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1920

INDICATED BELOW A^ FINE AS

{SiU' i? ?Sf cYrculation

DESK.

APit^:^

The first farmer was the first man, and all historic
nobility rests on possession and use of land."

— Emerson.

LIPPINCOTT'S

FARM MANUALS

EDITED BY

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell)

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE,
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS. NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE

PRODUCTIVE
HORSE HUSBANDRY

By carl W. gay, D.V.M., B.S.A.

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF

PENNSYLVANIA; DIRECTOR OF HORSE BREEDING, STATE LIVESTOCK

SANITARY BOARD, COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA.

LIPPINCOTT'S

FARM MANUALS

Edited by
K. C. DAVIS. Ph.D.

KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE. NASHVILLE, TENN.

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY 1915
By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 1919
By harry R. lewis, B.S.

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 1920
By carl W. gay, D.V.AI., B.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 1917
By FRED C. SEARS, M.S.

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING 1918
By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE FEEDINGof FARM ANIMALS 1916
By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D.

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS 1919
By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M.

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS 1918
By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 1918
By FRANK C. PELLETT

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 1919
By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A.

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS 1918
By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY 1918
By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.S.

SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT 1919
By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S.

APPLIED ECONOMIC BOTANY 1919
By MELVILLE T. COOK, Ph.D.

LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK

ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS

SOILS, By J. F. EASTMAN and K. C. DAVIS i9is

POULTRY, By H. R. LEWIS I9i8

DAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY i9i7

FEEDING, By F. W. WOLL i9i7

FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP

LiPPiNCOTT's Farm Manuals

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell).

PRODUCTIVE
HORSE HUSBANDRY

CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A.

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, CHAIRMAN OF THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

SECTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY

OF MINNESOTA

175 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

THIRD EDITION, REVISED

" If vain our toil, -" \ _ f
We ought to blame the culture, not tite soil."'.

Pope —Essay on Man-

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIOKT, 1914
OY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Electrotyped and printed by
J. B. LippincoU Company, Philadelphia, U.S. A.

PREFACE

It has been the author's pui^ose to emphasize industry as
applied to horses. If the production, marketing, and use of
horses were regarded as an industry and conducted more gen-
erally along business lines, with a definite purpose in view, more
uniform results could be obtained and with greater profit to
those engaged.

It is quite generally conceded that the investigations of the
experiment stations, as well as the instruction in the schools and
colleges, have been more exhaustive in their application to cattle,
hogs, sheep, and poultry than to horses. This is unrepresenta-
tive of the importance of the horse industry and inadequate to
its needs. The aimless, hit or miss, haphazard system prevails
in the production of horses more than in any other class of live
stock ; the scrub stallion is less in disrepute than the scrub bull,
and most producers of market cattle, hogs, or sheep devote them-
selves more intelligently to their enterprise than do the breeders
of horses.

Commonly the original producer receives a lower percentage
of the price which a horse ultimately brings than is the case with
most market products. Indifference to market demands and lack
of information concerning the best means of meeting the require-
ments are largely responsible for the advantage of the middle-
man. In fact, they constitute the principal asset of a certain
class of dealers who derive their profits in direct proportion to
the ignorance of those from whom they buy and to whom they
sell.

J^otwithstanding the keen competition between the horse and
the motor in some fields, the horse business in general is on a
sound basis and bids fair to continue so, as far as can be fore-
seen. But to successfully compete requires most careful atten-
tion to detail. Economic efficiency is the standard by which com-
parisons are made. Science and system must govern in the
profitable production of market horses and their subsequent
service.

^ ^'^.

17769

Vi PREFACE

Economy and efficiency have, therefore, ruled in tJie prep-
aration of this suhject-matter. The scope of the work outlined
is too broad to admit of an extended discussion of all points
referred to. Duplication of other texts has been avoided, as far
as possible, while those phases of the subject that have received
.the least mention prior to this time have been most fullv
developed.

This book is intended to present to students of live stock
husbandry' the same systematic and complete study of the horse
that has been accorded tlie other classes of live stock. Works
on the horse are legion, and many of them excellent, but the
majority of writers view the proposition from an angle which
does not comprehend the student's requirements so fully as is
attempted here.

The author duly acknowledges much valuable information
gleaned from the current literature on the subject, while he claims
no authority but assumes entire responsibility for the accuracy
of much that is said. He deeply appreciates the counsel and
assistance of a wide acquaintance of practical horsemen in
acquiring the fund of horse lore from which the material, here-
with presented, is dra^\Ti.

Sectionalism and joartiality to special classes or breeds have
been avoided. Emphasis has been laid upon the practical side
of horse husbandry. Students as well as horse breeders have
been kept in mind while preparing this book. It is hoped that
short-course students and college students will alike be able to
use the text to advantage. The grouping of the chapters into
four parts should aid in rapid reference and student work.

Carl W. Gay.

University of Penna.,
Nov., 1913.

CONTENTS

PART I.— STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Horse — A Machine 3

II. Conformation — The Structure 10

III. Way of Going — The Function 17

PART II.— TYPES AND BREEDS.

IV. The Types of Horses 35

V. The Classes of Horses 45

VI. The Breeds of Horses 70

VII. Draft Breeds 84

VIII. The Heavy Harness Breeds 101

IX. American Breeds 112

X. Pony Breeds 133

XI. Judging Horses 139

PART III.— THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.
^11. 'piE Breeding of Horses 179

X PART IV.— THE HORSE IN SERVICE.

f^JAHI. Relation Between Horse and Master 219

^ ^5>The Feeding of Horses ^31

' XV. Stables 247

XVr* Equitation 269

XVII. Vehicle, Harness, and Saddle 286

XVIII. Markets and Shows 296

XIX. Transportation 304

XX. The Mule 309

XXI. The Motor as a Factor 314

ILLUSTRATIONS

riQ. PAGE

Productive Horse Husbandry Frontispiece

1. Hind Legs, Propeller; Forelegs, Supportive to the Extent of Lifting

the Forehand. (Exterior of the Horse) 3

2. Skeleton of the Horse, Showing the Vertebral Arch and the Bone

Columns. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 4

3. Each and Every Phase of the Stride is Demonstrated 5

4. Situation of the Centre of Gravity in the Horse. (Exterior of the

Horse) , 6

5. Diagram Showing Contact of Feet in Various Gaits 7

6. During the Greatest Effort the Base of Support is Rectangular, the

Horse Being Practically on All Fours. (Exterior of the Horse) . . 8

7. Regions of the Horse Seen in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 11

8. Normal Eye. (Exterior of the Horse) 12

9. Plantar Surface of Right Fore-Hoof. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 13

10. The Erect Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from in Front,

as Determined by the Plumb-hne. (Exterior of the Horse) 14

11. The Correct Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from the Side.

(Schweiter) 14

12. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the

Rear. (Exterior of the Horse) 15

13. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the

Side. (Exterior of the Horse) 15

14. The Fast Trot, Characterized as a Diagonal Gait of Extreme Exten-

sion and Rapidity of Stride 18

15. The High Stepping Trot, Showing Extreme Flexion of Knees and

Hocks. (Champion Hackney Pony Berkley Bantam) 19

16. The Pace, a Lateral Gait of Extreme Extension and Rapidity of

Stride 20

17. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Gallops. (Exterior of the

Horse) 21

18. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Jump. (Exterior of the

Horse) 22

19. Position of Direction of Leg to Course Taken by Foot in the Stride.

(Adams' Horseshoeing) 24

20. Knee-sprung or Over on the Knees. (Exterior of the Horse) 25

21. Calf-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 25

22. Too Straight Pastern. (Adams' Horseshoeing) .-. 25

23. Base Narrow, Toe Wide, Nigger-heeled, or Splay-footed. (Exterior

of the Horse) 26

X ILLUSTRATIONS

24. Toe Narrow or Pigeon-toed. (Exterior of the Horse) 26

25. Knock-kneed, (Exterior of the Horse) 26

26. Bow-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 27

27. Too Close at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse) 27

28. Too Wide at Ground. (Ex-terior of the Horse) 27

29. Bent, Sabre, or Sickle Hock. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 28

30. Cow-hocked. (Exterior of the Horse) 28

31. Bandy-legged or Wide at the Hocks. (Exterior of the Horse) 28

32. The Draft Type, Showing the Weight, the Low, Wide, Compact,

Massive Form, the Bone and the Muscling which Characterize the
Horse of Power. (Percheron Gelding, Champion International
Live Stock Exposition) 36

33. The Way a Draft Horse Should be Able to Move. (Camot, Im-

ported Percheron Stallion, Champion International Live Stock
Exposition, Owned by W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111. Courtesy of
the Owner) 38

34. The Speed Type, Representing the Long, Rangy, Angular, Narrow

but Deep Form Correlated with Length and Rapidity of Stride.
(Champion Trotting Mare Lou Dillon, 1.583^) 39

35. The Show Type, Representing the Close and Full Made Form.

(Champion Hackney Show Mare, Lady Seaton) 41

36. A Weight Carrier, Illustrating the Bone Muscular Development

which, with a Short Back and Legs, Render a Horse "up to" Two
Hundred Pounds or More. (Prize Winning Heavy Weight Hunter,
SoUtaire) 42

37. The Saddle Type, Showing the Short Top and Long Under Line,

Sloping Shoulders, the High, Well-finished Withers, and the
Long, Fine, Supple Neck Essential to the Saddle Horse. (Cham-
pion Saddle Mare, Sonia) 43

38. A Trey or Three-way Hitch of Drafters to Truck, Showing the

Scale, Form, and Conformation of Horses of this Class, also the
Manner of Hitching. (Prize W^inning Percheron Geldings Owned
by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the owners) . 50

39. A Draft Pair of Unusual Quality and Attractive Color 51

40. A Six-horse Draft Team to Packer's Van, Showing the Relative

Balance between the Lead, Swing, and Wheel-pair, also Complete
Appointments. (Prize Winning Clydesdale Geldings) 51

41. A Pair of Chunks to Truck, Showing the Extremely Drafty Form,

Bone, and Ruggedness Typical to this Class. (Percheron Geldings
Owned by H. S. Beaston, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the

Owner) 52

42. An Expresser for Light Delivery Service, Showing the Combination
of Draft Horse Size and Substance with Coach Horse Form and
Finish. (Prize Winning Light Delivery Gelding, Owned by
Strawbridge and Clothier, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Owners) 53

ILLUSTRATIONS 3^

43. A Class of Coach Horses to Brougham and Victorias. (Harness

Class, Philadelphia Horse Show) 54

44. A Park Mare to Sayler Wagon. (Champion Hackney Show Mare,

The Whip) 55

45. A Runabout Horse, with a Fair Degree of Both Pace and Action.

(Champion Trottingbred Harness Horse, Newsboy) 55

46. A Cob to Runabout, a Big, Little Horse of Extremely Compact and

Rotund Form. (Champion Small Harness Horse, Young Moun-
taineer) 56

47. The Bent Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 57

48. A Gentleman's Road Mare. (Champion Road Mare, Alhe Nun).. . 58

49. A Trotter to Sulky. (Champion Trotting Mare, Sweet Marie, 2.02,

McDonald up) 58

50. The Straight Hock- joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 59

51. A Steeple Chaser, Showing the Speed and Saddle Form of the

Running Race Horse. (Merryman, Virginia bred hunter.
Courtesy of the National Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 60

52. A Gaited Saddle Stallion. (Kentucky Choice, Owned by Mrs.

Richard Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. Courtesy of the Owner.
Matt Cohen up) 61

53. A Walk-trot-canter Horse. (Champion Walk-trot-canter Saddle

Horse, Poetry of Motion) 62

54. A Class of English Saddle Horses. (Saddle Class, International

Horse Show, Olympia, London. Courtesy of the National Stock-
man and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 63

55. A Light-weight Hunter. (Prize Winning Hunter Mare, Sunday

Morning) 63

56. Heatherbloom, the World'sRecord High Jumper. (Record, 8 feet

3}/2 inches. Dick Donnelly up) 64

57. A Combination Horse. (Prize Winning Saddle Horse, Confidence,

OwTied by Dr. Oscar Seely, Philadelphia) 65

58. The Fine Harness Horse of the South. (Kentucky Choice in Harness) 66

59. A Harness Pony under 46 Inches in Height. (Prize Winning Shet-

land Pony, Lysander, Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, 111.
Courtesy of the Owner) 67

60. A Twelve-hand Ride and Drive Pony of Exceptional Merit. (Prize

Winning Harness and Saddle Hackney Pony Mare, Helen Miller,
Owned by Willisbrook Farm) 67

