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LIPPINCOTT'S 
iFARM  MANUALS 


iS^O 


m 


m 


PRODUCTIVE 
BEE-KEEPING 


BY  FRANK  C.PELLETT 


"The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  tise  of  land." 

— Emerson. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED    BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 

PKOFSSSOR  OK  AGRICULTURE,   SCHOOL  OF  COUNTRY  LIKE 
GEORGE  PEABODY   COLLEGE   FOR   TEACHERS,    NASHVILLE,  TENNESSEE 


PRODUCTIVE  BEE-KEEPING 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  PRODUCTION 
AND  MARKETING  OF  HONEY 

By  frank  C.  PELLETT 

ASSOCIATE   EDITOR  AMERICAN   BEE   JOURNAL 
FORMER   STATE   APIARIST   OF   IOWA 


LiPPiNCOTT's  Farm  Manuals 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  Knapp  School  of  Country  Life,  Nashville.  Tenn. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  these  standard  texts  up-to-date,  and- 
new  editions  are  published  and  revisions  made  whenever  necessary. 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  POUI.TRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  M.Agr.    Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY.  D.V.M.,  B.S.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A.    Third  Edition  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL.  Ph.D.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M..  Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.  M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 
By  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR.  M.S. 

LIPPmCOTT'S  COLLEGE  TEXTS 

SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

By  J.  G.  MOSIER,  B.S.,  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON,  M.S. 

FARM  LIFE  TEXT  SERIES 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY 
By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK,  Ph.D. 

PRODUCTIVE  PLANT  HUSBANDRY 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

HORTICULTURE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS  (Abridged  Edition) 
By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR.  M.S. 

VOCATIONAL  CHEMISTRY 
By  J.  J.  WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY  MANUALS  AND  NOTEBOOKS 

ON  THE  FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS.  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS         POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY  FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


LippiNcoTT's  Farm  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.  D.  (Cornell) 

PRODUCTIVE 
BEE-KEEPING 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  PRODUCTION 
AND  MARKETING  OF  HONEY 

BY 

FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

ASSOCIATE  EDITOR,   AMERICAN  BEE  JOURNAL 
FORMER  STATE  APIARIST  OF   IOWA 

m  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE   TEXT 


"It  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

Pope — Essay  on  Man 

THIRD    EDITION,   REVISED 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1916,  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT,  lgl8,  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT,   1923,    BY  J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 


EUctrotyped  and  printea  by 
J  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


This  book  is  a  preservation  facsimile  produced  for 
North  CaroHna  State  University  Libraries. 

In  compliance  with  current  copyright  law,  Etherington 

Conservation  Services  produced  this  replacement  volume 

on  paper  that  meets  ANSI  Standard  Z39.48-1992  and  ISO 

9706.  Preservation  facsimile  printing  and  binding 

by  Etherington  Conservation  Services 

Greensboro,  North  Carolina. 

www.thehfgroup.com 

2007 

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Conservation  Services 


To 

THE  MEMORY  OF  MY  GRANDFATHER 

B.  F.  CHAPMAN 

FROM    WHOM    I    RECEIVED    MY 
riRST    LESSONS     IN    APICULTURE 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

The  author  is  much  gratified  with  the  interest  manifested  in 
Productive  Bee-Keeping,  which  makes  a  new  edition  desirable. 
A  number  of  changes  have  been  incorporated  in  the  text,  mostlv 
for  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  subjects  a  little  more  fully.  It 
has  not  been  found  necessary  to  rewrite  any  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  book  in  order  to  keep  it  fully  up  to  date. 

Frank  C.  Pellett. 
ATI.ANTIC,  Iowa,  July  1,  1918. 


FOREWORD 

The  author's  earliest  recollections  are  of  days  with  his 
grandfather  among  the  bees.  One  of  the  proudest  days  of  his 
whole  life  was  the  first  time  he  was  permitted  to  cut  a  limb 
from  an  apple  tree  on  which  a  swarm  had  clustered. 

With  a  lifetime  of  intimate  association  with  the  bees  and 
a  wide  acquaintance  among  the  bee-keepers  of  the  nation,  it  may 
not  be  regarded  as  surprising  that  he  should  undertake  to  set 
down  in  this  book  the  information  gleaned  from  so  many  sources. 
In  no  other  pursuit,  perhaps,  do  the  originators'  names  cling 
to  the  articles  of  equipment  or  methods  of  manipulation,  as  in 
bee-keeping.     Most  of  the  articles   of  equipment,   as  well  as 
methods  in  common  use,  bear  the  name  of  the  man  with  whom 
they  originated— the  Langstroth  hive.  Porter  bee  escape,  Alex- 
ander feeder.  Root  smoker.  Miller  queen  cage,  and  so  on  through- 
out the  entire  field  of  apiculture.     So  firmly  established  has  this 
custom  become,  that  a  writer  is  in  danger  of  being  accused  of 
plagiarism  if  he  describes  a  method  without  the  originator's  name 
in  connection.    While  the  author  has  followed  the  usual  custom, 
in  the  main,  some  methods  have  become  so  generally  adopted 
that  it  hardly  seems  necessary  to  continue  the  practice.     It  is 
not  with  any  intention  of  claiming  as  original  any  of  these  plans 
that  the  originator's  name  has  occasionally  been  omitted,  but 
rather  because  it  does  not  seem  needful  with  matters  so  fully 
credited  already. 

While  the  author  believes  that  a  few  minor  methods  herein 
described  are  original  with  him,  this  book  is  not  presented  for 
the  purpose  of  exploiting  original  material,  but  rather  to  de- 


viii  FOREWORD 

scribe  the  accepted  methods  found  valuable  by  extensive  honey 
producers,  under  the  greatest  variety  of  conditions.  The  best 
has  been  gleaned  from  every  possible  source. 

While  most  of  the  illustrations  are  from  the  author's  original 
photographs  or  draw^ings  made  especially  for  this  book,  acknowl- 
edgment should  be  made  for  a  number  that  are  reproduced  by 
permission  from  "  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,"  "  The  American 
Bee  Journal,"  and  other  sources. 

The  author  is  also  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  C.  P.  Dadant, 
Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips,  and  especially  to  Mrs. 
Pellett  for  valuable  assistance. 

Frank  C.  Pellett. 
Atlantic,  Iowa.  November,  191-5. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  ^  ^^gj. 

1.  Bee-Keeping  a  Fascinating  Pursuit i 

II.  The  Business  of  Bee-Keeping 9 

III.  Making  a  Start  With  Bees 18 

IV.  Arrangement  of  the  Apiary 36 

V.  Sources  of  Nectar 46 

VI.  The  Occupants  of  the  Hive gg 

VII.  Increase 100 

VIII.  Feeding 229 

IX.  Production  of  Comb  Honey 136 

X.  Production  of  Extracted  Honey 165 

XI.  Wax,  a  By-product  of  the  Apiary I95 

XII.  Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Bees 206 

XIII.  Wintering 234 

XIV.  Marketing  the  Honey  Crop 257 

XV.  Laws  that  Concern  the  Bee-Keeper    283 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAQK 

The  Orchard  Furnishes  an  Ideal  Location  for  the  Apiary .  .Frontispiece 

1.  A  Bee- Keeper  Who  Makes  Pets  of  His  Bees 2 

2.  Getting  Acquainted 3 

3.  The  Sting  is  an  Effective  Weapon  of  Defence 4 

4.  Just  for  the  Joy  of  It 7 

5.  Many  Successful  Apiaries  Built  Up  from  a  Single  Colony 10 

6.  A  Few  Colonies  May  be  Kept  on  the  Roof 11 

7.  House  Built  from  One  Honey  Crop  from  Less  Than  300  Hives 12 

8.  A  Town-Lot  Apiary 14 

9.  Intensive  Bee-Keeping 15 

10.  The  Silk  Tulle  Veil  No  Obstruction  to  the  Vision 20 

11.  A  Youthful  Beginner  and  the  Necessary  Outfit 21 

12.  Good  Hive  Tools 22 

13.  Smokers  in  Common  Use 23 

14.  Metal  Top  Covered  with  Flaxboard 24 

15.  Tin  Comb  Bucket 26 

16.  Observatory  Hive 26 

17.  An  Apiary  Ready  for  Shipment 31 

18.  Transferring  from  Hollow  Tree  Without  Cutting  the  Tree 34 

19.  An  Apiary  Without  Shade 37 

20.  A  Well-Arranged  Apiary  in  California 38 

21.  A  Hive-Stand  of  Cement  for  Two  Colonies 39 

22.  A  Tub  of  Water  Covered  with  Chipped  Cork  Makes  a  Safe  Watering 

Place 40 

23.  A  Long  Trough  with  Burlap  Lining  for  Watering  the  Bees 42 

24.  Record  on  Back  of  Hive  Cover  in  Dadant  Apiary 44 

25.  Soft  Maple  and  Pussy  Willow  are  Sources  of  Early  Pollen  and  Nectar  53 

26.  Catkins  of  Pussy  Willow 54 

27.  Blossoms  of  Soft  Maple 55 

28.  Fruit  Blossoms  Furnish  Large  Quantities  of  Honey  for  Early  Brood 

Rearing 56 

29.  The  Golden  Rod  is  an  Important  Source  of  Fall  Nectar  in  Some 

Localities 62 

30.  The  Cup-Plant  or  Rosin  Weed 64 

31.  Blossoms  of  the  Cup-Plant 65 

32.  The  Yellow  Crownbeard  is  Much  Sought  by  the  Bees 66 

33.  Wild  Sunflowers  are  Important  Honey  Producing  Plants  over  I^arge 

Areas 67 

xi 


Xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PIO.  PAOS 

34.  Blossom,  Seed  Pod  and  Leaf  of  Partridge  Pea 68 

35.  Aster  Honey  Makes  Poor  Winter  Stores ...  70 

36.  Boneset  or  White  Snakeroot 71 

37.  Masses  of  White  Snakeroot  in  the  Author's  Wild  Garden 72 

38.  Two  Species  of  Heartsease  or  Smartweed 73 

39.  The  Horsemints  are  Valuable  over  a  Large  Scope  of  Country 75 

40.  Catnip  Yields  Honey  Abundantly 76 

4L  Figwort  or  Simpson's  Honey  Plant 76 

42.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Bee  Plant  is  a  Valuable  Honey  P*roducer  in 

Colorado 77 

43.  Blossoms  of  the  Button  Bush 78 

44.  Buckwheat  in  Bloom 79 

45.  Where  Sufficiently  Abundant,  the  Wild  Cucumber  is  Valuable 80 

46.  Queen  Laying  in  a  Newly  Made  Comb 89 

47.  Natural-Built  Queen  Cells 90 

48.  Worker  Bees  on  the  Comb 92 

49.  Drones 95 

50.  Combs  Showing  Queen  Cells  and  Capped  Drone  and  Worker  Brood.  96 
5L  Hiving  Swarm  in  Straw  Skep  in  Europe 103 

52.  A  Market  Basket  Swarm  Catcher 105 

53.  A  Newly  Hived  Swarm 105 

64.  Swarm  Caught  in  a  Sack,  Running  into  the  Hive 105 

55.  Nuclei  in  Queen- Rearing  Apiary 109 

56.  Miller  Queen  Cage 114 

57.  Benton  Queen  Cage 114 

58.  Queen  Cells  by  the  Alley  Plan 125 

59.  Feeding  with  Friction,  Top  Pails  in  Empty  Super   132 

60.  The  Miller  Feeder '. 132 

61.  Tin  Pan  Feeder  in  Super 133 

62.  The  Doolittle  Division  Board  Feeder 134 

63.  Metal  Feeder  After  the  Alexander  Idea 134 

64.  The  Alexander  Wood  Feeder 135 

65.  With  This  Entrance  Feeder  One  Can  See  at  a  Glance  How  Much 

Feed  Remains  to  be  Taken 135 

66.  Parts  of  a  Comb  Honey  Hive 138 

67.  Strong  Colonies  for  Comb  Honey  Production 139 

68.  Comb  Honey  Supers 140 

69.  Comb  Honey  Super  Dissected 140 

70.  Sections  for  Comb  Honey 141 

71.  Separators  for  Bee- Way  Sections 142 

72.  Fence  for  Plain  Sections 143 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


MO. 


FAQB 


73.  Dr.  L.  D.  Leonard  Method  of  Putting  Foundation  into  Split  Sections  145 

74.  The   Pangbum   Foundation    Fastener   and   Sections   Filled    with 

Foundation 14q 

75.  Method  of  Putting  in  Foundation  with  Pangburn  Fastener 147 

76.  The  Use  of  Super  Springs 148 

77.  Ventilated  Bee  Escape  and  Queen  Excluders 153 

78.  The  Porter  Bee  Escape 161 

79.  The    Latest  in   Automatic  Reversing  Honey  Extractors    166 

80.  Storage  Tanks  of  a  Large  Honey  Producer  in  Cahfornia 167 

81.  A  Power  Driven  Extractor 168 

82.  Sixty  Pound  Cans  for  Extracted  Honey 170 

83.  The  Townsend  Uncapping  Box 171 

84.  The  Peterson  Capping  Melter 172 

85.  Bingham  Uncapping  Knife I73 

86.  Langstroth  Hive  for  Extracted  Honey I74 

87.  Langstroth  Hive  Dissected I74 

88.  A  Well-Arranged,  Two-Story  Honey  House 176 

89.  Large  Honey  House  With  All  Work  on  Ground  Floor 177 

90.  The  Automobile  is  Valuable  for  Outyard  Work 178 

91.  Upper  Comb  Built  on  Full  Sheet  of  Foundation;  Lower  Without 

Foundation jgQ 

92.  Usual  Method  of  Wiring  Frames 181 

93.  Hoffman  Frame  with  Full  Sheet  of  Foundation 182 

94.  Development  of  Combs  from  Foundation 182 

95.  Comb  Built  on  Wired  Frame  with  Full  Sheet  of  Foundation 183 

96.  Strong  Colony  for  Extracted  Honey  Production 184 

97.  Colony  that  Produced  Forty  Dollars  Worth  of  Extracted  Honey  in 

One  Season jg4 

98.  Wheelbarrow  Load  of  Extracting  Supers 188 

99.  Utilizing  Feed  Cooker  for  Liquefying  Candied  Honey  by  Steam .   .     192 

100.  The  Hershiser  Wax  Press.    .      .  '    909 

101.  Steam  Wax  Press '.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.."  2m 

i02.  Brood  Comb  from  Colony  Affected  with  American  Foul  Brood.". '.       208 

103.  Work  of  Wax  Moths  in  Colony  Affected  by  American  Foul  Brood      209 

104.  Thirteen  Colonies  Left  of  One  Hundred  Five  as  the  Result  of 

European  Foul  Brood  for  Eight  Months 216 

105.  Appearance  of  Larvae  Affected  by  European  Foul  Brood.  .      218 

106.  The  Natural  and  Preferred  Food  of  the  SkunJc  is  Insects.'  '  The 

Honey-Bee  is  a  Temptmg  Delicacy  to  the  Skunk  Palate. . .  225 

107.  The  Robber  Fly "    '  226 

108.  The  Value  of  a  Good  Natural  Windbreak  Behind  an  Apiary  Can 

Hardly  be  Overestimated 238 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  ^*™ 

109.  Paper  Winter  Cases  Are  at  Best  Scant  Protection,  But  Are  Good 

for  Cellar- Wintered  Bees  After  They  Are  Placed  on  the  Summer 
Stands 241 

110.  The  Dadant  Method  of  Outdoor  Wintering  in  Large  Hives  is  Suited 

to  LocaUties  Where  the  Bees  Have  Frequent  Flight  During  The 
Cold  Months 242 

111.  One  Method  of  Packing  on  the  Summer  Stands 243 

112.  Parts  of  a  Double-Walled  Hive 244 

113.  Double-Walled  Hive  Assembled 245 

114.  Packing  Box  with  Hives  Inside  Ready  for  Leaves  or  Other  Packing 

Material  for  Outdoor  Wintering 248 

115.  Packing  Two  Colonies  with  Dry  Leaves  in  a  Goods  Box 249 

116.  Snug  for  the  Winter 250 

117.  The  Packing  Boxes  May  be  Utilized  for  Chicken  Coops  in  Summer  252 

118.  Concrete  Cellar  for  Wintering 253 

119.  Cellar  for  Wintering  Under  the  Workshop 254 

120.  Development  of  Comb  Honey  in  Sections 259 

121.  Packages  for  Retailing  Extracted  Honey 264 

122.  Trade-Mark  of  the  Colorado  Honey  Producers  Association 265 

123-126.  Honey  Labels 266,  267,  268 

127.  Little  Stickers  Widely  Used  for  General  Advertising 269 

128.  Advertising  Sign  at  the  Bonney  Apiary 270 

129.  Iowa  Bee-Keepers'  Association  Holiday  Placard 271 

130.  An  Exhibit  at  the  Fair  is  a  Good  Advertising  Medium  and  Promotes 

the  Use  of  Honey 272 

131.  Paper  Carton  the  Best  Retail  Package  for  Section  Honey 273 

132.  The  Hunten  Tin  Package 273 

133.  Dr.  Bonney's  Postcard  Which  Brings  Him  Many  New  Customers. .  279 

134.  The  Automobile  as  a  Sales  Agency  is  the  Most  Up-to-  Date  Method  281 


PRODUCTIVE  BEE-KEEPING 

CHAPTER  I 
BEE-KEEPING  A  FASCINATING  PURSUIT 

While  this  book  is  written  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging 
honey  production  as  a  business  enterprise,  and,  accordingly, 
deals  with  the  subject  in  a  very  practical  manner,  the  reader 
is  asked  to  allow  the  suggestion  here  at  the  beginning,  that  there 
is  much  of  poetry,  as  well  as  hard  work  in  making  a  living  from 
the  apiary, 

Honey-Bees  as  Pets. — No,  this  is  not  a  joke,  for  bees  really 
do  make  nice  pets.  They  are  always  interesting,  and  have  this 
advantage  over  most  other  pets :  they  can  be  left  to  look  out  for 
themselves  without  inconvenience  during  their  owner's  absence. 
While  there  are  comparatively  few  who  keep  bees  as  a  sole  source 
of  livelihood,  there  are  many  thousands  who  keep  a  few  colonies 
for  a  diversion,  as  a  side  line,  or  for  the  fun  of  the  thing.  Yes, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  nearly  every  really  successful  bee-keeper 
comes  to  feel  a  strong  affection  for  the  busy  little  insects,  and 
to  regard  his  bees  as  pets  (Fig.  1). 

To  nature  lovers,  the  pleasure  of  association  with  the  bees 
outweighs  the  pleasures  to  be  bought  with  the  cash  realized  from 
the  sale  of  the  honey ;  hence  they  cannot  refrain  from  growing 
very  enthusiastic  about  bee-keeping  as  a  business,  and  some- 
times the  enthusiasts  are  accused  of  painting  the  picture  with 
too  much  bright  color.  Perhaps  some  such  feeling  is  essential 
to  the  pursuit,  and  the  lack  of  it  may  account  for  the  failure  of 
some,  who  are  not  lacking  in  industry  or  patience,  two  very 
essential  requirements. 

Getting  Acquainted. — If  one  will  make  pets  of  the  bees,  he 
must  first  proceed  to  get  acquainted  with  them.  They  are 
notional  little  creatures,  and  one  must  know  what  to  expect 

1 


2  BEE-KEEPING,  A  FASCINATING  PURSUIT 

under  given  circumstances  in  order  to  get  along  well.  One  who 
loves  and  understands  bees  seldom  has  trouble  on  account  of 
stings.  The  sting  is  a  weapon  of  defence,  seldom  of  offence,  and 
the  bee-keeper  must  know  the  liberties  they  will  resent  (Fig.  2). 


Fig.  1 . — A  bee-keeper  who  makes  pets  of  his  bees. 

Of  course  there  is  a  difference  in  the  disposition.  Some  bees 
are  crosser  than  others,  and,  perhaps,  there  are  bees  which  one 
would  hardly  care  to  cultivate  as  pets.  The  author  has  at  differ- 
ent times  had  a  great  many  colonies  of  Italians,  Crosses,  and 
Blacks.  Some  have  been  gentler  than  others,  but  he  has  usually 
been  on  friendly  terms  with  all.     The  practical  bee-keeper  will 


GETTING  ACQUAINTED  3 

frequently  handle  his  bees  without  veil  or  gloves,  and  without 
a  sting.  Others,  who  have  had  a  few  bees  about  for  years,  with- 
out really  becoming  acquainted  with  them,  always  arm  them- 
selves with  a  sting-proof  armament,  and  usually  arouse  the 
bees  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  unsafe  for  any  member  of  the 
family  to  leave  the  house  for  twenty-four  hours.    At  such  times 


FiQ.  2. — Getting  acquainted. 

chickens  have  been  known  to  be  stung  to  death,  and  other  animals 
to  be  badly  used. 

The  successful  bee-keeper  must  take  the  trouble  to  get  ac- 
quainted with  the  bees,  and  to  comply  with  the  few  simple 
requirements  necessary  to  handle  them  easily  and  successfully. 
In  the  first  place,  never  place  yourself  in  the  direct  line  of  flight 


4  BEE-KEEPING,  A  FASCINATING  PURSUIT 

of  the  workers,  in  going  to  and  from  the  hive.  People  who  should 
know  better  are  often  seen  getting  directly  in  front  of  the  hive, 
even  though  a  rod  or  two  away,  to  watch  their  movements.  An 
expert  called  upon  to  look  into  a  hive  may,  by  approaching  from 
the  rear,  carefully  remove  the  cover  without  causing  any  commo- 
tion. At  the  same  time  the  novice,  watching  from  some  distance 
in  front,  is  quite  likely  to  receive  sufficient  attention  to  insure 
a  hasty  retreat  (Fig.  3). 


Fia.  3.— The  eting  is  an  effective  weapon  of  defence. 

An  Orderly  Community. — The  work  of  the  hive  is  done  in 
an  orderly  manner.  There  is  no  hit-and-miss  business  there. 
Every  individual  bee  has  a  duty  to  perform,  and  that  duty  is 
apparently  done  in  the  right  manner  and  at  the  proper  time. 
In  order  to  look  within  the  hive  without  causing  resentment  on 
the  part  of  the  bees,  one  must  do  something  to  break  up  the 
orderly  system  and  create  confusion  among  the  inmates.  Under 
normal  conditions,  sentinels  are  posted  at  the  entrance  of  the 


AN  ORDERLY  COMMUNITY  5 

hive  to  detect  and  ward  off  danger.  In  some  manner  these 
g-uards  are  able  to  recognize  every  member  of  the  very  numerous 
family.  If  a  strange  bee,  a  robber  perchance,  should  happen  to 
alight  at  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  it  is  at  once  set  upon  and 
driven  away  or  killed.  Let  a  man  or  an  animal  pass  in  front 
of  the  hive,  and  the  chances  are  that  the  sentinels  will  take 
notice,  and  invite  the  trespasser  to  move  on.  The  bee-keeper, 
wishing  to  open  the  hive,  approaches  quietly  from  the  rear,  and 
blows  a  little  smoke  into  the  entrance.  As  a  result  the  sentinels 
are  at  once  thrown  off  guard.  The  cover  is  then  carefully  lifted 
and  more  smoke  blown  over  the  frames.  This  causes  a  suspen- 
sion of  work  in  all  parts  of  the  hive,  and  general  confusion 
results.  The  bees  at  once  seek  the  open  cells,  and  fill  their  honey 
sacs  with  honey,  as  though  they  believed  the  house  to  be  on  fire 
and  wished  to  save  as  much  of  their  hard-earned  store  as  possible. 

A  careful  operator  will  be  able  to  create  such  a  condition  of 
hopeless  confusion  within  the  hive,  that  the  bees  lose  all 
thought  of  defence,  and  he  can  handle  them  at  will  without  the 
slightest  resistance.  If  the  frames  are  at  once  removed,  the 
bees  may  be  dumped  into  a  pan,  picked  up  by  handfuls,  or  dis- 
posed of  in  any  manner,  if  only  one  be  careful  not  to  pinch  or 
crush  any  of  them.  Experienced  bee-keepers  frequently  give 
demonstrations  before  the  gaping  public  in  a  manner  to  excite 
a  wondering  interest  on  the  part  of  the  uninitiated,  and  to  lead 
to  all  sorts  of  absurd  statements.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  attempt 
to  give  the  impression  that  they  have  unusual  influence  over  the 
insects,  calling  themselves  bee-wizards  or  other  silly  names.  If 
the  operator  is  skillful  in  controlling  the  bees,  he  can  perform 
feats  that  seem  very  wonderful  to  those  whose  only  information 
concerning  them  is  that  they  sting  and  make  honey.  Blowing 
live  bees  from  the  mouth,  pouring  panfuls  over  the  head,  and 
similar  "  stunts  "  are  not  uncommon  at  these  demonstrations. 

There  are  some  gentle  strains  of  Italians  that  have  become 
so  accustomed  to  being  handled  that  they  can  be  safely  handled 
during  a  honey  flow  without  smoke.     The  novice  should  be 


6  BEE-KEEPING,  A  FASCINATING  PURSUIT 

cautious  about  over-confidence  until  he  has  become  familiar  with 
the  habits  of  the  insects  and  the  methods  of  control. 

There  are  some  who  cannot  overcome  a  nervous  fear  of  the 
bees,  and  consequently  can  never  handle  them  successfully.  The 
first  essential  in  controlling  bees  is  to  be  able  to  control  one's 
self.  When  a  bee  comes  buzzing  about,  the  chances  are  ninety- 
nine  in  a  hundred  that  she  will  make  no  trouble  unless  the  person 
under  observation  starts  it.  How  often  people  get  stung  by 
starting  a  fuss  with  a  perfectly  friendly  bee,  when  if  they  would 
only  keep  quiet  there  would  be  no  trouble.  One  can  very  soon 
come  to  recognize  the  difference  between  the  hum  of  a  friendly 
bee  and  the  angry  buzz  of  one  on  the  warpath.  The  experiment 
has  been  tried  of  keeping  perfectly  still  when  pursued  by  angry 
ones.  Often  they  alight  on  the  operator  with  apparent  surprise 
that  he  is  not  kicking  up  a  fuss,  and,  after  a  moment  or  two  of 
hesitation,  fly  away  without  drawing  their  daggers.  This  plan 
is  not  always  successful,  though  there  is  less  danger  of  getting 
stung  when  quiet  than  when  frantically  kicking  and  striking 
in  every  direction.  Where  a  colony  is  on  the  warpath,  the  best 
plan  is  to  keep  away  until  they  have  become  quiet,  for  it  is  very 
difficult  to  control  bees  after  they  have  become  fully  aroused. 

Fifty  or  a  hundred  friendly  bees  crawling  over  a  seasoned 
bee-keeper  cause  him  not  the  slightest  uneasiness,  but  on  the  other 
hand,  he  is  likely  rather  to  enjoy  the  sensation.  One  who  is 
not  accustomed  to  handling  them  should  always  take  the  pre- 
caution to  protect  himself  fully  with  veil  and  gloves,  until  he 
becomes  so  familiar  with  them  as  to  be  able  to  overcome  his 
nervousness  when  they  alight  on  the  face  or  hands. 

Some  Causes  of  Trouble. — There  are  several  things  that  have 
a  tendency  to  cause  trouble  between  the  operator  and  his  bees. 
They  are  much  more  inclined  to  be  cross  when  the  atmosphere 
is  heavy  before  a  storm,  and  sometimes  after.  They  show  a 
tendency  to  be  more  hostile  toward  one  dressed  in  dark  colored 
clothing  than  in  light  garments.  One  should  take  care  to  never 
go  about  the  bees  with  the  odor  of  the  stable  clinging  to  his  gar- 


THE  JOY  OF  IT  7 

ments,  as  that  is  offensive  to  them.  One  is  more  likely  to  be 
stung  when  perspiring  freely,  and  persons  whose  perspiration 
has  an  offensive  odor  will  have  more  trouble  with  the  bees.  It  is 
important  that  the  bee-keeper  avoid  jarring  the  hive  or  any 
quick,  nervous  movement.  Even  a  slight  jar  causes  unnecessary- 
excitement  in  the  hive. 

One  who  is  much  with  the  bees  can,  if  he  will,  soon  come  to 
know  and  avoid  the  things  that  are  distasteful  to  them,  and  to 
perform  tlie  operations  necessary  to  bee-keeping  with  little 
danger  of  being  stung. 


Fig.  4. — Just  for  the  joy  of  it. 

The  Joy  of  It.— The  nature-lover  who  does  not  keep  bees  is 
missing  a  good  thing.  There  is  a  charm  about  lying  in  the  gra::3 
beside  the  hive  and  watching  the  stream  of  workers  bringing  in 
the  harvest  of  honey  and  pollen  at  the  height  of  the  season,  when 
the  colony  ig  in  a  fever  of  excitement.  Then  to  know  something 
of  the  wonderful  system  of  government,  by  which  the  thousands 
of  insects  composing  a  colony  are  able  to  work  together  har- 
moniously, with  never  a  shirker  among  the  bevy  of  toilers,  is  a 
most  interesting  study.  At  times  the  beekeeper  is  seized  with 
a  desire  to  see  what  is  going  on  inside  the  hive,  to  visit  a  colony, 


g  BEE-KEEPING,  A  FASCINATING  PURSUIT 

remove  the  frames,  and  examine  the  young  bees  in  all  stages  of 
development,  hunt  out  the  queen,  pick  up  handfuls  of  the  friendly 
little  bees  just  to  feel  the  tickle  of  their  feet  in  his  hand,  and 
to  put  them  all  back  again,  just  for  the  joy  of  it  (Fig,  4).  Yes, 
indeed,  it  is  worth  while  to  make  pets  of  the  bees. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Note  some  of  the  attractions  of  bee-keeping. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  essentials  of  success? 

3.  Discuss  the  general  principles  of  bee  control. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  are  distasteful  to  the  bees? 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEE-KEEPING 
Few  persons  think  of  beojkeeping  as  a  business.  The  ordin- 
ary conception  is  that  of  a  diversion,  a  side  line  on  the  farm, 
or  a  harmless  pursuit  for  old  men.  Perhaps  90  per  cent  of 
those  keeping  bees  may  be  included  in  one  of  these  classes,  of 
which  a  very  large  number  will  come  under  the  head  of  keeping 
bees  as  a  diversion. 

The  public  is  just  now  beginning  to  realize  the  fact  that  bee- 
keeping is  a  real  man's-sized  job,  and  that  an  able-bodied  man 
of  good  education  can  profitably  occupy  his  time  with  bees. 

When  considering  the  possibilities  of  any  occupation  as  a 
lifetime  pursuit,  the  careful  person  makes  inquiry  along  several 
lines:  Is  the  business  congenial?  What  are  the  advantages? 
What  are  the  probable  returns  ? 

No  specialized  branch  of  agriculture  requires  more  skill  to 
be  successfully  pursued  as  an  exclusive  business  than  honey 
production.  The  man  who  cannot  or  will  not  give  close  attention 
to  details,  promptly,  should  never  be  a  bee-keeper.  The  whole 
business  is  one  of  details,  and  apparently  imimportant  things  are 
of  the  utmost  importance.  To  such  an  extent  is  this  true,  that 
it  often  happens  that  the  scientific  bee  man  will  get  a  crop  of 
honey  in  an  off  season,  when  his  neighbor,  with  the  same  kind 
of  equipment  and  apparently  following  the  same  general  plan, 
gets  no  surplus.  In  most  localities  the  honey  flows  are  of  short 
duration,  and  everything  hinges  on  getting  the  bees  in  proper 
condition  to  store  the  maximum  of  honey  when  the  flow  is  on. 
The  honey  producer  must  see  to  it  that  his  dish  is  right  side  up 
when  it  rains  nectar. 

The  man  or  woman  who  is  of  a  studious  disposition,  loves 
nature,  and  delights  in  out-of-door  pursuits,  is  likely  to  find  bee- 
keeping a  congenial  occupation.  Most  of  the  conspicuously  suc- 
cessful bee-keepers  are  studious,   questioning  individuals,   in- 


10  THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEE-KEEPING 

tensely  interested  in  the  honey-bee.  While  great  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  past  few  years,  much  yet  remains  to  be  learned, 
and  new  methods  and  new  discoveries  are  constantly  brought  for- 
ward. The  person  who  believes  he  knows  all  about  bees  is  a 
back  number,  indeed. 

The  Advantages. — Bee-keeping  is  one  of  the  few  pursuits 
open  to  persons  of  small  capital  or  poor  health.    Many  a  success- 


Many  a  successful  apiary  has  been  built  up  from  a  single  colony. 


ful  apiary  has  been  built  up  from  a  single  colony  of  bees  and  an 
investment  of  but  a  few  dollars  (Fig.  5).  In  fact,  some  of  the 
most  successful  bee  men  have  begun  in  this  way,  and  built  up  an 
extensive  business  that  yielded  a  good  income. 

Then  again,  bees  may  be  kept  in  situations  where  it  would 
be  impossible  to  undertake  any  other  enterprise.  Of  course,  after 
one  has  enlarged  his  apiaries  to  such  an  extent  that  they  will 


THE  ADVANTAGES 


11 


occupy  the  entire  time  and  attention  of  the  owner,  a  suitable 
situation  will  be  necessary,  but  a  start  may  be  made  under  appar- 
ently unfavorable  circumstances.  A  few  colonies  are  often  kept 
on  top  of  a  business  building  in  the  city,  in  the  attic,  the  back 
yard,  or  even  have  been  known  in  the  bed-room,  with  an  opening 
tlirough  the  sash  (Fig.  6). 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  the  business  lies  in  this 
possibility  of  development,  without  requiring  that  the  learner 


Fiii.  G.— A  few  colonies  may  be  kept  on  the  rool. 

leave  his  regular  home  or  business  until  ho  has  learned  much 
concerning  the  new  venture  and  is  able  to  judge  whether  he  is 
likely  to  be  adapted  to  the  work.  Men  and  women,  worn  out 
with  professional  work,  and  feeling  the  need  of  change  and  of 
work  in  the  open  air,  have  found  health,  happiness,  and  pros- 
perity in  following  this  suggestion  (Fig.  7). 

Women  in  many  cases  are  successful  honey  producers,  those 
who  have  laid  aside  the  arduous  work  of  the  school-room  to  take 
it  up  being  not  uncommon. 


12 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEE-KEEPING 


The  fact,  perhaps,  that  so  many  in  poor  health  or  otherwise 
unfortunate  have  taken  to  bee-keeping  may  be  in  part  responsible 
for  the  general  impression  that,  as  a  business,  it  amounts  to  little. 
The  writer  knows  many  men  of  perfect  health,  good  business 
ability,  and  other  qualities  that  contribute  to  success  in  any  call- 
ing, who  are  devoting  their  time  and  energies  to  this  business, 


Fig.  7. — House  built  from  one  honey  crop  from  less  than  300  liivc 


and  it  is  from  the  inspiration  of  their  success  that  he  hopes  to 
draw  for  whatever  of  merit  this  book  may  possess. 

The  Returns. — A  most  important  consideration  is  the  finan- 
cial return,  for  expenses  must  be  met,  families  are  to  be  sup- 
ported, and  most  of  us  must  have  a  care  to  make  ends  meet. 
While  there  are  those  who  keep  bees  in  a  very  large  way,  with  a 


A  CLERK  13 

series  of  many  outyards  and  much  help,  it  is  rather  the  one-man 
business  that  we  will  just  now  discuss,  for  many  people  who  can 
be  successful  in  a  business  whose  every  detail  they  can  oversee 
are  likely  to  fail  when  it  comes  to  organizing  a  system  and 
delegating  the  actual  operations  to  hired  help. 

A  Minister. — As  a  first  example  there  is  the  case  of  a  Pres- 
byterian minister  who  took  up  bee-keeping  as  a  business.  He 
soon  had  300  colonies  of  bees  in  four  yards.  One  hundred  and 
twenty  colonies  was  the  largest  number  he  had  in  one  yard, 
while  there  were  but  thirty  colonies  in  his  smallest  yard.  His 
average  return  was  seven  dollars  per  colony  per  year  for  a  series 
of  years  when  honey  was  at  the  extremely  low  price  that  pre- 
vailed prior  to  the  world  war.  This  amount  was  probably  in 
excess  of  the  salary  he  received  in  serving  a  small  congregation 
in  a  country  town. 

A  carpenter  gave  up  'his  trade  to  keep  bees  as  an  exclusive 
source  of  livelihood  many  years  ago.  When  he  abandoned  his 
trade  and  took  up  bee-keeping  he  rented  a  house  and  two  small 
lots  in  an  Iowa  town.  At  the  end  of  two  years  he  purchased  the 
property  and  occupied  it  as  a  home  for  more  than  twenty-five 
years.  During  the  early  years  of  his  experience,  before  he  became 
well  established,  there  was  one  season  of  failure  of  the  honey  crop, 
when  he  found  it  necessary  to  work  at  his  trade  temporarily  for 
a  few  months.  Aside  from  that,  the  bees  furnished  his  entire 
support.  He  paid  for  his  home  and  business,  from  the  apiary, 
built  a  better  house  and  added  to  his  real  estate  holding.  While 
his  income  was  not  large,  he  had  a  better  support  than  his  trade 
could  furnish  and  his  business  was  at  home  where  he  enjoyed  the 
assistance  and  association  of  his  family.  Although  he  lived  to 
a  ripe  old  age,  he  cared  for  his  bees  until  within  a  short  time 
of  his  death. 

A  Clerk. — One  might  also  cite  the  case  of  a  shipping  clerk 
in  a  manufacturing  establishment.  Because  of  failing  health  he 
was  compelled  to  seek  the  open  air.  The  pressing  necessity  of 
providing  for  his  family  compelled  him  to  find  something  that 
would  furnish  the  needed  support,  without  demanding  too  heavy 
toil  from  a  weakened  body.    He  has  been  remarkably  successful 


14 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEE-KEEPING 


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A  BOOK-KEEPER  15 

considering  his  circumstances,  and  now  feels  that  the  condition 
that  compelled  him  to  make  a  change  has  proved  a  blessing  in 
disguise. 

A  book-keeper  in  a  western  city  has  for  some  time  been 


FiQ.  9. — Intensive  bee-keeping.    Corner  of  an  apiary  where  165  coloniea  are  kept  on  lot 
60x110. 

developing  his  business  to  the  point  where  it  will  justify  him  in 
cutting  loose  from  his  salary  and  devoting  all  his  time  to  honey 
production.  He  has  grown  up  in  the  work  so  gradually  that  he 
has  reached  the  point  where  he  can  make  the  change  without 
feeling  the  cost,  as  the  bees  paid  their  own  way,  and  without  feel- 
ing the  shock  of  readjustment.  He  lives  out  on  a  car-line,  where 
he  has  two  or  three  lots.  He  has  been  attending  to  his  regular 
duties  at  the  desk,  and  giving  his  evenings  and  mornings  and 
occasional  holidays  to  the  bees,  assisted  by  an  enthusiastic  wife 
(Fig.  9).    One  season  he  produced  and  sold  more  than  fourteen 


16  THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEE-KEEPING 

hundred  dollars'  worth  of  honey,  which  quite  probably  was  equal 
to  his  salary.  Should  he  decide  to  devote  all  his  time  to  the  bees, 
he  can  care  for  double  his  present  number.  While  this  was  an 
unusually  favorable  season,  with  double  the  number  of  colonies, 
his  average  production  will  leave  little  risk  to  run. 

A  General  Farmer. — One  of  the  most  successful  bee-keepers 
of  the  Middle  West  is  a  young  man  who  abandoned  general  farm- 
ing because  the  heavy  expenses  necessary  to  pay  cash  rent,  hired 
help,  buy  expensive  machinery,  and  replace  the  worn-out  horses 
made  it  difficult  to  get  ahead.  This  man  does  nearly  all  his  own 
work,  thus  keeping  down  expenses.  He  produces  from  twenty- 
five  thousand  to  forty  thousand  pounds  of  honey  per  year,  which 
he  sells  to  jobbers  at  wholesale  prices.  By  developing  a  retail 
market  he  could  increase  his  income  materially,  though  it  is  good 
at  present. 

Many  Others. — It  would  be  possible  to  multipy  these  exam- 
ples indefinitely,  but  these  men  who  have  turned  to  bee-keeping 
from  so  many  different  walks  of  life  should  be  sufficient.  It 
would  be  possible  to  cite  also  numberless  examples  of  those,  who, 
by  plunging  without  experience,  have  failed,  but  most  of  the 
failures  have  been  because  the  adventurer  did  not  use  good 
business  judgment. 

As  an  Exclusive  Business. — The  men  who  are  engaged  in 
honey  production  as  an  exclusive  business  are  getting  results 
equal  to  those  derived  from  other  lines  of  agriculture,  with  less 
capital  invested  and  with  less  risk.  The  fact  that  the  business 
is  open  to  men  of  small  capital,  who  are  unable  to  engage  in 
general  farming  because  of  the  larger  outlay  required,  surely 
makes  it  desirable  to  encourage  the  development  of  the  industry 
as  far  as  possible.  Bee-keeping^  as  a  business,  requires  high- 
grade  talent,  and  comparatively  few  men  succeed  in  making  it 
profitable  as  an  exclusive  line.  This  is  not  the  fault  of  the  busi- 
ness but  of  the  men.  It  looks  so  easy  that  men  are  not  willing  to 
serve  an  apprenticeship,  or  to  take  the  necessary  time  to  master 
the  business  in  all  its  details,  as  they  would  expect  to  do  in  other 
lines. 


THE  OUTLOOK  I7 

Judging  from  the  incomes  of  those  who  are  depending  upon 
bee-keeping  for  a  livelihood,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  a  man  who 
will  become  thoroughly  proficient  and  attend  properly  to  his  busi- 
ness can  make  from  twelve  hundred  to  three  thousand  dollars 
per  year  from  the  bees  that  he  can  care  for  personally.  Some 
do  better  than  that,  many  do  not  do  as  well,  but  so  many  exclusive 
bee-keepers  come  within  this  range  that  it  is  a  conservative  one. 
If  the  ambitious  reader  proves  to  be  the  exceptional  man,  he  may 
hope  to  increase  his  income  much  beyond  the  higher  figure  by 
skilful  organization  and  large  apiaries  widely  scattered. 

After  gathering  the  average  results  from  a  number  of  bee- 
keepers who  have  kept  bees  for  many  years,  it  seems  safe  to  place 
the  average  return  in  the  average  locality  at  five  dollars  per 
colony  in  the  hands  of  expert  bee-keepers.  So  much  depends  upon 
a  suitable  locality  that  it  is  important  that  one  who  is  taking  up 
bee-keeping  as  a  business  should  choose  a  locality  above^the 
average  if  possible. 

The  Outlook.— There  are  always  a  few  timid  souls  who  cry 
over-production,  who  feel  that  the  honey  business  will  shortly 
be  overdone.  The  last  census  clearly  shows  that  there  are  a  less 
number  of  bee-keepers  in  the  United  States  than  there  were  ten 
years  ago,  although  there  has  not  been  a  corresponding  decrease 
in  the  number  of  bees.  This  indicates  that  the  bee-keepers  are 
becoming  specialists.  When  it  is  remembered  that  there  has 
been  a  constant  increase  in  population,  one  need  have  little  fear  of 
over-production  of  honey  while  the  number  of  bee-keepers  is 
decreasing,  especially  not  until  we  reach  the  time  when  there 
is  a  marked  increase  in  the  production  of  honey.  While  at  times 
there  may  be  a  temporary  glut  in  some  markets  because  of  im- 
proper distribution,  the  bee-keeper  in  taking  up  the  business  need 
have  little  fear  of  seeing  the  production  of  honey  overdone  for 
many  years  to  come. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  type  of  person  is  most  likely  to  be  a  successful  bee-keeper? 

2.  Note  some  of  the  advantages  of  bee-keeping  as  a  business. 

caKl        ''^^"'""^  ""^  bee-keeping  to  other  occupations  requiring  equal 
4.  What  is  the  outlook  for  the  business? 


CHAPTER  III 
MAKING  A   START  WITH  BEES 

Unless  one  has  had  rather  extended  experience  and  obser- 
vation, it  is  nearly  always  advisable  to  begin  with  only  one  or 
two  colonies  and  grow  into  a  business  as  extensive  as  inclination 
or  opportunity  will  permit. 

Proper  Equipment. — Only  a  small  percentage  of  bee-keepers 
start  right  and  select  equipment  that  will  continue  satisfactory. 
Hundreds  of  men  have  started  with  hives  or  other  equipment 
unsuited  to  their  locality  or  the  system  that  they  have  chosen 
to  follow,  which  later  caused  a  heavy  expense  to  change.  Kot 
long  since  the  author  visited  a  young  man  who  is  employed 
in  a  large  machine  shop.  His  spare  time  is  taken  up  with  his 
bees,  to  which  he  hopes  before  long  to  give  his  entire  attention. 
He  has  been  very  fortunate  in  making  his  selection  of  equipment, 
for  everything  which  he  has  purchased  is  likely  to  prove  of  per- 
manent value.  His  hives  are  of  the  best,  his  combs  are  straight 
and  built  on  wired  frames,  and  everything  indicates  the  bee- 
keeper of  long  experience,  instead  of  a  beginner. 

Getting  Experience. — If  one  is  so  situated  that  he  can  do  so, 
it  is  very  desirable  to  spend  at  least  one  season  in  a  large  apiary. 
This  is  not  only  very  desirable  to  any  one  who  expects  to  make 
honey  production  a  business,  but  doubly  so  to  one  who  wishes  to 
start  on  a  liberal  scale  and  increase  rapidly.  One  should  select 
the  most  successful  bee-keeper,  of  whom  he  can  learn  under  simi- 
lar conditions  to  which  he  expects  to  work.  Systems  that  are 
adapted  to  one  locality  may  fail  in  another.  To  serve  such  an 
apprenticeship  is  not  altogether  essential,  for  many  successful 
bee-keepers  have  developed  their  own  systems  from  their  own 
experience,  with  the  help  of  ideas  gleaned  from  the  bee  journals 
and  books  relating  to  the  subject.  A  course  in  bee-culture  in  one 
of  the  agricultural  colleges  offering  such  a  course  is  very 
desirable. 
18 


A  BEGINNER'S  EQUIPMENT  jg 

A  Beginner's  Equipment.— Hives  of  the  Langstroth  dimen- 
SK^are  now  almost  universally  recommended,  because  of  the 
facmat  they  arQ  everywhere  standard.  Hives  of  other  patterns 
may  be  equally  good  for  practical  service,  but  the  purchase  of 
supplies  may  be  difficult,  bees  offered  for  sale  in  them  may  bring 
much  less  because  of  the  fact  that  the  buyer  will  want  them  in 
standard  hives,  and  similar  reasons.  Supplies  for  the  standard 
hives  can  be  secured  almost  anywhere,  and  bees  in  such  hives 
are  usually  saleable  in  localities  where  bees  can  be  sold  at  all. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  decided  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  size  of  hive.     In  many  cases  the  eight-frame  hive  has 
been  selected,  only  to  prove  too  small.     This  small  hive  body 
which  is  largely  occupied  for  brood-rearing,  is  too  small  to  accom- 
modate a  vigorous  queen,  and  forces  much  of  the  honey  into  the 
supers  during  the  honey  flow,  with  the  result  that  in  many  locali- 
ties, where  the  flows  are  short  and  rapid,  insufficient  honey  re- 
mains in  the  brood  chamber  for  wintering.    In  the  hands  of  inex- 
perienced persons  many  bees  are  lost  from  lack  of  stores.     The 
necessity  of  feeding  at  the  close  of  the  honey  flow  requires  a  lot 
of  work  and  is  not  always  agreeable,  as  the  author  has  found 
by  experience.     While  many  persons  have  changed  from  the 
eight-frame  to  the  ten-frame  size,  but  few  successful  bee-keepers 
have  changed  from  the  ten-frame  to  the  smaller  size.     In  some 
localities,  hives  of  this  pattern  as  large  as  twelve-frame  are  in 
use.     Most  of  the  successful  men  prefer  the  ten-frame,  and  it 
would  seem  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  greater  number  than 
any  other  size.    In  few  localities  does  the  eight-frame  hive  seem 
to  be  suited  to  conditions.    Seldom  does  one  find  an  experienced 
man  working  with  hives  of  other  patterns  but  who  is  free  to  say 
that  they  have  been  a  source  of  annoyance,  to  say  the  least.     Of 
course  if  one  is  situated  where  some  other  hive  is  ih  almost 
universal  use,  the  advantage  of  having  equipment  similar  to  that 
in  general  use  would  be  an  item  not  to  be  overlooked.     The 
Dadant  hive  has  some  advantages  over  the  Langstroth  hive,  espe- 
cially for  extracted  honey  production.    This  is  the  standard  hive 


20  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

in  parts  of  Europe,  but  its  use  in  this  country  is  restricted  to  a 
few  localities.  The  tendency  of  the  times  is  more  and  more 
toward  the  large  hive.  Possibly  from  the  one  extreme,  popular 
favor  may  go  to  the  other.  There  is  a  strong  indication  that 
the  modified  Dadant  hive  may  soon  become  the  standard  hive  of 
America  as  it  has  already  of  much  of  Europe. 

Tools  for  the  Apiary. — The  beginner,  even  though  he  have 
but  one  hive,  will  need  a  good  veil  and  gloves,  a  suitable  hive  tool, 
and  a  smoker.     Cotton  flannel  gloves  with  long  gauntlets  are 


P'lQ.   10. — The  silk  tulle  veil  offers  no  obstruction  to  the  vision. 

most  satisfactory  for  use  in  the  apiary.  Rubber  or  other  heavy 
material  will  be  disappointing  in  results,  as  well  as  much  more 
expensive. 

Veil. — A  good  veil  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  articles  of 
equipment  (Fig.  10).  One  who  is  not  a  seasoned  bee-keeper 
should  not  risk  going  much  about  the  bees  without  perfect  pro- 
tection. AMaen  one  has  come  to  understand  the  peculiar  habits 
of  the  insects,  he  will  know  when  it  is  safe  to  work  without  pro- 


TOOLS  FOR  THE  APIARY  21 

tection,  and  when  he  should  stay  away,  but  the  beginner  is  very 
likely  to  be  severely  punished  most  unexpectedly.  There  are 
many  different  kinds  of  veils  in  the  market.  As  a  rule  the  most 
expensive  give  the  least  satisfaction.  The  globe  veil,  which  is 
listed  in  nearly  every  catalogue,  is  a  nuisance  and  seldom  used 
by  extensive  honey  producers.  A  satisfactory  protection  can 
easily  be  provided  by  sewing  mosquito  netting  to  the  rim  of  a 
straw  hat.     This,  however,  catches  on  every  twig  and  is  easily 


Pig.  11. — A  youthful  beginner  and  the  necessary  outfit. 

torn.  The  Alexander  veil  is  one  of  the  best,  though  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  11  is  as  good  as  any.  This  is  made  of  a  strip  of  screen 
wire  rolled  into  a  cylinder.  A  cloth  is  sewed  over  the  top,  and  an 
apron  about  the  bottom,  which  is  easily  tucked  under  the  coat  or 
suspenders. 

Hive  TooZ.— While  the  man  with  a  few  colonies  can  get  along 
with  a  screw-driver  or  chisel,  a  suitable  hive  tool  is  very  con- 
venient and  helpful.    To  the  large  honey  producer  it  is  essential, 


22  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

for  the  saving  in  time  will  pay  for  it  within  a  few  hours,  in  the 
busy  season.  There  are  several  styles  on  the  market,  each  with  its 
peculiar  advantages.  The  hive  tool  should  be  so  constructed  as 
to  serve  as  a  pry  in  loosening  frames,  have  a  sharp  surface  to 
scrape  off  burr  combs,  propolis,  etc.,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
small  enough  to  handle  easily  and  quickly  (Fig.  12). 

A  smoker  is  essential  and  should  be  procured  v^ith  the  first 
colony  of  bees.  A  little  smoke,  intelligently  applied,  will  enable 
one  to  control  the  bees  so  nicely  that  it  is  very  unwise  to  do  wi th- 


em^ 


^iiniiiiiiw);iiiiMMiiiiiiiiiMi;iinmiiiimijiiii/iiJinm»iiiih»»/imimi»»H»»<i/i»i77n7mm^ 


V 


r 


Fig.   12. — Good  hive  tools. 


out  it  for  a  day.  There  are  two  very  excellent  kinds  on  the 
market  and  several  indifferent  ones.  Most  beginners  make  the 
mistake  of  buying  a  small  size,  because  they  have  only  a  few 
colonies  of  bees.  The  larger  size  costs  but  a  few  cents  more,  and 
is  much  to  be  preferred  in  every  way  (Fig.  13). 

Rotten  wood  is  a  very  satisfactory  smoker  fuel,  although 
excelsior,  cotton  rags,  greasy  waste,  or  any  similar  material 
will  do. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  smoke,  a  very 


MINOR  EQUIPMENT  23 

common  fault  with  beginners.  If  one  has  gentle  bees,  a  very 
slight  puff  at  the  entrance  and  then  another  over  the  frames  when 
the  cover  is  removed  will  be  sufficient.  If  the  bees  are  inclined 
to  be  cross,  a  little  more  may  be  necessary.  The  tendency  is 
rather  to  use  too  much  than  too  little.  The  use  of  smoke  is 
very  disturbing  to  the  bees,  and  the  successful  apiarist  interferes 
with  the  normal  condition  of  the  colony  as  little  as  possible. 
Every  disturbance  during  the  honey  flow  must  be  accounted  for 
in  honey  stored. 


Fig.  13. — Smokers  in  common  use 


Minor  Equipment.— There  are  many  things  for  use  about  the 
apiary  which,  while  very  necessary  in  themselves,  make  no  dif- 
ference in  results  as  to  which  particular  kind  is  adopted.  In 
these  minor  items  there  is  room  for  unlimited  argument  to  no 
profit.  The  particular  article  that  best  suits  the  individual  taste 
is  the  one  to  adopt. 

Covers.— K  good  cover  is  very  essential,  but  which  is  the 
best  will  depend  a  great  deal  on  who  is  deciding.  A  flat  wood 
cover  with  a  strip  at  each  end  to  prevent  warping  is  very  satis- 


24  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

""sLC^fcy.  The  piece  covers  are  made  of  such  light  material  that 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  last  as  long  as  is  desirable. 
More  and  more  are  the  metal  top  covers  coming  into  general 
^vor.  These  covers  are  flat  topped  and  made  of  a  sheet  of 
alvanized  steel  or  iron  on  a  wood  frame  that  telescopes  over  the 
top  of  the  hive.  A  thin  inner  cover  is  used  under  them.  This 
makes  an  air  space  of  nearly  one-fourth  inch  betv^een  the  inner 
cover  and  the  corrugated  paper  or  board,  w^ith  which  the  cover  is 
lined.  The  telescope  feature  makes  the  cover  much  less  likely 
to  be  blown  off  during  high  winds. 


Fig.  14. — Metal  top  cover  with  fiaxboard. 

The  chief  objection  to  these  covers  is  the  fact  that  they  get 
very  hot  when  the  hive  is  in  direct  sunlight  in  warm  weather. 
If  sufficient  provision  for  ventilation  is  made,  the  effect  will  not 
be  so  noticeable.  If  painted  with  a  light-colored  paint,  less  heat 
will  be  absorbed  than  if  painted  some  dark  color.  Dark-colored 
paints  are  not  suitable  for  bee  hives.  Fig.  14  shows  a  metal  top 
cover  with  fiaxboard  used  above  the  inner  cover. 

Fiaxboard  is  a  new  absorbent  and  insulating  material  which 
has  recently  appeared  in  the  market.  It  is  composed  of  flax 
fiber  pressed  into  sheets  of  suitable  thickness.  Although  not  yet 
extensively  tested,  it  seems  to  give  excellent  satisfaction  where 


MINOR  EQUIPMENT  25 

tried.  A  sheet  of  this  material  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch 
in  thickness  used  as  a  lining  for  metal  top  covers  not  only  pre- 
vents the  hive  from  becoming  overheated  in  summer  but  absorhs 
surplus  moisture  in  winter,  and  also  retains  the  heat  of  the 
cluster.  It  bids  fair  to  come  into  general  use.  Flaxboard  should 
only  be  used  under  a  water-tight  cover,  as  it  will  quickly  absorb 
any  drip,  and,  if  the  cover  leaks,  will  soon  be  ruined. 

Comb  Bucket. — A  comb  bucket  is  a  very  useful  article 
in  even  a  small  apiary  (Fig.  15).  It  is  a  convenient  way  to  carry 
a  few  combs  when  making  nuclei  or  equalizing  brood.  A  tight- 
fitting  cover  is  an  advantage  when  there  is  a  tendency  for  robbers 
to  be  prying  into  every  opening.  The  one  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration is  of  tin,  but  some  bee-keepers  make  them  at  home,  of 
thin  boards,  which  not  being  subject  to  rust  will  be  more  lasting. 

Observatory  Hive.—Every  bee-keeper  should  have  an  obser- 
vatory hive  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  familiar  with  the  habits 
of  the  bees  (Fig.  16).  These  hives  are  made  with  glass  sides, 
so  that  one  can  see  what  is  going  on  inside.  Some  are  made  full 
size,  but  as  it  will  then  be  impossible  to  see  the  interior  of  the 
brood  nest,  they  are  not  very  satisfactory.  The  most  suitable  is 
the  single  frame  observer,  which  can  easily  be  made  by  anyone 
handy  with  tools,  or  can  be  bought  of  any  dealer  in  supplies. 

After  the  weather  has  become  warm,  a  single  frame  of  brood 
and  bees  can  be  taken  from  any  hive  where  it  is  desirable  to 
replace  the  old  queen.  She  is  taken  with  this  frame  and  placed 
in  the  observing  hive,  where  the  curious  bee-keeper  can  see  every 
move,  and  spend  many  idle  hours  profitably  in  watching  his  pets. 
The  queen  is  thus  easily  observed  while  laying,  the  young  bees 
can  be  seen  during  all  stages  of  their  development,  and  the  field 
bees  can  be  seen  bringing  in  their  loads  of  pollen  and  nectar  and 
depositing  them  in  the  proper  place. 

This  little  colony  will  carry  on  all  the  usual  activities  in  a 
normal  manner  under  the  very  eye  of  the  bee-keeper.  If  desired 
the  little  hive  can  be  placed  in  the  living  room  with  an  opening 
through  the  sash,  for  the  bees  to  go  to  and  from  the  fields. 


MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 


FiQ.    15— Tin  comb  bucket. 
Fia.  16. — Observatory  hive. 


BUYING  BEES  27 

Buying  Bees.— It  is  usually  best  to  buy  the  bees  within  easy 
reach  of  the  place  where  they  are  to  remain  if  possible.  The 
expense  of  shipping  long  dist<ances  with  the  consequent  danger  of 
mishap  and  loss  are  thus  eliminated. 

As  a  rule,  unless  one  is  willing  to  pay  a  fancy  price,  he  need 
not  pay  much  attention  to  the  kind  of  bees,  providing  the  colony 
is  a  strong  one.  The  best  way  to  improve  the  stock  is  to  buy 
a  queen  from  some  reliable  breeder,  and  after  killing  the  old 
queen  and  leaving  the  colony  queenless  two  or  three  days,  intro- 
duce the  new  one,  following  the  directions  that  accompany  her. 

In  buying  one  should  pay  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
colony.     If  the  bees  be  common  stock,  in  box  hives,  the  price 
should  not  be  high,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  the  further 
expense  of  a  suitable  hive  and  the  labor  of  transferring,  which 
is  never  an  agreeable  task.     If  the  bees  be  in  a  good  hive,  on 
straight  combs  in  good  condition,  the  price  may  then  be  much 
higher,  for  they  are  ready  for  business  when  the  honey  flow 
begins.    It  too  often  happens  that  bees  for  sale  in  good  hives  have 
received  no  attention,  with  the  result  that  the  combs  are  built 
crosswise,  making  it  impossible  for  the  operator  to  get  into  the 
brood  nest  without  disastrous  results.     Such  colonies  will  also 
have  to  be  transferred,  which  will  add  considerable  to  the  cost. 
In  order  to  conduct  bee-keeping  profitably,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  every  comb  in  every  hive  so  that  it  can  be  easily  removed 
for  the  purpose  of  examination  or  exchange.     It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  for  one  reason  or  another  the  bee-keeper  must  take 
combs  of  honey  or  brood  from  one  colony  to  add  to  another,  or  he 
must  examine  the  interior  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  colony. 
Successful  honey  production  is  absolutely  impossible  unless  con- 
ditions are  such  that  the  bee-keeper  can  reach  the  farthermost 
corner  of  the  hive  when  necessary. 

A  colony  of  pure  Italian  bees,  on  straight  combs,  wired 
frames,  in  good  ten-frame  hives  without  too  much  drone  comb 
is  cheaper  at  eight  or  ten  dollars  than  a  common  colony  in  a  box 
hive  at  a  dollar.    Especially  is  this  true  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 


28  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

when  the  one  is  ready  for  the  honey  flow,  while  the  other  must 
be  transferred  and  much  of  the  season  lost  in  building  up  to  the 
point  of  storing  surplus. 

A  set  of  ten  good  brood  combs  in  wired  frames  is  worth  at 
least  five  dollars.  A  new  ten-frame  hive,  complete,  will  cost  five 
dollars  or  more,  and  an  Italian  queen  another  dollar.  This  does 
not  leave  a  great  deal  for  one's  labor  in  transferring,  so  that  the 
colony  ready  for  business  is  likely  to  store  more  than  enough 
additional  honey  to  make  up  the  difference. 

However,  in  buying  bees,  unless  one  is  prepared  to  ship  for 
a  considerable  distance,  he  sometimes  finds  it  necessary  to  take 
what  happens  to  be  offered. 

Moving  Bees. — Tf  one  will  go  to  the  apiary  on  a  warm  day 
when  the  young  bees  are  taking  their  first  flight,  he  will  observe 
with  what  care  they  mark  the  location  of  the  hive.  At  first  they 
fly  but  a  few  inches  from  the  entrance  and  pass  back  and  forth 
many  times,  always  facing  the  hive.  Each  time  they  gradually 
lengthen  the  line  of  flight,  back  and  forth,  up  and  down,  until 
they  have  received  an  indelible  impression  of  the  appearance  of 
their  home.  After  they  have  fully  examined  the  front  of  the 
hive  they  fly  a  little  farther,  until  they  can  get  a  similar  view 
of  the  immediate  surroundings  at  a  distance  of  a  few  feet.  The 
flight  now  takes  the  form  of  irregular  circles,  which  are  gradually 
enlarged  to  take  in  the  apiary  and  in  time  the  whole  country 
roundabout.  These  preliminary  flights  are  always  taken  by  the 
young  bees,  before  they  take  up  their  duties  as  foragers  in  the 
field. 

Apparently  they  come  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  sense  of 
location  thus  developed,  and  afterwards  fly  directly  to  the  hive 
entrance  from  any  point  of  the  compass,  with  little  attention  to 
anything  but  the  location.  If  the  hive  is  taken  away  and  another 
set  in  its  place,  they  will  enter  the  new  hive  without  a  moment's 
hesitation.  Once  inside  they  discover  their  mistake,  and  hur- 
riedly tumble  out  and  take  to  flight.    After  a  moment's  examina- 


MOVING  BEES 


tion  they  reassure  themselves  that  the  location  is  correct,  and 
re-enter  the  hive  again. 

If  the  hive  is  moved  but  a  few  feet  away,  they  are  greatly 
confused  and  will  require  some  little  time  to  accustom  them- 
selves to  the  new  location.  If  the  day  be  warm  and  the  workers 
are  in  the  field,  hundreds  of  them  will  soon  be  flying  about  the 
former  location  of  the  hive. 

Bee-keepers  take  advantage  of  this  characteristic  of  the  honey- 
bee to  return  to  its  old  location  regardless  of  changes,  to  make 
swarms  hive  themselves.  The  queens  are  clipped  so  as  to  be 
unable  to  accompany  the  swarm,  and  the  bees,  missing  her,  re- 
turn to  the  old  home  only  to  find  it  gone  and  an  empty  hive  in  its 
place,  as  described  in  Chapter  VII. 

If  bees  are  only  moved  a  short  distance  many  will  be  lost  by 
returning  to  the  old  stand,  unless  some  precaution  be  taken  to 
insure  that  the  new  location  will  be  carefully  marked  by  all  bees 
leaving  the  hive.     For  this  reason  it  is  best  to  move  the  bees 
three  or  four  miles  if  possible.     When  they  are  moved  a  less 
distance  it  is  well  to  place  the  hive  in  a  dark  cellar  for  several 
days ;  a  week  if  they  can  be  kept  quiet  that  long.    After  the  hive 
is  taken  from  the  cellar  and  set  in  the  new  situation,  it  is  well  to 
turn  a  large  box  over  it,  and  remove  a  board  near  the  ground  to 
make  a  decided  difference  in  appearances  to  the  bees  coming 
from  the  hive.    They  will  then  be  likely  to  take  note  of  the  new 
location,  and  return  in  safety  to  the  hive.     After  a  day  or  two 
the  box  can  be  removed.    Its  only  object  is  to  create  a  new  appear- 
ance.    Bees  moved  for  a  considerable  distance  find  conditions 
so  strange,  that  there  is  little  danger  of  loss  from  failure  to 
return  to  the  hive.     The  shorter  the  distance,  the  greater  the 
difficulty  in  moving  them,  unless  it  be  when  they  are  removed 
from  the  cellar  in  spring,  when  they  can  safely  be  placed  in  any 
situation.     However,  even  then,  if  they  are  only  placed  a  short 
distance  from  the  old  stand,  some  of  the  old  bees  will  return  to 
the  place  where  the  hive  stood  the  fall  before.     If  the  bees  are 
to  be  taken  but  a  short  distance,  say  two  or  three  rods,  it  is  a 


30  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

common  plan  to  move  them  a  foot  or  two  each  day.  They 
quickly  adjust  themselves  to  such  a  short  move.  While  this  plan 
is  tedious,  nevertheless  it  is  safe- 
Ventilation. — In  hot  weather  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  bees  have  sufficient  ventilation  when  confined  to  the 
hive.  In  cold  weather,  a  wire  screen  over  the  entrance  will  be 
sufficient,  if  the  bees  are  to  be  moved  but  a  short  distance.  In 
summer  the  cover  must  be  removed  and  the  top  covered  with 
screen  also  (Fig.  17).  Sometimes  even  this  is  not  sufficient  and 
strong  colonies  are  likely  to  be  lost.  It  is  well  to  avoid  moving 
bees  in  very  hot  weather  if  possible.  When  it  becomes  necessary 
to  screen  the  top  of  the  hive,  a  frame  should  be  used  that  will 
raise  the  screen  a  little  above  the  top,  thus  providing  an  empty 
space  above  the  frames.  If  they  show  a  tendency  to  crowd  about 
the  entrance  and  against  the  screen  on  top,  a  little  water  sprinkled 
over  the  surface  will  serve  to  quiet  them.  If  bees  are  to  be  moved 
some  distance  the  frames  must  be  carefully  fastened  to  prevent 
them  from  jolting  about  and  mashing  the  bees.  Pieces  of  news- 
paper crowded  tightly  between  the  ends  of  the  frames  so  as  to 
hold  all  rigid,  are  usually  available,  and  serve  very  well  for  this 
purpose. 

To  Tell  Strong  Colonies. — In  buying  bees  in  late  fall  when 
a  long  winter  is  ahead,  colonies  heavy  with  honey  as  well  as 
strong  in  bees  should  be  selected.  After  making  allowance  for 
weight  of  hive,  bees,  etc.,  there  should  be  at  least  twenty-five 
pounds  of  honey  in  the  hive,  and  forty  is  better  to  insure  an 
abundance  of  stores  for  spring  brood  rearing.  Some  bee-keepers 
figure  that  fifty  pounds  is  not  too  much  to  leave  in  the  hives  for 
winter. 

If  one  buys  bees  in  spring,  which  is  the  best  time  for  one 
making  a  start  in  bee-keeping,  it  is  well  to  select  them  during 
the  period  of  fruit  bloom.  In  the  ordinary  apiary  at  this  season 
of  the  year,  colonies  will  vary  greatly  in  condition.  Some  will 
be  veiry  strong  and  some  very  weak.  Then  there  are  likely  to  be 
queenless  colonies,  which  one  would  not  care  to  buy  at  any  price. 
The  strong  colonies  are  the  ones  to  look  for,  for  the  weaklings 


TO  TELL  STRONG  COLONIES 


31 


are  likely  to  be  so  slow  in  building  up  that  they  will  be  of  little 
value  in  storing  surplus,  unless  they  receive  special  attention. 

By  walking  through  the  apiary  on  a  wann  day  at  this  season, 
when  the  bees  are  active,  one  can  readily  pick  out  the  strongest 
colonies  from  the  appearance  at  the  entrance  of  the  hive.  The 
colonies  showing  the  greatest  activity  at  the  entrance,  especially 
if  the  workers  are  carrying  in  large  quantities  of  pollen,  are  the 
ones  to  mark  for  further  examination.  The  pollen  balls  are  very 
conspicuous  on  the  legs  of  the  workers,  and  one  can  thus  see  at 
a  glance  something  of  the  condition  of  the  colony.  The  pollen  is 
mixed  with  honey,  and  used  to  feed  the  young  bees.  At  this 
season  large  quantities  of  brood  insures  a  strong  working  force 


Fig.    17. — An  apiary  ready  for  shipment. 

a  little  latea:  to  gather  the  principal  honey  crop.  As  a  rule,  the 
colonies  bringing  in  the  most  pollen  will  be  found  to  have  the 
most  brood. 

After  deciding  from  external  appearances  which  colonies  are 
worthy  of  further  examination,  the  hives  should  be  opened  to 
see  that  the  combs  are  straight,  that  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  honey  to  last  until  the  main  honey  flow  commences,  and  that 
not  too  much  drone  comb  is  present,  as  this  will  necessitate  its 
removal  to  be  replaced  with  full  sheets  of  foundation.  There 
should,  ordinarily,  be  about  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  of  honey  in 


32  MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 

the  hive  at  this  season,  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  colony.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  a  rainy  season  during  the  first  days  of 
the  main  honey  flow  will  result  in  the  starvation  of  strong  colonies, 
with  the  hives  full  of  brood.  Five  or  six  frames  of  brood  consume 
a  surprising  quantity  of  food,  and  a  short  period  of  time  during 
which  nothing  is  coming  from  the  field  causes  the  bees  to  draw 
heavily  on  their  stores.  If  no  stores  are  present  the  result  will 
be  disastrous  for  the  bees  and  for  the  owner  as  well. 

Transferring. — The  old  books  on  bee-keeping  usually  recom- 
mend the  cutting  out  of  the  combs  containing  brood  and  honey 
and  fitting  them  into  the  frames,  tying  them  in  with  cotton 
strings.  The  bees  will  shortly  fasten  the  combs  and  remove  the 
string.  While  this  plan  is  occasionally  desirable,  and  the  bee- 
keeper will  now  and  then  find  a  case  where  he  can  profitably 
bother  with  it,  much  cleaner  and  better  methods  are  now  generally 
used.  By  transferring  in  this  way  one  finds  it  to  be  a  sticky  and 
very  disagreeable  job.  The  combs  and  bees  are  messed  up ;  the 
queen  is  likely  to  be  killed,  and  the  colony  lost  as  a  result,  and 
stings  are  likely  to  be  plentiful. 

It  very  frequently  happens  that  the  bee-keeper  who  wishes 
to  increase  his  stock  by  purchase  will  find  it  necessary  to  take 
such  colonies  in  such  hives  as  are  available,  even  though  he  would 
prefer  to  pay  a  higher  price  to  get  them  in  good  hives.  It  is 
usually  advisable  to  transfer  early  in  the  season,  or  at  least  with 
a  good  honey  flow  ahead.  If  it  is  undertaken  late  in  the  fall, 
there  is  danger  that  the  bees  will  not  be  properly  prepared  for 
winter,  and  will  be  lost  before  spring. 

If  the  work  is  done  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  when  the 
queen  is  active,  it  is  an  easy  task  to  let  the  bees  transfer  them- 
selves gradually.  If  the  colony  is  in  a  box  or  keg,  it  should  be 
turned  upside  down  with  bottom  removed.  All  combs  not  con- 
taining brood  which  can  easily  be  removed  should  be  taken  out. 
A  new  hive  containing  drawn  combs,  if  they  be  available,  should 
then  be  placed  on  top  of  the  colony.  If  drawn  combs  are  not  to 
be  had,  full  sheets  of  foundation  should  be  used.    It  is  a  good  plan 


TRANSFERRING  FROM  BUILDINGS,  TREES,  ETC.  33 

to  remove  a  comb  containing  brood  from  a  strong  colony,  shake 
off  the  bees,  and  replace  the  comb  with  a  frame  containing  foun- 
dation. The  comb  taken  away  can  then  be  placed  in  the  hive 
which  is  to  be  placed  over  the  colony  to  be  transferred.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  no  entrance  is  open  in  the  box  or 
keg,  but  that  the  bees  must  enter  by  way  of  the  new  hive.  The 
bees  seem  to  have  an  aversion  to  leaving  honey  and  brood  below 
the  entrance,  and  if  conditions  are  right  they  will  soon  move 
upstairs.  Three  weeks  must  elapse  after  the  queen  begins  laying 
above  to  allow  time  for  all  brood  to  hatch,  when  the  box  hive 
may  be  taken  away.  If  honey  still  remains  it  can  be  extracted 
and  the  combs  rendered  into  wax. 

When  one  transfers  by  the  old  method  of  cutting  and  fitting, 
usually  a  part  of  the  combs  will  have  to  be  discarded  after  the 
colony  is  successfully  transferred,  because  of  too  much  drone 
comb,  crooked,  or  otherwise  unsuitable  combs.  By  this  later 
method  of  gradual  transfer,  the  bees  are  moved  with  little  dis- 
turbance and  no  muss.  The  old  combs  are  valuable  for  little  but 
the  wax  they  contain,  and  that  is  all  saved. 

Another  Plan.— Some  bee-keepers  practice  the  method  of 
drumming  the  bees  up  from  the  old  hive  into  the  new  one  above. 
When,  after  a  few  minutes  pounding  on  the  hive  with  sticks, 
most  of  the  bees,  including  the  queen,  have  gone  above,  the  new 
hive  IS  placed  on  the  old  stand  and  the  old  hive  taken  away.  At 
the  end  of  three  weeks,  when  all  brood  has  hatched,  the  young  bees 
are  united  with  the  old  colony  and  the  old  hive  destroyed.  Even 
though  the  old  hive  be  left  in  place  under  the  new  one  while  the 
bees  are  moving  upstairs,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  drum  them  above 
to  begin  with,  and  then  place  a  queen  excluder  under  the  new 
hive  to  prevent  the  queen  from  going  down  again. 

Transferring  from  Buildings,  "^Trees,  Etc.— Nearly  every 
bee-keeper  of  experience  has  been  called  on  to  remove  a  colony 
of  bees  from  the  side  of  some  dwelling  house,  where  they  had 
found  entrance  through  a  crevice.  Instead  of  tearing  off  a  lot 
of  boards  and  possibly  injuring  the  building,  one  should  begin 


34 


MAKING  A  START  WITH  BEES 


bj  closing  up  all  possible  openings  except  one.  Over  this  should 
be  placed  a  bee-escape,  either  a  Porter  escape  or  a  long  wire  con6, 
through  which  the  bees  can  come  out  but  cannot  find  the  way 
back.  A  hive  containing  full  combs  or  sheets  of  foundation 
should  then  be  brought  and  placed  with  the  entrance  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  escape  (Fig.  18).     In  the  hive  should  be  placed 


FiQ.  18. — Transferring  from  hollow  tree  without  cutting  the  tree. 

one  frame  of  brood,  care  being  used  to  insure  that  eggs  and  hatch- 
ing larviX)  are  both  present.  The  bees  coming  out  and  unable  to 
find  their  way  back  will  enter  this  hive.  Within  a  few  days  the 
bees  will  nearly  all  be  in  the  hive,  and  the  young  bees  emerging 
inside  will  shortly  follow  their  fellows  outside,  to  be  barred  from 
returning.  As  a  result  the  entire  colony  with  the  exception  of 
a  very  few  bees  will  be  in  the  new  hive.     The  bees  in  the  hive 


QUESTIONS  3g 

finding  themselves  without  a  queen  will  shortly  raise  one  from 
the  young  larvae  in  the  comb  provided.  The  old  queen  remains 
behind  and  the  nurse  bees  in  the  meantime  have  cared  for  the 
brood  in  the  old  home,  with  the  result  that  the  colony  has  been 
transferred  with  little  loss.  After  three  or  four  weeks,  when  the 
bees  are  nicely  settled  in  the  new  hive  and  the  young  queen  has 
begun  to  lay,  the  escape  can  be  removed,  thus  allowing  the  bees 
free  access  to  the  old  brood  nest.  They  will  at  once  proceed  to 
carry  the  honey  into  the  new  hive  so  that  all  of  value  to  be  left 
will  be  the  wax,  which,  of  course,  cannot  be  obtained  without 
opening  the  cavity.  When  everything  is  in  place  in  the  new 
hive,  the  bees  can  be  moved  to  the  desired  location  and  the  en- 
trance to  the  house  closed  to  prevent  the  place  being  occupied 
by  another  swarm.  It  will  be  necessary  to  use  the  usual  pre- 
caution to  prevent  the  bees  from  returning  to  the  old  location 
when  moved. 

