-class hotels in the larger cities.
They are marketed with the pelt on and are ordinarily wrapped
in two separate covers for shipment, the inner consisting of tough
paper or muslin, and the outer of burlap or sacking. This keeps the
carcass clean, prevents excessive drying out, and furnishes so-me
protection against bruises.
In dressing the carcass, a strip of skin four or five inches wide is
loosened along the underline, and the skin from around the rectum
and from the inside of the legs is removed. The feet are cut off
at the ankle- and knee-joints, leaving a small flap of skin to fold
back over the joint. All the internal organs are removed except the
pluck, which consists of the heart, lungs, and liver. In warm weather
these, too, should be removed to insure thorough cooling of the car-
cass. The breast-bone is then split and the carcass is spread open
with backsets.2 The caul fat is placed over the exposed flesh and
the carcass allowed to cool thoroughly before shipping (Fig. 261).
A square yard of muslin is sufficient for wrapping one lamb,
and should be neatly sewed on so as to cover all the exposed parts
of the carcass. The burlap wrapping over the muslin is sometimes
omitted and two or three lambs placed in a light crate lined with
heavy paper (Fig. 262).
- Backsets are sharpened sticks 15 to 18 inches long with a shoulder
about an inch back from each point. The points are inserted in the loose
skin near the breastbone and the turned-back flank on the opposite side
oj' the c:i rrass. rros-sm«; them over the back.
460 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM
QUESTIONS
1. Is mutton popular with country people?
2. What equipment is necessary to slaughter a sheep?
3. What equipment is necessary to cut up the carcass of a sheep?
4. Which is more palatable mutton, mature sheep, or lamb?
5. How are lambs dressed on the farm prepared for shipment?
INDEX
Accumulating stations, 357
Afterbirth, 253, 254
Age, effect of, on rate of growth, 369
indications of, 61
the break-joint, 62
teeth, 61
Alfalfa, a cause of bloat, 277
and corn, proportions of for fatten-
ing, 374, 377
experiments of Illinois Station,
374, 377
feeding value of, 277
American Merino (see Merino), 191
Tunis (see Tunis)
Ancestral history (see Pedigree), 39
Anus, plugged, 263
Argentine Republic, sheep raising in, 16
Arsenical dip, 310
Astrakan fur, 214
Atwood, Stephen, 190
Auction sales of wool at shipping
points, 415
Australia, sheep raising in, 13
present importance of, 14
Bacillus necrophorous, 311
Bakewell, Robert, 7
method of, in improving Leicester
breed, 150
Barley, feeding value of, 380
Beans, feeding value of, 381
Bedding, for fattening sheep, 360
Beet by-products, feeding value of, 381
Berkshire Knots, 122
Blackface, Highland, 168
description, 168
distribution, 169
history, 168
mutton, 169
properties, 168
"Blackfaces," 137
Bloat, due to clover and alfalfa, 277
to rape, 280
to soybeans, 281
treatment of, 278
cow's milk, 278
in cows, formalin solution, 278
Bloat, treatment of keeping mouth
open, 278
pressure on animal's sides, 278
trocar and cannula, 278
Bluegrass, fattening value of, 276, 387
Bot-fly, sheep, 305
Bovidae, family, 45
Branding, detrimental to wool, 317
Break-joint, 62, 452
Breed type of sheep, 74
and general type inseparable, 75
constitution of, 75
objectionable points, 75
sex character, 75
femininity, 78
masculinity, 76
Breeding, adaptability of sheep, for, 33
of England, 34
of Italy, 34
importance of, in United States,
35
neglect of, 35
Spanish Merinos, 34
ancestry, value of, in, 38
methods of, 37
cross, 40
in England, 42
in United States, 41
of Cotswold, 41
of Hampshire, 40
of Oxford, 41
of Shropshire, 40
trueness of type after, 41
in-and-in, 40
line, 40
of Shropshires in England, 40
mass, 37
merit of, 38
prolificacy, 32
selection of stock, 37
Breeding habits, 64
climatic influence, 65
gestation period, 65
heat, duration of, 65
period of, 64
recurrence of, 65
lambs, number of, of one birth, 66
461
462
INDEX
Breeding qualities, of Cheviot, 148
of Dorset Horn, 144
of Oxfords, 135
of Shropshires, 119
of Suffolk, 137
Breeding powers, determined from
offspring, 39
unlike in animals of same pedigree,
39
Breeding problems, 27
adaptability, 33
importance of in United States, 35
neglect of, 35
mutton, and wool combined, 33
improvement of, 30
prolificacy, 32
wool, improvement of, 27
fineness, 27
color, 28
qualities combined, 29
Breeding season, 230
ewes, condition of, 230
influence on offspring, 230
how to condition, 230
extra feed, 230
ram, condition of, 232
on western ranges, 410
Breeding stock, raising of, 25
Breeds of sheep, 99
fur-bearing, 212
Karakul, 212
mutton, 99
American Tunis, 184
Berkshire Knots, 122
British, not widely distributed in
United States, 168
Corriedale, 163, 180
Devon Long Wool, 175
Dorset Down, 173
Exmoor, 172
Herdwick, 172
Kerry Hill, 175
Lonk, 169
Ryeland, 173
Scotch Blackface Highland, 168
South Devon, 179
Welsh Mountain, 172
Wensleydale, 175
Cheviot, 145
Cotswold, 156
Dorset Horn, 140
Hampshires, 122
Kent, 164
Leicester, 150
Breeds of sheep, mutton, Lincoln, 161
Oxford, 132
Romney Marsh, 164
Shropshire, 110
Southdown, 102
Suffolk, 137
on western ranges, 401
wool, 188
Merinos, 188
American, 190
Delaine, 200
Rambouillet, 203
Broadtail fur, 214
Bucks, 341
Buildings for sheep, 435
barn, shape of, 435
dryness, 437
feed racks, 439
combination, 440
for roughage, 439
floors, 437
space required per animal, 438