61. A Pair of Twelve-hand Ponies Properly Turned Out. (Prize Win-

ning Pair of Welsh Ponies, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 111.) 68

62. A Polo Mount, Fast, Game, Handy, Intelligent, and up to Weight.

(Prize Winning Polo Mount, Redman) 68

63. Arabian Stallion, Showing the General Refinement Characteristic of

this Breed. (Naaman, Owned by Herman Hoopes, Philadelphia,
Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 74

Xii ILLUSTRATIONS

64. A Thoroughbred StaUion, the Sire of Race Horses, (Rocksand,

Recently Sold by August Belmont to a Foreign Syndicate for
$150,000) 78

65. A Thoroughbred Stallion Suitable to Get Saddle Horses and Hunters.

(Chilton) 80

66. A French Post Coach Used Early in the Nineteenth Centurj'. (A

Manual of Coacliing) 86

67. A Diligence Still in Use in Switzerland. (A Manual of Coaching).. 87

68. An Old-fashioned Percheron. (StaUion, Sultan, Imported by Wm.

T. Walters, Baltimore, Md., 1882) 88

69. A Percheron Stallion. (Imported Imprecation; Champion Inter-

national Live Stock Exposition, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons,
Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the OwTiers) 89

70. A Belgian Stallion of the Most Acceptable Stamp. (Prize Winning

Imported, Xa\'ier, OwTied by J. Crouch and Sons, • Lafayette,
Ind. Courtesy of the Owners) 92

71. A Clydesdale Stallion of Most Impressive Character. (Flisk Prince,

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned
by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of Owners) 95

72. A Shire Stallion of Most Approved Type. (Lockinge Hengist,

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition,
Owned by Truman's Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111. Courtesy
of the Owners) 97

73. A Suffolk StaUion of the Punch Form. (Rcndlesham Sunshine,

Imported Prize Winner, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-
Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) 99

74. A Hackney Stallion. (Oxford Champion, National Horse Show,

Madison Square Garden, New York City. The Only American
Bred Horse that ever Won this Honor. Owned by Wm. White,
Frazer, Pa. Courtesy of the OwTier) 103

75. A French Coach Stallion of the More Rcfmed Sort. (Decorateur,

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, OwTied

by M cLauglilin Brothers, Columbus, Ohio. Courtesy of the Owners) 104

76. A French Coach Sire which has Produced High-Class Harness

Horses with Remarkable Regularity. (Troarn, Prize Winner,
Owned by Geo. D. King, Springboro, Pa. Courtesy of OwTier) . . 105

77. A German Coach StaUion 107

78. The Lead Pair in this Road Four are Pure-bred OrlofTs. (0%vTied

and Shown by Judge W. H. Moore) 109

79. Cannon, at the Head of the Government Stud of American Horses.

(Courtesy of Geo. M. Rommel) 109

80. Pair of Trotting-bred Heavy Harness Horses to George IV Phaeton.

(Lord Brilliant and Lord Golden, Many Times Champions) 110

81. A Standardbred Stallion, a Leading Sire of the Breed. (Bingen,

Recently Deceased) 113

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

82. Hambletonian 10, at 23 Years of Age 115

83. Monument over Grave of Hambletonian 10, at Chester, N. Y.

(Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University) 116

84. Green Mountain Maid in 1873 118

85. Inscription on Monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford.

(Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University).. . . 118

86. An "Ideal Representative " of the Standardbred. (Moquette, 2.10,

Owned by W. H. Davis, Washington, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 119

87. A 16-hand, 1200-pound Standard Performer. (Stalhon Sisalson,

Owned by Henry Palmer, Avondale, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 120

88. Original Photo of Ethan Allen, made in 1859 124

89. A Morgan StaUion. (Bobbie 3-) 125

90. General Gates, at the Head of the Government Morgan Stud 126

91. An American Saddle Stalhon. (Bourbon King One of the Leading

Sires of Kentucky) 131

92. The Old Comitry Idea of Shetland Type is a Miniature Draft Horse.

(Eirik and Silverton of Tamsey, Champion Shetland Stallions
and the Highland Royal Shows) 134

93. A Shetland Stallion, American bred. (Grandee, 0^vned by Chas.

E. Bunn, Peoria, 111. Courtesy of the Owner) 134

94. A Welsh Pony Stallion, Showing the Size and Form Characteristic

of the Breed. (Llwyn King, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington,
111. Courtesy of the O^mer) 136

95. A Hackney Pony Stallion. (Horace, Jr., Imported Champion, Owned

by Wilhsbrook Farm, Malvern, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) . . . 137

96. Dentition of the Horse, as a ^^Tiole. (Exterior of the Horse) 152

97. Longitudinal and Median Section of a Permanent Inferior Pincer.

(Exterior of the Horse) 153

98. Birth: None of the Incisor Teeth has Penetrated the Gums. (Ex-

terior of the Horse) 154

99. One Year: Viewed in Front, All the Milk Incisors are Visible.

(Exterior of the Horse) 155

100. Two Years : Jaws Belonging to a Colt of a Lymphatic Race, Having

been Fed Almost Entirely on Forage. (Exterior of the Horse) ... 156

101. Three Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Four Permanent Pincers

are Seen. (Exterior of the Horse) ' 157

102. Rising Four Years: Viewed in Front, there are Seen in Each Jaw,

Four Permanent Incisors. (Exterior of the Horse) 158

103. Four Years: Viewed in Front, All the Permanent Superior Teeth

are in Contact with the Inferior. (Exterior of the Horse) 159

104. Four Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Superior Permanent Inter-

mediates are in Contact wdth the Inferior Intermediates, and on
the Same Level as the Pincers. (Exterior of the Horse) 160

105. Rising Five Years: The Four Milk Corners have Fallen Out and are

ReplacedbyThose of the Second Dentition. (Exterior of the Horse) 161

Xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

106. Five Years: The Mouth is Entirely Made. (Exterior of the Horse) 162

107. Six Years: Viewed in Front, the Jaws Present Almost the Same Char-

acters as at Five Years. (Exterior of the Horse) 163

108. Seven Years: Viewed in Front, the Teeth Appear Whiter. (Exterior

of the Horse) 164

109. Eight Years: The Direction of the Incisors Notably Changed. (Ex-

terior of the Horse) 165

110. Nine Years: Nothing Special is to be Seen upon the Jaws in Front

or in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 166

111. Ten Years: When Viewed from Front, the Jaws Become Prominent.

(Exterior of the Horse) 167

112. Eleven Years: In Order to See the Teeth in Front, it is Necessary

to Raise the Horse's Head. (Exterior of the Horse) 168

113. Twelve Years: The Incidence of the Jaws is More Oblique Than

at the Preceding Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 169

114. Fifteen Years: Viewed in Front, the Inferior Teeth Appear Shorter

than the Superior. (Exterior of the Horse) 170

115. Twenty-one Years: The Teeth have Become so Horizontal that,

when Viewed in Front, it is Difficult to See their Anterior Face,
Unless the Head of the Horse be Raised. (Exterior of the Horse) 171

116. Thirty Years: The Characters of this Period are of Extreme Old

Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 172

117. This Horse has a Record of Twenty-three Years in the Delivery

Service of a Large City Department Store. (Blue Roan Horse,
Owned by Gimbel Brothers, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the
Owners) 173

118. This Horse has Served Eighteen Years in the City as an Ambulance

Horse : 174

119. This Horse has been Rendered Unserviceable by the Same Work

in One Year 174

120. A Pedigree Registry Certificate. (Courtesy of Gurney C. Gue, Sec-

retary, American Hackney Horse Society) 186

120a. Reverse Side of Registry Certificate 187

121. A Breeding Stud. (Irvington Stud Farm, Owned by W. D. Henry,

Sewickley, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 193

122a and 122b. A Successful Sire of the Right Type. (Carnot, Courtesy

of W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111.) 195

123. A Producer — Sweet, Refined, and Feminine. (Thoroughbred

Brood Mare, luka. Courtesy of Jas. A. McCloskey) 199

124. A Brood Mare of Proven Worth. (A Clydesdale, Pride of Drum-

landrig, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
Courtesy of the Owners) 200

125. The Line of Draft. (A Manual of Coaching) 224

126. The Angle Formed by the Traces with the Hames Should be as

Near a Right Angle as Possible. (A Manual of Coaching) 226

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

127. The Scapulohumeral and Elbow-joint. (A Manual of Coaching) . . . 226

128. The Breast or Dutch Collar in Proper Position. (A Manual of

Coaching) 226

129. The Model Work Horse Stable, Showing the Main Alley-way and

General Interior Arrangement. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew-
ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa) 256

130. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew-

ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257

131. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brewing

Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257

132. Plan and, Specifications for a Small Work Horse Stable with Open

Front Stalls. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of
the University of Pennsylvania) 258

133. Floor Plan and Specifications for a Convenient, Comfortable, and

Sanitary City Stable. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary
Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania) 258

134. A Vacuum Grooming Machine in Operation. (Courtesy of the J.

and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 260

135. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Toe, which

Breaks the Foot Axis Backward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263

136. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Heels, which

Breaks the Foot Axis Forward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263

137. Hoof Dressed and Foot Axis Straightened. (Adams' Horseshoeing) . 263

138. Tongue Held Back to Show the Bars of the Mouth upon which

the Bit Bears. (Exterior of the Horse) 272

139. The Jointed Snaffle Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 273

140. The Four-ring Snafile Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 273

141. Port of Curb Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 274

142. The Liverpool Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 274

143. The Elbow Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 275

144. The Buxton Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 275

145. The Pelham Bit. (Exterior of the Horse) 275

146. The Side Check or Bearing Rein with Bridoon Bit. (A Manual of

Coaching) 276

147. The Pulley Bridoon Bearing Rein. (A Manual of Coaching) 277

148. Adjustment of the Coupling Reins. (A Manual of Coaching) 278

149. Reins Held in Left Hand 281

150. The Take-back • 282

151. The Two-hand Grip 283

152. Riding Reins in One-hand Grip 284

153. Riding, Two-hand Grip 284

154. The Evolution of the Wheel. (A Manual of Coaching) 287

155. The Cylindrical Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288

156. The Tapered Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288

157. Tapered Axle Arm Pitched. (A Manual of Coaching) 288

Xv4 ILLUSTRATIONS

158. An Unpitched Tapered Axle. (A Manual of Coaching) 288

159. The Dished Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual of

Coaching) 289

160. The Staggered Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual

of Coaching) 290

161. One of the Cumbersome and Pretentious Early Coaches. (A Man-

ual of Coaching) 290

162. Strap Supports in WTiich the Body of the Vehicle was Slung. (A

Manual of Coaching) 291

163. A Class of English Harness Horses. (Harness Class at the Inter-

national Horse Show, OljTnpia, London. Courtesy of the National
Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 292

164. Philadelphia JMounted Police. (Courtesy of Dr. D. B. Fitzpatrick,

City ^^eterinarian of Philadelphia) 294

165. The Style of Riding to which the Stock Saddle is Best Adapted. . . 294

166. Express Horse Car Partitioned into Stalls. (Courtesy of Country

Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa.) 305

167. Stock Car for Ship])ing Horses. (Standard Stock-Car Used by the

Pennsylvania Railroad. Courtesy of Paul McKnight, Live Stock
Traffic Agent) 306

168. Just Off the Car from the West. (Courtesy of Paul Connelly) 307

169. Representing the Kentucky Standard of Mule Excellence. (A

Pair of Blue Ribbon Winners Through Kentucky Fair Circuit) . . . 310

170. A Rugged Pair of More Drafty Form and Ample Bone 311

171. A Kentucky Jack of the Size, Substance, and Shape Desired for

Mule Breeding 312

172. The Right Stamp of Mares as Attested by Their Produce 313

173. Park Horse to Victoria, Correctly Appointed. (Dr. Selwonk, Cham-

pion Heavy Harness Horse) 316

174. Motor Advantages Enjoyed by the Horse. (Courtesy of IMr. Frank

B. Rutherford, Secretary Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals) 318

PART I

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

PRODUCTIVE
HORSE HUSBANDRY

CHAPTER I
THE HORSE— A MACHINE

A iiORSE^s usefulness depends upon Lis power of locomotion.
A clear conception of his simple mechanical features affords the
best means of measuring his serviceability.

As a mechanical structure the horse consists chiefly of an
arch, represented by his vertebra?, supported upon four upright
columns, his legs. The balance of this arch is largely determined

fROFERrr urn
iL estate a

Fig, 1. — Hind lega, propellers; forelegs, supportive to the extent of lifting the forehand.

by the position of the appended head and neck at one end, and
the tail at the other. In the standing position all four legs have
a supporting function, although greater weight is borne by the
forelegs. In locomotion the hind legs are propellers, the forelegs
retaining their supportive function, the degree of which is in-
creased to the extent of constituting a lift (Fig. 1). The pro-

3 .