QUESTIONS 

V  M^/  is  it  advisable  to  start  bee-keeping  on  a  small  scale? 
..  Note  the  dangers  to  be  avoided  by  the  beginner. 

3.  Discuss  the  different  kinds  and  sizes  of  hives. 

4.  What  tools  are  essential? 

5.  Describe  the  essentials  of  a  good  cover. 

6.  Have  you  used  an  observation  hive? 

7.  Discuss  necessary  considerations  in  buying  bees. 

8.  Describe  the  bee's  method  of  marking  location. 

^'  ^^ov^er^c'oS*'^'  "^  *°  ^^  '"^^  '"   "''''''""   ''^^^  ''"'^   ^""^  ^^"  ^^^^  be 

10.  How  can  one  tell  strong  colonies? 

11.  What  conditions  should  one  look  for  within  the  hive? 

12.  Outline  the  best  methods  of  transferrint^. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APIARY 

The  location  of  the  apiarj  as  regards  shade,  windbreaks,  and 
convenience  is  very  important.  The  questions  of  windbreaks  and 
shelter  will  be  considered  more  particularly  in  the  chapter  on 
Wintering.  A  suitable  shelter  from  the  prevailing  winds  of 
early  spring  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Chapter  XIII  for  a  consideration  of  this  phase  of  the  subject. 

If  one  is  starting  from  the  beginning  and  can  plan  accord- 
ingly, he  will  be  able  to  so  place  the  hives  as  to  provide  both  a 
suitable  situation  and  a  convenient  one.  To  keep  down  expenses 
is  one  of  the  essentials  of  successful  bee-keeping,  and  to  do  so 
every  operation  should  be  performed  with  a  minimum  of  labor. 
If  one  will  but  take  the  time  to  visit  several  bee-keepers,  he  will 
find  that  some  have  the  apiary  so  arranged  as  to  enable  them  to 
do  the  work  with  little  more  than  half  the  labor  necessary  in 
others.  Neatness  and  a  line  appearance  are  desirable,  but  they 
are  of  secondary  importance  to  convenience.  If  possible,  the 
apiary  should  be  on  slightly  higher  ground  than  the  honey  house, 
and  as  near  as  possible.  This  will  enable  the  operator  to  wheel 
the  heavy  loads  of  supers  to  the  house  with  a  minimum  of  effort. 

Various  plans  of  moving  the  honey  from  the  hive  to  the 
honey  house  have  been  recommended,  but  a  common  garden 
wheelbarrow  is  perhaps  as  good  as  any.  It  is  inexpensive,  and 
can  be  pushed  over  rough  and  uneven  ground  easier  than  a  cart. 

Shade. — Bee-keepers  are  not  fully  agreed  as  to  the  value  of 
shade  in  the  apiary  (Fig.  19).  Something  depends,  perhaps, 
on  the  locality  and  the  temperature  during  the  heated  season. 
While  no  shade  is  necessary  in  the  spring  and  fall,  or  in  early 
morning  or  late  afternoon,  shade  during  the  heat  of  the  day  in 
mid-summer  is  very  desirable.  Comparisons  of  returns  from 
colonies  in  the  shade  and  in  the  open  sun  fail  to  show  decided 
36 


SHADE 


37 


results  tliat  can  be  ascribed  to  shade  or  to  the  lack  of  it.  For  the 
comfort  of  the  operator,  if  for  no  other  reason,  a  shaded  situation 
would  seem  to  be  desirable.  Large  trees  should  be  avoided,  if 
possible,  because  of  the  tendency  of  swarms  to  cluster  so  high  as 
to  make  it  very  inconvenient  to  hive  them.  Many  bee-keepers 
who  liave  apiaries  in  the  open  provide  shade  boards  made  of  cheap 
lumber  obtained  from  dry  goods  boxes  or  similar  sources.  About 
two  by  three  feet  is  the  most  popular  size  for  such  a  shade  board. 


Fig.   19.— An  apiary  without  ahade. 

This  permits  the  sun  to  reach  the  bodv  of  the  hive  early  and  late 
in  the  day,  while  effective  shade  is  obtained  during  the  hottest 
period. 

The  shade  of  fruit  trees,  especially  cherry  and  apple  trees, 
if  not  set  too  close  together  is  very  satisfactory.  Hives  should 
never  be  painted  with  dark  colors,  because  of  the  tendency  of 
such  colors  to  absorb  heat.  In  extremely  warm  weather,  combs 
will  sometimes  melt  down  and  the  colony  be  greatly  injured  or 


88 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APIARY 


even  destroyed.  This  sometimes  happens  even  in  the  shade, 
especially  if  the  hive  be  not  well  ventilated.  The  writer  recalls 
an  instance  where  several  colonies  in  new  and  nicely  painted 
hives  met  with  this  misfortune,  while  others  in  old  hives  full 
of  cracks  suffered  no  injury  even  though  they  were  in  the  open 
sun  and  the  unfortunate  ones  in  the  shade.  It  is  desirable  that 
the  bees  be  so  situated  that  there  is  always  free  circulation  of 
air  among  the  hives  in  warm  weather.     Large  entrances  greatly 


Fig.  20. — A  well-arranged  apiary  in  California. 


and  in  very  warm  weather  lifting  the  cover  an  inch 
and  placing  a  block  under  it  will  also  be  of  much  help.  When 
the  bees  begin  to  cluster  on  the  outside,  it  is  usually  from  lack 
of  room  to  store  or  from  lack  of  ventilation.  In  either  case  the 
need  should  be  supplied  to  prevent  loafing  or  untimely  swarming. 
Spacing  the  Hives. — It  is  a  common  practice  to  set  the  hives 
close  together  in  long  rows.  This  plan  is  not  to  be  commended, 
because  of  the  danger  of  queens  entering  the  wrong  hive  and 
being  destroyed.    Neither  is  this  plan  satisfactory  to  the  attend- 


HIVE  STANDS  gg 

ant,  for  in  manipulating  one  colony  he  too  often  disturbs  others 
near  at  hand,  with  the  result  that  angry  bees  become  very  annoy- 
ing. The  preferred  arrangement  is  to  set  the  colonies  in  pairs. 
At  least  three  feet  of  space  should  be  between  the  pairs  of  hives 
(Fig.  20).  The  two  may  set  within  a  few  inches  of  each  other. 
Some  bee-keepers  set  them  in  fours,  with  two  colonies  with  en- 
trances facing  to  the  east  and  two  to  the  west. 


A  hive-stand  of  cement  for  two  colonies. 


A  south  front  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  in  cool  weather 
of  spring  and  fall. 

^  Hive  Stands.— Hives  placed  directly  on  the  ground  do  not 
give  satisfaction  for  several  reasons ;  the  bottom  boards  soon  rot 
and  have  to  be  replaced,  grass  grows  up  about  the  entrance  and 
interferes  with  the  flight  of  the  bees,  and  it  is  hard  to  keep  the 
hive  level.  Many  kinds  of  hive  stands  are  in  use.  Some  use 
short  pieces  of  board  laid  flat  on  the  ground.  These  last  but  a 
short  time  and  must  soon  be  replaced.  Four  bricks  make  a  good 
stand,  if  a  piece  of  board  is  leaned  against  the  front  of  the  hive 


40  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APIARY 

bottom  for  incoming  bees  to  run  up  on.  Four  round  bottles  are 
sometimes  used,  one  under  each  corner  of  the  hive  with  the  neck 
pressed  into  the  ground.  In  dry  weather  this  does  very  well, 
but  in  wet  weather  one  corner  or  another  is  likely  to  settle,  with 
the  result  that  the  apiarist  must  frequently  go  to  the  trouble  of 
levelling  them  up. 

If  the  apiary  is  placed  in  a  permanent  position,  so  that  one 


Fig.  22. — A  tub  of  water  covered  with  chipped  cork  makes  a  safe  watering  place. 

does  not  need  to  consider  the  necessity  of  moving,  concrete  hive 
stands  are,  perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory  (Fig.  21).  They  are 
a  little  more  expensive  to  begin  with,  but  they  are  permanent,  and 
once  properly  placed  will  remain  in  position  indefinitely.  They 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  leave  the  hive  exactly  level  sidewise, 
but  with  the  entrance  slightly  lower  than  the  back  to  permit 
surplus  moisture  to  run  off  readily.  The  concrete  should  extend 
several  inches  in  front  of  the  hive  to  prevent  vegetation  from 
growing  too  close  to  the  entrance.     If  colonies  are  wintered  out 


WATERING  PLACES  41 

of  doors,  it  is  well  to  have  these  stands  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate two  or  four  colonies,  whichever  is  the  unit  used  for  a 
single  packing  case.  (See  Chapter  XIII  on  Wintering.)  They 
can  thus  be  left  in  the  same  position  all  year. 

Bees  coming  in  heavily  laden  during  the  honey  flow  often 
drop  to  the  ground  some  distance  from  the  hive  and  are  unable 
to  rise  again.  It  is  thus  of  considerable  advantage  to  have  the 
hive  in  such  a  position  that  they  can  crawl  into  it.  For  this 
reason  high  stands  of  any  kind  are  not  to  be  recommended.  Any 
one  who  will  watch  the  bees  carefully  for  a  few  minutes  during 
the  height  of  the  season  will  see  at  once  that  the  loss  of  these 
heavily  laden  bees  would  be  considerable  in  hives  placed  a  few 
inches  above  the  ground.  For  this  same  reason  the  hive  stand 
18  usually  made  with  a  gradual  slope  in  front  of  the  hive,  to  make 
it  as  easy  as  possible  for  the  bees  to  reach  home. 

_  It  is  also  important  to  keep  down  grass  and  weeds  in  the 
apiary.  While  considerable  work  is  required  to  keep  the  grass 
closely  cut  during  the  busy  season,  it  will  pay  well  to  do  so.  If 
the  apiary  is  properly  fenced,  a  few  sheep  will  do  the  work  in 
a  very  satisfactory  manner  without  disturbing  the  bees.  Ducks 
are  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Watering  Places.— In  early  spring  when  brood  rearing  is 
at  Its  height,  there  is  frequently  much  annoyance  from  bees 
about  watering  troughs,  drinking  fountains  and  other  similar 
places.  Large  numbers  of  bees  about  a  watering  place  frequently 
lead  to  an  attempt  by  the  town  council  to  prohibit  the  keeping  of 
bees  within  the  corporate  limits.  It  is  in  the  small  town,  which 
has  not  yet  reached  the  point  of  providing  a  common  city  water 
supply,  that  such  diificulties  most  frequently  develop. 

Bee-keepers  should  bear  in  mind  the  need  of  the  bees  for 
large  quantities  of  water  for  brood  rearing,  and  see  that  it  is 
within  easy  reach.  In  early  spring  when  the  weather  is  very 
changeable,  it  is  important  to  save  the  bees  as  far  as  possible.  If 
they  are  compelled  to  go  far  from  the  hive  for  water,  many  will 
be  lost  from  the  sudden  drops  of  temperature  common  to  that 


42 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APIARY 


season.  If  there  be  a  small  spring,  pond,  or  other  open  water 
near  at  hand,  the  bee-keeper  need  give  the  matter  no  further 
thought.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  only  available  supply  is 
from  his  neighbor's  watering  troughs,  he  is  likely  to  save  friction 
by  providing  an  abundant  supply  near  at  hand.  This  should 
be  attended  to  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  supply  constantly 
replenished  before  the  bees  form  the  habit  of  seeking  it  else- 
where. 


foreground  is  a  long  trough  with  burlap  lining  for  watering  the  bees. 


There  are  many  little  plans  that  serve  very  well.  A  common 
way  is  to  set  out  two  or  three  tubs  or  half  barrels  and  fill  them 
full  of  water  (Fig.  22).  A  quantity  of  cork  chips  is  scattered 
over  the  top  of  the  water"  to  prevent  the  bees  from  drowning. 
Fig.  23  shows  one  of  the  best  plans.  In  the  foreground  of  the 
picture  will  be  seen  a  long  trough.  This  is  made  by  nailing 
two  six-inch  boards  together  in  a  V  shape  and  closing  the  ends, 
like  an  old-fashioned  pig  trough.  The  trough  is  lined  with 
burlap  to  furnish  a  foothold  for  the  bees.    WTiile  fewer  bees  will 


HIVE  NUMBSRS  AND  RECORDS  43 

be  lost  from  this  plan  than  most  others,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
requiring  refilling  frequently,  as  the  large  surface  of  water  ex- 
posed results  in  rapid  evaporation.  On  the  other  hand,  large 
numbers  of  bees  can  get  water  at  one  time  without  crowding. 

Hive  Numbers  and  Records.— Some  system  of  records  is  very 
helpful,  and  many  specialists  regard  it  as  indispensable  to  best 
results.  Various  plans  are  in  use,  but  the  elaborate  systems 
should  be  avoided.  Unless  one  can  make  necessary  notes  while 
at  work,  there  is  danger  that  they  will  not  be  made  at  all.  While 
a  book  record  is  best,  it  is  difficult  to  make  records  of  this  kind 
when  one's  fingers  are  messed  up  with  propolis,  and  the  wind  is 
blowing  the  pages.  The  principal  advantage  of  the  book  record 
lies  in  its  permanence,  and  the  ease  with  which  one  can  refer  to 
previous  notes. 

Hive  Marks.— In  a  large  apiary  some  system  of  marking  the 
condition  of  the  colonies  is  necessary.  When  one  examines  the 
bees  he  will  find  some  colonies  weak,  some  strong,  some  needing 
more  room,  some  with  failing  queens,  some  preparing  to  swarm*^ 
some  queenless,  and  many  other  conditions.  Where  immediate 
attention  is  necessary,  it  is  likely  to  be  given  at  the  time,  but  if 
something  necessitates  examination  again  after  a  few  days  have 
elapsed,  some  simple  mark  is  necessary. 

Stakes,  e^c— Some  bee-keepers  use  a  quantity  of  stakes,  and 
by  setting  them  in  different  positions  about  the  hive  indicate 
the  condition  of  the  colony.  F.  W.  Hall  uses  pegs  or  stakes  for 
this  purpose.  A  red  topped  peg  indicates  disease.  Such  a  peg 
set  at  the  left  side  of  the  entrance  indicates  disease  is  suspicioned, 
and  in  front  of  the  left  side  of  the  entrance,  that  disease  is  known 
to  be  present.  When  the  colony  is  treated,  the  peg  is  moved  to 
the  center  of  the  entrance  and  if,  after  a  later  examination,  no 
disease  is  found,  the  peg  is  moved  to  the  right  of  the  entrance. 
After  disease  is  known  to  be  eradicated,  all  pegs  are  removed. 

In  the  same  manner  pegs  not  painted  or  of  another  color  are 
used  for  other  purposes.  Thus  one  peg  indicates  a  fair  laying 
queen,  two  pegs  a  good  queen,  and  three  pegs  a  choice  one.    The 


44  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APIARY 

positions  of  the  pegs  in  front,  at  the  side,  or  the  rear  of  the  hive 
indicate  other  conditions  which  it  is  desired  to  note.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  system  lies  in  the  fact  that  one  can  see  at  a  glance 
the  condition  of  each  colony  when  passing  through  the  yard. 
Position  of  pegs  is  changed  at  each  examination,  to  indicate  the 
condition  of  the  colony  at  the  time. 

Various  modifications  of  this  peg  plan  are  in  use.    Some  use 
a  variety  of  colors,  each  color  indicating  some  special  thing,  as 


Fio.  24. — Record  on  back  of  hive  cover  in  Dadant  Apiary.     (From  Dadant 
System  of  Bee-keeping.) 

red  for  disease,  blue  for  queen,  green  for  strength  of  colony,  etc. 
The  position  of  the  stake  tells  the  story.  This  plan  is  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  for  the  reason  that  so  many  stakes  are  needed,  and 
they  are  not  always  sure  to  remain  where  placed. 

Hive  Markers. — ^Numerous  hive  markers  and  hive  records 
have  been  offered  from  time  to  time  only  to  be  forgotten  shortly. 
The  busy  bee-keeper  wants  something  which  requires  a  mini- 
mum of  attention.  Since  the  record  is  usually  very  temporary, 
most  extensive  honey  producers  use  chalk  or  pencil  to  make  notes 
on  the  back  or  inside  of  the  cover.     Fig.  24  shows  how  these 


QUESTIONS  45 

records  are  made  on  the  back  of  the  hive  in  the  Dadant  apiaries. 
The  author  made  a  practise  of  making  notes  with  a  pencil  on  the 
inside  of  the  cover.  Any  system  that  requires  much  time  on  the 
part  of  the  bee-keeper  is  unworkable  in  actual  practice  and  will 
shortly  be  abandoned, 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Note  the  things  that  are  desirable  in  the  arrangement  of  the  apiary 

2.  Discuss  the  matter  of  shade. 

3.  How  should  the  hives  be  spaced? 

4.  Describe  a  desirable  hive  stand. 

5.  Under  what  conditions  should  water  be  provided  ? 

6.  Discuss  various  kinds  of  hive  markers  and  systems  of  records. 


CHAPTER  V 
SOURCES    OF    NECTAR 

In  taking  up  bee-keeping  as  a  business,  it  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  select  a  location  where  suitable  plants  are 
available  during  as  long  a  season  as  possible.  The  greater  the 
variety  of  honey-producing  plants  the  better.  There  is  no  single 
plant  that  can  be  depended  upon  to  produce  nectar  in  sufficient 
quantities  every  year.  The  ideal  location  is  one  where  there  is 
an  abundance  of  willow,  maple,  dandelion,  and  fruit  bloom  early 
in  spring,  followed  by  white  clover  and  sweet  clover  in  abund- 
ance. This  in  turn  should  be  supplemented  with  such  plants  as 
heartsease,  sunflowers,  golden  rod,  and  asters  for  late  forage. 

There  are  many  things  to  be  considered  in  choosing  a  location, 
that  will  not  be  apparent  at  first  glance.  For  instance,  some 
plant  may  be  present  in  quantity  that  is  ordinarily  considered 
as  a  profitable  source  of  nectar,  yet  which  for  some  unknown 
reason  seldom  yields  in  a  particiilar  locality.  Alfalfa  is  a 
valuable  plant  for  the  apiarist  under  the  conditions  of  the  irri- 
gated regions  of  the  West,  yet  seldom  secretes  sufficient  nectar  to 
attract  the  bees  in  the  moist  sections  east  of  the  Missouri  River. 
Buckwheat  is  rated  as  an  important  honey  plant  in  New  York, 
but  is  of  little  value  in  most  Iowa  localities.  When  the  bulletin, 
"Bee-keeping  in  Iowa,"  which  was  published  as  No.  11  of  the 
extension  department  of  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture,  was 
in  preparation,  correspondence  with  representative  bee-keepers 
in  all  parts  of  that  State  brought  only  one  report  of  buckwheat  as 
a  profitable  source  of  nectar.  Bee-keepers,  reading  of  the  wonder- 
ful crops  of  honey  stored  from  buckwheat  in  some  eastern  States, 
might  easily  be  misled  into  expecting  similar  results  from  this 
plant  wherever  a  sufficient  acreage  was  present. 

Just  what  factors  influence  the  secretion  of  nectar  still  remain 
to  be  determined.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  some  plants  secrete 
46 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR  47 

very  freely  in  some  seasons,  while  in  others  with  a  large  amount 
of  bloom  the  bees  will  starve,  or  fare  very  poorly  at  best.  Con- 
ditions that  are  favorable  to  the  secretion  of  nectar  with  one 
plant  seem  to  have  the  opposite  effect  on  another.  When  white 
clover  produces  the  heaviest  flow  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  alfalfa 
in  adjoining  fields  will  produce  no  nectar.  Scientists  are  now 
studying  the  problems  connected  with  nectar  secretion,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  the  reasons  for  the  great  variation  may  shortly  be 
better  understood. 

It  accordingly  becomes  necessary  for  the  bee-keeper  not  only 
to  know  the  plants  that  furnish  the  raw  material  for  honey  pro- 
duction, but  to  be  familiar  with  their  behavior  under  the  par- 
ticular conditions  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  Some  years  the 
honey  crop  will  be  good  or  bad  over  a  large  scope  of  country, 
while  in  others  not  more  than  five  or  six  miles  will  be  necessary 
to  pass  from  a  neighborhood  where  no  honey  is  being  stored  to 
one  where  a  profitable  crop  is  gathered.  The  wide-awake  bee- 
keeper can  thus  frequently,  by  moving  his  bees  but  a  short  dis- 
tance, convert  failure  into  success,  and  instead  of  having  to  feed 
his  bees  to  get  them  safely  through  the  winter,  market  a  crop 
of  honey. 

One  of  the  most  successful  beekeepers  of  the  Middle  West 
has  a  location  in  the  hills  overlooking  the  Missouri  River.     His 
location  is  very  desirable,  for  he  has  practically  all  important 
honey  plants  of  that  region  within  reach  of  some  of  his  yards. 
His  home  yard  is  within  easy  reach  of  a  large  linden  grove  which 
furnishes  some  honey  about  two  years  in  five.     White  clover  in 
nearby  pastures  furnishes  something  about  four  years  in  five 
and  a  good  yield  two  or  three  seasons  in  five.    Sweet  clover  which 
is  one  of  the  surest  honey  plants,  is  also  present  in  large  quantity 
and  the  bees  also  have  a  large  area  of  Missouri  River  bottom 
land  within  reach.    In  this  latter  area  they  have  access  to  large 
quantities  of  heartsease,  wild  sunflower,  and  other  fall  flowers. 
Ill  such  a  location  the  chances  of  failure  are  reduced  to  the 
minimum,  and  seldom  is  there  a  year  in  which  he  does  not  <^et  a 


48  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

surplus  from  some  of  these  sources.  In  seasons  when  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  several  important  honey  plants,  he 
reaps  a  great  harvest. 

System  Adapted  to  Honey  Flow. — Upon  the  flora  and  con- 
ditions of  secretion  of  nectar  will  depend  the  system  of  honey 
production  which  can  be  carried  on  most  profitably.  If  the 
flows  are  short  and  very  rapid,  as  is  the  case  in  many  localities 
in  the  northeastern  States,  comb  honey  production  can  be  carried 
on  with  very  satisfactory  results,  and  with  profit  to  the  producer. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  flow  lasts  through  a  long  season,  and 
at  no  time  is  the  honey  coming  in  rapidly,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
get  a  nicely  finished  article  of  comb  honey.  Not  only  are  the 
sections  likely  to  be  poorly  finished,  but  they  will  be  travel- 
stained  and  unattractive  in  appearance,  A  small  hive,  while 
hardly  to  be  recommended  anywhere  except  in  the  hands  of  a 
comb  honey  specialist,  should  never  be  used  in  a  region  where 
the  flows  are  not  rapid.  Locality  then  is  really  the  first  and  most 
important  point  to  be  considered  by  the  prospective  bee-keeper. 
'Not  until  he  has  settled  upon  his  locality  can  he  decide  as  to 
the  system  of  management  which  he  will  follow,  or  the  equip- 
ment which  he  will  use. 

Clover  Region. — While  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  local 
conditions,  all  the  region  from  the  Missouri  River  to  Maine  and 
south  to  the  Gulf  States,  can  be  classed  as  the  clover  region. 
White  clover,  perhaps,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  honey- 
producing  plants  in  all  this  section.  Alsike  and  sweet  clover  also 
are  important.  Basswood  or  linden,  raspberry,  buckwheat,  and 
several  other  plants  are  important  in  various  local  sections,  but 
the  clovers  are  the  main  source  of  nectar  throughout  this  vast 
region.  Fruit  bloom  and  dandelion  are  of  great  value  through- 
out these  States  for  spring  brood  rearing.  In  many  places  they 
are  sufficiently  plentiful  to  offer  an  Important  source  of  surplus, 
if  the  bees  are  ready  for  it.  The  bloom  from  these  plants, 
however,  comes  so  early  in  spring  that  the  bees  are  usually  not  yet 
strong  enough  in  numbers  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  nectar 


THE  SOUTH  49 

available.  Coming  so  soon  after  the  bees  are  first  abroad  after 
the  long  winter,  the  queens  are  stimulated  to  great  activity  and 
brood  rearing  begins  in  earnest.  As  a  result,  the  hives  are  soon 
full  of  joung  bees,  so  that  the  colonies  should  be  in  the  very  best 
condition  for  the  clover  harvest. 

Alfalfa  Region.— The  irrigated  sections  of  the  arid  West  may 
be  classed  as  the  alfalfa  region.  While  much  honey  from  other 
sources  comes  to  market  from  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  alfalfa 
is  the  main  source  of  dependence.  Sweet  clover  is  rapidly  ex- 
tending its  range  in  the  same  territory,  so  that  it  is  also  a  very 
important  source  of  nectar.  The  alfalfa  plant  seems  to  be  at  its 
best  in  the  dry  atmosphere  of  Colorado  and  surrounding  States. 
Given  plenty  of  water  by  irrigation,  the  results  both  in  hay  and 
in  nectar  are  remarkable.  Alfalfa  may  be  said  to  be  "king"  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  States,  all  the  way  from  Canada  to  the 
Mexican  border. 

From  California  we  hear  much  of  sage,  orange,  and  beans  as 
additional  sources  of  honey  production.  Very  little  orange  honey 
reaches  the  eastern  markets,  so  that  it  can  hardly  be  considered 
in  speaking  of  the  region  as  a  whole.  Sage,  in  years  past,  has 
been  the  source  of  large  quantities  of  honey  shipped  east.  Of 
late  years,  alfalfa,  even  in  California  as  in  other  western  States, 
is  coming  to  be  a  very  dependable  source  of  supply. 

The  South.— In  Texas  are  to  be  found  many  of  the  plants 
common  to  the  eastern  States,  as  well  as  some  that  are  important 
m  the  arid  West.  In  the  irrigated  sections  of  Texas  alfalfa  is 
an  important  honey  plant.  Here  are  also  a  number  whose  names 
are  unfamiliar  elsewhere,  including  huajilla,  meequit,  and  cats- 
claw. 

In  the  southeastern  section,  beginning  with  the  Carolinas, 
we  still  find  the  clovers  and  other  plants  common  to  the  northern' 
States  mentioned  as  important  in  honey  production.  In  addition, 
there  are  some  peculiar  to  the  South  which  rank  even  higher  in 
the  production  of  honey.  Among  the  most  important  may  be 
mentioned  the  gallberry  and  sourwood. 


50  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

In  Florida  several  other  species  of  importance  are  brought 
to  the  bee-keeper's  attention.  They  are  not  all  confined  to 
Florida,  but  may  be  found  more  or  less  abundantly  throughout 
the  Gulf  States. 

The  list  sounds  strange  to  the  bee-keeper  of  the  North,  for 
few  of  the  names  mentioned  as  important  are  familiar  to  his 
ears. 

Tupelo  or  gum  extends  some  distance  to  the  north  of  Florida, 
but  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  of  nectar 
in  that  State.  Palmetto  and  saw  palmetto  are  peculiar  to  Florida. 

The  Florida  honey  flora  is  composed  to  a  surprising  extent 
of  trees ;  magnolia,  mangrove,  titi,  orange  and  many  others  are 
either  trees  or  shrubs. 

Honey  Sources  of  Wide  Distribution. — It  is  hardly  within 
the  scope  of  a  work  of  this  kind  to  consider  in  detail  the  resources 
of  each  section  separately.  There  are,  however,  a  large  number 
of  plants  of  wide  distribution  which  are  important  yielders  of 
honey  or  pollen,  or  both,  over  such  wide  areas  as  to  merit  further 
consideration. 

During  the  height  of  the  season,  pollen  is  usually  present 
in  such  quantities  from  so  many  plants,  that  those  which  yield 
pollen  alone  are  of  little  interest.  Those  plants  which  yield 
pollen  very  early  in  the  season,  however,  are  second  in  importance 
only  to  the  best  honey  sources.  So  valuable  is  an  abundance  of 
pollen  early  in  spring  for  brood  rearing,  that  it  is  very  important 
that  the  apiary  be  within  easy  reach  of  pollen-bearing  plants  at 
this  season. 

Honey-dew  is  a  secretion  from  small  insects  known  as  aphids. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  concerning  the  origin  of  this 
product  in  the  past,  some  holding  that  it  was  not  only  an  insect 
secretion,  but  a  plant  secretion  as  well.  The  fact  that  drops  of 
honey-dew  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  on  the  leaves  of  trees  when 
no  aphis  is  to  be  found  probably  gave  rise  to  this  impression. 
It  is  now  quite  generally  agreed  that  honey-dew  comes  only 


HONEY-DEW  5I 

from  this  family  of  insects  as  a  secretion.  Its  presence  where 
no  insects  are  present  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  quantities 
of  the  liquid  are  expelled  by  the  insects  from  a  higher  point,  and 
in  falling  it  appears  on  the  leaves  on  lower  levels. 

Several  plants  exude  a  sweet  substance  which  the  bees  some- 
times gather,  but  it  is  quite  a  different  material  from  honey-dew. 
In  seasons  of  scarcity  of  nectar  the  bees  will  seek  any  sweet 
material.  At  such  times  they  are  troublesome  about  cider  mills, 
where  they  eagerly  fill  their  honey  sacs  with  the  rich  juice  of  the 
apple.  They  may  even  be  found,  at  times,  on  decaying  fruits 
which  have  been  broken  open.  The  saps  from  numerous  plants 
when  exposed  by  injury  are  freely  sought.  These  substances 
are  not  honey-dew,  though  they  are  likely  to  be  stored  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  plant  lice,* or  aphids,  have  a  remarkable  life  history.  The 
first  generation  of  young  to  appear  in  spring  is  hatched  from 
eggs  and  all  are  females.  These  in  turn  give  birth  to  living 
young,  but  no  males  appear  until  several  successive  generations 
of  living  females  have  been  brought  forth.  As  the  season 
advances  males  also  appear  and  the  cycle  starts  all  over  again. 
There  are  many  different  species  much  sought  for  by  ants. 
The  solicitude  of  the  ants  toward  the  insects  gave  rise  to  the 
old  story  that  ants  keep  cows.  They  do,  in  fact,  seem  to  care  for 
the  plant  lice  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  honey-dew  which 
they  secrete.  The  ants  also  use  the  bodies  of  the  plant  lice  as 
food.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  comparison  of  the  ants  and 
their  herds  is  not  so  far  wrong,  for  while  the  liquid  secretion  may 
be  called  milk,  the  ants  may  also  be  said  to  secure  meat  by  the 
consumption  of  the  plant  lice  themselves.  With  some  species  the 
ants  are  even  believed  to  go  so  far  as  to  carry  the  eggs  of  the 
plant  lice  down  into  their  own  nests  to  be  cared  for  during  the 
wmter  months,  and  to  place  the  newly  hatched  aphids  in  position 
on  their  food  plants  in  early  spring. 

Ants  are  not  alone  in  their  fondness  for  honey-dew,  even 
though  they  may  be  alone  in  caring  for  the  plant  lice.     Many 


52  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

other  insects,  including  bees  and  wasps,  are  attracted  to  the  feast 
when  the  product  is  abundant. 

At  times  the  plant  lice  become  so  abundant  on  the  leaves 
of  the  various  trees  on  which  they  feed  as  to  prove  disastrous  to 
the  tree.  Plum  trees  are  especially  liable  to  injury  from  these 
insects.  When  the  leaves  begin  to  curl  in  early  spring,  it  is 
usually  a  sign  that  plant  lice  of  some  kind  are  present.  Hundreds 
of  them  will  be  found  under  one  leaf. 

It  is  usually  from  such  forest  trees  as  elm,  hickory,  and  oak 
that  honey-dew  comes  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  apparent 
in  the  hive.  It  is  only  in  an  occasional  season  that  the  bees 
gather  honey-dew  in  noticeable  quantities.  At  times  it  will  fairly 
drip  from  the  trees,  and  on  such  occasions,  if  no  honey  is  coming 
in,  the  bees  will  work  with  tremendous  energy  in  storing  the 
substitute. 

There  seems  to  be  considerable  variation  in  the  quality  of 
the  honey-dew  honey,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  not  of  good  quality,  and 
a  bee-keeper  should  be  very  careful  that  it  does  not  spoil  his 
market  for  good  honey.  It  is  especially  disastrous  to  the  bees 
as  winter  food,  and  should  never  be  left  in  the  hive  for  winter 
stores,  in  the  northern  States,  where  the  bees  are  confined  for  long 
periods  without  a  flight.  Where  the  bees  are  free  to  fly  every  few 
days  during  winter,  the  bad  effect  is  not  so  apparent.  (See 
Chapter  XIII  on  Wintering.) 

Sources  of  Early  Pollen. — While  some  pollen  is  gathered 
from  the  early  spring  flowers,  the  most  important  sources  are 
the  forest  trees.  The  elm  is  especially  valuable,  as  it  yields  pollen 
in  enormous  quantities.  When  the  elm  trees  bloom,  the 
bees  fairly  cover  them  until  the  humming  reminds  one  of 
the  swarming  season.  At  about  this  same  season  the  maples 
(Acer)  bloom  (Figs.  25  and  27).  These  trees  furnish  not  only 
pollen,  but  nectar  also,  and  are  a  valuable  source  of  supply  at  this 
season.  The  willows  (Salix)  likewise  furnish  pollen  in  abund- 
ance and  nectar  beside  (Figs.  25  and  26).  At  times  the  bees 
are  able  to  store  some  honey  from  the  two  last  named  sources. 


THE  DANDELION 


53 


The  dandelion,  or  blowball,  is  widely  spread  over  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  It  blooms 
early  in  spring,  not  far  from  the  time  of  fruit  bloom,  and  sup- 


Fia.  25  -Soft  maple  and  pussy  willow  are  sources  of  early  pollen  and  nectar. 

plies  both  pollen  and  nectar  in  large  quantities.  While  the  nectar 
secretion  does  not  seem  to  be  constant,  in  an  occasional  season 
the  bees  will  store  surplus  comb  honey  from  this  source.     The 


54 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


pollen  never  fails  when  the  plant  blooms,  and  the  bees  fairly  revel 
in  it  during  its  season  of  blossom.  It  comes  just  at  the  season 
when  the  need  of  food  for  brood  rearing  is  greatest,  and  is  conse- 
quently one  of  the  most  valuable.     It  is  usually  regarded  as  a 


FiQ.  26. — Catkins  of  pussy  willow. 


weed,  and  is  especially  obnoxious  on  the  lawns.  The  bright 
yellow  flowers  are  not  unattractive,  and  if  it  was  as  difficult  to 
grow  as  some  of  the  cultivated  plants,  it  would  be  much  in 


FRUIT  BLOOM  55 

demand.     It  seems  to  be  human  nature  to  despise  the  common. 

Fruit  Bloom. — The  honey  producer  whose  apiary  is  situated 

near  large  orchards  is  fortunate.     If  such  tree  fruits  as  cherries, 

plums,  and  apples  all  be  present,  the  season  of  bloom  will  last 


Fig.  27. — Blossoms  of  soft  maple. 


for  several  days,  much  to  his  advantage.  A  single  variety  will 
offer  pasturage  for  only  a  very  limited  time,  but  it  is  abundant 
while  it  lasts.  Most  commercial  orchards  consist  of  several 
varieties,  so  that  the  season  of  bloom  may  last  from  one  week 


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TRUCK  CROPS  57 

to  three  or  four  weeks,  depending  upon  the  kinds  of  trees  avail- 
able (Fig.  28). 

The  pear  tree  secretes  nectar  freely,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  the  fruits.    The  peach  also  is  of  some  value. 

While  the  fruit  trees  bloom  in  profusion,  the  principal  value 
of  this  nectar  lies  in  the  stimulation  of  brood  rearing,  because 
of  the  season  in  which  it  comes. 

In  Florida  and  California,  the  orange  is  of  considerable 
value  as  a  honey  plant.  It  blooms  usually  in  February  and 
March,  and  lasts  from  twenty  to  thirty  days.  If  conditions  are 
favorable  for  nectar  secretion,  considerable  surplus  will  be  stored 
from  this  source,  but  it  is  not  dependable. 

Of  the  wild  fruits,  hawthorne,  wild  crab,  and  several  others 
are  very  similar  to  the  cultivated  fruits  in  nectar  secretion.  The 
wild  cherry  is  a  large  forest  tree  that  furnishes  considerable 
honey. 

Besides  the  tree  fruits,  the  bush  fruits  are  of  considerable 
value.  The  wild  raspberry  of  Michigan  is  one  of  the  more  im- 
portant sources  of  honey  in  that  State.  Its  period  of  bloom  is 
long  and  the  honey  of  the  finest  quality.  The  plants  grow  on  cut- 
over  timber  land  that  is  very  poor,  so  that  a  good  raspberry 
location  IS  quite  likely  to  be  permanent.  A  large  acreage  of 
cultivated  raspberries  is  equally  desirable  and  often  to  be  found 
in  the  truck-growing  sections  near  the  large  cities.  The  black- 
berry is  also  a  valuable  plant,  although  probably  nowhere  equal 
to  a  similar  acreage  of  raspberry.  In  portions  of  N'orth  Georgia 
the  blackberry  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  nectar. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  sought  by  the  bees,  and  if  pres- 
ent m  sufficiently  large  acreage  would  be  desirable  pasturage. 

Truck  Crops.—In  the  vicinity  of  market  gardens,  the  bee- 
keeper often  receives  considerable  benefit  from  the  large  acreage 
of  cucumbers,  which  produces  considerable  honey.  It  is  said  to 
be  of  inferior  flavor. 

Carrots,  cabbage,  mustard,  turnips,  pumpkins,  squash  and 
several  other  cultivated  vegetables  add  to  the  total  production 
of  the  hive. 


58  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

The  California  apiarists  of  some  sections  report  valuable 
honey  crops  from  the  lima  beans  which  are  raised  in  large 
acreage  in  that  State. 

The  Clovers. — In  the  markets  of  the  world,  honey  from  this 
family  of  plants  stands  supreme,  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 
The  combs  are  capped  white,  so  that  the  product  is  of  fine 
appearance  and  the  quality  is  of  the  best.  Honey  from  either 
white,  alsike,  sweet  or  other  clover,  or  from  alfalfa,  is  sure  of 
a  market  at  a  fair  price  in  almost  any  season.  When  the  markets 
are  glutted,  the  clover  honeys  are  among  the  first  to  move,  so 
that  the  apiarist  seldom  need  fear  being  unable  to  dispose  of  his 
product.  While  there  are  seasons  of  short  secretion,  the  clovers 
are,  perhaps,  as  nearly  sure  to  yield  as  any  plants  of  wide 
distribution. 

White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens). — The  most  valuable  honey 
plant  in  America.  It  ranges  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  west  to  IsTebraska  and  Texas.  Reaches  its  greatest 
value  as  a  honey  producer  in  the  northern  States.  Perennial, 
with  somewhat  creeping  stems.  A  fine  pasture  plant,  common 
along  roadsides  and  in  pastures  everywhere. 

Alsike  Clover  (T.  hyhridum). — Alsike,  or  Swedish  clover, 
resembles  white  clover  in  some  respects,  although  much  larger 
and  better  suited  for  culture  as  a  forage  crop.  It  yields  honey 
freely  of  about  the  same  quality  as  white  clover.  This  plant  suc- 
ceeds on  land  where  red  clover  will  not  do  well,  and  when  sown 
with  a  mixture  of  other  grasses  makes  a  very  good  meadow. 
When  sown  with  timothy  and  red  clover  the  resulting  hay  crop  h 
much  heavier  than  where  timothy  and  red  clover  are  sown  alone. 

Red  Clover  (T.  Pratense). — Red  clover  would  be  a  magnifi- 
cent honey  plant  if  the  bees  were  only  able  to  reach  the  nectar. 
The  corolla  tubes  are  too  long  for  the  length  of  the  honey-bee's 
tongue.  Occasionally  a  case  is  reported  when  a  crop  is  supposed 
to  be  gathered  from  this  source.  If  so,  conditions  must  either 
serve  greatly  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  corolla  tubes,  or  the 
nectar  must  be  so  abundant  as  to  fill  the  tubes  to  a  height  within 


THE  CLOVERS  59 

reach  of  the  insects.  Possibly  the  tubes  are  punctured  by  other 
insects.  It  is  usually  in  extremely  dry  seasons  that  red  clover 
honey  is  reported,  and  it  may  be  that  the  unfavorable  conditions 
may  serve  to  dwarf  the  plant  to  some  extent. 

Although  red  clover  produces  nectar  in  great  abundance,  it 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  honey  plant  because  of  the  inability 
of  the  bees  to  gather  it. 

Mammoth,  or  Pea-vine  clover,  is  another  form  or  variety 
of  red  clover  of  a  coarser  or  ranker  growth.  It  is  of  little  value 
for  the  same  reason  ascribed  to  the  other,  although  bees  may 
work  on  it  slightly  more  than  on  the  medium  red  variety. 

White  Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  alba). — Sweet  clover  is  one 
of  the  best  honey  plants,  and  is  very  rapidly  spreading  into  all 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  bids  fair  very  shortly  to  outstrip 
white  clover  in  its  total  production,  because  of  its  wider  range. 
It  thrives  on  the  rich  lands  of  Iowa  and  Illinois,  along  the  irri- 
gation ditches  of  the  arid  West,  on  the  heavy  soils  of  the  South, 
and  the  rocky  farms  of  the  East.  It  seems  to  thrive  under  a 
greater  variety  of  conditions  and  to  flourish  under  greater  adver- 
sity than  any  other  valuable  forage  plant.  Farmers  on  high- 
priced  lands  of  the  com  belt  are  beginning  to  grow  it  in  prefer- 
ence to  red  clover,  or  timothy,  for  hay,  while  the  farmers  on 
worn  soils  of  the  South  and  East  are  finding  it  to  be  a  great  soil 
builder,  as  well  as  a  profitable  farm  crop.  The  quantity  of 
forage  produced  from  a  given  area  is  second  to  no  other  forage 
plant,  and  the  quality,  if  properly  handled,  is  excellent.  Even 
in  sections  where  it  is  regarded  as  a  weed  and  consequently  is  not 
encouraged,  it  is  gradually  taking  possession  of  waste  places  along 
railroads,  highways,  and  unoccupied  lands  generally. 

White  sweet  clover,  also  called  Bokhara  clover,  is  a  biennial, 
seeding  freely,  and  establishing  itself  readily  under  apparently 
unfavorable  conditions. 

The  honey  is  light  in  color  and  spicy  in  flavor.  By  itself  it  is 
a  little  strong  for  some  palates,  but  when  mixed  with  other  honey 
is  of  very  fine  quality.     Sweet  clover  will  one  day  stand  at  the 


60  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

head  of  the  list  of  honey  plants  of  the  world,  if  the  present  rate 
of  spreading  continues.  Large  quantities  of  honey  from  this 
source  are  now  reaching  the  markets  from  Colorado,  Idaho,  and 
other  western  States.  Sweet  clover  is  not  regarded  as  important 
in  portions  of  Ontario  and  some  of  the  eastern  States.  It  yields 
more  freely  in  the  dry  hot  summers  of  the  West. 

In  Iowa  one  farmer,  Frank  Coverdale  at  Delmar,  had  nearly 
200  acres  of  this  crop  on  his  farm.  Sweet  clover  was  the  princi- 
pal crop  grown,  and  everything  was  planned  to  utilize  it  to  the 
best  advantage.  Cattle,  hogs  and  other  stock  were  kept  to  con- 
sume the  hay.  Bees  also  were  kept  to  gather  as  much  of  the 
nectar  as  possible.  In  1913  more  than  a  carload  of  fine  comb 
honey  was  produced  from  the  300  colonies  of  bees  on  the  farm. 

Yellow  Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  officinalis). — The  yellow 
variety  of  sweet  clover  is  not  nearly  so  widely  spread  as  the  white, 
and  is  not  of  so  much  value  as  forage.  The  honey  yield,  however, 
is  good,  and  it  is  valuable  as  a  honey-producing  plant. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  saliva). — Alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  is  coming 
to  be  widely  cultivated  as  a  forage  plant.  It  does  not  thrive 
to  any  extent  except  under  cultivation.  It  is  at  its  best  in  the 
irrigated  regions  of  the  West,  where  it  is  grown  in  very  large 
acreage  for  hay  and  for  seed.  Under  western  conditions,  it  is  a 
very  valuable  forage  plant,  yielding  large  quantities  of  fine  honey. 
It  seems  to  be  of  little  value  for  bee  pasturage  in  moist  regions 
of  the  eastern  States.  Although  blooming  freely,  it  does  not  seem 
to  secrete  nectar,  except  in  rare  instances,  and  seldom  produces 
seed  in  any  quantity  except  in  seasons  of  extreme  drouth,  when 
the  bees  will  seek  it  freely  foi'  a  time, 

Basswood  or  Linden  (Tilia  americana). — The  basswood, 
known  as  whitewood,  linden,  or  limetree,  is  widely  disseminated 
in  eastern  North  America,  being  found  from  New  England  to 
Florida  and  Texas.  It  has  also  been  introduced  into  California 
in  a  few  localities. 

In  times  past  basswood  was  a  very  important  source  of  honey, 
but  of  late  years  the  linden  forests  are  being  rapidly  cut  ofi^,  and 
the  land  turned  into  farms  or  pastures.     Wherever  it  is  to  be 


GOLDEN  ROD  61 

found  in  quantity,  it  is  valuable  for  bee  pasture,  and  in  some 
seasons  produces  large  quantities  of  nectar.  It  is  not  a  depend- 
able source,  for  it  does  not  secrete  nectar  freely  except  in  occas- 
ional seasons.  When  conditions  are  favorable,  it  offers  about 
ten  days  of  the  finest  honey  flow  possible.  Some  years  immense 
crops  are  stored  from  basswood,  so  that  the  bee-keeper  who  is 
within  reach  of  a  considerable  acreage  of  this  forest  can  expect 
great  benefit  every  third  or  fourth  year,  with  a  splendid  crop 
once  in  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  tree  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  will 
begin  to  bloom  freely  after  six  or  eight  years. 

The  wood  is  white,  and  much  desired  for  making  sections  for 
comb  honey.  It  is  also  utilized  for  making  packing  boxes  of 
various  kinds,  some  kinds  of  furniture,  and  for  making  paper. 

Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum). — In  parts  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  the  New  England  States  where  buckwheat  is  raised 
in  large  quantities,  it  is  a  very  valuable  honey  plant.  In  some 
sections  several  hundred  colonies  of  bees  are  kept  in  one  yard, 
with  buckwheat  as  the  principal  source  of  honey.  Climatic  con- 
ditions of  the  eastern  States  seem  especially  favorable  to  nectar 
secretion,  and  there  it  is  very  dependable,  yielding  some  honey 
nearly  every  year.  In  the  Central  West  it  is  seldom  of  much 
value  for  bee  pasture,  and  yields  only  rarely.  It  is  reported  as  of 
little  value  in  Texas,  except  to  bridge  over  a  time  when  little 
else  is  blooming.  In  California  there  is  another  plant  called 
wild  buckwheat  which  is  said  to  be  of  considerable  value  as  a 
honey  plant. 

Buckwheat  honey  is  dark,  of  a  heavy  body  and  strong  flavor. 
Those  who  are  accustomed  to  it  often  prefer  it  to  milder  flavored 
honeys,  but  in  western  markets  it  moves  slowly,  and  at  a  lower 
price  than  the  white  honeys. 

In  the  East  it  is  the  source  of  very  large  crops  in  some  seasons, 
probably  an  average  of  fifty  or  more  pounds  per  colony  being 
secured  from  this  source  alone,  under  favorable  conditions. 

Golden  Rod  (Solidago). — The  golden  rods  are  of  wide  dis- 
tribution, some  species  probably  being  found  in  every  State  in  the 


62 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


Union,  as  well  as  Canada  and  Mexico  (Fig.  29).     They  are 

perennial  herbs,  blooming  in  late  summer  and  antiimn,  mostly 


Fig.  29. — The  golden  rod  is  an  important  source  of  fall  nectar  in  some  localities. 


with  bright  yellow  flowers.    At  least  eighty  recognized  species  are 
recorded. 

The  golden  rod  is  an  important  source  of  nectar  in  many 


OTHER  YELLOW  FALL  FLOWERS  63 

sections.  Reports  of  good  honey  crops  from  this  source  alone 
are  frequently  received  from  the  eastern  States.  In  the  Central 
West  It  is  less  frequently  mentioned  as  a  honey  plant,  in  some 
sections  the  bees  seeming  to  pay  no  attention  to  it.  It  is  said 
to  yield  considerable  honey  in  Texas  in  favorable  seasons,  and  is 
of  some  value,  also,  in  parts  of  California. 

The  honey  is  usually  thick,  and  when  well  ripened  of  good 
quality.  The  attractive  flowers  are  much  sought  for  by  many 
insects  beside  the  bees.  Beetles  in  large  numbers,  especially 
blister  beetles,  frequent  the  blossoms. 

^  Coming  so  late  in  summer,  it  is  especially  valuable  in  locali- 
ties where  the  secretion  is  sufficiently  abundant. 

Wild  Sunflower  (Helianthv^). —The  wild  sunflower  is  an- 
other summer  and  fall  flower  of  wide  range.  There  are  many 
species,  some  of  which  may  be  found  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
California  and  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf.  They  are  tall 
coarse  weeds  with  bright  yellow  flowers  (Fig.  33).  Large  num- 
bers of  insects  of  many  species  visit  the  blossoms  of  the  sunflowers 
m  search  of  the  nectar. 

Wherever  these  flowers  are  sufficiently  abundant,  they  are 
the  source  of  nectar.  The  cultivated  sunflowers  are  of  little  if 
any  value  as  honey  plants,  but  produce  seed  in  quantity,  which 
IS  valuable  as  poultry  feed. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  a  variety  of  sunflower,  sometimes 
cultivated  for  the  hogs.  This  plant  grows  wild  in  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley  States,  and  is  regarded  as  a  weed.  It  is 
frequently  referred  to  as  a  valuable  honey  plant. 

Many  of  the  sunflowers  are  perennials,  persisting  for  manv 
years  where  once  established.     They  are  commonly  to  be  seen 
along  railroads,  wagon  roads,  and  on  waste  ground  everywhere 
ihe  honey  is  dark  or  amber  in  color 

Other  Yellow  Fall  Flowers.-There  are  many  coarse  plants 
with  yellow  flowers  that  bloom  in  late  summer  and  fall  that  add 
much  to  the  sum  total  of  honey  stored.  Coming  at  a  season  when 
m  many  localities,  there  is  no  general  flow,  they  are  of  consider- 


64 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


able  importance,  even  though  the  flow  from  them  is  never  heavy. 
Such  plants  grow  along  railroads,  roadsides,  along  streams,  on 


Fia.  30. — -The  cup-plant  or  rosin  weed. 


the  margins  of  fields,  and  in  waste  places  generally.     Some  of 
these  plants  are  quite  valuable,  where  sufiiciently  abundant. 


OTHER  YELLOW  FALL  FLOWERS 


65 


Cup-plant. — The  cup-plant  (Silphium  perfoliatum) ,  also 
called  rosin  weed,  is  a  common  roadside  plant  in  the  Middle  West. 
The  illustrations  showing  the  flowers  and  also  the  plant  give  a 


FiQ.  31. — Blossoms  of  the  cup-plant. 


good  idea  of  its  appearance.  By  looking  closely  at  Figs.  30  and 
31  it  will  be  seen  that  the  stem  is  square,  and  that  the  leaves 
are  grown  together  at  the  base,  thus  making  a  cup  around  the 
stem,  from  which  the  name  is  derived.    These  plants  are  abund- 


66  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

ant  on  rich  lands  along  streams,  and  sometimes  on  uplands  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  eastward.  They  grow  from  four  to  eight 
feet  tall,  with  numerous  yellow  flowers,  so  that  where  plentiful 
they  furnish  considerable  pasturage  for  the  bees,  which  visit 
them  freely. 

Crownheard. — There  are  several  species  of  crownbeard,  some 


Fia.  32. — The  yellow  crownbeard  is  much  sought 
by  the  bees. 


of  which  have  white  blossoms.  Fig,  32  shows  the  common  yellow- 
flowered  variety  which  grows  in  open  woodlands  in  the  IMiddle 
West.  The  bees  seek  it  very  eagerly  and  a  great  humming  may 
be  heard  about  this  plant  when  the  bloom  is  at  its  height.  The 
range  of  tlie  different  species  of  crownbeard  (Verbesitm),  is 
from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Missouri  Kiver  and  south  to  Texas. 


PARTRIDGE  PEA 


67 


The  list  of  such  plants  might  be  extended  to  great  length, 
while  no  one  of  them  is  generally  valuable  the  total  bounty  of  all 


FiQ.  33. — Wild  sunflowers  are  important  honey  producing  plants  over  large  areas. 

is  considerable,  and  each  is  important  in  limited  localities  where 
it  is  abundant. 

Partridge  Pea  (Cassia). — The  partridge  pea  is  reported  as 
an  important  source  of  honey  in  Georgia  and  Florida.     Fig.  34 


68 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


shows  the  common  roadside  species  of  the  Middle  West  (0. 
chamce crista) ,  with  blossom,  seed  pod,  and  leaf.  The  flowers 
are  of  an  attractive  yellow  color,  of  about  the  size  shown.  This 
plant  is  very  common  along  the  sandy  roads  of  the  Middle  West, 


Fia.  34. — Blossom,  seed  pod  and  leaf  of  partridge  pea. 

where  at  times  it  may  be  found  in  abundance  for  miles  at  a 
stretch.  Although  bees  visit  the  plant  freely  while  in  bloom,  the 
amount  of  honey  stored  from  this  source  is  seldom  uotiQeable 
in  this  region. 


ASTER  OR  STARWORT 


The  plant  is  peculiar  in  that  the  nectar  is  not  secreted  by  the 
flower  proper,  but  by  a  gland  at  the  base  of  the  petiole.  The 
season  of  flow  lasts  for  several  weeks  in  midsummer. 

As  it  comes  for  the  most  part  after  the  close  of  the  honey 
harvest,  the  partridge  pea  in  the  northern  States  serves  princi- 
pally to  keep  the  bees  occupied  until  later  flowers  bloom  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  provide  a  real  honey  flow. 

The  quality  of  honey  stored  from  this  source  is  said  to  be 
poor. 

Aster  or  Starw^ort.— There  are  said  to  be  about  125  species 
of  asters  m  North  America,  and  also  many  species  in  Europe 
Asia,  and  South  America.  These  plants  then  must  be  familiar 
to  the  bee-keepers  in  all  temperate  regions  of  the  world.  Some 
species  grow  in  open,  shady  woodlands,  while  others  delight  in 
the  open  sunlight  of  the  prairies.  They  range  in  height  from 
eighteen  inches,  or  less,  to  eight  feet.  As  a  rule,  the  plants  are 
many-flowered,  as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  35.  A  plant  with  a  small 
number  of  flowers  was  chosen  in  an  attempt  to  secure  greater 
detail.     Sometimes  hundreds  of  blossoms  occur  on  one  plant. 

They  range  in  color  from  white  to  blue  and  dark  purple 
Blue  IS  perhaps  the  most  common  color.  They  have  a  tendency 
m  some  cases  to  become  weeds,  but  are  easily  destroyed  by  culti- 
vation, and  are  not  often  regarded  as  serious.  The  bloom  in  the 
northern  Mississippi  Valley  States  comes  very  late,  lasting  until 
killing  frosts.  In  some  years  bees  are  found  still  working  on 
these  plants  in  November. 

The  asters,  like  the  golden  rods,  are  attractive  to  a  large 
variety  of  insect  life,  many  different  species  seeking  them  in 
addition  to  the  bees. 

The  white-rayed  flowers  are  said  to  be  the  best  honey  pro- 
ducers, some  species,  apparently,  not  yielding  any  nectar.  The 
value  of  asters  as  honey  plants  is  a  little  uncertain.  While  they 
yield  considerable  surplus  in  many  localities,  the  honey  makes 
very  poor  winter  stores,  and  many  reports  show  heavy  losses 
from  wintering  bees  on  aster  honey.     The  honey  is  said  to  be 


70  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

white  with  a  mild  flavor.  In  most  localities  it  is  mixed  with 
dark  fall  honey,  so  that  it  is  not  often  stored  separately. 

It  is  said  to  be  rather  thin,  and  by  itself  not  to  thicken  up 
readily. 

Boneset  or  White   Snakeroot, — There  are  several  closely 


Fig.  35. — Aster  honey  makes  poor  winter  stores. 

related  species  of  this  plant  (Eupatorium)  known  by  the  names 
of  boneset,  thoronghwort,  and  white  snakeroot.  The  common 
species  ranges  from  New  Brunswick  to  Dakota,  and  south  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  (Fig.  36).  Boneset  is  frequently  spoken  of  as 
a  honey  plant.     It  blooms  in  late  summer,  sometimes  persisting 


BONESET  OR  WHITE  SNAKEROOT  71 

until  frost.  The  plant  is  a  perennial,  and  if  left  undisturbed 
remains  for  many  years  in  open  woodlands  that  are  not  too 
closely  pastured. 


FiQ.  30.— Boucuet  or  white  snakeroot. 


The  species  most  conmion  in  the  upper  Mississippi  region 
is  known  as  white  snakeroot  (E,  urticce folium) ,  which  is  sup- 


72 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


posed  to  be  poisonous,  and  is  commonly  reported  to  cause  the 
disease  known  as  trembles  in  animals.  Although  much  of  this 
plant  grows  in  the  author's  wild  garden  (Fig.  37),  and  also  about 
the  grounds  where  it  is  frequently  eaten  by  the  family  cow,  no 
bad  effect  has  ever  been  noticed. 

Milk  sickness  is  said  to  be  caused  by  the  use  of  meat,  milk, 


Fio.  37. — Masses  of  white  snakeroot  in  the  author's  wild  garden. 


butter  or  cheese  from  animals  afflicted  with  trembles,  so  that 
snakeroot  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  the  indirect  cause  of  milk 
sickness  in  the  human  race,  as  well  as  trembles  in  animals. 

In  his  book  on  poisonous  plants,  Dr.  L.  H.  Pammel  cites  a 
number  of  cases  where  the  disease,  trembles,  had  supposedly  been 
produced  in  animals  by  feeding  them  the  extract  of  this  plant. 


BONESET  OR  WHITE  SNAKEROOT 


73 


Investigations  that  seem  to  contradict  this  conclusion  are  also 
eited,  so  that  the  connection  of  this  plant  to  these  diseases  seems 
doubtful. 


Fig.  38. — Two  apeciea  of  heartsease  or  smartweed. 


The  boneset  of  commerce  is  made  irom  E.  perfoliatum,  which 
also  is  most  often  spoken  of  as  a  source  of  honey.  The  drug  is 
well  and  widely  known  as  a  remedy. 


74  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

These  plants  are  an  important  source  of  fall  honey. 

Heartsease  (Polygonum). — There  are  several  species  of 
plants  belonging  to  this  family  (Fig.  38)  that  are  variously 
known  as  smartweed,  knotweed^  heartsease,  lady's  thumb,  w^ater 
pepper,  doorweed,  etc.  Polygonum  persicaria  or  lady's  thumb 
is  perhaps  the  best  honey  producer  of  them  all.  There  are 
fifty  or  more  species  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  a  number 
of  vi^hich  produce  some  honey. 

This  plant  is  particularly  valuable  in  wet  seasons,  when  an 
excess  of  moisture  prevents  the  usual  cultivation  of  many  fields, 
or  when,  because  of  abundant  water  supply,  these  plants  spring 
up  in  corn  fields  and  grain  fields  after  cultivation  has  ceased. 
At  such  times,  large  quantities  of  honey  are  sometimes  secured 
from  this  source. 

While  the  plants  range  over  a  wide  area,  they  are  particularly 
valuable  as  honey  producers  in  the  States  of  Iowa,  Illinois  and 
eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 

The  period  of  bloom  lasts  from  August  until  frost  and  the 
honey  varies  greatly  in  color  and  quality.  Much  of  it  is  a  light 
amber,  of  fair  quality,  while  some  is  very  dark  and  of  inferior 
quality. 

Horsemint  (Monarda).—lloTsemmt  is  most  frequently  re- 
ported as  a  valuable  honey  plant  from  Texas  and  nearby  States. 
In  this  section  very  large  yields  are  occasionally  reported  from 
this  source.  There  are  several  species  (Fig.  39)  ranging  from 
Quebec  and  New  England,  west  to  Dakota,  and  south  to  Georgia 
and  Texas. 

The  corolla  tubes  are  very  deep,  and  it  would  hardly  be 
expected  that  the  bees  could  reach  the  nectar.  Three  species 
are  reported  as  yielding  freely  in  Texas,  M.  clinopodoides  accord- 
ing to  Scholl  being  one  of  the  best  honey  plants.  M.  fistulosa, 
commonly  called  wild  bergamot,  is  common  in  many  of  the 
States,  from  New  England  to  the  Missouri  River  and  south  to 
Florida  and  Texas.     While  at  times  this  plant  does  not  seem 


MILKWEED 


75 


attractive  to  tlie  honev-bw,  it  is  widely  reported  as  a  source  of 
honey.  Monarda  punctata  is  the  best  of  the  horsemints  for  honey 
Milkweed  (Asclepia^).— The  milkweeds,  also  called  butter- 
fly weeds  and  silkweeds,  are  widely  distributed  on  both  hemis- 
pheres.    About  eighty-five  species  are  recorded.     Although  the 


Fig.  39.— The  horsemints  are  valuable  over  a  Urge  scope  of  country. 

miWeds  secrete  considerable  nectar  and  in  favorable  seasons 
considerable  honey  is  the  result,  they  are  not  generally  favored 
by  the  bee-keepers  because  of  the  fact  that  bees  sometimes  become 
entangled  m  the  pollen  masses  and  are  lost  as  a  result.  Kenoyer 
m  his  studies  of  the  relation  of  wild  bees  to  plant  pollenation' 
found  that  wasps  frequently  had  these  pollen  masses  clinging  to 
their  feet.    While  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  considerable  nura 


76 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


ber  of  bees  may  be  lost  from  this  cause,  it  is  hardly  as  serious, 
as  it  has  been  pictured  in  nuiny  of  the  printed  articles. 

The  milkweed  is  a  really  good  honey  plant,  and  where  suffi- 
ciently abundant  contributes  a  liberal  portion  to  the  prosperity 


'■■^ 

"'"^■^ 

'A 

Fio.  40. — Catnip  yields  honey  abundantly. 


Fig.  41. — Figwort  or  Simpson's  honey  plant. 


of  the  apiarist.  In  ''  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,"  for  July,  1912, 
Mr.  George  H.  Kirkpatrick,  of  Michigan,  reports  a  yield  of 
1320  pounds  from  eleven  colonies  in  eleven  days,  gathered  from 
milkweed.  Any  plant  that  will  produce  one  hundred  or  more 
pounds  of  honey  per  colony,  in  such  a  short  period  of  time,  even 
under  extraordinary  conditions,  is  worthy  of  attention. 


GOOD  PLANTS  OF  RESTRICTED  DISTRIBUTION 


77 


The  honey  is  said  to  be  light  in  cohir  and  of  good  quality. 

Good  Plants  of  Restricted  Distribution. — Some  of  the  best 
honey  plants  are  restricted  to  a  small  area.  The  sages  of  Cali- 
fornia have  produced  enormous  crops  of  honey  which  have  been 
shipped  to  the  eastern  markets  in  large  quantities,  yet  little  sage 


Fia.  42. — The  Rocky  mountain  bee  plant  is  a  valuable  honey  producer  in  Colorado. 

honey  is  secured  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  The  palmetto 
and  saw  palmetto  of  Florida  are  important  in  that  State,  but 
not  found  far  removed  from  the  southern  half  of  that  common- 
wealth. The  logwood  of  Jamaica  and  the  West  Indies,  and 
to  some  extent  in  Florida,  is  of  little  interest  to  the  bee-keepers 
of  other  sections.  Xearly  every  State  has  some  honey  plants  that 
are  not  of  general  interest  because  of  the  restricted  range. 


78  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

Valuable  Plants  That  are  Seldom  Abundant. — There  are 
a  number  of  plants  that  secrete  nectar  freely,  which  would  be 
exceedingly  valuable  if  sufficiently  abundant.  Catnip,  nepeta 
cataria,  (Fig.  40)  originally  introduced  from  Europe  has  become 


Fig.  43. — Blossoms  of  the  button  bush. 


very  widely  naturalized  in  the  United  States.  When  in  bloom 
it  is  eagerly  sought  by  the  bees.  Figwort,  or  Simpson's  honey 
plant,  Scrophularia  marilandica  (Fig.  41)  is  another  widely 
distributed  plant  on  which  the  bees  work  freely.  The  button 
bush,  Cephalanthus  occidentalis  (Fig.  43)  is  a  bushy  shrub  that 
grows  in  wet  lands.    In  a  few  localities  along  the  Mississippi  it  ia 


PLANTS  PRINCIPALLY  VALUABLE  FOR  POLLEN  79 

sufficiently  common  to  yield  some  surplus  honey,  which  is  light 
in  color  and  mild  in  flavor.  The  wild  cucumber,  Echinocystis 
lobata  (Fig.  45)  is  another  wet  land  plant  common  everywhere 
along  streams  from  New  England  to  Texas  but  abundant  enough 
to  yield  noticeable  quantities  of  nectar  in  few  places. 

Plants  Principally  Valuable  for  Pollen. — There  are  a  large 
number  of  plants  commonly  visited  by  the  bees  for  pollen,  which 


Fio.  44. — Buckwheat  is   highly   regarded  in   the  East.      (Sear's  Productive  Orcharding), 

produce  no  nectar.  Others,  like  the  willows  and  maples,  are  valu- 
able for  both.  Inasmuch  as  pollen  is  absolutely  essential  for 
brood  rearing,  it  is  important  that  it  be  within  reach  at  all 
seasons,  as  nearly  as  possible.  In  a  few  localities  it  is  never 
sufficiently  abundant  throughout  the  breeding  season  for  best 
results.  Fortunately,  in  most  places,  pollen  is  within  reach 
most  of  the  growing  months. 


80 


SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 


Among  the  important  pollen  plants  may  be  mentioned  several 
of  the  forest  trees,  including  the  willows,  elms  and  maples  already 
mentioned.  In  addition  the  box  elder,  walnut,  hickory,  ash, 
beech,  birch,  chestnut  and  aspens  may  be  mentioned. 


Fia.  45.— Where  suflBciently  abundant,  the  wild  cucumber  is  valuable. 


Corn  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  pollen  plants  of  its  season, 
and  the  bees  sometimes  work  on  the  tassels  so  freely  as  to  give 
rise  to  the  impression  that  it  is  a  honey  producer.    Plant  lice  are 


BITTER  AND  POISONOUS  HONEYS  gl 

sometimes  to  be  found  on  the  corn  plant,  and  it  may  be  thai 
honey-dew  is  sometimes  gathered  from  this  source. 

The  list  might  be  extended  indefinitely,  but  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mention  a  few  of  the  common  plants,  such  as  roses, 
sorghum,  hops  and  ragweed.  Many  brightly  colored  flowers  pro- 
duce pollen  but  no  nectar. 

Bitter  and  Poisonous  Honeys.— There  are  several  plants  that 
yield  honey  of  such  a  disagreeable  taste  that  it  is  of  no  value, 
except  to  feed  back  to  the  bees.  The  bitterweed,  or  sneezeweed  of 
the  Ozark  region,  blooms  after  the  close  of  the  clover  harvest,  and 
a  good  crop  of  white  clover  honey  is  frequently  spoiled  by  mixing 
with  the  bitter  honey.  In  such  a  locality,  it  is  important  that 
the  bee-keeper  be  familiar  with  the  time  of  blooming  of  such 
plants,  and  remove  all  good  honey  from  the  hive  before  the  bees 
begin  to  store  from  them.  The  author  has  found  this  honey  to  be 
so  bitter  as  to  be  absolutely  unpalatable.  Scholl  says  of  the 
bitterweed  of  Texas  {Helenium  tenuifolium)  :  "Honey  yield  good 
in  favorable  seasons ;  pollen ;  honey  golden  yellow,  heavy  body 
but  very  bitter,  as  if  50  per  cent  quinine  and  some  pepper  were 
added.    June  to  October." 

The  honey  from  snow-on-the-mountain  {Euphorbia,  mwr- 
ginati)  is  said  to  be  bitter  and  disagreeable,  and  possibly  pois- 
onous. 

Pammel,  in  his  "  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants,"  cites  a  num- 
ber of  plants  which  are  supposed  to  produce  poisonous  honey. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  mountain  laurel  (Kalmia  lati- 
folia),  which  is  said  to  be  common  in  the  mountains  of  Virginia 
and  nearby  States.  The  honey  from  rhododendron  is  said  to  be 
poisonous  also. 

In  choosing  a  location  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  sources 
of  these  undesirable  honeys  as  much  as  possible,  and  if  they  are 
present  in  the  locality  where  one  is  operating,  to  use  care  to  pre- 
vent them  from  being  stored  in  the  same  comb  with  honey  of  good 
quality. 

Cases  of  poisoning  from  honey  in  New  Jersey  are  described 
6 


82  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

somewhat  in  detail.  The  honey  is  said  to  produce  a  pungent 
burning  taste  as  soon  as  the  comb  has  passed  the  lips.  In  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes  the  patients  are  seized  with  nausea,  abdom- 
inal pain  and  vomiting.  This  is  soon  followed  by  loss  of  con- 
sciousness, coldness  of  extremities,  feebly  acting  heart,  and  com- 
plete collapse.  No  less  than  eight  cases  were  cited  from  New 
Jersey  in  1896  by  Professor  Kebler. 

The  poisonous  honey  is  said  to  have  been,  "  dark  honey  which 
had  a  light  brown  color  and  a  nauseating  odor,  pungent  taste, 
caused  a  burning  sensation  in  the  back  of  the  mouth  similar  to 
that  of  aconite."  The  source  of  this  particular  honey  is  not 
given. 

Overstocking. — The  question  of  overstocking  has  perhaps 
been  the  cause  of  as  much  discussion  among  bee-keepers  as  any 
one  question  relating  to  the  business  of  honey  production.  The 
number  of  colonies  that  a  given  locality  will  support  profitably  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  matters  to  determine.  Some  writers  offer 
a  general  suggestion  to  limit  the  number  in  one  apiary  to  50  or  75. 
However,  seasons  and  localities  vary  so  widely  that  no  safe  rule 
can  be  laid  down.  In  this  matter,  the  experience  of  other  men 
in  other  localities,  even  though  they  be  but  a  few  miles  distant, 
is  not  of  much  value.  A  locality  may  support  200  or  300  colonies 
splendidly  one  season,  when  50  would  nearly  starve  the  next. 

About  the  best  advice  that  can  be  offered  is  to  begin  with  a 
moderate  number  and  gradually  increase  until  the  average  pro- 
duction per  colony  is  no  longer  profitable,  or  rather  until  it 
would  be  more  profitable  to  divide  the  bees  into  two  separate 
yards  three  or  four  miles  apart. 

If  one  happens  to  have  a  location  where  fruit  bloom  is 
abundant  for  early  brood  rearing,  followed  by  a  large  acreage 
of  white  and  sweet  clover,  with  a  liberal  supply  of  fall  pasturage, 
he  can  keep  a  large  number  of  colonies  profitably  in  a  single  yard. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  number  of  colonies  kept  in  a  single  yard  in 
the  Central  West  is  thought  best  not  to  exceed  100.     However, 


PRIOR  RIGHTS  33 

Frank  Coverdale,  at  Delmar,  Iowa,  had  300  colonies  in  one  yard. 
He  formerly  kept  his  bees  in  several  outyards,  in  deference  to 
the  general  idea  that  the  locality  could  be  easily  overstocked.  He 
found  a  great  saving  in  time  and  expense  in  having  the  bees  all 
at  home,  where  they  could  be  under  constant  supervision. 

At  Center  Point,  Iowa,  S.  W.  Snyder,  secretary  of  the  Iowa 
Bee-Keeper's  Association,  kept  more  than  200  colonies  in  one 
yard.  About  two  miles  distant  another  bee-keeper  had  nearly 
250  colonies  in  one  yard.  Thus  there  were  nearly  500  colonies 
within  two  miles.  In  the  town  of  Maquoketa,  Iowa,  there  were 
several  apiaries,  some  of  which  had  more  than  150  colonies  each 
Within  a  mile  or  two  outside  there  were  several  more  apiaries* 
thus  bringing  the  total  number  of  colonies  much  above  that  com- 
monly thought  to  be  profitable.  Yet  in  all  the  above-mentioned 
cases  the  yields  were  very  satisfactory. 

A  number  of  instances  have  been  published  where  from  500 
to  700  colonies  have  been  kept  in  one  yard,  in  the  States  of  New 
York,  Idaho  and  California. 

Apparently,  the  number  of  honey-producing  blossoms  avail- 
able for  early  brood  rearing,  and  during  the  season  of  greatest 
dearth,  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  number  of  colonies  that 
can  be  supported  through  the  year.  During  a  heavy  flow  from 
any  source,  it  seems  at  times  that  thousands  of  colonies  could 
find  support.  If  an  insufficient  supply  of  honey  and  pollen  is 
available  to  support  the  colony  during  long  periods  of  compara- 
tive idleness,  the  available  stores  will  be  too  heavily  drawn  upon 
for  support,  and  the  number  of  colonies  should  be  reduced  for 
profit. 

In  many  localities  a  few  colonies  will  make  a  very  good  show- 
ing, when  a  substantial  increase  in  the  number  will  so  reduce 
the  average  per  colony  that  they  are  no  longer  profitable. 

Prior  Rights.— It  is  a  common  trait  "of  human  nature  to 
crowd  m  where  some  one  else  has  found  a  profitable  opening  of 
any  kind.     It  very  frequently  happens  that  when  a  bee-keeper 


g4  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

has  become  established  in  a  locality  that  produces  good  yields, 
others  will  locate  within  a  short  distance  of  his  apiaries,  and 
the  number  of  colonies  brought  in  will  so  reduce  the  surplus 
secured  .that  no  one  will  get  satisfactory  returns.  This  is  not 
only  short-sighted  business  policy  on  the  part  of  the  newcomer, 
but  very  unjust  as  well.  While  a  bee-keeper  has  no  way  to  estab- 
lish a  legal  right  to  the  bee  pasturage,  it  would  seem  that  the  first 
man  on  the  ground  should  have  some  moral  rights  that  should  be 
respected.  Indeed,  there  has  come  to  be  an  unwritten  law  among 
bee-keepers  that  does  respect  the  rights  of  the  man  already 
located.  Unfortunately  this  unwritten  law  is  not  always  recog- 
nized, and  much  friction  sometimes  develops  as  a  result.  The 
only  remedy  is  to  move  to  a  new  locality,  or  be  patient  until  the 
newcomer  will  realize  that  there  is  not  room  enough  for  two,  and 
move  on  in  search  of  richer  fields. 