interior arrangement, 438
lamb creep, 443
lambing pens, 441
light, 437
location, 435
outside equipment, 447
dipping plant, 447
fences and hurdles, 447
pasture, nearness to, 435
silos, 447
shearing floor, 446
troughs, feeding, 441
watering, 445
ventilation, 437
warmth, 435
wool room, 446
Camp tenders, kind of mm employed,
404
of California, 405
of northwestern ranges, 405
of western ranges, 403
Canterbury lambs, 182
Castration, 282, 283
Cheviot, 145
breeding qualities of, 148
cross-breeding of, 148
with Border Leicesters, 154
description, 145
distribution, 148
half-breds, 148
hardiness of, 147
INDEX
463
Cheviot, history, 145
markings, 147
mutton or lamb, 148
origin of, 145
properties of, 147
skin, 147
wool, 147
Clover, a cause of bloat, 277
and corn, in fattening process, 376,
379
feeding value of, 277
sweet, feeding value of, 279
Coal tar dip, 310
Commission houses, wool marketing
through, 414
Concentrates for fattening, 379
barley, 380
commercial, 381
beet by-products, 381
molasses products, 381
wheat bran, 381
screenings, 381
composition of, 382
emmer, 380
grains, 379
kafir corn, 380
oats, 380
peas and beans, 380
Constipation, in young lambs, 263
Cooperative selling of wool, 415
Corn, and alfalfa, for fattening, 374,
377
and clover hay, 376, 379
forms of feeding, 375
Cornfields, value of as feeding fields,
388
Corn harvesting with lambs, 388
Cornstalks, feeding value of, 390
Corriedale, 41, 163, 180
breeding qualities, 182
description, 180
distribution, 183
history, 180
importation into U. S., 182
mutton, 182
properties of, 182
Cotswold, 124, 156
breeding qualities, 158
cross-breeding, 159
description, 156
distribution, 160
formation of, 41
history, 156
markings, 158
Cotswold, mutton, 159
properties of, 159
skin, 158
transition from old to modern type,
156
wool, 158
Cowpeas, feeding value of, 281
Coyotes, depredations of, 424
Creep, 272
construction of, 273
Cross-breeding, 40
for wool and mutton combined, 33
in England, 42
in United States, 41
of Cheviot, 148
of Cotswold, 41
of Hampshires, 40, 130
of Karakul, 213
of Leicesters, 153
Border and Cheviot, 154
of Oxford, 41
rams on Merino ewes, 135
of Shropshire, 40
of Suffolk, 139
trueness of type after, 41
Devon Long Wool breed, 175
Digestible nutrients, in fattening ra-
tion, 377
balance in, 379
protein, 378
in roughages, 385
in succulent feeds, 385
in various concentrates, 382
Digestive tract of sheep, 57
Dip, arsenical, 310
coal-tar, 310
lime-sulfur, 309
manufactured, 310
tobacco, 310
Dipping, for destruction of lice, 306
of maggot fly, 306
of scab mite, 308
of ticks, 306
on western ranges, 419
plant, 447
Docking, 282
' operation for, 283
Dogs, a menace to sheep raising, 312
Dorset Down, 173
Dorset Horn, 140
. breeding habits of, 64, 144
Delaine Merino cross, 144
description, 141
464
INDEX
Dorset Horn, distribution, 144
form, 141
history, 140
markings, 142
modern, development of, 140
old stock, 140
properties, 143
size, 141
skin, 142
standard of excellence for breed,
142
wool, 141
Drenches, 300
coal-tar creosote, 301
copper sulfate, 301
gasoline, 301
how to give, 302
when to give, 303
Dry lot, 355
for nodule disease, 304
for prevention of stomach worms,
303
Ellman, John, 102
Southdowns improved by, 102
Embargo Act of 1807, influence of, 9
Emmer, feeding value of, 380
England, cross-breeding in, 42
the center of mutton improvement,
32
the home of mutton breeds, 8
sheep of, adaptability of, 34 .
sheep raising in, 6
events affecting, 6
Bakewell's improvement of
breed, 7
grant of protection to
weavers, etc., 6
plague of 1348, 6
root and clover crops, in-
troduction of, 7
Ewes, as a market class, 341
care of, after difficult lambing, 254
afterbirth, 254
flushing, 254
lacerations, 254
stimulants, 254
womb, eversion of, 254
after parturition, 253
feed, 253
udder troubles (see Udder
troubles), 255
water, 253
Ewes, care of before parturition, 250
ration, 250
shearing of udder, 250
during lambing period (see Lamb-
ing period), 246
during parturition, 251
delivery, assistance in, 251
birth difficult, 251
birth impossible, dismember-
ing foetus, 252
during pregnancy, 236
condition, 236
economy and efficiency in
compounding rations, 237
exercise, violent exertion
harmful, 240
feeds, harvested, 237
corn, 237
oats, 237
if pasture is limited, 236
in fields, 236
rations of Illinois Station,
242
of Indiana Station, 244
of Wisconsin Station, 243
roots, 239
caution in feeding, 239
roughages, 238
silage, 238
shelter, 241
draughts and warmth, 241
water, 240
shelter and shade, 293
conditioning of, for mating, 230
avoidance of over-fat, 231
extra feed, 230
feeding of, after lambs are weaned,
293
after mating, 231
salt and water, 293
suckling ewes, 267
abrupt changes inadvisable,
268
concentrates, 267
dry lot rations, 269
from Illinois Station, 269
from Ohio Station, 270
quantity, 268
roughages, 268
variety of feed, 269
water and salt, 269
femininity in, 78
masculine, discarded, 78
INDEX
465
Ewes, preparing for mating, 231
clipping around dock, 231
recording of service, 231
selection of, for farm flock (see
Farm flock), 220
for mating, 38
for range flocks, 228
woolly-faced, not heavy milkers, 128
Exmoor breed, 172
Eyes, sore, of young lambs, 265
due to eyelashes, 266
Farm flock, buildings and equipment
for, 435
commercial, establishing the, 219
methods of, 219
with full flock, 219
with small flock, 219
ewes, culling out of, 224
replacing of, after, flock is estab-
lished, 223
early maturing stock, 224