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

pulsive effort of the hindquarters is met by the forehand in
such a manner as to maintain the equilibrium as the body is
advanced.

Locomotion is accomplished by the supporting columns being

Fig. 2. — Skeleton of the horse, showing the vertebral arch and the bone columns, one
pair of legs supporting, the alternate pair, partially flexed, in a stride. 1, bones of the head;
1', lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebrae; 3, dorsal vertebrae; 4, lumbar vertebrae, 5, sacral vertebrae
(sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebrae; 7, ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9', ilium; 9",
ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade); 11, humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee);
15, large metacarpal bone (canon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones (splint-bones);
17, OS suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coronae (short pastern); 19, os pedis (hoof-bone);
20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella (knee-pan, stifle); 23, tibia; 24. fibula; 25, tarsus,
or hock; 26, large metatarsal bone (canon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint bones);
28, OS suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os corona; (short pastern); 30, os pedis (hoof-bone,
"coflBn-bone"); 31, sesamoid bones.

broken, and the foot elevated, by the flexion of the joints, into a
position from which it is advanced b}^ the subsequent extension of
the joints. A single advance of one foot constitutes a stride, and
a series of strides, which involve in turn the four feet, brings the
entire structure to an advanced position (Fig. 2). Each alter-

THE HORSE— A MACHINE 5

nate pair of legs supports the weight while the other pair is
executing a stride. The primary motive for the stride is fur-
nished by the hindquarters, the propulsive action of which dis-
places the centre of gravity forward, to such an extent as to
necessitate locomotion in order to maintain or regain the equi-
librium. There are five distinct phases of the stride :

li>

J I 1. A preliminary, during which the leg is undergoing flexion,
but the foot has not left the ground, at which point the real stride
begins.

2. The breaking over, in which the foot is raised heel first,
finally leaving the ground by being rocked up and over at the
toe.

Fig. o. — Each and every phase uf the .stride is demonstrated by some one of the ten foie
and ten hind Ieg.s shown.

3. Flight, during which the foot is describing a more or less
regular arc of a perpendicular circle.

4. Contact, at which point the foot is again brought to the
ground.

5. Recovery, as the weight gradually falls on the foot and
the original position of the leg is momentarily established, pre-
paratory to a repetition of the stride (Fig. 3).

Mechanical Analogy. — In order to carry out the idea of a
mechanical analog^^ the digestive system of the horse may be
regarded as the boiler whence the energy is supplied ; the mus-
cular system as comprising the motors ; the power exerted by the
muscle motors at the expense of the energy derived from the
digestive boilers, operating the bone columns, by the alternate

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

flexion and extension of which locomotion is accomplished ; the
whole procedure being under the control of the nervous system.
Muscular Action. — In accomplishing locomotion, the part
played by the muscles is fundamental. The chief characteristic
of muscular tissue is its contractility. Contraction takes place
on receiving a stimulus through the voluntary nerve, which ter-
minates between tlie two extremities of the muscle. One end of

Fig. 4. — Situation of the centre of gravity in the horse.

the muscle has a fixed insertion ; the other is attached to a mov-
able bone lever. The two bones are apposed end to end, by means
of a joint, the surfaces of whicli permit of motion of one or
both bones, the degree or amount of motion depending upon the
kind of articulation. When, therefore, the contracting muscle
drawls the movable bone to wdiich it is attached toward the bone
to which it has its fixed insertion, either flexion or extension of
the joint takes place.

THE HORSE— A MACHINE

The centre of gravity in tlie horse, standing naturally, has
been fixed at that 2>oint in the median vertical plane of the body
Avhere a perpendicular line from the posterior extremity of the
breast-bone intersects the line of division between the lower and
middle thirds of the body divided horizontally (Fig. 4). The
centre of gravity is stationary only when the horse is standing

1
1

)

\
\
\

\
\

^ ^

Fig. 5. — Diagram showing contact of feet in various gaits. A, standing, rectangular
base of support; B, walking, triangular base of support; C, trotting, linear base of support;
D, running, point base of support.

absolutely stilL Wlien moving, there is a constantly repeated
displacement; ultimately in the direction taken by the leading
foot, although prior to the commencement of the stride, there is
a momentary displacement in the opposite direction, as the
weight is shifted to the supporting leg in order to reduce the
weight on the side of the foot to be advanced.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The stability of equilibrium is in direct proportion to the
size and especially the width of the base of support. It is the
measure of jWAver. Power and speed are not correlated but oppo-
site extremes. Instability of equilibrium is the measure of
speed. In order, therefore, that the horse may take strides in
rapid succession, the base of sup2:)ort must be so reduced as to
permit of the ready displacement of the centre of gravity. It
may then readily follow^ the direction of each stride in turn.

Increase in the rapidity
of the stride has the
effect of reducing the
size of the base of sup-
port, so that the faster
a horse goes the more
favorable are the condi-
tions for still greater
speed. This is exempli-
fied in the fact that the
base of sujiport is a rec-
tangle in case of the
hoi*se at rest(Fig.5). It
is reduced to the general
form of a triangle as the
horse leads out with one foot at the walk. It takes tiie form of a
line as the horse extends himself at tlie trot or pace ; and finally
it consists of a point only as but one foot is on the ground at the
run. On the other hand, the horse at the run is not capable of
any draft effort except that w^hich comes from the momentum
he has already attained; he has a better chance at the trot; can
pull well at the walk, and he is capable of his greatest effort at
the starting of the load, as he is practically standing on all fours
(Fig. 6).

j^. ^ REVIEW

1. Of what does the horse's mechanical structure consist ?

2. How is locomotion accompHshed?

3. What constitutes a stride and what are its phases'?

4. Explain the part played by the muscles in locomotion.

5. Where is the centre of gravity in the horse standing naturally?

Fig. 6. — During the greatest effort the base of
support is rectangular, the horse being practicallj' on
all fours.

THE HORSE— A MACHINE 9

6. How does the centre of gravity conduct itself when the horse moves 1

7. What is the relation of the size of the base of support to the stability

of the equilibiium ?

8. What are the changes in the size and shape of the base of support

which may occur as the horse progresses from the standing posi-
tion to the run?

9. How does the stability of the equilibrium measure the power of which

a horse is capable?
10. How does the instability of the equilibrium measure the speed of
which a horse is capable?

i/^

CHAPTER II
CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE

Conformation is the " putting together " of the parts which,
colloctively, compose the animal structure. Its study has refer-
ence to the proportions, dimensions, external contour, and in-
ternal constiTiction of the ])arts and their relation in the general
arrangement. Not only sliouhl the parts he Avell formed indi-
vidually, hut they must fit and hlend with the other ])arts in order
to make the whole structure symmetrical and sound. The
streng-th of a chain is measured hy the strength of its weakest
link. In the same manner defection in one part of conformation
may offset an otherwise perfect structure. Unlike a chain, how-
ever, the parts or units of conformation in a horse are not iden-
tical. Some are of greater relative importance than others, and
interfere more with serviceability in case they prove defective.
A study of conformation consists in the detection of points of
superiority and inferiority of structure, and in allotting to each
their proper significance.

For the purpose of studying conformation, the structure may
be divided into regions and each region subdivided into its com-
ponent parts, with specifications for each (Fig. 7).

Head and Neck. — Head. — Size proportionate to size of
horse; dimensions — ^length, breadth, and depth — proportionate
to each other ; face line straight ; features sharply defined ; lower
jaw strong with open angle between branches so as not to com-
press larynx when neck is flexed.

Forehead. — Broad, full and flat.

Ears. — Medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert.

Eyes. — Prominently set, large, full, clear, bright, lids thin,
uniform curvature, no angle caused by atrophy (Fig. 8).

Muzzle. — "Not too fine, nostrils large but not dilated, lips
thin, trim, teeth regular, sound.

Nech. — Long, lean, crest marked, but not too heavy, throat'
latch fine, head well set on.
10

CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Forehand. — Withers. — Well set up, extending well back
muscular but neither low nor lieavy, free from scars.

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, smooth.

Arms. — Short, muscular^ carried forward.

Forearms. — Broad and muscular.

Knees. — Size proportionate to the weight of the horse
straight, broad, deep, smooth, strongly supported.

Canons
back.

FetlocJcs. — AVide, smootli, well supported.

Short, broad, fluted. Tendons, smooth, well set

Fig. S. — Normal ej-e.

Pasterns. — Long, sloping but strong.

Feet. — Size in pro])ortion to the weight of the horse, uni-
form ; form circular, walls straight, slope corresponding to slope
of pastern ; height at toe, side wall, and heel as 3 to 2 to 1. Sole
concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels Avide, full ; texture
of horn dense, smooth, dark colored (Fig. 9).

. Legs. — Viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped
from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into
two lateral halves (Fig. 10). Viewed from the side, a perpen-
dicular line dropped from the tuberosity on the scapula should

CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE

pass tliroiigli the centre of the elboAV-joint and meet the ground
at the centre of the foot ^ (Fig. 11).

Body. — Chest. — ^Deep,
full, large girth.

Ribs. — Long, well
sprung, close.

Back.-

-Short, straight.

strong.

Loins. — Broad, strong,
coupling well back, smooth ;
flank, close, full, deep;
top line short, level ; under
line long, let well down in
flank.

Hindquarters. — Hips,
— Wide, smooth, level.

Croup. — Long, level,
broad, muscular.

Tail. — Set high, well
carried.

Thighs. — Long, mas-
cular, deep.

Stifles. — Wide, thick,
muscular.

Gashins. — Long, broad, muscular.

Ilochs. — Size in proportion to weight of horse, wide, deep,
straight, flat, smooth, point prominent, well supported.

Fig. 9. — Plantar surface of right fore-hoot:

0, a, bearing surface of the toe; a, b, bearing sur-
face of the side walls or manimse; b, c, bearing
surface of the quarters; d, buttress, or angle formed
by wall and bar; e, bar; /, sole; /', branches of the
sole; g, white line; it passes between the sole and
bars and ends at g'; h, horny frog; i, branches of
the frog; A-, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof;

1, median lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars
and the horny frog lie the lateral lacunae of the
frog.

* The correct standing position of the horse at rest has formerly
been determined from side view by a perpendicular line dropped from
the tuberosity of the scapula, which it was claimed should divide the leg
to the fetlock and meet the ground just back of the heel. It has been
frequently demonstrated, however, that the best horses do not confonn
to this standard, but show, as a iiile, a slight deviation downward and
backward, which brino-g the fetlock posterior to the line which termi-
nates in the centre of the foot. Recently Doctor H. Schwyter, technical
secretary to the federal chief veterinarian of Switzerland, has established
the direction described above as beinj:: coiTect. By it the centres of
weight-bearing and of the base of support coincide as they should.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Canons^ Fetlocl's, Pasterns, Feet. — Size in iDroportion to
weight of horse, wide, deep, straight, flat, smooth, point prom-
inent, well supj^orted.

Fig. 10. — The correct standing
position of the foreleg, viewed from
in front, as determined bj' the plumb
line.

Fig. 11. — The correct stand-
ing position of the foreleg, viewed
from the side, as determined by the
plumb line.

Legs. — Viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped
from the point of the buttock should divide leg and foot into
lateral halves (Fig. 12) ; viewed from the side, this line should

CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE

toucli the point of the hock and meet the ground some little dis-
tance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the
hip- joint should meet the ground midway between heel and toe
(Fig. 13).

^■;■^:■

v^ ' ' 1

i \

Fio. 12. — The correct standing
position of the hind leg, viewed from
the rear, as determined by the plumb
line.

Fig. 13. — The correct standing
position of the hind leg, viewed
from the side, as determined by
the plumb line.

REVIEW

1. What sort of an eye should be avoided in selecting a horse?

2. Where are the withers and what are their desirable features?

3. When is the foreleg in the correct standing position and of what

importance is it ?

16 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

4. Describe the gi-ound surface of a normal forefoot.

5. In a horse of good confonnation, how should the top line compare

with the under line?

6. What are the common undesirable features of the croup?

7. What kind of stifles should a horse have ?

8. What are the graskins?

9. Describe the hock that is most likely to remain sound under stress

of wear,
10. What is the importance of having the hind legs well set?