THE    BEE   AS   A   POI.LENIZING   AGENT 

The  value  of  the  honey-bee  in  the  pollenation  of  blossoms  has 
come  to  be  so  generally  recognized  that  commercial  fruit  growers 
and  gardeners  are  anxious  to  secure  the  location  of  an  apiary 
near  their  plantings.  Since  Darwin  laid  down  the  law  that 
nature  abhors  self-fertilization,  there  has  been  much  study  of 
the  problems  of  cross-fertilization  and  the  agents  that  serve  to 
accomplish  nature's  purpose  in  the  distribution  of  pollen.  While 
there  are  numerous  butterflies,  wasps,  wild  bees  and  other  in- 
sects that  assist  in  the  work,  the  honey-bee,  because  of  its  greater 
abundance,  and  because  it  can  be  readily  controlled,  has  come  to 
be  recognized  as  the  most  valuable  agent  for  certain  plants. 

In  this  connection  a  quotation  from  Dr.  Burton  N.  Gates,  of 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  will  serve  to  show  the 
present  recognition  of  this  fact  by  well-known  authorities.^ 

The  value  of  the  honey-bee  in  cranberry  cultivation  has  but  recently- 
been  recognized.     The  cranberry  industry  of  Massachusetts,  for  instance,  is 

» "  The  Value  of  Bees  in  Horticulture,"  by  Burton  N.  Gates,  in  3rd 
Annual  Report,  State  Bee  Inspector  of  Iowa,  1914. 


ORCHARDISTS  REALIZE  THE  VALUE  OF  BEES  §5 

worth  between  one  million  and  a  million  and  a  half  dollars  annuallv      It 

ail  '  Dr  t::Tr  ''%'  i?  ^^^*^'"  3'-rs  certain  part«  of  the  cranbe?  y^og 
tail.     Dr    Franklin,  at  the  experimental  bog  in  Massachusetts    has  carrieH 

^n.hn-f  ^h%f^'i"/e  of  bogs  or  parts  of  bogs  may  be  attributed  to  the 
nabihty  or  lack  of  bees  to  work  the  blossoms  while  the  vines  are  in  bloom 
It  has  been  shown  too,  that  the  inability  of  bees  to  visit  these  bogs  was 
of  the  br'^wr'.'"?'  ''''  P--1—  of  -"^ds  or  coldness  fn  thS  pa? 
of  the  bog  With  the  large  number  of  blossoms  which  are  produced  on 
cranberry  vines,  it  was  also  established  that  bees  maintained  purposely  for 
their  service  in  pollenation  were  an  insurance  to  cranberry  growers  who 
are  now  maintaining  apiaries  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  tiieir^bor 

In  Cucumber  Growing.—The  cucumber  has  been  mentioned     In"Massa- 
S  1,  ".,"''"*  ^'"'.h  '"^"'"^^^   growing  under  glass   ha     devlped 

prof  ss  Ve"  I7:i\  ''T'f"  '}''  PJ""'^"  ^^  "^"^'  ^  -o^t  laborfous 
process.  Bees  were  later  introduced  and  found  to  be  indispensable  esnp 
cially  m  the  larger  commercial  houses.  One  grower,  for  "nSce  has  fo?tv 
acres  under  glass.  Taking  the  industry  in  Mlssach^setts  as  a  whok  ft  re 
quires  between  two  and  three  thousand  colonies  of  bees  annuaUy  to  serve 
in  the  cucumber  greenhouses.  These  colonies  are  largely  reduced  by  the 
extremely  unfavorable  conditions  of  greenhouse  life,  so  that  cucumber 
freTnh<fuse"s  ""''"  '^"'"'^  *'^'  '''  ^^^"^^^^-^  -^^  bees  purposely  for 
A  $3800  Crop  Due  to  Bees.~l  have  in  mind  a  specific  instance  reported 
by  one  of  our  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.     In  one  of  the   Western 

?im  ar  lo'ca'tfon  "'I  ^^^^^t^- "^^'^  ''''''^''''  ''  ^^^^^  equal  acreage,  of 
similar  location  and  age,  each   in  a  "pocket"   in  the  foothills  of  an  ad 

Sard  hn    ",;'  '^•f',^'^^'^  ^^^"  drained  and  protected   from  fost.     One  or 

tSh  Jlie  tZ  I  ^"'  ^"f  ^^^ir  y'^'''  '"  ^'^  °th«^  tl'^'-e  was  no  crop,  al 
though  the  trees  blossom  heavily  each  spring.     In  despair  of  financial  ruin 

oliT"/''/'^  the  assistance  of  a  sWExperime^nt  Station  1  pom-' 
ologist  and  entomologist  was  sent,  who  examined  critically  all  the  conditions 
n  each  of  the  orchards.    He  was  about  to  return  withou^t  solv  nAhe  prob 

0  lelive  witlout'fn'r  ^""'  ''"•  ^^  *^"  experiment  station  mL  v^as 'about 
to  leave  without  finding  any  apparent  reason  for  failure  lie  chanced  to  spp 
a  stream  coming  in  one  of  the  orchards  from  underneath  a  ni^e  of  swale 
S^ng-^r^— ^^^  ^tnSle-t^afifSS 
ot;e^?^thrneiTgro^nt:cTo7  "-'  '^  ''^  ^^'^^"^  ^^^ 

Orchardists  Realize  the  Value  of  Bees.-There  has  been  a 
marked  change  in  sentiment  on  the  part  of  the  fruit  growers 
during  the  past  few  years,  since  they  have  come  to  realize  the 
value  of  the  bees  in  their  orchards.  Not  many  years  ago  frequent 
attempts  were  reported  of  trying  to  secure  the  removal  of  the 


86  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR 

bees  from  the  vicinity  of  orchards,  on  the  plea  that  the  bees 
injured  the  fruit.  Even  yet  cases  are  sometimes  reported  of  the 
supposed  injury  of  grapes  by  the  bees.  It  has  been  so  often 
demonstrated  that  the  bees  cannot  injure  sound  fruit  that  there 
is  no  need  to  state  the  proof  here.  There  are  times,  when  the 
bees  are  finding  no  nectar,  v^^hen  they  become  very  annoying 
by  seeking  the  orchards  and  vineyards  in  search  of  the  juice  of 
fruits  that  have  been  injured  by  other  insects  or  birds.  At  such 
times  they  become  so  troublesome  that  there  is  some  ground 
for  complaint,  although  they  do  no  real  injury  to  fruit. 

The  misunderstanding  between  the  bee-keepers  and  fruit 
growers  is  very  happily  being  cleared  up,  so  that  it  is  only  now 
and  then  in  the  case  of  some  fellow  who  is  behind  the  times  that 
trouble  of  this  kind  occurs. 

On  the  other  hand,  horticulturists  are  loud  in  the  praise  of 
the  honey-bee,  and  hundreds  of  testimonials  as  to  her  value  in  the 
fruit  plantation  could  be  cited.  In  an  article  "  The  Development 
of  the  Apple  from  the  Flower,"  that  recently  appeared  in  "  Better 
Fruit,"  O.  M.  Osborne,  of  the  Horticultural  Department  of  the 
State  Normal  School  of  Idaho,  made  the  following  statement : 

Without  the  aid  of  the  bees  but  very  little,  if  any,  pollen  would  ever 
reach  the  stigma,  for  the  pollen  of  the  apple  is  a  trifle  sticky,  and,  unlike 
that  of  the  corn  tassel,  ragweed,  and  several  other  familiar  plants  which 
are  powdery,  it  cannot  be  distributed  by  the  wind. 

Since  the  horticultural  authorities  generally  have  come  to 
realize  the  true  place  of  the  honey-bee  in  the  orchard,  old  preju- 
dices have  quickly  been  broken  down,  with  the  result  that  progres- 
sive fruit  growers,  in  many  cases,  are  ready  to  offer  some  substan- 
tial inducement  to  the  apiarist  to  locate  near  their  plantations. 
Unfortunately,  a  few  fruit  men  are  still  inclined  to  spray  their 
trees  while  in  bloom,  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  bee- 
keeper. The  horticultural  authorities,  here  again,  are  coming  to 
the  rescue  of  the  bees,  and  are  showing  wherein  it  is  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  the  fruit  grower  to  spray  during  this  period,  because 
of  possible  injury  to  the  fruit  crop,  as  well  as  to  the  bees. 


QUESTIONS  g7 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  a  good  location. 

2.  Note  the  difference  in  nectar  secretion  of  the  same  plant  under  differ- 

ent conditions. 

3.  How  is  the  system  of  honey  production  affected  by  the  locality' 

4.  Uutline  m  general  the  clover  region;  the  alfalfa  region.  " 

5.  At  what  season  are  pollen-bearing  plants  most  valuable  and  why' 
b.  Discuss  honey-dew  and  its  origin.  ^  ' 

7.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  early  pollen' 

8.  Of  what  value  is  fruit  bloom  to  the  honey  producer' 

9.  What  class  of  honey  is  highest  in  quality  and  highest  in  price? 

11    fn  wW       .       ''  ^l"*'!^  f"'^  '"""^'^'^  *h^  varieties  of  greatest  value. 
11.  In  what  sections  is  buckwheat  of  importance? 

]o    ^n""^  !°™^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  furnish  honey  in  abundance. 
U.  What  fall  flowers  add  to  the  bee-keeper's  revenue' 
14.  Discuss  the  plants  restricted  to  small  areas, 
lo.  Mention  some  plants  of  value  for  pollen  only. 

16.  Discuss  bitter  and  poisonous  honeys. 

17.  Note  the  problems  of  overstocking  a  locality 

18.  Of  what  value  is  the  honey-bee  as  a  pollenizing  agent? 


CHAPTER  VI 
OCCUPANTS  OF  THE  HIVE 

One  of  the  most  fascinating  studies  in  all  creation  is  the 
social  insect  world.  Bees,  ants,  wasps,  and  termites  all  have 
a  good  deal  in  common.  The  bee,  because  of  its  practical  value, 
has  attracted  more  attention  than  any  of  the  others.  Well  it 
may,  for  the  social  life  of  the  community  is  none  the  less  inter- 
esting because  of  the  fact  that  the  honey  and  wax  produced  may 
be  made  to  support  the  investigator  in  comfort  while  he  is  pur- 
suing his  studies. 

This  volume  is  designed  to  be  a  practical  book,  and  so  it 
would  hardly  be  the  place  to  go  into  detail,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
knowledge  may  be  applied  to  practical  purposes,  Maeterlinck 
has  indulged  his  fancy  in  dealing  with  this  phase  of  the  honey- 
bee with  the  result  that  he  has  produced  a  most  interesting  story, 
based  upon  the  specialized  social  life  of  the  hive.  There  is 
much  of  truth  as  well  as  poetry  in  that  wonderful  book,  which  has 
perhaps  been  more  widely  read  than  any  other  volume  ever  writ- 
ten about  the  bee. 

The  Queen. — The  life  of  the  hive  centers  in  the  queen  (Fig. 
4G),  the  mother  of  the  community.  Apparently  her  only  duty 
is  to  produce  eggs  in  large  numbers,  that  the  colony  may  be  per- 
petuated, and  that  the  inmates  may  be  sufficiently  numerous  to 
enable  them  to  store  enough  honey  to  meet  the  needs  of  adverse 
seasons  in  summer  as  well  as  the  long  period  of  cold,  dreary 
winter.  She  rarely  leaves  the  hive  except  on  her  mating  trip 
and  to  accompany  a  swarm.  Most  of  her  life  is  spent  in  the 
hive,  quietly  attending  to  her  duties.  Apparently  the  egg  from 
which  she  hatches  is  no  different  from  any  of  the  thousands  of 
others  that  produce  workers.  The  marvelous  physical  change 
that  takes  place  when  an  egg  is  taken  from  a  worker  cell  and 
88 


THE  QUEEN  gg 

reared  in  a  queen  cell  is  one  of  the  most  striking  studies  in  the 
result  of  environment.  Only  sixteen  days  are  required  for  the 
queen  to  reach  maturity  from  the  time  the  egg  is  laid,  while  the 
worker  requires  twenty-one.  The  queen  is  much  longer  in  shape 
and  looks  to  be  one-third  to  one-half  larger  than  the  worker. 
The  queen  lacks  the  wax-secreting  organs  of  the  worker,  while 
her  own  sexual  organs  are  fully  developed.    She  lacks  the  pollen 


—     ..    •^,    ,..«! 

''h«rSr"p?°  ^^^"h.'?  *  newly  made  comb.     The  queen  can  be  recognized  by 
her  greaier  length  (see  arrow)  and  the  circle  of  attendants  facing  her. 

baskets  and  brushes  which  are  conspicuous  in  the  worker.  True 
enough  she  would  have  no  possible  use  for  any  means  of  carrying 
pollen  or  secreting  wax  in  her  work  of  being  a  mother  to  a  family 
of  a  few  hundred  thousand  offspring  during  her  lifetime.  Never 
theless,  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  the  physical  changes  are  entirely 
the  result  of  a  change  of  environment.  The  queen  will  remain 
in  the  hive,  so  her  eyes  are  not  nearly  so  well  developed.  She 
has  no  need  to  discover  the  distant  fields  of  clover.    Her  life  will 


90 


OCCUPANTS  OF  THE  HIVE 


be  much  longer  as  a  mother  than  had  she  developed  into  a 
worker.    The  life  of  a  queen  may  be  from  one  to  five  years. 

Queen  cells  somewhat  resemble  peanuts  in  shape  (Fig.  47). 
Three  days  pass  from  the  time  the  egg  is  placed  in  the  cell  until 
it  hatches  into  a  tiny  white  larva.     The  little  larva  is  provided 


Fia.  47. — Natural-built  queen  cells. 


with  a  liberal  quantity  of  royal  jelly  on  which  it  feeds.  At  the 
end  of  six  days  the  larval  growth  is  completed  and  the  cell  is 
sealed.  Seven  days  are  required  to  complete  the  transformations 
from  a  larva  to  a  mature  queen  bee,  and  the  cell  is  opened  from 
within,  and  the  queen  appears  upon  the  comb.  Warmer  or  colder 
weather  may  slightly  influence  the  period  of  development,  so  that 
it  may  be  a  little  longer  or  a  little  shorter,  but  sixteen  days  is 


THE  QUEEN  QX 

recognized  as  the  normal  period  of  development  from  the  egg  to 
maturity. 

The  instincts  of  the  newly  emerged  queen  are  very  different 
from  those  of  the  newly  emerged  worker.     The  worker  mingles 
freely  with  her  fellows  without  the  slightest  hostile  action.    The 
newly  emerged  queen  begins  at  once  to  search  for  possible  rivals. 
Should  there  be  other  queen  cells,  she  will   at  once  destroy 
them,  if  unmolested  by  the  workers.      Should  the  colony  be 
preparing  to  swarm,  the  unemerged  queens  will  bo  protected 
by  a  guard  of  workers.     Ordinarily  the  needs  of  the  colony  are 
met  by  a  single  vigorous  queen,  and  she  promptly  dispatches  any 
others,   either  mature  or  in  the  cells.      On  one  occasion  the 
author  observed  three  young  queens  to  emerge  almost  simul- 
taneously.    They    immediately    gave   battle,    and    but    a    few 
moments  elapsed  until  they  were  in  a  death  grip. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  an  old  and  failing  queen  will 
remain  m  the  hive  for  a  time  with  the  daughter  who  will  later 
supersede  her.  Apparently  then  there  is  no  antagonism  between 
them,  for  the  mother  in  the  very  nature  of  things  must  shortly 
die  Just  why  there  is  such  a  change  in  the  attitude  toward 
each  other  in  cases  of  this  kind  is  hard  to  understand. 

Usually  when  the  queen  is  from  five  to  seven  days  old  she 
departs  on  her  wedding  flight.  The  mating  takes  place  in  the 
air  during  the  warm  period  of  the  day,  when  the  drones  fly  in 
greatest  numbers.  The  organs  of  the  male  are  torn  violently 
away,  and  carried  back  to  the  hive  by  the  newly  impregnated 
queen.  The  entire  content  of  the  male  seminal  fluid  is  absorbed 
by  the  queen,  who  retains  it  in  a  special  sac,  where  it  continues 
to  fertilize  the  eggs  during  the  life  of  the  queen  mother.  It  is 
no  longer  questioned  among  practical  bee-keepers  that  the  queen 
mates  but  once,  and  that  one  impregnation  is  sufficient  for  life. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  in  the  life  of  the  bee  is 
the  fact  that  an  impregnated  queen  may  produce  at  will  either 
male  or  female  offspring,  while  the  unimpregnated  queen  pro- 
duces male  offspring.     Apparently,  the  eggs  from  which  drones 


92 


OCCUPANTS  OF  THE  HIVE 


are  hatched  are  never  impregnated  in  either  case.  When  Dzier- 
zon  first  discovered  tliis  fact,  which  is  called  "  parthenogenesis," 
his  newly  formulated  theory  of  the  ability  of  virgin  mothers  to 
produce  male  offspring  was  ridiculed  as  impossible.  However, 
his  observations  were  later  confirmed  by  careful  observers,  and 
of  late  it  is  regarded  as  a  settled  fact,  rather  common  among 
insects. 

A  vigorous  queen  will  lay  more  than  her  own,  weight  of  eggs 
daily  during  the  height  of  the  season.     Nurse  bees  wait  upon 


Fig.  48. — Worker  beed  on  the  comb. 

her  constantly,  and  feed  her  freely  with  highly  nutritious  and 
ready  digested  food. 

The  Worker. — Upon  the  worker  bees  (Fig.  48)  devolve  all 
the  labor  of  the  hive.  A  lifetime  of  toil  is  their  normal  portion. 
Building  the  combs,  gatliering  the  nectar  and  pollen  to  furnish 
food  for  tlie  commimity,  secreting  the  wax,  feeding  the  queen 
and  drones  as  well,  nursing  the  young  bees,  guarding  the  hive 
against  robbers,  and  carrying  out  refuse  to  kee-p  the  home  clean 
are  a  part  of  the  manifold  duties  that  they  are  called  upon  to 
perform. 

By  inheritance  the  worker  is  apparently  in  every  way  similar 


THE  WORKER 


93 


to  the  queen,  but  the  difference  in  environment  under  which  she 
develops,  makes  of  her  a  very  different  creature.  The  practical 
apiarist  takes  advantage  of  this  fact  to  utilize  the  eggs  and  larv« 
from  worker  cells  to  rear  queens  in  large  numbers  when  such  are 
desirable.  The  worker  is  reared  in  the  ordinary  cell  in  which 
honey  is  stored.  The  close  confinement  of  the  narrow  cell  de- 
prives her  of  normal  sexual  development,  and  she  is  incapable  of 
mating  and  of  normal  sex  life.  In  addition  to  the  larger  cell 
occupied  by  the  queen  larv.T,  the  richer  food,  royal  jelly,  seems 
to  have  a  great  bearing  on  the  difference  in  development.' 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  newly  emerged  bees  are 
first  occupied  with  the  duties  within  the  hive,  such  as  comb 
building  and  nursing  of  the  young.  Later  they  go  to  the  fields 
to  gatlier  honey  and  pollen,  and  thus  continue  to  the  end  of  life. 
It  is  probable  that  under  normal  conditions  the  young  workers 
do  not  go  to  the  fields  until  they  are  from  two  to  three  weeks 
old.  During  the  honey  flow  the  average  length  of  life  among  the 
workers  is  short,  probably  not  much  more  than  six  weeks,  while 
those  hatched  late  in  summer  after  the  harvest  is  gathered  may 
live  until  the  following  spring. 

Twenty-one  days  is  the  usual  period  of  development,  from 
the  time  the  egg  is  laid  until  the  worker  leaves  the  cell      Three 
days  are  required  for  the  hatching  of  the  egg,  six  days  are  spent 
m  the  larval  period,  and  twelve  days  within  the  cocoon  after  the 
cell  is  sealed.    This  period  varies  slightly  according  to  conditions 
of  heat  or  cold,  or  possibly  because  of  other  abnormal  conditions 
A  newly  emerged  bee  is  easily  recognized  by  her  small  size 
and  velvety  appearance.      One  is  reminded  of  a  baby  just  learn- 
ing to  walk,  by  the  uncertain  attitude  of  the  youngster.     On 
sunny  afternoons  large  numbers  of  the  young  bees  will  be  seen 
m  flight  about  the  hive.     These  play  spells  are  often  mistaken 
lor  evidence  of  robbing  by  the  novice.     When  brood-rearing  is 
at  Its  height,  a  pint  or  more  of  young  bees  will  be  emerging 
every  day  to  replace  the  old  bees,  which  are  wearing  out  in  field 
work.     When  they  are  about  a  week  old,  they  take  a  flight  to 


94  OCCUPANTS  OF  THE  HIVE 

try  their  wings  and  to  learn  something  of  the  location  of  the  hive 
and  surroundings.  The  first  trip  to  the  honey  field  will  not  be 
taken  until  later. 

Fertile  Workers. — Occasionally,  in  a  queenless  colony,  a 
worker  will  develop  to  the  point  of  laying  eggs.  As  she  is  incapa- 
ble of  mating,  her  offspring  will  all  be  drones,  which  are  of  no 
value  to  the  hive  and  the  colony  will  soon  perish.  Fertile  workers 
lay  here  and  there  over  the  comb  with  little  regularity.  Some- 
times several  eggs  will  be  found  in  the  same  cell,  and  the 
next  cells  will  be  empty.  That  the  offspring  are  drones  will  be 
evidenced  by  the  high  arched  cappings,  like  rifle  bullets,  which 
are  peculiar  to  drone  brood. 

Much  has  been  written  about  methods  of  saving  colonies 
with  fertile  workers,  but  the  productive  bee-keeper  will  have  little 
time  to  bother  with  them.  As  a  rule,  the  best  plan  is  to  unite 
the  colony  at  once  with  another  which  has  a  good  queen  and 
thus  save  what  bees  are  left.  If  fertile  workers  are  present, 
several  are  usually  to  be  found  in  the  same  hive. 

When  the  worker  has  served  her  purpose  in  life  and  can  no 
longer  render  a  service  to  the  community,  she  will  still  persist 
in  going  to  the  field  until  she  dies,  or  if  she  refuse  to  do  so 
will  be  dragged  from  the  hive  in  the  most  merciless  manner  by 
the  busy  sisters,  whose  only  thought  is  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
community.  With  the  social  insects,  such  as  the  honey-bee,  the 
community  is  everything,  while  the  individual  receives  little 
consideration. 

Under  normal  conditions,  a  colony  of  bees  will  consist  of  per- 
haps 20,000  workers,  a  single  queen,  and  a  few  dozen  or  possibly 
a  few  hundred  drones.  The  number  of  drones  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  kind  of  bee-keeper  in  whose  apiary  they  reside.  A  very 
prolific  queen  with  plenty  of  room,  and  otherwise  favorable  con- 
ditions, will  produce  such  large  numbers  of  eggs  that  possibly 
50,000  or  more  bees  may  be  present  at  one  time.  Under  unfavor- 
able conditions  the  colony  may  be  reduced  down  to  the  point 


FERTILE  WORKERS 


95 


where  but  a  few  hundred  bees  remain,  and  yet  be  revived  with 
careful  attention. 

The  Drone. — The  sole  purpose  that  the  drone  (Fig.  49) 
serves  is  the  perpetuation  of  the  species.  As  one  mating  is 
sufficient  for  the  entire  life  period  of  the  queen,  except  in  rare 
instances  when  the  first  mating  is  not  a  complete  one,  not  one 
drone  in  a  hundred  will  ever  have  opportunity  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose for  which  nature  designed  him.  The  over-abundance  of 
drones  is  a  severe  tax  on  the  production  of  the  hive.  Nature 
provides  for  emergencies  by  producing  large  numbers  of  drones, 
to  insure  the  presence  of  a  male  at  the  time  and  place  of  emer- 
gence of  a  virgin  queen.  In  a 
large  apiary,  however,  where 
many  colonies  are  present,  there 
is  little  danger  but  that  this  need 
will  be  met  even  though  the  bee- 
keeper take  great  care  to  reduce 
the  production  of  drones  to  the 
minimum.  Drones  appear  in 
the  hive  during  the  productive 
period  of  the  summer.  In 
April  or  May  when  brood  rear- 
ing is  active  they  will  be  seen 
and  will  continue  about  the  apiary  until  the  close  of  the  honey 
flow  in  late  fall,  unless  there  is  a  dearth  of  nectar,  when  they  will 
be  summarily  driven  from  the  hive  to  perish. 

The  drones  are  reared  in  cells  of  the  same  shape  as  the  worker 
cells  (Fig.  50).  They  are,  however,  somewhat  larger  in  size, 
and  the  cappings  are  raised  like  rifle  bullets.  These  high  arched 
cappings  will  show  at  a  glance  the  presence  of  drone  brood  in 
the  hive. 

The  practical  bee-keeper  reduces  the  available  space  for 
drone  brood  to  the  minimum  by  using  full  sheets  of  foundation 
in  all  brood  frames.  Where  full  sheets  are  used  there  will  be  but 
little  drone  comb  built.    A  few  cells  here  and  there  in  the  corners 


Fig.  49. — Drones. 


96  OCCUPANTS  OP  THE  HIVE 

and  along  the  bottom  bars  will  provide  sufficient  space  for  the 
rearing  of  plenty  of  drones  for  all  practical  purposes.  If  the 
bees  are  allowed  to  build  at  will  they  are  quite  likely  to  build 
large  quantities  of  drone  comb.  This  is  especially  likely  to  occur 
in  eoloiiios  where  the  (jueen  is  old  or  not  very  productive. 


Fia.  50. — Comb3  showing  queen  cells  and  capped  drone  and  worker  brood. 

A  new  colony  with  a  vigorous  queen  will  frequently  fill  the 
hive  with  worker  comb,  because  the  queen  occupies  the  space  as 
fast  as  built  and  fills  every  available  cell  with  an  eg^.  As  soon 
as  they  have  built  sufficient  for  the  queen's  immediate  needs, 
they  are  likely  to  begin  to  build  drone  comb.  Apparently  it  is 
easier  to  construct  and  does  not  tax  the  bees  quite  as  heavily. 


THE  DRONE  97 

In  neglected  apiaries  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  hives  with 
from  one-fourth  to  more  than  one-half  of  the  comb  surface  com- 
posed of  drone  cells.  This  insures  that  a  large  number  of  drones 
will  be  reared  during  the  active  season.  A  surplus  of  drones 
who  are  loafers  and  consumers  instead  of  producers  will  turn 
what  might  have  been  a  profitable  colony  into  a  non-producer, 
or  even  one  that  will  require  feed  to  winter  successfully. 

These  male  bees  consume  quantities  of  stores,  not  only  during 
the  period  of  their  development,  but  in  the  mature  state  as  well. 
They  are  helpless  fellows,  not  even  able  to  feed  themselves. 

The  drone  is  much  larger  and  heavier  in  appearance  than  a 
worker.  He  has  aptly  been  called  a  corpulent  fellow.  He  has 
no  sting  and  flies  with  a  loud  buzz,  which  tends  to  frighten  the 
novice  who  is  unable  to  recognize  his  true  character.  The  period 
of  development  is  longer  than  that  of  either  the  queen  or  the 
worker.  Three  days  is  the  period  required  for  the  egg  to  hatch 
as  with  the  others.  About  seven  days  are  spent  in  the  larval 
period,  and  fourteen  days  elapse  from  the  time  the  cells  are 
sealed  until  the  transformation  is  complete. 

The  act  of  copulation  is  fatal  to  the  drone.  As  previously 
stated,  the  organs  of  generation  remain  attached  to  the  queen  for 
several  hours,  until  the  entire  supply  of  seminal  fluid  enters 
the  sac  of  the  queen.  After  this  is  accomplished  the  attendant 
workers  remove  the  parts  from  her. 

The  life  term  of  the  drone  is  very  uncertain.  If  conditions  are 
favorable  he  may  live  for  several  weeks,  or  maybe  months,  until 
by  chance  his  life  is  terminated  by  meeting  with  a  queen,  or 
perhaps  by  accident.  Otherwise  he  may  live  until  the  close 
of  the  honey  harvest  leads  his  provident  sisters  to  accomplish 
his  destruction.  While  the  worker  may  sometimes  sting  the 
drones  to  death,  it  seems  to  be  more  often  accomplished  by  sim- 
ply refusing  to  provide  them  with  food,  and  by  driving  them 
from  the  hive  when  they  soon  perish. 

^  Drone  traps  are  on  the  market  to  enable  the  bee-keeper  to 
reduce  the  number  of  boarders  in  the  hives.    However,  it  is  much 


98  OCCUPANTS  OF  THE  HIVE 

better  to  prevent  breeding  them  in  the  first  place,  as  the  food 
provided  in  rearing  them  together  with  the  labor  of  the  nurse 
bees  is  all  lost.  Combs  composed  largely  of  drone  cells  should 
either  be  used  as  extracting  combs  above  a  queen  excluder  or  else 
rendered  into  wax  and  replaced  with  sheets  of  foundation.  The 
productive  bee-keeper  can  ill  afford  to  divide  his  profits  with 
useless  drones. 

RACES  OF  BEES 

Italians. — While  there  are  a  considerable  number  of  races 
of  bees,  those  commonly  known  in  this  country  are  all  that  need 
be  considered  in  a  work  of  this  kind.  First  and  foremost  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  Italian,  which  is  generally  recog- 
nized as  the  most  valuable  under  the  conditions  of  this  country. 
These  bees  have  become  so  widely  distributed  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  that  together  with  their  crosses,  commonly  spoken 
of  as  hybrids,  they  are  about  the  only  bees  to  be  found  in  many 
localities. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
various  strains  of  Italians.  The  three  banded  strains  are  usually 
regarded  as  more  desirable,  although  the  goldens  are  highly 
regarded  as  well. 

Pure  Italians  are  usually  very  gentle,  are  more  resistent  of 
disease,  especially  European  foul  brood,  than  other  races,  and 
also  repel  the  wax  moth  much  more  effectively. 

These  bees  have  been  tried  under  so  many  conditions,  by  so 
many  bee-keepers  all  over  the  country,  that  they  may  well  be 
regarded  as  entitled  to  first  place  in  popular  esteem. 

Cyprians. — For  a  time  the  Cyprians  were  quite  the  rage. 
They  came  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  They  resemble  the  Ital- 
ians, but  are  much  more  difficult  to  control.  In  fact  they  are  so 
cross  that  most  bee-keepers  have  discarded  them,  and  queens  of 
this  race  are  seldom  offered  for  sale. 

Common  Black  or  German  Bees. — This  seems  to  have  been 
the  original  stock  first  imported  into  America,  and  which  became 


QUESTIONS  99 

common  everywhere  before  other  races  were  introduced.  Ac- 
cordingly, more  or  less  of  this  stock  is  likely  to  be  found  in  any 
locality.  As  above  stated,  the  Italians  have  been  so  extensively 
cultivated  in  many  regions  that  the  blacks  are  no  longer  pure, 
but  are  only  found  mixed  with  Italians. 

They  are  not  nearly  as  gentle  as  the  Italians.  ITeither  do 
they  resist  disease  or  moths  with  much  success.  When  the  hive 
is  opened,  they  rush  here  and  there  with  such  nervous  haste  as  to 
be  very  disconcerting  to  the  bee-keeper.  The  queens  are  very 
difficult  to  find,  and  taken  altogether  they  are  unsatisfactory  bees 
to  handle  on  a  commercial  scale. 

Carniolans.— The  Camiolans  somewhat  resemble  the  blacks 
in  color,  although  the  bands  are  more  distinct.  They  are  gentle 
like  the  Italians,  and  are  quite  popular  in  some  localities.  The 
principal  objection  to  them  is  the  excessive  swarming  propensity. 
They  rear  large  quantities  of  brood  as  the  queens  are  very  pro- 
lific. They  are  said  to  be  well  adapted  to  high  altitude®  where 
nighta  are  cold. 

Caucasians.— These  bees  resemble  the  common  blacks  so 
closely  that  the  novice  will  find  it  difficult  to  tell  the  one  from 
the  other.  They  are,  however,  a  gentle  race,  and  have  a  few 
champions  who  assert  that  they  are  the  best  bees  ever  introduced. 
It  is  a  pretty  safe  rule  in  the  average  American  locality  to 
depend  upon  the  Italian,  unless  some  other  race  has  been  suc- 
cessfully tried  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  only  fair  to  say,  how- 
ever, that  no  other  race  has  been  tried  under  such  widely  different 
conditions  as  has  the  Italian.  It  is  possible  that  with  an  equal 
opportunity  to  demonstrate  their  good  qualities,  either  the  Cau- 
casian or  Carniolan  races  may  rival  them  for  popular  favor. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  life  history  of  the  queen  and  note  her  peculiarities 

2.  In  what  respect  do  the  workers  differ  from  the  queen" 
<i.  Discuss  fertile  workers. 

i'  S*?  Vr  'i^.l'^story  of  the  drone  and  tell  something  of  his  habits 

5.  Note  the  difference  in  the  three  kinds  of  cells  in  wh?ch  queens    drones 

and  workers  are  reared.  4"««"s,  orones 

6.  Tell  something  of  the  different  races  of  bees. 


CHAPTER  VII 
INCREASE 

One  of  the  perplexing  problems  to  the  beginner  is  that  of 
securing  increase  without  loss  of  a  honey  crop.  The  control  of 
natural  swarming  ig  probably  the  most  difficult  problem  that 
the  bee-keeper  has  to  solve  in  the  average  locality.  Certain  plans 
will  work  all  right  for  several  years,  until  the  bee-keeper  begins 
to  congratulate  himself  on  having  learned  the  secret,  when  sud- 
denly they  will  swarm  in  spite  of  the  best  possible  attention  and 
once  the  swarming  fever  is  on  they  are  likely  to  keep  it  up  until 
he  is  nearly  beside  himself. 

Natural  Swarming.— There  has  been  much  written  about 
why  bees  swarm,  and  the  control  of  conditions  that  lead  to 
swarming.  It  should  be  remembered  that  with  bees  and  other 
social  insects  the  community  is  the  unit,  rather  than  the  indi- 
vidual. The  workers  are  incapable  of  reproduction,  and  accord- 
ingly no  matter  how  great  an  increase  there  may  be  in  their 
numbers  in  a  hive,  it  is  but  temporary,  and  makes  no  permanent 
difference  in  perpetuation  of  the  species.  Swarming  is  then  the 
expression  of  the  instinct  of  procreation  or  increase. 

Normally,  the  bees  will  swarm  at  about  the  height  of  the 
honey  flow,  when  natural  conditions  favor  the  establishment  of 
the  new  colony.  As  a  rule,  nearly  enough  honey  will  have  been 
brought  to  the  old  hive  to  carry  the  colony  through  the  winter,  and 
at  this  season  the  new  swarm  will  be  able  to  establish  itself  with 
a  minimum  of  danger.  While  the  natural  effect  tends  toward 
the  safety  of  the  bees,  the  practical  effect  to  the  bee-keeper  is  to 
divide  his  colonies  at  the  time  when  greatest  profit  may  accrue 
from  large  colonies,  and  results  in  increase  of  bees  at  the  expense 
of  the  honey  crop.  The  thing  the  bee-keeper  should  strive  to 
do  is  to  make  his  increase  either  before  the  honey  flow  begins 
or  when  it  is  nearly  over,  so  that  he  will  get  both  increase  and 
a  crop. 
100 


CLIPPING  THE  QUEENS  XOl 

Certain  conditions  favor  natural  swarming,  as,  for  instance 
small  hives  that  are  soon  filled  with  brood  and  honey,  leaving 
the  queen  little  room  in  which  to  lay,  and  the  workers  no  place 
to  store  the  incoming  nectar.  The  old-time  bee-keeper  usually 
placed  but  one  super  on  top  of  the  hives  and  when  that  was  full 
took  it  off  and  replaced  it  with  another.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
when  the  hive  became  crowded  the  bees  began  to  hang  out  in 
large  clusters  for  want  of  room,  and  the  owner  decided  that  they 
were  preparing  to  swarm,  which  they  usually  did  before  many 
days.  The  practical  apiarist  will  not  tolerate  this  hanging 
out.  He  knows  that,  as  a  rule,  either  the  bees  are  crowded  for 
room,  or  there  is  not  sufficient  ventilation. 

If  on  examination  he  finds  an  abundance  of  room  for  storao-e 
he  gives  a  larger  entrance,  or,  if  the  weather  is  very  hot,  even 
lifts  the  hive  off  the  bottom  board  a  half  inch  or  more  and 
supports  it  on  blocks  at  each  corner. 

A  heavy  honey  flow  seems  to  act  as  a  check  on  swarming, 
and  in  localities  where  the  honey  flow  comes  on  with  a  rush  and 
continues  heavy  during  the  principal  period  of  nectar  secretion, 
there  will  be  less  difficulty  in  controlling  swarming.  In  such 
localities,  if  the  bees  are  furnished  with  plenty  of  room  in  which 
to  store  the  honey,  and  the  brood  nest  is  large  enough  to  permit  the 
queen  to  continue  her  activities,  the  bees  will  apparently  have  no 
instinct  but  to  gather  honey  as  rapidly  as  possible.  If  the  flow 
stops  suddenly,  there  may  even  be  little  if  any  swarming.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  most  of  the  northern  States,  where  there  is  a 
light  flow  from  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion  in  advance  of  the 
clover  flow,  the  bees  are  likely  to  be  swarming  full  tilt  at  about 
the  beginning  of  the  best  flow. 

Clipping  the  Queens.— It  is  a  common  practice  among  apiar- 
ists to  clip  the  wings  of  the  queens  to  prevent  their  escaping  with 
the  swarms.  If  the  bee-keeper  is  constantly  on  hand  this  plan 
works  very  well.  When  the  swarm  issues  and  the  air  is  full 
of  bees,  the  bee-keeper  goes  to  the  hive  from  which  they  have 
issued  and  usually  will  have  little  trouble  in  finding  the  queen 


102  INCREASE 

moving  about  in  front  of  the  hive.  It  is  then  an  easy  matter 
to  place  her  safely  in  a  cage,  and  to  remove  the  old  hive  from 
which  the  swarm  issued  and  put  a  new  one  ready  for  the  swarm  in 
its  place.  If  the  bees  cluster  in  a  convenient  place  they  may  be 
shaken  into  a  basket  and  dumped  in  front  of  the  new  hive  at 
once,  and  the  queen  released  and  allowed  to  run  in  with  them. 
Usually,  the  bees  will  shortly  miss  the  queen  and  return  to  the 
old  location  of  their  own  accord,  and  when  they  begin  to  enter 
the  hive  the  queen  may  be  released.  This  is  a  very  easy  manner 
of  hiving  swarms  when  the  owner  is  in  the  yard  when  they  issue. 
If  no  one  is  present  when  the  swarm  comes  out,  even  though  they 
be  found  while  still  clustered,  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  the 
place  from  which  they  came,  in  a  large  apiary,  and  the  swarm  is 
likely  to  return  before  the  queen  is  found.  Colonies  that  are  not 
permitted  to  swarm  naturally  are  likely  to  come  out  again  with 
a  young  queen,  with  which  they  will  make  off  to  distant  scenes. 

Clipping  is  a  decided  advantage  where  large  trees  are  near 
the  apiary,  as  it  is  a  difficult  and  unpleasant  task  to  capture  a 
swarm  that  has  clustered  in  the  top  of  some  tall  tree,  perhaps 
forty  feet  from  the  ground. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  having  clipped  queens;  one 
can  tell  the  age  of  every  queen  in  the  yard  if  records  are  kept. 
If  the  queen  is  a  clipped  one  and  is  superseded,  the  attendant 
will  notice  the  fact  the  first  time  he  looks  in  the  hive,  as  the  young 
queen  will  of  course  not  be  clipped.  If  none  of  the  queens  are 
clipped,  it  will  frequently  happen  that  a  queen  will  be  super- 
seded without  the  knowledge  of  the  bee-keeper. 

Cutting  Out  Cells. — Some  practice  cutting  out  queen  cells 
as  a  sole  means  of  swarm  prevention.  At  best  this  is  an  unsatis- 
factory plan.  To  be  successful,  every  frame  in  every  hive  must 
be  examined  every  eight  days  during  the  season.  This  entails 
so  much  work  that  it  is  almost  entirely  out  of  the  question  in  a 
large  apiary.  An  occasional  cell  will  be  overlooked  and  the  bees 
will  swarm  in  spite  of  the  best  attention. 

If  the  bees  have  cast  a  natural  swarm,  one  can  then  examine 


HIVING  THE  SWAELMS 


103 


the  brood  nest  and  cut  out  all  queen  cells  but  one.  There  will 
then  be  little  danger  of  further  swarming.  (See  Swarm  Control 
under  Comb  Honey,  Chapter  IX. ) 

In  small  apiaries,  operated  as  a  side  line,  natural  swarming 
will  often  prove  to  be  the  most  desirable  plan  of  increasing.    If 
the  bees  are  run  for  comb  honey,  the  number  of  colonies  are  likely 
to  double  each   favorable 
season,  and  sometimes 
there   will   be  more   than 
double  the  number  of  col- 
onies at  the  close  of  the 
season  that  there  were  in 
the  beginning.     The  exten- 
sive honey  producer  who 
makes  bee-keeping  a  busi- 
ness, however,  will  wish  to 
look  for  more  certain  meth- 
ods of  making  increase. 

Hiving  the  Swarms. — 
Hiving  the  swarms  is 
usually  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter. If  the  queens  are 
clipped  the  hive  from 
which  the  swarm  issued 
may  be  removed,  and  the 
swarm  allowed  to  return  to 
the  new  hive  set  in  its  place 
as  mentioned  in  a  preced- 
ing paragraph. 

If  the  queens  are  not  clipped,  the  swarm  will  be  likely  to 
settle  on  a  tree  or  on  some  other  object  near  at  hand.  Small 
fruit  trees  about  the  apiary  furnish  the  best  clustering  places, 
as  the  swarms  can  be  taken  down  very  readily  ( Figs.  51  and  52) 
If  a  comb  contaming  brood  is  placed  in  the  new  hive,  there  is 
less  danger  that  they  will  come  out  again  and  leave      Every 


-Hiving  swarm  in  straw  skep  in  Europe. 


104  INCREASE 

bee-keeper  of  experience  has  lost  swarms  after  thinking  they 
were  safely  hived.  Sometimes  they  will  remain  in  the  hive  until 
the  following  day  and  then  abscond.  This  is  more  frequently 
the  case  with  after  swarms.  There  is  less  trouble  where  the  hive 
is  placed  in  a  cool,  shady  place. 

Apparently  as  soon  as  a  swarm  is  out,  scouts  go  in  search 
of  a  new  location.  It  is  well  to  hive  the  bees  as  soon  as  possible 
after  they  have  clustered,  and  to  move  the  hive  to  the  place  where 
it  is  expected  to  remain  as  soon  as  they  are  quietly  settled,  to 
avoid,  if  possible,  the  upsetting  of  the  bee-keeper's  plans  by  the 
return  of  enthusiastic  scouts.  At  times  a  swarm  will  remain 
clustered  for  hours,  and  even  over  night,  and  be  content  when 
hived,  while  at  other  times  they  will  leave  with  little  ceremony 
within  a  few  minutes.  That  scouts  are  searching  for  new  quar- 
ters for  days  in  advance  of  the  issuance  of  the  swarm,  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  bees  will  be  found  in  large  numbers  about  an 
empty  hive,  or  other  available  place  for  two  or  three  days,  when 
suddenly  a  large  swarm  will  come  in  and  take  possession. 

As  soon  as  the  cluster  is  formed,  a  sheet  may  be  spread  on 
the  ground  and  the  new  hive  set  on  it.  The  bees  may  be  shaken 
on  top  of  the  frames  or  in  front  of  the  entrance  (Figs.  53  and 
54).  As  soon  as  a  few  bees  go  in  they  set  up  a  joyful  humming 
that  attracts  the  others,  and  soon  they  will  be  moving  in  rapidly. 
If  the  queen  gets  inside  all  is  likely  to  be  well,  but  if  she  gets 
lost  they  will  come  tumbling  out  again  within  a  few  minutes. 
If  swarms  cluster  in  the  top  of  tall  trees,  there  is  no  way  but  to 
climb  for  them.  They  may  be  let  down  in  a  large  basket  with  a 
rope  tied  to  the  handles. 

The  Alexander  Plan. — The  Alexander  plan  of  making  in- 
crease has  come  into  general  use  in  so  many  apiaries  that  no 
better  plan,  perhaps,  can  be  offered. 

When  the  colonies  are  nearly  strong  enough  to  swarm  natur- 
ally, remove  the  colony  to  be  divided  from  its  stand,  and  put 
in  its  place  a  hive  containing  combs  or  frames  of  foundation. 
Remove  the  center  comb  from  the  new  hive,  and  exchange  it  for 
a  frame  of  brood  from  the  old  hive.     Find  the  queen  and  put 


pIS"  «~^*'I^®V^^V«*  8warm  catcher. 

*IQ.  53. — Newly  hived  swarm. 

Fio.  34.— Swarm  caught  in  a  sack,  running  into  the  hive. 


106  INCREASE 

her  on  this  comh  of  brood  in  the  new  hive.  Care  should  be  used 
to  see  that  no  queen  cells  are  left.  On  top  of  the  new  hive  which 
contains  the  queen  and  the  empty  combs,  place  a  queen  excluder 
and  set  the  old  hive  on  top  of  it.  After  about  five  days  look 
over  the  combs  carefully,  and  if  queen  cells  are  started  above 
the  excluder  the  old  hive  should  then  be  removed  to  a  new  loca- 
tion. If  no  cells  are  started  the  bees  may  be  left  until  all  young 
larvae  are  capped,  when  they  can  be  removed.  At  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours  after  removing  the  hive  to  the  new  location  it 
should  be  provided  with  a  queen  or  a  ripe  cell.  Mr.  Alexander 
preferred  giving  a  laying  queen,  so  that  no  time  would  be  lost. 
He  reported  that  with  him  this  method  entirely  prevented 
swarming.  His  plan  was  to  make  the  increase  early  in  spring, 
as  soon  as  the  colonies  were  strong  enough,  but  in  many  locali- 
ties the  divided  colonies  could  not  build  up  in  time  for  the  clover 
flow,  and  the  crop  would  be  short  as  a  result.  In  such  localities 
the  division  should  be  made  toward  the  close  of  the  main  flow. 
A  Somewhat  Similar  Plan. — A  very  common  practice  in  use 
for  half  a  century  is  to  take  a  single  frame  of  brood  from  a 
strong  colony  and  place  this  frame,  together  with  the  queen  and 
frame  of  honey,  in  a  new  hive  and  add  combs  or  frames  of  founda- 
tion to  fill  up  the  remaining  space.  The  old  hive  is  then  removed 
to  a  new  location,  and  the  new  hive  placed  on  the  original  stand. 
The  field  bees  will  return  to  the  queen  in  the  new  hive,  on  the 
old  stand.  This  plan  should  only  be  undertaken  in  very  warm 
weather,  when  there  is  less  danger  of  loss  of  the  hatching  larvae. 
The  only  difference  between  this  plan  and  the  one  above  described 
is  that  in  this  case  the  division  is  made  at  once  instead  of  leaving 
the  young  bees  over  the  new  hive  for  a  few  days  until  the  larvae 
have  been  capped  over.  There  is  a  greater  loss  of  bees  by  this 
method  than  the  former  one,  unless  the  operation  is  carefully 
performed,  as  there  are  not  likely  to  be  enough  nurse  bees  left 
in  the  hive  to  care  for  the  young  larvae.  Divisions  without  pro- 
vision for  caring  for  all  the  young  brood  are  expensive,  and  not 
to  be  recommended.     If  the  colony  is  disturbed  as  little  as  pos- 


DIVISIONS  WITHOUT  QUEENS  JQ? 

sible  in  the  operation,  and  the  hive  only  opened  to  find  and 
remove  the  queen  and  to  take  out  the  frame  of  brood  that  is 
exchanged  for  an  empty  comb,  many  of  the  bees  will  remain  in 
the  hive  and  there  will  be  little  if  any  loss  of  brood.  The  brood 
combs  should  be  pushed  together  and  the  empty  one  placed  at  the 
outside  of  the  hive,  rather  than  to  divide  the  brood  nest.  A 
queen  should  be  provided  for  the  new  colony  as  soon  as  possible 
Divisions  without  Queens.— It  is  far  more  profitable  to  pro- 
vide each  new  division  with  a  queen,  or  at  least  a  ripe  queen  cell 
as  soon  as  possible.  However,  it  often  happens  that  some  in- 
crease is  desired  when  no  queens  or  cells  are  available.  If  the 
bee-keeper  will  plan  ahead,  cells  may  easily  be  raised  by  the 
Miller  method  as  described  on  page  122. 

If  one  wishes  to  make  a  division  without  providing  a  queen, 
it  may  be  done  as  follows:  From  your  best  colony  take  a  frame 
of  brood,  being  sure  that  eggs  and  newy  hatched  larvge  are  pres- 
ent. Add  empty  combs  or  frames  of  foundation  as  in  the  other 
cases  described,  to  fill  up  the  space  in  a  new  hive.  In  the  middle 
of  the  day,  when  bees  are  flying  freely,  remove  your  strongest 
colony  without  opening  the  hive  or  disturbing  them  more  than 
IS  necessary  some  distance  away,  and  place  the  new  hive  with  a 
frame  of  brood,  but  no  queen,  where  the  strong  colony  stood. 
The  field  force  from  the  latter  colony  returning  to  their  old  loca- 
tion will  make  the  best  of  the  situation,  and  proceed  to  rear  a 
queen  from  the  young  larva^,  and  by  fall  there  will  be  a  strong 
colony  if  conditions  are  favorable.  The  old  colony  which  has 
been  removed  will  lose  their  field  force,  and  consequently  will 
require  some  time  to  build  up  to  normal  condition  again. 

Another  plan  is  to  divide  the  brood  from  a  strong  colony  in^o 
two  parts,  placing  half  of  the  frames  in  the  old  hive  and  the 
rest  m  a  new  hive.  Both  hives  are  filled  up  with  empty  combs  or 
frames  of  foundation.  No  attention  is  paid  to  the  queen  but 
care  is  used  that  eggs  and  very  young  larv£e  are  present  in 'both 
hives.  The  two  hives  are  then  set  closely  together,  side  by  side 
on  the  old  stand,  each  occupying  about  half  of  the  original  space 


108  INCREASE 

The  field  force  will  be  about  equally  divided  between  the  two 
hives.  The  one  in  which  the  old  queen  remains  will  build  up 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  colony  that  must  rear  a  new  one. 
While  this  plan  may  serve  in  an  emergency,  it  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended for  general  practice,  as  are  none  of  the  plans  of  increas- 
ing without  additional  queens,  as  too  much  time  and  energy  is 
lost  on  the  part  of  the  colony  in  replacing  the  queen.  If  the 
honey  crop  is  not  to  be  considered,  and  increase  alone  is  desired, 
then  these  plans  might  be  permissible,  but  even  for  this  purpose 
so  much  greater  results  can  be  obtained  by  rearing  the  queens  in 
advance  that  it  is  the  best  practice. 

Forming  Nuclei. — When  it  is  desirable  to  make  increase  in 
quantity,  the  best  plan,  perhaps,  is  to  break  up  strong  colonies 
for  the  purpose,  and  make  as  many  divisions  as  possible  without 
hope  of  their  gathering  any  surplus  honey.  In  this  way  rapid 
increase  may  be  made  with  fairly  satisfactory  results. 

To  begin  with,  take  the  queen  and  one  frame  of  brood  from 
a  strong  colony,  and  add  another  frame  of  sealed  brood  from 
another  colony,  to  give  her  enough  bees  with  which  to  start  house- 
keeping. Place  her  with  the  frames  in  a  new  hive  in  a  new 
location,  and  shut  the  hive  tight  with  grass  to  prevent  her  bees 
from  returning  to  their  old  stand.  If  the  weather  is  extremely 
hot  there  is  danger  of  smothering,  and  in  that  case  the  bees  can 
be  placed  in  the  cellar  instead.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days 
if  the  bees  have  not  gnawed  out,  the  grass  may  be  removed  in  the 
evening,  after  the  bees  have  stopped  flying  (Fig.  55). 

After  the  queen  is  removed  the  old  hive  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed for  several  days.  At  the  end  of  ten  days  the  young  brood 
will  all  be  sealed,  so  there  is  a  minimum  of  danger  of  loss  of 
young  bees.  A  number  of  ripe  queen  cells  will  also  be  present 
in  the  hive.  If  there  are  six  frames  of  brood,  it  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts,  placing  two  frames  of  brood  in  each  hive.  Care 
should  be  used  to  see  that  each  hive  contains  at  least  one  good 
queen  cell.  Empty  frames  may  be  added  and  the  hives  placed 
in  the  cellar  or  closed  up  tight  with  grass  as  before  for  two  or 


FORMING  NUCLEI 


109 


three  days.  The  entrances  should  be  opened  at  night  after  the 
bees  have  stopped  flying,  to  prevent  a  large  part  of  the  bees  from 
returning  to  the  old  stand.  If  the  bees  first  get  out  late  in  the 
evening,  they  will  begin  to  carry  out  dead  bees,  and  attend  to 
other  housekeeping  duties,  and  by  morning  will  have  become 
accustomed  to  the  new  conditions,  so  that  not  nearly  so  many 
will  return  to  the  old  stand  as  will  be  the  case  if  they  are  released 
from  confinement  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  this  way  four 
colonies  should  be  secured  from  the  one. 


Fia.  55. — Nuclei  in  queen-rearing  apiary 


It  IS  seldom  profitable  to  attempt  such  divisions  of  small  or 
weak  colonies,  even  in  warm  weather,  as  the  amount  of  increase 
secured  is  too  small  to  be  profitable.  Rather  should  the  colony 
be  left  until  it  becomes  strong  before  breaking  it  up.  Rapid  in- 
crease can  be  made  from  populous  colonies  during  a  honey  flow 
but  when  no  honey  is  being  stored  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  nuclei 
to  build  up  quickly,  even  though  they  be  fed.  One  should  always 
expect  several  weeks  of  some  kind  of  honey  flow  after  making 
mcrease. 

In  case  of  sudden  check  in  nectar  secretion  for  any  reason, 


110  INCREASE 

the  apiarist  must  be  exceedingly  careful  or  lie  will  lose  mucli  of 
his  newly  made  increase.  Robbing  is  likely  to  be  general  when 
no  honey  is  coming  in,  and  for  this  reason  all  entrances  should 
be  contracted  to  about  an  inch  in  width  or  even  less  if  the  nuclei 
are  very  small.  Combs  of  honey  should  be  provided  to  all  these 
weaklings  to  insure  sufficient  stores  to  enable  them  to  continue 
brood  rearing.  Even  then,  if  no  honey  is  coming  in  the  queen 
may  stop  laying  and  everything  remain  at  a  standstill  until 
the  flow  again  begins.  In  order  to  avoid  this  undesirable  con- 
dition, it  is  well  to  feed  a  little  sugar  syrup  each  night  after  the 
bees  have  stopped  flying.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  feed  during 
the  day  when  there  is  a  dearth  of  nectar  without  starting  robbing. 
If  the  dearth  continues  for  a  long  period  the  apiarist  may  find  it 
necessary  to  again  unite  his  nuclei,  and  his  labor  will  be  for 
naught. 

Supplying  Empty  Combs. — When  making  divisions  by  any 
of  the  above  plans  drawn  combs  should  be  supplied  to  fill  out 
the  empty  space  in  the  hives  if  possible.  Weak  colonies  should 
not  be  taxed  more  than  necessary  in  comb  building.  If  drawn 
combs  are  not  at  hand,  full  sheets  of  foundation  should  always 
be  used,  for  otherwise  the  comb  built  under  such  circumstances 
will  be  mostly  composed  of  drone  cells  and  of  no  value  in  the 
brood  chamber.  Drone  comb  is  only  valuable  for  storage  pur- 
poses and  can  only  be  used  in  the  extracting  supers.  Frames 
of  drone  comb  in  an  apiary  are  always  a  nuisance,  as  the  apiarist 
must  constantly  be  careful  lest  they  be  slipped  into  a  brood  nest 
somewhere,  or  the  queen  going  above  into  the  extracting  super 
shall  make  use  of  them.  Fig.  91  shows  two  combs  illustrating 
this  point.  The  upper  one  is  built  on  a  full  sheet  of  wired  foun- 
dation anJ  is  composed  entirely  of  worker  cells.  The  lower  one 
was  built  without  foundation  and  is  composed  entirely  of  drone 
cells. 

If,  as  frequently  happens,  the  apiarist  has  made  too  many 
new  colonies  and  they  are  not  likely  to  reach  the  end  of  the  season 
in  good  condition,  he  can  take  a  frame  or  two  of  brood  from  each 


MAKING  RAPID  INCREASE  m 

Strong  colony  toward  the  end  of  the  season  and  use  them  to 
strengthen  the  little  colonies  that  have  been  building  up  from 
the  nuclei  formed  from  the  earlier  divisions.  When  the  season 
of  honey  production  is  nearly  over,  a  frame  of  sealed  brood  may 
be  taken  from  a  strong  colony  without  injuring  it  in  the  least,  as 
the  bees  will  emerge  too  late  for  the  honey  flow  and  the  colony 
will  already  be  sufficiently  strong  to  winter  well.  At  the  same 
time  emerging  brood  will  do  wonders  for  the  weak  ones  if  given 
a  short  time  before  the  honey  flow  ceases,  and  will  be  valuable 
at  any  time. 

If  a  large  amount  of  increase  is  made  in  one  season  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  a  liberal  allowance  for  expenses  of  queens,  and 
foundation,  and  considerable  feeding  of  honey  or  sugar  are  also 
likely  to  be  necessary.  Unless  one  has  had  considerable  experi- 
ence with  bees,  too  rapid  increase  is  likely  to  lead  to  disaster. 
For  the  average  person  the  Alexander  plan  is  perhaps  the  safest 
that  can  be  recommended.  It  is  better  to  undertake  to  make  but 
two  colonies  from  one  at  most,  unless  it  is  done  by  experts  of 
long  experience.  If  this  division  is  made  early  and  the  two 
colonies  become  strong  again  while  there  is  a  considerable  period 
of  honey  flow  still  to  come,  the  same  operation  can  be  repeated 
a  second  time,  thus  giving  four  colonies  in  all  from  one  to  start 
with.  There  are  important  factors  in  making  increase  that  are 
not  readily  apparent  to  the  novice,  even  though  he  read  direc- 
tions carefully,  and  he  should  be  content  to  go  slow  and  advance 
surely  rather  than  take  the  risk  of  closing  the  season  with  fewer 
colonies  that  he  began  it  with. 

Making  Rapid  Increase.-The  following  account  of  Dr. 
Miller  8  method  of  increasing  from  nine  colonies  to  fifty-six  in 
one  season  will  show  the  possibilities  of  making  rapid  increase 
in  a  favorable  season : 

On  June  12  the  best  queen  in  the  apiary  was  taken  from  her 
hive  and  placed  on  a  set  of  empty  combs.  Her  brood  was  removed 
to  the  stand  of  another  colony,  which  in  turn  was  moved  to  a 
new  location.     There  were  thus  three  colonies  instead  of  two 


112  INCREASE 

The  first  had  no  brood,  but  the  field  bees  would  shortly  return  to 
make  a  brood  less  colony.  No.  2  had  no  queen  but  would  get  the 
field  force  of  No.  3,  which  had  been  moved  to  a  new  location 
and  would  require  some  time  to  recuperate.  Seven  colonies  still 
remained  which  had  not  been  touched.  Each  of  these  was  exam- 
ined, and  wherever  possible  to  spare  a  frame  of  brood  it  was 
taken  away  and  given  to  No.  1,  which  had  no  brood.  To  begin 
with,  he  found  only  four  frames,  but  this  was  given  to  the  colony 
which  had  been  robbed  of  its  brood,  being  set  on  the  top  in  a  new 
hive  body. 

At  the  end  of  nine  days  a  second  visit  was  made.  This  time 
No.  2,  which  had  brood  but  no  queen,  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
as  by  this  time  queen  cells  were  present.  The  two  nuclei  were 
set  in  new  locations  and  the  brood  and  bees  again  taken  from 
No.  1  and  placed  where  No.  2  had  been.  The  other  seven  colon- 
ies were  again  visited  and  such  brood  as  they  could  spare  was 
taken  from  them  and  given  to  No.  1.  This  plan  was  continued 
through  the  season,  always  leaving  the  queen  at  No.  1,  so  that 
the  queen  cells  built  on  the  combs  in  No.  2  were  the  offspring  of 
the  best  queen.  No.  2  did  not  at  any  time  have  any  queen  but 
was  constantly  building  new  cells  and  the  other  seven  colonies 
were  constantly  (every  nine  days)  drawn  on  for  brood  to  replen- 
ish No.  1.  In  this  way  the  colonies  were  at  no  time  greatly 
weakened,  excepting  the  nuclei  made  from  No.  2.  This  is  a  very 
good  plan  of  making  rapid  increase  and  at  the  same  time  a  safe 
one,  for  if  conditions  suddenly  become  unfavorable  the  operator 
will  not  find  himself  with  a  large  number  of  very  weak  colonies 
on  hand,  which  must  be  united  or  fed. 

INTRODUCING  QUEENS 

In  making  increase  artificially  by  any  plan  an  extra  queen 
will  be  required  to  supply  each  new  hive.  If  capped  queen 
cells  are  given,  the  bees  are  likely  to  realize  their  queenless  con- 
dition before  the  young  queen  emerges,  so  that  she  should  be 
accepted  without  difficulty.    This  is  a  very  common  plan  of  pro- 


INTRODUCING  QUEENS  113 

voiding  nuclei  with  queens,  but  several  days'  valuable  time  will  be 
lost  which  might  be  saved  to  advantage  by  the  use  of  laying 
queens  if  they  are  to  be  had. 

It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  the  colony  must  be 
queenless  or  the  introduced  queen  will  quickly  be  killed.  Appar- 
ently the  bees  recognize  their  queen  by  the  odor  common  to  all 
inhabitants  of  the  same  hive.  A  new  queen  lacking  this  odor 
will  not  be  accepted.  All  methods  of  introduction  depend  for 
their  success  upon  either  leaving  the  queen  with  the  colony 
long  enough  to  acquire  this  odor  before  she  is  released,  or  creat- 
ing some  abnormal  condition  that  will  for  the  time  being  prevent 
the  bees  from  recognizing  the  hive  odor.  The  smoke  method, 
water  method,  and  several  others  come  under  this  latter  plan. 

If  an  old  queen  is  to  be  replaced,  it  is  generally  advised  that 
she  must  be  removed  from  the  hive  at  least  twelve  hours  before 
the  new  queen  is  introduced  to  give  the  bees  time  to  miss  her. 
Usually  not  less  than  twenty-four  hours  is  allowed  to  elapse  before 
requeening.  Better  results  are  likely  to  be  obtained  by  requeen- 
ing  at  once.    If  a  queen  cell  is  used  the  wait  is  desirable. 

The  novice  will  find  it  quite  a  task  to  locate  the  queen  to  be 
removed,  but  after  a  little  practice  it  soon  becomes  an  easy  matter 
to  find  her.  Gentle  Italians  usually  remain  quiet  when  the  hive 
is  opened  and  one  can  readily  find  her  by  looking  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other  of  the  combs  as  they  are  removed 
from  the  hive.  She  will  usually  be  found  on  a  frame  containing 
eggs  and  very  young  larvse. 

Black  and  hybrid  bees  that  begin  running  from  one  side  of 
the  hive  to  the  other  as  soon  as  it  is  opened,  or  boiling  over  the 
top  as  it  is  commonly  expressed,  will  offer  greater  difficulties. 
It  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  look  the  hive  over  from  side  to 
side  several  times  before  finding  the  queen.  Professor  Francis 
Jager  recommends  that  the  hive  be  opened  very  carefully  and  a 
little  smoke  driven  in  at  the  entrance.  The  bees  will  at  once 
begm  to  boil  over  the  tops  of  the  frames  and  by  looking  there 
for  the  queen  she  can  often  be  found  without  removing  a  single 


114 


INCREASE 


frame.  This  plan  will  not  work  well  with  Italians,  for  unless 
greatly  disturbed  they  do  not  run  about  much,  but  simply  dive 
into  the  cells  and  begin  to  take  up  a  load  of  honey. 

The  Cage  Method. — By  far  the  most  common  method  of  in- 
troduction is  the  cage  method,  and  it  is  generally  regarded  as  the 


iller  Queen  Cage. 

safest  method  as  well.  By  this  method  the  queen  is  confined  in 
a  cage  (Figs.  56  and  57)  which  may  be  placed  between  the 
combs  in  the  hive  for  two  or  three  days  before  she  is  released. 
If  she  comes  by  mail  in  the  ordinary  mailing  cage  there  will  be 
a  quantity  of  candy  between  the  queen  and  the  opening  which  is 
closed  by  a  cork.     If  the  colony  has  not  been  queenless  the  cork 


FiQ.  57. — Benton  queen  cage.     This  is  the  cage  usually  used  for  sending  queens  by  mail 


may  be  removed  at  once  unless  the  candy  is  nearly  eaten  through, 
in  which  case  the  cork  had  best  be  left  in  for  a  day  or  two. 
Usually  it  will  require  two  or  three  days  for  the  bees  to  eat  away 
the  candy  and  to  release  her.  In  the  meantime  she  will  have 
acquired  the  common  hive  odor  and  the  bees  will  have  become 
familiar  with  her,  so  tho+  there  is  little  danger  but  that  she  will 
be  accepted. 


MILLER  SMOKE  METHOD  II5 

Occasionally  there  is  a  colony,  after  being  for  some  time 
queenless  or  when  there  is  a  dearth  of  honey  and  the  bees  are 
not  in  good  temper,  which  will  destroy  the  queen  by  whatever 
method  she  be  introduced.  After  a  failure  or  two,  one  hesitates 
to  risk  other  valuable  queens,  and  it  seems  advisable  to  unite 
the  bees  with  some  other  colony  rather  than  to  bother  further 
with  them. 

For  use  in  the  apiary  where  the  precautions  necessary  in  send- 
ing bees  by  mail  are  not  necessary,  the  Miller  cage  is  commonly 
used  (Fig.  56).  This  cage  has  a  larger  opening.  After  the 
queen  is  caught  and  placed  in  the  cage  she  is  placed  in  any  colony, 
simply  laying  the  cage  on  top  of  the  frames.  Since  the  bees  can- 
not destroy  her  she  will  be  safe,  for  strange  to  say  they  will 
feed  her  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire.  When  wanted  to 
requeen  a  colony  or  to  give  to  a  nucleus,  the  cage  is  placed  in  the 
colony  where  she  is  expected  to  remain,  until  such  time  as  the 
bee-keeper  thinks  best  to  release  her.  The  cork  is  then  removed 
and  she  may  be  allowed  to  escape.  It  is  a  common  plan  to  fill 
the  opening  with  honey  comb  which  will  require  a  few  minutes 
to  remove,  thus  giving  time  for  the  bees  to  become  quiet  again 
after  the  hive  is  closed,  before  she  comes  out. 

The  queen  newly  introduced  is  likely  to  be  a  victim  of  any 
excitement  in  the  hive,  and  experienced  bee-keepers  usually  are 
careful  not  to  open  the  hives  for  several  hours  or  better  yet  for 
a  day  or  two  after  a  queen  has  been  introduced  so  that  she  may 
become  fully  accustomed  to  the  new  conditions  before  being  dis- 
turbed. It  is  easy  to  ascertain  whether  she  has  been  accepted  bv 
examming  the  space  in  front  of  the  hive.  If  she  has  been  killed 
she  will  be  found  on  the  ground  in  front  of  the  hive 

Miller  Smoke  Method.>-During  the  past  year  there  has  been 
much  discussion  of  the  value  of  this  method.  Some  bee-keepers 
report  great  success  and  feel  that  it  is  the  ideal  method.  Others 
report  failure.  Difference  in  conditions  will  account  somewhat 
±or  the  difference  in  results,  as  any  plan  will  work  much  better 


116  INCREASE 

in  the  hands  of  expert  b^-keepers  and  under  favorable  conditions 
than  otherwise. 

Mr.  Miller  describes  his  method  in  "  Gleanings  in  Bee 
Culture  "  as  follows : 

A  colony  to  receive  a  queen  has  the  entrance  reduced  to  about  a  square 
inch  with  whatever  is  convenient,  as  grass,  weeds,  rags,  or  wood,  and  then 
about  three  puffs  of  thick  white  smoke — because  such  smoke  is  safe — is 
blown  in  and  the  entrance  closed.  It  should  be  explained  that  there  is  a 
seven-eighth-inch  space,  below  the  frames,  so  that  the  smoke  blown  in  at  the 
entrance  readily  spreads  and  penetrates  to  all  parts  of  the  hive,  in  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  seconds  the  colony  will  be  roaring.  The  small  space  at  the 
entrance  is  now  opened;  the  queen  is  run  in,  followed  by  a  gentle  puff  of 
smoke  and  the  space  again  closed  and  left  closed  for  about  ten  minutes,  when 
it  is  reopened  and  the  bees  allowed  to  ventilate  and  quiet  down.  The  full 
entrance  is  not  given  for  an  hour  or  more  or  even  until  the  next  day. 

The  queen  may  be  picked  from  a  comb  and  put  in  at  the  entrance  with 
one's  fingers,  or  run  in  from  a  cage  just  taken  from  the  mails,  her  attend- 
ants running  along  too.    The  result  is  the  same. 

If  directions  are  followed  explicitly  Mr.  Miller  claims  that 
results  will  be  as  good  or  better  than  with  any  other  plan.  The 
author  has  given  the  plan  a  limited  trial  with  good  success,  but 
it  was  during  a  honey  flow  when  conditions  were  so  favorable 
that  there  was  little  difficulty  in  introducing  by  any  method.  So 
many  failures  have  been  reported  by  experienced  bee-keepers 
that  the  novice  is  cautioned  against  placing  too  much  confidence 
in  it  to  begin  with.  It  will  be  safer  for  him  to  follow  the  direc- 
tions on  the  cage  in  which  his  queens  are  received  until  he  has 
had  considerable  general  experience. 

During  a  good  honey  flov^^  when  the  bees  are  storing  heavily 
there  is  little  trouble  in  introducing  queens  by  any  method.  On 
one  occasion  the  author  returned  home  after  an  extended  absence 
and  with  but  a  few  hours  time  introduced  seventeen  queens, 
many  of  which  were  given  to  strong  colonies  to  replace  the  queens 
already  in  the  hives.  As  it  was  necessary  to  leave  again  shortly, 
time  was  an  object  and  there  was  no  opportunity  to  leave  the 
colonies  queenless  for  even  a  few  hours.  The  hives  were  opened 
and  as  fast  as  the  queens  were  found  they  were  removed  and  the 
new  queens  run  in  between  the  frames  and  the  hives  closed  again. 
The  bees  had  been  given  a  little  smoke  to  quiet  them  when  the 


HONEY  METHOD  117 

hives  were  opened  and  the  colonies  were  somewhat  disorganized 
by  the  removal  of  the  frames  to  find  the  old  queens,  but  in  every 
case  the  new  queen  was  accepted  without  accident.  A  few  were 
run  in  at  the  entrance  after  the  hive  had  been  closed  again  and 
were  followed  by  a  puff  of  smoke,  but  the  entrances  were  not 
closed  or  even  contracted,  yet  the  results  were  as  above  stated. 
Such  results  could  not  be  obtained  except  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  The  bees  were  simply  too  busy  to  attend  to 
anything  but  the  storing  of  honey  and  the  new  queens  attracted 
no  attention  apparently. 

The  value  of  a  method  can  never  be  demonstrated  until  it 
has  been  tried  under  many  and  varying  conditions  and  especially 
under  adverse  conditions.  The  smoke  method  is,  as  yet,  not  fully 
vindicated,  under  general  conditions. 

Water  Method. — The  American  Bee  Journal  for  March, 
1915,  contained  the  following  method  as  practised  by  the  South- 
western Bee  Co. : 

The  procedure  is  as  follows :  Kill  the  old  queen ;  remove  all  frames 
from  the  hive  and  shake  into  the  bottom  of  the  box  with  a  sharp  jar  all  the 
bees  possible.  Sprinkle  the  mass  of  bees  on  the  hive  floor  with  water  until 
they  are  soaking  wet.  The  secret  of  success  is  in  the  use  of  plenty  of  water ; 
there  is  no  danger  of  overdoing  this  part.  Wet  the  new  queen  thoroughly 
and  put  her  on  the  pile  of  wet  bees.  Put  back  the  combs  into  the  hive  and 
the  job  is  finished.  We  have  been  using  this  method  for  several  seasons 
and  have  found  the  method  successful  with  virgins,  with  laying  queens,  and 
with  queens  received  in  cages  by  mail. 

When  honey  is  coming  in,  any  time  of  the  day  will  do  for  the  work  of 
introducing,  but  in  times  of  dearth  it  is  better  to  wait  until  about  an  hour 
before  dark. 

The  chief  value  of  this  method  is  that  there  is  no  time  whatever  lost 
and  the  new  queen  is  immediately  accepted  and  ready  to  go  to  work. 

Honey  Method. — Another  plan  based  somewhat  on  the  same 
general  principle  is  to  drop  the  queen  into  a  little  dish  of  honey, 
pushing  her  clear  under.  She  will  be  so  messed  up  that  the  bees 
will  immediately  begin  cleaning  her  up  when  she  is  placed  in 
the  hive,  apparently  never  dreaming  that  she  is  an  alien.  This 
is  anything  but  an  attractive  way  to  treat  a  valuable  queen  but 
good  reports  are  given  by  those  who  have  tried  it.     It  is  hardly 


118  INCREASE 

likely  to  become  popular  because  of  the  fact  that  most  bee-keepers 
will  hesitate  to  subject  a  queen  to  such  treatment. 

Flour  Method. — Dropping  the  queens  into  flour  has  also 
been  tried  with  success  in  some  cases.  A  combination  of  the 
flour  and  smoke  methods  is  also  practised  successfully  at  times. 
By  this  plan  a  colony  is  smoked  in  the  manner  described  pre- 
viously, and  just  before  running  the  queen  into  the  hive  she  is 
dropped  into  a  dish  of  flour.  iN'one  of  these  methods  seems  to 
give  the  satisfaction  under  all  conditions  that  the  cage  method 


Sure  Plan  for  Valuable  Queens. — When  one  buys  a  queen 
of  more  than  ordinary  vahie  and  is  willing  to  go  to  some  extra 
trouble  to  insure  her  safety,  there  is  an  old  plan  of  taking  from 
strong  colonies  two  or  more  combs  of  sealed  brood  and  shaking 
off  every  live  bee.  There  must  be  no  unsealed  brood  or  it  will 
die  from  lack  of  nursing.  These  frames  of  sealed  brood  are 
placed  in  a  hive  body  without  a  bottom  board  and  this  body  is 
placed  over  another  colony  with  ordinary  wire  screening  placed 
over  the  top  to  prevent  the  bees  from  making  trouble,  while  at 
the  same  time  furnishing  plenty  of  heat  to  the  brood  above  the 
wire  cloth.  The  queen  is  placed  on  top  of  one  of  the  frames, 
or  her  cage  is  opened  and  she  is  permitted  to  run  between  the 
frames  and  the  cover  placed  on  the  hive.  The  young  bees  as  they 
emerge  will  be  confined  to  the  upper  hive  body  with  the  new 
queen  and  she  will  shortly  be  surrounded  with  a  nice  little  cluster. 
If  desired,  after  about  five  days  the  queen,  having  been  removed 
from  the  colony  below,  the  wire  cloth  may  be  removed  and  two 
or  three  days  later  after  the  colony  has  become  accustomed  to  the 
new  queen  the  bees  can  all  be  shaken  from  the  upper  combs  and 
the  upper  hive  body  removed.  If  desired  to  make  a  new  colony, 
the  upper  hive  body  can  be  removed  to  a  new  stand  and  addi- 
tional frames  of  brood  given  to  strengthen  them. 

This  is  about  the  only  plan  that  is  regarded  as  entirely  sure 
under  all  conditions.     In  this  case  there  are  no  old  bees  in  the 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SUCCESSFUL  INTRODUCTION      1 19 

hive  when  the  queen  is  introduced  and  the  emerging  brood  will 
make  no  trouble. 