from heavy milking dams, 224
of uniform age, 224
selecting of, 220
constitution of animal, 221
disposition, 223
feeding conditions and purpose,
223
fleece, 222
growth and thrift, 221
mutton form, 222
physical condition, 223
uniformity in breeding and size,
220
sources for securing, 220
ram, selection of, 224
• activity and vigor, 227
breed type, 228
fleece, 228
if ewe lambs are saved for
breeding purposes, 228
mutton type, 227
pure-bred animal imperative,
225
size, 227
with regard to defects of ewes,
228
Farm flock method of sheep raising, 22
Fattening, 369
age, effect of, on growth, 369
on rate and economy of gain,
371
30
Fattening, concentrates, value of,
commercial, 381
beet by-products, 381
molasses products, 381
wheat bran, 381
screenings, 381
comparison of, 382
corn harvesting with lambs, 388
digestible nutrients, 377
feeder lambs, 369
grain, feeding value of, 379
barley, 380
emmer, 380
kafir corn, 380
oats, 380
protein requirement, 378
age influence on, 379
roots, 383
roughages, 382
carbonaceous, 383
comparison of, 385
legume hay, 382
prairie hay, 383
sorghum hay, 383
straw, 383
timothy hay, 383
silage, 383
corn, 384
pea, 384
sorghum, 384
field feeding, 387
cornfields, 388
cornstalks, 390
gain in weight from, 390
general suggestions, 390
grass, 387
bluegrass, 387
timothy, 387
rape, 387
feeds, concentrates, 379
commercial, 381
condition of, 377
corn, 375
corn and clover hay, 376, 379
form to be given, 374
grain and roughage, proportion of,
373
ground, 375
protein, 378
roots, 377
roughages, 376
silage, 376
466
INDEX
Fattening, succulent feeds, 376
comparison of, 385
old ewes, 370
rate and economy of gain, factors
affecting, 369
self-feeders, 372
sex influence, 371
wethers and ewe lambs, com-
parison of, 372
shearing, influence of, 372
shifting from fields to dry lot, 390
yearlings and wethers, 370
scarcity of, 370
Feed, amount consumed by lambs
until ready for market, 285
rations, experimental, 285
Illinois Station, 286
Ohio Station, 289
condition of, for fattening sheep, 377
field, 387
bluegrass, 387
corn, 388
rape, 387
timothy, 387
for ewes, after mating, 231
after parturition, 253
for conditioning, 230
cowpeas, 281
in breeding season, 230
in pregnancy, 236
corn, 237
economy and efficiency in
compounding rations, 237
experimental rations, of
Illinois Station, 242
of Indiana Station, 244
of Wisconsin Station, 243
oats, 237
roots, 239
caution in reeding, 239
roughages, 238
silage, 238
for lambs, 271
for rams in breeding season, 232
grinding of, 375
corn, 375
succulent, comparison of, 385
racks, 439
combination, 440
for roughage, 439
Feeder sheep, 349
common grades, 354
condition, 353
constitution of, 352
Feeder sheep, form in, 352, 354
grades of, 351
choice, 351
quality of, 352
selection of, 81
weight, 353
of fancy selected lambs, 354
Feeding, 26
• accustoming animals to feeds, 365
and drinking habits, 62
change of feeding ground, 63
short herbage preferred, 63
water requirement, 64
and shepherding, 37
business of, a fattening process, 360
bedding, 360
equipment for, 360
influenced by market indications,
358
by general level of meat prices,
359
by general prosperity of people,
o59
by price of wool, 359
by supply of feed, 359
of feeder sheep, 358
of other meat animals, 359
nature of, 358
success of feeding operation,
358
sheds and lots, 362
daily rations of Illinois Station,
365
even conditions, importance of.
367
feed supply, 360
feeding period, length of, 364
field, 387
cornstalks, 390
general suggestions for, 390
first steps in, 365
dry roughage, 365
full feed, 366
free choice system, 272
general considerations, 355
hand-feeding, 367
in autumn and winter, 355
increasing feed, 366
of late-born lambs, 275
"off feed," 368
quiet surroundings, 367
ration, manner of giving, 367
regularity, 367
salt, 361
INDEX
467
Feeding, self-feeder method, 367
sorting out marketable animals, 365
troughs and racks, 364
types of, 355
dry lot, 355
feeds, concentrates, 355
harvested or stored, 355
over fields, altogether, 357
feeding period, 357
first, then under shelter, 356
pea hull silage, 358
specialized plants, 357
under shelter, 356
advantages of, 356
water, 361
Feeding plants, specialized, 358
Feeding stations, 357
Feeding value of alfalfa, 277
barley, 380
beans, 381
beet by-products, 381
bluegrass, 276, 387
clover, 277
sweet, 279
concentrates (see Concentrates),
379
corn, 237, 374, 377
kafir, 380
cornstalks, 375, 390
cowpeas, 281
emmer, 380
field feeds, 387
grain (see Grain), 379
hay, legume, 382
prairie, 383
sorghum, 383
timothy, 383
molasses products, 381
oats, 380
rape, 387
roots, 239, 377, 383
roughages (see Roughages), 238,
268, 376, 382
rye, 279
silage, 383
corn, 384
pea, 384
sorghum, 384
soybeans, 280
straw, 383
succulent feeds, 376
timothy, 387
wheat bran, 381
screenings, 381
Femininity of ewes, 78
mild expression indicative of, 78
Fences and hurdles, 447
Fleece (see Wool),
Flocking instinct, 67
value of, 68
Flushing, 230, 254
feeds for, 230
Folding habits, 64
Foot gland, 46
Foothills and mountains for range
feeding, 393
Foot-rot, 311
contagious, 311
non-contagious, 311
Free-choice system of feeding, 272
Fur-bearing sheep, 212
Garget, 255
contagiousness of, 255
effect of, on lamb, 256
treatment of, 255
Gestation period for ewes, 65
Glands, foot, of goats, 47
of sheep, 46
functions of, 46
skin, of sheep, 55
suborbital face, 46
Glossary of terms used in wool trade,
327
Goats, foot glands in, 47
Goitre, sheep, 311