CHAPTER III

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION

The temi, waj of going, is self-defining. Pace refers to the
rate at Avliicli the horse moves. Action implies flexion of knees
_^jtH(LJiocks.
h\(J~' The Stride presents for study the following features :

1. Leng-th, the distance from the point of breaking over to
the jDoint of contact.

2. Directness, the line in which the foot is carried forward
during the stride.

3. Rapidity, the time consumed in taking the stride.

4. Power, the pulling force exerted at each stride.

5. Height, the degTee to -which the foot 4s elevated in the
stride, indicated hy -the" radius of the arc described.

6. Spring, the manner in which the weight is settled upon
the leg and foot at the completion of the stride.

7. 'Pegiilarity, the rhythmical precision wdtli which each
^ stride is taken, in turn.

8. Balance, the relative degree of any of the other features
of the stride manifested by fore and hind legs.

/^tX^gt^^THE GAITS

A gait is a particular way of going which is characterized by
definite and distinctive features regularly executed.

Walk is a slow, flat-footed, four-beat gait; one of the most
useful, whether in harness or under saddle, if executed with snap
and animation, as it should be.

Trot is a rapid, two-beat gait, in w^hicli the diagonal fore and
hind legs act together. The fast stepping trot is characterized
by the length and rapidity with wdiich the individual strides
are accomplished, and is executed with an extreme degree
of extension (Fig. 14). The high stepping trot is character-
ized by the height and spring of the stride, the horse placing
2 17

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

himself, going collectedly and executing each step with an ex-
treme degree of flexion and the utmost precision (Fig. 15).

Pace is a rapid, two-beat gait, in which the lateral fore and
hind legs act togetlier (Fig. 16). It is characterized by the
readiness with which pacers can get away at speed, a minimum
of concussion, more or less side motion, the absence of much knee
fokl (although some pacers are trapi:)y), and the necessity for
smooth, hard footing and easy draft, for its execution. It is
difficult for most pacers to go in deep or heavy footing, such as

Fig. 14. — The fast trot, characterized as a diagonal gait of extreme extension and rapidity

of stride.

fresh snow, sand or mud, and they have a jerky, unsteady way
of pulling a wagon, if any pull is necessary. The increased
draft of an additional person up behind or of a rough bit of road
will swing most pacers into a trot if they can trot at all. Jogging
down hill will force some trotters to pace, while an up grade will
set pacers to trotting. The pace is more essentially a speed than
a road gait.

Amble is a lateral gait usually distinguished from the pace
by being slower and more broken in cadence.

Rack is a fast, flashy, four-beat gait, more clearly defined
by the discarded name '^ single foot." It is rarely executed vol-
untarily but under compulsion of hand and heel, and is charac-

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION

terized by quite a display of knee action, and many horses can
rack very fast. Wiile most agreeable to the rider, it is most
distressing to the horse, and should therefore be called for with
discretion.

Gallop is a fast, three-beat gait, in which two diagonal legs
are paired, their single beat falling l>etween the successive beats
of the other two legs, the hind one of which makes the first beat
of the three (Fig. 17). With the third and last beat the horse is

Fig. 15. — The high-stepping trot, showing extreme flexion of knees and hocks.

projected clear of all contact with the ground, as in a leap, and
there is a period of silence, broken by the contact of the indepen-
dent hind foot, in the commencement of a new series. The two
legs acting independently, the fore, with which the horse leads,
and its diagonal hind, naturally bear more weight and are subject
to more fatigue than are the other pair which act simultaneously,
and, therefore, divide or bear jointly the Avork. The hind leg
receiving the full weight at the phase of contact at the conclusion
of the leap bears more than the foreleg, which supports the weight
alone just before the projection of the horse at the beginning of
the leap. The gallop may become so fast as to break the simul-

20 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

taneous beats of the diagonal pair, the hind foot striking first
and causing four beats, although following in such rapid suc-
cession as to be distinguished with difficulty.

Canter is a restrained gallop in which tlie wxnght is sustained
chiefly by the hindquarters, the lightened forehand rising and
falling in a high, bounding fashion, the gait being executed in
a slow, collected, rhythmical way, on either lead at command.
Since the canter,, like the gallop, imposes a special wear on the
leading forefoot and its diagonal hind, the lead should be changed
frequently. AVhen the sinuiltaneous beat is of a lateral instead
of a diagonal pair of feet, and falls between the successive beats

Fig. 16. — The pace, a lateral gait of extreme extension and rapidity of stride.

of the other lateral pair, the leading fore and hind on the same
side, it constitutes a cross or lateral canter, and is productive of
a twisting motion to one in the saddle.

Jump, whether high or broad, is accomplished by the forelegs
raising tlie forehand at the take-off, thus bringing the body in line
with the direction in which the jump is to be taken, wdien a
strong, propulsive effort of the hindquarters carries it over or
across, as the case may be (Fig. IS). In alighting, the forefeet
come in contact with the ground first and almost simultaneously,
the leading foot being a little in advance, after which the horse
quickly gathers himself in a stride to avoid the hind feet, w^hich
follow quickly and strike the ground slightly ahead of the im-
prints of the forefeet.

WAY OP GOING— THE FUNCTION

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The leap (preparation).

The leap (propulsion)

The leap (passing the obstacle).

The leap (descent in front). The leap (descent behind).

Fig. is. — The different phases and contacts in the jump.

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 23

Running walk is a slow, single foot or four-beat gait, inter-
mediate between the walk and rack, suggestive of a continued
breaking out of a walk. It is the business gait in the South and
West, where gaited horses are ridden extensively, since it can be
maintained all day. It is good for six to eight miles an hour,
with the greatest possible ease to both horse and rider.

The fox trot is a short, broken, nodding trot, in which the
hind legs go in more or less of a lateral step. It is used as a
substitute for the running walk.

The stepping pace is distinct from the ordinary pace of the
harness horse, being characterized by very little if any side
motion and a somewhat broken cadence in the action of the lateral
pairs of legs.

The traverse is a side step, in which the forehand and hind-
quarters respond to both rein and heel; it is useful in open-
ing and closing gates, when riding after cattle, also to " dress "
or take position in a troop drill.

FACTORS DETERMINING WAY OF GOING

The factors determining a horse's way of going are either
natural or acquired. The former consist of type, conformation,
direction of leg and form of foot, and breeding. The acquired
influences are schooling, handling, and mechanical appliances.

Type. — The close observer of athletic events is impressed
with either the distinctiveness which exists among the winners
of the different events or the similarity of type of those who excel
in the same feats.

On account of the correlation between form and function,
a horse must do as he is. His capabilities in the way of per-
formance will be limited in some respects and extended in others,
according to the plan of his structure. A short, thick, low set
horse will have more power than speed, the reverse being equally
true. A cobby horse has a trappy stride, while the stride of a
tall, rangy horse is characterized by reach.

Conformation. — A horse low in the forehand is liable to
forge, while one long and loosely coupled will have a tendency
toward an incoordinate way of going.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Direction of Leg and Form of Foot. — The relation that the
direction of the leg bears to the f onn of the foot is most intimate,
and each is an important factor in determining the directness,
especially, of the stride. The form of the foot fixes the point at
which the leg breaks over ; the centre of the toe, or the outer or
inner quarter depending upon whether the foot is symmetrical or

Course taken by the foot in
correct standing position.

Course taken by the foot Course taken by the foot

in base or toe wide direction in base or toe narrow direc-
of leg. tion of leg.

Fia. 19. — Relation of direction of leg to course taken by foot in the stride.

the inner or outer quarter is higher. The direction of the leg de-
termines the course taken by the foot during its stride, whether
advanced in a straight line or describing the arc of a circle inward
or outward, depending upon the deviation in the direction of the
leg (Fig. 19). The form of the foot and the dire<»tion of the leg
are correlated, usually, so that their combined influence on the
way of going may be considerable.

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION

The following are the common deviations in the direction of
Foreleg viewed from the side: Figs. 20, 21 and 22.

24, 25, 26, 27

the leg.

Figs. 23,

Foreleg viewed from in front
and 28.

Hind leg viewed from the side : Fig. 29.
Hind

eg viewed from the rear: Figs. 30 and 31.

Deviations
in the
direction
ofthe
hor se'

Fore legs ■

Hind legs

Viewed from
in front

Viewed from
the side

Viewed from
the rear

Viewed from
the side

Knees too close — knock kneed.
Knees too wide apart — bow kneed.
Fetloclcs close, toes wide — splay
I footed.

[ Toes narrow — pigeon toed.
Standing over at the knees— knee

sprung or buck kneed.
Standing back at the knees — calf

kneed.
Forefeet too far advanced— camped.
Forefeet too far back — standing

under.
Steep pasterns.
Weak pasterns.
( Hocks too wide apart— bandy legged.
1 Hocks too close together — cow
hocked.
Fetlocks close, toes wide.
Toes narrow.

' Hock bent or acute angled, the point
of the hock usually being too far
back— sickle or saber hocked.
Hock straight or open angled.
Steep pasterns.
Weak pasterns.

Breeding has most to do with the particnlar gait at which a
horse goes. One may visit a collection of foals or weanlings in
a field, and npon starting them off across the field note that some
sqnare away at a long, rcachy trot, others go high enough to
clear the tops of the daisies, while still others break away in
an easy gallop, each gait being executed with equal ease and
naturalness. The reason is found in the fact that the first
described lot are Trotting-bred, the second are Hackneys and
the others are Thoroughbreds. Tn each of these the particular
way of going is a matter of breed character, and the instinct to
go that Avay is almost as strong as for either the field dog to point
or the game bird to battle.

Heredity. — Type, conformation, direction of leg and form

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

of foot are all more or less hereditary characters and are asso-
ciated with a corresponding instinct. A colt is not likely to be
endowed by inheritance with an instinct to trot and at the same
time inherit a strncture which is only adapted to galloping.
Horses are occasionally seen, however, which, though bred prop-
erly, manifest a disposition to do what they are physically inca-
pable of doing. Others seem striicturally qualified for superior
performance of some one sort, but fall far short of doing anything
remarkable, because they do not know how. Hence, we know

Fig. 20. — Knee-sprung
or over on the knees.

Fig. 21.— Calf-kneed.

Fig. 22.— Too straight
pastern.

that the highest order of performance can only be attained when
the inherited instinctive tendencies are in line with the horse's
inherited physical development.

Schooling. — Horses, like men, reflect in their attainments:
First, their inherent capabilities, and, second, what has been made
of them. All the graduates of a given academic or gymnasium
course are not equals, either in their mental or physical accom-
plishments. Neither are all those who have been deprived of
any educational advantages destined to a common level or rank
in society. Some from the latter class may even reach a higher
rung on the commercial or social ladder than others from the

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION

first class. An individual may owe his proficiency to either his
opportunities or what is in him, exclusively, or to a favorable
combination of both. Only the highest education, in accordance
with the strongest natural aptitude, can accomplish the greatest
attainment. Hence, it is hardly worth while to spend time and
money in educating a colt in ways to which he is not adapted.
It is a difficult and unsatisfactory task to school a born trotter
to an acceptable show of action. Ample proof of the accuracy
of this statement, reversed, is found in the earlier days of horse

Fig. 23. — Baae narrow,
toe wide; nigger-heeled or
splay-footed.

Fig. 24. — Toe narrow
or pigeon-toed.

Fio. 25. — Knock-kneed.

shows in this country. It was common to find single-minded
horsemen resorting to all sorts of ingenious ways and means of
preventing a horse from going high in order to make a trotter of
him. They often gave up in despair, and sacrificed him to the
knowing buyer, who, by changing tactics and schooling him along
the line of action for which he had a strong inclination, finally
turned him out a show horse of note. If, on the other hand, we
take a natural character and develop it by artificial means, we
may expect results far in advance of what could otherwise be
obtained. 'No race or show horse, of any class, comes to his high
degree of proficiency without an education. The trotter must

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

not only be trained to make him pliysically fit for the race but he
nnist be tauglit to step. The same is true of actors, saddle horses,
jumpers, and others. They are all given the natural aptitude to
begin Avith, but that is not sufficient to get the best out of them.
Handling. — Handling is but the application of the school-
ing. It is painful to see a well-schooled saddle horse, to whom
every little movement of hand or heel has a meaning, with some
awkward man up who is reaping the fruits of his ignorant hand-
ling in a ride that is most distressing both to himself and his

Fig. 2G. — Bow -kneed.

Fig. 27. — Too close at
ground.

IiG. 28.— Too wide at
ground.

mount ; or to see a horse, on whom much effort has been spent in
teaching him to flex his neck, knees, and hocks in a proud, col-
lected, high way of going, put in light harness, with the omni-
present Kimball Jackson overdraw, and a heavy-fisted driver up
who boasts of how fast the horse can step. It is as essential that
the handling be in accord with the schooling as that the schooling
should follow the line of natural aptitude. The handling offers
the stimulus, the schooling makes possible the response; har-
mony is, therefore, imperative. There are individual differences
in the methods of different handlers, though the same gen-
eral system may be employed. Among all race and show riders

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION

or drivers, each fundamentally correct in his methods, there is
always one who is capable of better results than the others.