Fundamentals  of  Successful  Introduction.— The  following 
extracts  from  an  editorial  by  the  late  W.  Z.  Hutchinson  in  the 
Bee-Keepers  Review  in  1891  cover  the  ground  very  fully: 

To  introduce  a  queen  to  a  colony  of  bees,  two  things  must  be  well  con- 
sidered—the condition  of  the  bees  and  the  condition  of  the  queen  The  con- 
dition and  behavior  of  the  queen  is  very  important.  If  the  queen  will  only 
walk  about  upon  the  combs  in  a  quiet  and  queenly  manner,  and  go  on  with 
her  egg  laying,  she  is  almost  certain  to  be  accepted  if  the  other  conditions 
are  favorable  Let  her  run  and  "squeal"  (utter  that  sharp  "  zeep,  zeep 
zeep  )  and  the  bees  immediately  start  in  pursuit.  Soon  the  queen  is  a 
mass  of  tightly  clinging  bees  and  the  only  course  is  to  smoke  the  bees 
severely  until  they  release  the  queen  from  their  embrace,  when  she  must  be 
re-caged  for  another  trial. 

So  far  as  the  queen  is  concerned,  it  is  important  that  she  be  brought 
before  tiie  bees  in  a  natural  manner,  in  such  a  way  and  in  such  a  place  as 
they  would  expect  to  meet  her.  When  clipping  queens  I  have  replaced  them 
by  dropping  them  upon  the  top  bars,  or  at  the  entrance  of  the  hive  when 
the  bees  would  immediately  pounce  upon  them  as  intruders.  A  puff  of 
smoke  would  cause  the  bees  to  "let  up"  when  the  queen  would  walk  ma- 
jestically down  upon  the  combs  or  into  the  hive,  as  the  case  might  be,  and 
here  she  would  not  be  molested,  because  the  bees  here  found  her  where  they 
expected  to  find  their  queen.  ^ 

h.  J^/fj"'^^  ^^"^-^^  °f  *™f  ""^r^  ^^  S'''^"  ^^  t°  'lo^  lo"g  a  queen  should 
be  caged  before  she  is  released.    The  behavior  of  the  bees  fs  the  best  guide 

i^Hnl^^'h  -^l"'."^  ^^''.^Se,  clinging  to  it  in  masses,  like  so  many 
burdocks,  their  behavior  indicates  what  the  queen  would  have  to  endure 
were  she  within  the.r  reach.  The  operator  must  wait  until  the  bees  are  in  a 
different  mood;  until  they  are  walking  quietly  about  the  cage,  as  uncon^ 
cernedly  as  upon  the  combs  of  honey-perhaps  the  bees  may  be^offerlng  food 
to  the  queen  and  caressing  her  with  their  antennae.  This  shows  that  the 
bees  are  favorably  inclined  toward  the  queen  and  that  it  is  safe  to  release 

To  be  successful  in  introducing  queens  that  have  come  from  a  distance 
shnnM  h'^''"  1  *^f  colony  must  be  well  looked  after.  It  is  better  that  thej 
should  be  hopelessli,  qneenless.  Let  it  build  a  batch  of  queen  cells,  and  re 
move  them  after  the  larv.^  are  too  old  to  be  developed  into  queens;  then  the 
bees  are  almost  certain  to  accept  a  queen  if  given  to  them  in%roper  manner! 

frpoi^^^^^"".!  Z  ^  T'i''^  "''''"^  amiable  mood  when  honey  is  coming  in 
Zil;,^'''"^  ^^\T^!:  *^  >"troduce  queens  when  no  honey  is  being  gatJfred 
without  feeding  the  bees  two  or  three  days  before  the  queen  is  Released 

So  much  has  been  written  about  the  introduction  of  queens 
and  so  many  plans  are  in  use  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  com- 


120  INCREASE 

prehensive  review  of  them  without  leaving  some  confusion  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader.  If,  as  is  commonly  believed,  the  hive  odor 
is  the  means  by  which  the  bees  recognize  the  members  of  a  com- 
mon community,  the  great  object  to  be  attained  by  any  method 
is  that  the  new  queen  shall  acquire  this  peculiar  odor  as  quickl^y 
as  possible.  More  than  twenty  years  ago  it  was  recommended 
that  to  assist  in  accomplishing  this  result  the  queen  to  be  removed 
from  the  colony  to  be  requeened  should  be  confined  for  a  time 
in  a  cage.  She  is  then  removed  and  the  new  queen  placed  in 
this  same  cage  by  means  of  which  she  is  introduced  to  the  colony. 
This  method  has  been  reported  as  very  successful  by  bee-keepers 
for  many  years  past.  This  is  essentially  the  ordinary  cage 
method  with  the  exception  that  the  former  queen  is  confined 
in  the  same  cage  in  which  her  successor  is  to  be  introduced  for  a 
time  before  she  is  destroyed  and  the  new  queen  placed  therein. 

When  a  queen  is  to  be  introduced  by  any  of  the  direct  methods 
it  will  be  much  help  if  she  is  confined  by  herself  for  at  least 
thirty  minutes  without  food.  Being  hungry  she  will  at  once 
solicit  food  when  she  comes  in  contact  with  the  workers  and  will 
much  more  likely  be  accepted. 

QUEEN   REARING 

Although  commercial  queen  rearing  is  a  business  by  itself 
that  would  require  a  volume  for  exhaustive  treatment,  the  bee- 
keeper's education  is  not  quite  complete  until  he  has  learned 
to  rear  his  own  queens,  even  though  it  may  not  be  advisable 
for  him  to  do  so  to  any  extent.  Most  productive  bee-keepers  feel 
that  they  can  ill  aiford  the  time  for  extensive  queen  rearing  at 
the  busy  time  of  year  when  they  can  best  be  reared,  and  prefer 
to  buy  them  from  some  regular  breeder.  There  are  times,  how- 
ever, when  one  can  rear  his  own  queens  to  advantage,  and  it  is 
always  well  to  be  prepared  to  supply  a  limited  number  for  special 
purposes  or  to  meet  emergencies. 

Some  of  the  most  successful  honey  producers  feel  that  only 
by  breeding  from  selected  stock  which  has  been  tested  under 


CONDITIONS  FOR  REARING  GOOD  QUEENS  121 

their  own  conditions  can  they  secure  best  results,  and  for  this 
reason  alone  are  willing  to  rear  their  own  queens.  The  difficulty 
of  controlling  the  male  parentage  makes  the  breeding  of  bees 
much  harder  than  the  breeding  of  poultry  or  farm  animals 
which  are  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  farmer. 

^  The  fact  that  the  characteristics  of  the  male  offspring  of  a 
queen  are  controlled  rather  by  the  mating  of  her  mother  than  bv 
her  own  mating  adds  to  the  difficulties.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  an  unfertilized  queen  will  produce  drones  and  this  leads 
to  the  belief,  now  generally  accepted,  that  her  mating  does  not 
directly  affect  the  eggs  from  which  the  drones  are  hatched. 
Consequently  they  are  only  influenced  through  her  female  off- 
spring, and  results  are  only  apparent  in  the  following  generation. 
That  progress  is  being  made  in  the  improvement  of  the  honey- 
bee there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  by  breeding  only  from  the  best 
queens  something  is  sure  to  be  accomplished  even  though  the  male 
parentage  be  uncontrolled. 

Scientific  men  are  giving  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the 
problems  presented  in  breeding  bees,  and  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time  until  methods  suited  to  the  conditions  to  be  met  will  be 
devised  and  scientific  bee-breeding  will  be  an  accomplished  fact. 
About  all  that  the  bee-keeper  can  do  is  to  see  that  all  his 
colonies  have  queens  of  good  stock,  so  that  drones  from  worthless 
stock  will  not  be  present,  and  breed  only  from  his  best  queens. 
Even  then  the  queen  may  fly  some  distance  from  home  on  her 
mating  trip  and  meet  a  black  drone  from  some  neighboring 
apiary.  Some  bee-keepers  make  it  a  practice  to  see  that  all  small 
apiaries  within  two  or  three  miles  are  requeened  with  good  stock, 
even  furnishing  the  stock  when  necessary  and  doing  the  work  to 
save  the  annoyance  of  mismated  queens.  In  some  localities  this 
would  be  easy  of  accomplishment,  while  in  others  where  large 
numbers  of  hives  are  present  it  would  be  a  big  undertaking. 

Necessary  Conditions  for  Rearing  Good  Queens.— The  best 
queens  are  reared  under  the  swarming  impulse,  or  in  other  words 
under  natural  conditions.     When  the  bee-keeper  would  resort 


122  INCREASE 

to  artificial  conditions  to  rear  queens  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing his  stock  or  replacing  inferior  queens,  he  must  make  con- 
ditions as  favorable  as  possible.  The  ideal  condition  is  a  populous 
colony  with  large  numbers  of  emerging  bees,  plenty  of  honey 
and  pollen  in  the  hive  and  more  coming  from  the  field. 

The  weather  should  not  be  cold  or  unfavorable  when  queen 
rearing  is  undertaken,  the  best  queens  only  should  be  used  as 
mothers,  and  the  cells  should  be  built  in  strong  colonies.  One 
would  hardly  expect  to  get  best  results  unless  the  bees  were 
storing  some  honey  also. 

Miller  Plan. — What  is  known  as  the  Miller  plan,  or  some 
modification  of  it,  is  perhaps  the  best  method  for  ordinary  non- 
commercial purposes.  The  best  time  for  requeening  is  perhaps 
about  ten  days  before  the  close  of  a  honey  flow.  Checking  the 
egg  laying  of  the  queen  at  this  time  will  have  no  influence  on  the 
size  of  the  crop,  as  the  young  bees  hatched  from  eggs  laid  after 
this  time  would  appear  after  the  close  of  the  harvest.  The  bee- 
keeper will  begin  to  make  plans  for  requeening  then  about  three 
weeks  before  the  expected  close  of  the  flow. 

From  the  center  of  the  brood  nest  of  the  colony  containing 
the  best  queen  the  bee-keeper  removes  a  frame  of  brood  and 
replaces  it  with  a  partly  drawn  comb  or  a  half  sheet  of  foundation 
or  even  a  frame  with  starters.  This  will  quickly  be  utilized,  and 
if  foundation  is  used  the  bees  will  draw  it  out  and  the  queen  will 
fill  the  cells  with  eggs.  Old  combs  should  never  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  do  not  furnish  suitable  conditions  for  building 
good  cells.  The  author  prefers  a  partly  drawn  comb  and,  lacking 
that,  uses  foundation.  In  a  few  days  this  comb  will  be  filled 
with  eggs  and  hatching  larvae.  The  next  move  is  to  remove 
the  queen  from  some  strong  colony  and  take  away  a  frame  of 
brood  from  the  center  of  the  brood  nest  and  replace  it  with  this 
partly  drawn  comb  filled  with  eggs  from  the  best  queen.  The 
colony  finding  itself  queenless  will  at  once  start  queen  cells 
along  the  edges  of  this  new  and  tender  comb  which  furnishes  ideal 
conditions  for  cell  building.  At  the  end  of  ten  days  the  cells  will 
be  nearly  ready  to  hatch  and  should  be  removed  to  avoid  the 


COMMERCIAL  METHODS  123 

danger  of  swarming  or  of  an  emerging  queen  destroying  the 
others. 

Queens  to  be  replaced  should  have  been  removed  the  dav 
before  so  that  the  bees  will  have  missed  them  and  be  ready 
to  accept  the  cells.  The  cells  should  be  cut  from  the  comb,  care 
being  used  not  to  cut  too  close  and  injure  the  young  queen.  They 
may  be  fastened  to  the  side  of  a  brood  frame  with  a  toothpick  or 
simply  dropped  between  two  frames  above  the  center  of  the  brood 
nest. 

If  they  are  to  be  used  for  making  increase,  the  colonies  to  be 
broken  up  into  nuclei  should  be  previously  made  ready.  The 
advantage  of  using  the  ripe  cells  is  that  much  less  trouble  is 
necessary  than  when  mating  the  queens  in  baby  nuclei  and  then 
later  transferring  them  to  the  full  colonies  to  be  requeened.  If 
used  in  nuclei  for  purposes  of  increase  they  emerge,  and  are 
mated  from  the  hive  in  which  they  will  remain,  thus  saving  the 
trouble  of  introduction.  It  is  much  easier  to  get  a  cell  accepted 
than  a  virgin  queen  or  even  a  laying  queen. 

Dr.  Miller  recommends  the  use  of  a  colony  that  has  started 
queen  cells  in  preparation  for  swarming  as  cell  builders  when 
available,  as  conditions  in  such  a  colony  will  approximate  the 
natural  method  of  queen  rearing. 

Commercial  Methods.— In  order  to  succeed  commercially  the 
queen  breeder  must  be  able  to  supply  queens  in  considerable 
numbers  with  regularity  throughout  the  season.  If  the  honey 
flow  is  checked  he  must  feed  his  colonies  freely  in  order  to  con- 
tinue to  supply  his  orders.  While  the  foregoing  plan  is  well 
suited  to  rearing  a  few  dozen  queens  to  supply  the  needs  of  one's 
own  apiary,  it  would  be  entirely  too  slow  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. Then  the  man  who  rears  queens  for  sale  must  be  pre- 
pared to  get  them  mated  safely,  which  requires  additional  equip- 
ment m  the  way  of  nuclei,  etc.  In  making  nuclei  for  mating 
purposes  one  can  get  a  much  larger  number  from  breaking  up  a 
single  colony  of  bees  than  would  be  possible  where  they  were 
used  for  increase,  each  of  which  was  expected  to  build  up  to  a 


124  INCREASE 

full  sized  colony.  Often  the  bee-keeper  will  not  use  more  tlian 
a  dipperful  of  bees  for  a  nucleus  used  for  mating  purposes  only. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  shake  the  bees  from  a  single  frame 
to  use  for  this  purpose  and  to  unite  them  with  full  colonies  again 
in  the  fall. 

There  are  two  plans  in  common  use  among  commercial  queen 
breeders.  One  is  known  as  the  Alley  plan  and  the  other  as  the 
Doolittle  plan,  after  the  men  who  originated  them.  While  in 
many  cases  both  plans  have  been  greatly  modified  since  first 
made  public,  the  general  principle  remains. 

The  Alley  Plan. — If  one  wishes  to  make  use  of  this  plan  the 
first  thing  is  to  remove  a  brood  comb  containing  eggs  from  the 
brood  nest  of  the  colony  led  by  the  best  queen.  ]^o  bees  should 
be  retained  on  the  comb,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  it  in  strips. 
Each  strip  contains  just  one  row  of  cells.  With  a  sharp  knife 
cut  through  the  row  above  and  below,  saving  every  other  row  for 
use.  This  cutting  m^ust  be  done  very  carefully  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  delicate  comb  and  the  eggs  it  contains.  After  the  strips 
have  been  cut  they  are  laid  down  and  the  cells  on  one  side  cut 
down  to  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  foundation  or  center 
of  the  comb.  With  a  match  destroy  every  other  egg  in  this  side. 
These  shallow  cells  can  now  be  readily  built  into  queen  cells  by 
the  bees  as  shown  in  Tig.  58.  This  same  picture  shows  how 
the  strips  are  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  comb,  so  that 
they  will  be  in  the  center  of  the  brood  nest  of  the  hive  in  which 
they  are  placed.  If  the  knife  is  kept  hot  there  is  less  danger  of 
jamming  the  cells  when  doing  the  cutting.  The  strips  can  be 
fastened  by  means  of  melted  beeswax,  which  will  adhere  to  the 
wood  strip  on  the  lower  side  of  the  comb.  Mr.  Alley  fastened 
them  directly  to  the  comb  without  any  wood  strip.  The  combs 
with  strips  are  then  given  to  queenless  colonies. 

While  most  commercial  establishments  use  some  modification 
of  the  Doolittle  cell  cup  method,  the  Alley  plan  is  still  used  by 
some  queen  breeders  who  prefer  it  to  the  other. 

The  Doolittle  Method. — A  great  advance  has  been  made  in 


THE  DOOLITTLE  METHOD 


125 


queen  rearing  since  Doolittle  hit  on  the  plan  of  making  artificial 
cell  cups.  His  plan  as  first  used  was  to  take  a  small  stick  with 
round  end  about  the  size  of  the  bottom  of  the  cell  and  after  dip- 
ping it  in  water  dip  it  in  melted  wax.  Several  times  it  was  thus 
dipped,  each  time  not  quite  so  deep  as  the  time  before,  thus  leav- 
ing the  base  much  thicker.  When  it  was  of  the  required  thick- 
ness it  was  removed  and  others  made  in  similar  manner.  These 
were  fastened  in  frames  which  would  fit  into  the  hive  in  place 


FiQ.  58.— Queen  cells  by  the  Alley  plan. 

of  a  regular  brood  frame.  A  newly  hatched  worker  larva 
together  with  a  small  amount  of  royal  jelly,  was  placed  in  each 
cell,  with  the  result  that  very  good  queens  were  reared. 

Wood  cell  cups  and  artificial  wax  cells  are  now  offered  for 
sale  by  dealers  at  prices  that  will  no  longer  justify  the  bee- 
keeper to  make  his  own  cells.  The  cell  cups  are  listed  in 
dealers'  catalogues  at  about  $2.00  per  1000,  which  is  cheaper 
than  the  average  person  can  make  them  at  home.  The  cups  are 
pressed  into  the  wood  cell  holders  by  means  of  a  wood  plunger 
and  are  ready  for  grafting,  as  the  placing  of  the  larva  is  called. 


126  INCREASE 

The  elaborate  descriptions  of  this  system  are  disconcerting 
to  the  novice  but  in  reality  it  is  quite  simple.  It  is  rather  a 
delicate  task  to  transfer  the  newly  hatched  larvae  from  the  worker 
cell  to  the  artificial  cell  in  the  wood  cup,  but  a  little  experience 
will  make  it  easy.  By  the  present  method  there  are  no  cells  to 
dip  or  other  complicated  processes  to  confuse  the  inexperienced. 
He  needs  only  to  place  as  many  of  the  wax  cells  in  the  wood  cups 
as  he  wishes  to  use.  He  then  places  these  in  the  frames  in  which 
they  hang  in  the  hive  and  transfers  a  baby  bee  and  a  drop  of 
royal  jelly  to  each  one. 

Care  of  Cells. — The  real  problem  by  this  method  is  to  get 
colonies  in  proper  condition  to  care  for  the  large  numbers  of  cells 
which  the  commercial  queen  breeder  must  constantly  have  in 
order  to  get  a  sufficient  number  of  queens  to  make  it  profitable. 
While  some  queen  breeders  rear  their  queens  in  small  nuclei, 
it  is  the  general  opinion  that  the  best  queens  are  reared  in  strong 
colonies. 

A  colony  can  be  made  queenless  and  after  twenty-four  hours 
be  given  a  frame  of  these  prepared  cells.  They  are  likely  to  be 
accepted  and  cared  for  and  a  second  lot  can  be  given  when  these 
are  taken  away.  However,  the  leading  queen  breeders  have  been 
seeking  a  method  of  safely  finishing  these  cells  in  strong  colonies 
with  laying  queens  so  that  the  queens  will  be  reared  under 
similar  conditions  to  those  reared  when  the  bees  are  preparing 
to  swarm.  The  Roots,  who  are  extensive  queen  breeders,  practise 
making  two-story  colonies  with  the  queen  in  the  lower  story  and 
an  excluder  between  the  two.  The  brood  is  raised  into  the  upper 
story  so  that  the  queen  will  go  on  laying  below  but  no  new  brood 
will  appear  above.  The  frame  with  prepared  cells  is  placed  in 
the  center  of  the  brood  above  the  excluder  and  the  bees  finish 
the  cells  nicely.  When  one  batch  is  removed  another  is  given  in 
place  of  it,  and  when  all  the  brood  is  hatched  above,  the  brood 
from  below  is  again  lifted  to  insure  proper  attention  to  the  queen 
cells.  It  seems  to  be  necessary  to  keep  brood  above  to  secure  good 
results. 


BEES  IN  COMBLESS  PACKAGES  127 

Some  queen  breeders  secure  similar  results  on  one  side  of  the 
hive  by  using  a  queen-excluding  division  board  to  prevent  the 
queen  from  reaching  and  destroying  the  cells. 

BEES  IN  COMBLESS  PACKAGES 

A  convenient  way  of  making  increase  early  in  the  season  is 
the  purchase  of  bees  in  combless  packages  from  breeders  in  the 
South.  The  combless  package  has  the  advantage  of  being  light 
and  easily  handled  while  free  from  danger  of  spreading  foul- 
brood.  This  is  a  common  metliod  of  strengthening  weak  col- 
onies also. 

For  the  purpose  of  starting  new  colonies  about  two  to  three 
pounds  of  bees  with  queen  are  necessary  for  each  hive.  DraAvn 
combs  should  be  ready  in  advance  as  it  is  a  severe  tax  on  these 
small  clusters  of  bees  to  draw  new  combs  early  in  spring. 

Bees  shipped  without  queens  are  restless  and  worry  them- 
selves far  worse  than  is  the  case  where  the  queen  is  present.  The 
percentage  of  loss  in  shipping  is  far  greater  in  the  queenless 
packages.  Some  of  the  most  successful  shippers  make  a  practice 
of  gorging  the  bees  with  sugar  syrup  before  starting  them  on 
the  journey.  To  do  this  they  paint  the  syrup  over  the  cage  in 
which  the  bees  are  confined  for  shipment.  The  bees  readily  suck 
it  from  the  meshes  of  the  screen.  With  their  honey  sacs  filled 
they  are  much  less  inclined  to  be  buzzing  about  the  cage  in  an 
effort  to  escape. 

In  some  localities  in  the  South  where  there  is  an  early  honey 
flow  sufficient  to  stimulate  brood  rearing  and  a  long  season,  the 
package  business  offers  a  more  attractive  opportunity  than  honey 
production.  More  capital  is  required  for  a  successful  business 
of  this  kind  than  is  the  case  for  either  queen  rearing  or  honey 
production.  The  season  is  short  and  a  large  number  of  colonies 
are  necessary  to  draw  from  in  order  to  make  it  profitable.  Gen- 
erally this  specialty  is  combined  with  queen  rearing  and  to  some 
extent  with  the  production  of  honey  also.    The  lower  Rio  Grande 


128  INCREASE 

valley  is  an  especially  favored  locality  for  the  breeding  of  bees 
for  sale,  although  the  business  is  being  developed  in  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Georgia  and  other  parts  of  the  South. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  will  natural  swarming  be  most  apparent? 

2.  What  conditions  favor  swarming  and  what  conditions  act  as  a  check? 

3.  Mention  the  advantages  of  clipping  queens. 

4.  Why   is  cutting   out  queen   cells   an  unsatisfactory   method   of  swarm 

control  ? 

5.  Describe  the  common  method  of  hiving  swarms. 

6.  Outline  the  Alexander  plan  of  swarm  control. 

7.  Note  the  differences  in  a  similar  plan  long  in  general  use. 

8.  How  are  divisions  made  without  queens? 

9.  Discuss  the  formation  of  nuclei. 

10.  Describe  Miller's  plan  for  making  rapid  increase. 

11.  Discuss  the  different  methods  of  queen  introduction. 

12.  What  conditions  are  necessary  for  rearing  good  queens! 

13.  Discuss  the  different  methods  of  queen  rearing  and  give  the  advantages 

of  each. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FEEDING 

Probably  one-third  of  the  total  annual  loss  of  bees  is  the 
direct  result  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  owners  in  failing 
to  provide  stores  at  the  proper  time.  In  the  spring  such  largo 
quantities  of  honey  are  consumed  in  early  brood  rearing  that  a 
few  days  of  unfavorable  weather  will  bring  a  colony  with  a 
small  reserve  supply  to  the  verge  of  starvation.  Thousands  of 
colonies  are  lost  from  this  cause  alone.  Then  it  is  nearly  always 
the  case  that  some  colonies  will  go  into  winter  quarters  with  an 
insufficient  food  supply,  unless  fed,  and  will  die  for  lack  of  stores 
before  spring. 

When  making  increase  or  rearing  queens  a  check  in  the  honey 
flow  will  make  it  necessary  to  continue  to  feed  the  colonies  in 
order  to  maintain  normal  conditions  and  get  best  results. 

From  the  above  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  feeding  at  the 
proper  time  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance.  Perhaps 
more  needless  loss  is  caused  by  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  this  fact 
on  the  part  of  the  average  bee-keeper  than  any  other. 

Good  Honey  the  Best  Feed. — As  mentioned  incidentally 
elsewhere,  the  author  regards  good  combs  of  sealed  honey  as  the 
best  feed  for  all  times  excepting  when  it  is  desired  to  feed  slowly 
to  stimulate  brood  rearing.  The  far-sighted  bee-keeper  will 
retain  a  supply  of  extracting  combs  filled  with  sealed  honey  for 
this  purpose.  They  are  always  ready  and  can  be  placed  where 
needed  with  but  a  moment's  time. 

There  are  localities  where  the  bees  gather  honey-dew  and 
honey  of  low  grade  that  gives  unsatisfactory  results  in  wintering, 
where  it  is  sometimes  considered  advisable  to  extract  the  honey 
and  feed  sugar  syrup.  Such  places,  fortunately,  are  not  many. 
The  storing  of  syrup  is  quite  a  tax  on  the  bees  and  cannot  but 
result  in  a  decrease  in  the  number  present  by  wearing  them  out 
prematurely. 

9  129 


130  FEEDING 

Preparing  the  Syrup. — When  honey  is  not  to  be  had  syrup 
made  from  granulated  sugar  is  the  best  substitute.  Molasses  or 
other  cheap  syrup  should  never  be  used,  as  such  substitutes  con- 
tain wastes  that  are  bad  for  the  bees  and  in  the  end  are  no 
cheaper.  Practical  bee-keepers  are  now  agreed  that  if  a  substi- 
tute for  honey  must  be  used,  granulated  sugar  is  not  only  the 
best  and  cheapest  thing  but  about  the  only  safe  feed  commonly 
available. 

If  the  feeding  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  reserve 
food  supply,  as  in  winter  preparations,  it  is  considered  best  to  use 
a  thick  syrup  composed  of  about  equal  parts  sugar  and  water. 
Some  use  a  syrup  as  thick  as  two  parts  sugar  to  one  part  water. 

According  to  C.  E.  Bartholomew,  a  syrup  made  of  85  parts 
sugar  by  weight  to  50  parts  water  will  neither  granulate  nor 
ferment  by  standing.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  large  quantity 
in  advance  to  keep  on  hand  for  use  as  needed,  this  proportion 
should  be  used. 

The  syrup  can  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the  sugar  in  hot  water 
in  the  proportions  desired  and  hastening  the  process  by  boiling, 
or  cold  water  can  be  used,  stirring  the  syrup  from  time  to  time 
until  the  sugar  is  completely  dissolved.  If  a  thicker  syrup  than 
equal  parts  of  sugar  and  water  is  desired,  it  is  best  to  use  hot 
water,  as  it  is  difficult  to  dissolve  larger  quantities  of  sugar  in 
cold  water. 

Care  should  be  used  that  the  sugar  is  not  allowed  to  bum,  as 
burned  sugar  is  injurious  if  not  fatal  to  the  bees. 

For  feeding  colonies  that  are  rearing  queens,  or  building  up 
nuclei  when  a  food  supply  is  present  in  the  hive  but  stimulation 
is  desired,  a  thin  syrup  is  usually  used.  It  should  not  be  thicker 
than  one  part  water  to  one  of  sugar,  and  even  thinner  syrup  is 
often  used  for  this  purpose. 

Feeding  for  Reserve  Supply. — When  it  is  desired  to  feed 
colonies  that  are  short  of  stores  either  for  wintering  or  for  spring 
brood  rearing,  it  is  desirable  to  feed  as  fast  as  they  are  able  to 
take  care  of  the  syrup.    The  quicker  the  job  is  finished  the  less 


FEEDING  TO.  STIMULATE  BROOD  REARING  131 

the  colony  will  be  disturbed  and  excited  as  a  result.     Tor  this 

purpose  some  of  the  feeders  holding  a  large  quantity  are  best. 

For  outdoor  wintering  in  the  north  it  is  usually  estimated  that  at 

least  twenty-five  pounds  of  honey  will  be  required,  and  from 

fifteen  to  twenty  in  the  cellar.     It  is  much  safer  to  have  from 

thirty-five  to  forty  pounds  of  stores  for  outdoor  wintering  and 

at  least  twenty-five  for  the  cellar.     In  the  South  where  the  bees 

are  active  all  winter,  even  larger  quantities  will  be  consumed. 

The  bees  should  not  be  provided  with  such  a  quantity  of 

stores  that  there  is  no  clustering  space  under  the  food  supply 

in  the  center  of  the  hive.     The  winter  nest,  as  these  vacant  cells 

are  called,  permits  the  bees  to  conserve  the  heat  by  close  contact. 

If  they  are  compelled  to  cluster  between  full  combs  of  honey  the 

heat  will  not  be  sufiicient  to  warm  the  cold  mass  between  the  small 

bunches  of  bees  on  opposite  sides  of  the  combs.     However,  if 

feeding  is  done  early  the  bees  will  arrange  matters  nicely  and 

remove  sufficient  honey  from  the  center  of  the  hive  to  form  a 

clustering  place. 

Feeding  to  Stimulate  Brood  Rearing.— Some  bee-keepers 
advocate  the  feeding  of  colonies  with  a  plentiful  food  supply 
early  in  spring  to  start  brood  rearing.  This  is  likely  to  be  a 
mistake.  If  there  is  an  abundance  of  feed  in  the  hive  a  good 
queen  will  usually  begin  laying  as  fast  as  weather  conditions^will 
permit.  In  case  a  colony  is  too  slow  to  begin  operations,  the  hive 
may  be  opened  and  the  cappings  cut  from  part  of  one  comb.  The 
bees  will  feed  the  queen  more  liberally  from  this  uncapped  honey 
and  she  will  lay  more  eggs  as  a  result. 

When  the  honey  flow  is  checked  after  nuclei  have  been 
formed,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  queens  laying  as  fast  as  possible 
m  order  to  insure  that  the  colony  will  be  strong  enough  to  winter. 
The  same  thing  applies  when  queen  cells  are  being  built— the 
bees  must  continue  normal  activities.  For  this  purpose  some 
form  of  feeder  that  will  supply  a  small  quantity  continuously  is 
best.  With  a  small  amount  of  syrup  coming  in  the  bees  will 
continue  as  though  honey  was  being  brought  to  the  hive. 


132 


FEEDING 


Great  care  must  be  used  in  feeding  weak  colonies  or  nuclei 
during  a  dearth  of  nectar,  as  robbing  is  started  very  easily  at 
that  time  and  the  little  colonies  may  be  easily  lost  as  a  result. 


Fig.  59. — Feeding  with  friction  top  pails  in  empty  super. 

At  times  robbers  are  so  persistent  in  sneaking  about  every  crack 
that  it  is  unsafe  to  open  the  hives  excepting  just  at  nightfall. 
Consequently  the  feeders  should  be  filled  at  that  time. 

FEEDERS 

Miller  Feeder. — For  feeding  large  quantities  of  honey  for 
reserve  supply  there  is  a  feeder  on  the  market,  known  as  the 
Miller  feeder,  which  will  hold  as  much 
at  a  single  feeding  as  is  likely  to  be 
fed  to  one  colony.  This  feeder  is 
placed  in  the  super  on  top  of  the  hive 
and  after  the  syrup  is  poured  in,  the 
cover  is  replaced.  Fig.  60  shows  the 
construction  of  the  Miller  feeder. 
There  are  two  compartments  on  either 
side,  each  holding  ten  pounds  or  more 
of  s)rrup.  In  the  center  is  a  passage- 
way for  the  bees  to  reach  the  syrup  going  directly  above  the 
cluster.     In  this  way  the  air  rising  above  the  brood  nest  makes 


Fig.  60.— The  Miller  feeder  is 


Bet  m  a  super  on  top  of  the  hive. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  feeders. 


PRODUCTIVE  BEEKEEPING 


133 


it  possible  for  them  to  reach  the  food  when  the  weather  is  quite 
cool.   Twenty  or  more  pounds  can  be  fed  at  one  filling  if  desired. 

Utilizing  Tin  Pails.—The  beekeeper  who  cultivates  his 
local  market  will  sell  a  considerable  portion  of  his  honey  in 
five-  and  ten-pound 
pails.  Accordingly  he 
will  always  have  a  sup- 
ply of  these  pails  at 
hand.  By  punching  a 
few  small  holes  in  the 
friction  tops,  ideal 
feeders  are  easily  and 
quickly  provided.  By 
placing  an  empty  super 
on  the  hive,  several  of 
these  pails  can  be 
turned  upside  down 
over  the  cluster  as 
shown  at  Fig.  59. 

In  this  way  it  is 
easy  to  provide  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  for  any 
emergency  at  one  feed- 
ing and  very  little  extra  ^^°-  61.— Tin  pan  feeder  in  super. 

investment  is  necessary.  The  purchase  of  a  number  of  extra 
covers  for  the  pails  is  all  the  expense  required  for  providing 
a  quantity  of  feeders  of  this  kind.  The  covers  will  be  spoiled 
for  other  use,  but  the  pail  will  be  as  good  as  before.  Fig.  59 
shows  several  of  these  pails  in  place  in  a  super. 

While  various  types  of  feeders  are  shown  in  this  chapter, 
the  author  recommends  first  the  use  of  combs  of  sealed  honey, 
and  if  these  be  not  available,  the  use  of  the  friction  top  pail 
except  in  queen  rearing  yards,  where  some  slow  method  of 
feeding  is  desirable. 


134 


FEEDING 


Tin  Pan  Feeder. — One  of  the  most  common  ways  of  feeding 
small  quantities  of  syrup  is  to  use  a  tin  pan  in  an  empty  super. 
If  the  weather  is  warm  the  super  can  be  placed  on  top  of  the  hive 
and  if  cold  underneath.    Over  the  pan  of  syrup  is  spread  a  thin 

cotton    cloth    with    ec 


hanging  down  all  around 
to  make  it  easy  for  the  bees 
to  get  into  it.  They  suck 
the  syrup  through  the  cloth 
without  danger  of  drown- 
ing (Fig.  61). 

Doolittle  Division 
Board  Feeder. — ^This  is 
quite  a  popular  feeder  for 
colonies  that  are  to  receive  but  a  small  supply.  As  shown  by  Fig. 
62,  it  takes  the  place  of  a  brood  frame  in  the  hive.  After  it  is 
filled  the  cover  can  be  replaced  and  the  colony  left  in  the  same 
snug  shape  as  though  no  feeding  was  being  done.     It  is  nothing 


Fio.  62. — With  the  addition  of  a  float  to  prevent 
drowning  of  the  bees  the  Doolittle  divlsioa  board 
feeder  is  fine  where  small  quantities  of  feed  are  to 
be  given. 


BOTTOM   BOARD 

FEEDER   ATTACHED 

TO      HIVE 


Fia.  63. — Metal  feeder  after  the  Alexander  idea. 

more  nor  less  than  a  tight  box  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  brood  frame. 
A  float  should  be  used  to  prevent  drowning  the  bees. 

Alexander  Feeder. — The  Alexander  (Fig.  63)  is  fine  for 
feeding  nuclei  in  large  numbers.  Fig.  64  shows  how  it  is  fastened 
to  the  hive  by  pushing  the  bottom  board  forward  and  putting  it 
on  immediately  behind  it.  In  this  way  the  feed  is  away  at  the 
back  of  the  hive  safe  from  robbers  and  as  the  feeder  opens  on 


QUESTIONS 


135 


the  outside  it  can  be  filled  without  opening  the  hive.  With  a 
large  pail  of  syrup  and  a  dipper,  or  a  tea  kettle,  each  of  these 
feeders  can  be  supplied  in  a  moment's  tima  The  one  shown  in 
the  figure  attached  to  the  hive  is  made  of  metal.  The  tops  are 
wider  than  the  bottoms  so  that  they  may  be  nested  together  for 
convenience  when  not  in  use.  The  other  illustration  shows  the 
same  feeder  made  of  wood,  which  is  most  commonly  used. 

Entrance  Feeder.— This  feeder,  commonly  called  the  Board- 
man  feeder,  utilizes  a  common  fruit  jar  as  a  container  for  the 
liquid  (Fig.  65).    Small  holes  in  the  screw  top  permit  the  feed 


tr..  =F'°'  p4.— The  Alexander  wood  feeder  is  good 
for  stimulative  feeding  for  rearing  queens  or  mak- 
ing increase. 


Fig.  65.— With  this 
entrance  feederone  can 
see  at  a  glance  how 
much  feed  rem  ains  to  be 
taken.  There  is  greater 
danger  of  robbing  in 
using  entrance  feeders 
than  the  others. 


,    .  i-uau  tne  oiners. 

to  drip  out  slowly.  The  wood  projection  slips  into  the  entrance 
so  that  the  bees  can  reach  the  feeder  from  the  inside  of  the  hive 
while  guarding  the  entrance  from  robbers.  Glass  fruit  jars  are 
common  utensils  in  every  household,  so  that  all  that  is  necessary 
to  buy  IS  the  wood  block  and  the  special  cap  to  fit  the  jar.  One 
can  see  at  a  glance  just  how  much  feed  still  remains  and  by 
plugging  up  part  of  the  holes  It  can  be  made  to  feed  as  slowly  as 
desired.     This  is  a  popular  feeder  for  making  increase. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  is  it  necessary  to  feed? 

2.  What  is  the  best  feed  for  bees  ? 

.3.  How  is  syrup  prepared  for  feeding? 

t  Sfa^l^thfdS^rp'iJtl^'d^  of  feeding  for  reserve  supply  and  stimulation. 
CK  uiaeusa  the  ditferent  feeders  in  common  use. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY. 

The  successful  production  of  comb  honey  requires  more  skill, 
perhaps,  than  any  other  branch  of  agricultural  pursuit.  Under 
certain  favorable  conditions  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  and  anyone 
who  will  supply  sufficient  supers  will  get  a  good  crop.  Such 
conditions,  however,  are  of  rare  occurrence  and  the  average  season 
in  the  average  locality  gives  abundant  opportunity  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  producer  to  the  utmost. 

The  man  who  specializes  in  comb  honey  will  usually  produce 
small  quantities  of  extracted  honey  also,  while  the  extracted 
honey  producer  will  have  no  occasion  to  produce  sections,  unless 
he  especially  wishes  to  have  some  of  both. 

As  to  whether  one  should  specialize  in  comb  or  extracted 
honey  will  depend  upon  many  things.  The  skill  of  the  operator 
is  an  important  consideration,  as  extracted  honey  does  not  require 
as  careful  attention  to  details  as  the  production  of  comb  honey. 
The  amount  of  the  crop,  source  from  which  it  comes,  and  the 
market  which  is  available,  all  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 
Comb  honey  as  a  rule  commands  a  more  ready  sale  and  does  not 
require  the  expensive  machinery  necessary  to  satisfactory  pro- 
duction of  the  extracted  product. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  is  the  nature  of  the  honey 
flow.  If  one  lives  in  a  region  where  the  flows  are  long  and  very 
light,  it  is  difficult  to  get  well-finished  sections,  and  extracted 
honey  will  nearly  always  prove  more  profitable.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  flows  are  short  and  very  rapid,  so  that  honey  is  piled 
up  so  fast  as  to  make  the  bees  fairly  dizzy  with  the  excitement  of 
it,  sections  will  be  nicely  finished  and  a  large  part  of  the  crop 
can  be  made  to  grade  fancy  or  number  one.  Under  circumstances 
of  this  kind  sufficient  wax  is  secreted  to  build  the  combs  with  little 
noticeable  tax  on  the  production,  and  comb  honey  will  probably 
be  more  profitable. 
136 


EQUIPMENT  FOR  COMB  HONEY  PRODUCTION  137 

Rapid  flows  like  those  that  sometimes  come  from  basswood, 
when  a  single  strong  colony  will  store  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds 
daily  for  a  week  or  two,  are  the  delight  of  the  heart  of  the  comb 
honey  producer. 

Market  Demands.— Most  markets  favor  light  colored 
honeys,  usually  called  white,  which  are  of  a  mild  flavor.  As  a 
rule  dark  and  strong  honey  will  sell  more  readily  to  buyers  of 
extracted  honey  than  in  the  comb.  Where  the  market  demand  is 
for  dark  honey,  as  in  some  buckwheat  sections,  this  will  make 
little  difl^erence. 

It  is  a  common  thing  to  find  an  established  bee-keeper  chang- 
ing from  the  production  of  one  to  the  other  to  supply  a  ready 
market.  If  all  these  questions  are  carefully  studied  in  the  begin- 
ning, much  unnecessary  expense  will  be  saved. 

If  but  a  few  colonies  are  to  be  kept  to  supply  the  family  table, 
comb  honey  is  to  be  preferred  under  almost  any  ordinary  circum.- 
stances.  Section  honey  is  more  attractive  to  most  people,  and 
less  expensive  equipment  will  be  required.  The  fact  that  the 
sections  are  not  always  well  finished  will  be  of  little  matter  for 
home  use,  although  very  vital  in  marketing. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  COMB  HONEY  PRODUCTION 

The  question  of  a  hive  is  touched  upon  incidentally  in  the 
chapter  on  starting  with  bees.  There  is  something  to  be  said 
m  favor  of  using  the  particular  kind  of  hive  in  general  use  in  the 
locality  in  which  one  lives.  With  hives  of  a  pattern  uniform 
with  those  in  general  use  bees  can  be  sold  for  better  prices  and 
one  can  make  use  of  bees  which  he  may  chance  to  buy  to  much 
better  advantage.  However,  one  can  ill  afford  to  use  a  poor  hive 
simply  because  it  is  in  general  use,  as  the  best  equipment  makes 
possible  easier  manipulation  and  better  crops. 
^  For  a  time  there  was  quite  a  tendency  to  adopt  a  hive  of  small 
size  for  the  production  of  comb  honey.  The  eight-frame  Lang- 
stroth  and  the  Danzenbaker  hives  were  very  popular  and  many 
bee-keepers  adopted  them  only  to  discard  them  later.     The  prin- 


138 


PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 


cipal  argument  in  their  favor  is  to  the  effect  that  the  queen  will 
require  most  of  the  available  space  in  the  brood  nest  and  that 
the  bees  will  quickly  be  forced  to  begin  storing  in  the  supers. 
Thousands  of  colonies  of  bees  have  died  as  a  result  of  the  adoption 
of  this  hive  by  persons  who  were  not  fully  prepared  to  give  proper 
attention  to  their  bees.  Nearly  every  year  a  part  of  the  colonies 
in  any  apiary  will  not  leave  a  sufficient  amount  of  honey  in  the 
brood  chamber  of  these  small  hives  to  winter  on,  and  unless  fed 

will  die  as  a  matter  of  course 
from  lack  of  food. 

The  tendency  to  swarm  is 
TLUch  greater  in  these  small 
hives  than  in  larger  ones,  and 
swarm  control  is  important  to 
the  comb  honey  producer. 
Most  authorities  now  agree 
that  the  ten-frame  Langstroth 
hive  is  better  for  all  purposes 
than  a  smaller  one.  The 
reason  the  Langstroth  is 
recommended  in  preference 
to  others  of  the  same  size  is 
because  its  use  is  so  much 
more  general  than  any  other 
hive  (Fig.  66). 
If  the  small  hive  is  used  two  hive  bodies  instead  of  one  should 
usually  be  used  for  wintering,  when  packed  outside. 

It  may  be  said  in  passing,  however,  that  C.  C.  Miller,  who 
has  produced  larger  average  yields  of  comb  honey  than  any  others 
on  record,  used  the  eight-frame  Langstroth  hive.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  he  would  have  adopted  such  a  small  hive  later  in  his  life. 
While  the  hive  is  important,  the  management  after  all  is  the 
determining  factor  in  measuring  the  profit  of  an  apiary,  next  to 
the  available  supply  of  nectar  in  the  field. 

Sections. — Next  to  the  kind  of  hive  the  question  of  the  kind 


Fig.  66. — Parts  of  a  comb  honey  hive. 


SECTIONS 


139 


of  supers  and  sections  to  adopt  must  be  considered.  This  is  a 
matter  that  mu^t  be  determined  by  individual  preference,  for 
there  is  no  one  particular  best  section.  The  bee-way  section  is 
perhaps  more  widely  used  than  any  other,  although  the  plain 
section  would  be  a  close  second. 

The  bee-way  sections  are  made  in-  four  styles.     The  kind  in 
most  general  use  is  cut  with  bee-ways  in  two  of  the  four  sides 


Fig.  67.— Strong  coloniea  for  comb  honey  production. 

(Figs.  68  and  G9).  This  gives  the  bees  access  to  the  sections 
from  below  and  permits  them  to  pass  through  to  the  super  above 
A  few  with  only  one  be^way  are  used.  These  permit  the  bees  to 
reach  the  super  but  no  passage-way  is  provided  for  them  to 
go  above  past  each  section.  The  four  bee-way  sections  permit 
the  bees  to  pass  from  one  section  to  another  in  the  same  super 
without  going  above  or  below. 


140 


PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 


Via.  68. — Comb  honey  supers 

Fia.  69. — Comb  honey  super  dissected. 


SEPARATORS 


141 


In  general  the  two  bee-waj  section  4:}i  inches  square  and 
1^  inches  wide  is  to  be  recommended  to  those  wishing  to  adopt 
the  bee-way  section.  This  is  the  section  usually  sent  out  by  a 
factory  receiving  an  order  when  there  is  no  stipulation  as  to  the 
kind  wanted.    This  indicates  their  general  popularity. 

The  4X5  plain  section  of  1^-inch  width  seems  to  be  the 


c 


opfN/e 


5/5fS 


kifWH 


FiQ.  70.— Sections  for  comb  honey. 

favorite  in  plain  sections  (Fig.  70).  Honey  in  plain  sections 
18  a  little  more  attractive  when  ready  for  the  market  than  in  the 
bee-way  sections,  as  they  can  be  scraped  cleaner.  The  4  X  5 
plain  section  looks  larger  than  the  square  section,  although  the 
weight  may  be  the  same. 

Separators—It  is  hardly  within  the  scope  of  this  book  to 


142 


PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 


describe  the  many  different  plans  of  utilizing  sections  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  comb  honey  in  the  small  size  quantities  that 
the  market  demands.  There  are  still  several  kinds  of  supers  in 
use  that  are  being  displaced  by  more  practical  ones.  Formerly 
a  large  size  frame  holding  two  rows,  or  eight  sections  in  all, 
which  could  be  placed  in  an  ordinary  hive  body  was  quite  gener- 


71. — Separatora  for  bee-way  sections. 


ally  used.  They  have  almost  gone  out  of  use  and  the  super  that 
holds  a  single  tier  of  sections  has  been  almost  universally  adopted. 
These  can  be  handled  to  better  advantage  and  the  space  added 
only  as  the  bees  are  prepared  to  occupy  it. 

When  the  single  tier  super  first  came  into  use  the  sections 
were  supported  by  strips  of  tin  running  across  the  under  side. 
!N^o  provision  was  made  for  separating  the  sections,  and  as  a 
result  some  would  be  very  thick  and  some  thin.    Inasmuch  as  it 


SEPARATORS 


143 


is  almost  impossible  to  get  sections  filled  of  uniform  weight  this 

too,  has  become  almost  obsolete. 

It  has  been  found  necessary  to  make  use  of  some  kind  of 

separator  between  the  sections  in  order  to  get  uniform  results. 

Fig.  71  illustrates  some  different  kinds  of  separators  used.     In 

the  bee-way  sections  the  passageway  for  the  bees  is  cut  directly  in 
the  section,  while  with  the  plain  sections  strips  on  the  separators 
keep  the  sections  a  sufficient  distance  apart  to  permit  the  passage 
of  the  bees  (Fig.  72). 

Fig.  68  shows  supers  filled  with  the  bee-way  sections,  while 
Fig.  69  shows  a  super  for  bee-way  sections  taken  apart  to  show 
the  separate  pieces.    At  the  top  of  the  picture  is  a  section  holder 


Fio.  72. — Fence  for  plain  sections 


With  four  sections  and  on  top  of  them  an  unfolded  section  lying 
agamst  a  folded  one.  Leaning  against  the  super  is  a  two  bee-way 
section  as  they  come  from  the  factory  in  the  flat.  The  other 
figures  show  the  different  types  of  separators  for  the  two  kinds 
of  sections  (Fig.  71).  The  separators  commonly  used  for  plain 
sections  are  composed  of  narrow  strips  that  admit  of  the  easy 
passage  of  the  bees  and  are  called  fences.  The  bees  can  pass 
from  section  to  section  and  from  super  to  super  much  easier  where 
the  plain  sections  and  fences  are  used  than  where  the  bee-way 
sections  and  solid  separators  are  in  use.  The  finished  sections 
have  smaller  holes  in  the  corners,  which  adds  to  the  appearance 
of  the  finished  article.  The  sections  seem  to  be  better  filled  also, 
as  a  rule  in  the  plain  sections  separated  by  fences.     When  the 


144  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

slatted  separators  are  used  better  results  in  the  way  of  filling  seem 
to  be  secured  in  the  bee-way  sections.  Dr.  Miller  discarded 
the  plain  sections  in  favor  of  the  bee-way.  This  furnishes  an 
argument  hard  to  overcome  since  he  was  regarded  as  the  most 
successful  comb  honey  specialist  of  his  lifetime. 

Use  of  Split  Sections. — For  some  reason  the  split  sections 
do  not  prove  popular  although  they  have  some  advantages.  The 
split  section  is  cut  through  the  center  of  three  sides,  thus  per- 
mitting the  use  of  full  sheets  of  foundation  which  is  attached  by 
inserting  a  strip  after  a  row  of  the  sections  is  placed  in  the 
holder.  The  principal  objection  urged  against  them  is  the  fact 
that  the  consumer,  not  being  familiar  with  the  methods  of  bee- 
keeping, may  be  suspicious  of  the  wax  that  will  show  in  this 
narrow  crack  around  three  sides  of  the  finished  section  and  con- 
clude that  the  honey  is  manufactured.  So  many  misstatements 
concerning  honey  production  have  been  published  that  many 
persons  are  very  suspicious  and  the  split  in  the  section  with  a 
showing  of  wax  is  not  calculated  to  allay  the  suspicions  of  the 
skeptical  person.  Probably  this  fact  has  done  more  to  prevent 
the  adoption  of  the  split  section  than  all  other  reasons  put  to- 
gether. If  one  sells  largely  in  home  markets  where  his  product  is 
well  known  and  where  he  comes  in  close  contact  with  his  custo- 
mers, this  danger  will  not  need  to  be  feared,  as  in  the  case  of 
honey  sent  to  distant  markets  where  no  explanations  can  be  made. 

By  the  use  of  split  sections  much  time  can  be  saved  in  pre- 
paring the  supers  and  putting  in  foundation.  Four  sections  are 
filled  at  one  time  as  shown  in  Fig.  73,  which  illustrates  Dr. 
Leonard's  method  of  preparing  these  sections  for  use.  As  will 
readily  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  picture,  four  sections  are 
placed  in  the  holder,  the  opening  slightly  widened  by  the  use  of 
a  metal  form,  and  a  sheet  of  foundation  long  enough  to  fill  all 
four  sections  is  slipped  in.  The  foundation  must  be  long  enough 
to  be  caught  at  the  ends  to  hold  it  firmly  in  place.  The  section 
holder  is  then  removed  from  the  form  and  the  sections  slipped  in 
even  with  the  outer  edges  of  the  holder  and  it  is  ready  for  the 
super. 


USE  OP  FOUNDATION  IN  SECTIONS 


145 


By  using  split  sections  a  nice  appearing  article  is  the  result 
when  finished,  as  there  are  no  holes  in  the  corners  and  if  con- 
ditions are  favorable  the  sections  will  be  well  filled. 

Use  of  Foundation  in  Sections.— Comb  foundation  is  pure 
beeswax  rolled  thin  and  by  running  between  rollers  printed  with 
tlie  size  and  shape  of  the  bottoms  of  the  cells.  The  use  of  foun- 
dation saves  the  bees  much  time  at  a  season  when  every  possible 


fOUNOATION 


SECTION     ^^ 
HOLOeR 


METAL     FORM  To 
SPREAD  SeCTI0N5    APARr 


WOOP   F«AM6 


5PCIT  -SECTION* 

Fig.   73.— Dr.  L.  D.  Leonard  method  of  putting  foundation  into  spUt  sections. 

assistance  counts  in  additional  honey  stored.  For  use  in  sections 
only  the  thin  or  extra  thin  foundation  should  be  used,  as  the 
thicker  grades  will  be  noticeable  in  the  honey  when  taken  into 
the  mouth  to  eat.  As  only  pure  wax  is  used  it  is  not  an  adultera- 
tion but  if  a  thicker  wax  is  used  than  the  bees  would  build  it 
will  serve  to  make  the  product  less  desirable  to  the  consumer. 

While  it  is  common  practice  among  amateur  bee-keepers  to 
use  but  a  small  starter  in  the  section,  the  extensive  honev  pro- 
ducer can  ill  afford  to  do  with  less  than  full  sheets      When  the 
10 


146 


PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 


honey  flow  comes  it  is  iinportant  to  make  it  possible  for  all  bees 
to  work  and  also  important  to  save  every  unnecessary  tax  on  their 
energy.  In  too  many  apiaries  a  single  super  with  small  starters 
will  be  placed  on  the  hive  and  half  the  working  force  will  be 
loafing  for  lack  of  storage  room,  Not  more  than  a  dozen  bees 
are  required  to  cover  the  bits  of  starter  used  by  some. 

The  small  compartments  in  which  the  bees  are  forced  to 


FiQ.  74. — The  Pangburn  foundation  fastener  and  sections  filled  with  foundation. 

work  when  storing  in  sections  are  unnatural,  and  considerable 
skill  is  sometimes  necessary  to  get  them  started  to  work  there  at 
all.  The  small  spaces  make  it  impossible  for  the  bees  to  cluster 
in  large  bunches  as  they  do  naturally  when  comb  building.  A 
dozen  or  two  of  bees  will  find  it  hard  to  reproduce  a  natural  con- 
dition, but  a  full  sheet  offers  much  better  opportunity.  The 
wax  which  they  need  is  already  prepared  to  a  large  extent  and  a 
sufficient  number  can  work  together  to  assist  in  warming  the 
wax  and  to  encourage  each  other. 

The  method  generally  practised  among  large  producers  is  to 


PUTTING  IN  THE  STARTERS  147 

use  both  top  and  bottom  starters.  The  top  starter  is  the  full 
width  of  the  section  and  lacks  about  half  an  inch  of  coming  to 
the  bottom.  The  bottom  starter  is  about  one-fourth  inch  in  width. 
A  wide  starter  at  the  bottom  would  fall  over,  while  a  small 
starter  insures  a  well-finished  section  and  that  the  comb  will  be 
attached  at  the  bottom  as  well  as  at  the  top  and  sides.     A  small 


Fio,  75, — Method  of  putting  in  foundation  with  Pangburn  fastener. 

space  is  left  between  the  two,  but  this  will  be  readily  closed  by 
the  bees. 

Putting  in  the  Starters. — Various  devices  have  been  offered 
for  fastening  the  foundation  in  the  sections.  If  split  sections 
are  used,  four  sections  will  be  filled  as  mentioned  previously, 
and  no  special  device  for  fastening  will  be  needed  as  the  sections 
will  hold  it  firmly.  With  the  ordinary  sections  some  plan  must 
be  used  for  slightly  melting  the  edge  of  the  starter  that  comes 
in  contact  with  the  wood  so  that  it  will  stick.  Any  supply 
dealer's  catalogue  will  describe  several  of  these  devices.    A  metal 


148 


PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 


plate  about  four  inches  wide  and  supported  with  a  handle  is  prob- 
ably as  satisfactory  and  as  rapid  as  any  plan  ever  described.  The 
metal  is  kept  hot  by  an  oil  lamp  and  the  edges  of  the  foundation 
starters  are  touched  with  the  hot  metal  as  they  are  put  in  place 
in  the  sections.  Fig.  74  shows  a  new  plan  for  utilizing  such  a 
plate.  This  is  known  as  the  Pangburn  fastener.  (See  also  Fig. 
75).  A  form  is  provided  which  makes  it  possible  to  place  four 
sections  in  the  holder  and  set  them  on  the  form.  The  four  sec- 
tions are  filled  at  one  time,  thus  making  quite  a  saving  in  time. 
If  small  starters  are  used  a  hot  putty  knife  will  serve  very 


Fig.  76. — The  use  cf  super  springs. 

well.  Although  there  are  many  devices  offered  by  supply  dealers 
nearly  all  operate  on  the  same  general  principle.  Which  is  best 
is  to  a  large  extent  a  matter  of  personal  preference. 

Super  Springs. — When  the  sections  are  filled  with  starters 
and  placed  in  the  holders,  and  all  are  placed  in  the  supers  with 
separators  between  each  row,  there  remains  to  fasten  all  together 
so  tight  as  to  make  little  daubing  of  sections  necessary.  For  this 
purpose  a  follower  board  is  used  on  one  side  of  the  super.  For- 
merly this  was  fastened  by  means  of  a  wedge  which  held  all  as 
tight  as  though  made  in  one  piece.  However,  when  the  sections 
are  full  of  honey  and  the  super  is  removed  from  the  hive,  it  is 
not  an  easy  matter  to  get  them  out  without  breakage.     Super 


THE  SEASON  S  MANAGEMENT  149 

springs  to  replace  the  wedge  have  come  into  very  common  use 
(Fig.  76).  One  of  these  springs  is  placed  at  each  end  behind  the 
board  and  answers  all  purposes  nicely.  The  springs  are  very 
easily  removed  from  the  filled  super  and  the  follower  board  can 
then  be  pried  loose  and  the  operator  has  plenty  of  room  to  get  the 
sections  out.  It  is  surprising  to  the  novice  how  tightly  the  bees 
will  seal  every  crack  and  crevice  about  the  hive.  In  cool  weather 
these  fastenings  hold  as  though  they  were  glued,  and  provision 
needs  to  be  made  in  advance  to  meet  this  condition.  Super 
springs  are  regarded  as  a  necessity  by  most  comb  honey  pro- 
ducers. 

THE   season's    management 

We  come  now  to  the  most  important  part  of  the  bee-keeper's 
business :  the  system  of  management.  His  hives  may  be  of  the 
best,  all  equipment  may  be  the  finest  on  the  market,  his  bees 
may  be  of  the  best  strain,  and  nectar  may  be  present  in  abun- 
dance, yet  if  his  system  of  management  is  not  good  his  crop  may 
be  small. 

At  this  point  every  bee-keeper  must  begin  to  be  a  law  unto 
himself  and  to  develop  the  system  that  best  fits  his  locality  and 
conditions.  The  most  that  an  author  can  do  is  to  make  general 
suggestions  as  no  system  will  suit  all  men  and  apply  to  all  con- 
ditions. In  a  country  like  this  of  such  vast  distances,  the  flora 
will  vary  widely,  the  climatic  difl'erences  are  so  great  and  other 
factors  are  so  frequent  that  too  many  things  need  consideration 
to  permit  detailed  directions.  The  best  possible  advice  is  to  visit 
the  nearest  successful  bee-keeper  and  learn  as  much  as  possible 
of  his  methods.  Even  a  few  miles  often  makes  great  difference 
in  conditions  that  the  bee-keeper  must  meet,  so  one  must  look 
for  those  things  that  are  different  in  order  to  know  how  far  the 
system  will  apply  to  his  own  conditions. 

The  bee-keeper  needs  to  study  general  principles  and  to  try  to 
discover  how  they  are  affected  by  different  conditions.  Dr. 
Miller's  great  yield  of  nearly  forty  dollars  per  colony  on  an  aver- 


150  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

age  was  only  secured  after  nearly  half  a  century  of  study  of  the 
principles  of  bee-keeping  as  applied  to  a  particular  locality. 
True,  conditions  were  exceptionally  favorable  and  such  an  oppor- 
tunity would  only  come  once  in  years,  but  few  bee-keepers  would 
be  so  well  prepared  when  it  did  come,  or  fully  understand  how  to 
make  the  most  of  the  favorable  condition. 

Prepare  in  Advance. — One  great  secret  of  success  is  in  having 
everything  in  readiness  when  the  flow  begins — to  have  one's  dish 
right  side  up  when  it  raiys  honey.  The  winter  months  can  be 
utilized  to  prepare  a  sufficient  number  of  supers  to  care  for  any 
crop.  The  failure  to  provide  supers  in  advance  is  common  and 
one  that  costs  the  bee-keepers  of  the  country  thousands  of  tons 
of  honey  every  good  season.  Tlie  bigger  the  harvest  and  the  more 
urgent  the  need  of  extra  room  the  less  time  there  will  be  to  pre- 
pare supers.  Dr.  Miller's  advice  is  to  have  enough  supers  ahead 
to  hold  the  biggest  crop  ever  harvested  in  the  locality  and  one 
extra  super  for  each  hive.  After  his  big  yield  in  1913  he  has 
not  been  heard  to  say  how  many  that  would  take  in  his  locality 
but  prior  to  that  time  he  estimated  that  at  least  seven  supers 
for  each  hive  should  be  ready  to  be  safe  (Fig:  67). 

The  fact  that  such  a  large  number  of  supers  will  be  left  over 
from  year  to  year  leads  most  bee-keepers  to  neglect  this  precau- 
tion. If  properly  cared  for  they  will  not  be  injured  even  though 
not  used  for  several  years,  and  when  the  big  yield  does  come 
they  will  be  worth  many  times  the  cost. 

Putting  on  the  Supers. — Supers  should  not  be  put  on  every 
colony  in  a  hit-and-miss  manner  whether  they  need  room  or  not. 
Weak  colonies  that  are  not  ready  for  storage  room  for  surplus 
will  be  needlessly  taxed  to  warm  this  extra  space  on  cool  nights 
and  be  further  delayed  in  building  up.  Extra  strong  colonies 
will  be  ready  for  extra  space  before  the  average  colonies,  and 
the  average  colonies  in  turn  will  be  ready  some  time  in  advance 
of  the  weak  ones.  There  is  no  advantage  in  putting  on  supers 
when  no  honey  is  coming  in,  even  though  the  colonies  be  strong. 
In  most  well-regulated  apiaries  one  colony  is  kept  on  scales  in 


GETTING  THE  BEES  INTO  THE  SUPER  151 

order  to  ascertain  when  honej  really  is  being  stored  and  to  tell 
something  of  the  rapidity  of  the  flow.  This  is  a  most  excellent 
practice,  as  the  apiarist  can  tell  at  once  what  really  is  being  done. 

•A  common  question  from  beginners  is  how  to  tell  when  to 
place  the  supers  on  the  hive.  It  is  sometimes  advised  to  put 
them  on  when  the  first  white  clover  blossoms  appear.  This  is  per- 
haps as  good  advice  as  can  be  given  if  a  definite  time  is  to  be  set. 
However,  so  much  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  bees  as  well 
as  weather  and  other  conditions  that  no  definite  time  can  be  set. 
The  bee-keeper  must  come  to  know  when  his  colonies  have  filled 
the  brood  chamber  with  brood  and  bees  to  the  extent  that  they  are 
ready  to  occupy  the  super  and  also  to  tell  when  they  are  getting 
something  to  put  in  it.  1^0  harm  will  be  done  in  putting  supers 
on  strong  colonies  a  few  days  before  they  are  ready  for  them. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  some  comb  honey  will  be  stored  in 
supers  by  strong  colonies  from  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion, 
although  this  is  not  generally  the  case.  If  no  supers  had  been 
supplied  in  a  case  like  this  there  would  be  nothing  left  for  the 
bees  to  do  but  to  swarm. 

Getting  the  Bees  into  the  Super.— It  is  vitally  important 
to  get  the  bees  to  working  in  the  supers  as  soon  as  possible  to 
prevent  the  crowding  of  the  brood  chamber.  They  often  hesitate 
to  begin  storing  in  the  sections  and  sometimes  will  not  do  so  at 
all  without  some  extra  inducement.  One  of  the  most  common 
plans  is  to  save  all  unfinished  sections  from  the  previous  year  to 
use  as  bait  sections.  Only  the  first  super  to  be  placed  on  the 
hive  will  need  bait  sections,  as  after  the  bees  are  at  work  in  the 
supers  they  will  occupy  others  as  fast  as  needed. 

If  a  sufificient  number  of  these  bait  sections  are  at  hand  it  is 
well  to  place  one  in  each  corner  and  one  in  the  middle  of  the 
super.  One  in  a  corner  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  center  will 
do  very  well.  If  the  supply  is  short  one  in  the  center  of  the  super 
will  start  them  nicely. 

For  the  purpose  of  starting  the  bees  in  sections  it  is  also  a 
common  practice  to  use  a  shallow  extracting  frame  at  each  side 


152  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

of  the  super.  They  will  readily  begin  work  in  shallow  extracting 
frames  above  the  brood  chamber,  and  once  they  have  occupied 
these  they  will  more  readily  occupy  the  section  adjoining, 

C.  L.  Pinney,  who  has  secured  splendid  yields  of  comb  honey, 
insists  that  by  his  method  of  combining  the  production  of  a 
small  amount  of  extracted  honey  with  comb  honey  he  can  get  as 
many  pounds  of  both  as  would  be  possible  to  get  of  extracted 
honey  alone.  Since  his  method  has  some  features  not  generally 
practised,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  describe  it  here.  He  has 
shallow  extracting  supers  which  he  places  on  his  hives  when  the 
comb  honey  is  removed  in  the  fall.  These  remain  to  catch  any 
light  fall  flow  and  are  left  in  place  all  winter,  thus  giving  the 
bees  a  story  and  a  half  of  comb  surface  on  which  to  winter.  In 
spring  the  bees  will  begin  storing  above  the  brood  nest,  of  course, 
and  as  soon  as  the  flow  starts  they  will  be  at  work  in  these  shallow 
extracting  supers.  When  he  is  ready  to  put  on  the  comb  honey 
supers  he  removes  a  partially  filled  frame  and  places  it  at  each 
side  of  the  comb  super.  There  will  then  be  two  frames  of  comb 
with  some  honey  in  each  comb  honey  super.  The  two  frames  are 
replaced  with  others  that  are  empty  and  the  extracting  super 
raised  up  and  the  comb  honey  super  placed  underneath.  The  bees 
will,  of  course,  go  right  on  working  on  the  unfinished  extracting 
combs,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  filled  will  fill  the  sections.  When 
the  comb  honey  super  is  well  started  it  is  raised  up  and  another 
placed  under  it.  The  extracting  super  on  the  top  may  now  be 
removed  if  desired,  as  it  has  served  its  purpose.  The  remaining 
honey  may  now  be  extracted  and  the  frames  put  in  a  safe  place 
until  they  are  wanted  to  set  on  top  of  the  hive  when  the  comb 
honey  is  removed  later  in  the  season.  If  there  is  brood  in  the 
shallow  frames  it  is  his  plan  to  use  it  for  making  increase. 
Several  of  the  shallow  frames  of  brood  may  be  set  in  a  super, 
and  the  super  placed  on  the  bottom  board  makes  a  shallow  hive. 
By  giving  a  queen,  the  little  colony  will  build  up  nicely  and 
when  the  frames  are  getting  crowded  may  be  placed  over  a  full 
sized  hive  full  of  comb  or  frames  of  foundation. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 


153 


When  using  this  plan  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
queen  is  in  the  lower  story  when  raising  this  shallow  extracting 
super  to  place  the  comb  honey  super  under  it.  It  will  usually 
be  advisable  to  use  a  queen  excluder  (Fig.  77)  under  the  supers 
to  prevent  the  queen  going  above  until  the  shallow  combs  are 
removed. 

Essentials  of  Success. — The  one  big  factor  in  getting  a  yield 
of  honey,  next  to  plenty  of  nectar  in  the  fields,  is  to  have  big 
colonies  of  bees  with  the  hive  fairly  running  over  with  the  honey 


Fig.  77. — Ventilated  bee  escape  and  queen  excluders. 

gathering  force.  One  strong  colony  at  the  beginning  of  the 
harvest  is  likely  to  store  as  much  surpkis  as  three  or  four  of 
moderate  strength  and  as  much  as  a  dozen  that  are  weak  when 
the  harvest  opens.  From  the  time  the  honey  is  removed  in  the 
fall  until  the  supers  are  placed  on  the  hive  for  the  next  crop  every 
move  of  the  bee-keeper  is  made  with  a  view  of  bringing  the 
colonies  to  the  next  harvest  with  multitudes  of  bees. 

Plenty  of  first  quality  stores  and  a  large  cluster  of  young 
bees  insures  good  wintering,  with  proper  care.  The  colony  that 
comes  through  the  winter  with  bees  enough  to  cover  four  or  more 
frames  is  the  one  that  will  build  up  quickly  in  the  spring.  Weak 
colonies  are  very  slow  in  building  up  and  the  apiarist  who  does 


154  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

not  fully  master  his  business  will  have  a  large  part  of  his  colonies 
building  up  so  late  that  the  harvest  v^^ill  be  half  over  before  they 
are  really  ready  for  storing.  Suitable  spring  protection,  as  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  wintering,  will  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  condition  of  the  colonies  at  the  opening  of  the  harvest. 

Care  of  Weak  Colonies. — Some  bee-keepers  take  frames  of 
brood  from  their  best  colonies  in  spring  to  give  to  the  weak  ones, 
thinking  thereby  to  equalize  the  colonies  and  bring  all  to  the 
opening  of  the  flow  in  strong  condition.  Unless  the  stronger 
colony  has  seven  or  eight  frames  of  brood  this  is  not  good  practice. 
A  better  plan  will  be  to  take  all  very  weak  colonies  and  set  them 
on  top  of  the  strong  colonies,  first  removing  the  cover  from  the 
hive  containing  the  strong  colony  and  placing  a  queen  excluder 
and  a  sheet  of  newspaper  in  its  place.  The  queen  excluder  will 
keep  the  queens  each  in  her  own  apartm^ent  and  the  paper  will 
prevent  the  bees  from  fighting  until  they  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  new  condition  and  acquired  a  common  odor  or 
whatever  it  is  that  is  characteristic  of  a  colony  and  by  means  of 
which  they  recognize  the  numerous  members  of  the  same  family. 
In  a  few  days  the  bees  will  have  made  openings  through  the 
paper  and  the  workers  will  mingle  freely.  Both  queens  will  go 
on  laying  and  the  heat  from  the  strong  colony  below  will  be  of 
great  help  to  the  weak  one  above.  In  a  few  weeks  they  will 
have  also  become  strong  and  may  be  again  set  back  on  their 
original  stand.  Two  stronger  colonies  will  result  from  a  strong 
one  and  a  weak  one  or  even  two  weak  ones,  in  this  manner  than 
by  equalizing  the  brood  and  leaving  them  separate. 

If  a  colony  is  sufficiently  strong  that  the  hive  is  getting 
crowded  before  time  to  put  on  the  supers,  it  may  then  very 
readily  spare  a  frame  or  two  of  brood  to  assist  those  which  are 
not  so  far  advanced. 

Dr.  Miller's  Plan. — Since  Dr.  Miller  perhaps  holds  the 
world's  record  of  average  production  per  colony,  his  system  has 
attracted  wide  notice  among  the  bee-keepers  of  the  world  at 
large.    As  before  mentioned  he  uses  the  eight-frame  Langstroth 


DR.  MILLER'S  PLAN 


155 


hive.     As  soon  as  any  colonies  are  strong  enough  to  fill  the  eight 
frames  he  adds  another  story — a  full  sized  hive  body  full  of 
empty  brood  combs.     Instead  of  putting  this  empty  story  on  top 
he  raises  the  hive  and  places  it  underneath.     In  this  manner  the 
heat  of  the  colony  is  fully  conserved.    At  the  same  time  the  bees 
will  work  down  as  fast  as  they  need  the  room.     White  clover  is 
the  chief  source  of  his  surplus,  and  he  endeavors  to  keep  the  bees 
occupied  with  breeding  until  the  beginning  of  the  clover  flow. 
When  conditions  are  right  for  putting  on  the  supers  he  again 
reduces  the  colony  to  eight  frames.     If  there  is  less  than  eight 
frames  of  brood  he  places  it  all  in  a  single  hive  body  and  places 
the  super  on  top  to  provide  the  room  formerly  given  by  the  extra 
hive  body.     If  there  are  more  than  eight  frames  of  brood  the 
extra  frames  are  given  to  colonies  with  less  than  eight  frames. 
If,  as  sometimes  happens,  he  has  some  frames  of  brood  left  after 
all  colonies  are  provided  with  eight  frames  in  single  hive  bodies, 
the  rest  is  used  to  make  increase,  or  to  form  nuclei  or  is  even 
placed  in  hive  bodies  which  are  piled  one  on  top  of  another  to 
permit  the  brood  to  hatch,  and  latter  be  used  where  needed.     If 
there  is  no  other  use  for  it  a  queen  is  given  or  else  one  is  raised 
from  young  larva  in  the  hive  and  a  strong  colony  is  the  result. 
Concerning  additional  super  room  Dr.  Miller  says: 

During  the  early  part  of  the  harvest,  so  long  as  there  is  a  reasonable 
expectation  that  each  additional  super  will  be  "needed,  the  empty  super 
IS  put  under  the  others,  next  to  the  brood  chamber.  Work  will  commence 
m  It  more  promptly  than  when  an  empty  super  is  placed  on  top,  and  that 
^eater  promptness  in  occupying  the  new  super  may  be  the  straw  to  turn 
the  scale  on  the  side  of  keeping  down  the  desire  fo/ swarming.     But  when 

W^S'/%P"^  """  ^^r'?  *^'  '^"'^  "^  *^^  ^^^«°"'  "«*^  because  it  seems  really 
heeded  but  as  a  sort  of  safety-valve  in  case  it  might  be  needed  I  do  not 
wish  to  do  anything  to  coax  the  bees  into  it,  so  it  is  put  on  top    and  ?he 

sSrir  IZ  ''T  P'fr^  f^"'  ^"*^^>"^  ''■  ''  ''  *--  that  7;n  empt; 
!w.!   fi    ^l^"^  ""'''''"  *''^  °*''^''  ^t  ^  ^'"^^  ^^en  the  harvest  is  nearing  its 

and  ke'en'S  111^'  fu  "  '"'"^  I"  '''  '".*  ™^^^'>^  ^«  "P  ^"^  down  th^Jugh 
It  and  keep  to  work  in  the  super  above.  But  it  is  not  so  well  to  have  them 
working  so  far  from  the  brood  nest  with  empty  space  benrath.  ^ 

even  when  L  pl^nf  '"  ^"*°  *^^  ^^^'^  °^  ^'^'"^  ^"  ^"^P^^  ^^Per  on  top, 
even  when  an  empty  super  is  put  under.     The  empty  super  on  top  gives 

No  mat[e7h:l  f^^M  "^  '"^"y.  ^^'P  "  ''''''  ^^^^^  preve'nting  swa'r^  ^g 
PNo  matter  how  full  or  empty  the  lower  super  may  be,  this  top  super  serves 


156  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

as  a  sort  of  safety-valve,  in  case  any  need  for  more  room  should  arise. 
The  next  time  there  is  need  to  give  a  super  below,  this  top  super  is  moved 
down  and  another  empty  super  put  in  its  place.  Wlien  tiie  top  super  is  put 
down,  I  think  the  bees  start  work  on  it  just  a  bit  sooner  than  if  it  had  not 
been  above. 

The  ability  to  provide  the  bees  with  sufficient  room  to  make 
the  most  of  the  harvest  and  jet  keep  them  sufficiently  crowded  to 
get  the  sections  well  finished  is  the  great  test  of  the  scientific 
bee-keeper.  If,  when  the  honey  is  coming  in  with  a  rush,  too 
many  supers  are  put  on,  the  bees  will  scatter  their  forces  to  such 
an  extent  that  when  the  flow  stops  there  will  be  a  lot  of  unfinished 
sections  which  cannot  be  marketed.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
insufficient  room  is  provided  there  will  be  a  loss  of  honey  for 
lack  of  storage  room. 

Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  experience  in  determining  this 
matter.  With  the  beginner  it  will  be  almost  altogether  guess- 
work and  as  Dr.  Miller  says  the  guess-work  will  never  be  alto- 
gether eliminated,  for  no  man  can  tell  ahead  how  long  a  honey 
flow  will  last. 