Grain and roughage, proportion of, in
fattening process, 373
feeding value of, 379
barley, 380
corn, 237, 374, 377
emmer, 380
kafir corn, 380
oats, 380
Grass, fattening value of, 387
bluegrass, 387
timothy, 387
Gregariousness, 67
Grub in the head, 305
Habits of sheep, 62
breeding (see Breeding habits), 64
change of feeding ground, 63
feeding and drinking, 62
nocking instinct, 67
value of, 68
folding, 64
following the leader, 68
468
INDEX
Habits of sheep, non-resistance to
disease, 69
recognition of young, 66
short herbage preferred, 63
timidity and defencelessness, 68
water requirement, 64
Hair of sheep, 52
cortex, 53
cuticle, 53
follicle, 52
medulla, 53
Hammond, Edwin, 191
American Merino of, 191
Hampshire breed, 122
breeding qualities, 129
ewes, 129
description, 127
distribution, 131
early maturity, cause of, 126
for cross-breeding, 130
form, 127
history, 122
old stock, 122
work of Humphrey, 124
lambs, 129
making of, 40
markings, 128
mutton, 129
properties of, 129
rate of growth, 129
skin, 129
weight, 127
wool, 127
Hay, feeding value of, legume, 382
prairie, 383
sorghum, 383
timothy, 383
Heat of ewes, duration of, 65
period of, 64
recurrence of, 65
Herders, of California, 405
kind of men employed, 404
Mexican, 404
on northwestern ranges, 405
on western ranges, 402
Herding, on western ranges, 411
Herdwick sheep, 172
Highland sheep, black-faced, flocking
habit of, 67
Horns and hoofs, 55
Hurdling method of sheep raising, 23
objects of, 24
Humphrey, work of, 124
Improvement of sheep, methods of, 37
In-and-in breeding, 40, 50
Indigestion, in young lambs, 264
Inheritance, differences in, with same
pedigree, 39
Interdigital pouch, 46
Intestines of sheep, 58
instruments for dismembering foetus
when delivery is impossible, 252
Italy, sheep of, adaptability of, 34
Judging sheep, 82
faults of beginners, 96
fleece and skin, 93
mutton breeds, 93
wool breeds, 93
density of, 93
handling, 85
correct touch, 85
fat estimation, 96
the back, 88
the front, 89
the head, 91
the middle, 87
the neck, 91
the rear, 85
the ribs, 89
the rump, 87
looking animal over, 82
front view, 82
rear view, 85
side view, 82
noting defects, 93
preparation for, 82
student's score card No. 9, 84
teeth, 93
Kafir corn, feeding value of, 380
Karakul, 212
cross-breeding, 213
description, 212
distribution, 213
history, 212
lamb fur, 214
types of, 214
value of, 214
properties, 212
wool, 212
Kemps, 314
Kent breed (see Romney Marsh), 164
Kerry Hill breed, 175
Krimmer fur, 214
INDEX
469
Lamb creep, 272, 275, 443
construction of, 273
feeding, amount of feed consumed,
274
methods of, 267
creep, 272, 275
direct, 271
grain, 271
grain mixture, 271
free choice system, 272
indirectly, through ewe (see
Ewes, suckling, feeding of),
267
grass, 275
green feed before grass season, 274
learning to eat, 27
salt and water, 293
fur, 214
Astrakan, 214
Broadtail, 214
Krimmer, 214
Persian, 214
value of, 214
in meat dietary, importance of, 449
joint, 452
troubles, 259
disowned lamb, 259
arousing mother instinct, 259
one of twins, 261
milk supply of ewe insufficient
for twins, 263
orphan lamb, 262
feeding with cow's milk, 262
foster mother, 262
Lambing, difficulty in, 251
care of ewe after, 254
afterbirth, 254
flushing, 254
lacerations, 254
stimulants, 254
womb, eyersion of, 254
dismembering foetus by instru-
ments, 252
preparation for, 246
appliances, 248
drugs, 247
ewe, care of, before, 250
quarters, 246
warmth necessary, 246
the shepherd, 250
supplies, 247
on western ranges, 416
docking and castrating, 418
equipment required, 409
Lambing, on western ranges, extra
helpers during, 417
handling, method of, 417
labor required during, 406
last task of, 418
location for, 416
percentage of lambs, 419
protection from predatory ani-
mals, 416
rate of births, 417
shelter, 416
pens, 246, 441
period, 246
on western ranges, 416
Lambs, as a market class, 340
care of, 267
docking and castrating, 282
how to feed, 273
quarters, 270
shelter and shade (see Shelter and
shade), 293
summer management, 291
feeder, 369
growth, importance of, 267
late-born, feeding of, 275
losses of, on western ranges, 424
marketable at weaning time, 284
feed consumed until, 285
rations, experimental, 286
Illinois Station, 286
Ohio Station, 289
number of, at one birth, 66
slaughtering of, for special markets,
458
dressing the carcass, 458
weaning of, 291
age proper for, 291
early, advantages of, 291
feecting after, 292
procedure in, 291
separation, of ewes for breeding,
293
from mothers, 292
of rams from ewes, 293
young, ailments and diseases of, 263
constipation, 263
indigestion, 264
navel ill, 266
pinning, 263
"plugged" anus, 263
sore eyes, 265
due to eyelashes, 266
sore mouth, 266
white scours, 264
470
INDEX
Lambs, young, caring for, 256
assistance to nurse, 257
at birth, 256
disowned lamb, 259
orphan lamb, 262
weaklings, 258
feeding enforced, 258
first feeding, 258
respiration, 258
when chilled, 259
with thickened tongue, 259
Leicester sheep, 150
comparison of, with Lincoln, 161
cross-breeding with Merinos, 153
distribution of, 154
mutton, 153
properties of, 153
pure-bred flocks, 154
types of, 150
Border, 150
Cheviot cross, 154
description, 153
history, 153
English, 150
Bakewell's improvement of,
150
description, 152
history, 150
markings, 152
skin, 152
wool of, 152
Lice, sheep, 306
Lime-sulfur dip, 309
Lincoln sheep, 161
comparison of, with Leicester,
161
cross-breeding with Merinos, 163
description, 161
distribution, 163
history, 161