Mechanical appliances are chiefly accessories to the handling
and schooling of horses. They consist of the bit, shoes, weight,
and hopples.

Bit. — The influence of the bit is strongly suggestive of one
or the other ways of going, as discussed under equitation.

Shoes. — The style of the shoe and the dressing of the foot
for its application have considerable influence on the way of

Fig. 29.— Bent, sabre, or sickle Fig. 30.— Cow-hocked. Fig. 31.— Bandy-legged or
hock. wide at the hocks.

going. By shortening or lengthening the too, the breaking over
is either facilitated or retarded, with a consequent shortening
or lengthening of the stride ; by raising or lowering the inner or
outer quarter, the point at which breaking over takes place may
be regulated, ^vithin limits.

^Ye^gllt. — By either putting weight on or taking it off the
foot, the stride is heightened or lowered. Weight may be secured
either by permitting an abnormal gTOwth of the foot itself or in
the shoe. Weight fixed at the toe promotes extension on the prin-
ciple of the pendulum, the weight coming into play toward the

30 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

end of the stride to carry the foot out. On the other hand, weight
well back in the shoe, toward the heel, is believed to be conducive
to action by calling for extra flexion, in order to lift the foot.
Whatever alterations are made in the matter of shoeing or
weighting must be gradual, in order not to unbalance the horse
in his stride.

Hopples. — By uniting a hind and a fore leg by means of
hopples, a horse is held to his stride and prevented from break-
ing, mixing, or going any other gait. The straps are crossed or
straight, depending upon whether the horse trots or paces.
Hopples about the pasterns are sometimes put on harness horses
to develop action.

Going Surface — While not of a mechanical nature, the char-
acter of the surface on which the horse steps has a marked influ-
ence on the kind of stride he takes. As a general rule, heavv,
soft, or deep going causes a high stride, while a hard, smooth
surface is more conducive to speed. Of the speed horses, trotters
and pacers require the hardest, smoothest track. Heavy going
frequently influences doublc-gaited horses to trot instead of pace
and seriously interferes with pacing performance. Runners do
best on the turf or a dirt track that has had the surface loosened
by a scratch harrow.

Defects and Peculiarities in Way of Going. — Forging. —
Striking the ends of the branches or the under surface of the
shoe of a forefoot with tlie toe of the hind foot.

Interfering. — Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock with
the foot of the striding leg. It is predisposed in horses with base
narrow, toe wide, or splay-footed standing position.
^^ Paddling. — An outward deviation in the direction of the
stride of the foreleg, the result of a toe narrow or pigeon-toed
standing position.

Winging. — Exaggerated paddling, noticeable in high
going horses.

Winding. — A twisting of the striding leg around in front
of the supporting leg in much the same manner as in pad-
dling. This is most commonly seen in wide-fronted draft horses
at the walk.

WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 31

Scalping, — Hitting the front of the hind foot above or at the
line of the hair against the toe of the breaking over forefoot.

Speedy Cutting. — The spreading trotter at speed hits the
hind leg above the scalping mark against the inside of the break-
ing over forefoot as he passes.

Cross-firing. — Essentially forging in pacers, in which they
hit the inside of the near fore and off hind foot or the reverse in
the air as the stride of the hind leg is abont completed and the
stride of the foreleg just begun.

Pointing. — A stride in which extension is much more marked
than flexion. It is especially characteristic of the Thorough-
bred. The same term is also used to indicate the resting of one
forefoot in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons.

Dwelling. — A perceptible pause in the flight of the foot, as
though the stride had been completed before the foot had reached
the ground. Most noticeable in actors.

Trappy. — A quick, high, but comparatively short stride.

Pounding. — A heavy contact usually accompanying a
high stride.

Boiling. — Excessive lateral shoulder motion as in wide
fronted horses.

REVIEW

1. Name the features of the stride.

2. How may the pace be distinguished from the trot?

3. What are the special advantages and disadvantages under which

pacers labor?

4. How may the gait of a racking horse be recognized in the dark?

5. Describe a cross canter.

6. What is the importance of changing leads at the canter or gallop?

7. How may a horse's way of going be predicted without seeing hira

move?

8. To what extent may the schooling determine the horse's way of

going?

9. What effect does weight in the foot, also the surface over which the

horse steps, have on the stride?
10. What is understood by forging, interfering, pointing, and dwelling's

PART II

TYPES AND BREEDS

CHAPTER IV
THE TYPES OF HORSES

A HORSE^s usefulness depends upon his power of locomotion,
and whether he moves with power, speed, show, or to carry
weight will determine Avhether he is a draft, a race, a show, or
a saddle horse. The sum total of those characteristics, by which
adaptability to the different kinds of service is detennined, con-
stitutes tlie type.

Draft Type. — The service of the draft horse is to furnish
poAver to move the heaviest of loads, usually over the paved
surfaces of traffic-congested city streets (Fig. 32). Special
efficiency in this line of service depends upon the possession of :
^^^^ 1. Wei^-ht sufficient (1500 to 2400 pounds) to hold the horse
' to a secure footing during muscular exertion, by increasing the
friction between the shoe and the opposing hard, smooth surface
of the roadway or pavement. Weight thrown into the collar
also supplements muscular exertion.

2. Low station, to bring the centre of gravity as near the base
of support as possible, thereby increasing stability of equilib-
rium, as stability of equilibrium is the measure of power.
Length of leg is largely determined by length of canon bone, and
a short canon is correlated with, and therefore indicative of a
short, broad, deep, and compact horse.

3. Breadth^to. give a horse ample skeletal foundation for the
support of great muscular development, and also to increase
laterally the base of suj^i^rt, which affords a much more stable
balance and in turn increases the power.

4. Depth, to afford heart, lung, and digestive capacity, which
is a most essential asset to a horse which must expend much
energy, almost continually, for long hours, and six days a week.

5. Compactness, to insure a short vertebral column, bring-
ing the source of power, the hindquarters, nearer to the applica-
tion of power at the shoulder, thereby minimizing loss in trans-
mission, and making for strength and rigidity of the shaft, as
it were.

TYPES AND BREEDS

6. ^Massiveness, which suggests heavy muscling with the
thick, bulky power variety ; therefore, a horse cannot be drafty
without being massive.

7. ^ime. The muscles oj^erate the bone levers by contracting
upon them through a fixed point and a movable insertion. For
that reason the resisting power of the bone must be proportionate

Fig. 32.-

-The draft type, showing the weight, the low, wide, compact, massive form, the
bone and the muscling which characterize the horse of power.

to the contracting force of the muscle. Horses have been known
to fracture their own bones by tlie power of muscular contraction.
Furthermore, a horse has the appearance of being unbalanced in
his makeup if too fine in his undeq')inning. Hence the demand
for heavy bone in draft horses is fully warranted, but should
be made with a full knowledge of just what it means. The
region of the canon, usTially regarded as the index of bone, in-
cludes, in addition to the canon bone proper and the two rudi-

THE TYPES OF HORSES 37

mentary splint bones, the flexor and extensor tendons, the suspen-
sory ligament, a variable amount of connective tissue, and the
skin and hair. The total circumference may, therefore, be con-
siderable and yet not represent real bone. The bony structure
itself is made up of inorganic and organic constituents; the
former are the more essential to wear and determine the texture.
As a matter of fact, coarse texture of tendons, ligaments, and
bones tliemselves, together with too much connective tissue, a
thick hide, and coarse hair, tend to increase size in tlie canon
region Avithout increasing the wearing qualities of the bone. It
is therefore real, and not apparent, bone which counts, and the
eye and hand are more reliable than the tape line for determining
its amount. Furthermore, the object of ^^ big bone " is not to
insure against fracture of the horse's leg but to furnish joint
surface of sufficient area and durability to insure the horse re-
maining sound under stress of the wear to which it is subject in
the course of its work. The bone of the canon region is, there-
fore, but an index after all.

8. Quality, not being correlated with substance, is more diffi-
cult of attainment in a draft horse, but there is an increasing
favor expressed for more refined heads and necks, general finish,
and better texture of bone, hoof, and hair. As much quality as
is consistent with the required substance is desirable.

9. Temperament of the draft horse is generally lymphatic,
but sluggishness is discriminated against. Wliile the nature of
his work requires that the draft horse be steady, jiatient, and
readily tractable, it is, nevertheless, essential that it be per-
formed willingly and with some snap and aggressiveness. Dis-
position should be good to offset frequent provocation.

10. Way of going. Most drivers, for well-regulated draft
horse stables, are instructed to walk their teams both when loaded
and light, and experience seems to justify such action. In the
first place, a draft horse must walk at least one-half his time,
and if he is never allowed to trot he acquires a rapid, snappy
Avalk which will accomplish as many miles in the course of a
day's work as can be done by the horse which is compelled to trot
and allowed to walk only for the purpose of resting. The weight

TYPES AND BREEDS

of the draft horse is so great and the surface he walks over so
hard that concussion is a big factor in endurance and durability,
and concussion is increased immeasurably at the trot. Condi-
tions of traffic in most city streets are such as to make trotting
impracticable. However, any draft horse should be able to trot
well. The trot accentuates all features of the walk, so that to be
able to trot well insures a good walk (Fig. 33).

The draft horse gait, then, is the walk, a powerful, prompt,
swinging stride of as much length as the short legs will allow.

Fig. 33. — The wav a draft horse should be able to move. A powerful, straight, free
stride, hocks sharplv flexed, well under and close together, good knee action but no rolling
or pounding in front.

The notion that a longer legged horse, with his longer stride, can
accomplish more is not borne out in experience, except witli
mules. A leggy drafter lacks coordination in his movements,
which counts against him in the course of the day, even though
his single stride is longer. Furthermore, correlated with his
leng-th of leg is a general deficiency in draftiness.

There is a tendency in massive draft horses to roll or paddle
in front and go wide behind, on account of their broad fronts and
thick thighs. This is objectionable, if very marked, as it results

THE TYPES OF HORSES

in an unequal distribution of weight and work on the joints and
foot, as well as being unsightly.
/^;'. '^ Speed Type. — Wlien speed performance alone is considered,
the minimum weight to be pulled or carried is imposed. Speed
depends ujjon the length of the individual strides and tlie rapidity
with which they can be repeated. Muscular contraction, there-
fore, must be of greatest degi'ee and most quickly accomplished.

Fig. 34. — The speed type, representing the long, rangy, angular, narrow but deep form
correlated with length and rapidity of stride.

Muscles capable of such contraction are long and band-like, com-
2)ared to the short and tliick muscles of power.

Form. — A horse to be fast, at whatever gait, must have the
following form :

(1) ]\[ust be long and rangy in form to accommodate the
length of muscles and to increase the length of the reach in
extension.

(2) Must be lithe, indicating a system of muscles of the
speed sort (Fig. 34:).

40 TYPES AND BREEDS

(3) Must be angular, not having tlie form rounded out by
bulky muscles, and carrying no excess weight in fat.

(4) Must be narrow, to permit of the greatest directness of
shoulder motion and to offer the least resistance to the wind.

( 5 ) Must be deep, to insure ample heart, lung, and digestive
capacity, Avhich it is not possible to secure by width.

Quality, denoting the finest texture of structure, to insure
durability, with least weight and bulk, is necessary in a horse
that is to attain great speed.

Stamina, bottom, and heartiness are most essential.

The temperament should be nervous, affording tlie requisite
nerve force and courage to properly control and sustain the per-
formance of which the sjoeed horse is mechanically capable.

Their way of going serves as a basis for further classification
into (1) trotters or pacers, (2) iiinners or jumpers.

Trotters and pacers accomplish what is asked of them by
virtue of their ability to extend themselves into a long, reachy
stride done rapidly. They are capable of the greatest length of
stride, on account of the greater proportionate length of forearm
and lower thigh Avhich they possess. Their muscles are corre-
spondingly long, narrow, and band-like, with the capacity for
rapid contraction in an extreme degree. Pacing is differen-
tiated as a lateral instead of a diagonal gait, and usually goes
Avith greater length of limb in proportion to body, lower fore-
hand, longer, steeper croup, and more bent hocks than are seen
in the trotter. In double-gaited horses these differences may
not be apparent.

The runner attains speed by a series of successive jumps, in
which the propulsive power of the hindquarters is most marked.
He is, therefore, characterized by gi*eater development of fore-
hand, a thicker stifle, and a straighter hind leg with less propor-
tionate length from the hip-joint to the hock than characterizes
the trotter. His characteristic way of standing easy on his front
legs is shoA\Ti by experience to have its influence in reducing con
cussion, in the recovery at the end of each jump. As a rule, speed
over the jumps is more a matter of schooling and temperament
than of conformation, although there is alleged to be a certain
straightness of top line, especially in the region of the loin, which

THE TYPES OF HORSES

is distinctive of the steeple chaser. Then, too, tlie characteristics
associated with a runner may be somewhat accentuated in a
steeple chaser.