SWARM  CONTROL 

The  man  who  will  find  the  secret  of  swarm  control  will 
confer  a  great  blessing  on  the  fraternity  and  his  name  will  not 
be  forgotten.  Many  and  various  are  the  plans  recommended 
to  prevent  swarming.  While  the  extracted  honey  producer  is 
able  to  reduce  this  trouble  to  the  minimum  and  in  ordinary 
seasons  have  little  difficulty,  the  comb  honey  producer  who  does 
not  find  it  his  greatest  problem  has  not  been  heard  from.  A 
strong  colony  may  swarm  and  take  enough  bees  to  found  a  new 
colony  and  store  a  profitable  crop,  while  at  the  same  time  leaving 
enough  force  on  the  old  stand  to  store  some  surplus.  It  will 
sometimes  happen  that  about  as  much  honey  will  be  stored  by 
the  two  divisions  as  would  have  been  the  case  had  the  colony 
not  swarmed. 

In  localities  where  the  flow  is  sufficiently  rapid  to  make  comb 
honey  production  profitable,  it  is  likely  to  be  short  and  the 


BREEDING  TO  PRODUCE  A  NON-SWARMING  STRAIN    157 

colonies  which  do  not  swarm  are  usually  the  ones  to  store  the  big 
crops.  At  any  rate  the  bee-keeper  prefers  to  make  increase  at 
his  convenience  and  not  to  be  watching  for  swarms  all  summer. 
In  a  large  apiary  where  there  is  no  control  of  swarming  there  is 
little  time  for  anything  else  than  watching  for  swarms  and  ^ettinff 
them  hived.  ^ 

Breeding  to  Produce  a  Non-Swarming  Strain.— In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  several  writers,  notably  Dr.  Bonney,  take  the  posi- 
tion that  the  honey-bee  cannot  be  improved  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  controlling  male  parentage,  much  is  to  be  hoped  for 
along  this  line.  Even  now  some  progress  is  being  made  and  a 
few  leaders  among  the  enthusiasts  who  are  persistently  following 
up  the  method  of  selecting  the  best  honey  producers' among  the 
non-swarming  colonies  and  rearing  queens  only  from  them  are 
getting  results.  It  is  true  that  progress  is  slow  and  that  dis- 
couragements sometimes  are  to  be  met,  but  some  claim  a  notice- 
able decrease  in  the  number  of  swarms  as  a  result  of  such 
breeding  for  a  series  of  years. 

Experiments  looking  toward  the  artificial  mating  of  queens 
have  been  made  from  time  to  time  with  uncertain  results.  Once 
let  a  satisfactory  method  of  accomplishing  this  be  found  and  the 
great  problem  of  breeding  good  bees  is  solved.  As  long  as  the 
queen  must  mate  in  the  air  according  to  the  natural  provision 
she  may  mate  with  any  one  of  a  thousand  drones  that  chance  to  be 
flying  at  the  time  she  takes  her  marriage  flight.  If  a  method 
of  safe  artificial  fertilization  can  be  devised  this  uncertainty 
IS  removed  and  drones  from  the  best  colonies  can  be  selected. 
It  will  then  be  an  easy  matter  to  breed  from  stock  showing  any 
particularly  desired  trait  and  as  good  results  can  be  expected 
as  have  resulted  from  similar  efforts  to  improve  live  stock  and 
poultry.  The  non-sitting  breeds  of  fowls  are  pretty  good  evi- 
dence that  it  is  possible  to  breed  out  even  the  strong  natural 
instincts.  In  a  state  of  nature  the  sitting  of  the  hen  was  essential 
to  the  perpetuation  of  the  race.  The  invention  of  the  incubator 
removed  the  necessity  for  sitting  and  the  poultrymen  proceeded 


158  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

to  remove  the  tendency  to  sit  on  the  part  of  the  hen,  by  natural 
selection.  In  a  state  of  nature  only  a  few  eggs  were  laid  but 
now  behold  the  two  hundred-egg  hen,  the  result  of  the  effort  of 
the  breeder. 

Natural  Helps. — Mr.  Dadant  {"  Dadant  System  of  Bee- 
keeping ")  suggests  the  following  as  desirable  in  swarm  preven- 
tion: (1)  Ample  brood  chamber;  (2)  combs  built  on  full  sheets 
of  foundation  in  super  as  well  as  brood  chamber;  (3)  ample 
ventilation;  (4)  partial  shade;  (5)  young  queens;  (6)  few 
drones.  With  these  conditions  met  there  is  little  necessity  for 
manipulation  of  the  hive  to  keep  down  swarming.  Although 
the  Dadants  are  extracted  honey  producers,  the  principles  of 
swarm  control  outlined  above  will  apply  to  comb  honey. 

Cutting  Queen  Cells  to  Prevent  Swarming. — Perhaps  the 
cutting  of  the  queen  cells  was  the  first  method  devised  looking 
toward  swarm  control.  It  is  probably  the  method  most  com- 
monly practised.  Yet  it  is  not  entirely  dependable.  In  some 
instances  if  the  cells  are  removed  as  soon  as  the  larva?  first  appear 
in  them,  no  more  will  be  built  and  there  will  be  no  swarm  for  that 
year.  If,  however,  cells  are  once  sealed  and  the  bees  have  the 
swarming  fever,  they  will  build  one  batch  after  another  until  the 
bee-keeper  will  find  it  cheaper  to  let  them  swarm  and  be  done 
with  it,  than  to  examine  every  comb  and  remove  royal  cells  every 
ten  days  all  summer.  Occasionally  one  will  be  missed  and  then 
out  comes  your  swarm  whether  or  no. 

De-queening  During  the  Honey  Flow. — A  few  bee-keepers 
go  through  all  their  colonies  during  the  honey  flow  when  it  is 
expected  that  eggs  laid  will  not  mature  in  time  to  be  of  assistance 
during  the  harvest  and  kill  all  the  queens.  At  this  time  queen 
cells  will  be  built  in  many  colonies  in  preparation  for  swarming. 
All  cells  will  be  cut  out  at  the  same  time.  Weak  colonies  or 
others  not  likely  to  swarm  are  passed,  as  are  also  any  favorites 


DE-QUEENING  DURING  THE  HONEY  FLOW  159 

from  which  it  is  desired  to  get  cells  for  making  increase  or  similar 
purposes.  The  colony  being  queenless  will  at  once  build  Sev- 
eral cells  in  order  to  provide  another.  Some  system  of  marking 
is  used  to  note  the  condition  of  the  colony.  Nine  or  ten  days 
later  a  second  trip  is  made  through  the  yard,  to  cut  out  all  queen 
cells  but  one  in  each  hive.  At  this  second  visit  all  cells  found 
in  the  colonies  marked  as  A.  No.  1,  will  be  saved.  Only  one  will 
be  left  to  insure  a  queen  and  the  others  will  be  placed  in  the 
hives  which  have  markings  showing  that  they  are  not  up  to  the 
standard.    All  poorer  or  surplus  cells  are  destroyed. 

An  accident  to  a  cell  or  to  the  new  queen  on  her  mating  trip 
would  leave  the  colony  hopelessly  queenless,  as  there  will  no 
longer  be  eggs  or  young  larva3  in  the  hives.  To  provide  against 
such  contingencies  a  number  of  nuclei  are  started  and  provided 
with  cells  to  insure  a  sufficient  number  of  extra  queens  to  supply 
the  colonies  whose  queens  are  not  successfully  mated.  A  third 
examination  will  be  necessary  after  the  elapse  of  a  similar  period 
to  ascertain  whether  queens  are  present  and  to  supply  those 
colonies  where  failure  has  resulted. 

It  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  cut  cells  from  a  part  of  the 
colonies  in  advance  of  the  time  of  this  wholesale  de-queening, 
or  as  only  a  small  number  of  swarms  will  ipsue  they  may  be  hived 
in  the  usual  manner.  This  method,  while  somewhat  drastic, 
has  the  desired  effect  and  perhaps  comes  as  near  controlling 
swarming  as  any  other.  In  the  discussion  that  followed  the 
presentation  of  the  plan  by  F.  W.  Hall  at  the  Iowa  Bee-keeper's 
Convention  there  was  serious  objection  to  it  on  the  part  of  some 
very  successful  apiarists.  It  is  contended  with  good  reason  that 
many  valuable  queens  will  thus  be  destroyed  and  that  one  year 
is  not  long  enough  to  give  a  queen  an  opportunity  to  show  her 
good  points.  Those  who  follow  the  method,  it  will  be  noticed, 
make  exceptions  of  those  queens  which  are  especially  promising 
and  retain  them  as  breeders.  While  there  are  some  extensive 
bee-keepers  who  will  find  the  method  suited  to  their  require- 


160  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HON^Y 

ments,  it  is  not  generally  recommended  under  all  conditions. 

Dr.  Miller  practiced  a  de-queening  treatment  along  diiferent 
lines.  He  removed  the  queen  and  placed  her  in  a  cage  where 
she  was  cared  for  by  her  own  bees,  or  she  was  introduced  to  a 
nucleus  where  she  continued  to  be  busy.  Of  course  all  cells 
were  destroyed  or  removed  when  the  queen  was  taken  away.  At 
the  end  of  ten  days  the  cells  were  again  removed  and  the  old 
queen  returned  to  them  or  another  given  in  her  stead.  This  is 
the  same  treatment  in  effect,  excepting  that  he  retained  his 
queens  as  long  as  they  gave  satisfactory  results,  whether  for  one 
year  or  for  three  or  more. 

With  the  exercise  of  the  utmost  care  there  will  be  plenty  of 
swarms  some  seasons  while  other  years  the  matter  can  be  con- 
trolled without  great  difficulty.  The  swarming  tendency  can, 
however,  be  so  far  checked  as  to  greatly  increase  the  returns  from 
the  apiary. 

Space  Under  the  Brood  Nest. — An  empty  space  under  the 
brood  frames  seems  to  serve  to  some  extent  the  purpose  of  swarm 
prevention.  A  deep  bottom  is  better  than  a  shallow  one.  In 
Europe  the  Sini^^iins  plan  of  placing  the  comb  honey  supers  with 
empty  sections  under  the  hive,  to  begin  with,  seems  to  be  prac- 
tised to  some  extent,  although  the  author  does  not  know  of  its 
use  in  this  country.  According  to  this  plan  empty  supers  are 
kept  in  place  under  the  hive  all  through  the  honey  flow.  The 
bees  prefer  to  store  their  honey  above  the  brood  nest  and  will  do 
so  if  possible.  AVhen  they  are  getting  too  crowded  above  they 
will  begin  to  build  combs  in  these  comb  honey  supers  below  in 
preparation  to  working  down.  It  is  now  time  to  remove  them 
and  place  them  on  top  of  the  hive  and  put  another  empty  one 
in  place  underneath.  This  empty  space  below  serves  as  addi- 
tional clustering  space  and  also  facilitates  ventilation. 

A  somewhat  similar  purpose  is  served  by  the  usual  practice  of 
blocking  the  hive  up  at  the  corners  during  the  honey  flow  if  the 
weather  be  hot.  The  hive  being  open  on  all  sides  there  is  free 
ventilation,  which  is  a  material  factor  in  swarm  control. 


BEE  ESCAPES  161 

REMOVING  THE  HONEY  FKOM  THE  HIVE 

As  soon  as  possible  after  most  sections  in  a  super  are  nicely 
capped  the  honey  should  be  removed  from  the  hive  to  prevent 
travel  stain.  If  the  bees  are  forced  to  pass  over  the  sections  in 
going  to  and  from  the  supers  above  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time,  the  white  cappings  will  become  discolored  and  the 
market  value  be  reduced.  True,  the  bee-keeper  tries  as  far  as 
possible  to  have  the  sections  finished  in  the  top  super  so  that 
there  will  remain  no  necessity  for  much  travel  over  it  when 
capped.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  arrange  the  supers  in  the 
ideal  manner  and  even  if  capped  in  the  upper  super  some  trave] 
stain  will  result  if  the  honey  is  allowed  to  remain  too  long 
Comb  honey  in  sections  is  usually  sufficiently  ripened  by  the 
time  all  but  the  comer  sections  are  capped. 


Fia.  78.— The  Porter  bee  escape. 

Bee  Escapes.— The  invention  of  the  be©  escape  was  a  great 
boon  to  the  comb  honey  producer.  The  Porter  escape  is  the  one 
in  most  common  us©  (Fig.  Y8) .  A  board  the  size  ©f  the  hive  has 
the  escape  fitted  to  a  small  opening  in  the  center.  The  con- 
struction is  such  that  the  bees  can  go  down  through  it  but  cannot 
return.  By  putting  on  the  escapes  in  the  evening  it  is  usually 
possible  to  remove  the  supers  of  honey,  free  from  bees,  the  follow- 


ing morning. 


Some  bee-keepers  depend  "upon  driving  the  bees  from  the 
supers  with  smoke,  but  this  often  results  in  injury  to  the  honey, 
as  the  bees  will  uncap  the  cells  in  order  to  reach  the  honey.  Un- 
less some  care  is  used  the  combs  may  be  somewhat  discolored  also. 
The  escapes  are  inexpensive  and  the  small  outlay  is  more  than 
repaid  in  the  saving  of  time  alone. 

The  LaEeese  or  ventilated  escape  has  some  advantages  over 


162  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

the  other  (Fig.  77).  This  is  made  with  about  one-third  of  its 
surface  covered  with  a  double  screen.  Double  wire  cones  make  it 
possible  for  the  bees  to  go  down  easily  but  difficult  to  find  their 
way  back.  The  principal  advantage  of  this  excluder  over  the 
other  is  the  ventilation,  which  prevents  the  melting  down  of  the 
combs  in  extremely  hot  weather.  While  this  happens  rather 
infrequently,  conditions  occasionally  are  such  that  honey  will 
melt  badly  in  unventilated  supers.  Over  these  ventilated  escapes 
the  air  will  be  kept  moving  by  fanning  bees  below,  even  if  none 
are  left  in  the  super,  and  the  bad  effects  of  the  heat  will  be 
avoided. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  super  before  the  outside  rows 
of  sections  are  finished  they  may  be  set  aside  and  replaced  in 
other  supers. 

Closing  the  Season. — Unless  there  are  unfinished  sections 
which  may  be  left  on  the  hive  in  the  hope  of  finishing  during 
the  fall  flow,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  remove  the  comb  honey 
supers  at  the  close  of  the  main  harvest  and  to  replace  with  ex- 
tracting combs  to  catch  any  light  fall  flow.  In  localities  where 
the  fall  flow  is  such  that  comb  honey  can  be  produced  profitably 
this  will  not  apply.  In  many  localities  the  fall  flow  is  so  light 
that  the  sections  will  not  be  well  finished  and  if  marketable  at  all 
few  of  them  will  grade  better  than  number  two.  Unless  one  can 
produce  comb  honey  of  the  best  quality  it  is  better  to  have  it 
stored  in  the  extracting  combs. 

When  one  comes  to  remove  honey  in  wholesale  quantities 
after  the  close  of  the  flow  it  will  be  necessary  to  proceed  carefully 
or  there  will  be  much  annoyance  from  robber  bees  dodging  into 
the  sections  and  flying  home  with  a  load.  Let  a  few  bees  get  away 
successfully  in  this  manner  and  shortly  the  air  will  be  full  of 
bees  intent  on  finding  the  source  of  supply.  At  such  times  it 
becomes  very  difficult  for  the  operator  to  work  and  there  is 
greatly  increased  danger  from  stings.  Everything  should  be 
kept  closed  as  carefully  as  possible  and  when  the  supers  are 
removed  they  should  be  covered  at  once. 


FUMIGATION 


163 


For  convenience  at  such  times  most  bee-keepers  have  strips  of 
canvas  or  muslin,  large  enough  to  cover  a  pile  of  supers,  which 
are  called  robber  cloths.  It  is  well  to  remove  the  supers  at  once 
to  the  honey  house  where  they  will  be  safe  from  visiting  bees. 
The  honey  house  should,  of  course,  be  so  tight  that  no  bee  can  jfind 
its  way  in,  but  with  escapes  at  the  tops  of  the  windows  to  make 
it  easy  for  any  chance  bees  to  get  out.  In  bringing  in  honey 
from  the  apiary  it  will  frequently  happen  that  a  good  many  bees 
will  still  remain  in  the  supers.  If  the  house  is  properly  con- 
structed they  will  make  but  little  trouble  as  they  will  fly  to  the 
windows  and  escape.     (See  Honey  House  in  next  chapter. ) 

Removing  Sections  from  Supers— The  super  springs  already 
described  make  it  easy  to  loosen  the  follower  board  which  will 
give  room  to  work.  Each  section  holder  may  now  be  crowded 
over  into  the  vacant  space  and  removed  with  its  sections.  A 
better  way  is  to  push  the  whole  lot  out  at  one  time.  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this.  Either  have  a  form  the  size  of  the  inside 
of  the  super  and  set  the  super  on  it;  with  a  mallet  or  other 
object  drive  the  super  down  outside  of  it,  leaving  the  section 
holders  and  their  contents  on  the  form ;  or  have  an  empty  super 
on  which  to  set  the  filled  one  upside  down.  Then  by  carefully 
jarring  the  section  holders  they  may  be  pushed  down  into  the 
empty  super.  As  soon  as  loosened  fully  from  the  propolis  and 
wax  they  may  be  lifted  out.  A  little'  experience  will  greatly 
facilitate  matters  in  thus  removing  the  sections.  As  a  rule  the 
novice  will  break  a  number  of  sections  before  he  learns  how  to 
proceed  without  injuring  the  honey. 

After  the  sections  are  taken  from  the  supers  they  should  be 
sorted  and  all  unfinished  sections  replaced  in  the  supers  to  be 
replaced  on  the  hives  to  be  finished  if  the  season  is  not  too  far 
advanced,  or  set  aside  to  serve  as  bait  sections  next  season. 

Fumigation.— Unless  the  season  is  so  far  advanced  that  freez- 
ing weather  is  at  hand,  some  precaution  will  be  necessary  to 
insure  that  none  of  the  crop  is  spoiled  by  wax  moths  in  storage. 
At  any  rate  comb  honey  should  not  be  long  subjected  to  freezing 


164  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB  HONEY 

temperatures  because  of  the  danger  of  granulating.  If  the  honey 
is  to  be  sold  at  once  no  harm  will  be  done  by  fumigating,  as  one 
would  not  wish  the  buyer  to  wake  up  to  the  fact  that  wax  moths 
were  destroying  his  honey  a  few  weeks  later. 

Eggs  may  be  present  even  though  there  is  no  appearance  of 
moths  when  the  honey  is  taken  from  the  hive.  An  occasional 
examination  will  reveal  their  presence  when  they  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  usual  methods  of  fumigation. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Under  what  conditions  is  the  production  of  comb  honey  satisfactory? 

2.  Discuss  hives  for  comb  honey  production. 

3.  Describe  the  different  sections  used  for  comb  honey. 

4.  Note  the  advantages  of  split  sections. 

5.  Discuss  the  use  of  foundation  in  sections. 

6.  What  advance  preparation  should  be  made  for  the  season's  work? 

7.  When  is  a  colony  ready  for  supers? 

8.  What  methods  are  used  to  get  the  bees  into  the  supers? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  essentials  to  success  in  comb  honey  production? 

10.  How  may  weak  colonies  best  be  built  up? 

11.  Outline  Miller's  method  of  comb  honey  production. 

12.  Discuss    swarm    control. 

13.  When  should  comb  honey  be  removed  from  the  hive! 

14.  Of  what  advantage  is  a  bee  escape? 


CHAPTER  X 
PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

With  proper  equipment,  extracted  honey  production  is  a 
pleasant  and  profitable  pursuit.  Without  it,  it  is  dirty,  mussy 
and  disagreeable.  Less  skill  and  labor  may  perhaps  be  required 
in  specializing  in  extracted  honey.  If  the  market  is  properly 
developed,  it  may  be  as  profitable  or  more  so  than  comb  honey. 
As  generally  handled,  much  more  extracted  honey  will  be  pro- 
duced than  comb  honey,  but  skillful  apiarists  who  know  how  to 
make  the  most  of  the  opportunity  will  get  very  nearly  as  many 
pounds  of  comb  honey  as  extracted  where  honey  flows  are  very 
rapid.  If  one  wishes  to  do  business  on  a  large  scale,  and  to  run 
a  series  of  out  apiaries,  there  are  less  difficulties  to  be  overcome 
in  the  production  of  extracted  honey. 

Proper  Equipment.— The  kind  of  equipment  that  will  be 
needed  will  depend  much  on  the  extent  to  which  one  wishes  to 
develop  the  business,  and  whether  one  plans  a  central  extracting 
house,  where  all  honey  is  brought  to  be  cared  for,  or  whether  one 
uses  a  portable  outfit  with  a  small  honey  house  at  each  apiary. 
Which  is  the  better  plan,  the  author  is  not  prepared  to  say,  for 
there  are  extensive  honey  producers  some  of  which  prefer  one  and 
some  the  other. 

In  any  case  the  extractor  is  an  important  article.  Larger 
extractors  can  be  used  in  the  central  plant  than  are  practicable 
to  carry  from  place  to  place.  For  portable  outfits,  the  four-frame 
reversible  extractor  is  usually  used.  For  a  small  home  apiary, 
a  two-frame  extractor  will  do  very  well,  but  if  there  is  any  idea 
of  extending  the  business,  nothing  short  of  the  four-frame  capac- 
ity should  be  bought. 

Extractors. — Until  the  invention  of  the  extractor  in  1865, 
the  nearest  approach  to  extracted  honey  was  strained  honey. 
This  was  a  common  method  until  but  a  few  years  past.  Surplus 
honey  was  removed  from  the  hive  by  cutting  out  the  combs  and 

165 


Fia.  79. — The  latest  in  automatic  reversing  honey  extractors.    These  machines  can  be 

reversctl  without  stopping  and  without  injury  to  the  combs. 

A.     Lewie-Markle  extractor  with  can  removed  to  show  how  baskets  are  supported. 

B.     Root-Buckeye  extractor  showing  reversing  mechanism. 


EXTRACTORS 


167 


mashing  them  up  in  a  cotton  cloth  which  was  hung  up  in  a  warm 
place  to  drain.  Masses  of  brood,  pollen,  and  honey  were  often 
broken  up  together,  so  that  the  quality  was  anything  but  attrac- 
tive. Many  people  who  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of 
bee  culture,  seeing  extracted  honey  in  the  market,  refer  to  it  as 
strained  honey. 

The  frames  full  of  sealed  honey  are  now  taken  from  the  hive, 


Fig.  80.— Storage  tanks  of  a  large  honey  producer  in  California. 

and  by  means  of  a  warm  knife  the  cappings  are  skilfully  cut  from 
the  comb.  The  frames  are  then  placed  in  the  basket  of  the 
extractor  (Fig.  79),  and  the  machine  started.  The  centrifugal 
motion  throws  the  honey  from  the  side  of  the  comb  next  to  the  side 
of  the  can.  The  machine  is  then  reversed,  throwing  the  honey 
from  the  other  side  in  the  same  manner.  The  honey  is  drawn  off 
in  tanks,  or  in  smaller  containers,  according  to  circumstances 
(Fig.  80). 

Since  the  first  extractors  appeared  in  the  market,  many  im- 
provements have  been  made.     The  first  extractor  revolved  alto- 


168 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


gether,  tank  and  all.  Then  came  an  extractor  in  which  two 
comb  baskets  revolved  inside  the  can,  but  requiring  that  the  combs 
be  lifted  out  and  turned  around,  after  one  side  had  been  emptied. 
The  latest  machines  are  reversed  by  the  simple  pulling  of  a  lever 
without  stopping  the  machine.     The  larger  sized  ones  have  a 


Fio.  81. -^A  power  driven  extractor. 

capacity  of  eight  frames,  so  chat  something  like  forty  pounds 
of  honey  is  extracted  from  a  set  of  full  combs  at  each  operation. 
Power. — For  extensive  apiaries,  the  power  driven  extractor 
(Fig.  81)  is  a  great  economy,  for  while  the  operator  is  uncapping 
one  set  of  combs,  the  machine  will  empty  another.  A  small 
gasoline  engine  costing  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  dollars  is  suflfi- 
cient  to  furnish  the  necessary  power,  and,  during  the  extracting 


STORAGE  TANKS  169 

season,  will  nearly  take  the  place  of  one  man,  and  at  much  less 
cost.  The  labor  item  is  the  heaviest  expense  with  most  lines  of 
productive  enterprise,  and  any  machine  that  will  reduce  this 
expense  will  add  materially  to  the  net  profit  at  the  end  of  the 
season. 

The  same  power  can  be  made  to  serve  for  many  other  pur- 
poses, such  as  pumping  water,  running  the  washing  machine, 
cream  separator  or  other  small  machinery.  The  gasoline  engine 
is  generally  regarded  as  a  necessity  in  the  apiary,  unless  it  be 
within  reach  of  electric  power. 

Honey  Pump. — The  honey  pump  is  a  comparatively  new 
invention  and  has  not,  as  yet,  come  into  general  use.  Whether 
its  use  will  be  advisable  will  depend  a  good  deal  upon  the  con- 
struction of  the  honey  house.  (See  Honey  House.)  If  the 
storage  tanks  are  on  a  level  with  the  extractor  or  above  it,  the 
honey  pump  will  be  a  time  saver  in  the  large  plant.  In  the  past 
these  new  machines,  like  most  new  inventions,  gave  more  or  less 
trouble  in  their  operation.  The  machines  are  now  perfected  to 
the  point  where  they  are  run  with  good  results.  The  pump  is 
attached  directly  to  the  extractor,  and  run  by  a  belt  attached 
to  the  reel  of  that  machine.  The  same  power  runs  both  and  the 
honey  is  pumped  into  the  storage  tank  as  fast  as  extracted.  This 
not  only  saves  the  labor  of  handling  the  pails  of  honey  as  drawn 
from  the  extractor  but  relieves  the  care  of  watching  for  fear  the 
pail  will  be  neglected  a  moment  too  long,  and  the  honey  run  over 
and  be  wasted.  The  extractor  can  also  be  fastened  directly  to  the 
floor,  instead  of  upon  a  platform,  as  is  necessary  where  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  a  container  under  the  honey  gate  of  the 
machine. 

Storage  Tanks. — Tanks  of  sufficient  capacity  to  hold  the 
season's  crop  should  be  provided,  for  it  is  not  always  advisable, 
even  if  there  is  time,  to  get  a  part  of  the  honey  to  market  during 
the  season.  Many  bee-keepers  provide  a  sufficient  tank  capacity 
to  hold  the  output  of  three  or  four  days'  extracting,  and  have 
on  hand  a  large  number  of  sixty-pound  cans  in  which  to  store 


170       PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

the  bulk  of  the  honey.  It  is  drawn  into  the  cans  as  soon  as  it  has 
settled  a  few  hours,  and  is  then  ready  to  ship  to  a  wholesale 
market,  or  with  the  caiis  tightly  closed  is  safe  from  dust  or 
spilling,  if  the  honey  is  later  to  be  sold  in  small  containers 
(Fig.  82). 

Galvanized  iron  tanks  are  quite  commonly  used  for  storage, 
though  some  use  wood  tanks  for  this  purpose.  In  some  localities 
barrels  are  used,  but  this  is  no  longer  common  in  many  localities 
in  the  United  States.     Honey  should  not  be  left  long  in  open 


Fig.  82. — Sixty  pound  cans  for  extracted  Loney. 

tanks  for  reasons  of  cleanliness.  It  is  thought  also  that  honey 
exposed  long  to  the  air  loses  some  of  the  delicate  aroma  peculiar 
to  the  finer  grades. 

Uncapping  Boxes. — Several  different  kinds  of  uncapping 
cans  or  boxes  are  in  the  market,  and  many  more  are  in  use  in  the 
apiaries.  The  accumulation  of  cappings  during  a  week's  extract- 
ing will  be  surprising.  It  is  not  only  necessary  to  save  these  cap- 
pings for  the  wax  they  contain,  but  much  honey  will  be  carried 
with  them  which,  also,  is  to  be  cared  for. 

A  good  uncapping  can  provides  for  the  draining  of  the  cap- 
pings, so  that  the  honey  will  separate  from  them  as  rapidly  as 
possible.    Some  of  the  boxes  made  for  this  purpose  have  slatted 


CAPPING  MELTERS 


171 


bottoms,  through  which  the  honey  is  drained  into  a  tub  or  pail 
set  for  the  purpose  (Fig.  83).  The  cans  are  provided  with  coarse 
screen,  which  catches  the  cappings  but  permits  the  honey  to  run 
through  in  the  same  manner.  Some  of  the  best  of  these  are  made 
at  the  apiary  where  they  are  to  be  used,  thus  fitting  the  available 
space  in  the  honey  house,  and  meeting  the  individual  require- 
ments of  the  bee-keeper.  The  uncapping  box  or  can  should  be 
of  a  convenient  height  and  have  a  suitable  rest  for  the  comb  when 
the  cappings  are  being  removed. 


Fig.  83. — The  Townsend  uncapping  box. 


If  the  box  is  made  rather  long,  and  the  width  is  the  same  as 
the  length  of  the  extracting  frames,  they  may  be  left  hanging 
m  the  box  as  fast  as  uncapped  until  removed  to  the  extractor. 
In  this  way  the  box  will  catch  the  drip  from  the  uncapped  combs. 
Something  similar  to  the  Townsend  uncapping  box  shown  in  the 
illustration  (Fig.  83)  is  probably  most  commonly  used. 

Capping  Melters.— The  capping  melter  is  somewhat  similar 
to  the  uncapping  box,  but  has  a  sloping  metal  bottom.  Under  this 
is  placed  a  small  oil  stove,  or  some  other  device  for  heating  the 
metal  bottom  (Fig.  84).    The  idea  is  that  as  fast  as  the  cappings 


172 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


drop  on  the  hot  metal,  they  will  be  melted  and  run  at  once  into 
a  receptacle  at  the  lower  end.  The  bottom  is  usually  double, 
and  the  metal  extends  up  several  inches  on  each  side  of  the  tarik, 
the  space  between  the  two  sheets  of  metal  composing  the  bottom 
and  sides  being  filled  with  water.  The  water  distributes  the  heat 
more  evenly,  thus  preventing  the  space  immediately  over  the 
flame  from  becoming  too  hot. 

The  honey  and  melted  wax  are  both  caught  in  the  same  con- 
tainer, but  the  wax  comes  to  the  top  and  may  be  lifted  off  in 
cakes  when  cool. 


The  Peterson  capping  melter. 


There  is  quite  an  advantage  in  disposing  of  the  cappinga  as 
fast  as  cut  from  the  combs,  especially  in  a  large  apiary.  How- 
ever, these  melters  do  not  always  give  satisfaction,  as  the  honey 
is  often  over-heated  and  the  quality  injured.  Most  large  pro- 
ducers of  the  author's  acquaintance  prefer  the  uncapping  box 
without  artificial  heat. 


HIVES  FOR  EXTRACTED  HONEY  173 

Uncapping  Knives. — To  remove  the  cappings  a  knife  with 
long  blade  is  used.  Straight  knives  were  formerly  in  general  use, 
but  of  late  the  Bingham  knife  has  largely  replaced  all  others. 
Fig.  85  shows  this  knife.  For  use  it  is  kept  hot  by  dipping  in 
hot  water. 

A  somewhat  similar  knife  heated  by  steam  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  large  apiaries.  The  steam  knife  is  hollow,  and  is 
attached  by  rubber  tubing  to  a  small  vessel  of  water  which  is  set 
over  the  burner  of  a  small  oil  stove  or  lamp.  A  small  hole  at 
the  end  of  the  knife  permits  the  escape  of  the  steam.  As  the 
temperature  of  the  knife  is  evener,  it  is  more  satisfactory.  The 
cappings  do  not  stick  to  the  knife,  or  the  operator  does  not  have 
to  stop  frequently  because  it  has  become  cold. 


Fig.  85. — Bingham  uncapping  knife. 

Hives  for  Extracted  Honey. — While  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  regarding  the  size  of  hive  most  profitable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  comb  honey,  the  bee-keepers  are  nearly  all  agreed  that 
the  large  hive  is  the  thing  for  extracted  honey.  The  ten-frame 
Langstroth  is  more  generally  used  for  this  purpose  than  any 
other  (Fig.  86).  Some  extensive  producers  use  a  twelve-frame 
hive  with  the  same  size  frames  (Fig.  87). 

The  Dadant  hive  is  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  Langstroth  frame  is  in  more 
general  use,  it  would  find  favor  with  the  producer.  The  brood 
frames  of  the  Dadant  hive  are  too  large,  however,  for  extracting 
frames,  thus  requiring  two  sizes  of  frames.  It  is  a  decided 
advantage  to  have  all  frames  in  the  apiary  of  the  same  size  and 
Btyle. 

Shallow  extracting  frames  are  good  for  use  in  connection 
with  the  comb  honey  apiary,  but  are  not  to  be  recommended  for 
the  production  of  extracted  honey.    N'early  as  much  time  will  be 


174 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


required  to  imcap  a  small  frame  as  a  large  one,  and  extra  time 
will  be  required  in  the  manipulations,  which  is  decidedly  to  their 
disadvantage. 

Not  only  should  everything  about  the  apiary  be  planned  to 
avoid  the  loss  of  time,  but  the  accumulation  of  unnecessary  equip- 
ment should  also  be  avoided.  If  extracting  frames  and  brood 
frames  ai-e  of  the  same  size,  extra  frames  may  be  used  for  either 
purpose  for  which  they  are  needed,  instead  of  having  to  supply 
more  when  one  or  the  other  runs  low.     It  might  easily  happen 


Fio.  x6  — Langstroth  hive  for  extracted  honey. 
Fig.  87. — Langstroth  hive  dissected. 

when  there  are  two  sizes  that  there  will  be  a  surplus  of  one  at 
hand  and  a  lack  of  the  other. 

Kind  of  Frame  to  Adopt.— As  to  the  kind  of  frame  which 
best  serves  the  purpose,  there  is  a  decided  disagreement.  While 
the  author  personally  prefers  the  Hoffman  self-spacing  frame, 
most  of  the  large  producers  seem  to  be  decidedl}^  of  the  opinion 
that  a  loose-hanging  frame  is  better. 

The  Hoffman  frames  (Fig.  93)  require  little  attention  to  see 
that  they  are  properly  spaced  when  placed  in  the  hive.  On 
the  other  hand  the  loose-hanging  frames  must  always  be  spaced 
after  setting  in  place,  or  the  combs  will  be  unequal  in  thickness. 

There  are  several  devices  for  spacing  the  frames.  Staples  are 
used  in  some  cases.     The  metal  spacers  are  very  popular  also. 


THE  HONEY  HOUSE  I75 

These  are  so  placed  near  the  top  of  the  frames  that  they  will  be 
the  proper  distance  apart  when  placed  in  the  hive. 

While  there  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
best,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  extensive  extracted  honey  pro- 
ducer, the  novice  will  find  the  self-spacing  frames  much  better, 
as  there  is  less  danger  of  getting  the  brood  nest  too  crowded  or 
the  combs  too  far  apart. 

Some  contend  that  the  use  of  metal  spaced  frames  tends  to 
dull  the  uncapping  knife  by  constantly  knocking  against  it.  This 
argument  carries  little  weight,  for  a  good  operator  will  seldom 
strike  the  edge  of  his  knife  against  the  metal. 

THE  HONEY  HOUSE 

A  good  honey  house  is  a  necessity  in  extensive  honey  produc- 
tion.   The  small  honey  producer  can  get  along  with  a  large  room 
in  the  dwelling  house  if  necessary,  but  the  nature  of  the  work  of 
extracting  is  such  that  a  separate  building  is  very  desirable.     It 
need  not  be  expensive,  but  must  be  tight  enough  so  that  no  bee 
can  enter  when  doors  and  windows  are  closed.     If  the  bees  once 
find  their  way  in  when  a  lot  of  honey  is  exposed,  they  soon  come 
by  thousands  and  make  work  impossible.    During  a  good  honey 
flow  they  are  so  busy  bringing  in  nectar  from  the  field,  that  they 
pay  little  attention  to  anything  else.     At  such  times  extracting 
can  often  be  done  out  of  doors  without  annoyance.     A  check  in 
the  honey  flow  brings  a  decided  change  in  their  attitude,  and 
they  will  soon  be  seeking  every  possible  opening  to  a  building 
where  honey  is  stored. 

If  portable  outfits  are  used  and  the  honey  extracted  at  the 
various  apiaries,  small  buildings  will  serve  very  well,  because 
the  honey  will  be  taken  away  as  fast  as  extracted.  It  is  a  common 
practice  among  bee-keepers  following  this  plan  to  visit  a  yard  in 
the  morning  and  spend  the  day  extracting,  and  take  the  honey 
home  at  night. 

Even  though  the  portable  outfits  are  used,  a  good-sized  build- 


176 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


ing  will  be  needed  at  the  home  yard  where  the  honey  is  prepared 
for  market  and  the  various  appliances  prepared  for  use. 

The  illustrations  show  two  good  kinds  of  honey  houses.  Fig. 
88  shows  a  honey  house  two  stories  high.  This  house  has  some 
decided  advantages,  and,  although  it  was  built  at  a  cost  of  about 


Fig.  88. — A  well-arranged,  two-story  honey  house. 

one  thousand  dollars,  the  extensive  honey  producer  will  find  it 
well  worth  the  cost.  By  looking  at  the  picture  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  lay  of  the  land  is  such  that  the  ground  is  on  a  level  with 
the  floor  of  the  upper  story  at  one  side.  At  the  other  side  the 
ground  is  on  a  level  with  the  lower  story.  A  side  hill  location 
is  not  always  available,  and  otherwise  this  two-story  arrangemcDt 
would  not  be  very  satisfactory,  as  too  much  energy  would  be 


THE  HONEY  HOUSE 


177 


necessarily  expended  in  getting  the  honey  upstairs.  In  a  case 
like  this,  however,  the  honey  can  be  unloaded  on  the  upper  floor 
without  extra  effort. 

On  the  upper  floor  is  the  power  driven  extractor.  From  it 
there  is  a  pipe  leading  directly  to  a  large  settling  tank  on  the 
floor  below.  The  honey  will  thus  never  be  handled  from  the  time 
the  uncapped  frames  are  placed  in  the  extractor  until  it  is  drawn 


Fia.  89. — Large  honey  house  with  all  work  on  ground  floor. 


into  the  sixty-pound  cans  to  ship  to  market.  This  particular 
honey  house  is  arranged  with  the  idea  of  eliminating  every  pos- 
sible unnecessary  item  of  labor.  One  man  has  produced,  ex- 
tracted, and  prepared  for  market  something  like  forty  thousand 
pounds  of  honey  from  five  yards,  with  help  only  a  few  days 
during  the  busiest  season. 

On  the  upper  floor  is  the  work  shop,  where  hives  and  frames 
are  assembled,  and  where  extracting  combs  are  stored,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  extracting  room.    On  the  lower  floor  is  the  big  settling 
tank,  the  bottling  room  and  storage  room  for  honey.     A  better 
12 


178 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


arranged  or  more  satisfactory  honey  house  could  scarcely  be 
planned.  The  honey  room  must  always  be  kept  dry  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  honey. 

Fig.  89  shows  another  kind  of  honey  house.  Here  every- 
thing is  on  the  lower  floor,  excepting  storage  for  unused  equip- 
ment. The  building  is  composed  of  three  large  rooms.  At  one 
end  is  the  general  storage  room.     In  the  center  is  the  extracting 


Fig.  90. — The  automobile  i3  valuable  for  outyard  trork. 

room,  also  used  for  preparing  equipment,  wiring  frames,  etc. 
At  the  other  end  the  automobile  is  driven  in  with  the  load.  The 
automobile  is  a  very  useful,  and  now  almost  necessary  adjunct 
to  a  large  apiary,  where  outyards  are  widely  scattered,  as  the 
time  saved  in  travelling  to  and  from  the  yards  is  an  important 
consideration  (Fig.  90). 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  two  pictures,  the  extensive  produc- 
tion of  honey  necessitates  a  large  building  for  comfortable  work. 
The  tendency  is  always  to  build  too  small,  and  crowding  does 


ESCAPES 


179 


not  tend  to  economy  of  time  or  labor.  If  the  beginner  who 
expects  his  business  to  grow  will  plan  his  honey  house  so  that 
additions  are  easily  built  on,  he  will  be  wise. 

Floor. — A  cement  floor  is  very  desirable,  as  it  is  much  easier 
to  make  the  building  proof  against  rats  and  mice.  Neither 
should  be  tolerated  in  the  honey  house,  as  they  are  the  source  of 
gi-eat  annoyance  and  damage.  Mice  will  destroy  many  dollars 
worth  of  extracting  combs,  unless  they  are  stored  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  rodents.  A  cement  floor  also  makes  a  better  foun- 
dation for  fast-running  machinery. 

Doors  and  Windows.— The  windows  should  be  tightly 
screened  to  keep  out  flies  and  bees,  but  the  doors  are  better 
without  screens.  If  the  doors  are  screened,  they  will  be  left 
open  when  the  extracting  is  going  on,  and  large  numbers  of  bees 
are  likely  to  collect  on  the  screens  in  an  effort  to  get  in.  Every 
time  the  screen  is  opened  a  few  of  them  will  dodge  in,  with  the 
result  that  a  constantly  increasing  number  are  flying  about,  which 
is  annoying  to  the  bee-keeper  and  bad  for  the  bees.  If  only  the 
windows  are  screened,  the  doors  will  be  kept  closed  excepting 
when  necessary  to  pass  in  or  out,  and  the  bees  collecting  on  the 
outside  will  gather  at  the  windows  where  they  will  be  unable  to 
enter. 

Escapes.— Bees  that  are  carried  into  the  honey  house  will 
naturally  fly  to  the  windows  in  an  effort  to  escape.  At  the  top 
of  every  window  should  be  provided  an  escape  which  will  permit 
them  to  get  out,  but  which  will  turn  those  on  the  outside  which 
may  try  to  get  in. 

A  good  method  is  to  place  strips  of  lath  under  the  wire  screen, 
thus  holding  them  out  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  building.' 
If  these  strips  extend  about  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  top  of 
the  window,  and  the  screen  extends  as  far,  the  space  under  the 
screen  may  be  left  open  at  the  top.  The  bees  on  the  inside  will 
walk  up  and  out,  while  those  outside  will  not  go  much  above  the 
window  opening  and  will  not  find  their  way  in. 

Another  method  is  to  leave  several  wrinkles  in  the  screen 


180       PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

along  the  top.  Each  of  these  places  will  leave  an  opening  large 
enough  to  permit  the  bees  to  find  their  way  out.  To  prevent 
those  from  the  outside  from  coming  in,  wire  cones  are  placed  over 
the  openings. 

Still  another  common  plan  is  to  place  ordinary  bee  escapes, 


Fia.  91.— Comb  at  right  built  on  full  sheet  of  foundation;  at  left,  without  foundation. 

such  as  are  to  be  purchased  from  any  dealer  in  supplies,  in  the 
comers  of  each  window.  This  plan  does  not  work  well  in 
practice.  Any  method  that  will  permit  bees  to  go  out  without 
letting  outsiders  in,  will  be  satisfactory. 

PREPARING   FOR   THE   HARVEST 

The  importance  of  having  combs  built  on  full  sheets  of  foun- 
dation to  prevent  the  building  of  drone  comb  is  mentioned  else- 


PREPARING  FOR  THE  HARVEST 


181 


where.  Drone  combs  are  not  especially  objectionable  in  extract- 
ing supers,  as  long  as  the  queen  does  not  have  access  to  them. 
The  productive  bee-keeper,  hovrever,  should  avoid  having  them 
built  in  the  first  place,  as  they  should  never  be  permitted  in  the 
brood  chamber,  and,  unless  excluders  are  used,  the  queen  will 
sometimes  be  laying  in  the  extracting  supers.  It  is  highly  desir- 
able that  every  comb  be  so  perfect  that  it  can  be  used  in  any 
part  of  the  hive  for  any  purpose  needed. 

Aside  from  the  necessity  of  avoiding  the  drone  comb    it  is 


possible  to  get  so  much  better  combs  by  the  use  of  foundation,  and 
to  have  them  built  so  much  more  rapidly,  that  it  is  economy  to 
use  full  sheets  anyway.  It  is  very  annoying  to  have  crooked 
combs  to  deal  with,  and  perfect  combs  cannot  always  be  secured 
without  the  use  of  foundation  (Fig.  91). 

For  extracting  purposes,  it  is  important,  also,  that  the  combs 
be  built  in  wired  frames  (Fig.  92).  It  makes  little  difference 
to  the  comb  honey  producer  whether  his  combs  are  wired  or  not 
after  they  are  once  built,  because  they  are  not  subject  to  much 
strain.  In  the  extractor,  unwired  combs  are  likely  to  be  badly 
broken  or  ruined  altogether.  Fig.  93  shows  a  full  sheet  of 
foundation  ready  for  the  bees.     Four  horizontal  wires  are  used 


182 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


Fig.  93. — Hoffman  frame  with  full  sheet  of  foundation. 
FiQ.  94. — Development  of  combs  from  foundation. 

in  this  frame.  Fig.  94  shows  how  the  bees  make  use  of  this 
foundation.  The  left  hand  frame  contains  a  new  sheet  of  foun- 
dation.   The  central  figure  shows  the  appearance  when  the  bees 


STRONG  COLONIES  IMPORTANT  183 

are  beginning  to  draw  it  out  and  the  right  hand  figure  shows  a 
comb  nearly  drawn.  Fig.  95  shows  a  good  brood  comb  built 
from  a  full  sheet  of  foundation  on  four  wires. 

The  novice  can  seldom  be  made  to  see  the  importance  of  full 
sheets  of  foundation  and  wired  frames.  To  save  the  extra  ex- 
pense of  foundation,  he  will  usually  insist  on  using  a  narrow 
strip,  with  the  result  that  his  combs  are  not  well  built  and  are 


FiQ.  95. — Comb  b'uilt  on  wired  frame  with  full  sheet  of  foundation. 

largely  composed  of  drone  cells.  To  avoid  the  trouble  of  wiring 
the  frames,  he  will  trust  to  the  bees  to  build  the  combs  strong 
enough,  with  the  result  that  most  of  them  will  be  broken  the 
first  time  they  are  placed  in  the  extractor.  Experience  is  a  good 
teacher,  but  here  as  elsewhere  the  tuition  comes  high.  The  use 
of  proper  precautions  in  the  beginning  would  save  much  loss. 

Strong  Colonies  Important. — What  has  been  said  elsewhere 
about  the  importance  of  having  strong  colonies  at  the  beginning 
of  the  honey  flow  will  also  apply  here.    While  medium  colonies 


184 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


may  store  some  surplus  of  extracted  honey  when  they  would  not 
store  in  sections,  it  is  only  the  strong  colonies  that  pile  up  the 
profitable  crops.  Xo  matter  in  what  form  one  expects  to  market 
his  crop,  he  must  bend  every  energy  to  bring  his  colonies  to  the 
beginning  of  the  honey  flow  in  prime  condition. 

Putting  on  Supers. — As  soon  as  colonies  are  crowding  the 
brood  chamber,  it  is  time  to  give  more  room  (Figs.  96  and  97). 
As  the  frames  are  the  same  as  those  occupied  for  the  brood  nest, 


Fig.  96. — Strong  colony  for  extracted  honey  production. 
Fio.  97. — Colony  that  produced  forty  dollars  worth  of  extracted  honey  in  one  season. 

no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  getting  the  bees  to  occupy  them,  as 
encountered  by  the  comb  honey  specialist.  It  is  well  to  lift  the 
hive  up  and  place  the  extracting  super  underneath.  By  this 
means  the  bees  will  not  be  required  to  warm  unoccupied  space 
above  the  brood  nest,  and  as  fast  as  the  honey  comes  in  it  will 
crowd  the  queen  down,  so  that  soon  the  upper  hive  will  be  full  of 
honey  and  the  queen  and  brood  will  be  below.  The  objection  to 
this  plan  is  the  accumulation  of  surplus  pollen  in  extracting 
combs.  If  the  empty  super  is  placed  on  top  without  an  excluder 
beneath  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  queen  to  occupy  the  empty 
combs  for  egg  laying,  with  the  result  that  she  will  keep  on  going 


SWARM  CONTROL  185 

up  as  new  supers  are  added,  and  more  or  less  trouble  will  be 
necessary  to  separate  the  frames  containing  brood  from  those 
with  honey  only,  at  time  of  first  extracting. 

If  empty  supers  are  placed  underneath,  no  harm  will  result, 
even  though  they  be  given  some  time  in  advance  of  when  they 
are  needed,  and  the  extra  room  tends  to  keep  down  swarming. 

Swarm  Control. — It  often  happens  that  the  extracted  honey 
producer  with  his  large  hives  has  little  difficulty  from  swarming, 
and  need  give  the  matter  little  special  attention.  The  method  of 
handling  this  matter  most  generally  in  use  is  known  as  the 
Demaree  method.  As  soon  as  the  brood  nest  is  getting  sufficiently 
crowded  to  require  the  addition  of  more  room,  the  queen  is 
hunted  out  and  a  frame  of  brood,  preferably  the  one  on  which 
she  is  found,  is  lifted  from  the  hive.  An  empty  comb  from  the 
hive  body  used  as  a  super  is  exchanged  for  it.  The  queen  will 
then  be  on  a  frame  of  brood  in  a  hive  body  of  empty  combs.  A 
queen  excluder  is  then  placed  on  top  of  this  new  body  and  the 
old  one  already  full  of  brood  and  honey  is  set  on  top  of  it  in  the 
usual  place.  The  queen  is  now  provided  with  an  abundance  of 
empty  comb  in  which  to  lay.  In  fact  her  surroundings  are  simi- 
lar to  what  they  would  be,  had  she  recently  come  into  possession 
of  a  new  hive  in  company  with  a  swarm.  The  colony  will  build 
up  wonderfully  in  a  short  time,  and  not  only  will  the  desire  to 
swarm  be  eliminated,  but  a  tremendous  working  force  will  be 
present  in  the  hive  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  flow.  If  addi- 
tional room  is  provided  as  needed,  further  use  of  the  excluder  will 
hardly  be  necessary  and  it  can  be  removed  after  two  or  three 
weeks. 

In  addition  to  the  above  advantages,  the  brood  will  be  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hive,  and  the  honey  can  be  removed  as  fast  as 
ripened  and  taken  to  the  extracting  room.  While  other  methods 
of  swarm  control  are  practised  to  some  extent  in  connection  with 
extracted  honey  production,  this  plan  is  most  generally  used. 
It  is  also  the  simplest  and  surest  in  its  results  of  any  with  which 
the  author  is  familiar. 


186        PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

Use  of  Excluders. — There  is  a  decided  difference  of  opinion 
among  bee-keepers  as  to  the  value  of  excluders.  Aside  from  the 
above  use,  which  is  general  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  to 
start  the  queen  to  laying  in  the  lower  story,  many  bee-keepers  are 
of  the  opinion  that  there  is  little  value  in  their  use.  Many  are 
decided  in  the  '^.onviction  that  the  use  of  excluders  through  the 
season  results  in  a  loss  of  honey.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion 
that  they  should  not  be  used  more  than  is  necessary,  although 
whether  they  actually  result  in  smaller  amount  of  honey  being 
stored  above  them  is  apparently  incapable  of  proof. 

In  comb  honey  production  there  is  seldom  if  ever  any  occas- 
ion that  justifies  the  use  of  a  queen  excluder.  Occasionally  some 
one  will  complain  that  the  queen  lays  in  the  sections.  This  sel- 
dom happens  anyway,  and  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  where  full 
sheets  of  starter  are  used  in  the  sections.  The  occurrence  is  so 
infrequent  that  it  will  neither  justify  the  expense  of  excluders 
nor  the  inconvenience  to  the  bees  that  their  presence  causes. 

Ventilation. — In  cool  weather  the  entrance  will  furnish  suffi- 
cient ventilation,  but  when  the  weather  grows  hot  in  midsummer 
more  must  be  provided  for  best  results.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to 
temporarily  slip  one  hive  body  forward  a  half  inch,  the  one  above 
back  a  half  inch,  thus  providing  ventilation  in  every  story  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  hive.  jSTo  rule  can  be  laid  down  as 
to  how  much  should  be  given.  It  will  depend  upon  the  weather 
and  upon  the  honey  flow.  If  plenty  of  honey  is  coming  in  so 
that  there  is  no  danger  from  robbers,  much  ventilation  will  be 
helpful  in  extremely  hot  weather.  If  no  honey  is  coming  in  care 
must  be  used  that  the  openings  are  not  larger  than  the  bees  can 
guard  safely. 

Entrances  the  full  width  of  the  hive  and  at  least  an  inch  in 
depth  are  regarded  as  none  too  large  for  hot  weather  during  the 
honey  flow.  Some  lift  the  hive  up  an  inch  from  the  bottom  board, 
and  support  it  with  blocks  at  the  comers  as  described  under 
comb  honey. 

The  entrances  should  gradually  be  reduced  as  the  season  ad- 


REMOVING  HONEY  FROM  THE  HIVE  187 

varices,  the  honey  flow  ceases,  and  the  weather  becomes  cool  in 
fall.  A  three-eighths-inch  entrance  is  large  enough  for  winter 
and  even  that  is  restricted  to  from  four  to  six  inches  in  width. 

Ripening  the  Honey. — The  practical  bee-keeper  will  always 
provide  a  sufficient  number  of  extracting  combs,  so  that  no  honey 
need  be  extracted  until  it  is  fully  ripened,  A  shortage  of  combs 
brings  a  temptation  to  extract  too  soon.  Green  or  unripened 
honey  should  never  be  extracted.  Some  extensive  honey  pro- 
ducers are  sometimes  guilty  of  this  practice.  Not  long  since,  the 
author  visited  an  establishment  where  large  quantities  of  honey 
are  handled.  A  short  time  before  a  carload  of  extracted  honey 
had  been  received  from  the  West  that  had  not  been  properly 
ripened.  About  one-third  of  this  green  honey  was  souring  and 
working  in  the  cans.  Some  of  the  cans  had  burst,  and  the  whole 
thing  was  in  such  a  condition  as  to  demoralize  any  market  where 
it  happened  to  land.  A  few  days  longer  on  the  hives,  giving  the 
bees  time  to  evaporate  it  and  ripen  it  fully,  would  have  made  a 
fine  article  which  would  have  pleased  the  buyer,  instead  of  caus- 
ing him  to  curse  the  whole  honey  business.  As  a  matter  of  course 
it  was  nearly  a  total  loss  to  the  producer.  Why  men  will  be  so 
short  sighted  is  hard  to  understand.  The  fact  that  they  can 
sometimes  sell  the  honey  and  leave  the  buyer  to  stand  the  loss 
leads  them  to  risk  it  again. 

Honey  is  seldom  ready  for  extracting  until  the  cells  are 
nearly  all  sealed.  Well-ripened  honey  can  be  kept  for  years 
without  injury  if  properly  cared  for. 

Removing  Honey  from  the  Hive. — Escapes  are  used  to 
some  extent  in  taking  off  extracted  honey,  as  described  under 
comb  honey.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  reach  the  bees  in  the 
sections  and  to  get  them  out  of  the  comb  honey  supers  without 
escapes.  Most  bee  men  in  taking  off  extracted  honey  open  the 
hive  and  lift  out  a  frame  at  a  time  and  brush  or  shake  the  bees 
in  front  of  the  hive.  The  comb  is  then  set  in  an  empty  hive  body 
brought  for  the  purpose.'  Full  supers  of  frames  are  then  set 
aside  and  covered  until  a   load  is  ready  to  be  taken   to  the 


188 


PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 


extracting  house.  If  there  is  an  extracting  room  near  at  hand 
they  are  wheeled  in,  in  a  cart  or  wheelbarrow  (Fig.  98),  or  if 
they  must  be  taken  some  distance  to  the  central  plant,  they  are 
set  in  a  wagon  or  automobile  in  which  they  are  hauled  home. 
If  escapes  are  used  they  must  be  put  in  place  the  day  before 


Fig.  98. — Wheelbarrow  load  of  extracting  eupera. 


the  honey  is  to  be  taken  off,  which  is  often  inconvenient,  espe- 
cially at  outyards. 

Extracting  at  Once. — The  honey  can  never  be  extracted  as 
easily  as  when  first  taken  from  the  hives  in  warm  weather.  It 
sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  leave  a  part  of  the  work  to  be 
done  after  the  close  of  the  season.  If  the  weather  is  cool,  a  warm 
room  will  be  necessary  and  even  then  honey  that  has  stood  in  the 
honey  house  for  several  weeks  will  be  thrown  out  with  more  or 
less  difficulty.  With  a  power-driven  extractor  it  is  possible  to  get 
the  combs  much  cleaner  than  with  the  hand  machine. 


STRAINING  THE  HONEY  igg 

Most  bee-keepers  make  a  practice  of  extracting  several  times 
during  the  season,  tlius  requiring  less  equipment  and  keeping 
honey  from  the  different  sources  separate. 

If  one  sells  in  a  wholesale  market,  it  is  important  to  keep 
the  light  honey  from  clover  and  basswood  separate  from  the  dark, 
fall  honey,  such  as  buckwheat,  golden  rod,  etc.  It  is  better  to 
extract  after  every  flow  as  far  as  can  be  done,  so  as  to  keep  the 
different  kinds  as  nearly  separate  as  possible. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bee-keeper  has  a  retail  trade  of  his 
own  and  blends  his  product  anyway,  there  is  no  special  impor- 
tance in  keeping  the  honey  separate,  unless  something  might  be 
brought  in  so  poor  in  quality  as  to  injure  his  crop.  In  many 
localities  in  the  Southern  States,  there  is  a  bitter  weed  that 
blooms  in  midsummer  which  secretes  nectar  from  which  honey 
that  is  too  bitter  to  be  eaten  is  stored.  Where  any  plant  of  this 
kind  is  to  be  dealt  with,  it  is  important  to  remove  all  surplus 
from  the  hive  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  bloom,  to  avoid  having  good 
honey  mixed  with  it.  A  very  little  of  this  honey  will  spoil  a 
whole  crop,  so  that  it  cannot  be  sold  to  advantage. 

Straining  the  Honey.— With  the  greatest  care  there  will  be 
bits  of  wax  and  other  refuse  thrown  off  in  the  extractor,  which 
must  be  removed  from  the  honey  before  it  is  ready  for  market. 
If  deep  settling  tanks  are  used,  this  surplus  matter  will  soon  rise 
to  the  top,  where  it  can  be  skimmed  off,  or  the  honey  can  be 
drawn  from  the  bottom  of  the  can  where  it  is  clear.  By  this  plan 
there  always  remains  a  quantity  of  honey  at  the  last  that  is  not 
ready  for  market  until  it  is  strained. 

Various  contrivances  are  in  use  for  the  purpose  of  straining 
the  honey  as  it  goes  into  the  settling  tank.  Thin  cotton  cloth  is 
most  often  used  as  a  strainer.  A  large,  surface  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  cloth  from  clogging,  when  it  must  be  cleaned  or  a  new 
one  used  in  place  of  it.  If  the  cloth  alone  is  used,  the  weight 
of  the  honey  will  often  result  in  pulling  it  loose  at  one  side,  when 
the  whole  of  the  contents  will  run  hi  to  the  receptacle  below.  A 
coarse  screen  of  about  one-fourth  inch  mesh  is  good  to  furnish 


190       PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONE^ 

a  support  for  the  cloth.  If  a  large  basket,  which  may  be  hung 
in  the  tank,  is  made  of  this  coarse  screen  and  lined  with  cheese- 
cloth it  makes  a  fairly  satisfactory  strainer.  There  is  always 
more  or  less  bother  with  clogged  strainers,  unless  the  basket  is 
deep  enough  so  that  much  of  the  refuse  will  come  to  the  top 
rather  than  fall  directly  on  the  strainer. 

Alexander  Strainer.— The  Alexander  strainer  is  made  of 
fine  wire  screen,  and  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  large  bucket 
with  bail.  This  pail  is  hung  in  the  tank  or  other  receptacle,  in 
which  the  honey  is  stored  and  the  honey  run  into  it  as  extracted. 
The  bottom  and  all  side  surface  permitting  the  passage  of  honey, 
it  does  not  clog  readily  and  it  is  strong  enough  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  a  full  pail  of  honey.  All  sediment  is  caught  and  held. 
The  strainer  is  easily  cleaned  with  hot  water  after  the  refuse  is 
dumped  out. 

Second-Hand  Containers  Not  Desirable. — So  much  honey 
goes  to  market  in  the  square  sixty-pound  cans  that  there  is  always 
an  accumulation  of  them  in  all  the  large  centers.  These  are 
offered  for  sale  at  a  very  low  price.  So  little  is  to  be  saved  by 
the  use  of  these  second-hand  containers  that  the  bee-keeper  can 
hardly  afford  to  buy  them.  If  they  are  rusted  inside,  the  quality 
of  the  honey  will  be  injured,  and  if  otherwise  perfect  there  is 
some  danger  of  spreading  disease  by  their  use. 

As  mentioned  elsewhere  the  principal  bee  diseases  are  spread 
from  hive  to  hive  in  the  honey.  Second-hand  containers  brought 
to  the  apiary  are  more  or  less  daubed  with  the  honey  with  which 
they  have  previously  been  filled.  This  honey  attracts  the 
workers,  and  if  it  came  from  a  diseased  colony  there  is  great 
danger  in  bringing  it  into  the  apiary.  Disease  is  thus  spread 
to  considerable  extent.  The  author  has  had  his  attention  offi- 
cially called  to  this  source  of  disease  so  many  times  that  he  is 
inclined  to  favor  restrictions  on  the  use  of  containers  for  honey 
a  second  time,  unless  it  be  in  the  same  apiary  where  filled  at  first. 

If  the  honey  is  put  up  in  bright  new  cans  a  better  impression 
is  made  on  the  buyer  than  if  received  in  cans  that  are  rusty  and 


LIQUEFYING  CANDIED  HONEY  191 

Stained.    Occasionally  a  buyer  makes  serious  complaint  if  honey 
is  received  in  such  cans. 

Liquefying  Candied  Honey.— After  extracted  honey  has 
stood  for  a  time,  it  will  usually  candy.  If  it  goes  to  market  in 
the  sixty-pound  cans  in  which  it  is  stored,  the  producer  will  have 
no  occasion  to  liquefy  it,  as  it  will  stand  the  journey  with  less 
risk  in  this  condition.  If  through  any  accident  a  can  should  be 
damaged,  there  will  be  no  leakage,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the 
honey  was  shipped  in  a  liquid  condition. 

If  the  honey  is  to  be  placed  in  small  packages  for  the  retail 
trade,  it  will  be  necessary  to  heat  the  honey  sufficiently  to  restore 
the  liquid  form.  Great  care  is  necessary  not  to  overheat  the 
honey,  as  to  do  so  will  greatly  injure  the  flavor  and  consequently 
the  value  of  the  product. 

Various  plans  of  accomplishing  this  result  have  been  devised. 
In  large  establishments  a  system  of  hot  water  pipes  is  sometimes 
used.  The  caps  are  removed  from  the  cans,  and  they  are  set 
up-side-down  on  pipes.  As  fast  as  the  honey  melts,  it  runs  out 
into  a  container  below. 

Large  tanks  are  also  used  which  are  filled  with  hot  water 
around  the  honey  cans.  This  water  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  150°  for  a  sufficient  time  to  liquefy  the  honey  in  all  the 
cans. 

A  simple  and  very  satisfactory  plan  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  99. 
This  plan  utilizes  an  ordinary  cheap  feed  cooker  such  as  can  be 
purchased  in  the  market  for  about  twelve  dollars.  There  is  just 
room  for  eight  sixty-pound  cans  in  the  square  tank.  Instead  of 
using  hot  water,  a  crate  of  wood  is  made  to  hold  the  cans  about 
two  inches  off  the  bottom  and  water  is  allowed  to  como  just  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cans.  A  lid  shuts  down,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
picture,  and  a  very  light  fire  is  started  in  the  fire  box  underneath. 
As  the  water  is  heated  steam  is  generated,  and  the  cans  are 
warmed  by  steam  instead  of  having  the  hot  water  in  contact 
with  them.  A  small  hole  in  the  top  of  the  lid  provides  a  place 
for  a  thermometer,  which  indicates  the  temperature.     One  great 


192       PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONE\ 

advantage  in  this  heater  is  that  if,  by  chance,  it  becomes  too  hot 
the  lifting  of  the  lid  permits  the  escape  of  the  steam  and  cooling 
of  the  interior  instantly.  If  the  water  system  gets  too  hot,  it 
is  difficult  to  cool  it  quick  enough  to  avoid  injury  to  the  honey. 
Several  hours  wi]!  be  required  to  liquefy  the  contents  of  the 


FlQ.  99. — Utilizing  feed  cooKer  for  liquefying  candied  honey  by  steam. 

cans  by  this  system,  but  the  amount  of  fuel  required  is  so  small 
as  to  be  a  very  incignificant  matter. 

Bottling. — If  the  honey  is  sold  through  retail  stores  a  portion 
of  it  is  likely  to  stand  on  the  shelves  for  some  time  after  it  reaches 
the  store.  In  this  case  the  contents  of  many  of  the  bottles  will 
candy  again  in  time.  Sometimes  a  trade  is  developed  that  comes 
to  demand  a  certain  amount  of  this  candied  honey  or  will  take  a 


RETAILING  CANDIED  HONEY  193 

jar  of  candied  honey  and  liquefy  it  by  setting  in  a  pan  of  warm 
water.  However,  in  most  localities,  the  bee-keeper  will  be 
required  to  take  back  honey  that  has  candied  and  replace  it  with 
honey  in  the  liquid  state.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  restore  the 
honey  in  jars  in  a  few  minutes  by  setting  them  in  a  shallow  tank 
of  hot  water  that  just  comes  up  around  the  necks  of  the  bottles. 

If  the  honey  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  for 
several  hours  before  bottling,  and  then  sealed  while  still  warm, 
several  weeks  and  sometimes  months  will  often  elapse  before  it 
will  candy  again. 

Some  bee-keepers  make  a  practice  of  restoring  honey  that  has 
candied  in  small  glass  jars  by  placing  them  in  solar  wax  extrac- 
tors, where  they  are  exposed  directly  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
This  plan  seems  to  be  very  satisfactory  for  small  quantities,  as 
the  sun's  rays  supply  about  the  right  conditions  for  best  results. 

Retailing  Candied  Honey. — Some  honeys  have  a  much 
greater  tendency  to  candy  than  others.  Western  alfalfa  honey 
candies  very  quickly  and  becomes  quite  hard.  Some  honey  will 
only  candy  far  enough  to  become  waxy  and  sticky.  Unless  it 
becomes  hard  enough  so  that  it  is  no  longer  sticky,  there  is  little 
opportunity  to  develop  a  special  trade  for  candied  honey  in  small 
packages.  Several  kinds  of  pasteboard  or  paper  packages  hold- 
ing small  quantities  of  this  honey  are  in  use.  The  paper  bucket 
commonly  used  for  retailing  oysters  is  perhaps  the  most  com- 
monly used.  When  the  honey  shows  signs  of  granulation,  but 
will  still  run,  it  is  drawn  into  these  packages  and  set  in 
a  cold  place.  Frequent  changes  of  temperature  hasten  granu- 
lation and  a  room  where  it  is  first  warm,  and  then  freezing,  will 
be  the  best  for  honey  which  it  is  desired  to  granulate.  When  the 
honey  is  sufficiently  hard,  it  is  placed  on  the  market.  Unless 
subjected  to  quite  a  warm  temperature  it  will  remain  in  the 
granulated  condition  for  an  indefinite  period. 

As  yet  there  is  no  general  market  for  granulated  honey  in 
these  small  packages.  Every  bee-keeper  who  wishes  to  handle 
honey  in  this  way  must  develop  his  own  trade.  It  would  seem 
13 


194        PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

that  a  nice  trade  might  be  gradually  developed  for  small  cubes 
of  this  candy  to  sell  at  a  nickel  through  the  retail  candy  trade. 
Once  people  came  to  know  the  product  they  would  buy  it  freely, 
if  it  were  available  in  a  five-cent  package. 

Once  the  public  is  educated  to  understand  that  only  honey 
of  the  best  quality  can  be  marketed  in  this  form,  the  bee-keeper 
will  find  a  ready  market  for  candied  honey. 

BULK  OR  CHUNK  HONEY 

In  many  localities  in  the  Southern  States  there  is  a  demand 
for  bulk  or  chunk  honey.  The  general  principles  of  producing 
extracted  honey  will  also  apply  to  bulk  honey.  The  foundation 
in  the  supers  need  not  always  be  of  full  sheets,  nor  should  they 
be  wired.  An  empty  comb  or  two  in  each  super  will  be  helpful 
in  getting  the  bees  into  the  new  super  promptly.  When  the  combs 
are  finished  they  are  cut  from  the  frames  and  new  foundation 
is  put  in  for  future  use.  Bulk  honey  can  be  produced  cheaper 
than  section  honey,  but  not  as  cheaply  as  extracted  honey,  as 
the  combs  must  be  built  new  each  time  the  crop  is  removed.  With 
extracted  honey  the  combs  can  be  used  again  and  again,  which 
makes  larger  production  possible  under  ordinary  conditions, 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Note  the  difference  between  strained  honey  and  extracted  honey. 

2.  Discuss  extractors  and  other  equipment  for  the  production  of  extracted 

honey. 

3.  What  kind  of  frame  is  most  satisfactory? 

4.  What  things  are  essential  in  a  honey  house? 

5.  Describe  different  kinds  of  honey  houses  with  advantages  of  each. 

6.  How  should  doors  and  windows  be  screened  and  why? 

7.  Why  are  full  sheets  of  foundation  in  wired  frames  desirable? 

8.  How  and  when  should  supers  be  added? 

9.  Describe  the  Demaree  method  of  swarm  control. 

10.  Discuss  queen  excluders. 

11.  How  much  ventilation  is  desirable  and  what  size  entrances  should  be 

used? 

12.  When  should  the  honey  be  taken  from  the  hive? 

13.  Discuss  extracting  and  straining  of  honey. 

14.  How  should  honey  be  stored? 

15.  Discuss  candied  honey. 


CHAPTER  XI 
WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF  THE  APIARY 

Although  honey  is  the  principal  product,  considerable  wax 
is  produced  in  every  well-regulated  apiary.  Although  bringing 
the  highest  price  of  anything  the  bee-keeper  has  to  sell,  the  possi- 
bilities of  this  special  output  are  too  often  overlooked  because 
much  of  it  is  gathered  in  small  quantity  in  scraping  sections, 
cleaning  burr  combs  from  the  tops  of  frames  and  scraps  of  combs 
that  accumulate  about  the  bee  yard  and  honey  house.  If  the 
bee-keeper  who  has  not  carefully  saved  these  odd  bits  of  comb 
will  provide  a  bucket  or  other  receptacle  which  is  always  kept 
at  hand  in  which  to  place  all  scrapings  and  bits  of  wax  he  will 
be  surprised  to  see  what  a  quantity  will  accumulate  during  the 
season.  In  addition  the  apiary  and  equipment  will  be  much 
cleaner  as  a  result.  It  is  very  annoying  to  the  housewife  to  have 
someone  coming  into  the  house  with  bits  of  wax  clinging  to  his 
heels  to  be  left  on  the  rugs  or  carpet,  as  will  frequently  be  the 
case  where  such  refuse  is  dropped  on  the  ground  about  the  bee- 
hives. 

Old  combs  that  are  to  be  discarded  and  cappings  which  are 
present  in  quantity  are  usually  saved,  as  they  should  be,  but 
unless  some  care  is  used  they  are  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the 
wax  moths  during  the  warm  weather.  It  is  a  good  plan,  no 
matter  what  method  of  wax  rendering  may  be  adopted,  to  throw 
all  such  material  into  a  solar  extractor  at  once.  In  this  way  it 
will  be  melted  so  thoroughly  that  there  is  little  trouble  with 
moths,  even  though  it  is  not  separated  sufficiently  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  rendering. 

Production  of  Wax.— When  the  bees  are  feeding  heavily, 
as  during  a  good  honey  flow,  wax  is  secreted  as  a  direct  result 
of  the  quantities  of  food  consumed.  After  a  colony  has  swarmed 
in  warm  weather  large  numbers  of  bees  will  cluster  together 

195 


196  WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF  THE  APIARY 

apparently  for  the  purpose  of  secreting  wax  and  with  it  building 
the  new  combs  which  will  be  necessary  to  store  the  food  supply 
and  rear  the  brood  of  the  colony.  The  wax  pockets  are  eight  in 
number  for  each  worker-bee.  They  are  located  on  the  under  side 
of  the  abdomen,  four  on  each  side.  By  watching  the  bees  at 
times  such  as  above  mentioned,  the  little  wax  scales  can  be  seen 
protruding  between  the  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  author 
is  not  sufficiently  gifted  to  describe  the  wonderful  manner  in 
which  they  utilize  these  minute  scales  and  the  way  they  manipu 
late  them  to  form  the  perfect  combs  which  are  so  essential  to  the 
welfare  of  the  colony.  No  description  will  satisfy  the  enthusias- 
tic bee-keeper  who  must  see  it  all  for  himself.  By  providing 
an  observation  hive  at  the  proper  season  many  interesting  opera- 
tions may  be  seen.  The  worker  may  be  seen  to  take  the  wax 
scale  in  her  jaws  and  to  knead  it,  apparently,  after  which  it  is 
added  to  the  partially  built  comb  which  her  predecessors  have 
started.  But  a  moment  is  thus  occupied  when  she  moves  away 
and  her  place  is  taken  by  another  who  also  adds  her  portion. 
The  work  is  done  very  much  as  though  men  in  building  a  wall 
each  brought  a  single  brick  and  put  it  in  place  and  went  away. 
Yet  in  spite  of  the  apparent  hit  and  miss  method  of  building, 
there  is  no  more  wonderful  or  more  perfect  structure  than  the 
combs  of  the  honey-bee. 

Wax  melts  at  a  low  temperature,  as  many  a  bee-keeper  has 
learned  to  his  cost  when  brood  combs  have  been  left  exposed  to 
the  hot  sun  on  a  summer  day.  At  times  the  heat  is  sufficient  to 
melt  the  combs  within  the  hives,  especially  when  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  high  board  fences,  dense  undergrowth,  or  other  ob- 
struction that  prevents  a  breeze  from  reaching  them,  or  if  the 
hives  are  not  well  ventilated. 

The  young  bees  do  most  of  the  work  of  comb  building,  as 
the  ability  to  secrete  wax  declines  with  advancing  age.  In  case  of 
necessity  old  bees  will  build  combs,  although  apparently  they 
secrete  wax  less  readily  and  in  smaller  quantities  than  the 
younger  ones. 


PRODUCTION  OF  WAX  197 

Color. — There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  color  of  wax,  depend- 
ing upon  the  source  of  the  food  supply  of  the  bees  at  the  time 
of  comb  building.  As  a  rule  newly  built  comb  is  light  in  color, 
gradually  growing  darker  with  use.  The  brood  combs  shortly 
become  quite  dark,  and  in  time  almost  black,  due  to  the  stains  of 
constant  travel  as  well  as  refuse  from  the  growing  larvas  and 
the  cocoons  which  are  left  behind  when  they  emerge  from  the 
cells.  When  old  combs  are  melted,  so  many  of  these  cocoons 
often  remain  that  they  will  retain  the  exact  shape  of  the  original 
cell. 

Size  and  Shape. — The  difference  in  size  and  shape  between 
the  cells  prepared  for  various  purposes,  as  for  the  rearing  of 
queens,  is  so  striking  as  to  attract  instant  attention  on  looking 
within  the  hive.  Much  has  been  written  in  admiration  of  the 
mathematical  precision  with  which  the  bees  are  able  to  occupy 
all  the  available  space  by  building  a  six-sided  cell,  the  bottom 
of  each  of  which  was  opposite  the  bottom  of  one-third  of  each 
of  three  others.  By  building  in  this  way  the  maximum  of  both 
capacity  and  strength  is  secured  with  no  lost  space. 

If  the  bees  build  according  to  their  own  plans  the  combs  are 
usually  about  an  inch  in  thickness  with  cells  of  equal  depth  on 
each  side.  If  built  within  frames  in  a  hive  they  may  be  thicker 
or  thinner,  depending  upon  the  spacing  of  the  combs.  Extracted 
honey  producers  often  space  their  frames  so  as  to  secure  thicker 
combs  to  make  the  work  of  uncapping  easy.  The  distance  be- 
tween the  combs  is  from  three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  seven- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch,  depending  upon  circumstances.  The  bees 
require  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  at  least  in  order  to  move 
about  easily.  Combs  are  usually  placed  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  from  center  to  center. 