markings, 162
Merino cross of Argentine, 163
properties, 163
skin, 162
wool, 161
Line breeding, 40
Shropshires of England, 40
Lonk sheep, 169
Maggot fly, 305
Market, for wool, 327
Market classes of sheep, 340
breeding sheep, 340
bucks and stags, 341
Market classes of sheep, ewes, 341
feeder sheep, 340, 349
condition of, 353
constitution of, 352
form in, 352, 354
grades, 351
choice, 351
common, 354
• weight, of fancy selected lambs,
354
to be considered, 353
lambs, 340
main classes,, 340
mutton grades, 340, 342
common, 347
condition, 344, 346
dressing percentage, 349
fancy selected, 342
form, 342
handling necessary to grade,
345
intermediate, 347
lamb, prime, 341
fat indications on, 345
Mexican, 344
pelt, 343
prime, 342
form, 342
quality, general, 343
pelt, weight of, 343
of flesh and condition, 344,
346
weight, 345, 347
sub-classes, 340
wethers, 341
yearlings, 341
Market lambs at weaning time, 284
Market type of sheep, 80
Masculinity of rams, 76
importance of, 76
pronounced indications of, 76
Mass breeding, 37
merit of, 38
Mating, study of, 38
Merino, American, 190
Atwood's development of, 190
breeding qualities, 198
description, 192
distribution, 198
gestation period for, 66
gregariousness of, 67
hardiness, 198
history, 190
importations of, 190
INDEX
471
Merino, American, "Old Black," 191
pioneer breeders, 192
properties, 198
"Sweepstakes," 191
types of, 192
A-type, 193
wool of, 193
B-type, 196
wool of, 196
C-type (see Merino, Delaine),
196
Hammond's, 191
Black Top, Improved, 201
Spanish, 201
California French, foundation
stock of, 205
cross-breeding with Leicesters, 153
Delaine, 200
description, 201
distribution, 201
history, 200
origin in Ohio, 201
properties, 201
types of, 200
Black Top Improved, 201
Spanish, 201
Dickinson, 200
for western ranges, 200
importation to North America, 9
introduction of, in Australia, 13
in South Africa, 17
types, 17
in South America, 16
importance of, 16
life of, 61
of New Zealand, 14
of Saxony, 9
of Spain, 3, 188
adaptability poor, 34
characteristics of, 5
Estantes, 188
Transhumantes, 188
origin of, 188
skin of, 51
time of development, 59
wool of, 56
surface of growth, 55
Mexican herders, 404
Milk, ewe's and cow's, analysis of, 263
Molasses products, feeding value of,
381
Mouths, sore, in young lambs, 266
Mutton, demand for, beginning of, 33
importance of, in meat dietary, 449
Mutton, improvement of, 30
changes involved in, 32
combined with wool, 33
England the center of, 32
preparation of, on farm, 449
carcass, cutting of, 455
breast, 455
leg, 455
loin, 455
rib, 458
shoulder, 458
slaughter, care before, 449
method of (see Slaughter), 450
of lambs for special markets,
458
dressing the carcass, 458
Mutton breeds, 99
characteristics of, 70
body, 71, 72
fore quarters, 71
head, 70
hind quarters, 72
legs, 72
neck, 70
skin and wool, 73
comparison with wool type, 74
England the home of, 7
English, skin of, 51
environment in relation to type,
99
form of prime animal, 342
gregariousness of, 67
handling necessary to grade, 345
life of, 61
market grades of, 342
common, 347
prime, desirable weights for,
347
of Australia, 14
of New Zealand, 14
of North America, introduction
of, 10
of South America, 16
origin of, 99
quality of, 72
flesh and condition, 344, 346
general, 343
pelt, weight of, 343
Southdown, 102
Navel ill, 266
New Zealand, sheep population in,
density of, 14
sheep raising in, 14
472
INDEX
Nodule disease, 303
effects of, 304
parasite of, 303
life history of, 303
North America, sheep raising in (see
Sheep raising in North America), 9
Oats, feeding value of, 380
and Canadian peas, 280
winter, 279
Over-heating, 311
symptoms of, 311
treatment for, 311
Ovis aries, species, 45
Oxford or Oxford Down, 132
breeding qualities, 135
ewes, 135
rams, 135
description, 132
distribution, 135
form, 132
history, 132
markings, 134
properties of, 134
size, 132
skin, 134
wool, 134
Parasites, sheep, 296
bot-fly, 305
Estrus ovis, 305
Hsemonchus contortus, 296
lice, 306
maggot fly, 305
Melophagus ovinus, 306
Musca vomitorium, 305
CEsophagostomum columbianum,
303
of nodule disease, 303
Psoraptes communis ovis, 307
scab mite, 307
stomach worm, 296
tape-worm, 304
Tenia expahsa, 304
ticks, 306
Trichocephalus sperocephalus, 306
Parturition, 253
care of ewe after (see also Ewe,
care of), 253
feed, 253
water, 253
care of ewe before, 250
Parturition, care of ewe during, 251
birth, difficult, due to abnormal
development, 251
impossible, dismembering
fcEtus, 252
delivery, assistance in, 251
skill in, 253
indications of, 251
Pastures and forage crops, 276
alfalfa, 277
bluegrass, 276
clover, 277
sweet, 279
comparison of, 281
cowpeas, 281
mixed grasses, 276
oats and Canadian peas, 280
parasites, infestation by, 282
rape, 279
caution in feeding of, 280
fattening power of, 280
sown in corn, 280
rye, 279
sheep husbandry not dependent on
permanent grass, 282
soybeans, 280
timothy, 276
winter oats, 279
Peas, feeding value of, 381
Pedigree, 38, 39
in relation to breeding qualities, 39
overestimation of, 39
Pelts, 343
value of, 343
weight of, 343
Pens, lambing, 246, 441
Persian lamb fur, 214
Pinning, in young lambs, 263
Placenta, 253, 254
Plains for range feeding, 393
Poisonous plants, 423
Political unrest in leading sheep
countries of South America, 15
Predatory animals, 312, 424
coyotes, 313
dogs, 312
Pregnancy, care of ewes during (see
Ewes during pregnancy), 236
Prolificacy in breeding, 32
Protein requirement for fattening, 378