Show Type. — So far as speed and power are concerned the
show horse requirements are intermediate. It is the manner in
which he moves and the appearance he makes while going, rather
than the pace or the weight of the load, which count.

In order to qualify as a show horse he must possess :

yfag

Fig. 35. — The show type, representing the close and full made form, the quality and
style essential to look the part, and the sort of conformation that enables a horse to be
an actor.

Form, close and full made, stout enough to pull a vehicle
designed after the English notion that " to drive handsomely is
to drive heavily," smoothly turned and rotund enough to har-
monize with the lines and proportions of the vehicle to which
he is put, and to look well before it (Fig. 3.5).

Substance, present in a degree proportioned to the style and
weight of the vehicle concerned.

TYPES AND BREEDS

Quality, general refinement and finish to enhance good looks.

Temperwrnent, active, stylish, proud, bold, and courageous.

The actor or high going horse is such structurally and tem-
peramentally. He must possess a general suj^pleness and flexi-
bility that is found only with length of shoulder and pastern,
neck and croup. But this is true in equal degree of the saddle
horse. The actor, in addition, is close made in profile, full made
from the end, in order that he mav hotter fit hcavv leather and

. A ~

^ 'I^H^B>^

s^J^^^^^M

^'^■ralL ^' WiSk^^ d^l^^^H^^^^H

'a^P'T

,-4»-

\j^^

""""^"'^t^

■dliS

■Hi

^ '' 5 ' ^, . ^ -

'.i

Fig. 36. — A weight carrier, illustrating the bone and muscular development which with
short back and legs render a horse "up to" two hundred pounds or more.

conform to the heavy vehicles to which he is put. Furthermore,
he must not only possess joints of such angles as to permit of
extreme flexion, hut he must he thoroughly disposed so to go, bend-
ing himself in every joint from the ground to the tip of his chin
and to the last segment of his abbreviated dock. Height of stride
is his, and he must have the style and finish to properly set off
the shoAv he is to make.

Saddle Type. — The saddle horse must carry weight from 135
to 200 pounds or over, with greatest satisfaction to his rider and

THE TYPES OF HORSES

least distress to himself. The prescribed ways in which the
weight is to be carried differentiate the classes of saddle horses.

Ability to support weight requires comparatively short, stout
legs, acting as columns, and a short, strong, closely coupled back
and loin, constituting the arch (Fig. 3G).

The actual carrying of the weight is accomplished by tlie
liorse's placing himself in such a way as to balance his load.

Fig. 37. — The saddle type, showing the short top and Ions under line, sloping shoulders, the
high, well-finished withers, and the long, fine, supple neck essential in the saddle horse.

going well off his hocks, and working his legs under him in such
a way as to sustain the weight at all phases of the stride. There
is a knack in carrying weight ; the remarkable feats of the expe-
rienced baggage man in the handling of trunks can be accounted
for on the same principle. Size is secondary to the way a horse
is set up, and to the way he goes.

A saddle horse must be light in the forehand, possess a supple

44 TYPES AND BREEDS

neck, a responsive mouth, and a high order of intelligence in
order to qualify for the schooling which is required to make a
finished mount. His form is outlined by a short top and
long under line, and is characterized by the development of the
forehand. Shoulders shoukl be unusually long, sloping, and
extended into high, narrow, well-finished withers, which have
the effect of placing the saddle well back and holding it in that
position, without suffering injury from its impingement (Fig.
37). The greatly desired "long rein" and "much horse in
front of the rider '' are thus secured. Such a forehand will be
comparatively narrow and deep, thus permitting a secure and
comfortable seat without the spread of knees and thighs occa-
sioned by the full-made harness horse.

The chief characteristics of the saddle horse stride are spring
and accuracy, both being most conducive to the comfort and
security of the rider. All gaits but the gallop and run are exe-
cuted in a collected manner, with only sufficient action to insure
freedom of stride. A well-schooled saddle horse should be
capable of a most finished performance ; he should change gaits,
canter on either lead or in a circle, back, traverse, or side step,
and be thoroughly responsive to the hand, rein, and heel.

REVIEW

1. Whj^ should a draft horse be low set, broad, deep, compact, and

massive ?

2. Explain how weight increases the power of the city draft horse.

3. Describe the ideal draft horse bone; of what importance is it?

4. How should the draft horse walk and why?

5. What is the relation of speed to draft?

6. What are the characteristics of the speed type and why?

7. How may a trotter, a pacer, and a runner be distinguished without

seeing them go?

8. Describe the show type and J2:ive reasons for each feature.

9. Account for the fact that an <S00 pound pony may carry a 200 pound

man more easily than a 1200 pound horse can.
10. Describe the forehand of a typical saddle horse and give reasons.

CHAPTER V
THE CLASSES OF HORSES

Basis of Class Distinctions. — The characters upon the basis
of which class distinctions are made are height, weight, form,
quality, substance, condition, temperament, manners, and color.

Height. — The stature at the highest point of the withers,
measured in hands, four inches to the hand. Fractions of the
hand are expressed in inches, as 15 hands, 2 inches or 15-2.

Weight. — Height and weight combined determine scale,
which is synonymous with size.

Form. — That general contour of outline which determines
whether a. horse is smoothly turned or angiilar, massive or lithe,
low set or rangy.

Quality. — That which refers to the texture and finish, as
determined by the character of the individual units of structure.
Quality is indicated in hide and hair, bone and general refine-
ment.

Substance. — That which refers to the amount of the struct-
ural material, as determined by the number and size of the indi-
vidual units of stiiicture.

Condition. — Not so much the state of health as that which
comes as a result of fitting. In the ordinary market horse it is
the difference between being fat and thin, while in the race
horse it suggests the trained, as against the untrained.

Temperament. — A horse may be too hot to Avork or too cold
for a race horse.

Manners. — It has already been stated that a horse's value is
materially influenced by what he can do. It is essential that he
should do all, and that as well as he can. Manners, therefore,
" count '' in the value to users of all horses.

Color. — Color has much to do in determining a horse's class
value. A good horse is said never to have a bad color, yet certain
colors are preferred or even required in some classes of horses
where other colors are undesirable or even prohibited.

TYPES AND BREEDS

Color is the most conspicuous feature by which a horse can
be described or identified, so that a uniform and comprehensive
color standard is important. Colors may be generally classed as
solid or broken, distinguished by the presence or absence of white
spots. Solid colors are further differentiated, as hard or soft.
A hard color is one in which the shade is sharply pronounced,
while soft colors are characterized by either a total absence of
pigment, as in the case of white horse with pink skin, or a
washed-out or faded shade of some of the other colors.

Broken colors are either the piebald and skewbald, in wliich
the amount of white is considerable and the distribution irreg-
ular; or marked, when the white is limited in amount and
definitely restricted in its location.

Then there are a number of odd colors and markings which
do not conform to tlie above distinctions nor admit of any but a
group classification.

Bay — bright, blood, mahogany.

Brown — bay, seal, mealy, black.

Chestnut — golden, red, burnt,
black.

Black — jet, sooty.

Gray — dappled, steel, iron, black,
flea-bitten.

Roan — blue, red, strawberry.

White (pink skin).
■| Mealy bay.
[ Washy chestnut,
f Cream.

1 Mouse.
Dun — light or Isabella, dark or
buckskin (black points).
/ Black and white.
\ Bay, brown or chestnut and white.
VVhite — bald face, blaze, strip,
star, snip, splash, stocking, sock,
fetlock, pastern, coronet, heel.
Black — points, back and leg

stripes.
Odd — ■ tiger lily spots, leprous
spots, watch eye.

Color Inheritance. — The color of the hair coat of horses is
one of the comparatively few animal characters that have been
demonstrated to be Mendelian. Quite extensive stud-book
studies and observations as to how colors behave in transmission
have established the fact that chestnut is recessive to all other

Classification
of the coat
color of
horses

Solid

Broken

Hard

Soft

Odd

Piebald
Skewbald

Marked
(markings)

THE CLASSES OF HORSES 47

colors, black is dominant to cliestnnt and recessive to all others,
bay is dominant to chestnut and black and recessive to roan,
gray and dun ^ ; roan appears to be a pattern independent of the
kind of pigment and dominant to all other colors.-

The standing of different colors will depend, in the case of
many of them, upon the class of the horse in question. In gen-
eral the different shades of hay may be considered as the best all-
round color. Bay has been referred to as " everyman's '' color.

Brown is also a staple color like bay.

Chestnut, especially the golden and red, is one of the most
attractive colors and when accompanied by white markings, as
chestnut is quite liable to be, presents an extremely flashy appear-
ance. This is one of the most popular colors in high-class harness
and saddle horses.

Black, while most popular in fiction, is in fact not a good
color for selling. It is objected to chiefly on the ground that it
is not often fast black but fades and sunburns badly in hot
weather; the sooty more so than the jet black. Black is also
objectionable on account of tlie flecked appearance which it
acquires as the horse is warmed up. 'No matter how carefully
the coat is gi-oomed, every hair that is turned appears as a dirty,
gray fleck, as soon as the sweat dries. Black harness horses are
commonly cross-matched with grays. The chief specific demand
for black horses comes from undertakers.

Gray is the color most in demand in the draft classes, al-
though frequently discriminated against in horses of any other
type. The preference for grays is stated, by draft horse buyers,
to be due to the fact that they experience less difliculty in match-
ing up a team of from two to six grays tlian in the case of any
other color. This may be accounted for to some extent by the
fact that gray is the predominating color in the draft breed which
outnumbers all other draft breeds combined, in this country. It
would seem at first thought that bays could be more easily
matched than grays. But bays are most frequently marked with
white, which necessitates a matching of markings as well as of
shade. Grays, furthermore, appear to harmonize better with the

1. Anderson, Kentucky A^ricnltiiral Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 180.

2. Wentworth, Color Inheritance in the Horse.

48 TYPES AND BREEDS

red, green, or yellow combinations in which most commercial
vehicles are finished. It is also reasonable to claim that the
gray horse is less sensitive to heat tlian the horse of darker color,
since white has the physical property of reflecting the sun's rays,
while black absorbs them. This fact is borne out by one's ordi-
nary experience with light and dark suits of the same weight.
Gray horses, outside the work horse division, are generally
objected to on account of the conspicuousness of their hair when
shed ; the degree in which they show stable stain, although this
difiiculty is largely overcome by the use of peat moss bedding;
and the inevitable disappearance, with advancing age, of the
black pigment in the hair, resulting in white color and a predis-
position to melanotic tumors. On the other hand, gray horses
show dandruff and body dirt less than most other colors. The
darker shades are most preferred, although in the hunting field,
on the race track, or even in the show ring a beautifully dappled
light gray horse will invariably catch the eye. History has done
much to offset the prejudice against gray horses. Grays are cross
matched in pairs with blacks, chestnuts, and browns.

Roan of either shade is becoming more popular or prevalent
in draft horses, due perhaps to the increasing number of Belgian
grades which come to market, roan being common in that breed.
In harness and saddle horses, red roan especially is a rather
pleasing though not common color.

Piebald and skeivhald are popular colors in ponies, and in
sporting fours and tandems where striking colors are a feature ;
also for advertising wagons and the circus, where it is desirable
to have them conspicuous. A piebald is a black and white com-
bination, while any color other than black, such as bay, brown,
or chestnut, combined with white, constitutes a skewbald.

Cream, dun and mouse colors are generally in disfavor ex-
cept for some special purpose, although the buckskin, a darker
shade of dun which is distinguished from cream by black points,
has a reputation for stamina.

White markings are most desirable in horses of the show
type, since they enhance the brilliancy of a flashy performance.
Even here they are objectionable in ladies' classes.

BlacJc points are, as a rule, considered indicative of greater

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

wearing qualities, and it is a fact that tlie blue horn of the black
foot is more dense and tough than the white. White points
behind are less objectionable than in front. In fact they are
generally considered to improve a horse's appearance as does
some white in his countenance. Wliite markings, wherever
they may be, should be as s;)Tiimetrical as possible and sharply
defined. Large, irregular white patches or splashes are ex-
tremely objectionable.

Odd markings are imdesirable. The leprous spots are the
small, more or less regular areas, completely denuded of pig-
ment, that are seen about the muzzle, the eyes, and under the tail.
The so-called tiger spots are the large, irregular areas of a pinkish
or yellowish tint, surrounded by a zone of lighter shade, which
resemble in appearance the spots on the tiger lily. They are
especially common over the croup.