The  worker  cells  are  the  smallest  and  we  resort  to  the  use  of 
foundation  to  insure  that  the  cells  will  mostly  be  built  of  this 
size,  as  mentioned  elsewhere.  According  to  most  writers  each 
worker  cell  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the 
drone  cells  are  somewhat  larger.    The  queen  cells  are  built  espe- 


198  WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  Of  THE  APIARY 

cially  for  the  particular  purpose  of  rearing  queens  and  are  built 
only  as  needed  and  frequently  torn  down  when  no  longer  of 
immediate  use.  The  regular  comb  built  permanently  is  all  of 
the  six-sided  shape  and  of  the  two  sizes.  The  larger  cells  such 
as  are  used  for  rearing  drones  serve  equally  well  for  honey 
storage. 

Uses  of  Wax. — For  many  centuries  beeswax  has  been  known 
as  a  commercial  commodity.  So  valuable  was  it  in  ancient  times 
that  taxes  were  at  times  paid  in  wax  and  a  tribute  of  wax  was 
levied  by  victorious  kings  on  the  unfortunate  inhabitants  of  the 
country  which  they  had  overrun.  Many  references  to  this  prod 
uct  are  to  be  found  in  ancient  writings  both  sacred  and  secular. 
Kents  and  other  obligations  were  paid  in  beeswax  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  indicate  the  demand  must  have  greatly  exceeded  the 
supply.  Before  the  invention  of  paper,  wax  tablets  were  used 
for  the  purpose  of  making  temporary  records,  for  correspondence, 
etc. 

Wax  candles  have  long  been  used  for  various  ceremonial  pur- 
poses in  the  churches,  and  this  custom  has  survived  the  centuries 
and  still  offers  a  market  for  quantities  of  wax,  for  some  churches 
still  use  candles  made  of  beeswax  for  this  purpose. 

Many  delicate  objects  are  moulded  of  wax,  as  fruits  and 
flowers,  that  are  so  natural  in  appearance  as  to  perfectly  deceive 
the  casual  observer.  Figures  and  models  of  various  kinds  are 
also  made  of  this  material,  as  it  is  very  plastic  and  responds  to 
the  most  delicate  touch  of  the  artist. 

Tailors  make  use  of  pure  beeswax  in  many  cases  for  sewing 
wax,  shoemakers  and  harnessmakers  also  make  use  of  it,  either 
pure  or  mixed  with  other  materials  for  waxing  their  threads. 

It  is  a  common  ingredient  of  varnish  and  furniture  polish, 
lithographic  inks,  various  cements,  waterproofing  materials,  and 
in  many  remedies  and  other  commodities  handled  by  the  drug 
trade. 

Comb  Foundation. — The  bee-keeper  has  of  late  years  come  to 
be  his  own  best  customer.     Since  the  invention  of  the  mills  that 


ADULTERATION  OF  WAX 


199 


make  comb  foundation  possible,  extensive  use  has  been  made  of 
it  among  the  bee-men  themselves. 

Next  to  the  movable  frame  hive,  comb  foundation  has  per- 
haps made  possible  the  greatest  advance  in  bee  culture.  Without 
the  use  of  foundation  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  get  straight 
combs  or  to  prevent  the  bees  from  building  crosswise  or  otherwise 
than  according  to  the  bee-keeper's  wishes.  With  the  use  of  foun- 
dation the  possibilities  of  honey  production  are  multiplied  and 
no  practical  honey  producer  would  think  of  doing  without  it. 

Only  pure  beeswax  should  be  used  in  foundation  as  otherwise 
the  sale  of  honey  in  conibs  built  on  it  would  be  a  violation  of 
the  pure  food  laws.  Fortunately  little  if  any  adulteration  of 
comb  foundation  is  practised,  the  manufacturers  being  very  care- 
ful to  test  all  wax  used  for  the  purpose  and  the  bee-keeper  can 
buy  from  any  of  the  well-known  manufacturers  with  confidence. 
The  wax  is  melted  in  the  factory  and  wound  in  long  sheets 
which  are  run  through  mills  bearing  the  impression  of  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  worker  cells.  As  the  foundation  is  printed  it 
is  cut  in  strips  of  convenient  length  and  these  are  wrapped  in 
thin  paper  to  prevent  sticking  together  when  warm.  The  papered 
strips  are  then  packed  in  paper  boxes  in  such  quantities  as  the 
needs  of  the  market  demand.  Use  of  foundation  is  considered 
in  the  chapters  relating  to  comb  and  extracted  honey. 

Substitutes  for  Beeswax.— Various  mineral  and  vegetable 
waxes  have  taken  the  place  of  beeswax  in  various  commercial 
uses.  These  waxes  can  be  produced  much  cheaper  and  answer 
fully  as  well  for  many  purposes.  ParafHn,  ceresin  and  several 
others  are  well-known  commercial  products.  iSubstitutes  for 
wax  made  into  foundation  will  not  be  accepted  by  the  bees. 

Adulteration  of  Wax.—Dealers  who  buy  beeswax  must  exer- 
cise constant  vigilance  to  avoid  being  imposed  upon  by  an  adul- 
terated product.  As  the  adulterations  can  be  purchased  at  prices 
much  below  that  of  beeswax,  dishonest  men  see  possibilities  of 
great  profit  if  they  can  sell  their  dishonest  product.  Various 
tests  have  been  discovered  for  detecting  the  adulterations  until 


200  WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF  THE  APIARY 

it  is  now  very  difficult  indeed  to  get  adulterated  wax  to  market 
without  detection. 

Paraffin,  ceresin  and  sometimes  tallow  are  common  adulter- 
ants of  wax.  Wax  is  so  commonly  adulterated  that  when  it 
reaches  the  market  it  will  be  subject  to  very  careful  examination 
and  any  fraud  is  likely  to  be  discovered. 

WAX  RENDERING 

Commercial  establishments  which  deal  in  wax  are  so  well 
prepared  to  render  the  wax  at  a  low  price  that  many  bee-keepers 
ship  all  combs  and  refuse  containing  wax  to  some  of  these  estab- 
lishments at  the  end  of  the  season.  Either  the  bee-keeper  pays 
cash  for  rendering  the  wax  and  has  it  worked  into  comb  foun- 
dation for  future  use,  or  he  sells  the  wax  for  cash  and  is  charged 
a  small  fee  for  rendering.  Where  the  bee-keeper  has  but  a  small 
amount  of  material  this  is  frequently  the  most  satisfactory  way 
of  disposing  of  it,  as  he  avoids  a  very  mussy  job  at  best  and  his 
time  may  often  be  otherwise  employed  more  profitably. 

The  Solar  Extractor. — The  solar  wax  extractor  is  made  by 
placing  a  glass  a  few  inches  above  a  sheet  of  metal  which  is  tilted 
enough  to  allow  the  melted  wax  to  run  off  and  depending  upon 
the  heat  of  the  sun  to  melt  the  combs.  New  and  tender  combs  or 
cappings  will  be  pretty  well  rendered  in  this  manner  but  old 
combs  will  not  be  well  separated.  In  any  case  a  solar  extractor 
is  a  valuable  item  of  equipment  in  an  apiary  for  bits  of  comb  can 
be  thrown  into  it  as  collected  and  thus  be  saved.  Old  combs  may 
be  melted  to  prevent  damage  by  moths.  Considerable  quantities 
of  wax  will  accumulate  in  the  wax  box  at  the  bottom  and  this  will 
save  handling  again  later.  The  whitest  and  best  wax  will  be 
secured  in  this  way.  It  will  nearly  always  pay  to  render  the 
refuse  from  a  solar  extractor  in  a  wax  press  as  otherwise  much 
of  the  wax  is  wasted. 

Boiling  in  a  Clothes  Boiler. — There  are  a  number  of  crude 
methods  by  which  bee-keepers  with  but  a  small  amount  of  wax 
have  long  extracted  it.     One  of  these  is  to  boil  the  combs  in  a 


THE  WAX  PRESS  201 

wash  boiler  and  to  skim  the  wax  from  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Sometimes  the  combs  are  placed  in  a  burlap  bag  and  thrown  in 
the  boiling  water.  Sticks  are  used  to  punch  the  bag  and  to  stir 
it  about  in  the  hot  water.  While  a  certain  amount  of  wax  will 
be  secured  in  this  manner  it  is  very  wasteful  and  from  one-fourth 
to  one-half  of  the  wax  will  be  lost  unless  the  refuse  is  rendered 
again  by  some  plan. 

Small  bits  of  comb  are  often  placed  in  a  pan  in  the  oven. 
The  pan  is  partly  filled  with  water  and  the  hot  wax  dipped  off  or 
the  combs  are  laid  on  a  screen  through  which  the  wax  will  run 
while  the  waste  will  remain  on  the  screen.  The  wax  is  some- 
times left  to  harden  in  the  pan  and  the  cake  lifted  out  when  cool. 
While  rendering  by  some  of  these  crude  methods  is  better 
than  wasting  the  wax  the  amount  wasted  will  shortly  pay  for  a 
good  press. 

The  Wax  Press.— N"o  satisfactory  way  to  get  all  the  wax  has 
been  found  without  the  use  of  some  kind  of  press.  Some  may 
think  that  they  are  getting  all  the  wax  because  the  slumgum  or 
refuse  is  apparently  free  from  it,  but  the  chances  are  that  when 
rendered  with  a  good  outfit  this  slumgum  would  produce  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent  more  wax. 

A  man  who  understands  mechanics  and  is  handy  with  tools 
can  readily  construct  a  wax  press,  though  there  are  good  ones  to 
be  had  in  the  market.  The  principal  requirements  are  great 
pressure  applied  when  the  mass  is  hot,  and  that  there  be  plenty  of 
water  mixed  with  the  melted  combs  to  insure  that  the  wax  will 
run  freely.  Many  of  the  outfits  in  use  have  some  provision  for 
the  use  of  steam  to  keep  the  whole  thing  hot  when  the  pressure 
is  applied.  It  has  been  found  of  late  that  the  press  need  not 
be  heated  if  the  work  is  done  when  the  weather  is  warm  or  in  a 
warm  room,  providing  that  the  material  is  boiling  hot  when 
dipped  into  press,  but  more  wax  will  be  secured  with  a  hot  press. 
Many  different  plans  for  making  presses  for  this  purpose  have 
been  described  in  the  bee  journals  but  the  essential  requirements 
are  the  same.  Some  are  round  and  some  square  but  with  pressure 


202 


WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF  THE  APIARY 


properly  applied  and  the  material  of  the  right  temperature  almost 
any  of  them  will  get  the  wax. 

The  Hershiser  Press. — The  most  effective  press  now  on  the 
market  is  the  Hershiser.  It  combines  all  the  principles  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  maximum  amount  of  wax.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  no  press  so  far  invented  gets  all  the  wax.  Much  of 
the  wax  is  lost  by  any  method  so  far  available.  The  advantages 
of  this  press  are,  that  it  exerts  a  heavy  pressure ;  that  this  pres- 


FiQ.  100. — The  Hershiser  wax  press. 

sure  is  exerted  under  the  surface  of  boiling  water,  which  is  the 
condition  most  favorable  for  securing  the  greatest  quantity  of 
wax;  and  the  combs  are  in  thin  layers  to  enable  the  hot  water 
and  wax  to  run  out  easily. 

Rendering  the  Wax. — To  render  the  wax  the  wooden  frame 
is  placed  on  the  floor  and  a  sheet  of  burlap  laid  across.  The 
cheesebox  is  then  filled  heaping  full  of  combs.  These  are  tamped 
down  until  a  solid  cheese  results.  When  the  cheesebox  is  tamped 
level  full  the  burlap  is  folded  over  and  pinned  with  safety  pins. 
A  wire  cloth  covered  wood  and  metal  grate  is  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  extractor  and  a  cheese  laid  on  top  of  it.  Another  grate  is 
added  and  another  cheese  until  three  cheeses  are  put  in.    The  f  ol- 


THE  STEAM  PRESS  203 

lower  is  then  put  in  place  and  the  screw  handle  made  ready  as 
shown  in  Fig.  100. 

The  extractor  is  then  placed  on  the  stove  and  filled  with 
water  which  is  brought  to  a  boil.  The  contents  should  be  boiled 
for  some  time  in  order  that  the  cheeses  be  thoroughly  heated. 
From  time  to  time  the  screw  should  be  turned  down  to  exert 
the  maximum  of  pressure.  The  pressure  forces  out  the  boiling 
water  and  melted  wax.  The  wax  rises  to  the  top  and  runs  off 
through  a  special  spout  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  pressure  is  released  from  time  to  time  and  the  cheeses 
taken  out  and  replaced  again  in  somewhat  different  position. 
Some  additional  wax  will  be  recovered  by  making  several  appli- 
cations of  the  pressure. 

In  the  commercial  comb  rendering  plants  these  presses  are 
connected  with  steam  pipes  and  are  kept  boiling  for  several  hours 
for  each  batch  in  order  to  secure  the  maximum  quantity  of  wax. 

By  breaking  up  old  cheeses  and  repeating  the  process  one  can 
usually  secure  enough  more  wax  to  justify  the  extra  labor.  The 
second,  or  sometimes  even  the  third  rendering,  will  yield  a 
surprising  amount  of  wax.  This  is  especially  true  where  insuffi- 
cient heat  and  pressure  have  been  used  at  the  first  trial. 

For  a  time  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  operated 
a  wax  rendering  station  for  the  bee-keepers.  They  were  in- 
structed to  use  a  barrel  for  storage  purposes  and  as  combs  were 
thrown  in,  to  tamp  them  down  tight,  and  when  the  barrel  was 
filled  to  ship  to  the  station  for  rendering.  Smaller  containers 
were  used  for  small  quantities.  The  station  was  very  popular 
with  the  bee-keepers  and  large  quantities  of  wax  were  shipped 
there  to  be  rendered.     It  has  since  been  discontinued. 

The  Steam  Press. — At  one  time  steam  wax  presses  were  in 
common  use  but  they  are  generally  being  replaced  by  the  method 
previously  described.  The  steam  press  is  heated  by  steam  gener- 
ated from  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  It  will  be  necessary 
to  set  the  press  on  a  hot  stove  or  to  make  some  provision  for 
heating  the  water.     Above  the  water  is  a  basket  to  hold  the 


204 


WAX  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF  THE  APIARY 


combs  on  which  pressure  is  applied  by  means  of  a  screw.  The 
melting  wax  falls  into  the  water  below  and  runs  out  the  over- 
flow spout  (Fig.  101). 

Boiler  Press. — There  are  different  kinds  of  hot  water  presses 
in  use  but  in  general  they  may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  strong  can 
in  which  is  contained  a  heavily  bound  basket.  A  bar  across  the 
center  supports  the  screw  by  means  of  which  the  pressure  is 

applied.  In  this  kind  of  extractor 
the  water  comes  up  around  the 
melted  combs  which  are  under 
pressure  and  the  boiling  and 
pressing  are  carried  on  at  the 
same  time.  When  the  wax  is  all 
out  sufficient  water  is  supplied  to 
carry  it  off  through  the  tube  near 
the  top,  while  the  small  amount 
of  refuse  straining  through  the 
cloth  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
can.  This  plan  gives  good  results 
if  carefully  done  but  there  is 
some  difficulty  in  getting  all  the 
wax  out  of  the  can. 

There  is  no  trouble  about  the 
mass  cooling  while  under  pressure 
and  the  operation  can  be  repeated 
as  often  as  desired  by  simply  loosening  the  screw  and  saturating 
the  cheese  with  water  again. 

Bleaching  Wax. — Every  time  the  wax  is  melted  the  tendency 
is  to  a  lighter  color  and  the  exposure  to  the  sun  in  the  solar 
extractor  also  tends  to  whiten  it.  Although  sulfuric  acid  is 
sometimes  used  for  clarifying,  there  is  seldom  any  occasion 
for  the  bee-keeper  to  bother  about  bleaching  further  than  to 
re-melt  any  cakes  of  wax  that  are  very  dark  and  to  remove  as 
much  impurity  as  possible.  The  difference  in  price  that  will  be 
received  will  hardly  pay  for  the  extra  trouble,  however. 


Fig.  101. — Steam  was  press. 


QUESTIONS  205 

Cooling  the  Wax.—Utensils  into  which  the  hot  wax  is  poured 
for  cooling  should  first  be  dipped  into  cold  water  or  greased 
to  prevent  the  wax  from  sticking.  Then  care  should  be  used  to 
prevent  the  wax  from  cooling  too  rapidly  or  the  cakes  will  crack. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  wax  produced? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  it  to  the  bee-keeper? 

3.  Discuss  the  various  commercial  uses  of  beeswax. 

4.  How  is  comb  foundation  made? 

5.  Why  is  beeswax  often  adulterated? 

6.  Discuss  the  different  methods  of  rendering  beeswas. 


CHAPTER  XII 
DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

As  a  country  grows  older  new  vicissitudes  beset  almost  any 
line  of  business,  and  bee-keeping  is  no  exception.  In  many  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  brood  diseases  have  not  as  yet  appeared, 
and  in  many  others  the  bee-keepers  are  having  their  first  experi- 
ence in  combating  them.  However,  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time 
until  bee-keepers  can  expect  to  be  compelled  to  deal  with  foul 
brood  no  matter  where  they  live.  It  accordingly  will  pay  the 
business  bee-keeper  to  inform  himself  as  fully  as  possible  con- 
cerning bee  diseases,  even  though  there  be  none  at  present  in 
his  vicinity. 

Expert  bee-keepers  are  frequently  all  but  ruined  by  the 
appearance  of  foul  brood  in  their  apiaries.  With  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  accepted  methods  of  dealing  with  disease  the 
experience  need  not  be  so  costly,  for  by  prompt  action  the  danger 
can  be  largely  avoided. 

The  census  of  1901  showed  a  decrease  of  16.1  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  of  colonies  of  bees  in  the  United  States  as  a 
whole.  The  wide-spread  presence  of  disease  is  no  doubt  largely 
responsible  for  this  condition.  With  an  increasing  population 
and  a  decreasing  number  of  bee-keepers,  it  would  look  as  if  the 
business  of  honey  production  should  offer  a  good  field  of  opera- 
tions. While  the  small  bee-keepers  with  a  few  colonies  on  the 
farms  are  rapidly  being  removed,  specialists  are  increasing  in 
number.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  for  to-day  is  the  great  age  of 
specialists  and  the  business  which  is  not  worthy  of  development 
as  a  specialty  offers  little  inducement  to  the  active  man. 

WThile  there  are  still  many  puzzling  things  that  manifest 
themselves  in  connection  with  foul  brood,  the  essentials  neces- 
sary to  the  control  of  either  form  are  pretty  well  understood  and 
practical  men  who  are  on  their  guard  find  it  possible  to  withstand 
206 


AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD  207 

the  onslaught  without  great  losses.  It  usually  happens,  however, 
that  disease  has  gained  considerable  headway  in  the  apiary  be- 
fore its  owner  is  aware  of  the  nature  of  the  difficulty.  Especially 
is  this  true  when  disease  puts  in  an  appearance  for  the  first  time 
in  a  locality  that  has  been  free  from  it.  The  journals  frequently 
recount  the  experience  of  some  unfortunate  who  has  suffered 
heavy  losses  in  this  manner.  The  writer,  in  the  capacity  of 
State  inspector  of  apiaries,  saw  such  cases  very  frequently. 
Instances  have  come  to  his  attention  where  the  losses  amounted 
to  many  thousands  of  dollars,  whereas  had  the  owner  realized 
the  nature  of  the  trouble  on  its  first  appearance  it  could  have 
been  checked  without  difiiculty. 

AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD 

Much  confusion  has  resulted  in  the  similarity  of  names  of 
the  two  common  diseases.  It  is  unfortunate  that  some  entirely 
different  name  was  not  applied  to  one  or  the  other.  While  Euro- 
pean foul  brood  has  long  been  known,  in  some  localities,  under 
the  name  of  "  black  brood,"  the  name  was  not  appropriate  and 
it  has  given  way  to  the  accepted  title  of  European  foul  brood. 
There  is  a  decided  difference  in  the  appearance  and  in  the  action 
of  the  two  forms,  so  much  so  that  there  need  be  little  difficulty 
in  recognizing  the  difference  in  advanced  stages.  In  early  stages 
it  is  sometimes  a  little  difficult  to  determine  which  form  one  may 
have  to  deal  with,  and  in  that  case  it  is  well  to  cut  out  a  piece  of 
comb  containing  the  dead  larva?  and,  wrapping  it  securely,  send 
it  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  By  means  of  a  microscopic  examination  they 
can  readily  determine  the  nature  of  the  difficulty. 

American  foul  brood  has  long  been  present  in  this  country 
and  when  we  hear  the  term  "  foul  brood  "  we  naturally  infer  that 
American  foul  brood  is  meant  (Figs.  102  and  103).  It  is  also 
called  "  ropy  foul  brood  "  because  of  the  peculiar  ropy  charac- 
teristic of  the  dead  tissue  at  a  certain  stage.  The  larv^  are 
usually  attacked  at  about  the  time  the  cells  are  capped  and  most 


M 


210  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

of  the  cells  containing  dead  larvae  are  capped.  When  the  larva 
dies  it  turns  a  chocolate  or  brown  color  and  in  advanced  stages 
of  decay  becomes  darker.  The  cappings  become  sunken,  and 
frequently  the  cappings  are  perforated  by  small  holes.  The  most 
common  test  for  this  disease  is  to  insert  a  toothpick  or  timothy 
straw  into  the  dead  tissue  and  slowly  withdraw  it.  The  decaying 
matter  stretches  out  like  thick  molasses,  sometimes  for  an  inch 
or  two  before  breaking.  After  the  dead  larva  has  become  fully 
dried  it  forms  a  dried  scale  on  the  lower  side  of  the  cell.  This 
scale  adheres  tightly  to  the  cell  and  can  be  readily  observed  by 
holding  the  comb  in  front  of  the  eyes  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
light  falls  into  the  bottom  of  the  cell  and  illuminates  the  lower 
side  wall. 

There  is  also  a  very  characteristic  odor  clinging  to  the  combs 
containing  a  badly  infected  case  of  foul  brood  of  the  American 
form.  It  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  a  glue-pot  odor  but  that 
hardly  describes  it.  It  is,  however,  a  characteristic  of  the  dis- 
ease that  can  readily  be  recognized.  Queen  and  drone  larvse  are 
seldom  affected  by  American  foul  brood,  while  the  other  form 
attacks  both  queen  and  drone  larvae  at  the  same  stage  as  worker 
larvae  are  affected.  Cases  are  reported  where  there  is  a  decided 
odor  with  European  foul  brood,  but  the  writer  does  not  remem- 
ber ever  having  seen  a  case  in  all  the  hundreds  of  apiaries  visited. 
The  ropy  condition  of  the  dead  matter  together  with  the  odor  is 
usually  considered  as  positive  evidence  of  American  foul  brood. 

When  this  disease  is  present  the  death  of  a  portion  of  the 
brood  gradually  decimates  the  colony  until  it  becomes  so  weak 
that  it  can  no  longer  defend  its  stores  and  it  is  likely  to  be  robbed 
out  and  the  honey  carried  to  other  colonies.  The  disease  is  thus 
spread  far  and  wide.  The  writer  has  seen  cases  where  after  the 
death  of  the  colony  from  foul  brood  the  hive  was  turned  over 
and  exposed  to  the  bees  by  the  owner,  who  was  ignorant  of  the 
real  cause  of  the  trouble.  The  disease  was  thus  needlessly  carried 
into  every  colony  of  large  apiaries. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  a  bacillus  technically  known  as 


AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD  211 

Bacillus  larvae.  These  microorganisms  are  so  extremely  minute 
as  to  require  a  high  power  microscope  to  enable'  on©  to  find  them. 
The  germs  or  their  spores  seem  to  be  carried  from  hive  to  hive 
only  in  the  honey.  In  treating  American  foul  brood,  it  accord- 
ingly becomes  exceedingly  important  to  rid  the  colony  of  every 
vestige  of  the  diseased  honey.  While  the  honey  may  carry  the 
germs  of  foul  brood  vs^hich  are  fatal  to  young  bees,  it  is  not  in 
the  least  injured  thereby  for  human  consumption. 

It  is  important  that  this  point  be  fully  understood  or  other- 
wise any  method  of  treatment  is  likely  to  be  unavailing.  On  one 
occasion  an  inspector  was  called  to  examine  the  bees  in  a  neigh- 
borhood where  foul  brood  was  known  to  be  present.  At  one  farm- 
house he  was  told  by  the  housewife  that  they  no  longer  had  any 
bees  but  some  empty  hives.  On  investigation  he  found  that  the 
bees  had  died  during  the  winter  from  American  foul  brood.  It 
was  still  early  spring  and  the  honey  had  not  yet  been  found  by 
the  bees  of  the  neighborhood.  He  explained  carefully  to  the 
owner  the  method  of  treatment  and  thought  that  he  fully  under- 
stood it.  The  next  day  a  man  was  sent  back  to  ascertain  whether 
instructions  had  been  properly  followed,  only  to  find  that  he 
had  carefully  disinfected  the  hive  by  burning  it  out,  but  had 
left  the  honey  lying  on  the  ground  where  it  was  even  more  likely 
to  be  found  by  visiting  bees  than  had  it  been  left  in  the  hive. 
In  this  case  a  large  apiary  near  at  hand  was  saved  from  infection 
by  the  fortunate  visit  of  the  inspector. 

Bees  weakened  by  disease  are  very  likely  to  die  in  winter. 
In  such  cases  the  old  combs  should  in  no  case  be  used  again,  but 
the  wax  should  be  rendered  and  the  hive  carefully  disinfected 
before  being  put  in  service.  Colonies  thus  weakened  are  also 
very  likely  to  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  wax  moth,  and  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  colonies  which  are  charged  to  the  ravages 
of  the  moth  are  really  victims  of  foul  brood.  It  is  frequently 
recommended  that  honey  from  diseased  colonies  be  boiled  and 
fed  back  again  to  the  bees.  While  this  may  be  safe  if  carefully 
done,  it  is  much  safer  to  feed  sugar  syrup  if  it  becomes  necessary 


212  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

to  feed  anything.  It  is  regarded  as  unsafe  to  feed  the  honey  from 
hives  infected  with  this  disease,  as  high  temperature  for  con- 
siderable length  of  time  is  necessar)'-  to  insure  death  of  all  spores. 
In  the  hands  of  a  novice  it  frequently  happens  that  the  boiling  is 
not  sufficiently  thorough  and  healthy  bees  are  thus  infected. 

Treatment  of  American  Foul  Brood. — This  disease  is  rather 
slow  in  its  progress,  but  very  sure,  and  once  a  colony  becomes 
infected  its  final  death  is  certain,  unless  the  bees  are  removed 
to  a  clean  hive  and  the  infected  brood  destroyed.  In  the  hands  of 
the  average  bee-keeper  the  shaking  treatment,  commonly  called 
the  McEvoy  treatment,  is  best.  McEvoy,  who  was  for  a  time 
inspector  for  Ontario,  was  very  successful  in  treating  foul  brood 
and  he  it  was  who  probably  first  brought  successful  methods  of 
treatment  prominently  before  the  public.  However,  the  essen- 
tials of  this  method  wero  described  in  Europe  many  years  before 
the  birth  of  McEvoy,  and  Quinby  had  also  long  made  use  of  shak- 
ing for  the  cure  of  foul  brood  in  this  country. 

The  first  essential  is  to  remove  the  bees  entirely  from  the 
source  of  the  disease,  and  they  should  accordingly  be  placed  in 
a  clean  hive  on  the  old  stand  and  the  old  combs,  brood,  and  honey 
all  removed.  McEvoy  allowed  them  to  build  new  combs  for 
four  days,  thus  insuring  that  all  honey  carried  with  them  would 
be  used,  and  then  again  shook  them  into  another  clean  hive  and 
destroyed  the  combs  that  they  had  built  in  the  meantime.  The 
second  shaking  is  not  always  necessary.  By  using  good  judg- 
ment the  bee-keeper  can  usually  tell  when  conditions  are  such 
that  a  second  shaking  will  be  necessary. 

The  instructions  given  from  the  office  of  the  Iowa  Inspector 
are  as  follows : 

In  the  evening  after  the  bees  have  stopped  flying,  brush  or  shake  all 
the  bees  into  a  clean  hive  containing  foundation  starters.  Bury  or  burn 
the  old  combs  at  once,  not  the  next  day.  Take  great  care  that  no  honey, 
not  even  the  smallest  drop,  be  exposed  to  the  bees,  or  the  disease  may  be 
carried  back  or  exposed  to  healthy  colonies. 

This  is  essentially  the  instruction  given  for  years  past  by 
various  State  officials  charged  with  enforcement  of  foul  brood 


TREATMENT  OF  AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD  213 

laws.  It  is  repeated  here  simply  to  show  that  the  essentials 
can  be  stated  in  a  few  words. 

Modification  of  Method. — If  the  bee-keeper  does  not  give  the 
second  shaking  at  the  end  of  four  days  he  should  watch  very 
carefully  to  see  that  the  disease  does  not  again  appear.  There  are 
a  number  of  modifications  of  this  method  of  treatment,  each  of 
which  has  advantages  apparent  to  those  who  follow  it.  Thomas 
Chantry  inserts  a  dry  extracting  comb  in  the  center  of  the  hive 
on  which  the  bees  are  shaken  and  about  twenty-four  hours  later 
very  carefully  removes  this  comb.  In  the  meantime  the  bees  will 
have  used  the  empty  comb  to  deposit  the  honey  that  they  may 
have  carried  with  them.  This  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
second  shaking  as  it  saves  a  heavy  loss  in  wax  secretion  and  conse- 
quent tax  on  the  bees  which  are  badly  used  at  best.  Edward  G. 
Brown,  of  Iowa,  who  is  a  large  honey  producer,  has  used  this 
method  successfully  for  a  number  of  years  and  recommends  it 
as  very  satisfactory  if  carefully  done. 

D.  E.  Lhommedieu,  another  Iowa  bee-keeper  of  long  experi- 
ence, shakes  the  bees  into  a  clean  hive  and  leaves  them  for  four 
days  or  until  he  is  sure  that  all  old  honey  carried  with  them  has 
been  consumed.  He  then  takes  combs  of  brood  and  honey  from 
healthy  colonies  and  places  them  in  a  clean  hive  and  puts  this 
on  the  stand  where  the  diseased  colony  has  been.  Feeling  that 
the  bees  have  rid  themselves  of  the  infection,  he  proceeds  to  shake 
the  bees  into  the  new  hive  containing  the  brood  and  they  are  thus 
saved  the  heavy  tax  of  building  up  from  the  beginning. 

The  object  is  to  rid  the  bees  of  every  trace  of  the  diseased 
honey  before  the  new  brood  appears  in  the  hive  and  any  method 
that  will  accomplish  this  result  is  likely  to  succeed. 

When  a  number  of  colonies  are  to  be  shaken,  it  is  well  to 
replace  the  frames  of  brood  in  the  old  hives  and  to  pile  one  above 
another  on  top  of  some  diseased  colony  which  may  be  reserved 
for  treatment  for  a  few  days,  until  the  healthy  brood  is  hatched, 
and  thus  save  what  healthy  brood  there  is  in  all  the  hives.  This 
plan  has  been  carried  out  very  successfully  in  some  apiaries. 


214  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  treatment  is  to  remove  the  queen 
very  carefully,  disturbing  the  bees  as  little  as  possible.  The  hive 
should  then  be  tightly  closed  with  the  exception  of  a  bee  escape, 
which  will  permit  the  bees  to  go  out  but  give  none  a  chance  to 
return.  Take  a  frame  of  healthy  brood  from  some  other  colony 
and  place  in  a  clean  hive.  Fill  the  remainder  of  the  hive  with 
full  sheets  of  foundation  or  empty  combs  and  place  it  where  the 
colony  has  stood.  The  queen  may  then  be  placed  on  the  frame  of 
brood  and  the  new  hive  left  with  the  entrance  somewhat  smaller 
than  usual.  Turn  the  hive  containing  the  diseased  colony  around 
so  that  the  escape  will  be  near  the  entrance  of  the  new  hive.  The 
bees  leaving  the  hive  go  to  the  fields  with  their  honey  sacs  empty 
and  returning  enter  the  clean  hive.  As  fast  as  the  brood  hatches 
in  the  old  hive  the  bees  will  leave  only  to  find  no  way  of  return 
and  enter  the  clean  hive  in  which  the  old  queen  is  at  work  as 
usual.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  saving  the  colony 
without  loss  of  brood  or  checking  the  laying  of  the  queen.  If 
properly  done  this  is  perhaps  the  best  method  of  dealing  with 
American  foul  brood.  Some  bee-keepers  advocate  setting  the 
diseased  colony  on  top  of  the  clean  hive  with  the  bee-escape  board 
underneath  and  the  old  queen  left  in  the  brood  chamber.  By 
this  method  the  bees  will  rear  a  young  queen  from  the  brood  in 
the  frame  given  them  in  the  clean  hive  while  the  old  queen  con- 
tinues to  lay  in  the  diseased  chamber  above  until  she  is  finally 
deserted  by  the  workers. 

Late-Season  Cases. — When  a  case  of  foul  brood  is  found 
in  fall  after  the  honey  flow  is  over,  it  is  seldom  advisable  to 
attempt  to  winter  the  colony.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
treatment  is  not  likely  to  be  successful,  excepting  when  there  is 
some  honey  coming  from  the  fields  or  will  be  later  in  the  season. 
If  cases  are  treated  ahead  of  the  honey  flow,  the  lack  of  a  flow 
can  be  met  by  heavy  feeding  to  stimulate  the  building  of  combs. 
If  the  bees  get  well  started  in  this  way  they  will  recover  nicely 
during  the  honey  flow  that  follows  later  on.  After  the  flow  is 
over  in  the  fall  it  would  cost  more  than  they  are  worth  to  feed 


EUROPEAN  FOUL  BROOD  215 

a  sufficient  amount  of  stores  to  build  them  up  ready  for  winter. 
To  winter  a  colony  with  the  idea  of  treating  in  the  spring  will 
require  in  the  neighborhood  of  twenty-five  pounds  of  honey,  and 
there  is  always  the  danger  that  they  may  die  during  the  winter 
or  early  spring.  In  this  case  there  is  not  only  the  total  loss  of 
the  bees  and  the  honey  that  they  have  consumed,  but  the  added 
danger  that  bees  from  other  colonies  may  get  at  the  stores  and 
rob  them  out  on  some  warm  day  before  the  hives  have  been 
looked  after,  and  the  disease  be  further  spread.  If  the  colony 
is  strong  enough  to  have  a  fair  chance  of  wintering  it  is  possible 
to  save  honey  and  wax  to  the  value  of  from  two  to  four  dollars, 
and  this  is  more  than  a  diseased  colony  is  worth  at  this  season  of 
the  year.  The  hive  may  be  saved  and  prepared  for  use  again  by 
proper  disinfection. 

Late  in  the  evening  after  the  bees  have  stopped  flying,  the 
entrance  should  be  tightly  closed  to  prevent  the  escape  of  any 
bees.  The  hive  should  then  be  removed  to- some  tight  building  or 
cellar  and  the  bees  killed  with  sulphur.  All  honey  fit  for  use 
can  be  removed,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  not  a  drop  ever 
gets  back  to  live  bees.  The  combs  can  be  melted  up  and  the 
wax  saved.  Honey  not  fit  for  the  table  can  be  made  into  vinegar. 
The  hive,  including  both  top  and  bottom,  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  using  again,  and  if  the  frames  are  to  be  used 
again  they  should  be  boiled.  Any  honey  that  is  fed  to  bees 
should  be  diluted  with  water  and  boiled  for  half  an  hour  or  until 
the  scum  is  thoroughly  cooked.' 

Disinfecting. — For  disinfecting  hive  parts  a  painter's  torch 
is  very  good.  Some  paint  the  inside  of  the  hives  with  kerosene 
and  then  pile  one  above  another  and  set  fire  to  them  and  smother 
the  fire  as  soon  as  the  interior  is  scorched.  Fire  is  the  only  sure 
method  since  drugs  are  generally  regarded  as  useless  for  this 
purpose. 

EUROPEAN   FOUL   BROOD 

The  cause  of  European  foul  brood  is  supposed  to  be  Bacillus 
pluton,  a  microorganism  similar  to  those  responsible  for  such 
diseases  as  diphtheria,  typhoid  fever,  etc.,  in  human  beings 


216 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 


Authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  method  of  spread  of  this 
disease.  That  it  is  not  spread  altogether  in  the  honey  as  is 
American  foul  brood  is  evidenced  bv  the  fact  that  strong  colonies 
with  vigorous  young  Italian  queens  frequently  clean  out  the 
infection  and  that  it  docs  not  reappear  in  the  hive.  In  the  case 
of  a  colony  affected  with  American  foul  bro(id  the  final  death  of 
the  colony  seems  assured  unless  the  last  trace  of  the  diseased 
brood  and  honey  is  removed.  While  some  authorities  for  a  time 
insisted  on  shaking  in  treating  for  European  foul  brood  the  same 


Fio.  104. — Thirteen  colonies  left  of  one    hundred  five  aa  the  result  of   European  foul 
brood  for  eight  months. 

as  for  American,  shaking  is  no  longer  advised  in  tlie  treat- 
ment of  this  disease.  It  is  now  well  known  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  combs  and  honey  is  not  necessary  in  dealing  with 
European  foul  brood. 

One  striking  peculiarity  of  this  disease  soon  becomes  appar- 
ent to  an  inspector ;  when  it  appears  in  a  malignant  form  it  is 
usually  to  be  found  in  every  colony  in  a  yard  within  a  short 
period  of  time.  While  American  foul  brood  may  be  present 
in  a  yard  for  months  without  spreading,  European  foul  brood 
frequently,  though  not  always,  spreads  very  rapidly  and  appears 
in  all  colonies  very  quickly.  Cases  have  come  under  the  writer's 
observation,  where  no  disease  had  been  present  in  a  locality, 
European  foul  brood  suddenly  appeared  in  nearly  every  colony 


APPEARANCE  OF  AFFECTED  LARVAE  217 

of  several  large  apiaries  situated  near  together.  At  times  it 
seems  very  mild  and  will  even  disappear  of  itself.  At  other 
times  large  numbers  of  bees  will  die  in  a  very  short  period  of 
time.  The  illustration  (Fig.  104)  shows  a  case  where  but  thir- 
teen colonies  remained  of  one  hundred  and  five  in  eight  months. 
The  disease  was  not  known  to  be  present  until  two  weeks  after 
the  bees  were  taken  from  the  cellar  in  spring,  only  about  six 
weeks  before  the  picture  was  taken.  As  the  winter  loss  was 
unusually  heavy  it  is  presumed  that  the  disease  was  present  when 
the  bees  went  into  winter  quarters. 

American  and  European  foul  brood,  it  would  seem,  can  be 
compared  to  smallpox  and  typhoid  fever  in  the  human  race. 
American  foul  brood,  like  typhoid  fever,  requires  a  common 
source  of  infection,  in  the  case  of  the  bee  disease  the  honey, 
in  the  case  of  the  human  ailment  milk,  water,  etc.  European 
foul  brood  seems  to  spread  among  bees  as  readily  as  malignant 
smallpox  among  the  human  race,  actual  contact  apparently  not 
being  necessary  to  the  spread  of  either.  However,  until  recently 
little  was  known  about  European  foul  brood  and  it  is  entirely 
probable  that  later  discoveries  will  add  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  disease. 

Appearance  of  Affected  Larvae,— European  foul  brood 
attacks  the  larvae  at  a  much  earlier  stage  than  does  American 
foul  brood  and  but  a  small  part  of  the  diseased  brood  is  ever 
capped  (Fig.  105).  In  bad  cases  large  numbers  of  the  larva? 
will  be  found  to  be  dead  and  misshapen  while  still  white  as 
shown  in  the  plate.  Later  they  turn  yellow  and  finally  quite 
dark  in  color.  There  is  seldom  any  apparent  ropiness  in  the 
dead  tissue  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  form  of  foul  brood.  Sel- 
dom is  there  a  noticeable  odor  such  as  is  so  apparent  in  advanced 
stages  of  the  American  type  of  the  disease.  Queen  and  drone 
larvae  are  usually  attacked  early.  This  is  one  of  the  common 
tests  in  early  stages  for  determining  which  disease  be  present. 
The  disease  is  usually  more  destructive  in  spring  and  early 
summer. 


218 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 


ALEXANDER'S  PLAN  219 

Detection  by  Odor.— In  some  localities  European  foul  brood 
is  said  to  be  attended  with  a  decided  odor,  although  unlike  that 
of  American  foul  brood,  being  more  like  that  of  decayed  fish, 
according  to  Morley  Petit,  of  Ontario. 

Resistant  Bees. — For  some  reason  Italian  bees  seem  to  be 
much  more  resistant  of  this  disease  than  the  hybrids  or  blacks, 
and  the  best  insurance  against  this  malady  is  to  re-queen  all 
colonies  with  vigorous  Italians.  Some  strains  seem  much  more 
immune  than  others,  so  that  it  is  desirable  to  secuia  a  strain 
thai;,  has  demonstrated  its  disease  resistance. 

Treatment. — There  is  much  confusion  on  the  part  of  the 
inexperienced  bee-keeper  between  the  two  diseases,  and  since  the 
treatment  advised  for  one  is  entirely  unsuited  for  the  other  it 
is  important  to  make  sure  which  disease  is  present.  What  is 
known  as  the  Alexander  plan  is  now  generally  regarded  as  the 
only  dependable  treatment  for  European  foulbrood.  The  essen- 
tial element  of  this  plan  is  the  saving  of  the  combs  instead  of 
melting  them  up  as  is  the  case  of  the  other  disease.  There  are 
many  modifications  of  the  plan  as  proposed  by  the  originator. 

Alexander's  Plan.— To  begin  with,  the  queen  is  removed 
from  the  diseased  colony  in  order  to  check  brood  rearing.  The 
bees  being  relieved  of  nursing  young  brood,  turn  their  attention 
to  cleaning  out  infected  matter  from  the  hive  with  the  result 
that  given  a  new  queen  a  few  days  later  they  often  remain  free 
from  the  disease.  Mr.  Alexander  believed  it  to  be  necessary 
for  twenty-one  days  to  elapse  from  the  time  the  old  queen  was 
removed  before  the  new  queen  began  to  lay.  Of  late  many  bee- 
keepers have  found  that  under  favorable  conditions  a  much 
shorter  time  is  sufficient.  In  order  to  be  successful  with  this 
method  several  things  must  be  borne  in  mind.  First  the  new 
queen  must  be  a  vigorous  young  Italian.  Then  the  colony  must 
be  very  strong  and  the  treatment  must  be  given  in  early  stages 
of  the  disease.  If  the  combs  are  fairly  rotten  with  decaying 
larva?  it  is  too  much  to  expect  that  the  bees  will  clean  them  up 
again.     Hybrids  or  black  bees  are  seldom,  if  ever,  able  to  rid 


220  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

themselves  of  the  disease  in  this  manner.    Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  one 
of  the  best  known  authorities,  is  quoted  as  follows : 

I  know  there  are  those  for  whom  I  have  great  respect  who  have  bitterly 
denounced  the  practice  of  trying  to  save  the  combs  in  treating  European 
foul  brood.  In  my  first  dealing  with  the  disease  I  melted  hundreds  of 
brood  combs.  If  I  am  forgiven  I  will  never  do  it  again.  Please  be  sure  to 
note  that  I  am  talking  about  European,  not  American,  foul  brood.  The 
loss  of  the  combs  is  not  all  there  is  of  it.  Indeed,  I  think  that  is  the 
smallest  part.  The  greater  loss  is  from  the  set-back  in  the  work  of  brood 
rearing.  It  seems  to  knock  things  endwise  for  weeks,  if  not  for  the  season. 
Far  less  is  the  interference  when  egg  laying  is  suspended  for  eight  or  ten 
days. 

I  think  I  hear  someone  say,  "  But  your  treatment  does  not  seem 
effective  for  you  keep  on  having  the  disease,  while  with  the  orthodox  method 
and  the  combs  destroyed  there's  the  end  of  it."  Pardon  me,  that  may  be 
true  with  regard  to  American  but  not  with  European  foul  brood.  I  treated 
the  disease  after  the  most  orthodox  fashion,  destroying,  as  I  have  said, 
hundreds  of  combs,  and  so  far  as  I  could  see,  the  disease  was  just  as  willing 
to  return  as  with  the  drastic  treatment.  I  think  I'd  rather  keep  brood 
and  combs. 

With  reference  to  the  Alexander  plan  of  treating  this  disease 
as  practised  by  Dr.  Miller  and  others,  it  is  well  to  repeat  what 
has  already  been  said,  that  no  method  has  ever  been  found  for 
eliminating  American  foul  brood  without  destroying  the  combs. 
This  method  applies  only  to  European  foul  brood  and  sacbrood, 
a  mild  disease  described  later  on. 

European  foul  brood  was  long  known  as  black  brood  and  first 
appeared  in  the  East  It  was  known  in  New  York  for  a  number 
of  years  before  it  made  an  appearance  in  the  Central  West. 
While  there  are  still  many  localities  where  it  is  not  present  it 
has  spread  into  practically  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Sources  of  Infection. — The  spread  of  American  foul  brood 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  diseased  colonies  is  usually  by  means 
of  robber  bees  which  visit  those  which,  because  of  their  weak- 
ened condition,  are  no  longer  able  to  defend  their  stores,  and 
disease  is  thus  rapidly  spread.  Every  bee-keeper  should  guard 
against  the  robbing  of  weak  colonies.  In  case  a  colony  dies  from 
disease  the  hive  should  be  at  once  removed,  the  contents 
destroyed,  and  the  hive  and  fixtures  thoroughly  disinfected. 


MINOR  TROUBLES  221 

Another  source  of  the  disease  is  the  use  of  secovd-hand  honey 
containers.  A  large  part  of  the  western  honey  goes  to  market 
in  sixty-pound  cans.  These  cans  when  empty  are  sold  at  a  very 
low  price  and  many  bee-keepers  are  tempted  to  make  use  of 
them.  Honey  placed  in  these  containers  is  sometimes  later  fed 
to  the  bees,  or  while  being  refilled  they  have  often  been  visited  by 
the  bees,  with  the  result  that  foul  brood  has  been  carried  to  the 
apiary,  often  in  a  minute  drop  of  honey. 

Bee-keepers  have  sometimes  brought  the  disease  home  by 
the  me  of  purchased  honey  for  feeding  in  time  of  short  supply 
of  stores.  The  writer  has  been  surprised  at  the  extent  of  the 
complaint  of  the  spread  of  disease  from  these  two  causes.  There 
is  so  little  to  be  saved  by  the  use  of  a  second-hand  container  that 
bee-keepers  can  hardly  afford  to  take  the  risk.  In  case  it  becomes 
necessary  to  feed  the  bees,  good  sugar  syrup  should  always  be 
used  unless  the  honey  is  known  to  be  from  apiaries  that  are  free 
from  disease. 

The  use  of  hives,  frames,  etc.,  in  which  bees  have  died  is  not 
safe  unless  they  have  been  disinfected.  While  disease  sometimes 
appears  from  some  unaccountable  source,  the  bee-keeper  should 
take  every  possible  precaution  to  avoid  its  spread. 

The  presence  of  foul  brood  in  an  apiary  is  a  serious  matter 
to  the  owner  and  cannot  but  result  in  serious  loss.  Frequent 
reports  come  to  the  writer  of  the  loss  of  entire  apiaries,  some- 
times of  many  colonies,  from  foul  brood. 

MINOR  TKOUBLES 

Sacbrood  has  long  been  known  by  the  name  of  pickled  brood. 
The  name  sacbrood  is,  however,  much  more  appropriate  because 
the  dead  larva  do  not  melt  down  as  they  do  in  foul  brood,  but 
rather  retain  the  full  size,  the  body  wall  retaining  the  contents 
in  the  form  of  a  sac.  This  disease  is  seldom  serious  in  nature 
although  it  is  mildly  infectious  and  may  be  spread  from  one 
colony  to  another.  As  a  rule  no  attention  need  be  paid  to  it, 
as  it  usually  disappears  with  the  coming  of  a  good  honey  flow. 


222  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

If  the  queen  at  the  head  of  the  diseased  colony  be  old  or  failing 
it  is  well  to  re-queen  with  vigorous  young  stock.  Some  recom- 
mend treatment  for  this  disease  as  with  foul  brood,  but  that  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  necessary.  In  bad  cases  where  the  colony  is 
weak  the  queen  should  be  replaced  and  the  colony  strengthened 
by  the  addition  of  frames  of  emerging  brood. 

Symptoms  of  Sacbrood. — This  disease  somewhat  resembles 
European  foul  brood  and  is  frequently  confused  with  that  dis- 
ease. Inspectors  have  in  several  instances  been  called  long  dis- 
tances to  deal  with  European  foul  brood,  only  to  find  after  a 
few  days'  delay  that  the  disease  was  sacbrood  and  had  nearly 
disappeared  of  itself.  The  dead  larvie  are  found  to  be  extended 
the  full  length  in  the  cell  with  the  sharp  pointed  end  slightly 
turned  upward.  The  dead  tissue  soon  assumes  a  dark  color  and 
there  is  little  or  no  odor  to  the  combs. 

Chilled  or  Starved  Brood. — The  young  bees  die  from  several 
other  causes  than  any  of  the  three  diseases  mentioned.  It  fre- 
quently happens  in  early  spring  that  the  brood  nest  expands  rap- 
idly during  the  first  warm  days,  with  the  result  that  a  sudden 
drop  in  the  temperature  makes  it  impossible  for  the  bees  to 
warm  all  the  brood  and  a  portion  becomes  chilled.  The  supply 
of  honey  or  pollen  is  also  at  times  exhausted  when  unfavorable 
weather  conditions  make  it  impossible  for  the  bees  to  gather 
stores  for  a  considerable  period  and  much  brood  is  lost  from 
starvation. 

When  bees  are  being  moved  without  sufficient  ventilation 
the  brood  is  sometimes  lost  from  overheating.  All  of  these  causes 
are  occasionally  responsible  for  the  supposition  that  foul  brood 
is  present  when,  in  fact,  it  is  not. 

Poisoning. — The  growth  of  the  commercial  fruit  industry 
has  developed  a  new  difficulty, — poisoning  the  bees.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  some  overzealous  fruit  grower,  blind  to  his 
own  best  interest,  sprays  his  fruit  trees  while  in  full  bloom. 
This  not  only  injures  the  chances  of  getting  a  full  crop  of 


DYSENTERY  223 

fruit,  by  washing  off  the  pollen  at  a  critical  period,  but  results 
in  the  destruction  of  the  honey-bees  whose  presence  just  at  this 
time  is  very  essential  to  his  success.  So  serious  had  this  con- 
dition become  in  some  localities  that  laws  have  been  passed  to 
prevent  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees  during  the  period  of  full 
bloom.  It  would  seem  that  any  man  who  is  sufficiently  progres- 
sive to  spray  his  trees  would  realize  the  fact  that  he  can  get 
better  results  in  spraying  immediately  after  the  petals  fall. 

Dysentery  is  usually  caused  by  too  long  confinement  or  poor 
stores.  Under  normal  conditions  the  worker-bee  voids  her  excre- 
ment only  when  on  the  wing.  ^Vhen  long  periods  of  time  elapse 
during  which  they  are  unable  to  fly  and  thus  relieve  themselves 
of  the  accumulated  waste  in  the  intestines,  they  are  sometimes 
compelled  to  discharge  within  the  hive.  When  this  condition  is 
reached  they  soon  die,  unless  a  change  in  the  weather  permits 
them  to  get  out  and  to  clean  up.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
combs  are  badly  soiled  and  the  bees  die  amidst  the  filth. 

Honey-dew  or  other  poor  stores  is  quite  likely  to  cause  this 
trouble.  It  is  an  important  matter  to  see  that  the  hives  are 
supplied  with  honey  of  the  best  quality  for  wintering,  especially 
in  the  North  where  the  bees  are  confined  for  weoks  or  months 
without  flight.     (See  Chapter  XIII.) 

Weak  colonies  are  more  susceptible  to  dysentery  than  strong 
colonies,  for  the  reason  that  a  greater  amount  of  food  will  neces- 
sarily be  consumed  in  order  to  keep  up  the  heat,  and  the  waste 
is  consequently  greater. 

Prevention. — From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  dysentery 
is  generally  a  winter  disorder  and  that  proper  wintering  insures 
freedom  from  the  trouble.  While  strong  colonies,  with  good 
stores  and  proper  protection,  seldom  are  seriously  troubled,  still 
even  they  may  have  trouble  under  unfavorable  conditions,  or 
during  very  long  confinement.  " 

Remedy. — About  the  only  remedy  is  a  good  flight  on  a  warm 
day.  If  the  bees  are  beginning  to  show  signs  of  this  trouble  in 
the  cellar  in  winter,  and  a  warm  day  comes  which  will  permit 


224  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

a  safe  flight,  it  will  pay  the  bee-keeper  to  set  them  out  and  to  put 
them  back  again  at  night  after  they  have  returned  to  the  hive. 

Mice. — The  mice  sometimes  enter  the  hives  in  winter,  either 
in  cellars  or  out-door  wintered  colonies.  The  author  once  saw 
a  hive  where  the  little  rodents  had  gnawed  through  an  old 
bottom  board  and  really  had  destroyed  the  colony  by  eating  the 
combs  and  disturbing  the  bees  during  their  winter  rest.  Both 
the  white-footed  wood  mice  and  the  common  house  mice  are 
likely  to  cause  such  mischief.  Mice  and  rats  are  also  very 
destructive  in  the  honey  house  by  destroying  surplus  combs, 
sections,  etc.,  and  it  is  well,  if  possible,  to  make  the  honey  house 
mouse  proof. 

Skunks. — The  normal  and  preferred  food  of  the  skunk  is 
insects  and  mice.  It  is  then  to  be  expected  that  bees  will  suffer 
where  skunks  are  common.  They  sometimes  learn  to  scratch 
at  the  entrance  of  the  hive  and  to  catch  the  bees  as  they  rush  out. 
Skunks  are  also  fond  of  honey,  as  the  writer  has  found  by 
feeding  it  to  these  animals  in  confinement.  However,  they  are 
unable  to  get  at  the  honey  in  the  hive  and  the  only  injury  from 
these  animals  is  to  the  bees. 

Skunks  are  of  considerable  value  in  keeping  down  the  num- 
ber of  rodents  and  such  insect  pests  as  grasshoppers  and  crickets, 
and  where  they  are  not  too  abundant  should  be  encouraged.  It 
is  frequently  wiser  to  protect  the  bees  and  poultry  from  the 
animals  and  leave  them  free  to  war  on  rats  and  mice  than  to 
destroy  the  skunks  and  have  to  fight  the  other  pests.  It  is  less 
trouble  to  guard  against  the  skunks.  In  localities  where  they 
become  over-abundant,  it  may  sometimes  be  advisable  to  destroy 
them  (Fig.  106). 

Dragon  flies,  mosquito  hawks,  snake  feeders,  or  devil's  darn- 
ing needles,  all  of  which  are  common  names  for  the  same  insects, 
are  sometimes  mentioned  as  enemies  of  bees.  The  trouble  seems 
to  be  limited  to  restricted  localities,  and  while  there  are  sometimes 
instances  where  individual  bee-keepers  suffer  considerable  annoy- 
ance from  these  insects,  especially  from  the  loss  of  young  queens 


THE  WAX  MOTH  225 

which  are  caught  on  their  mating  flights,  the  insects  cannot  be 
said  to  be  generally  injurius. 

The  robber  fly  is  a  large  insect  that  flies  with  a  loud  buzz. 
It  is  a  rapacious  fellow,  seeking  those  it  may  devour.  Butter- 
flies, bees,  grasshoppers,  and  even  wasps  and  beetles  fall  victims 
to  its  voracious  appetite.  It  is  seldom  sufficiently  abundant  to 
cause  appreciable  injury  in  the  bee  yard  and  may  be  regarded, 
on  the  wholp.  as  a  useful  insect  (Fig.  107). 


FiQ.  106.— The  natural  and  preferred  food  of  the  skunk  is  insects.     The  honey-bee  is  a 
tempting  delicacy  to  the  skunk  palate. 

Spiders  also  sometimes  weave  their  webs  in  situations  where 
the  heavily  laden  bees  fall  into  them  and  are  lost.  Large  webs 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  hive  should  not  be  tolerated, 
but  aside  from  that  little  is  to  be  feared  from  spiders. 

THE   WAX   MOTH 

The  larger  wax  moth  (Galleria  melonella)   is  very  widely 

distributed  and  among  indifferent  bee-keepers  is  a  serious  pest. 

It  is  present  in  nearly  all  portions  of  Europe  and  North  America 

where  bees  are  kept,  excepting  the  high  altitudes  of  Colorado 

15 


226  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

and  other  western  States.  In  the  vicinity  of  Denver  it  has 
several  times  been  introduced,  only  to  disappear  vt^ithin  a  short 
time,  apparently  being  unable  to  live  in  the  high  and  dry 
atmosphere  of  that  region.  It  is  more  destructive  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  country  than  in  the  northern  sections  where  the 
season  is  not  so  long. 

The  adult  is  an  inconspicuous  little  moth  of  grayish  color, 
quick  to  take  flight  on  the  opening  of  the  hive  (Fig.  102).  They 
remain  secluded  during  the  day  unless  disturbed,  but  are  appar- 
ently very  active  after 
nightfall.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  crevices  in  or 
about  the  hive  where  the 
larvae  can  readily  find 
their  way  to  the  combs. 
The  insect  is  very  pro- 
lific and  once  a  weak 
colony  becomes  infested 
the  total  destruction  of 
the  combs  may  be  com- 
pleted   in    but    a    short 

Fia.   107. — The  robber  fly.     (After   Washburn.)  DCriod   of  time 

Concerning  the  laying,  Paddock  ^  says : 

In  the  cages  where  empty  comb  was  supplied,  the  eggs  were  always 
laid  in  cavities  and  if  possible  in  such  cavities  as  were  well  protected.  Only 
one  egg  is  deposited  at  a  time,  though  in  working  over  a  small  piece  of 
comb  the  eggs  may  be  placed  close  together,  apparently  in  masses.  The 
eggs  are  always  securely  glued  to  their  resting  place;  usually  the  shell 
will  break  before  the  egg  is  loosened.  The  number  of  eggs  deposited  by 
one  female  has  not  been  ascertained  but  moths  which  had  not  deposited 
eggs  were  killed  and  the  eggs  in  their  ovaries  counted.  The  average  num- 
ber of  eggs  counted  was  1014.  The  time  consumed  in  laying  the  full  quota 
ol  eggs  varies  with  the  generation,  averaging  nine  days  in  the  first  and 
seven  days  in  the  second. 

When  first  hatched  the  larvae  are  white  and  very  small.    They 

burrow  into  the  combs  at  once.     The  larval  period  is  spent  in 

•  Observations  on  the  Bee  Moth,  Journal  of  Economic  Entomology,  vol. 
vii.  No.  2. 


THE  REMEDY 


227 


tunnelling  through  the  combs  along  the  midrib.  The  pollen 
stored  in  the  cells,  as  well  as  the  wax  of  which  the  combs  are 
constructed,  seems  to  furnish  them  with  food.  The  tunnels  are 
lined  with  silk  similar  to  that  of  which  the  cocoons  are  composed. 
It  is  not  long  until  the  combs  are  but  a  mass  of  webs  and  refuse 
( Fig.  103).  Thet  length  of  this  stage  varies  from  thirty-five  days 
in  the  second  brood  to  forty-five  days  with  the  first  brood  accord- 
ing to  the  author  above  quoted. 

The  cocoons  are  spun  in  masses  under  the  cover,  behind  the 
ends  of  the  frames  or  in  any  other  situation  seeming  to  offer 
protection,  but  usually  within  the  hive  where  the  larval  period 
has  been  spent.  About  two  weeks  are  required  to  complete  this 
stage,  after  which  the  adult  moths  will  appear. 

In  the  extreme  South  it  is  probable  that  breeding  continues 
throughout  the  year  with  little  interruption.  In  the  ;N'orth  only 
such  individuals  as  are  fortunate  enough  to  select  a  place  free 
from  extreme  cold  will  survive.  Those  remaining  in  hives  in 
the  open  air  in  which  the  bees  have  perished  will  likewise  die 
before  spring,  as  they  cannot  endure  severe  freezing.  There  are 
always  a  few  tucked  away  snugly  in  the  hives  near  the  clusters 
of  bees,  which  are  kept  sufficiently  warm  to  insure  their  safety. 
These  will  shortly  populate  a  large  area  with  their  offspring 
when  warm  weather  comes.  They  are  also  able  to  pass  the  winter 
in  empty  hives  that  are  carried  into  the  cellar  or  other  place 
where  the  temperature  does  not  drop  much  below  freezing. 

The  Remedy. — The  wax  moth  may  be  regarded  as  a  symp- 
tom that  something  is  wrong,  for  a  normal  colony  of  bees  will 
usually  defend  themselves  against  this  pest  without  difficulty. 
Italians,  however,  are  better  able  to  contend  with  it  than  the 
common  strains.  The  blacks  are  especially  liable  to  succumb 
to  an  attack  of  moths.  Usually  it  is  the  weak  and  queenless 
colonies  that  fall  victims  to  its  ravages. 

Three  adult  moths  may  be  seen  on  the  comb  in  Fig.  102. 
The  larvaj  are  repulsive  caterpillars  and  reach  an  inch  or  more 
in  length.    Fig.  103  shows  the  work  of  these  insects  in  a  little 


228  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

more  advanced  stage.  If  left  undisturbed  such  a  comb  would 
very  shortly  be  entirely  destroyed. 

Amateur  bee-keepers  frequently  complain  that  the  moth  is 
destroying  their  bees  and  inquire  what  to  do  for  it.  The  answer 
is :  Keep  your  colonies  strong  and  replace  old  and  failing  queens 
with  vigorous  young  Italians.  Colonies  that  have  become  weak- 
ened by  disease  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  moths. 

Experienced  bee-keepers  are  seldom  heard  to  complain  of 
this  trouble,  for  they  have  long  ago  learned  that  constant  vigi- 
lance is  the  price  of  success,  in  the  apiary  as  elsewhere.  The 
bee-keeper  who  does  not  examine  the  brood  nest  of  his  colonies 
occasionally  has  no  means  of  knowing  the  condition  of  his  bees. 
Frequent  examination  will  enable  him  to  detect  and  avoid  the 
conditions  that  provide  favorable  surroundings  for  the  moths. 

Care  of  Empty  Combs. — The  moths  are  a  source  of  annoy- 
ance to  the  bee-keeper  who  has  large  numbers  of  empty  combs 
during  a  part  of  the  year.  During  the  warm  months  there  is  no 
better  place  to  store  empty  combs  than  over  a  strong  colony  of 
Italian  bees.  After  the  season  is  over  and  cold  nights  come  they 
may  be  placed  in  any  cold  place  safely,  for  freezing  will  effec- 
tively check  the  work  of  these  insects.  It  is  well  to  have  a  tight 
compartment  where  no  adult  moths  can  get  in  so  that  they  will 
be  safe  after  warm  weather  comes  again.  There  is  always  danger 
in  putting  away  empty  combs  in  warm  weather,  that  eggs  may  be 
present  and  that  the  combs  may  be  destroyed  before  the  presence 
of  the  insects  is  discovered. 

"When  combs  either  empty  or  containing  honey  are  found  to 
be  infested  with  moths  they  should  be  cared  for  without  delay 
as  the  insects  develop  very  rapidly. 

If  only  a  few  combs  be  injured  they  may  be  placed  in  strong 
colonies  and  the  bees  will  clean  them  up  quickly  and  effectively, 
throwing  the  dead  larvae  at  the  entrance  of  the  hive  within  a  few 
hours.  If  there  is  a  large  number  of  combs  it  is  well  to  place 
them  in  a  tight  room  and  fumigate  them.  This  may  be  done 
by  putting  a  quantity  of  sulfur  in  a  dish,  first  pouring  alcohol 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  AN  INSPECTOR  229 

over  it  so  that  it  will  burn  readily,  and  setting  it  on  fire.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  place  the  receptacle  containing  the  burning 
sulphur  in  a  safe  place  on  a  large  stone  or  metal,  or  in  a  larger 
tub  or  pan  containing  water.  The  building  should  be  closed 
very  tight  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  fumes.  The  combs  should 
be  separated  to  insure  the  fumes  reaching  all  parts.  Sometimes 
a  second  or  even  a  third  fumigation  will  be  necessary  to  insure 
the  destruction  of  all  of  the  caterpillars  in  bad  cases. 

Bisulfide  of  carbon  may  be  used  to  accomplish  a  similar 
result,  but  great  care  is  necessary  as  it  is  highly  explosive  and 
dangerous.  In  the  use  of  this  drug  the  combs  are  placed  in  a 
tight  closet  or  box  and  a  quantity  of  the  liquid  placed  in  an  open 
dish  above  them.  It  evaporates  rapidly  and  the  heavy  fumes 
settle  over  the  combs,  thus  effectively  killing  the  moths.  N'o 
fire  or  light  should  be  allowed  about  when  this  liquid  is  being 
used. 

LESSER  WAX  MOTH 

There  is  a  very  small  moth  whose  larva  sometimes  becomes 
troublesome  in  comb  honey.  It  is  not  nearly  so  destructive  as  the 
larger  species  and  its  work  is  seldom  noticed  excepting  in  the 
comb  honey.  It  frequently  appears  in  honey  that  has  been  a 
considerable  time  in  the  market  and  greatly  injures  the  appear- 
ance by  spreading  its  webs  over  the  cappings  and  making  its 
small  burrows  into  the  wax,  thus  causing  leakage,  waste,  and 
a  bad  appearance.     The  remedy  is  fumigation. 

THE   BUSINESS   OF  AN  INSPECTOR 

More  than  half  of  the  States  and  several  Canadian  provinces 
now  have  inspectors  with  police  powers  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling bee  diseases.  But  a  few  years  will  elapse  until  every 
State  and  province  where  bee-keeping  is  an  important  industry 
will  make  such  provision.  Where  the  work  is  thoroughly  done 
a  number  of  men  are  required  to  cover  the  field,  so  that  the 
inspection  work  is  growing  in  importance  and  in  opportunity. 


230  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

With  the  appearance  of  bee  disease  it  was  very  natural  for 
the  bee-keepers  to  look  for  assistance  from  the  State.  Alone  the 
bee-keeper  is  helpless  against  inteciion  from  uncared  for  apiar- 
ies. He  may  be  ever  so  careful  and  efficient,  but  vs^ithout  pro- 
tection from  unnecessary  contagion  he  must  carry  on  the  fight 
against  disease  for  a  long  period  of  time,  move  his  apiary,  or  go 
out  of  business.  Since  bee-keeping  is  being  developed  as  a 
specialty  on  which  many  have  come  to  depend  for  a  livelihood, 
it  is  imperative  that  legal  protection  be  extended. 

The  sole  thought  in  the  beginning  was  to  provide  for  the 
examination  of  all  bees  and  to  compel  proper  treatment  or  de- 
struction of  those  found  to  be  diseased.  The  inspector  was  given 
no  choice  but  to  examine  all  the  bees  in  the  localities  to  which 
he  was  called.  At  the  same  time  funds  sufficient  to  examine  but 
a  small  part  of  the  bees  in  any  State  were  provided. 

Of  late  the  tendency  has  been  to  depend  more  and  more  upon 
proper  instruction.  Until  much  larger  appropriations  are  avail- 
able it  will  not  be  possible  to  reach  a  large  percentage  of  the 
bees  in  any  State.  If  the  bee-keeper  is  an  intelligent  man,  an 
hour  or  two  of  the  inspector's  time  is  all  that  he  will  require. 
If  upon  examination  one  or  more  colonies  are  found  to  be  dis- 
eased, the  inspector  will  be  able  to  point  out  the  characteristics 
of  the  particular  disorder  and  to  give  proper  instructions  for  its 
treatment.  The  bee-keeper  will  then  be  able  to  recognize  the 
trouble  when  he  finds  it  in  other  colonies  and  to  deal  with  it 
promptly.  It  would  hardly  seem  to  be  the  province  of  the  State 
to  examine  every  colony  and  give  the  necessary  treatment.  If 
such  a  plan  is  followed  a  week  will  often  be  necessary  to  deal 
with  a  single  large  apiary. 

Where  the  owner  is  careless  or  indifferent  it  will  become 
necessary  for  the  inspector  to  be  very  thorough  in  his  examina- 
tion and  to  insist  on  proper  attention  to  diseased  colonies.  Police 
power  is  necessary  because  of  the  fact  that  many  persons  who 
keep  bees  are  so  ignorant  of  their  care  in  either  health  or  disease 
that  they  cannot  be  convinced  of  the  necessity  or  value  of  proper 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  INSPECTORS         231 

attention.  In  such  cases  the  bees  will  be  left  to  menace  the 
surrounding  apiaries  until  such  time  as  they  shall  finally  suc- 
cumb to  the  disease. 

Requirements  for  Successful  Inspectors. — No  man  should 
be  intrusted  with  police  powers  who  does  not  have  proper  regard 
for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  those  with  whom  he  is  required  to 
deal.  He  should  be  able  to  meet  a  trying  situation  and  to 
reason  with  those  who  are  disposed  to  resent  his  visit.  For- 
tunately most  bee-keepers  are  coming  to  be  very  anxious  to  learn 
of  the  presence  of  disease  on  its  first  appearance  in  their  apiaries 
and  will  communicate  with  the  inspector  at  the  first  suspicious 
sign.  In  such  cases  the  inspector  will  be  welcomed  and  infor- 
mation will  be  gratefully  received.  However,  when  disease  is 
found  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  other  nearby  apiaries 
to  ascertain  to  what  extent  the  disease  has  been  spread.  Many 
of  the  bees  will  be  found  in  boxes,  kegs,  or  hives  where  the  combs 
are  built  crosswise  for  lack  of  foundation.  The  conditions  are 
such  as  try  the  patience  of  a  mild-tempered  man,  and  to  ascer- 
tain the  condition  of  the  colony  and  leave  the  owner  in  good 
temper  requires  the  exercise  of  much  skill  and  diplomacy. 

If  the  inspector  is  able  to  give  the  owner  of  such  bees  en- 
couragement and  advice  about  proper  care  of  bees  without 
offence,  his  visit  has  been  of  value  aside  from  the  possible  check 
of  the  spread  of  disease.  The  time  bids  fair  to  come  very 
shortly  when  the  inspector's  field  shall  be  broadened  until  his 
duty  will  be  to  instruct  in  the  general  management  of  the  apiary 
as  much  as  to  find  disease.  The  great  difficulty  with  present  laws 
lies  in  the  fact  that  no  man  who  is  not  a  well-informed  bee- 
keeper is  competent  to  deal  with  disease.  The  inspector's  in- 
structions regarding  disease  will  be  imperfectly  understood  by 
the  box  hive  bee-keeper,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  and  if  he  under- 
takes to  treat  his  colonies  himself  he  will  destroy  them  or  scatter 
the  disease  instead  of  checking  it.  It  thus  becomes  necessary 
for  the  inspector  to  personally  supervise  the  treatment  or  destroy 
the  diseased  colony.    A  diseased  colony  in  anything  but  a  modem 


232  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES 

equipped  hive  is  worthless,  as  it  will  cost  more  to  transfer  the 
bees,  as  a  rule,  than  a  diseased  colony  is  worth. 

The  man  who  is  fully  informed  concerning  up-to-date 
methods  of  bee-keeping  will  be  able  to  handle  disease  in  his 
own  apiary  if  he  can  be  protected  from  further  infection.  The 
problem  then  becomes  one  of  making  every  man  who  keeps  bees 
an  up-to-date  bee-man.  In  localities  where  disease  gets  well 
established  it  will  be  impossible  to  eradicate  it  entirely  until 
every  bee-keeper  becomes  expert.  Disease  has  the  effect  of 
making  expert  bee-keepers  anyway,  for  those  who  do  not  become 
proficient  are  likely  to  lose  all  their  bees  within  a  short  time. 

The  bee  inspector  is  usually  regarded  as  the  official  repre- 
sentative of  the  industry  and  should  be  able  to  represent  it 
creditably  under  any  circumstances.  It  is  not  enough  to  be 
informed  concerning  detection  and  treatment  of  disease,  but 
he  must  be  able  to  deal  with  problems  relating  to  any  branch 
of  bee-keeping.  Bee-keepers  whom  he  visits  will  give  him  their 
hardest  problems  to  solve  and  people  in  other  walks  of  life  will 
turn  to  him  with  any  question  relating  to  the  business.  He  will 
be  called  upon  to  give  expert  testimony  in  case  of  litigation  in- 
volving bee-keepers  and  to  settle  various  disputes  between  per- 
sons where  the  rights  of  one  or  the  other  are  in  question, 

■Opportunity. — The  various  State  agricultural  colleges  are 
rapidly  taking  up  bee  culture,  and  it  bids  fair  to  take  its  legiti- 
mate place  in  the  college  curriculum.  Within  a  few  years  the 
inspection  work,  instead  of  being  under  direction  of  a  separate 
State  department,  as  now  in  many  States,  will  be  organized  in 
connection  with  extension  work  in  bee-keeping.  As  the  business 
of  bee-keeping  is  taking  on  new  life  the  demand  for  properly 
equipped  men  will  probably  exceed  the  supply  for  several  years 
to  come.  That  this  condition  has  not  developed  sooner  is  because 
the  bee-keepers  have  been  slow  to  recognize  the  great  advantage 
that  would  come  to  the  industry  as  a  result  and  to  demand  the 
same  recognition  given  other  lines  of  agricultural  activity.  A 
few  who  have  not  caught  the  spirit  of  the  times  are  loud  in  their 


QUESTIONS  233 

complaints  that  for  the  agricultural  colleges  to  take  up  bee- 
keeping will  make  too  many  bee-keepers  and  that  there  will  be 
no  market  for  the  product  of  the  hives.  Fortunately  they  are 
now  in  the  minority  and  progressive  bee-men  are  in  the  lead. 

It  would  seem  that  all  that  is  necessary  to  meet  such  com- 
plaints is  to  point  to  the  increased  profit  that  has  come  to  the 
dairy  and  other  farm  industries  by  such  development.  With 
better  methods  and  larger  production  has  come  better  markets 
and  higher  prices.  The  same  condition  will  apply  to  bee-keeping, 
which  is  just  beginning  to  come  into  its  own. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  conditions  indicate  the  presence  of  American  foul  brood? 

2.  Describe  the  method  of  treatment. 

3.  How  does  European  foul  brood  differ  from  the  American  tvpe? 

4.  Discuss  methods  of  treating  this  disease. 

5.  How  is  foul  brood  spread? 

6.  What  is  sacbrood? 

7.  Are  dragon  flies  and  robber  flies  serious  enemies  of  the  honey-bee » 

8.  What  other  enemies  must  the  bee-keeper  combat? 

9.  Discuss  the  cause  and  prevention  of  dysentery. 

10.  How  can  the  wax  moth  be  controlled? 

11.  Describe  the  necessary  care  of  empty  combs. 
1?.  Why  is  a  bee  inspector  a  necessary  officer? 
13.  Discuss  his  duties  and  opportunities. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
WINTERING 

With  the  rank  and  file  of  bee-keepers  in  the  I^orthern  States, 
the  wintering  problem  is  the  most  serious  one  they  have  to  face. 
In  some  localities  brood  diseases  may  be  a  serious  menace  for  a 
time  and  cause  great  losses,  but  the  wintering  problem  must 
be  met  in  all  sections  of  the  North  and  must  be  faced  every 
winter.  While  many  professional  bee-keepers  have  learned  to 
prepare  their  bees  for  winter  so  carefully  as  to  meet  with  little 
loss,  the  average  small  bee-keeper  suffers  seriously  from  this 
cause  and  in  severe  winters  occasionally  loses  a  large  part  of 
his  stock. 