Pure-bred flock method of sheep
raising, 25
Racks, for sheep feeding, 364
INDEX
473
Rambouillet sheep, 203
breeding qualities, 209
description, 206
distribution, 210
early records preserved, 203
i export of, to South Africa, 17
French flocks, 203, 204
gestation period for, 66
importation to United States,
204
markings, 206
mutton, 209
Ohio State Fair classification, 209
origin of, 203
popularity of, 210
properties, 209
purpose in breeding, 203
type, 206
folded or wrinkled, 208
smooth or plain, 208
wool, 206
Ram, care of, after breeding season,
242
on western ranges, 410
condition of, for service, 232
exercise, 232
feed for, 233
masculinity in, 75
number of ewes served by, 234
influenced by method of hand-
ling, 235
preparation of, for mating, 234
clipping, 234
painting between fore-legs to
mark ewes, 234
teaser, use of, 234
running with flock, 232
selection of, for farm flock (see
Farm flock), 224
for mating, 38
for range flocks, 229
Range flocks, ewes, selection of, 228
rams, selection of, 229
Range method of sheep raising, on
enclosed lands, 20
advantages of, 22
supplemented by cultivated crops,
20
using herders, 20
Ranges, western, breeding of sheep
on, 399
breeding season on, 410
rams, care of during, 410
Ranges, western, breeds for, 400
herding qualities, 400
Merino, 400
mutton breeds, 401
changes in past twenty-five
years, 426
added 'cost, 427
charges for lands, 427
for maintenance, 427
investment in land, 428
of trailing from one range
to another, 428
affect, on cost of production,
431
on cost per head, 431
allotments by National Forest
service, 427
beneficial, 430
cultivated crops, 430
railway facilities, 430
greater investment required,
430
in range areas, 426
labor, better provision re-
quired, 429
cost of, 429
inefficiency of, 428
occupancy by homesteaders,
426
classes of sheep on, 401
cultivated areas, 395
dipping, 419
equipment required, for lamb-
ing, 409
for handling a band, 407
summer, 407
winter, 407
harvested crops supplementing
winter range, 395
herding, 411
lambing, docking and castrating,
418
hurdling, method of, 417
last task of, 418
location for, 416
percentage of lambs, 419
period of, 416
extra helpers during, 417
shelter during, 416
rate of births, 417
leasing of, cost of, 399
from U. S. Government, 395
474
INDEX
Ranges, western, management of, 402
basis of, 402
fall and winter, 410, 411
herders and camp tenders,
duties of, 402, 403
kind of men employed, 404
Mexican, 404
of California, 405
of Northwest, 405
provisions for, 405
labor required to handle a
band, 402
in shearing season, 406
in lambing season, 406
losses, by "strays," 423
from coyotes, 424
from lack of shelter, 422
from poisonous plants, 423
from predatory animals, 424
from snowstorms, 421
of young lambs, 424
problems in, 421
losses, 421
selling price, 425
shortage of feed, 424
ranch headquarters, 406
size of band, 402
spring and summer, 416
summer range, 421
transfer to, 419
wages per month in various
states, 406
nature of range, 393
ownership of, 395
private, 399
railway land grants, 399
U. S. Government, 395
predatory animals, protection
from, 416
profit and loss on, 421
shearers, 413
carelessness of, 413
hand, 412
nomadic life of, 413
shearing, 411
camps, 411
hand and machine, 412
number of fleeces removed per
day, 412
types of land utilized, 393
foothills and mountains, 393
plains, 393
Ranges, western, wool, marketing of,
414
by auction sales, 415
by commission houses, 414
by contracting, 414
by cooperative selling, 415
expense of, 416
Rape, a cause of bloat, 280
t caution in use of, 280
fattening power of, 280, 387
feeding value of, 279
growing of, 388
sown in corn, 280
Rations, dry lot, for suckling ewes,
269
of Illinois Station, 269
of Ohio Station, 270
Record of service, keeping of, 231
Roots, a sheep feed, 239
feeding value of, 383
in fattening process, 377
Romney Marsh sheep, 164
description, 164
distribution, 166
history, 164
native home of, 164
old type, 164
properties of, 165
breeding qualities, 166
hardiness, 165
mutton quality, 166
resistance to disease, 165
superior as a grazing sheep,
166
wool, 165
Roughage and grain, proportion of in
fattening process, 373
Roughages, comparison of, 385
feeding value of, carbonaceous, 383
for fattening, 382
legume hay, 382
Rye, feeding value of, 279
Ryeland breed, 173
Salt, feeding of, 361
Scab, eradication of from U. S., 309
symptoms, 308
treatment, 308
Scab mite, 307
dips for destruction of, 309
Scotch Blackface Highland sheep
(see Blackface), 168
Self-feeders, 367, 372
Sex influence in fattening sheep, 371
INDEX
475
Sex type or character, 75
Sex weakness in rams, 76
Seymour, Richard, 140
Shearers, carelessness of, 413
hand, 412
on western ranges, 413
Shearing, 322
early, objections to, 323
good, requirements for, 321
hand shears, 321
power machines preferable, 321
influence of, on fattening sheep, 372
of breeding ewes, 322
on western ranges, 412
places for, 323
time for, 322
farm flocks, 322
range sheep, 322
Shearing camps, 411
Shearing floor, 446
Shearing machines, power, 321
Shearing season, on western ranges,
411
labor required during, 406
Sheep, a, ruminant, 45
and lamb feeding (see Feeding), 26,
355
breeding of, on western ranges, 399
breeds of for range, 400
buildings for (see Buildings), 435
class of, on western ranges, 401
difference of, from other Bovidse, 45
enemies of, 68
fattening of (see Feeding), 355
feeder (see Marlet classes), 349
fine-wool of Italy, 34
adaptability poor, 34 .