Market and Show Classes. — By classes of horses is meant the
market and show ring creations. The classes should not be
confused with types, which are mechanical distinctions.

Market and Show Classes

I. Work

A,
B.

Drafter

Logger
Chunk

-^^^

Feeder 1 ~~^— -~-^^

Expresser

___^--'^^

J I. Heavy

Coach

^^--^'^^

Harness

Park

^^\-^^^^.

\^ ^^^"^--^

Runabout

in. Light
Harness

A.
B.

Roadster

f Trotter
Speed \

Pacer

i><

Cob

/
Race Horse (Runner) /

Walk-trot-canter /

IV. Saddle

Gaited /

Hunter /
Combination /

Under 46 inches (Shetland)

V. Pony

11-2 to 14-2

Polo M

ount

TYPES AND BREEDS

The Work Horse Division. — Drafters have already been
described as the power type. Drafters are worked in single,
pair, three-way, four-, or six-horse hitches. The demand for the
highest class of draft hoi*ses comes chiefly from city business
firms who make the appearance of their horses and wagons
on the streets a feature of their advertising policies (Figs. 38,
39, and 40).

In a consideration of draft form, height is secondary to
weight and station. In the selection of market draft geldings,
however, height is important. While the low set, compact horse

Fig. 38. — A trey or three-way hitch of drafters to truck, showing the scale, form, and con-
formation of horses of this class, also the manner of hitching.

is most powerful, such chunky fonn is not conducive to as great
size as that of more range and higiier stature. This is especially
true of immature draft colts. There must be considerable
" stretch " to them if they are to attain the required size at
maturity. An upstanding growthy two-year-old gives greater
promise than the smoothly turned, mature looking chunk of
the same age. Growth takes place first upward, then doAvnward
and outward.

Appearance, as well as power, counts in the serv^ice for which
the highest class of draft geldings are bought, and unless a horse
has stature he appears " squatty " before the big wagons or
trucks to which he is put.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

Loggers are up to draft horse requirements in all but quality.
They are too coarse, unsymmetrical, low bred, or badly blemished
to satisfy the city demand, and are therefore relegated chiefly
to the lumber camps, where hard work only is required.

Fig. ;'i. — A draft pair of unusual quality and attractive color.

Fig. 40 — A six-horse draft team to parkor's van. fc-h()\Mn<r

lead, bwiug, and ^\hecl pair, albo coniplotc apponitincnt'^

Chunl's represent the extreme of draft form, as their name
implies, but are deficient in scale, ranging in weight from 1200
to 1500 pounds (Fig. 41). They are handy work horses, taken
chiefly for the hauling of heavy loads which must be delivered
more rapidly than can be done with draft horses, as in the case

TYPES AND BREEDS

of breweries. The lower grade of cliunks meets the demand of
the contractors and the farm trade.

Exp^essers are rapid draft horses, capable of working at the
trot. They have enough of the draft form to insure the requisite
size, substance, and power, at the same time departing from the
draft type in that they are more rangy and less massive, in order
that they may be capable of stepjjing away at a sharp trot (Fig.
42). They have been referred to as "" drafters Avith coach horse
finish " and as '' coachers with draft horse substance." Ex-
pressers vary in weight from 1250 to 1500 ])ound8, and serve a
wide ranee of uses in the numerous lines of deliverv service.

Fig. 41. — A pair of chunks to truck, -showing the cxtninilx (lratt\- form, bone, and rugged-
ness typical of this class.

Feeders arc thin horses of any of the above classes, the de-
mand for which comes from those who make horses the medium
through which to market their corn. A feeder, to be profitable,
must have class and l)e deficient only in condition.

Heavy Harness Horse Division. — There is a suggestiveness
about the term heavy harness which is not generally compre-
hended. Harness horses are of two classes, heavy and light, the
adjective in each case qualifying the harness and not the horse.
The heavy harness horse is one of fashion, of English creation,
and it is to English sentiment that he owes his name. He con-
forms to the Englishman's idea that " to drive handsomely one

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

must drive heavily." Their vehicles are designed on lines of
dignity and elegance, which make them in some cases almost
ponderous. The harness, by which the horses are put to them,
is of necessity correspondingly heavy, characterized by weight
of leather, Kay collars, metal mountings, Liverpool, elbow,
or Buxton bits, with side or no bearing reins. The horse, to
complete this equipage and be capable of both acting and looking
the part, must be close and full made with extreme finish, style,
and action — the show type.

I'lG. 42. — An cxpresser for lijiht delivery .service, .shdwinii I lie coiiilniia
size and substance with coach horse form and finish.

Ill draft hort

Coach horses are big, substantial, heavy harness horses with
enough size and substance to pull a brougham or coach, yet suffi-
ciently refined to make a good appearance (Fig. 43). They must
have an elegant, bold, commanding way of going about an eight-
mile pace, ^\'itli manners that will insure safe conveyance through
city traffic, or standing in pose for long periods of waiting.
Coach horses are put to the brougham, landau, or, as wheelers
especially, to the brake, drag, or coach, hitched singly, in pairs,
or fours.

Parh horses, as the name implies, are for park driving, not

54 TYPES AND BREEDS

for to^^Ti work. They are tlie show haraess horses, only suffi-
ciently close and full made to have that rotundity of form which
looks best in heavy leather, possessing a degree of refinement
equaled only by tlie park saddle horse and the most extravagant
flexion of knees and hocks. They should be capable of a pace
of twelve miles an hour, which greatly enhances the flashiness
and brilliancv of their action. Park horses are driven sinerlv,
in pairs, and fours, put to the gig, the Sayler wagon, an Amer-
ican four-wheeler which has taken the place of the gig quite
generally (Fig. 4-4) ; demi mail, Stanhope, spider or George
IV phaeton (the latter for ladies' use), park drag or victoria.

Fig. 43. — A class rif roach horses to broiifiham and victorias. Pair on the right to hrougham
show the size and substance which distinguish the coach horse from the park horse.

Usually owners drive in all Init the last instance. Park horses
are classified by height, ranging from the pony limit of 14-2 to
15-3 hands.

Ewmhout horses are defined Iw the name under which they
are classed, that is, handy little harness horses Avith Avhich to
get about (Fig. 45). They are small, not over 15-1 as a rule,
in order to have the requisite handiness and combine some of the
step of the road horse mth some of the shape and action of the
park horse, although extreme action is not typical of this class.
Manners must be of the best to insure tliem standing without
hitching, backing out of tight places, and going anywhere. Run-
about horses are put to the light four-wheel Avagon designated by
the samp name.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

^^''' ^^' "uctiou which distinguish the"park horse from all other luiruess horses.

I brilliant

A IMMalM,Ut h

iii(l\-, s!iai)cl.\ , well-mannered little horse, with a fair degree
ot both puce and action.

Cohs are of a type readily distingiiislied from any of the
other classes in the heavy harness division, although the term
cob is loosely used in referring to any docked horse, whether of

TYPES AND BREEDS

cobby build or not. Tlie typical cob does not stand over 15.1,
is low set, extremely close and full made, lias unusual bone and
muscular development, and a sbort but trappy Avay of going
(Fig. 46). He may be briefly described as a big little liorse,
of a rugged though not coarse appearance. Cobs are used to
both ride and drive and are remarkable weight carriers.

Light Harness Horse Division. — Light harness horses are
as distinctly American in their origin as the heavy harness are
English, and it is interesting to note the reciprocal favor which
each is receiving in the other country.

Fig. 46. — A cob to runabout, a big, little horse of extremely compact and rotund form.

Since maximum speed requires miniinum draft, American
road wagons are built of such material and in such fashion as
to ini])ose upon the horse the least weight that is consistent with
the safe and comfortable conveyance of one or two people. They
are, therefore, in striking contrast to the English carriages and
require harness correspondingly light.

The light harness horse follows the sjx^ed tyjx? but differs
from the running race horse in being somewhat lower in the fore-
hand, longer and more sloping in the croup, longer from the
hip-joint to the hock, witli the hocks set further back and the

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

leg below the liock directed more downward and forward (Fig.

Tnie pacers, as a rule, are longer in legs, lower in the fore-
hand, with longer, steeper croups and more l>ent hocks than the
trotter. The size of the light harness horse is too variable to
be defined by any but the widest limits. If horses of this type
are of good size, well made, stylish, straight gaited, even though
not possessed of extreme speed, and have good manners, they
are classed as gentlemen's road horses (Fig. 48). On the other
hand, extremely fast horses, either at trot or pace, whether they
have anytliing else to recommend them or
not, are classed as speed horses (Fig. 49).

Koad horses are hitched singly or in pairs,
while speed horses are seldom used to pole.
The road wagon is the typical roadster hitch,
while speed horses are hooked to bike sulkies,
or speed wagons, the lightest type of vehicle
built to meet the amateur requirements, which
call for a four-wheeled wagon. Speed horses
are classified according to their record
perforiiiaiiccs.

Saddle Horse Division. — The saddle
horse was priuiai-ily a utility horse, as a
matter of necessity, in pioneer times prior to
the construction of roads and vehicles, but
he has become in addition a most popular
source of pleasure, with circumstances
attending his use so diversified as to call for a variety of types.
Some horses are ridden for the ease with which they carry one,
wliile others are used for the exercise and liver stimulation which
they afford. Then, again, some are ridden in a dignified manner
ill the parks and on the boulevards, while others are ridden
" rougli " in the field and cross country. The distinction be-
tween the first two, in tliis country, is very largely one of school-
ing and trimming, although tlie English type of walk-trot-canter
saddle horse is quite distinctive in breeding and general make-up.

The race horse is the truest exjwnent of the speed type, but
is used essentially as a saddle horse^ a galloper^ and is therefore

Fig. 47.— The bent
hock-joint.

TYPES AND BREEDS

Fig. 48. — A gentleman's road mare. Although of speed form, she is ot good size, symmetri-
cal shaoe. faultless conformation, and shows great refinement, style, and intelligence.

Fig. 49. — A trotter to sulky, adhering strictly to the speed type yet possessing more size
and substance and better conformation than is common in horses of this class.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

classed in the saddle division. Runners are distinguished from
trotters and pacers by greater development of the forehand, by
a shorter back, more level cronp, straighter hind legs (Fig. 50),
with less proportionate length from hip- joint to hock and more
from hock to the ground. Their way of going is also distinctive ;
they have a wonderful reach and leng-th of jump at the run, and
gallop beautifully, but have a low, pointing stride at the trot
(Fig. 51). They race on the flat, or over the steeple chase
course of jumps, according to their own natural aptitude and
the schooling which they have received. Running race horses
are handicapped by the weight required to be
carried, an impost of only an ounce making
a considerable difference in a horse's finish.

Gaited saddle horses are the distinctly
American saddle horses (Fig. 52), although
ambling saddle horses were at one time used
in England, and at present the gaited horse
is apparently losing favor in some important
parts of this country to the walk-trot horse of
English idea, Gaited horses are required to
go at least five gaits : the walk, either the run-
ning walk, fox trot, or slow pace; the trot;
rack; and canter; all described under gaits.
They carry full mane and tail and are the
ideal of the Southern and Western saddle
liorse contingent.

WalJc-trot-canter saddle horses do just
what is enumerated in the name, are usually
docked and tlieir manes pulled (Fig. 53). Many of our best
walk- trot-canter saddle horses are converted gaited horses, show-
ing that there is no distinction in type except in their per-
fonnance.

The collected, springy, weight-carrying trot of the saddle
horse should be distinguished from the extended, fast trot of the
speed horse on the one hand, and the high acting, sometimes
pounding, trot of the heavy harness horses on the other.

Walk-trot-canter horses are referred to as hacks, and a dis-
tinction is made between park and road hacks. The fonnev have

Fig. 50. — The .straight
hock-joint.

TYPES AND BREEDS

the finish and style characteristic of all park horses, and are
usually saddle bred, while road hacks are of a somewhat plainer
but more serviceable stamp, capable of taking a run cross country
in connection with a road ride, if desired.