In  the  Southern  States  the  problem  is  a  somewhat  different 
one.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  instead  of  being  a  question  of 
suitable  protection  from  cold,  it  becomes  a  question  of  checking 
brood  rearing  during  the  period  when  no  honey  is  to  be  gathered 
and  providing  sufficient  stores  to  bring  the  colony  to  the  next 
honey  flow  in  good  condition.  When  stores  are  short  the  colony 
will  delay  brood  rearing  beyond  the  time  when  large  numbers 
of  young  bees  should  be  hatching  in  the  hive,  with  the  result 
that  the  first  period  of  profitable  honey  flow  is  passed  before  the 
colony  becomes  strong  enough  to  make  the  most  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. 

In  the  high  altitudes  of  Colorado  and  the  West  it  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  winter  the  colonies  in  the  open  air  without  extra 
protection.  While  in  these  high  altitudes  with  the  prevalence 
of  sunny  weather  the  bees  can  fly  so  frequently  as  to  insure  a 
large  portion  of  the  colonies  coming  through  the  winter  alive, 
it  would  seem  that  there  must  be  an  unnecessarily  heavy  mor- 
tality among  the  bees  and  that  with  suitable  protection  there 
might  be  considerable  saving  in  both  bees  and  stores. 

Essentials  of  Successful  Wintering. — It  is  common  to  speak 
234 


WHITE  HONEY  THE  BEST  WINTER  FEED  235 

of  wintering  as  though  proper  protection  from  cold  were  all  of 
the  problem.  In  fact  at  least  two  other  things  are  of  more 
importance:  first,  of  course,  a  supply  of  suitable  food  large 
enough  to  last  until  the  flowers  bloom  again ;  next  a  vigorous 
young  queen.  After  these,  suitable  protection  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

When  the  bees  are  unable  to  fly  for  long  periods  of  time, 
as  in  winter,  proper  food  is  of  great  importance.  Normally  the 
bee  voids  its  excrement  only  while  on  the  wing.  The  wastes 
that  accumulate  in  its  body  during  the  long  weeks  of  inactivity 
are  a  severe  tax  at  best  and  with  low-grade  food  stores,  the 
quantity  becomes  so  great  as  to  swell  the  abdomen  to  the  point 
of  causing  death.  In  mild  winters  when  there  is  frequent  oppor- 
tunity for  cleansing  flight,  bees  wintered  out  of  doors  will  go 
through  safely  on  almost  any  kind  of  stores  if  the  quantity  is 
sufficient.  There  will  be,  however,  a  much  greater  mortality 
among  the  bees  on  poor  stores  than  on  those  of  good  quality. 
Bees  wintered  in  cellars,  or  outside  in  severe  winters,  cannot  be 
expected  to  come  through  in  good  condition  on  poor  stores,  even 
though  they  survive  at  all. 

White  Honey  the  Best  Winter  Feed.— The  whiter  the  honey, 
as  a  rule,  the  less  waste  it  contains  and  there  is  no  better  winter 
feed  than  white  clover  honey.  The  color  is  not  always  a  safe 
guide,  however,  for  some  aster  honey  is  said  to  be  light  in  color 
and  aster  honey  seldom  gives  good  results  as  a  winter  feed. 

The  dark  fall  honey,  especially  when  mixed  with  pollen,  is 
much  less  desirable,  and  honey-dew  is  disastrous.  It  is  a  com- 
mon plan  among  practical  apiarists  to  extract  all  late  honey, 
which  has  not  had  time  to  be  thoroughly  ripened,  from  the  combs 
at  the  close  of  the  honey  flow  and  to  replace  with  sealed  white 
clover  honey,  or  to  feed  sugar  syrup.  The  best  grade  of  granu- 
lated sugar  should  always  be  used  for  this  purpose  as  it  makes 
a  very  good  substitute  for  honey  for  wintering.  Equal  parts 
of  sugar  and  water  are  frequently  used,  although  best  authorities 
recommend  less  water ;  three  parts  sugar  to  two  parts  water,  or 


236  WINTERING 

two  parts  sugar  to  one  of  water  being  regarded  as  better.  When 
it  becomes  necessary  to  feed  from  lack  of  sufficient  stores  or  to 
replace  unsuitable  stores,  it  should  be  attended  to  immediately 
after  the  close  of  the  honey  flow  to  give  the  bees  time  to  get 
things  in  readiness  for  winter  before  the  first  cold  snap.  (See 
Chapter  VIII,  Feeds  and  Feeding.) 

Failing  Queens  and  Old  Bees. — The  old.  bees  that  have 
gathered  the  year's  honey  crop  will  all  die  before  the  opening 
of  the  next  season's  harvest.  It  is  very  important,  therefore, 
that  the  coming  of  winter  shall  find  large  numbers  of  newly 
hatched  bees  to  replace  them.  It  is  the  late  hatched  bees  that 
are  not  exhausted  by  honey  gathering  that  survive  the  winter 
and  begin  the  work  of  the  following  season.  The  bee-keeper 
should  see  to  it  that  conditions  favor  brood  rearing  in  the  fall 
to  insure  this  condition. 

It  often  happens  that  a  colony  which  has  been  strong  all 
summer  and  perhaps  has  stored  a  large  surplus  will  die  during 
the  winter  or  early  spring  from  the  failure  of  the  old  queen..  It 
is  important  that  the  bee-keeper  see  that  all  colonies  have  vigor- 
ous queens  at  the  time  of  preparing  for  winter.  All  colonies  that 
cast  swarms  during  the  season  will  have  young  queens,  if  they 
have  any  at  all,  as  the  old  queen  always  leaves  the  hive  to  go 
with  the  swarm.  For  this  reason  it  often  happens  that  one  will 
get  a  new  swarm  only  to  find  it  dead  or  worthless  the  following 
spring.  The  bees  usually  replace  a  failing  queen,  but  they  cannot 
always  be  depended  upon  to  do  so.  When  the  queen  begins  to 
fail  in  late  fall  or  winter,  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  rear- 
ing another  and  if  a  virgin  is  raised  at  this  season  she  has  no 
opportunity  for  mating,  so  is  worthless. 

Influence  of  the  Queen. — It  should  be  understood  that  the 
queen  herself  does  not  have  a  direct  influence  on  the  wintering 
of  the  colony.  In  fact  she  might  be  removed  entirely  and  if 
other  conditions  are  right  the  colony  will  come  through  safely. 
The  importance  of  having  a  vigorous  young  queen  lies  in  insur- 
ing plenty  of  young  bees  at  the  beginning  of  winter  and  that 


PROTECTION  FROM  WIND  237 

brood-rearing  will  commence  in  due  season  in  spring.  Colonies 
with  failing  queens  are  likely  to  be  so  badly  weakened  before 
their  true  condition  is  discovered  in  spring  that  they  will  be 
worthless  or  nearly  so. 

Practical  bee-keepers  look  very  carefully  after  the  queens 
in  making  winter  preparation.  Some  apiarists  re-queen  all 
colonies  every  year  to  insure  only  young  queens.  This  method 
results  in  the  destruction  of  many  valuable  queens,  however. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  re-queen  every  other  year,  thus  keep- 
ing the  queens  for  two  years,  while  others  keep  a  record  of  every 
colony  and  only  replace  the  queens  when  they  show  signs  of  fail- 
ing. If  bees  are  on  straight  combs  in  movable  frame  hives,  as 
they  must  be  for  profitable  care,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  remove 
the  old  queen.  She  must  always  be  removed  before  a  new  queen 
is  given.  Otherwise  the  bees  will  destroy  the  newcomer.  Queens 
are  for  sale  by  numerous  queen  breeders  who  will  supply  them 
from  April  to  October.  Directions  for  introducing:  them  come 
with  the  little  cage  in  which  they  are  mailed.  This  subject  is 
further  considered  in  Chapter  VII. 

Protection  from  Wind.— Not  all  of  wintering  lies  in  getting 
the  colonies  through  the  winter.  It  is  equally  important  that 
they  come  through  in  such  condition  as  to  build  up  early,  in  order 
that  every  colony  be  very  populous  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey 
flow.  The  changeable  weather  of  early  spring  must  be  consid- 
ered and  some  protection  be  provided  against  the  chilling  winds 
of  this  season.  As  soon  as  warm  days  come,  the  queens  will 
begin  to  lay  in  earnest.  Within  three  days  from  the  time  the 
eggs  are  laid  the  larvae  hatch  and  require  a  very  warm  and  even 
temperature.  Baby  bees  are  even  more  sensitive  to  unfavorable 
conditions  than  baby  chicks.  It  often  happens  that  a  few  warm 
days  will  result  in  the  appearance  of  considerable  quantities  of 
brood  in  the  hive.  A  sudden  drop  in  the  temperature  makes  it 
difficult  for  the  bees  to  keep  the  brood  nest  sufficiently  warm,  with 
the  result  that  a  part  of  the  brood  is  likely  to  be  chilled  and 


238  WINTERING 

consequently  lost.      Every  possible  means  should  be  used  to 
save  the  energy  of  the  colony  at  this  season. 

Too  much  value  can  hardly  be  placed  upon  a  good  wind- 
break. Evergreens  so  planted  as  to  break  the  wind  from  the 
north  and  west  are  very  good.  The  author's  apiary  is  sheltered 
by  a  blackberry  thicket  immediately  behind  the  hives  and  back 


-The  value  of  a  good  natural  windbreak  behind  an  apiary  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. 

of  that  is  a  grove  of  native  trees  (Fig.  108).  The  apiary  was 
formerly  in  the  grove  where  the  wind  swept  under  the  trees. 
The  difference  in  the  condition  of  the  colonies  in  spring,  since 
moving  to  the  new  location,  is  surprising  indeed. 

When  brood  rearing  commences  the  bees  require  quantities 
of  water  and  this  accounts  for  their  frequenting  the  watering 
troughs  so  freely  in  early  spring.  Water  should  be  placed  near  at 
hand  to  save  long  flights  in  search  of  it.    A  tub,  trough,  or  other 


METHODS  OF  WINTERING  239 

receptacle  partly  filled  with  shavings,  chips  or  the  like  to  enable 
the  bees  to  get  the  water  without  danger  of  drowning  should  be 
provided.     (See  Chapter  IV.) 

Protection  in  Spring. — Many  bee-keepers  complain  that  after 
they  bring  their  bees  through  the  winter  in  the  cellar  they  lose 
a  large  part  of  them  through  the  spring,  the  stock  dwindling 
after  being  placed  on  the  summer  stands.  Several  things  might 
be  the  cause  of  this  condition.  Too  many  old  bees,  or  colonies 
that  went  into  the  cellar  weak,  or  lack  of  suitable  protection 
might  be  responsible.  It  is  important  not  only  to  place  the  bees 
in  a  carefully  sheltered  position  after  they  are  removed  from 
the  cellar,  but  in  addition  to  provide  some  protection  in  the  way 
of  packing. 

Strong  Colonies  Also  Essential.— To  the  above  general  prin- 
ciples we  must  add  another — strong  colonies.  While  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  winter  a  weak  colony  or  even  a  nucleus,  it  is 
seldom  worth  while.  If  a  colony  is  weak  at  the  beginning  of 
tvinter  by  the  time  spring  arrives  there  is  not  likely  to  be  enough 
bees  left  to  build  up  without  the  addition  of  brood  or  bees  from  a 
stronger  colony.  It  would  be  wiser  to  unite  several  weak  colo- 
nies to  make  one  vigorous  one  than  to  bother  with  the  weaklings. 
Over  large  areas  the  principal  flow  is  from  white  clover, 
which  is  of  comparatively  short  duration.  It  is  only  the  colonies 
that  are  strong  in  bees  at  the  beginning  of  the  flow  that  will 
return  substantial  profits  to  their  owners. 

A  strong  colony  of  bees  will  require  less  honey  to  winter 
successfully  than  a  small  one.  The  source  of  heat  is  the  food  con- 
sumed and  the  larger  the  cluster  the  more  animal  heat  will  be 
retained. 

METHODS    OF    WINTERING 

In  considering  the  various  methods  of  wintering  here  pre- 
sented the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  some  methods  suited 
to  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis  would  not  be  safe  for  northern  lati- 
tudes. Chaff  hives,  paper  cases,  and  similar  methods  which  are 
entirely  satisfactory  for  Southern  Missouri  and  southward  are 


240  WINTERING 

not  to  be  recommended  for  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Ontario  and 
similar  sections.  Outdoor  wintering,  however,  may  be  safely 
practised  as  far  north  as  Canada  if  proper  precautions  are  taken 
in  the  winter  preparations.  The  success  or  failure  of  outdoor 
wintering  in  any  latitude  will  depend  to  some  extent  on  the  sur- 
rounding conditions,  such  as  windbreaks,  as  well  as  the  actual 
protection  of  the  hives.  What  has  been  said  about  the  desira- 
bility of  spring  protection  for  cellar  wintered  colonies  will  apply 
with  equal  force  to  colanies  wintered  outside. 

Paper  Cases. — One  of  the  common  plans  for  outdoor  winter- 
ing in  the  southern  part  of  the  region  where  winter  protection  is 
necessary  and  one  that  brings  fairly  satisfactory  results  in  ordin- 
ary winters  is  the  paper  case.  Tar  paper  or  other  black  paper 
should  never  be  used  because  of  its  tendency  to  absorb  heat.  The 
hive  under  a  black  protection  case  will  suffer  from  such  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  as  to  render  it  worse  off  than  though  it  had 
remained  without  protection.  Light  colored  building  paper, 
however,  will  answer  very  well. 

To  make  such  a  case  two  or  three  corn  cobs  are  laid  over  the 
top  of  the  frames  and  a  cotton  cloth  or  burlap  spread  over  them. 
The  purpose  of  the  cobs  is  to  permit  the  bees  to  move  freely  from 
place  to  place  to  reach  their  stores.  An  empty  super  is  then 
placed  on  the  hive  and  filled  with  dry  leaves  or  chaff.  The  cover 
is  then  placed  on  the  super  and  the  whole  covered  with  several 
layers  of  newspapers.  A  large  sheet  of  heavy  building  paper 
or  other  waterproof  paper  is  then  placed  over  all  and  folded 
around  the  hive  and  fastened  as  shown  in  Fig.  109.  The  hives 
shown  in  the  illustration  are  without  the  super  of  leaves.  There 
is  a  disagreement  among  bee-keepers  as  to  the  value  of  this  porous 
packing  material  over  the  frames.  The  purpose  is  to  absorb 
the  moisture  during  cold  weather.  Some  argue  that  the  bees  are 
safer  without  it,  but  the  author  is  a  believer  in  absorbent  cush- 
ions.   Building  paper  cases  are  at  best  a  scant  protection. 

The  winter  of  1911-12  caused  such  heavy  losses  among  out- 


PAPER  CASES 


241 


of-door  wintered  colonies  as  to  discourage  many  advocates  of 
outside  wintering.  This  was  an  extraordinary  winter  with  un- 
usually low  temperatures  and  long  periods  between  days  warm 
enough  for  a  flight.  Investigation  shows  that  a  large  per  cent 
of  the  loss  in  this  unusual  season  was  due  to  poor  stores  and 
careless  preparation  for  winter.  The  two  preceding  winters 
had  been  so  favorable  that  many  bee-keepers  were  inclined  to 


FiQ.  109. — Paper  winter  cases  are  at  best  scant  protection,  but  are  good  for  cellar-wintered 
bees  after  they  are  placed  on  the  summer  stands. 

take  the  risk  rather  than  go  to  the  trouble  of  careful  preparation. 
The  losses  have  not  been  without  compensation,  for  the  result 
will  not  be  soon  forgotten,  and  the  bees  will  receive  better  atten- 
tion at  the  proper  time  for  years  to  come. 

Outdoor  wintering  is  very  successful  in  the  hands  of  some 

of  the  most  successful  and  extensive  honey  producers.     In  fact 

a  few  have  practised  no  other  method  for  many  years  and  get 

uniformly  good  results.     With  outdoor  wintering  it  is  very 

16 


242 


WINTERING 


essential  that  great  care  be  used  to  see  that  stores  are  of  suffi- 
cient quantity  and  of  good  quality. 

One  of  the  principal  arguments  in  favor  of  cellar  wintering 
is  the  saving  in  stores,  which  is  considerable.  In  general  it  is 
estimated  that  from  one-third  to  one-half  more  honey  will  be 
consumed  when  wintered  outside.    This  is  offset  by  earlier  brood 


FiQ.   110. — The  Dadant  method  of  outdoor  wintering  in  large  hives  ia  suited  to  localities 
where  the  bees  have  frequent  flights  during  the  cold  months. 


rearing  and  a  generally  stronger  condition  when  properly  win- 
tered out-of-doors. 

The  Dadant  Method. — The  Dadants  are  extensively  engaged 
in  honey  production  in  Hamilton,  Illinois,  directly  across  the 
river  from  Keokuk.  They  use  a  large  hive  and  cover  the  brood 
frames  with  a  straw  mat  and  fill  the  cover  with  leaves.  Woven 
wire  is  tacked  to  one  corner  of  the  front  of  the  hive  and  then 


PITTING  OR  BURYING  243 

made  to  encircle  it  on  both  sides  and  the  back.  The  space  thus 
provided  is  filled  with  leaves.  The  front  is  provided  with  no  pro- 
tection. Fig.  110  shows  the  method  employed  by  C.  P.  Dadant, 
one  of  the  best  known  American  bee-keepers,  of  wintering  in  the 
Dadant  hive  which  he  has  used  for  many  years.  The  results  seem 
to  be  satisfactory  when  proper  stores  are  supplied.  This  way, 
while  suited  to  the  conditions  of  Keokuk  and  southward,  would 


Fio.    in.-OnemethodofpackinKonthesunimerstands:   (a)   roof  of  composition  materia 
(b)   board  over  entrance. 

hardly  be  safe  much  farther  north,  judging  from  the  reports  of 
outdoor  wintering  from  northern  sections.  This  plan  is  not 
suited  to  small  hives,  such  ^  the  eight-frame  Langstroth  so 
commonly  used. 

Pitting  or  Burying.— On  sandy  or  other  very  porous  soils 
a  few  bee-keepers  practise  pitting  or  burying.  A  trench  is  dug 
about  eighteen  inches  deep  and  2  X  4's  placed  in  the  bottom 
to  keep  the  hives  off  the  ground.  After  its  bottom  has  been 
removed  the  hive  is  placed  on  the  scantling  and  the  cover  slightly 


244 


WINTERING 


raised  to  provide  for  upward  ventilation.  About  eighteen  inches 
of  straw  is  placed  over  the  hives  and  this  in  turn  is  covered  with 
a  layer  of  loose  earth.  Not  over  two  layers  of  hives  should  be 
placed  in  such  a  trench.     There  are  only  a  comparatively  few 

locations  where  this 
method  is  suited  to  the 
conditions,  as  a  well- 
drained  situation  and 
porous  soil  are  essen- 
tial. Bees  pitted  in 
this  manner  are  liable 
to  be  disturbed  by 
skunks  or  other  burrow- 
ing animals  and  seri- 
ous loss  to  result. 
There  is  danger  of  loss 
also  if  they  be  buried 
either  too  deep  or  not 
deep  enough.  ^Vhile 
the  method  may  do 
as  a  makeshift  under 
|,- v:-  ^  temporary'  conditions  it 

flM^K,^,^^^  JjmijJMt       is  not  to  be  generally 

^^^HB[Lj^^^**'***<*i*..     '  ^^^^HH^H       recommended. 
^^^^^^HK'  r^^k  Packing 

^^^^^^^H  ^^1      Summer   Stands. — 

l^mmP  Another  method   suit- 

able for  southerly 
latitudes  where  only 
slight  winter  protection  is  needed  is  packing  on  the  summer 
stands.  The  illustration  (Fig.  Ill)  shows  an  apiary  in  southern 
Iowa.  In  this  case  a  tight  board  fence  about  thirty  inches  high  is 
used  as  a  windbreak  to  the  north  of  the  bees.  The  hives  set  in  a 
long  row  about  six  inches  from  this  fence.  Leaves  are  packed  be- 
tween and  behind  the  hives  and  a  waterproof  roofing  is  placed 


Fig.   112. — Parts  of  a  double- walled  hive. 


CHAFF  OR  DOUBLE  WALLED  HIVES 


245 


over  all  to  shed  the  rain.  In  this  plan  the  same  method  of  packing 
empty  supers  with  leaves  over  the  brood  nest  is  used  as  described 
under  paper  cases.  Various  modifications  of  this  plan  are  in  use 
throughout  this  latitude  from  Kansas  and  Missouri  eastward. 
Chaff  or  Double  Walled  Hives.— Too  many  bees  are  left 
without  attention  in  single  walled  hives  and  for  the  average 
small  apiarist  double  walled  hives  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig. 


^'*^fi.M?~.?°"u'''«  "'*"'''*.  ^'^^  assembled.     The  double-  wallci  hive  with  the  space  between 
hlled  with  chaff  or  cork  is  suited  to  the  conditions  of  localities  where  winters  are  mild. 

112  would  be  far  better.  The  space  between  the  two  walls  is 
packed  with  chaff  and  over  the  brood  nest  is  placed  a  tray  also 
filled  with  chaff  and  a  large  cover  telescopes  over  all.  Fig.  11,3 
shows  the  hive  as  it  appears  in  use.  During  winter  the  entrance 
is  contracted  to  a  four  inch  width.  There  are  several  hives  on 
the  market  built  on  this  plan. 

The  chaff  hive  like  the  foregoing  methods  is  not  well  adapted 
to  the  far  northern  regions  and  much  of  the  complaint  against 


246  WINTERING 

this  method  of  wintering  is  perhaps  from  regions  where  it  should 
not  be  used.  For  intermediate  latitudes,  with  good  stores  and 
proper  attention,  this  hive  should  be  expected  to  give  satisfactory 
results.  Extensive  bee-keepers  who  have  used  a  similar  hive  in 
Michigan  for  many  years  report  that  the  average  loss  has  not 
exceeded  ten  per  cent.  The  practical  bee-keeper  should  not  be 
content  to  follow  any  plan  by  which  he  could  not  reduce  the 
winter  losses  below  this  figure.  A  ten  per  cent  loss  is  sufficient 
to  condemn  any  system.  However,  a  large  part  of  winter  losses 
by  any  method  is  always  to  be  charged  to  failing  queens  and  im- 
proper stores,  two  things  which  can  hardly  be  charged  to  the 
method  of  protection. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  with  the  use 
of  double  walled  hives  there  should  be  a  sealed  wood  cover  under 
the  tray  of  chaff.  The  best  authorities  take  directly  opposite 
views  on  this  subject,  some  holding  that  there  should  be  no 
upward  ventilation  and  the  other  side  holding  that  upward  venti- 
lation is  essential  to  absorb  the  surplus  moisture  in  extremely 
cold  weather.  The  author,  as  already  stated,  holds  to  the  latter 
view,  and  in  practice  uses  it  as  well  as  recommends  it. 

The  double  walled  hive  is  a  most  excellent  hive  for  early 
spring  use,  as  the  bees  are  not  subject  to  such  sudden  changes 
of  temperature  as  is  the  case  in  single  walled  hives. 

The  large  size  and  extra  weight  are  against  the  double  walled 
hive  for  use  in  extensive  apiaries  where  every  part  should  be 
interchangeable.  For  the  use  of  comb  honey  producers,  how- 
ever, who  have  less  occasion  to  manipulate  the  hive  bodies,  there 
is  not  so  much  objection  to  be  made.  There  can  be  no  ques- 
tion but  that  there  will  be  a  greater  saving  in  stores  for  early 
spring  brood  rearing  in  a  double  walled  hive  than  in  the  ordinary 
single  walled  one.  More  honey  will  also  be  stored  from  fruit 
bloom  and  other  early  sources  as  a  smaller  number  of  bees  will 
be  required  to  maintain  the  required  heat  for  brood  rearing  in 
the  hive.  Taken  altogether,  there  are  many  advantages  from  its 
use  to  offset  the  greater  weight  and  bulk. 


PACiaNG  CASES  247 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  is  in  leaving  the  hives  in  one 
position  the  entire  year.  Winter  preparations  require  but  a  few 
moment's  time  with  each  hive.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  con- 
tract the  entrance,  put  the  inner  cover  in  place,  place  the  tray 
of  chaff  in  position  over  the  frames,  and  place  the  telescope  cover 
over  all  and  the  job  is  done.  The  busy  man  who  has  but  a  few 
bees  for  diversion  and  who  wishes  to  be  relieved  of  unnecessary 
manipulations  in  caring  for  them  will  find  the  double  walled 
hive  to  be  ideal  for  his  use.  In  fact  the  author  feels  that  it  is 
the  best  possible  hive  for  amateurs  generally,  who  do  not  keep 
more  than  twenty-five  to  fifty  colonies.  As  to  whether  it  will 
pay  the  large  producer  to  use  this  type  of  hive  is  not  quite  so 
evident.  Some  find  them  satisfactory  on  an  extensive  scale, 
while  others  feel  that  they  are  not  suited  to  the  use  of  the  exten- 
sive honey  producer. 

Packing  Cases.— Various  kinds  of  packing  cases  have  been 
in  use  for  many  years,  so  the  idea  is  not  new.  However,  the 
tendency  of  the  time  is  to  abandon  cellar  wintering  in  favor  of 
packing  cases.  With  proper  preparation  bees  will  be  safer  in 
winter  cases  than  in  a  cellar  and  will  reach  the  season  of  honey 
flow  in  better  condition  than  by  any  other  method  of  wintering. 

Bees  are  successfully  wintered  in  packing  cases  as  far  north 
as  Canada,  and  some  of  the  most  extensive  honey  producers  have 
abandoned  expensive  cellars  for  their  use.  The  most  common 
plan  is  to  pack  four  colonies  in  one  box  with  entrances  facing 
two  to  the  east  and  two  to  the  west,  or  two  to  the  south  and  one 
each  to  the  east  and  west.  Less  labor  is  required  to  prepare  the 
boxes  with  only  two  openings.  North  openings  are  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Where  four  colonies  are  packed  in  a  case,  two  sides  of  each 
hive  have  the  additional  protection  of  other  hives  warm  with 
the  clusters  of  bees.  The  colonies  will  thus  be  much  warmer 
than  when  packed  singly. 

Several  years  of  observation  indicate  to  the  author  that  bees 
winter  better  in  larger  hives  than  in  smaller  ones.     Unless  the 


248  WINTEWNG 

hive  is  at  least  as  large  as  the  ten-frame  Langstroth,  packed 
colonies  should  be  wintered  in  double  stories,  or  with  a  deep 
bottom  or  empty  super  underneath.  The  Minnesota  combination 
bottom  and  feeder  is  used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose  and  is 
highly  recommended  by  those  who  have  tried  it. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  eight-frame  hive  is  in  such  com- 


Fia.   114. — Packing  box   with  hives  inside  ready  for  leaves  or  other  packing  material  for 
outdoor  wintering. 

mon  use.  While  the  eight-frame  hive  is  good  in  the  hands  of 
expert  comb  honey  men,  the  larger  hive  is  much  better  for 
(wdinary  use.  For  wintering  in  eight-frame  hives  considerable 
difficulty  is  sometimes  encountered  to  get  enough  honey  into  a 
single  hive-body  to  insure  sufficient  stores.  Good  results  have 
been  secured  by  placing  two  hive-bodies  one  above  the  other  and 
leaving  about  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  more  honey  than  seemed 
necessary.    Two  double-story  hives  are  then  placed  side  by  side. 


PACKING  CASES  249 

close  together,  in  a  drygoods  box  of  one  inch  lumber,  or  four  in 
a  packing  case.  The  drygoods  and  clothing  merchants  get  a 
number  of  boxes  every  fall  just  about  the  right  size  to  pack  two 
colonies  together.  A  box  can  sometimes  be  secured  large  enough 
to  pack  three  colonies  side  by  side  (Figs.  114,  115  and  116),  but 


FxQ.  115. — ^Packing  two  colonies  with  dry  leaves  in  a  goods  bos.     The  entrances  are  left 
open  to  give  the  bees  opportunity  to  fly  on  warm  days. 

these  do  not  give  as  good  satisfaction,  for  the  bees  from  the  hive 
in  the  middle  seem  to  enter  the  hives  on  either  side,  until  the 
colony  which  is  most  favored  as  far  as  warmth  is  concerned 
comes  through  the  winter  weak  from  loss  of  deserting  bees. 

The  advantage  of  using  the  drygoods  box  lies  in  the  lower 
cost  and  less  labor  necessary  to  get  it  ready  for  a  packing  case. 
Sufficient  lumber  to  make  such  a  case  would  in  most  localities 
cost  several  times  as  much  as  is  paid  for  the  boxes.     They  need 


250 


WINTERING' 


so  little  alteration  that  but  a  few  minutes  is  necessary  to  make 
one  over.  As  will  be  seen  by  Fig,  116,  a  six-inch  strip  is  removed 
in  front  of  the  entrance  and  turned  inside  the  box  to  prevent  the 
packing  from  dropping  down  in  front.  On  warm  days  the  bees 
are  free  to  fly.  Dry  leaves  are  used  for  packing  and  about  four 
to  six  inches  of  space  is  filled  all  round  the  hives  and  usually 


Fia.  116. — Snug  for  the  winter. 


from  ten  to  twelve  inches  over  the  top,  the  more  the  better.  As 
the  hives  are  two  stories  high  the  bees  have  an  abundance  of  rooiji 
for  spring  brood  rearing. 

As  before  stated  there  should  be  an  abundance  of  honey. 
With  a  surplus  available  in  the  hive  in  spring  and  the  hives 
protected  from  the  cold  winds  by  the  packing,  they  need  not  be 
opened  until  the  beginning  of  the  honey  flow.  Colonies  thus 
packed,  and  opened  for  the  first  time  about  the  first  of  May, 
have  been  found  to  be  full  of  brood  and  honey  from  fruit  bloom. 


PACKING  CASES  251 

Sometimes  queen  cells  will  be  started  very  early  in  preparation 
for  swarming.  At  the  same  time  colonies  without  protection 
were  making  slow  progress  toward  building  up. 

It  is  very  apparent  that  such  colonies  as  described  on  May 
first  are  worth  much  more  as  honey  gatherers  during  the  clover 
flow.  When  colonies  reach  this  stage  sufficientl/  early  it  is  some- 
times possible  though  seldom  advisable  to  make  increase  ahead 
of  the  clover  flow.  Where  the  main  flow  is  later  in  the  season, 
this  extra  early  brood  rearing  is  not  so  important,  though  the 
colonies  should  be  strong.  Over  large  areas  of  the  Northern 
States  the  bees  need  careful  attention  to  build  them  up  early 
enough,  as  a  rule.  In  these  packing  cases  the  bees  will  some- 
times store  surplus  from  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion. 

Reports  of  success  from  wintering  in  these  or  similar  cases 
are  uniformly  good  where  the  work  has  been  properly  done,  over 
nearly  all  the  States  and  Canada. 

For  large  apiaries  a  case  which  holds  four  colonies,  two 
facing  east  and  two  west,  is  perhaps  more  desirable.  The  worst 
objection  to  packing  cases  is  the  large  amount  of  labor  in  pre- 
paring for  winter  and  the  bother  of  storing  the  cases  in  summer. 
As  one  bee-keeper  expressed  it,  the  results  were  good  but  it 
required  acres  of  space  to  store  his  packing  cases  in  summer. 
Instead  of  nailing  the  cases  into  permanent  form  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  fasten  at  the  corners  with  hooks,  so  that  the  parts  can 
be  piled  up  compactly  during  the  summer  months.  In  large 
apiaries  the  use  of  drygoods  boxes  is  hardly  practical  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  disposing  of  so  much  bulk  when  not  in  use. 
Where  only  a  few  are  in  use  they  can  readily  be  turned  to  account 
as  chicken  coops  in  summer  (Fig.  117). 

The  packing  case  is  perhaps  the  safest  and  most  generally 
successful  of  any  method  of  wintering,  taking  the  country  as  a 
whole.  It  is  adapted  to  any  section,  north  or  south,  and  permits 
the  bees  to  fly  wherever  the  weather  is  sufficiently  warm.  There 
is  much  trouble  from  outdoor  wintered  colonies  losing  large  num- 
bers of  bees  which  fly  out  on  bright  days  when  it  is  too  cold  for 


252 


WINTERING 


successful  flight,  dying  upon  the  snow.  In  the  packing  cases 
this  trouble  is  avoided  as  the  bees  do  not  feel  the  heat  of  the  sun 
until  the  air  is  sufficiently  warm  to  permit  a  safe  return.  Of 
course  there  will  always  be  some  old  bees  which  will  die  outside 
after  every  day  warm  enough  for  a  flight. 

Cellar  Wintering. — Cellar  wintering  is  the  most  generally 


FiQ.   117. — The  packing  boxes  may  be  utilized  for  chicken  coops  in  summer. 

practised  plan  by  extensive  honey  producers  of  the  northeastern 
States.  Over  large  areas  there  are  long  periods  that  the  bees 
are  unable  to  fly  from  early  December  until  the  last  of  February 
or  even  March.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  put  the  bees  into  the 
cellar  in  this  climate.  The  saving  in  stores  will  be  considerable. 
In  general  it  is  estimated  that  not  more  than  twelve  to  fifteen 
pounds  of  honey  will  be  consumed  by  a  colony  in  the  cellar, 
though  as  much  more  should  be  present  in  the  hive  to  insure  a 


CELLAR  WINTERING 


253 


plentiful  supply  for  spring  brood  rearing  after  the  colony  is 
placed  upon  the  summer  stands,  as  it  is  rather  difficult  to  practise 
feeding  satisfactorily  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Where  cellar  wintering  is  practised  the  bees  should  be  taken 
in  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  weather  becomes  so  cold  that  there 
is  little  chance  of  further  flight.     It  is  well,  also,  to  leave  them 


FiQ.   118. — Concrete  cellar  for  wintering. 


in  the  cellar  in  spring  until  warm  days  are  the  rule.  Many  bee- 
keepers take  them  out  when  the  maples  bloom.  If  conditions 
are  favorable  they  will  get  honey  and  pollen  at  once  and  will, 
perhaps,  be  self-supporting  from  the  time  they  are  taken  out. 
However,  it  so  frequently  happens  that  they  will  be  unable  to 
get  anything  from  the  field  for  weeks  at  a  time  in  early  spring 
that  the  wise  bee-man  should  always  see  that  they  have  enough 
old  stores  for  emergencies.  As  previously  mentioned,  stores 
of  good  quality  are  essential  to  successful  wintering  in  the  cellar. 


254 


WINTERING 


Essentials  of  a  Good  Cellar. — The  greatest  importance  is 
attached  to  even  temperature  in  cellar  wintering.  If  the  tem- 
perature cannot  be  controlled  effectively,  the  bees  are  better  off 
outside.  Disastrous  results  are  the  rule  in  cellars  where  the  tem- 
perature is  up  with  ev^ry  warm  day  and  down  when  the  outside 
temperature  becomes  cold.  There  is  much  to  be  learned,  as  yet, 
concerning  conditions  of  wintering  in  general  and  especially 


Fio.  119. — Cellar  for  wintering  under  the  workshop. 


cellar  wintering.  It  is  hoped  and  expected  that  the  extensive 
experiments  now  being  carried  on  by  Dr.  Phillips  in  the  govern- 
ment laboratory  at  Washington  will  shortly  solve  some  of  these 
perplexing  questions. 

The  majority  of  writers  give  a  temperature  of  45°  F.,  as 
the  ideal  cellar  temperature.  No  good  reason  has  as  yet  been 
given  as  to  just  why  this  particular  temperature  is  better  than 
a  higher  or  lower  one.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  tempera- 
ture should  not  drop  below  40°,  especially  if  the  cellar  is  damp, 


ESSENTIALS  OF  A  GOOD  CELLAR  255 

as  a  combination  of  dampness  and  a  cold  cellar  result  fatally 
for  the  bees;  50°  is  probably  better  than  either. 

Ventilation  also  seems  to  be  essential,  especially  to  rid  the 
cellar  of  the  surplus  moisture.  Good  results  are  frequently  re- 
ported from  cellars  closed  up  tight  if  the  walls  are  porous  and 
permit  the  escape  of  moisture  readily.  In  general  an  even  tem- 
perature and  a  dry  cellar  are  supposed  to  be  best.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  it  will  eventually  be  demonstrated  that  a  tempera- 
ture somewhat  above  the  regulation  45°  is  better  if  other  con- 
ditions are  satisfactory.  At  present  without  a  basis  on  which  to 
state  positively  we  can  accept  the  conditions  generally  agreed 
upon  as  best.     (See  Figs.  118  and  119.) 

In  this  connection  we  can  do  no  better  than  to  describe  a 
cellar  which  gives  uniformly  good  results  and  in  which  the 
owner  has  never  lost  a  colony  that  went  into  winter  quarters 
in  normal  condition.  The  cellar  is  that  used  by  Mr.  Snyder, 
of  the  Iowa  Bee-keeper's  Association,  who  describes  it  as 
follows : 

The  cellar  was  constructed  especially  for  the  purpose  and  is  under  the 
shop  and  honey  house  and  large  enough  to  accommodate  200  colonies  as 
he  stores  them. 

First  a  stone  wall  about  sixteen  inches  through  was  built.  This  wall 
was  lined  with  hollow  tile  on  which  a  coat  of  common  plaster  was  applied. 
The  cellar  is  ventilated  by  a  chimney  built  from  the  ground  and  with  an 
opening  at  the  bottom  and  also  at  the  ceiling.  The  chimney  extends 
through  the  ceiling  to  the  usual  height  above  the  roof.  In  addition  to  the 
chimney  ventilator  which  is  in  the  center  of  one  end  of  the  cellar,  there 
are  two  three-inch  ventilators  in  the  corners  at  the  opposite  end.  This 
supplies  sufficient  ventilation  for  cold  weather.  In  mild  weather  the  door 
of  the  bee  cellar  is  left  open.  This  opens  into  another  cellar  room  used  for 
storage  purposes,  all  being  kept  in  total  darkness. 

The  bottom  of  the  cellar  is  tile  drained,  the  tile  having  outlet  in  the 
creek  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant.  However,  there  is  no  direct  outlet 
from  the  cellar,  the  tile  being  laid  about  three  inches  below  the  surface. 

The  ceiling  is  constructed  of  eight-inch  joist  covered  with  tar  building 
paper  and  overlaid  with  patent  metal  lath  on  which  a  coat  of  plaster  is 
applied.     Overhead  of  course  there  is  the  floor  of  the  workshop. 

Most  bee-keepers  favor  brick  walls  as  they  are  dryer  than 
cement  or  stone  as  a  rule.  If  too  many  colonies  are  placed  in 
a  cellar  for  the  size  of  the  space  available,  there  is  a  tendency 


256  WINTERING 

for  the  temperature  to  rise  in  spring,  from  the  heat  generated 
in  the  hives.  Crowding  in  the  cellar  should  be  avoided,  but  when 
such  a  condition  becomes  apparent  it  can  sometimes  be  relieved 
by  placing  a  piece  of  ice  over  the  cluster  on  each  hive.  Some 
bee-keepers  use  a  sprinkling  can  and  sprinkle  the  fronts  of  the 
hives,  permitting  the  water  to  run  into  the  hive.  While  some- 
thing of  this  kind  may  be  necessary  to  quiet  the  bees,  it  is  much 
better,  if  possible,  to  avoid  the  conditions  that  cause  them  to 
become  restless. 

Removing  Covers  or  Bottoms. — It  is  a  common  practice  to 
remove  either  the  cover  or  bottom  board  from  the  hives  as  they 
are  placed  in  the  cellar.  Some  bee-keepers  remove  one,  some 
remove  the  other,  while  others  leave  both  in  place  with  entranceo 
wide  open.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  there  is  any  definite  evi- 
dence as  to  which  plan  is  best.  A  common  plan  is  to  remove' 
the  bottoms  and  leave  the  covers  in  place,  then  alternate  the 
hives,  placing  one  on  top  of  the  two  below  with  a  space  between, 
thus  providing  ample  ventilation  to  the  cluster. 

In  general  it  would  seem  that  where  other  conditions  are 
right  it  makes  little  difference,  as  the  bees  seem  to  come  through 
in  good  condition  anyway.  Where  other  conditions  are  bad  the 
bees  come  through  in  bad  shape,  no  matter  whether  top  or  bot- 
tom, or  both,  or  neither  be  removed. 

Summary. — Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
extensive  honey  producers  are  agreed  on  the  following  as  essen- 
tial to  successful  wintering  by  any  plan :  vigorous  young  queens 
with  a  large  cluster  of  young  bees,  sufficient  stores  of  good 
quality,  and  a  dry  situation.  If  the  bees  are  wintered  in  cellar, 
an  even  temperature  in  addition  is  desired. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  losses  of  bees  in  winter  so  heavy? 

2.  Discuss  the  essentials  of  successful  wintering. 

3.  What  stores  bring  best  results  and  why? 

4.  What  relation  does  the  queen  sustain  to  the  wintering  of  the  colony? 

5.  Under  what  conditions  are  paper  cases  suitable  for  winter  protection? 

6.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  packing  bees  on  their  summer  stands? 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  double  walled  hives? 

8.  Describe  the  essential  points  of  a  good  cellar  for  wintering  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

The  first  essential  to  the  successful  marketing  of  any  com- 
modity is  to  have  a  good  article  put  up  in  attractive  shape.  One 
of  the  worst  drags  on  the  honey  market  is  the  quantity  of  honey 
that  goes  to  the  store  in  propolized  and  unscraped  sections,  with 
travel  stain,  dirt,  and  leaking  honey.  It  would  require  a  custo- 
mer who  had  a  confirmed  honey  taste  to  even  think  of  honey  after 
looking  at  the  article  too  often  offered  for  sale.  It  is  a  for- 
tunate thing  for  the  business  that  honey  production  is  rapidly 
passing  into  the  hands  of  specialists  who  know  how  to  prepare 
their  product  for  market  in  attractive  condition  and  that  the 
small  farm  apiaries  are  rapidly  passing  away  in  most  places. 
There  is  no  good  reason  why  honey  in  small  quantities  might 
not  be  as  well  cared  for  as  large  quantities.  Too  many  who  have 
but  a  few  colonies  of  bees  regard  whatever  honey  is  secured  as 
that  much  velvet,  and  are  satisfied  to  take  it  to  the  store  in  the 
easiest  way  possible  and  to  accept  such  a  credit  on  the  grocery 
bill  as  the  merchant  is  willing  to  give. 

COMB   HONEY 

Grading. — The  bee-keeper  who  wishes  to  establish  a  per- 
manent market  cannot  place  too  much  importance  on  carefully 
grading  his  product  so  that  every  package  will  be  uniform  with 
others  of  the  same  grade. 

There  is  more  carelessness,  as  yet,  in  the  preparation  of  the 
honey  crop  for  market  than  any  other  staple  food  product.  For 
some  reason  the  bee-keeper  has  not  kept  pace  with  other  enter- 
prises in  the  marketing  of  his  crop,  and  to  this  he  owes,  to  a 
great  extent,  the  fact  that  honey  does  not  bring  as  good  prices 
as  some  other  commodities. 

Some  confusion  has  resulted  in  the  different  grading  rules 
17  aw 


258  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

adopted  by  the  bee-keepers  of  different  sections.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  the  same  rules  be  made  to  apply  to  all  sections, 
so  that  the  merchant  buying  honey  from  any  locality  will  know 
what  to  expect. 

Official  Grades. — The  ISTational  Bee-keeper's  Association  at 
the  convention  in  Cincinnati  in  1913  adopted  the  following  as 
official  for  the  association: 

Sections  of  comb  honey  are  to  be  graded:  first,  as  to  finish;  second, 
as  to  color  of  honey;  and  third,  as  to  weight.  The  sections  of  honey  in  any 
given  case  are  to  be  so  nearly  alike  in  these  respects  that  any  section  shall 
be  representative  of  the  contents  of  the  case. 

1.  Finish. —  (1)  Extra  Fancy:  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly 
attached  to  the  four  sides,  the  sections  to  be  free  from  propolis  or  other 
pronounced  stain,  combs  and  cappings  white,  and  not  more  than  six  unsealed 
cells  on  either  side. 

(2)  Fancy:  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly  attached  to  the 
four  sides,  the  sections  free  from  propolis  or  other  pronounced  stain,  comb 
and  cappings  white,  and  not  more  than  six  unsealed  cells  on  each  side, 
exclusive  of  the  outside  row. 

(3)  No.  1:  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly  attached  to  the 
four  sides,  the  sections  free  from  propolis  or  other  pronounced  stain,  comb 
and  cappings  white  to  slightly  off"  color,  and  not  more  than  forty  unsealed 
cells,  exclusive  of  the  outside  row. 

(4)  No.  2:  Comb  not  projecting  beyond  the  box,  attached  to  the  sides 
not  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  way  around,  and  not  more  than  sixty  un- 
sealed cells,  exclusive  of  the  row  next  to  the  wood. 

2.  Color. — On  the  basis  of  color  of  the  honey,  comb  honey  is  to  be 
classified  as:  first,  white;  second,  light  amber;  third,  amber;  and  fourth,, 
dark. 

3.  Weight. —  (1)  Heavy:  No  section  designated  as  heavy  to  weigh  less 
than  fourteen  ounces. 

(2)  Medium:  No  section  designated  as  medium  to  weigh  less  than 
twelve  ounces. 

(3)  Light:  No  section  designated  as  light  to  weigh  less  than  ten 
ounces. 

In  describing  honey  under  these  rules,  three  words  or  symbols  are  to 
be  used,  the  first  descriptive  of  the  finish,  second  the  color,  and  third  the 
weight.  For  example,  fancy,  wliite,  heavy  (F  =  W  =  H).  No.  1,  amber, 
medium  (No.  1=A  =  M).  In  this  way  all  the  combinations  of  color, 
weight,  and  finish  can  be  briefly  described. 

Cull  Honey. — Cull  honey  shall  consist  of  the  following:  Honey  packed 
in  soiled  second-hand  cases  or  in  badly  stained  or  propolized  sections; 
sections  containing  pollen,  honey-dew  honey,  honey  showing  signs  of  granu- 
lation, poorly  ripened,  sour  or  "weeping"  honey;  sections  with  comb 
projecting  beyond  the  box,  or  well  attached  to  the  section  less  than  two- 
thirds  the  distance  around  the  inner  surface;  sections  with  more  than 
sixty  unsealed  cells  exclusive  of  the  row  adjacent  to  the  wood;  leaking, 
injured,  or  patched  up  sections.     See  Fig.  120. 


OFFICIAL  GRADES 


259 


Fio.   120.— Development  of  comb  honey  in  sections:     1,  full  sheets  of  foundation;    2,  cells  drawn 
and  partly  filled  ;  3,  cells  6lled  and  partly  capped;    4,  fancy  comb  honey  ready  for  the  table 


260  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

From  the  above  rules  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  a  very  short- 
sighted policy  to  mix  inferior  sections  with  the  good  ones  in 
the  hope  of  getting  a  better  price  for  all.  The  result  is  to  bring 
the  price  of  the  lot  down  to  the  level  of  the  poorest  grade. 

The  more  carefully  and  conscientiously  grading  is  done  the 
better  price  will  be  obtained  and  the  easier  to  find  a  ready  sale. 
Good  quality  comb  honey  carefully  graded  will  nearly  always 
sell  readily,  although  like  other  commodities  the  price  varies 
with  seasons. 

Commission  Houses. — There  has  been  much  complaint  from 
disappointed  bee-keepers  who  have  not  been  satisfied  with  results 
from  sales  through  commission  houses.  Sometimes  the  fault  is 
with  the  producer  and  sometimes  with  the  commission  man. 
The  bee-keeper  should  exercise  ordinary  business  methods  and 
not  consign  goods  to  a  commission  firm  without  some  knowledge 
of  the  standing  of  the  firm.  While  large  quantities  of  honey 
are  sold  through  commission  firms  to  the  regular  trade,  it  often 
happens  that  so  much  honey  is  sent  to  the  larger  centers  as  to 
greatly  depress  the  market,  while  the  markets  in  the  smaller 
places  may  be  short.  The  problem  of  proper  distribution  of 
the  honey  crop  is  a  serious  one  and  demands  careful  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  producer  who  would  realize  the  most  from  his 
product. 

There  are  commission  firms  which  specialize  in  the  sale  of 
honey  and  which  handle  large  quantities  to  the  satisfaction  of 
their  clients.  There  are  other  concerns  that  buy  outright  in 
carload  lots  at  an  agreed  price.  As  a  rule,  a  cash  sale  with  no 
chances,  even  at  a  slightly  lower  price,  is  to  be  preferred. 

Home  Markets. — As  a  rule  the  bee-keepers  living  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  will  find  it  greatly  to  their  advantage 
to  develop  home  or  nearby  markets.  The  western  honey  pro- 
ducers are  at  a  disadvantage  in  this  respect,  for  bee-keeping  is 
more  highly  specialized  in  the  West  and  the  honey  produced  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  what  home  markets  can  absorb.  It  thus  be- 
comes necessary  to  seek  distant  markets.     In  such  localities 


SHIPPING  CASES  261 

eo-operation  is  a  great  advantage  in  reaching  a  profitable  market. 
In  the  eastern  States  there  are  few  localities  where  a  profit- 
able market  for  large  quantities  of  honey  cannot  be  developed 
within  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles.  Methods  of  developing  local 
markets  will  be  considered  more  in  detail  under  "  Advertising 
Methods." 

Shipping  Cases. — Comb  honey  is  a  perishable  product  and 
considerable  care  is  necessary  to  see  that  it  is  packed  in  such 
shape  that  it  will  stand  the  rough  handling  necessary  to  ship- 
ment and  reach  its  destination  in  presentable  condition.  If 
the  average  bee-keeper  could  spend  a  day  in  some  large  ware- 
house where  large  amounts  of  honey  are  being  received  and  take 
note  of  the  number  of  cases  that  arrive  in  broken  and  leaking 
condition  he  would  not  be  surprised  at  many  of  the  poor  returns 
from  shipments.  A  single  broken  section  may  spoil  the  appear- 
ance of  a  whole  case  by  dripping  over  the  remainder  which  may 
be  in  otherwise  good  condition.  So  much  irritation  arises  m 
making  settlements  for  honey  that  arrives  in  bad  condition  that 
many  responsible  firms  refuse  to  handle  it  at  all.  Then  again 
dishonest  firms  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  honey  is  so  com- 
monly damaged  in  shipment  to  report  as  damaged  goods  that 
really  arrive  in  good  condition. 

Wood  shipping  cases  holding  twenty-four  sections  are  the 
most  common  as  yet.  The  corrugated  paper  in  bottom  of  case 
offers  the  advantage  of  apparently  greater  safety  to  the  honey 
and  does  not  add  greatly  to  the  cost.  The  paper  will  absorb 
much  of  the  shock  of  rough  handling  as  well  as  part  of  the  leak- 
age of  broken  sections. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  comb  honey  sent  to  market  should 
be  enclosed  in  paper  cartons.  This  offers  several  advantages. 
The  section  is  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust  and  also  retains 
all  its  own  leakage,  thus  saving  the  loss  resulting  from  soiling 
other  sections. 

Corrugated  paper  shipping  cases  have  also  been  tried  to 
some  extent  but  as  yet  have  not  been  widely  used.     Their  value 


262  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

remains  as  yet  to  be  demonstrated.  Fear  is  expressed  that  they 
will  not  protect  the  fragile  contents  as  well  as  the  wooden  case 
with  paper  lining. 

The  use  of  the  best  possible  protection  to  the  honey  shipped 
to  market  is  cheap  insurance  and  the  risk  of  resulting  loss  will 
be  sufficiently  reduced  to  overbalance  the  greater  expense. 

Care  of  Comb  Honey. — Comb  honey  should  be  fully  finished 
and  ripened  before  taking  from  the  hive,  but  should  not  be  left 
until  the  appearance  is  spoiled  by  travel  stain. 

As  soon  as  it  is  removed  it  should  be  stored  in  a  warm  room. 
Care  should  be  used  that  it  does  not  freeze,  as  low  temperatures 
hasten  granulation  and  granulated  comb  honey  is  likely  to  be 
a  "  drug  "  on  the  market.  While  candied  extracted  honey  can 
readily  be  liquefied,  it  is  difficult  to  do  anything  with  granulated 
comb  honey.  In  this  case  "  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth 
a  pound  of  cure."  Fortunately  comb  honey  does  not  usually 
granulate  quickly  and  there  is  usually  ample  time  to  dispose 
of  it  before  it  will  begin  to  candy  in  the  comb. 

The  novice  is  likely  to  store  his  honey  in  the  cellar,  the  worst 
possible  place  for  it,  thinking  to  keep  it  cool.  The  author  some- 
times receives  letters  from  bee-keepers  who  have  spoiled  a  nice 
lot  of  honey  by  storing  it  in  a  cold,  damp  place,  wishing  to  know 
what  can  be  done  to  restore  it.  If  it  is  merely  candied  the  situa- 
tion is  not  so  bad,  but  honey  stored  in  a  cold,  damp  cellar  gets 
weepy  and  sour  so  that  it  is  of  little  use  for  any  purpose  with 
which  the  author  is  familiar,  unless  it  be  for  making  vinegar. 

A  warm  and  dry  place  is  the  best  storeroom  for  honey.  It 
should  by  all  means  be  dry.  Well  ripened  honeys  are  much 
less  likely  to  granulate  and  for  this  reason  the  honey  gathered 
early  in  the  season  gives  much  less  trouble  than  that  gathered 
late  in  summer.  The  source  from  which  the  nectar  is  gathered 
makes  some  difference  also,  as  some  honeys  are  much  more  likely 
to  candy  than  others  subjected  to  the  same  conditions. 

Early  Sales. — As  a  rule  the  early  market  is  best  and  the  man 
who  depends  on  the  general  market  instead  of  establishing  a 


PACKAGES  FOR  EXTRACTED  HONEY        263 

market  of  his  own  which  he  supplies  through  the  year,  will  do 
well  to  sell  as  early  as  possible  after  the  crop  is  removed  from 
the  hive.  Most  years  there  is  a  period  following  the  holiday 
season  when  honey  moves  slowly  and  new  shipments  do  not  re- 
ceive prompt  returns.  As  a  rule,  it  is  easier  to  sell  early  and  the 
prices  average  as  good  or  better  than  later.  The  fellow  with  a 
market  established  is  independent  of  the  fluctuations  of  the 
general  market  and  the  increased  returns  from  retail  sales  pay 
well  for  the  additional  time  required,  in  most  cases. 

EXTRACTED    HONEY 

Packages  for  Extracted  Honey.— There  is  less  risk  of  loss 
of  extracted  honey  in  shipping  than  of  comb  honey.  Of  course, 
an  occasional  can  will  leak  and  an  occasional  package  of  glass 
be  broken  but  the  total  breakage  of  comb  honey  is  several  times 
greater  than  that  of  extracted.  The  producer  draws  his  honey 
from  the  extractor  into  large  settling  tanks  where  it  can  remain 
safely  until  he  is  ready  to  place  it  in  the  packages  in  which 
it  goes  to  market.  If  ho  depends  largely  on  the  general  market 
the  honey  will  mostly  be  shipped  in  square  cans  holding  sixty 
pounds  each.  Two  of  these  cans  are  shipped  in  one  case,  making 
a  package  of  120  pounds  weight. 

If  he  develops  a  special  or  retail  market  he  will  use  such 
a  package  as  his  market  demands.  Usually  the  bee-keeper  deter- 
mines the  kind  of  package  in  which  he  prefers  to  sell  his  product 
and  educates  his  customers  accordingly.  It  takes  several  years 
to  develop  an  extensive  retail  trade  but  it  is  a  very  satisfactory 
way  to  dispose  of  one's  crop  and  is  not  difficult  to  do  (Fig.  121). 

The  friction  top  pail  holding  five  pounds  is  a  popular  package 
for  retail  trade.  Five  pounds  is  not  too  much  for  the  average 
family  to  buy  at  one  time,  although  many  buy  in  smaller  pack- 
ages. For  the  grocery  trade  jars  of  eighteen  ounces,  one  and 
one-half  pounds  and  three  pounds  capacity  are  perhaps  the  three 
most  popular  sizes.  For  the  grocery  trade  glass  containers  are 
much  to  be  preferred  to  tin,  as  the  contents  can  be  seen  which 
adds  much  to  the  total  sales. 


264 


MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 


A  one-quart  fruit  jar  of  white  clear  glass  makes  a  very  satis- 
factory package  for  retail  trade.  It  holds  about  three  pounds 
net.  A  tin  cover  with  oiled  paper  lining  should  be  used  instead 
of  the  usual  top  and  rubber  used  for  canning  fruit. 

Controlling  Prices.-— One  of  the  most  satisfactory  kinds  of 
trade  to  develop  is  a  fancy  retail  trade  through  regular  grocery 
stores.  If  the  bee-keeper  will  guarantee  to  make  good  any 
losses  from  any  cause  and  to  take  back  goods  that  are  unsatis- 


FiQ.  121. — Packages  for  retailing  extracted  honey. 

factory  for  any  reason  without  quibbling,  he  can  frequently 
put  in  his  line  in  the  best  groceries  and  set  the  retail  prices, 
allowing  the  grocer  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  selling  price. 
If  care  is  used  to  offer  only  a  high  grade  and  uniform  product 
a  select  trade  can  be  established  which  will  demand  a  certain 
brand  and  which  in  a  few  years'  time  will  be  a  good  asset  to 
the  bee-keeper's  business. 

There  are  so  many  different  grades  of  honey  from  different 
sources  that  the  average  consumer  becomes  confused  when  differ- 
ent purchases  are  of  such  decidedly  different  quality  and  comes 
to  fear  adulteration.  It  is  very  important  that  a  certain  trade 
be  supplied  with  a  uniform  quality,  as  this  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  to  hold  trade. 


CO-OPERATIVE  MARKETING 


265 


Blending. — If  the  bee-keeper  has  honey  from  several  sources 
so  that  his  product  varies  greatly  in  quality  and  flavor  he  should 
either  blend  the  different  kinds  together  as  a  whole  so  as  always 
to  have  his  brand  uniform,  or  he  should  use  only  his  best  honey 
under  his  brand  and  dispose  of  the  other  stock  on  the  general 
market.  Blended  honey  gives  very  good  satisfaction,  usually, 
if  the  blend  is  always  alike.  This  plan  permits  the  bee-keeper 
to  dispose  of  all  his  product  in  his  own  trade  and  it  brings  better 
prices. 

If  one  has  poor  quality  honey  of  any  kind  he  should  not 
take  chances  of  spoiling  his  market 
by  using  it  unless  it  is  his  principal 
source,  in  which  event  he  can  develop 
a  market  which  will  come  to  demand 
that  particular  product. 

Co-operative  Marketing. — Where 
the  business  of  honey  production  is 
highly  developed,  as  in  some  sections 
of  the  West,  the  co-operative  plan 
offers  decided  advantages.  Many  of 
the  bee-keepers  are  engaged  in  produc- 
tion on  such  an  extensive  scale  that 
they  find  little  time  or  inclination  to  bother  with  the  selling 
end  of  the  business.  If  the  cooperative  association  is  in  the 
hands  of  competent  managers  the  honey  goes  to  the  best  markets 
and  the  large  volume  of  business  transacted  cuts  the  cost  of 
handling  down  to  the  lowest  possible  figure. 

The  Colorado  Honey  Producers'  Association  is  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  these  cooperative  associations.  The  individ- 
ual member  packs  and  marks  his  honey  according  to  the  associa- 
tion rules  and  ships  it  to  the  Denver  headquarters.  If  he  has 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  ship  it  out  in  carlots  the  manager  of  the 
association  or  someone  for  him  inspects  the  honey  to  see  that 
it  is  properly  graded  and  it  is  shipped  to  market  directly  from 
the  apiary.    The  bee-keeper  gets  the  full  amount  of  cash  resulting 


Fig.  122.— Trade-mark  of  the 
Colorado  Honey  Producera  Associ- 
ation. 


Warranted  Pure 


9  Honey 


THE  COLORADO  HONEY  PRODUCERS'  ASS'N  :;  Denver 


NOTICE:  :ir/;7rr 

■ii™™™®! 

Fia.  123. — Honey  label. 


Xi*»Ht''*»'*»'*»'f^it»H^'*'it»rt»Tt»'*t»*»'fT»«t»jjf 


PURE  HONEY 


Blossoms 


i     Guaranteed  by    WESTERN    HONEY    PRODUCERS,   Sioux    Cily,   Iowa,    under 
T*  the  food  and  drug  act  of  June  30.  1906.      Registered  under  Serial  No.  37384. 


Principally  from  CLOVER 

2V2  Pounds  Net  Weight 


The  contents  of  this  package  may  candy  or  granulate.     To  restore  it  to 

its  liquid  form,  set  the  package  in  warm  water.     Do  not  let 

It  boil  or  the  flavor  of  the  flower  will  be  lost. 

WESTERN  HONEY  PRODUCERS 


SIOUX  CITY,  IOWA 


^    THOMAS  CHANTRY.  President 


W.  P.  SOUTHWORTH,  Manager 


EDWARD  G.  BROWN,  Secretary 


4 
4 

4 


j^  W.  p.  SOUTHWORTM,  Manager  4^ 


Fia.  124. — Honey  label. 


ADVERTISING  METHODS 


267 


from  the  sale,  less  commission  and  expenses,  in  a  few  days,  so 
that  as  far  as  he  is  individually  concerned  it  is  a  cash  transac- 
tion. Where  the  producer  must  seek  distant  markets  this  plan 
offers  the  maximum  of  return  possible  with  a  minimum  of 
trouble.  It  is  the  association,  instead  of  the  individual,  that 
looks  after  such  details  as  correspondence,  collections,  ship- 
ments, etc. 

Under  this  plan  great  care  is  used  to  have  all  grades  of  both 


<  PURE  HONEY 


PUT  UP  AND    GUARANTEED  BY 

WESTERN  HONEY  PRODUCERS 

SIOUX  CITY.   lA. 

FiQ.    125.— Honey  label. 

comb  and  extracted  honey  of  uniform  quality  and  the  associa- 
tion brand  soon  comes  to  be  known  in  the  markets.  Figure  122 
shows  the  trade  mark  or  brand  adopted  by  the  Colorado  Honey 
Producers'  Association.  Figure  123  shows  their  label  for  large 
packages.     (See  also  Figs.  121  and  125.) 


ADVERTISING    METHODS 

In  the  development  of  special  or  retail  markets  suitable 
advertising  is  of  the  greatest  value.  This  subject  can  well  be 
considered  from  two  angles,  that  of  general  advertising  which 
has  for  its  object  to  increase  the  consumption  of  honey,  and 


268 


MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 


advertising  the  product  of  a  particular  apiary  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a  direct-to-consumer  trade. 

Methods  of  General  Advertising.— There  is  not  a  great  deal 
that  the  individual  bee-keeper  can  do  in  the  way  of  general 
advertising,  because  the  expense  is  prohibitive.  Dr.  Bonney's 
little  red  stickers  (Fig.  127)  are  as  good  as  anything  yet 
proposed.  These  little  stickers  are  printed  and  offered  for  sale 
by  several  enterprising  firms  at  thirty-five  cents  per  thousand 

and  their  use  has  become 
general  among  the  bee- 
keepers almost  in  a  day. 
Thousands  of  them  are 
pasted  on  envelopes  con- 
taining outgoing  mail, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  places 
where  they  are  likely  to 
attract  the  attention  of 
the  public.  One  of  these 
little  stickers  attached  to 
a  letter  will  attract  the 
notice  of  several  carriers 
and  clerks  in  the  postal 
service  before  finally 
being  delivered  to  the 
person  to  whom  it  is 
addressed.  Dr.  Bonney  has  found  some  new  customers  among 
the  mail  clerks  who  have  been  attracted  to  the  return  card  of 
"  Bonney  Honey,  Buck  Grove,  Iowa,"  on  the  envelopes  he  uses 
in  his  correspondence.  He  also  uses  a  sign  at  his  apiary  as 
shown  in  Fig.  128. 

The  Iowa  Bee-keeper's  Association  has  adopted  rather  a 
novel  plan  of  general  advertising  at  the  holiday  season.  A  large 
placard  is  printed  in  two  colors,  with  the  words,  "  Eat  Honey 
with  Your  Christmas  Dinner"  (Fig.  129),  and  the  Greetings 
of  the  Iowa  Bee-keeper's  Association.     The  association  has  fur- 


HONEY 

WARRANTED  PURE 

FROM  THE  APIARY  OF 

BERT  A.BROWN, 

Des  Moines, 
Iowa. 

Fio.   126.— Honey  label. 


EXHIBITS  AT  FAIRS 


269 


nished  to  each  of  its  members  as  many  of  these  cards  as  he  wished 
to  place  in  the  stores  where  his  honey  was  on  sale.  At  this  season 
of  the  year  when  luxuries  are  in  special  demand  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  make  many  new  customers  for  honey  who  have  regarded 
it  as  a  luxury  not  for  general  use.  These  cards  attract  instant 
attention  to  the  honey  on  sale  at  the  precise  moment  when  the 
purchaser  is  prepared  to  buy  something  for  his  table,  and  if  the 
packages  are  attractively  displayed  increased  sales  will  be  the 
result. 

If  the  bee-keeper  has  a  bent  for  advertising  it  would  be  quite 
possible  to  adapt  this  idea  to  his  individual  use  and  by  preparing 
a  series  of  such  cards  suit- 

i 


EAT  HON EY^ 

MATUF£S  own SWSer- A/OS  DICCSTIOM  I 


EAT  HONEY 


Fig.   127. — Little  stickers  widely  used  for 
general  advertising. 


able  for  every  season  of  the 
year  and  keeping  each  kind 
on  display  but  a  few  days  at 
a  time  he  can  add  consider- 
ably to  the  demand  for 
honey  in  the  stores  where 
it  is  on  sale. 

Exhibits  at  Fairs. — A 
good  exhibit  at  either  State 
or  county  fair  is  not  only  good  general  advertising  but  also  likely 
to  be  of  great  help  to  the  individual  bee-keeper  who  makes  the 
exhibit  (Fig.  130).  Multitudes  of  people  pass  by  such  an  exhibit 
daily  and  if  there  be  a  well-informed  attendant  he  can  do  much 
to  create  a  demand  for  his  product  on  the  part  of  the  visitors. 

One  year  the  prize  winning  exhibit  at  the  Iowa  State  fair 
carried  off  about  two  hundred  dollars  in  premiums  and  in  addi- 
tion the  owner  took  orders  for  about  five  thousand  pounds  of 
honey  at  retail  prices.  He  was  thus  amply  repaid  for  all  the 
time  and  labor  necessary  to  make  a  creditable  showing  for  the 
industry  in  general  and  for  his  apiary  in  particular. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  half  of  the  honey  sold  as  a  result 
of  this  exhibit  was  to  customers  who  would  not  have  gone  to 
the  store  to  leave  an  order  for  it. 


270 


MARKETING  THE  HOxNEY  CROP 


The  author  once  put  up  a  small  exhibit  for  a  store  where  his 
honey  was  on  sale,  to  be  used  at  a  county  fair.  Extracted  honey 
in  jars  of  the  various  sizes  in  which  it  was  regularly  offered 
for  sale  was  the  principal  part  of  the  exhibit.  It  was  arranged 
as  attractively  as  possible  about  an  observation  hive  containing 
a  frame  of  brood  and  live  bees.     Above  the  exhibit  was  placed 


Fig.  128. — Advertising  sign  at  the  Bonney  apiary. 

a  large  sign  painted  in  two  colors  and  worded  substantially 
follows: 

PURE  EXTRACTED  HONEY 
Gathered  by  Cass  County  Bees 

From  Cass  County  Flowers 

Expressly  for  Stier  Grocery  Co., 

Atlantic. 


as 


There  was  no  attendant  in  charge  of  the  exhibit,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  man  in  charge  of  the  general  department  in  which  it 
was  placed,  there  was  more  interest  in  it  than  in  any  other  in 
the  department.  The  live  bees  were  of  course  the  principal 
object  of  interest.  Had  there  been  an  attendant  in  charge  to 
answer  questions  and  take  orders  the  results  might  have  been 


jlXHIbits  at  fairs 


271 


even  greater,  but  with  no  word  concerning  its  origin  excepting 
the  sign  the  results  were  a  great  surprise  both  to  the  grocer 
and  the  bee-keeper.  Orders  for  honey  began  coming  in  im- 
mediately and  by  the  close  of  the  fair  the  supply  available  at 
the  store  was  all  sold  and  the  delivery  wagon  sent  to  the  fair 
grounds  to  take  down  the  exhibit  to  supply  pressing  orders.     A 


EAT  HONEY 


WITH   YOUR 


CHRISTMAS 

DINNER 


GREETINGS 
Iowa  Bee-Keepers  Assoclkilon 


Fia.   129.— Iowa  Bee-keepera  Association  holiday  placard. 

hurry-up  call  was  sent  to  the  apiary  for  more  honey,  which  was 
supplied  at  once.  As  a  result  of  this  single  little  exhibit  and 
sign  at  a  county  fair,  which  did  not  require  much  more  than  a 
half  day's  time  to  prepare  and  put  in  place,  the  sales  of  honey 
from  this  store  were  more  than  doubled  and  many  of  the  custo- 
mers who  first  bought  as  a  result  of  it,  remained  as  permanent 
customers  of  this  particular  store  and  particular  brand  of  honey 
as  long  as  it  remained  on  the  market. 

As  a  rule  the  bee-keeper  who  seeks  the  shortest  and  most 


FANCY  PACKAGES 


273 


direct  way  to  reach  his  customers,  after  once  trying  the  plan  of 
exhibiting,  remains  as  a  permanent  exhibitor  as  long  as  he  cares 
to  develop  this  kind  of  market.  One  will  find  it  difficult  to  show 
his  product  and  explain  his  methods  to  as  many  people  in  any 
other  way.  The  premiums  offered  are  usually  sufficient  to  pay 
the  expenses  incurred  by  the  exhibitor. 

Fancy  Packages.— One  of  the  very  best  advertisements  for 
the  honey  producer  is  an  attractive  package  decidedly  different 
from  those  for  sale  in  the  general  market.     The  use  of  paper 


FiQ.  132. 


Fig.   131.— Paper  carton  the  beat  retail  package  for  section  honey 
FiQ.   132. — The  Hunten  tin  package. 

cartons  for  comb  honey  offers  good  opportunities  for  creating  a 
demand  for  a  particular  brand.  Instead  of  making  use  of  the 
regular  stock  carton  with  the  simple  addition  of  the  producer's 
name  it  is  much  better  to  have  a  special  design  with  a  particular 
brand  and  have  the  design  copyrighted  (Fig.  131). 

One  of  the  most  attractive  packages  for  comb  honey  ever 
placed  on  the  market  was  put  out  by  Paul  Hunten,  of  Colorado. 
Mr.  Hunten  had  a  section  made  of  tin  instead  of  the  usual  wood. 
When  this  was  filled  he  had  a  top  and  bottom  to  slip  on  like  the 
lid  to  a  tin  can  and  a  paper  band  to  go  clear  around  the  four 
sides  and  make  the  package  dust  proof.  The  transparent  center 
18 


274  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

of  the  one  side  gives  a  view  of  the  contents  (Fig.  132).  This 
package  would  be  suited  only  to  the  highest  class  of  trade  be- 
cause of  the  extra  expense  to  produce  it,  but  there  is  a  trade 
that  would  gladly  pay  a  few  cents  extra  for  each  section  in 
order  to  secure  a  fancy  package  that  is  dust  and  drip  proof. 

The  paper  carton  serves  the  same  general  purpose  and  is 
much  cheaper.  Extracted  honey  also  sells  much  better  in 
attractive  packages,  as  any  bee-keeper  of  experience  has  learned 
by  experience.  The  experiment  has  been  tried  of  putting  honey 
in  an  ordinary  Mason  fruit  jar  with  ordinary  top  and  rubber 
beside  containers  holding  the  same  quantity  and  quality  of  honey 
but  of  a  clear  white  glass  and  nice  fitting  top  and  attractive  label. 
From  six  to  ten  times  as  many  jars  of  the  more  attractive  appear- 
ing lot  were  sold  as  of  the  other,  thus  proving  how  far  the 
appeal  to  the  eye  will  assist  in  making  a  sale. 

Retail  Prices. — Many  bee-keepers  prefer  to  dump  the  whole 
crop  on  the  general  market  to  sell  for  what  it  will  bring  rather 
than  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  developing  the  retail  market.  As  a 
rule  extracted  honey  of  good  quality  will  not  sell  readily  at 
more  than  7j^  to  8  cents  per  pound  in  large  quantities  at  whole- 
sale prices.  At  the  same  time  extracted  honey  of  similar  quality 
will  bring  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  pound  net  at  retail  vsdth 
an  average  of  about  twelve  cents  per  pound  perhaps.  Unless 
the  producer  has  a  very  large  business  that  occupies  his  time 
fully  he  can  well  afford  to  spend  considerable  time  in  marketing 
his  product  for  the  extra  fifty  per  cent.  Prices  have  been  mate- 
rially higher  since  the  war  period. 

The  small  apiary  that  produces  from  $1000  to  $1200  per 
year  can  thus  be  made  to  pay  from  $1500  to  $1800  annually. 
While  to  make  the  most  of  such  a  market  will  require  that  honey 
be  kept  in  stock  to  supply  the  trade  throughout  the  entire  year, 
most  of  the  additional  work  will  be  required  during  the  months 
when  least  is  required  in  the  apiary.  There  is  the  further 
advantage  that  every  man  who  develops  his  own  market  relieves 
the  general  market  to  that  extent  and  thus  serves  to  steady  prices 
or  even  to  advance  them. 


NEWSPAPER  ADVERTISING  275 

Newspaper  Advertising, — Direct  advertising  offers  a  very 
good  field  if  the  copy  is  well  arranged  and  the  best  medium 
selected.  Too  many  producers  confine  their  advertising  to  the 
bee  journals.  These  are  read  principally  by  other  producers 
and  the  only  buyers  are  bee-keepers  who  have  a  larger  market 
than  they  can  supply,  but  they  buy  only  at  wholesale  prices  or 
little  above. 

The  buyers  which  can  be  reached  profitably  are  the  real  con- 
sumers and  especially  those  who  buy  in  considerable  quantity. 
Western  farmers  and  ranchmen  are  good  customers,  especially 
in  sections  that  are  a  long  distance  from  the  railroad  and  where 
supplies  must  be  purchased  long  in  advance.  Some  of  these 
ranches  will  buy  as  much  as  half  a  ton  of  extracted  honey  at  a 
single  order.  The  farm  and  ranch  journals  that  circulate  in  the 
arid  regions  where  ranching  is  still  carried  on  extensively  fur- 
nish good  advertising  mediums  for  the  sale  of  honey.  The 
farm  journals  which  circulate  in  the  Mississippi  valley  are  also 
good  mediums,  as  the  farmers  of  the  Middle  West  are  prosper- 
ous and  less  honey  is  produced  by  the  general  farmer  every  year. 

Local  newspapers  can  usually  be  used  to  advantage.  In 
making  use  of  the  local  paper  the  producer  can  offer  to  deliver 
his  product  on  telephone  order.  Much  depends  upon  the  word- 
ing of  the  advertisement,  no  matter  what  medium  is  used.  The 
mere  mention  of  honey  for  sale  at  a  stated  price  will  bring  orders 
from  customers  who  are  already  consumers  of  this  product,  but 
will  seldom  attract  the  attention  of  others.  An  advertisement 
with  some  novel  suggestion  will  attract  the  attention  of  the 
casual  reader  and  often  bring  an  order. 

HONEY  THAT  TASTES  LIKE  MORE 

Our  new  honey  is  now  ready  for  delivery.  The  bees  have  been 
unusually  busy  this  summer  and  the  product  is  of  the  finest  quality. 
Flowers  are  nature's  supreme  effort  and  honey  is  the  essence  of 
the  flowers.  A  sample  of  our  clover  blend  will  convince  you  that 
a  finer  food  product  has  never  been  produced.  Only  twenty-five 
cents  per  pound  in  ten  pound  lots. 

CLOY ERD ALE  APIARIES 


276  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

In  "  Advanced  Bee  Culture  "  W.  Z.  Hutchinson  gives  an 
account  of  an  advertising  experience  by  which  he  sold  ten  thou- 
sand pounds  of  honey  from  a  single  advertisement  in  Saturday 
Evening  Post  at  a  cost  of  $25.  The  magazines  of  national  cir- 
culation offer  a  field  of  their  own  which  the  ordinary  bee-keeper 
is  hardly  prepared  to  cultivate.  The  circulation  is  so  widely 
scattered  and  the  cost  is  such  that  there  is  little  hope  that 
advertising  in  this  way  will  prove  profitable  unless  the  bee- 
keeper has  attractive  printed  matter  which  he  is  prepared  to 
send  in  answer  to  every  inquiry  together  with  a  sample  of  the 
honey. 