habits of, breeding (see Breeding
habits), 64
feeding and drinking, 62
water requirement, 64
feeding ground, change of, 63
flocking instinct, 67
value of, 68
folding, 64
following the leader, 68
non-resistance to disease, 69
recognition of young, 66
short herbage preferred, 63
increase in value of, 13
judging of (see Judging sheep), 82
life of a, 59
age, indications of, 61
break-joint, the, 62
Sheep, teeth, 01
old age, 59
change of surroundings bene-
ficial, 59
of slow development, 61
time of full growth, 59
management of, on western ranges
(see Ranges, western), 402
market classes of (see Market
classes), 340
mutton, grades of (see Market
grades), 342
native home of, 63
nature of, 59
of England, adaptability of, 34
position in zoological scheme, 45
problems in improvement of, 27
structure of, 45
digestive tract, 57
intestines, 58
stomach, 58
teeth, 57, 61, 62
glands, foot, 46
functions of, 46
suborbital face, 46
hair, 52
cortex of, 53
cuticle, 53
follicle, 52
medulla, 53
hairy covering, variations in, 55
horns and hoofs, 55
interdigital pouch, 46
skeleton, 47
ribs, 48
sternum or breast-bone, 48
variations in effects of, 48
vertebrae, 47
skin, and appendages, 51
color of, 51
glands of, 55
upper lip, 63
wool, 54
function of, 54
irregularity of growth, 55
variations in, 55
summer enemies of, 296
teeth of, at advanced age, 62
at various ages, 61
timidity and defencelessness of, 68
types of, 70
breed, 74
and general type inseparable,
75
470
INDEX
Sheep, types of, bre<d, constitution, 7.1
objectionable points, 7.1
sex character, 7.1
femininity, 78
masculinity, 70
importance of, 70
feeder, SI
general type, 75
market, 80
mutton breeds, 70
body, 71, 72
head, 70
hind quarters, 72
legs, 72
neck, 70
quality of, 72
: 1, 1 1 1 and wool, 73
wethers, SI
wool breeds, 73
compared with mill ton type,
71
folds and wrinkles of, 71
unimproved, appearance of, 27
west ward movement of, (.)
wounded by dogs, 312
I real men!, of, 312
Sheep breeding, adaptability of im-
port a nee in I '. S., 3.1
Sheep countries, important, 17
statistics tabulated, IS
Sheep feeding in II. S., history of, 33.1
origin of, 33.1
day of the large operator::, 33d
farmer feeders, 33X
advantages of, over large
operator, 338
feeding yards, 33.1
screening, led animals, 33.1
Sheep industry (see Sheep raising)
Sheep population, changes in ecu tern
of, 10
in New Zealand, density of, 15
Sheep raising, adaptability a problem
in, 33
neglected, 35
changes in centers of, 10
combining million and wool, 33
development of, in various conu-
I ries, 3
early domestication and impor-
tance, 3
for breeding purposes, 2.1
in Argentine Republic, 15
ill Australia, 13
Sheep raising, mutton breeds increas-
ing, II
in Australia, present importance,
II
progress of, i;i
in lOnglatid, (>
and Spain, dissimilarities of, 5
events affecting, C>
Hakewell's improvement
of breed, 7
grant of protection to
weavers, etc., li
plague of I.'MS, (i
root and clover crops,
ml rod net ion of, 7
in farming regions, b>
in New Zealand, I I
density of sheep population, 15
paddock or fencing system, 1.1
in North America, !)
colonial lime , 9
t he 1'lmbargo Act, S
Merino:,, imporlal ion of, 10
mill Ion breeds, ml rodncl ion
of, i:;
in South Africa, Hi
conditions unfavorable, 17
in South America, 1.1
mutton breeds, l(i
present stal us, 1(>
political revolutions a hin-
drance to, Hi
Soul lidowns, Mi
in Spain, l{
Merino, .'{
monopoly of, 1
• broken, .1
stationary (locks, b'
increase in value, !.'»
|)resent types of, in leading sheep
countries, 20
farm Hock method, 22
hurdling met hod, 2.'i
objects of, 21
pure-bred (lock method, 2">
range method, on enclosed
lands, 20
advantages of, 22
supplemented bv culti-
vated crops, 20
using herders, 20
prolificacy in, .T2
Sheep wagon, 107
Shelter and shade, 2M
INDl'iX
477
Shelter nnd shade, for fattening sheep,
862
type of, 363
for lambing, '1 Id
lor pregnant ewes, 241
in pasture, 275
losses due to lack of, 121!
movable, 29-1
protection from summer ruins,
206
I rees, '-".K!
parasites, danger of, under, L>(.M
Shepherd, the, 250
Shepherding and feeding, 'M
Shropshires, 1 10
breeding qualities, 119
ewes, I 19
rams, 120
descrip! ion, 1 II
development, method of, 1 10
cooperation of breeders, 112
cross-breeding;, 111
distribution, 121
form and weight, 1 15
format ion of breed, 40
history, 110
horns, 118
line breeding in England, 40
markings, I IS
of present day, 115
old types, I 10
prolificacy of, 1 1(.»
properties of, hardiness and feed-
ing, 118
mutton, 1 IS
recognition as a breed, 1 14
skin, IIS
style, 1 Hi
uniformity of type, 41
wool, 1 Id
color of, 117
Silage, feeding value of, 383
com, 3xi
pea, iiSl
pea hull, 358
sorghum, iiSl
for pregnant ewes, 238
in fat lening process, 376
Silo, local ion of, 1 17
Skeleton of sheep, 17
ribs, 48
sternum or breast-bone, 48
variations in effects of, 48
vertebra1, 47
Skin of sheep, .">!
Skin and appendages, 52
color- of, f)|
Slaughter, care of animal before, 449
equipment required for, 450
met hod of, 450
carcass, care of , 453
cutting of, 455
breast, 458
leg, 458
loin, r,s
ribs, 458
shoulder, 1:7.)
removal of pelt, 450
of viscera, 452
sticking, 450
of lambs, for special markets, 458
South Devon breed, 17!)
Southdown, 102
:i preeminent mutton breed, 107
breeding qualit ies, HIS
cross-breeding, 10S
description, 105
disqualifications, 107
distribution, regional, 109
features, 100
form and \\ciglit, 105
gestation period for, 66
hardiness and feeding qualities, 107
history of, 102
improvement by Ellman, 103
by Webb, 105
in South America, introduction of,
r,
markings and skin, 106
old type, H)2
properties of, 107
.societies for promotion of breed,
10!)
South Africa, sheep raising in, 16
South America, sheep raising in, 15
Soybeans, a cause of bloat, 2S1
feeding value of, 280
Spam, sheep raising in, :;
the Merino, 3
monopoly of, 4
broken, 5
stationary flocks, 5
Spanish Merinos, adaptability of, 34
Stags, :;n
Stomach of sheep, 58
Stomach worm, 29(5
eradication of, 299
changing pasture, 299
478
INDEX
Stomach worm, eradication of.
drenches, 300
coal-tar creosote, 301
copper sulfate, 301
gasoline, 301
how to give, 302
when to give, 303
keeping host animals off pas-
tures, 300
plowing the land, 300
examination for, 298
harm done by, 299
life history of, 296
eggs, 296
larvae, ensheathed, 297
temperature, effect of, on,
297
young, 297
mature worm, 298
prevention of, by use of dry lot,
303
symptoms of, 299
Straw, feeding value of, 383
Strays, losses by, 424
Student's score card No. 9, 84
Suborbital face glands, 46
Suffolk breed, 137
breeding qualities, 137
description, 137
distribution, 139
for cross-breeding, 139
hardiness, 139
history, 137
mutton quality, 137
properties, 137
Summer enemies of the flock, 296
Supplies for lambing, 247
Tape-worm, 304
symptoms, 304
Teaser, 234
Teeth of sheep, 57
indicators of age, 61
of advanced age, 62
Territory wools, 320
Ticks, 306
Timothy, fattening value of, 387
feeding value of, 276
Tobacco dip, 310
Troughs, feeding, 364, 441
watering, 445
Tunis, American, 184
breeding habits of, 64
description, 186
Tunis, history, 184
properties, 187
wool, 187
Twine tying,, 325
Types of sheep (see Sheep, types of),
325
Udder troubles, 255
garget, 255
inflammation, 255
teats, hard core in, 256
sore, 256
United States, cross-breeding in, 41
sheep raising in, adaptabiii^.
important, 35
Water, for fattening sheep, 361
Weaning, 291
feeding lambs after, 292
procedure in, 291
proper age for, 291
separation of lambs from ewes, 292
treatment of ewes after, 293
Webb, Jonas, 102
Southdowns improved by, 105
Welsh Mountain sheep, 172
Wensleydale sheep, 175
Wethers, 78, 341
fattening of, 370
feeder, scarcity of, 370
Wheat bran, feeding value of, 381
screenings, feeding value of, 381
White scours, 264
Wiltshires, 122
Womb, eversion of, after lambing, 254
treatment of, 254
Wool, best types of, 223
branding with paint detrimental to,
.317
classifications and grades of, 318
classes of, age influence on, 318
carpet, 318
clothing, 318
combing, 318
comparative value of, 318
noils, 318
cleanliness, 317
color, 28
condition, 316
counts to which it will spin, 320
cross-bred, 30
fibers, off-colored, 314
strength of, 315
tests for, 315
INDEX
479
Wool, fine, 27
production of, by Romans, 28
importance of, 28
foreign, classes and corresponding
counts for American grade, 320
counts or number of hanks to
pound, 320
function of, 54
grades of, 318
importance of, 314
in new countries, 8
improvement of, 27
combined with mutton, 33
effect of newer manufacturing
processes on, 30
irregularity of growth, 55
kemps in, 314
marketing of, 327
expense of, 416
from western ranges, 414
auction sales, 415
commission houses, 415
contracting, 414
cooperative selling, 415
of American Merino,
A-type, 193
B-type, 196
C-type, 196
of American Tunis, 187
of Australian Merino, 13
of Cheviot, 147
of Corriedale, 180
of Cotswold, 158
of Delaine Merino, 196
of Dorset Horn, 141
of Hampshires, 127
of Karakul, 212
of Leicester, 152
of Lincoln, 161
of Oxfords, 134
of Rambouillet, 206
of Romney Marsh, 165
of Shropshires, 116
Wool, packing, 326
separation of grades and color,
327
requisites of, 314
shearing (see Shearing), 322
storing of, 327
structure of, 54
trueness of, 314
tabulation of grades produced from
different breeds of sheep, 321
territory, 320
texture, variations in, 55
trade names, 327
tying, 321
twine, 325
uniformity, 314
various properties of, combined, 29
Wool breeds, 73, 188
comparison with mutton type, 74
Merino, American, 190
A-type, 193
B-type, 196
C-type, 196
Black Top, Spanish, 201
Improved, 201
Delaine, 200
Rambouillet, 203
skin folds and wrinkles of, 74
Wool crop, 314
Wool growing, Australian, 13
improvement in, 27
in various countries, 29
Wool room, 446
Wool trade, glossary of terms used in,
327
Wounds, caused by dogs, treatment
of, 312
Yearlings, 341
fattening of, 370
feeder, scarcity of, 370
Young, recognition of, by ewes, 66
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