A  large  producer  who  is  prepared  to  follow  up  inquiries  and 
who  has  well  prepared  printed  matter  giving  some  information 
as  to  the  production  of  honey  and  its  preparation  for  market 
may  find  advertising  in  these  high  class  journals  profitable. 
As  a  rule,  the  novice  should  begin  with  his  local  papers,  then 
gradually  increase  his  advertising  appropriation  as  he  learns 
how  to  make  the  most  of  it. 

The  local  market  can  always  be  most  profitably  developed 
and  in  most  localities  east  of  the  Missouri  River  the  bee-keeper 
need  not  seek  the  distant  market. 

Booklets. — j^o  matter  what  method  one  may  take  to  find  his 
customers  a  cheap  booklet  giving  the  uses  to  which  honey  can 
be  put  will  be  of  great  value.  This  should  be  printed  on  good 
paper  with  some  attractive  pictures  of  apiary  scenes  and  honey 
packages.  There  should  be  information  concerning  the  care  of 
honey.  Too  many  people  will  take  home  a  section  or  two  of 
honey  and  spoil  it  by  putting  it  in  the  refrigerator.  The  man- 
ner of  liquefying  granulated  honey  should  always  be  given. 

This  should  be  followed  with  some  brief  descriptions  of  the 
methods  of  honey  production  and  preparation  for  market,  and 
a  number  of  receipts  for  the  use  of  honey  in  cooking  or  other 
household  uses  should  be  included.  There  are  several  booklets 
of  this  kind   offered   and  something  new  appears   frequently. 


BOOKLETS  277 

"  Facts  About  Honej,"  by  C.  P.  Dadajit,  published  at  Hamilton, 
111.,  by  Dadant  &  Sons,  contains  16  pages  of  interesting  informa- 
tion about  honey  and  its  uses.  ''  Use  of  Honey  in  Cooking,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Root  Co.,  is  somewhat  similar  in  its  scope. 

Farmer's  Bulletin  653,  "  Honey  and  its  Uses  in  the  Home," 
issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  free  distri- 
bution, is  excellent.  Sometimes  the  bee-keeper  finds  its  desirable 
to  compile  and  print  something  which  is  distinctly  his  own. 

Shortcake. — Three  cups  flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  V2  cup  shortening,  U/2  cups  sweet  milk.  Roll  quickly  and 
bake  in  hot  oven.  When  done,  split  the  cake  and  spread  the  lower  half 
thinly  with  butter  and  the  upper  half  with  a  half  pound  of  the  best 
flavored  honey.  (Candied  honey  is  preferred.  If  too  hard  to  spread  well 
it  should  be  slightly  warmed  or  creamed  with  a  knife.)  Let  it  stand  a 
few  minutes  and  the  honey  will  melt  gradually  and  the  flavor  will  permeate 
all  through  the  cake.     To  be  eaten  with  milk. 

Soft  Cake.— One  cup  butter,  2  cups  honey,  2  eggs,  one  cup  sour  milk, 
2  teaspoonfuls  soda,  a  teaspoonful  each  of  ginger  and  cinnamon,  four  cups' 
flour. 

Eggless  Cake. — One  cupful  sugar,  J^  eup  honey,  one  cupful  sour  milk 
2  tablespoonfuls  butter,  one  cupful  chopped  raisins,  one  cup  chopped  dates, 

1  teaspoonful  soda,  21/2  cups  flour,  spice  to  taste. 

Gingerbread.— One  egg,  one  cup  honey,  one  cup  sour  milk,  2  teaspoon- 
fuls butter,  1/2  teaspoonful  soda,  one  teaspoonful  ginger.  Flour  to  make 
rather  stiff  batter. 

Honey  Jumbles.— Tv/o  quarts  flour,  3  tablespoonfuls  melted  lard,  one 
pint  honey,  14  pint  molasses,  11/2  level  teaspoonfuls  soda,  a  level  teaspoon- 
ful salt,  14  pint  water,  J/g  teaspoonful  vanilla. 

Ginger  Cookies.— One  cup  each  of  hon?y,  sugar,  buttermilk  and  lard; 
one  teaspoonful  each  of  salt,  cinnamon,  and  ginger;  one  teaspoonful  soda- 
one  teaspoonful  lemon  extract.  Stir  stiff-  with  flour,  for  gingerbread;  mix 
stiff  and  roll  and  cut  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven.  Also  good  with  caraway 
seeds  instead  of  spices. 

Oatmeal  Cookies.— Cre&m  together  one  cup  sugar,  y^  cup  honey  %, 
cup  lard  or  butter,  6  tablespoonfuls  milk,  1/2  cup  raisins,  2  cups  rolled  oats 

2  eggs.  Sift  together  2  or  more  cups  flour,  y^  teaspoonful  salt,  2  teaspoon- 
fuls cream  tartar,  one  teaspoonful  each  of  soda  and  cinnamon.  Mix  to- 
gether and  roll  quite  thick. 

German  Christmas  Cookies.— One  quart  honey.  Let  it  come  to  a  boil 
then  set  away  to  cool.  Add  one  pound  brown  sugar,  4  eggs,  juice  and  rind 
of  two  lemons,  1/4  pound  citron  chopped  fine,  2  teaspoonfuls  soda,  one  table- 
epoonful  each  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  allspice  and  nutmeg.  Flour  to  stiften 
Make  dough  as  stiflf  as  you  can.  Chopped  nut  meats  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

Brown  Bread.— One  cup  corn  meal,  one  cup  rye  meal,  one  cup  sour  milk 
1/2  cup  or  less  of  honey,  teaspoonful  salt  and  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Steam 
four  hours  and  then  dry  in  oven  fifteen  minutes. 


278  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

Graham  Bread. — Take  11/2  cups  sour  milk,  i/^  cup  shortening,  %  cup 
honey,  one  egg,  teaspoonful  soda,  3  cups  graham  flour. 

Bran  Gems. — Two  cups  bran,  one  scant  cup  wheat  flour,  one  pinch  salt, 
11/2  cups  buttermilk,  level  teaspoonful  soda,  3  tablespoonfuls  extracted 
honey.  Mix  the  bran  and  flour  and  salt  thoroughly;  add  buttermilk  in 
which  soda  has  been  dissolved;  lastly  add  honey.  Bake  until  thorouglily 
done,  in  greased  gem-pan  in  hot  oven. 

Sandioiches. — For  an  afternoon  tea  or  lunch  cut  thin  slices  of  bread 
and  spread  with  honey  quite  thick.  Use  brown  or  whole  wheat  bread,  or 
use  one  kind  of  bread  for  top  layer  and  another  kind  for  bottom.  For  a 
richer  sandwich  sprinkle  with  nut  meats  or  sugar. 

Honey  Cereal  Coffee. — One  egg,  one  cup  honey  (preferably  dark),  2 
quarts  wheat  bran.  Beat  the  egg,  add  honey  and  lastly  the  bran,  and 
stir  until  well  blended.  Put  in  oven  and  brown  to  dark  brown,  stirring 
frequently,  being  careful  that  the  oven  is  not  too  hot.  To  prepare  the 
cotlee,  allow  one  heaping  tablespoonful  of  the  brown  mixture  to  a  cup  of  hot 
water,  and  boil  for  at  least  ten  minutes.  If  properly  prepared  this  is  equal 
or  superior  to  any  cereal  drink  on  the  market. 

Apple  Butter. — One  gallon  good  cooking  apples,  one  quart  honey,  one 
quart  honey  vinegar,  one  heaping  teaspoonful  ground  cinnamon.  Cook 
several  hours,  stirring  often  to  prevent  burning.  If  the  vinegar  is  very 
strong  use  part  water. 

Peach  Preserves. — Pare  and  halve  nice  large  peaches  the  night  before. 
Pour  one  pound  of  honey  to  every  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  fruit. 

Money  Crab  Apple  Jelly. — Boil  fruit  with  as  little  water  as  possible; 
squeeze  through  jelly  bag.  Add  one-half  cup  honey  and  one-half  cup  of 
sugar  to  each  cup  of  juice,  then  boil  twenty  minutes  or  until  it  begins  to 
jell.    Pour  into  glasses  to  cool  but  do  not  cover  until  fully  cooled. 

Baked  Apples. — Split  some  sour  apples,  cut  out  the  cores  and  fill  pan. 
Bake  until  they  begin  to  soften,  then  fill  cavities  with  honey  and  lemon 
juice.     Set  back  in  the  stove  to  finish  baking. 

Honey  Candy. — Take  2^/2  cups  sugar,  i/^  cup  honey,  I/2  cup  water  and 
boil  to  thick  syrup.  Pour  one  cup  of  syrup  on  beaten  whites  of  two  eggs, 
stirring  meanwhile.  Boil  remainder  of  syrup  until  it  hardens  when  dropped 
in  water;  then  pour  in  the  syrup  and  eggs,  stirring  briskly.  Add  a  cupful 
of  peanuts  and  stir  until  it  begins  to  harden,  then  spread  in  a  pan  and 
cut  in  squares.  Flavor  to  taste.  If  properly  made  it  will  be  soft  and 
pliable. 

Honey  Pop-corn. — Take  a  tea  cupful  of  white  honey,  a  teacupful  of 
white  sugar,  li/o  tablespoonfuls  butter,  a  tablespoonful  water  and  boil 
until  brittle  when  dropped  in  cold  water.  Have  ready  two  quarts  nicely 
popped  corn  and  pour  the  candy  over  it  until  evenly  distributed,  stirring 
briskly  until  nearly  cool. 

Candy. — One  cup  granulated  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  extracted  honey, 
butter  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  sweet  cream  enough  to  dissolve  the  mixture. 
It  needs  but  little  cooking.    When  taken  from  the  tire  beat  until  smooth. 

Candy. — One  cup  sugar,  2  tablespoonfuls  honey,  2  tablespoonfuls  water 
and  walnut  meats.    Cook  and  test  like  molasses  candy. 

Taffy.— T&ke  three  cups  sugar,  %  cup  extracted  honey,  %  cup  of  hot 
water.  Boil  all  together  until  it  spins  a  thread  when  dropped  from  a  spoon, 
or  hardens  when  dropped  into  cold  water.  Pour  into  a  greased  pan  to  cool, 
when  it  should  be  pulled  until  white. 


BOOKLETS 


279 


Flo.  133. — Dr.  Bonney's  postcard  which  brings  him  many  new  customers. 


280  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

The  Use  of  Post  Cards.— One  of  the  most  effective  means 
of  advertising  in  a  small  way  is  the  use  of  post  cards.  Dr.  A.  F. 
Bonney,  of  Iowa,  has  used  this  method  quite  extensively.  The 
post  cards  mention  honey  only  incidentally  hut  are  usually 
somewhat  comic  in  makeup.  Fig.  133  shows  one  of  the  cards 
which  he  has  used  to  a  considerable  extent.  His  plan  is  to  send 
them  to  postmasters,  public  officers,  and  prominent  and  pros- 
perous people  generally  whose  names  he  can  secure  within  one 
hundred  miles  of  his  home.  It  would  be  well  to  use  two  or  three 
lines  at  the  bottom  of  such  a  card  as  that  here  shown  to  quote 
prices  of  honey  delivered  in  packages  of  popular  size. 

The  idea  of  these  cards  is  to  catch  the  interest  of  the  recipient 
who  will  laugh  at  the  comic  picture  and  then  have  his  attention 
called  to  the  honey  which  is  unobtrusively  done.  One 
of  Dr.  Bonney's  cards  pictures  the  occupants  of  an  automobile 
in  all  sorts  of  impossible  situations  as  the  result  of  an  accident. 
ISTailed  to  a  tree  in  the  background  is  a  sign  board  with  these 
words :  "  If  anything  happens  in  the  vicinity  of  Buck  Grove, 
Iowa,  stop  and  get  some  Bonney  Honey." 

When  put  to  the  test  of  practical  results  they  have  proved 
to  be  good  business  getters.  After  sending  out  a  batch  of  these 
cards,  even  though  they  go  to  entire  strangers  with  whom  he  has 
had  no  previous  correspondence,  he  always  gets  a  bunch  of  orders 
as  a  result. 

Canvassing  and  Peddling. — This  method  is  distasteful  to 
many  bee-keepers  yet  it  has  decided  advantages  over  other  plans. 
If  one  is  adapted  to  canvassing  he  can  take  a  can  of  honey  for 
samples  and  by  making  a  house  to  house  canvas  make  many 
permanent  customers.  By  offering  a  sample  of  his  product  the 
buyer  is  given  a  chance  to  decide  whether  the  flavor  appeals 
to  his  particular  taste.  Then  the  producer  can  give  some  infor- 
mation concerning  the  production  of  honey  and  correct  any  false 
impressions  concerning  the  product  of  the  hive.  A  good  can- 
vasser will  make  good  wages  over  and  above  wholesale  prices 
even  if  the  value  of  future  orders  is  not  considered.  A  largo 
producer  can  well  afford  to  hire  students  during  the  vacation 


CANVASSING  AND  PEDDLING 


281 


period  and  put  them  to  work  in  building  up  a  trade.  Of  course 
it  will  be  necessary  to  sift  the  possible  applicants  somewhat  to 
find  those  who  are  adapted  to  canvassing  and  also  who  know 
enough  about  the  bee-keeper's  business  to  answer  questions 
intelligently. 

A  more  common  method  is  for  the  producer  or  his  agent  to 
take  a  spring  wagon  or  auto  with  a  load  of  honey  and  deliver 
hia  orders  as  he  goes  (Fig.  134).     A  good  salesman  will  sell 


Pio.  134.— The  automobile  as  a  sales  agency  10  the  most  up-to-date  method. 

several  hundred  pounds  daily  from  a  wagon.  One  of  the  most 
successful  honey  producers  of  the  Middle  West  takes  his  load 
of  honey  and  visits  the  public  sales  that  are  held  within  reach 
of  his  home.  At  the  public  sale  a  considerable  crowd  is  always 
gathered  and  he  has  a  good  opportunity  to  dispose  of  his  wares 
to  advantage.  In  this  way  he  sells  a  good  many  thousand  pounds 
during  the  winter  months  when  sales  are  in  progress.  By  driv- 
ing ten  or  twelve  miles  in  every  direction  he  is  thus  able  to  cover 
a  large  territory  and  present  the  merits  of  his  product  to  many 


282  MARKETING  THE  HONEY  CROP 

hundreds  of  men.  He  carries  packages  both  large  and  small 
and  is  prepared  to  supply  any  desired  amount  from  a  five  pound 
pail  to  a  sixty  pound  can  on  the  spot.  In  this  manner  he  sells 
at  times  more  than  a  ton  of  honey  within  a  week.  If  he  gets 
but  two  cents  per  pound  more  than  it  would  bring  at  wholesale 
he  is  making  good  wages  for  his  time  while  establishing  a  trade 
that  will  soon  come  to  depend  upon  his  apiary  as  a  source  of 
supply.  ^ 

Cutting  Prices. — One  of  the  worst  drawbacks  to  the  honey 
business  is  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  to  cut  prices.  John 
Smith  will  make  enquiry  of  some  concern  dealing  in  honey  as 
to  the  price  they  are  paying.  They  will  of  course  quote  a  price 
at  which  they  can  handle  his  goods  at  a  profit.  Mr.  Smith  think- 
ing to  accommodate  his  neighbors  sells  his  honey  at  home  at  the 
wholesale  price.  When  the  supply  is  exhausted  there  is  bitter 
complaint  against  paying  at  retail  more  than  the  wholesale  price. 
The  dealer  of  course  must  feel  that  he  paid  too  much  for  the 
crop  and  accordingly  he  starts  in  the  following  year  to  buy  at  a 
lower  figure.  The  retailer's  profit  is  as  legitimate  as  the  pro- 
ducer's profit.  Unless  a  man  will  sell  at  a  fair  retail  price  he 
should  in  justice  to  other  bee-keepers  if  not  to  his  own  future 
prosperity  sell  it  to  some  dealer  at  wholesale.  Cutting  prices  can 
have  but  one  result:  the  tendency  to  depress  prices  below  the 
point  of  profitable  production.  Until  the  bee-keepers  of  a  com- 
munity come  to  practice  good  business  methods  in  handling  their 
crops  the  business  of  honey  production  will  not  be  a  profitable 
one  nor  will  the  public  regard  it  as  a  desirable  occupation. 

'  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  fortunate  tliat  bee-keeping  is  becoming  a  specialized  business? 

2.  Discuss  the  grading  of  comb  honey. 

3.  How  can  the  crop  be  marketed  to  the  best  advantage? 

4.  What  precautions  are  necessary  in  caring  for  honey? 

5.  Note  the  best  packages  both  for  shipping  and  for  retailing. 

6.  What  plans  can  be  used  to  develop  local  markets? 

7.  Under  what  circumstances  is  cooperative  marketing  desirable? 

8.  Outline  some  practical  plans  of  advertising  the  product  of  the  apiary. 

9.  What  is  to  be  expected  from  a  general  exhibit  as  an  advertising  medium  ? 

10.  Discuss  the  value  of  an  attractive  package. 

11.  To  what  extent  can  newspapers  and  booklets  be  profitably  used? 

12.  When  is  personal  canvassing  profitable? 


CHAPTER  XV 

LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

Because  of  the  nature  of  the  honey-bee  and  the  fact  that 
the  insects  cannot  be  restrained  like  cattle  or  poultry,  the  laws 
concerning  the  bee-keeper  are  somewhat  different  from  those 
that  affect  the  owners  of  other  live  stock.  In  the  first  place  bees 
are  recognized  as  being  wild  by  nature  and  once  a  swarm  gets 
beyond  its  owner's  control  and  passes  to  the  premises  of  another 
he  loses  all  property  right  in  them  unless  he  follows  them  and 
keeps  them  in  sight. 

Bees  found  in  a  tree  or  other  natural  cavity  become  the  prop- 
erty of  the  first  person  who  reclaims  them.  This  fact,  however, 
does  not  give  any  right  to  trespass  on  the  property  of  another. 
During  the  days  of  early  settlement  of  this  country  there  was 
an  unwritten  law  that  wild  bees  became  the  property  of  the  man 
who  found  them  and  marked  the  tree.  While  this  right  was 
generally  recognized  there  was  no  law  that  would  confer 
any  right  to  the  bees  unless  the  finder  proceeded  to  take  posses- 
sion of  them.  As  soon  as  wild  bees  are  taken  into  possession 
they  become  the  property  of  the  man  who  reclaims  them.  This 
right  will  be  recognized  and  protected  as  long  as  they  are  under 
his  care.  Should  he  injure  the  tree  in  which  the  bees  are  found 
in  removing  them,  he  will  be  liable  to  the  land  owner  for  trespass. 

The  time  has  gone  by,  in  most  localities,  when  serious  ques- 
tions regarding  the  ownership  of  wild  bees  are  likely  to  arise. 
Bee-keeping  is  now  a  recognized  industry  in  itself  and  the  owner 
of  bees  enjoys  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  holders  of  other 
property.  The  relation  of  the  bee-keeper  to  his  neighbors,  how- 
ever, especially  where  there  is  a  large  apiary  in  closeproximity 
to  the  home  of  other  persons,  frequently  presents  some  problems 
that  are  decidedly  different  from  those  of  any  other  calling. 

The  keeping  of  bees  in  cities  and  towns  is  so  generally  prac- 

283 


284  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

tised  and  has  been  the  source  of  so  much  litigation  of  one  kind 
and  another  that  an  extended  account  of  the  rights  of  both  the 
bee-keeper  and  his  neighbor  can  very  properly  be  taken  up. 
While  the  courts  have  held  that  bee-keeping  is  a  legitimate  pur- 
suit and  as  such  cannot  be  prevented  by  general  legislation  that 
declares  the  bees  to  be  a  nuisance  whether  they  are  so  in  fact 
or  not  there  is  a  general  principle  that  will  provide  relief  from 
undue  annoyance. 

Causes  of  Trouble. — Before  taking  up  the  consideration  of 
the  law  in  this  special  relationship  it  may  be  well  to  consider 
the  causes  that  lead  to  friction  between  the  bee-keeper  and  his 
neighbors.  So  many  instances  of  trouble  of  this  kind  arise  that 
small  towns  and  cities  are  frequently  urged  to  pass  ordinances 
to  prohibit  the  keeping  of  bees  within  the  incorporated  limits. 

Spotting  Clothes. — ^When  the  bees  are  brought  from  the 
cellar  in  spring  or  when  they  are  able  to  take  their  first  flight 
after  long  confinement  the  abdomens  are  distended  with  retained 
fseces.  As  soon  'ns  they  can  fly  this  is  voided  in  large  drops  of 
offensive  refuse.  If  it  happens  that  the  bees  fly  for  the  first  time 
when  the  wash  is  on  the  line  the  white  clothes  are  badly  soiled  as 
a  result. 

The  bee-keeper  should  avoid  if  possible  setting  cellar  win- 
tered bees  out  when  the  neighbors  are  washing.  Bees  seldom 
fly  far  on  the  first  flight  and  clothes  are  not  likely  to  be  soiled 
far  from  the  bee  hives.  As  a  rule  it  is  the  near  neighbors  who 
will  be  the  sufferers.  If  the  bees  are  likely  to  fly  on  wash  day 
the  situation  should  be  explained  and  some  provision  made  to 
avoid  having  the  clothes  exposed.  After  two  or  three  nice  days 
there  will  be  little  further  trouble,  as  this  spotting  is  only  notice- 
able after  long  confinement  without  opportunity  to  void  the 
excrement. 

Watering  Places. — With  bee-keepers  as  with  others  "An 
ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  and  if  the  bee- 
keeper is  diplomatic  he  can  usually  avoid  annoying  his  neigh- 


AT  CANDY  STORES,  ETC.  285 

bors  seriously.     No  fair  minded  man  will  wish  to  annoy  others, 
whether  or  not  he  is  living  within  his  legal  rights. 

Watering  places  where  the  bees  congregate  in  large  numbers 
are  frequently  sources  of  great  annoyance,  as  animals  that  come 
to  drink  are  likely  to  be  stung  as  well  as  persons  whose  duties 
take  them  there.  After  the  bees  come  to  frequent  such  a  place 
it  is  a  little  difficult  to  check  their  coming  unless  the  water  can 
be  covered  in  such  a  way  that  they  cannot  reach  it. 

The  wise  bee-keeper  will  provide  watering  places  for  his  bees 
as  described  in  Chapter  IV,  early  in  spring  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  their  going  to  other  places  for  water. 

After  the  bees  have  formed  the  habit  of  getting  water  at 
places  where  their  presence  is  annoying  the  bee-keeper  should 
assist  in  every  possible  way  to  cover  the  water  supply  until  they 
find  water  elsewhere. 

Flying  about  Streets  or  Highways.— If  the  hives  are  situ- 
ated near  the  street  or  highway  in  such  a  way  that  the  entrance 
of  the  hive  faces  the  thoroughfare  there  is  danger  of  passing 
teams  or  pedestrians  being  stung.  The  bee-keeper  should  see 
that  his  hives  are  so  placed  that  the  bees  do  not  fly  directly  into 
any  public  highway.  The  entrances  should  face  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  if  necessary  a  high  board  fence  or  other  obstruction 
should  compel  them  to  rise  high  in  the  air  before  crossing.  This 
will  carry  them  safely  over  the  heads  of  passers-by.  Where  per- 
sons or  animals  are  injured  by  bees  under  circumstances  such  as 
these  the  owner  has  been  held  liable  for  damages. 

In  Quebec  there  is  a  legal  regulation  that  requires  that 
where  apiaries  are  within  thirty  feet  of  a  house  or  public  road  a 
board  fence  at  least  eight  feet  high  must  be  erected  and  the  fence 
must  extend  at  least  fifteen  feet  beyond  the  limits  of  the  apiary. 
According  to  the  editor  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  the  bee- 
keepers feel  that  this  regulation  is  a  protection  of  their  interests 
since  they  may  keep  bees  anywhere  by  complying  with  the  law. 
At  Candy  Stores,  Etc.— It  frequently  happens  that  bees  will 
be  troublesome  where  candy  is  exposed  for  sale  or  where  the 


286  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

housewife  is  canning  fruit  or  making  jelly  or  anything  else 
where  sugar  is  used  in  making  syrup.  Where  the  doors  of 
grocery  stores  are  left  open  the  bees  are  also  likely  to  find  some 
attraction. 

Such  annoyances  as  the  above  described  are  usual  only  during 
warm  weather  where  there  is  no  natural  source  of  supply.  After 
the  honey  flow  is  checked  the  bees  are  very  persistent  in  hunting 
for  everything  sweet.  Seldom  is  the  bee-keeper  to  be  blamed 
in  cases  like  these.  If  the  premises  are  properly  screened  against 
flies  the  bees  will  be  unable  to  enter. 

In  Adjoining  Fields. — It  frequently  happens  that  the  bee- 
keeper will  have  his  bees  near  the  fence  and  that  they  will  annoy 
the  owner  who  cultivates  the  adjoining  field.  It  devolves  upon 
the  bee-keeper  to  do  what  he  can  to  relieve  the  situation  by 
erecting  a  suitable  fence,  moving  the  bees,  or  whatever  remedy 
may  be  reasonable. 

While  the  bee-keeper  has  the  same  right  to  conduct  his  busi- 
ness as  any  other  man  enjoys,  he  must  recognize  the  right  of 
the  public  to  be  kept  free  from  undue  annoyance.  With  the  fore- 
going causes  of  trouble  in  mind  the  reader  will  appreciate  the 
following  able  discussion  by  J.  D.  Gustin,  an  attorney  of  Kansas 
City,  Missouri,  whose  statements  may  be  regarded  as  authori- 
tative. 

BEES   AS   A  NUISANCE 

Increasing  population,  greater  dissemination  of  knowledge,  and  the 
development  and  specialization  of  industries,  pursuits,  and  occupations 
combine  to  add  constantly  to  the  complexity  of  the  relations  of  individuals, 
and  to  call  from  time  to  time,  for  the  readjustment  of  the  affairs  of  men 
to  meet  changed  and  changing  conditions.  In  no  other  branch  of  the  law  is 
the  ingenuity  of  the  courts  more  heavily  taxed  in  this  manner  than  in  the 
Subject  of  nuisances,  where,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject,  first 
principles,  rather  than  specific  legislative  enactment,  must  always  exert  a 
controlling  influence.  The  lawmaking  power  may,  as  occasion  seems  to 
require,  declare  that  particular  objects,  actions,  omissions,  etc.,  shall  be 
nuisances,  either  with  or  without  regard  to  attending  conditions  or  circum- 
stances, but  the  application  of  such  statutes  is  necessarily  so  limited  that 
the  general  law  of  the  subject  is  not  aftected. 

^Bees  as  a  Nuisance,  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Inspector  of 
Bees,  Iowa,  1914. 


BEES  AS  A  NUISANCE  287 

It  therefore  follows  that  courts  still  deal  with  nuisances  largely  from 
the  principles  of  the  common  law  and  it  is  a  matter  of  serious  doubt 
whether,  in  any  instance,  specific  legislative  action  can  be  proven  to  have 
any  substantial  value  as  an  addition  to  the  law  of  the  subject.  A  nuisance 
at  common  law  is  that  class  of  wrongs  that  arise  from  unreasonable,  un- 
warrantable, or  unlawful  use  by  a  person  of  his  own  property,  real  or 
personal,  or  from  his  own  improper,  indecent  or  unlawful  personal  conduct 
working  an  obstruction  of  or  injury  to  a  right  of  another,  or  of  the  public, 
and  producing  such  material  annoyance,  inconvenience,  discomfort,  or  hurt 
that  the  law  will  presume  a  consequent  damage. 

Text  writers  and  legislative  enactments  state  many  variations  of  the 
foregoing  comprehensive  definition  from  Mr.  Wood's  treatise  on  nuisances, 
but  there  is  no  substantial  disagreement  as  to  what  constitutes  a  nuisance. 
Another  definition  stated  broadly  as  a  general  proposition,  is  that  every 
enjoyment  by  one  of  his  own  property  which  violates  in  an  essential  degree 
the  rights  of  another  is  a  nuisance;  and  this  substantial  violation  of  a 
right  is  the  true  test  of  a  nuisance,  for  it  is  not  every  use  of  his  property 
by  one  which  works  injury  to  the  property  of  another  that  constitutes 
a  nuisance.  Injury  and  damage  are  essential  elements  of  a  nuisance,  but 
they  may  both  exist  as  a  result  of  an  act  or  thing  which  is  not  a  nuisance, 
because  no  right  is  violated.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pecuniary  injury  may 
be  insignificant  and  the  act  or  thing  causing  them  be  such  an  invasion 
of  the  rights  of  another,  or  of  the  public,  as  to  constitute  a  nuisance  for 
which  an  action  for  damages  or  for  abatement  will  lie. 

Nuisances  are  classified  by  the  law  as  public  and  private,  and  there  is 
authority  for  a  third  class  called  "  mixed "  nuisances.  A  nuisance  is 
public  where  it  aflfects  the  rights  of  individuals  as  a  part  of  the  public, 
or  the  common  rights  of  all  the  community  alike;  a  private  nuisance  is 
one  affecting  a  single  individual,  or  individuals  of  a  particular  class,  group, 
or  locality  in  a  private  right;  the  third  class,  referred  to  as  mixed  nui- 
sances, are  public  in  their  nature,  but  at  the  same  time  specially  injurious 
or  detrimental  to  one  or  more  individuals  in  particular  who  suffer  a  different 
or  greater  hurt  than  the  community  in  general. 

Nuisances  are  further  divided  into  nuisances  per  se,  or  such  as  are 
declared  so  by  the  common  law  or  by  some  statute,  without  regard  to 
locality,  surroundings,  or  circumstances,  and  nuisances  per  accidens,  or 
those  owing  their  hurtful  consequences  to  some  particular  attendant  cir- 
cumstances, surrounding,  location,  or  condition,  without  which  they  would 
not  be  unlawful.  There  are  other  less  important  and  rather  technical 
distinctions  not  necessary  to  be  noticed  here.  The  foregoing  preliminary 
and  very  elementary  observations  of  the  general  law  of  nuisances  are  neces- 
sary to  a  consideration  of  any  subject  with  reference  to  its  existence  as 
a  nuisance  or  otherwise. 

It  is  also  a  frequent  statement  of  the  law,  and  may  be  accepted  as 
authoritative,  that  no  lawful  occupation  or  business  is  a  nuisance  per  se, 
except  it  be  declared  so  by  some  special  enactment  prohibiting  certain 
things  as  objectionable  to  particular  localities.  S'o  also  the  reasonable- 
ness of  the  use  of  one's  property  may  depend  upon  its  situation,  for  what 
might  be  lawful  in  one  locality  would  prove  intolerable  in  another.  The 
use  of  a  building  in  the  midst  of  a  city  densely  populated  for  a  storage 
house  for  ha/dware  would  not  be  objectionable  in  the  slightest  degree,  while 


288  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

the  use  of  the  same  building  for  the  storage  of  gunpowder  or  other  high 
explosives  could  not  be  permitted. 

The  common  law,  proceeding  from  fixed  principles  of  universal  appli- 
cation, and  developing  from  tlie  growth  of  civilization,  has,  in  each  suc- 
ceeding period,  found  ready  adjustment  to  new  subjects  resulting  from  the 
widening  dominion  of  mankind  over  the  creatures  and  forces  of  nature, 
furnishing  a  ready  remedy  for  every  wrongful  encroachment  of  one  upon 
the  rights  of  another.  In  the  times  of  the  early  law  writers  bees  were  most 
generally  known  as  they  existed  in  their  original  state.  Hence  they  were 
called  ferae  naturoe  and  classed  as  wild  animals.  A  property  right,  or 
at  least  a  qualified  property  right,  in  them  could  be  acquired  by  capture 
which,  in  accord  with  the  general  rule  concerning  wild  animals,  existed 
so  long  as  the  captor  could  hold  them  in  possession.  A  distinction  seems 
always  to  have  been  made  between  the  possession  of  animals  ferocious  and 
those  of  gentler  dispositions,  and  it  was  indictable  as  a  nuisance  to  per- 
mit an  animal  of  known  mischievous  disposition  to  go  at  large.  Bees, 
however,  seem  never  to  have  been  regarded  as  ferocious  or  as  likely  to  do 
injury  to  persons  or  property,  and  in  the  far  greater  number  of  instances 
in  which  they  have  been  the  subject  of  judicial  consideration  tlie  questions 
at  issue  have  concerned  the  property  interests  in  them.  It  is  doubtful  now. 
however,  if  any  court  would  denominate  them  as  wild  animals,  in  view  of 
the  present  general  state  of  development  of  the  industry  of  honey  produc- 
tion and  the  numerous  instances  of  State  legislation  designed  to  promote 
and  protect  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  bees  for  that  purpose.  In  the  one 
or  two  cases  decided  in  American  jurisdictions  in  which  the  question  has 
been  presented,  it  has  been  determined,  in  accordance  with  the  rule  above 
referred  to,  that  the  keeping  of  bees,  even  in  large  numbers  and  in  towns 
and  villages,  is  not  a  nuisance  per  se. 

But  greater  interest,  perhaps,  centers  in  the  question  of  whether  or 
not  bees  may  be  so  kept  as  to  constitute  a  private  nuisance,  and  also 
whether  municipal  corporations,  as  cities  and  towns,  may  restrain  or 
prohibit  their  presence  within  the  corporate  limits.  In  answering  the  first 
proposition,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  persons  who  dwell  in  urban 
communities  must  of  necessity  submit  to  such  restrictions  upon  their  abso- 
lute liberties  that  the  dwelling  of  other  persons  therein  shall  be  tolerable. 
As  it  is  the  unreasonable  or  unwarrantable  use  of  one's  premises  or  prop- 
erty, otherwise  lawful,  that  contributes  an  essential  element  of  a  nuisance, 
a  first  inquiry  in  any  case  would  be  directed  to  this  point  of  reasonableness 
of  the  use  or  occupation,  and  in  determining  this  all  of  the  surrounding 
facts  and  circumstances  would  enter  into  the  consideration.  The  presence 
of  one  colony  at  a  given  point  might  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the  due 
observance  of  the  rights  of  the  owner  of  the  next  lot,  while  a  colony  stationed 
at  another  point  within  the  same  distance  would  be  obnoxious  to  the  law. 
Again,  one  colony  at  a  given  place  might  pass  unnoticed,  while  a  number 
of  colonies  at  the  same  place  would  be  a  nuisance.  The  habits  of  the  bees, 
the  line  of  flight,  their  temper,  and  disposition  of  the  colonies,  either 
separately  or  when  collected  together  in  numbers,  might  all  furnish  matter 
of  more  or  less  weight  in  reaching  a  conclusion.  So  also  the  character 
of  the  annoyance  or  injury  done  to  the  complainant  must  be  a  substantial 
element.  In  the  only  reported  case  involving  this  question  it  was  charged, 
and  the  court  found  there  was  proof,  "  that  during  the  spring  and  summer 
months  the  bees  so  kept  "—140  colonies  on  an  adjoining  city  lot  and  within 


BEES  AS  A  NUISANCE  289 

100  feet  of  plaintiff's  dwelling—"  by  defendants  greatly  interfered  with 
the  quiet  and  proper  enjoyment  and  possession  of  plaintiff's  premises, 
driving  him,  his  servants  and  guests  from  his  garden  and  grounds,  and 
stinging  them,  interfered  with  the  enjoyment  of  his  home,  and  with  his 
family  while  engaged  in  the  performance  of  their  domestic  duties,  soiling 
articles  of  clothing  when  exposed  on  his  premises,  and  made  his  dwelling 
and  premises  unfit  for  habitation."  These  facts  were  held  to  constitute  a 
nuisance,  against  which  the  plaintiff  was  entitled  to  injunction  and  nominal 
damages.  These  facts  just  recited,  however,  probably  present  an  extreme 
case,  the  immediate  proximity  of  so  many  colonies  being,  no  doubt,  per- 
suasive evidence  that  the  annoyance  suffered  by  the  plaintiff  was  due  to 
the  defendant's  use  of  his  premises.  Greater  difficulty  would  be  experienced 
in  reaching  such  a  conclusion  if  there  were  no  colonies  stationed  in  the 
immediate  vicinity,  a  thing  entirely  possible  under  the  common  belief  that 
the  insects  go  considerable  distances  for  their  stores. 

So  it  may  be  said  of  bees,  as  of  other  property,  that  no  hard  and  fast 
rule  can  be  laid  down  by  which  to  determine  in  advance  whether  the 
presence  of  bees  in  any  given  numbers  or  at  any  given  point  will  amount 
to  a  nuisance.  But,  not  being  a  nuisance  of  themselves,  as  a  matter  of  law, 
and  absent  also  any  general  State  enactment  declaring  them  to  be  such, 
bees  will  not,  under  any  circumstances  be  presumed  to  be  a  nuisance,  but 
the  matter  will  rest  in  the  proof  adduced,  with  the  burden  upon  the  party 
alleging  the  affirmative.  But  they  may,  upon  proof  of  particular  facts 
showing  all  the  elements  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a  nuisance,  he 
condemned  as  such,  either  of  a  private  or  public  character,  as  the  nature 
of  the  injury  might  decide. 

Predicated  upon  the  theory  advanced  in  the  beginning  that  courts 
would  now,  if  the  matter  were  called  in  question,  decide  that  bees  are 
domestic  animals,  and  it  having  already  become  a  matter  of  legislative 
recognition  that  they  are  subject  to  communicable  diseases,  a  question  arises 
as  to  the  liability  of  the  keeper  of  diseased  bees.  At  common  law  it  was 
an  indictable  offense,  which  has  been  reenacted  by  statute  in  mos.!;  of  the 
States,  to  take  a  domestic  animal  suffering  from  a  communicable  disease 
into  a  public  place  or  to  turn  it  into  the  highway  so  that  the  disease  might 
be  communicated  to  the  animals  of  other  persons.  It  could  hardly  be 
said  to  be  less  culpable  to  knowingly  keep  diseased  bees,  which,  by  their 
nature  may  not  be  restrained  or  confined,  to  spread  disease  to  the  apiaries 
of  other  owners.  If  to  turn  a  horse  with  glanders  or  a  sheep  with  footrot 
into  the  highway  is  a  public  nuisance,  on  the  same  reasoning  to  turn  bees 
at  large  to  carry  communicable  diseases  peculiar  to  them  to  other  bees 
ought  to  be  an  offense  of  the  same  grade. 

The  power  of  a  municipal  corporation,  as  a  town  or  village,  to  restrain 
or  prohibit  within  its  limits  the  keeping  of  bees,  or  to  denounce  them 
as  a  nuisance,  is  commonly  reported  as  a  fruitful  source  of  vexation  to 
keepers  of  bees,  but  one  case  only  is  reported  as  involving  a  judicial  de- 
termination of  that  particular  point.  And  here,  too,  a  few  preliminary 
observations  will  be  necessary  to  proper  understanding  of  this  phase  of, 
the  nuisance  laws.  Cities,  towns,  and  villages,  as  municipal  corporations 
or  public  bodies,  receive  their  powers  by  express  grant  from  the  legislative 
authority  of  the  State,  and  with  the  exception  of  some  unenumerated 
powers  without  which  the  corporate  body  could  not  exercise  its  essential 
19 


290  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

rtinctions  as  such,  their  powers  are  limited  to  those  expressly  named  in  the 
grant.  This  grant  of  power  is  usually  contained  in  the  general  laws  of 
the  State  governing  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  and  is  called  the  charter 
power,  the  law  or  statute  itself  being  usually  known  as  the  charter.  Keep- 
ing these  facts  in  mind  will  aid  the  unprofessional  man  in  understanding 
the  terms  to  be  encountered  in  an  examination  of  local  laws  in  regard 
to  the  power  of  a  municipal  corporation  to  legislate  upon  this  subject. 

Every  State  has  its  own  peculiar  policy  toward  these  municipal  cor- 
porations, and  no  two  are  exactly  the  same.  They  all,  however,  follow  the 
same  general  plan,  with  variations  influenced  by  local  conditions.  As  the 
power  of  the  State  legislature  is  so  limited  that  its  acts  must  be  consistent 
with  the  constitution,  so  the  power  of  a  municipal  corporation  to  makf 
by-laws,  as  its  ordinances  or  enactments  are  commonly  known,  must  be 
in  harmony  with  its  charter,  with  this  further  distinction,  that  while  the 
legislature  of  the  State  may  exercise  unlimited  discretion  in  all  matters 
not  prohibited  by  the  constitution,  a  municipal  corporation  is  restricted 
in  legislative  action  to  those  matters  in  which  it  is  expressly  authorzed 
by  its  charter. 

It  is  the  general  rule  that  cities,  towns,  and  Villages  have  conferred 
upon  their  common  councils  power  to  declare,  abate,  and  remove  nuisances. 
In  the  case  of  nuisances  per  se,  whether  at  common  law  or  by  statute,  or 
by  ordinance  in  those  cases  in  which  the  council  may  declare  such  nuis- 
ances, the  power  to  abate  by  summary  action  is  either  expressly  given  or 
exists  by  necessary  implication.  Summary  abatement  means  arbitrary 
removal  or  destruction  without  judicial  process.  Nearly,  if  not  quite,  all 
city  charters  contain  grants  of  power  to  license,  regulate,  and  restrict  all 
businesses,  pursuits,  and  avocations,  and  also  a  section  known  commonly 
as  a  "  general  welfare  clause,"  by  which  the  corporate  body  is  empowered 
generally  to  enact  such  ordinances,  rules,  and  regulations  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  peace,  safety,  and  health  of  its  inhabitants  and 
promote  their  general  welfare.  To  undertake  to  set  out  the  specific  pro- 
visions of  tile  charters  of  the  municipal  corporations  of  tlie  various  States 
would  extend  this  article  far  beyond  its  intended  scope. 

It  is  a  cardinal  rule  of  the  courts  that  all  ordinances  must  be  reason- 
able, and  tiiat  while  a  city  may  define,  classify,  and  enact  wiiat  things  or 
classes  of  things  siiall  be  nuisances,  and  under  what  conditions  and  circum- 
stances such  things  shall  be  deemed  nuisances,  this  power  is  subject  to 
the  limitation  that  it  is  for  the  courts  to  determine  whether,  in  a  given 
case,  tiie  thing  so  defined  and  denounced  is  a  nuisance  in  fact,  and  that 
if  the  court  shall  resolve  this  point  in  the  negative  the  ordinance  is  invalid. 
Under  this  rule,  in  an  Arkansas  case,  it  was  held  that  the  municipal 
corporation  could  not  prohibit  the  keeping  and  rearing  of  bees  within  its 
limits  as  a  nuisance  regardless  of  whether  they  were  so  in  fact  or  not. 
And  this  case  seems  to  have  been  received  as  announcing  the  correct  rule  in 
recent  text  works,  though  the  point  has  not  been  raised  elsewhere  in  contro- 
versy. 

Under  the  rule  just  stated,  the  power  of  summary  abatement  would 
not  exist,  even  though  the  presence  of  bees  in  a  particular  part  of  the 
city  should  be  declared  objectionable,  but  the  point  would  rest,  as  has 
been  heretofore  observed,  upon  the  proof  adduced,  the  burden  being  upon  the 
party  declaring  the  affirmative  of  the  issue. 


POISONING  BEES  291 

LAWS  PROTECTING  THE  BEE-KEEPEr's  PROPERTY 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  bee-keeper  is  as  fully  pro- 
tected in  the  property  rights  in  bees  as  in  any  other  domestic 
animals.  Should  anyone  steal  a  colony  of  bees  he  could  be  prose- 
cuted for  larceny  in  probably  any  State. 

Spraying  While  Trees  are  in  Bloom.— There  is  a  greater 
danger  to  the  bees,  however,  than  ordinary  theft.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  spray  fruit  trees  with  poisonous  liquids  to  con- 
trol insect  pests.  The  fruit  growers  are  not  always  sufficiently 
careful  as  to  the  time  when  these  sprays  are  applied  and  the 
wholesale  destruction  of  bees  sometimes  results  from  the  appli- 
cation of  sprays  while  the  trees  are  in  bloom.  A  number  of 
States  have  passed  laws  prohibiting  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees 
while  in  bloom,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  protecting  the  bee-keeper. 

The  law  on  this  subject  enacted  by  the  State  of  New  York 
is  representative  of  the  laws  in  force  in  the  various  States.  It 
is  worded  as  follows: 

Any  person  who  shall  spray  with,  or  apply  in  any  way,  poison  or  any 
poisonous  substance,  to  fruit  trees  while  the  same  are  in  blossom,  is  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor 
more  than  fifty  dollars;  provided,  however,  that  nothing  in  this  section 
shall  prevent  the  directors  of  the  experiment  stations  at  Ithaca  and  Geneva 
from  conducting  experiments  in  the  application  of  poison  and  spravinff 
mixtures  to  fruit  trees  while  in  blossom.  f    j     e, 

A  somewhat  similar  law  is  in  force  in  Canada.  In  States 
where  such  laws  have  not  been  passed  there  is  bitter  complaint 
on  the  part  of  the  bee-keepers  that  their  bees  are  destroyed  or 
they  are  compelled  to  move  their  apiaries. 

Poisoning  Bees.— It  sometimes  happens  that  malicious  per- 
sons will  put  out  poisoned  honey  or  syrup  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  bees.  It  hardly  need  be  said  that  such  an  act 
does  not  differ  materially  from  a  legal  standpoint  from  poisoning 
any  other  domestic  animals.  A  few  States  have  passed  specific 
statutes  providing  fine  and  imprisonment  for  the  malicious 
poisoning  of  bees. 


292  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

LAWS  FOE  CONTEOL  OF  BEE  DISEASE 

Although  other  animal  diseases  have  been  subject  to  regula- 
tion by  law  for  many  years,  laws  relating  to  bee  diseases  are  of 
comparatively  recent  date.  Wisconsin  was  the  first  State  to  pass 
foul  brood  laws  giving  one  inspector  state-wide  authority.  In 
the  year  1897  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  the  inspection  of 
bees  and  prohibiting  the  sale  of  infected  colonies  or  appliances. 
!N.  E.  France  was  appointed  inspector  and  has  served  for 
eighteen  years.  Prior  to  this  time  California  adopted  the 
county  system.  At  present  more  than  half  of  the  States  have 
laws  regulating  bee  diseases  and  providing  for  inspection.  New 
States  are  added  to  the  list  every  biennial  period  at  the  meeting 
of  the  various  Legislatures,  and  apparently  but  a  few  years  will 
elapse  until  every  State  has  made  some  such  provision.  The 
tendency  is  to  enact  cumbersome  statutes  in  the  beginning  which 
set  out  in  detail  the  method  of  procedure  under  every  condition. 
After  being  put  to  the  test  of  actual  service  there  is  a  tendency  to 
modify  the  laws  and  leave  something  to  the  judgment  of  the  in- 
spector. To  begin  with,  most  laws  require  that  the  inspector  be 
notified  by  three  persons  of  the  supposed  existence  of  foul  brood 
in  a  locality  before  he  is  compelled  to  investigate.  Under  such 
conditions  disease  may  become  exceedingly  prevalent  before  three 
persons  will  notify  the  inspector.  If  a  single  notice  is  sufficient 
a  neighborhood  may  be  cleaned  up  when  the  disease  first  makes 
its  appearance  and  many  bees,  as  well  as  much  expense,  be  saved. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  elaborately  drawn  laws 
rather  tend  to  restrict  the  work  of  the  inspector  than  to  enlarge 
his  opportunities  for  dealing  with  a  serious  condition.  If  the 
law  is  greatly  extended  to  outline  the  various  conditions  which 
he  is  supposed  to  meet  he  will  be  restricted  to  such  powers  and 
duties  as  are  expressly  granted  in  the  statute.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  his  office  and  duties  are  created  and  defined  in  a  short 
general  statute  he  will  be  free  to  meet  such  situations  as  arise. 

The  New  York  law  has  been  on  the  statute  books  since  1902 
and  a  somewhat  similar  law  several  years  previous  to  that  time. 

Bee  inspection  in  that  State  is  carried  on  under  direction  of 


SEPARATE  DEPARTMENTS 


293 


the  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  the  inspection  service  has 
the  reputation  of  being  very  effectively  handled.  The  law  is  as 
follows : 

The  Prevention  of  Disease  among  Bees. — No  person  shall  keep  in  his 
apiary  any  colony  of  bees  aliected  with  the  contagious  malady  known  as 
foul  brood  or  black  brood;  and  every  bee-keeper  when  he  becomes  aware 
of  the  existence  of  either  of  such  diseases  among  his  bees,  shall  immediately 
notify  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  of  the  existence  of  such  disease. 

Duties  of  the  Commissioner. — The  commissioner  of  agriculture  shall 
immediately  upon  receiving  notice  of  the  existence  of  foul  brood  or  black 
brood  among  the  bees  in  any  locality,  send  some  competent  person  or  per- 
sons to  examine  the  apiary  or  apiaries  reported  to  him  as  being  affected, 
and  all  other  apiaries  in  the  immediate  locality  of  the  apiary  or  apiaries' 
so  reported;  if  foul  brood  or  black  brood  is  found  to  exist  in  them,  the 
person  or  persons  so  sent  by  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  shall  give  the 
owners  or  caretakers  of  the  diseased  apiary  or  apiaries  full  instructions 
how  to  treat  said  cases.  The  commissioner  of  agriculture  sliall  cause  said 
apiary  or  apiaries  to  be  visited  from  time  to  time  as  he  may  deem  best 
and  if,  after  proper  treatment,  the  bees  shall  not  be  cured  of  the  diseases 
known  as  foul  brood  or  black  brood  then  he  may  cause  the  same  to  be 
destroyed  in  such  manner  as  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
said  diseases.  For  the  purpose  of  enforcing  this  article,  the  commissioner 
of  agriculture,  his  agents,  employees,  appointees  or  counsel,  shall  have 
access,  ingress,  and  egress  to  all  places  where  bees  or  honey  or  appliances 
used  in  apiaries  may  be,  which  it  is  believed  are  in  any  way  afiected  with  the 
said  disease  of  foul  brood  or  black  brood  or  where  it  is  believed  any  com- 
modity is  offered  or  exposed  for  sale  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this 
article.  No  owner  or  caretaker  of  a  diseased  apiary,  honey,  or  appliances 
shall  sell,  barter,  or  give  away  any  bees,  honey,  or  appliances  from  said 
diseased  apiary,  which  shall  expose  other  bees  to  the  danger  of  said 
diseases,  nor  refuse  to  allow  the  said  commissioner  of  agriculture  or  the 
person  or  persons  appointed  by  him,  to  inspect  said  apiary,  honey  or 
appliances,  or  to  do  such  things  as  the  said  commissioner  of  agriculture 
ur  the  person  or  persons  appointed  by  him  shall  deem  necessary  for  the 
eradication  of  said  diseases.  Any  person  who  disregards  or  violates  any 
of  the  provisions  of  this  section  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  thirty  dollars  or  more  than  one  hun- 
dred dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  for  not  less  than  one 
month  or  more  than  two  months,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment. 

The  law  above  quoted  confers  abundant  authority  upon  the 
inspectors  without  unnecessary  restrictions  upon  their  move- 
ments. ^  If  in  their  judgment  a  second  visit  or  even  a  third  or 
fourth  is  necessary  they  are  free  to  make  it.  Most  laws  require 
a  second  visit  of  the  inspector  whether  or  not  it  seems  necessary. 

Separate  Departments.— Some  States  have  a  separate  de- 
partment for  bee  inspection.     The  officer  is  designated  a  State 


294  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

official  and  is  usually  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  office  thus 
becomes  a  political  appointment  and  is  subject  to  the  dangers 
of  such  a  system.  If  a  competent  man  is  placed  in  charge  the 
results  are  likely  to  be  satisfactory  but  he  is  never  so  free  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  officers  whose  appointment  depends 
solely  upon  efficiency.  It  frequently  happens  that  men  who 
know  little  about  bees  and  less  about  foul  brood  will  have  dis- 
ease in  the  apiary  and  will  refuse  to  be  convinced  of  its  real 
nature.  The  enmity  of  such  men  is  likely  to  be  a  heavy  liability 
when  the  official  asks  for  reappointment.  If,  perchance,  the 
governor  is  a  man  who  is  more  interested  in  his  own  political 
future  than  in  the  welfare  of  the  State  he  will  be  slow  to  reap- 
point men  who  have  antagonized  any  considerable  element. 

If  an  inspector  is  reasonable  and  diplomatic  he  can  disarm 
much  of  the  antagonism  but  it  is  impossible  for  any  man  in  this 
work  to  please  everybody  and  do  his  full  duty. 

Under  State  Entomologist. — In  several  States  the  State 
entomologist  is  given  supervision  of  bee  inspection.  This  should 
give  better  results  than  a  political  appointment,  especially  in 
those  States  where  the  entomologist  is  an  official  of  the  agricul- 
tural experiment  station. 

Department  of  Agricultural  College. — The  various  States 
are  rapidly  adding  bee  culture  to  the  departments  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges.  The  best  results  are  likely  to  result  from 
placing  the  bee  inspection  under  direction  of  the  head  of  the 
department  of  bee-keeping.  His  position  is  such  that  an  ineffi- 
cient man  will  not  be  placed  in  charge  and  the  work  can  be 
organized  in  connection  with  the  school  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner. 

County  Inspectors. — Several  States  have  adopted  the  county 
system  of  inspection.  In  these  States  the  county  board  may 
appoint  a  county  bee  inspector  on  petition  of  a  certain  prescribed 
number  of  bee-keepers.  The  official  is  thus  accountable  to  the 
local  officials  and  receives  his  pay  from  county  funds.  Cali- 
fornia adopted  this  plan  many  years  ago  and  still  retains  it. 


RESTRICTIONS  OF  SHIPMENT  295 

While  good  results  often  come  through  this  system  local  in- 
fluences often  result  in  inferior  service.  Serious  charges  have 
been  made  in  some  cases  of  inspectors  using  the  authority  of  the 
office  to  remove  other  bee-keepers  from  coveted  territory  and 
the  destruction  of  healthy  bees  through  jealousy.  While  the 
county  system  is  better  than  none  at  all  it  is  a  general  rule  that 
police  regulations  are  better  enforced  through  a  State  or  national 
administration  than  through  a  local  one. 

Colorado  Plan. — In  Colorado  the  State  and  county  plans  are 
combined.  There  is  a  State  appropriation  administered  by  an 
inspector  appointed  by  the  State  entomologist.  The  county 
boards  also  have  authority  to  appoint  local  inspectors  as  in  Cali- 
fornia. In  this  State  the  combined  forces  work  together  with 
good  results.  The  general  supervision  of  the  State  inspector 
has  a  tendency  to  check  abuses  that  might  arise  through  a  purely 
local  administration  of  the  office,  while  the  county  official  has 
the  advantage  of  being  near  at  hand  and  able  to  give  prompt 
attention  to  reported  cases. 

Restrictions  of  Shipment.— Several  States  have  laws  that 
prohibit  the  shipment  or  bringing  of  bees  into  the  State  without 
a  certificate  of  health  signed  by  some  duly  authorized  inspector. 
The  difficulty  with  such  provisions  lies  in  the  fact  that  men  often 
come  from  other  States  who  are  unfamiliar  with  the  law,  and 
bees  are  brought  in  without  the  knowledge  of  the  State  officials. 

Burden  on  Common  Carrier.—ln  Iowa  the  burden  was 
placed  on  the  common  carrier  by  the  following  enactment,  which 
was  later  repealed  as  unworkable : 

Section    1.    Diseased    Bees.~lt    shall    be    unlawful    for    any    person 
firm,  or  corporation  to  bring  into,  or  cause  to  be  brought  into  the  State 
of  Iowa,  any  apiary  or  honey  bees  infected  with  foul  brood  or  other  infec- 
tious disease,  or  bee  destroying  insects. 
of  hi''i^'    ^%*'f^'''\^{  Health.-^o  Common  carrier  shall  accept  colonies 

t  \oJZ  f'"7l  ^uJ""^'^  P.°\"*'  ""^^'^  ^^^  '^''^  b^^«  be  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  of  health  signed  by  some  duly  authorized  State  or  govern- 
ment inspector.  *= 

fl,;.  ^o^;  ^i;  ..^^■«^«*;«V^«r/*^-~^"y  P"*""^"  convicted  of  a  violation  of 
one^undrtd  doLs.^^'  "°'  '^"  '"^^  ^"^^^^'^^^  ^«"-«  -^  --  than 


296  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-BEEPER 

Such  laws  are  very  important  but  it  is  difficult  to  enforce  them 
fully  as  the  inspector  has  no  means  of  knowing  when  and  where 
bees  are  to  be  moved.  Disease  is  frequently  brought  into  locali- 
ties that  have  been  previously  free  from  it,  by  shipment  of  bees 
in  emigrant  cars  along  with  other  personal  effects.  Railroads 
and  express  •  companies  issue  instructions  to  their  agents  fre- 
quently and  every  agent  is  notified  of  a  provision  of  law  of  the 
kind  adopted  in  Iowa,  with  the  result  that  some  shipments  at 
least  will  be  checked  until  properly  inspected. 

Shipment  of  Queens. — By  far  the  largest  interstate  business 
in  bees  is  the  shipment  of  queens.  Thousands  of  queens  are 
shipped  through  the  mail  and  by  express.  Disease  has  often 
been  carried  with  the  cages  in  which  the  queens  are  sent  through 
the  mails.  Usually  cases  of  this  kind  are  traceable  to  the  use 
of  honey  from  diseased  colonies  for  making  the  candy  on  which 
the  queens  feed  enroute.  Postal  regulations  now  require  that 
queens  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  health  from  some 
duly  authorized  inspector  or  by  an  affidavit  that  the  candy  on 
which  they  are  fed  was  boiled  for  thirty  minutes. 

The  safest  plan  is  for  the  bee-keeper  to  place  the  queen  in  a 
new  cage  without  candy,  or  with  candy  which  is  known  to  be 
free  from  disease  germs,  before  introducing  into  the  apiary. 

RELATING  TO   THE  ADULTERATION  AND  SALE  OF   HONEY 

The  pure  food  laws  are  a  great  boon  to  the  honey  producer. 
For  many  years  all  kinds  of  adulterations  of  honey  were  in  the 
market.  The  bee-keeper  found  it  very  hard  to  compete  with 
these  adulterations  which  could  be  sold  at  a  very  low  price. 
Adulteration  was  so  common  that  the  public  came  to  believe  that 
all  liquid  honey  was  adulterated  and  extracted  honey  fell  in 
price  to  such  a  point  that  it  was  no  longer  profitable  to  produce  it. 

Fortunately  it  has  never  been  found  possible  to  imitate  the 
natural  product  in  the  comb  and  the  comb  honey  prodiicer  never 
suffered  as  seriously. 

Stories  to  the  effect  that  comb  honey  was  manufactured  at 


NEW  YORK  LAW  297 

one  time  were  given  wide  circulation  in  the  newspapers.  This 
resulted  in  distrust  of  comb  honey  also.  The  National  Bee- 
keeper's Association  and  those  interested  in  the  manufacture  of 
bee-keeper's  supplies,  offered  large  rewards  for  proof  that  comb 
honey  had  been  successfully  imitated,  which  helped  to  offset  the 
bad  effects  to  some  extent. 

Since  the  pure  food  laws  have  been  so  generally  enforced 
there  is  a  returning  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  public  that 
extracted  honey  may  be  pure  and  the  price  has  advanced  with 
the  increased  demand  until  it  is  now  as  profitable  as  comb  honey 
production.  Several  years  time  will  be  required  to  overcome 
the  bad  effects  of  the  unfortunate  conditions  of  other  days. 

While  the  general  laws  of  the  nation  and  of  the  various  States 
that  apply  to  weights  and  labels  of  food  products  include  honey, 
some  States  have  passed  specific  laws  prohibiting  the  adulteration 
or  misbranding  of  honey. 

New  York  Law.— The  statute  of  New  York  is  worded  as 
follows : 

^^  Defining  Honey.— The  terms  "  honey,"  "  liquid  or  extracted  honey," 
strained  honey"  or  "pure  honey,"  as  used  in  this  article  shall  mean 
the  nectar  of  flowers  that  has  been  transformed  by,  and  is  the  natural 
product  of  the  honey-bee,  taken  from  the  honeycomb  and  marketed  in  a 
liquid,  candied  or  granulated  condition. 

Relating  to  Selling  a  Commodity  in  Imitation  or  Semblance  of  Honey  — 
No  person  or  persons  shall  sell,  keep  for  sale,  expose  or  offer  for  sale  any 
article  or  product  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  honey  branded  as  "  honey  " 
liquid  or  extracted  honey,"  "strained  honey,"  or  "'pure  honey"  which  is 
not  pure  honey.  No  person  or  persons,  firm,  association,  company  or  cor- 
poration, shall  manufacture,  sell,  expose,  or  offer  for  sale  any  compound 
or  mixture  branded  or  labeled  as  and  for  honey  which  shall  be  made  up 
of  honey  mixed  with  any  other  substance  or  ingredient.  Thpre  may  be 
printed  on  the  package  containing  such  compound  or  mixture  statement 
giving  the  ingredients  of  which  it  is  made;  if  honey  is  one  of  such  in- 
gredients it  shall  be  so  stated  in  the  same  size  type  as  are  the  other  in- 
gredients, but  it  shall  not  be  sold,  exposed  for  sale,  or  offered  for  sale  as 
honey;  nor  shall  such  compound  or  mixture  be  branded  or  labeled  M'ith  the 
word  honey  in  any  form  other  than  as  herein  provided;  nor  shall  any 
product  in  semblance  of  honey,  whether  a  mixture  or  not.  be  sold,  exposed 
or  offered  for  sale  as  honey,  or  branded  or  labeled  with  the  word  "  hrnev  " 
unless  such  article  is  pure  honey. 

The  value  of  such  a  law  in  safeguarding  the  bee-keeper's 
market  and  protecting  the  consumer  against  fraud  can  scarcely 


298  LAWS  THAT  CONCERN  THE  BEE-KEEPER 

be  estimated.  Imitations  are  still  to  be  had  in  the  market  but 
they  sell  for  just  what  they  are  and  the  consumer  who  cares  to 
use  them  buys  them  at  a  lower  price  than  he  would  have  to  pay 
if  they  were  permitted  to  be  sold  as  honey. 

Net  Weight  Labels. — The  provision  of  the  law  which  re- 
quires every  package  to  have  the  net  weight  measure  or  numerical 
count  plainly  marked  on  the  label  necessitates  stamping  every 
section  of  comb  honey  as  well  as  every  jar  holding  extracted 
honey  with  the  amount  of  honey  it  contains.  This  provision  led 
to  much  complaint  among  small  producers  at  first.  After  a  few 
months  trial  it  is  being  demonstrated  that  it  is  really  an  advan- 
tage to  the  comb  honey  producer  who  is  up  to  date  and  has  much 
honey  to  market.  This  requirement  applies  to  all  interstate 
shipments  which  come  under  national  jurisdiction.  The  para- 
graph reads  as  follows : 

A  food  product  will  be  deemed  to  be  misbranded:  If  in  package  form, 
the  quantity  of  the  contents  be  not  plainly  and  conspicuously  marked  on 
the  outside  of  the  package  in  terms  of  weight,  measure,  or  numerical  count; 
provided,  however,  that  reasonable  variations  shall  be  permitted,  and 
tolerances  and  also  exemptions  as  to  small  packages  shall  be  established 
by  rules  and  regulations  made  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  section 
three  of  this  act. 

A  similar  requirement  is  made  by  some  State  laws  so  that  the 
net  weight  must  be  marked  on  packages  sold  to  the  local  trade 
as  well  as  those  shipped  to  distant  markets. 

The  effect  of  this  provision  is  to  keep  much  ungraded  honey 
out  of  competition  with  a  first-class  product.  The  large  pro- 
ducer finds  it  an  easy  matter  to  provide  cartons  on  which  are 
printed  the  weights  of  the  various  grades  and  as  each  section  is 
graded  it  is  placed  in  a  carton  of  the  proper  kind. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Note  the  peculiar  conditions  that  surround  the  bee-keeper  in  his  relation 

to  the  public. 

2.  Discuss  the  usual  causes  of  trouble  between  bee-keepers  and  neighbors. 

3.  When  will  bees  be  regarded  as  a  public  nuisance? 

4.  Discuss  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees  while  in  bloom. 

5.  Discuss  the  laws  for  control  of  bee  diseases. 

0.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  laws  relating  to  the  adulteration  of  honey? 
7.  Summarize  briefly  the  various  laws  relating  to  beekeeping. 


INDEX 


Adulteration  of  honey,  29G 

of  wax,    199 
Advertising,  exhibits  for,  269 

general,  268 

methods  of,  267 
Alexander    feeder,    134 

plan  of  making  increase,    104 

strainer,    190 
Alfalfa,  60 

region,   49 
Alley  plan  of  queen  rearing,  124 
Apiary,  arrangement  of,   36-41 
Apprenticeship,   value   of,    18 
Artichoke,   63 
Ash,  source  of  pollen,  80 
Aster,    69 

Basswood,   60 
Beech,  80 
Bee-escapes,  '  161 
Bee-keepers,  studious,  9 
Bee-keeping,   advantages  of,    10 
Bees  as  pets,  1 

in  combless  packages,  127 
Beeswax,  adulteration  of,  199 

color  of,    197 

melts  at  low  temperature,  196 

production  of,  195 

substitutes   for,    199 

uses  of,    198 

see  also  Wax 
Birch,  source  of  pollen,  80 
Bitter  honey,  81 
Bitterweed,  81 
Black  bees,  98 
Bleaching  wax,  204 
Blending  honey,  265 
Boiler  press  for  wax,  204 
Bonney  advertising  stickers,  268 

hive  markers,  44 

postcard,  280 
Book-keeper,  successful  bee-keeper,  15 
Booklets  for  advertising.  276 
Box-elder,  source  of  pollen,  80 
Breeding  to  produce  non-swarming 
bees,  157 


Brood   rearing,   feeding  for,  131 

Buckwheat,  61 

Bulk  honey,   194 

Business,    bee-keeping    as    exclusive, 

16 
Button  bush,  78 
Buying    bees,    27 

Cage  method  of  introducing  queens. 

114 
Candied  honey,  liquefying,  191 

retailing,  193 
Candy  stores,   bees  at,  285 
Canvassing,  to  sell  honey,  280 
Carniolans,    99 
Carpenter,   a   bee-keeper,    13 
Catnip,    78 
Caucasian  bees,  99 
Cellar,  essentials  of  good,  254 

for  wintering,  252 
Cells,    care   of    queen,    126 
Chaff  hives,  234 
Chestnut,  source  of  pollen,  80 
Chilled  brood,  222 
Chunk  honey,  194 
Clerk,   successful   bee-keeper,    13 
Clipping  queens,   101 
Closing   the   season,    162 
Clover   region,    48 
Colonies,  to  tell  strong,  30 
Colorado  plan  of  inspection,  295 
Comb  bucket,  25 

honey,  care  of,  262 
production,    136 
Combs,  care  of  empty,  228 
Commercial  queen  rearing,  123 
Commission  houses,  selling  through, 

260 
Containers  for  honey,   190 
Control  of  bee  diseases,  292 

essentials  of,  5 
Corn,   source   of  pollen,   80 
Cover,    for   hive,   23 
Cranberry,  bee  as  pollenizing  agent, 

84 
Crownbeard,  66 

299 


300 


INDEX 


Cucumber,  bee  as  pollenizing  agent, 

85 
Cup-plant,  65 
Cutting  out  queen  cells,  102,  158 

prices  of  honey,  282 
Cyprian   bees,   98 

Dadant  method  of  wintering,  242 

hive  for  extracted  honey,  173 
Dandelion,  48,   53 
Demaree  method  of  swarm  control, 

185 
Demonstrations,  with  bees,  5 
De-queening  during  honey  flow,  158 
Devil's   darning   needles,   224 
Diseases,  206 

American   foul  brood,  207 

dysentery,  223 

European   foul  brood,  215 

laws    for    controlling,    292-29G 

sacbrood,  221 

treatment  of,  212,  219,  223 
Disinfecting,   for   foul   brood,   215 
Division   board   feeder    134 
Doolittle  feeder,  134 

method  of  queen  rearing,  124 
Doorweed,  74 
Double-walled  hives,  245 
Dragon  flies,   224 
Drone,   95 
Dysentery,  223 

Elm,  source  of  pollen,  80 

Empty   combs,   care   of,  206 

Enemies  of  bees,  206 

Entrance  feeder,    135 

Entrance,   width   of,    186 

Equipment,  for  beginner,  18,  19 

for  comb  honey  production,  137 
minor,    23 

Excluders,  186 

Exhibits,  at  fairs,  269 

Experience,    getting,    18 

Extracted  honey,  packages  for,  263 
power  for,  168 
production  of,  165 
storage  tanks  for,   169 

Extracting,  188 

Extractors,    165 

Failures,   from   lack   of    experience, 
16 


Fairs,  exhibits  at,  269 
Fall  flowers,  63 
Farmer,   bee-keeper,    16 
Feeding  bees,  129 

for  reserve  supply,  130 
preparation  for,  130 
to  stimulate  brood  rearing, 
131 
Feeders,  Alexander,  134 

division  board,  134 

entrance,  135 

Miller,  133 

Minnesota,  132 

tin-pan,  134 
Fertile  workers,  94 
Figwort,    78 
Flaxboard,    24 

Florida,  honey  plants  of,  50 
Foul  brood,  206 

American,  207 

European,  215 
Foundation,  full  sheets  of,  180 

in   sections,   145-198 
Frames,  174 
Fruit  bloom,  55,  85 
Fumigation    for    wax   moths,    163 

German   bees,    98 
Getting  acquainted  with  bees,  1 
Gloves,  need  of,  20 
Goldenrod,  01 

Grading,  extracted  honey,  265 
honey    comb,    257 

official    rules   for   258 

Hershiser  press,  202 

Heartsease,  74 

Hive,   for   extracted  honey,   17«3 

kind  to  adopt,  19 

markers,    Bonney,   45 

marks,  43 

observatory,   25 

spacing,  38 

stands,  39 

to  open,  5 

tool,   21 
Hiving  swarm,   103 
Hoffman  frame,   174 
Home  markets,  260 
Honey  flow,  of  short  duration,  9 

house,  175 

method   of   introducing  queens, 
117 


INDEX 


301 


Honey  producers,  women  successful, 
11 
pump,  169 
ripening    of,    187 
straining,    189 
Honey-dew,   50 

unsatisfactory     for     wintering, 
128 

Increase,  100 

Inspectors,  business  of,  229 

requirements  for  successful,  231 
Italian  bees,  27,  98 

Joys  of  bee-keeping,  7 

Kno tweed,  74 

Labels,  honey,  266,  269 

net  weight,  298 
Lady's  thumb,  74 
Laws,  against  poisoning  bees,  291 

for  control  of  bee  diseases,  292 

net  weight.   298 

relating      to      adulteration      of 
honey,  296 

restricting    shipment    of     bees. 
295 

spraying,  291 

Maple,  52,  80 

Market,  comb  honey,  137 

home,  260 
Marketing,  by  mail,  27G 

by  canvassing,  280 

co-operative,  265 
Mice,  injury  from,  224 
Milkweed,  75 

Miller,  A.  C,  smoke  method  of  in- 
troducing queens,    115 
Miller,  Dr.  C.  C,  dequeening  meth- 
od, 160 

feeder,  133 

method  of  making  increase,  111 

method    of   queen    rearing,    122 

plan  of  producing  comb  honey, 
154-156 

Smoke    method    of    requeening, 

Minnesota  feeder,   131 
Mosquito  hawk  224 
Mountain  laurel,  81 
Moving  bees,  28 


Natural  helps,  158 
Nectar,  sources  of,  46 
Net  weight  labels,  298 
New  York,  law  for  controlling  bee 
diseases,    292 
law  for  sale  of  honey,  297 
Nuisance,   bees  as,  286 
Number  of  bees  in  a  colony,  94 

Observatory  hive,  25 
Occupants  of  the  hive,  88 
Odor  of  stable  offensive  to  bees,  6 
Orchards,  bees  as  poUenizing  agents, 

Outlook  for  beekeeping,  17 
Overstocking,   82 

Packages,  fancy,  273 
for  comb  honey,  261 
for  extracted  honey,  263 

Packing  cases  for  wintering,  247 

Packing    for    winter    and    summer 
stands,   244 

Palmetto,  77 

Paper  cases  for  wintering,  240 

Partridge  pea,  67 

Peddling  honey,  280 

Pitting  bees  for  winter,  243 

Poisoning  bees,  291 

Poisonous  honey,  81 

Pollen,  sources  of  early,  52,  79,  80 

PoUenizing  agents,  84 

Portable  outfits  for  extracting,   175 

Porter  bee  escape,  161 

Postcards,  for  advertising,  175 

Preparation,  advance,  150 

Prices,  control  of,  264 
retail,  274 

Prior  rights,  83 

Protection,  of  hives  in  spring,  239 

Queen,  88,  92 

cells,  cutting,  102,  158 
clipping  the,  101 
excluders,    186 
influence  of,  236 
introducing,  112,  220 
rearing,   121 
replacing,  27 

Races  of  bees,  98 

Receipts    for    cooking    with    honey, 
277 


INDEX 


Retail  markets,  274 
Returns  from   beekeeping,   12 
Rhododendron,  81 
Robber  fly,  225 
Rosin  weed,  65 

Sacbrood,  221 
Sage,  77 

Sale  of  honey,  laws  concerning,  290 
Saw  palmetto,  77 
Seasons  management,  149 
Sections,  for  comb  honey,   138 
removing  from  super,   163 
Sentinels   at  entrance,   4 
Separators,  141 
Shade,  value  of,  36 
Shipment,  of  queens,  296 

restrictions  of,  295 
Shipping  cases,  for  comb  honey,  261 

for  extracted  honey,  263 
Signs,  270,  271 
Simpson's  honey  plant,  78 
Situations   for   keeping  bees,   11 
Skunks,  224 
Smartweed,  74 
Smoke,  use  of,  5 
Smoker,  22,  23 
Smoker  fuel,  22 
Snakefeeders,  224 
Sneezeweed,  81 
Snow-on-the-Mountain,  81 
Solar  wax  extractors,  200 
South,  honey  plants  of,  49 
Space  under   brood  nest  as   swarm 

prevention,   160 
Spacing  hives,  38 
Spiders,  225 
Split  sections,  144 
Spotting  clothes,  284 
Spraying  when  in   full  bloom,  291 
Starters,  putting  in,  147 
Starved  brood,  222 
Starwort,   69 
Steam  press,  203 
Sting,    2 

Strong  colonies,  important,  83 
Sunflowers,  63 
Super  springs,  148 


Supers,  enticing  b€es  into,  151 

putting  on,  184 
S'upplyinig  empty  combs,  110 
Swarm  control,  156 

Demaree  method  of,   185 
Swarming,  100 
Tools  for  apiary,  20 
Transferring,   32,   33,   34 
Trembles,  caused  by  boneset,  72 
Trouble,  causes  of,  284 
Truck  crops,  57 

Uncapping  boxes,  170 
knives,  173 

Veil,  20,  21 

Ventilation,  of  hives,  30,  186 

Walnut,  source  of  pollen,  80 
Watering   devices,  41,   42 

places,  bees  at,  284 
Water,  method  of  introducing  queens 
117 

need  of,  41,  238 
Wax,  adulteration  of,  199 

bleaching,  204 

cooling,  205 

moths,  225 

fumigation  for,  163 

press,   203 

production    of,    195 

rendering,   202 

substitutes  for,   190 

uses  of,   198 
Weak  colonies,  care  of,  154 
White  snakeroot,  70 
Whitewood,  60 
Wild  bergamot,  74 
Wild  cucumoer,   79 
Willow,  52,  74 

Wintering,   avoid  failing  queens  in 
236 

best  feed  for,  235 

essentials    of    successful,    234 

influence  of  the  queen  in,  236 

methods  of,  239-256 

protection  from  winds,  237 
Wiring  frames,  181 
Worker  bees,  92