There is also a tendency to differentiate between the Saddle
bred walk- trot-canter saddle horse and the one of Thoroughbred
breeding and type. The former is characterized by high car-

FiG. 51. — A steeple chaser, showing the speed type and saddle form of the running race horse

riage of head and tail, alleged to resemble that of a peacock,
more knee and hock action and usually less substance — the latter
by a more exclusively saddle fomi perhaps, but too often an
erratic disposition and a Ioav going trot, that are not conducive
to either a safe or satisfactory ride (Fig. 54). Some most ac-
ceptable representatives of the latter type have been brought
out, however. Saddle horses are classified on the basis of height
and the weight to which they are np.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

Hunters are ridden to fox hounds, cross country, and, as a
rule, with considerable weight up. In order to qualify they must,
in addition to being able to cariy weight, stay for long, hard
runs, jump safely, and preferably in their stride, all common
obstacles in the field, such as fences, walls, and ditches, and
galloj) fast enough to keep pace with the pack. They must also

Fig. 52. — A gaited saddle stallion; one of the best representatives of this class, which is the
most popular of any in the South and West but has met only limited favor in the East.

have good heads in order not to become hot in company and run
away through fences or into quarry holes.

In order to meet these requirements, a horse must have all
the features of the weight carrier conspicuous in his make-up,
esi>ecially strong, well-developed shoulders and withers, mus-
cular quarters, and ample bone (Fig. 55). Quality is sacrificed
to substance, but a hunter must show breeding and not appear

TYPES AND BREEDS

cold. lie is not good looking in the same sense as the park
horse, but has, nevertheless, a most impressive ai")pearance, as a
horse of great resourcefulness and servicoabilitv. Size is being
more and more insistently demanded by buyers and users of

Fio. 5S. — A walk-trot-cantcr horse, showing the mold of form, the extreme refinement
of head and neck, the peacocky carriage, the style and intelligence that are representative
in highest degree of the American idea of a saddle horse of this class.

hunters, and for a^Dparently good reasons. In the first place, a
five-foot jump is four inches lower for a 16-hand horse than for
one of 15 hands height. Many hunting folk are in the sport to
keep do^\m their weight, so that it takes a horse of some size
to be up to the weight at which they ride. Finally, the big

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

Fig. 54. — A class of English saddle horses, the Thoroughbred type predominating.

Fig. 55. — A light-weight hunter having strong, well-developed, sloping shoulders, high
withers extending well back, muscular, quarters, ample bone, and suflBcient breeding to
insure the requisite courage, stamina, and pace.

TYPES AND BREEDS

horse is claimed to give a safer ride on account of the momentum
of his gi-eater weight, insuring him a better chance of breaking
through a fence in case of a blunder, instead of being tripped by
it and coming down.

Hunters are classified accordinc: to the Aveii^rht thev are
capable of carrying, as light weight, up to from 135 to 165
pounds; middle weight, ir)5 to 100 pounds; and heavy weight,
.190 ])ounds or over. A heavy weight hunter is shown as '^ a

Fig. 56. — Heatherbloom, the world's record high jumper.

weight carrier" (Fig. 36). They are also classified as green
or qualified, the latter' having hunted one season with a pack
recognized by the United Hunts and Steeple Chase Association.
All hunters are jumpers in some degree, but a high jumper
is by no means necessarily a hunter. A jumper may clear six
feet at one time, and at another blunder over an ordinary post
and rail fence, while to be a safe cross country horse he must
be a consistent jumj)er of from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet only.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

The record high jump of Heatherbloom, over 7 feet 9 inches,
in 1903 still stands (Fig. 56).

The use of hunters is not restricted to the hunting field,
although the number demanded for that purpose alone is rapidly
increasing with the extension of the sport. Horses of this type
are preferred by many who never ride to hounds, because they
are most useful horses to ride and even to drive.

The Combination Horse. — It is customary for all saddle
horses, even some hunters, to go well in harness, but their forte,

Fig.

'. — A combination horse, departing somewhat from the saddle type in being of a more
"harnessy" form.

nevertheless, is under " pigskin." There is, however, a combi-
nation class of horses from which an equally good performance,
either to ride or to drive, is expected (Fig. 57).

Combination horses, although shown customarily in harness
first, are more especially saddle horses that drive well than they
are harness horses capable of giving a good ride.

They are distinguished from saddle horses by being some-
what more of a harness form and showing more speed at the trotj
with good manners when driven.

TYPES AND BREEDS

A combination horse may go either the three or the five
gaits under saddle, but those which walk, tTot, and canter are
usually driven in heavy harness, while those which are gaited
are driven in light harness.

The " fine haraess " horse of the Southern shows, distinct
from the " light harness '' horse in that he has no speed but is
a " model " horse capable of going ten or twelve miles an hour
in the best fonn, is in reality a gaited saddle horse in harness
(Fig. 58).

Fig, 58. — The fine harness horse of the South, a model of conformation, quality, style, and

way of going.

The Pony Division. — Generally speaking, any horse under
14-2 is a pony, but diminutive stature alone does not constitute
pony type. There is a distinct pony build or form, characterized
as an exaggeration, in miniature, of either the draft or heavy
harness types. An undersized light harness horse, for instance,
would be a runt, not a pony.

Ponies permit of classification into three groups : ( 1 ) Those
conforming to the Shetland standard of a 46-inch limit, (2) those
11-2 to 14-2 hands, and (3) the polo pony.

THE CLASSES OF HORSES

^^MiK

:|B|*;P/ '

'^jgy— Mmgjgjl^^^g^ >/VV z^

^^HH|P^^«Rr

^^p

^^^g^

■^m

mH^.^

Fig. 59. — A harness pony under 46 inches in height.

I'iG. oij. — A t\v(.lvc-haud ridu aud drivr pony of exceptional merit.

TYPES AND BREEDS

Fig. 61. — A pair of twelve-hand ponies properly turned out.

Fio. 62.— A polo mount, fast, game, handy, intcll

THE CLASSES OF HORSES 69

Ponies not exceeding 46 inches should be of a miniature
draft horse pattern, although a preference has been shown in
American show rings for one with somewhat more refinement
and action. These ponies are used almost exclusively for small
children to ride and drive (Fig. 59).

Patiies 11-2 and Not Exceeding 1J/--2. — These ponies are
pocket editions of the coach horse, as it were, or little cobs, well
adajDted to the use of youths and misses who may have graduated
from the Shetlands (Figs. 60 and 61).

Polo mounts are race horses or hunters on a small scale, used
chiefly to play the game (Fig. 62), although making very accept-
able little hacks in case they are mallet shy, or for any other
reason are kept out of the game. Cutting cattle and playing
polo are very similar so far as the requirements of horses are
concerned, and the type is practically identical, but as the cow
pony seldom gets to market, class preference is given to the
polo pony. A recent ruling of the Polo Association has in-
creased the height limit of polo mounts from 14—2 to 15-1.
They are henceforth, therefore, to be called polo mounts instead
of ponies and some show classifications have already adopted
tliis revision.

REVIEW

1. What is the distinction between a type and a class?

2. Name the hard, solid colors and give examples of the influence of

color on the market value of hoi-ses.

3. Name the market classes of horses.

4. Describe a typical expresser and give reasons for each feature.

5. What is a cob f

6. What is required of a roadster besides speed?

7. Compare the perfonnance of the park horse with that of a road

hoi-se.

8. What are the chief distinctions between the g-aited and the walk-

trot-canter saddle horse?

9. How does a hunter differ in appearance from a park saddle horse ?
10. Describe what should distinguish a pony beside diminutive stature.

~y^^^^L

CHAPTER VI
THE BREEDS OF HORSES

A BREED is a group of individuals possessing distinctive char-
acteristics not common to other members of the same species,
these characteristics being sufficiently well fixed to be uniformly
transmitted. It is these distinctive features which give to each
breed its greater or less e<x)nomic importance. Curiously enough,
there is scarcely a breed which does not possess at least one dis-
tinctive characteristic, in respect to which it surpasses all other
breeds.

In arriving at a fair conclusion of what constitutes " the
best breed/' it is necessary that conditions to be met and char-
acters required be specified, as the same breed may not be " best "
for each sjiecific case. Too much importance should not be
attached to the partisan favor in which difi^erent breeds are held.
The average buyer of market horses has very little consideration
for the particular breeds which may l)e represented in his pur-
chases, vet striking imifomiitv of breed character anions the
lot which he selects may be manifested. This is due to the fact
that the characters represented in the buyer's standard or ideal
happen to be more typical of one breed than another.

It has been noted recently that the accepted types of the
draft breeds, for instance, are approaching more closely a
common standard, as shown by show ring awards, but the desir-
ability of such being tlie case is questionable. It is not well to
lay too much stress on the minor features of breed type which
have no utility value, but inasmuch as each breed has distinctive
characteristics, rendering representatives of that breed espe-
cially well adapted to particular requirements, their distinctive-
ness should be retained. For instance, the Percheron breed has,
from its inception, been characterized by features which could
not be duplicated in any of the other breeds, and these features
should not be sacrificed in favor of others which are character-
istic of other breeds,
70

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 71

The inherent qualities of a breed have been put there by one
or more of three general agencies, therefore the possibilities in
what can be gotten out of a breed are as definitely determined as
is the character of a horse's get fixed by his ancestry. The three
factors determining breed characteristics and, through them, the
economic importance of the different breeds are :

1. The origin in blood which constitutes the hereditaiy force
with which the breed is endowed.

2. The environment by which these blood lines have been
molded.

3. The purpose for which they have been bred, constituting
the ideal to which the breeders have selected.

The study of the breeds should, therefore, resolve itself into
a consideration of the following essentials :

1. Origin: (a) In blood, (h) Geographical.

2. Development: (a) Men. (h) Methods.

3. History: (a) Men. (h) Events, (c) Dates.

4. Characteristics : Breed tyj^es.

5. Economic importance.

Foundation Stock. — The origin in blood is of greatest his-
torical interest, if not the most important, of the factors which
determine breed characters. The modern breeds have been more
or less composite in their origin, involving, to a greater or less
degree, those breeds or stocks which had already attained distinc-
tion on account of merit. In some cases, the combination of
blood lines was intentional, but it was more often incidental or
even accidental. These historic horses can in turn be traced to a
more limited gi'oup of common ancestors and so on until the
blood lines focus in but a very few basic stocks.

DarAvin believed all races had descended from one common
ancestry, and attributed the extreme differences noted between
modern breeds to environment. The more commonly accepted
theory has been that all modem breeds trace tlieir origin in
blood directly or indirectly to one or all of three primordial
stocks, the Wild Black Horse of Flanders, the Oriental Horse,
and the native pony stock indigenous to E'orthem Europe and
Asia. The latter has played a more or less important part.

The Flemish horse w^as native to what is now a part of

72 TYPES AND BREEDS

France, Belgium, Ilollaiid, and Germany. The country was
generally low lying, and therefore conducive to a coarse, rank,
luxuriant gro^\i^h of vegetation. The horse developed thereon
partook of the same general nature. The Flanders horse was
characterizeil hy : First, his huge size and bulk; second, his gen-
eral coarseness; third, his uniformly black color; fourth, his
profusion of hair, sho^ving in heavy mane, tail, featlier and even
a moustache, and tufts on the anterior face of knees and points
of hocks ; fifth, his sluggish, Ijonphatic temperament.

The Oriental horse, native to the desert regions of Xortheni
Africa and later found in Arabia and Asia Minor, was charac-
terized by extreme refinement, beauty of form, grace of move-
ment, speed, stamina, spirit, intelligence, and an active, nervous
temperament. The so-called Oriental Group was said to consist
of the Barb, Turk, and Arabian.

Recent researches of Pi'ofessor J. Cossar Ewart, of the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and Professor William Ridgeway, of
Cambridge, have sho\vn that the fountain source was not reached
in either the Flemish horse or the so-called Oriental Group.
Ridgeway concludes that all horses can be traced to one or more
of three original stocks: the Libyan horse of Northern Africa,
of which pure Barbs and Arabs are typical : the common horse
of Upper Asia and Europe, represented by the Mongolian pony,
and the Celtic pony of Xorthwestem Europe.

Origin of Thoroughhred. — He traces the Thoroughbred,
through his alleged Barb, Turk, and Arab ancestors, to Libya,
in Xorthem Africa, Avhere he establishes a definite origin, about
1000 B.c.^ in a horso charactenzed by a bay color, sometimes
accompanied by boily, leg and even head stripes, a dark colored
skin, white markings, as a star, a blaze, and pasterns or " brace-
lets," a short, fine head, well-carried ears, a peculiar depression
in the skull just in front of the orbits, a light, fine, high-set tail,
the total absence of chestnuts on the hind legs, and either ab-
sence or small size of the ergots at the fetlocks, an unusually
long hoof, extremely docile disposition, a refined, expressive
voice, and great speed.

Origin of Other Horses. — Ridgeway also establishes a small,
coarse, thick set, short necked, plain headed, big boned, light

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 73

colored, slow but hardy pony of Upper Asia and Europe as the
original progenitor of all other horses, except those which have
resulted from a blending of these two, and the Black Flanders
horse is shown to have such an origin.

In 1902 Professor Ewart described what he called a " Celtic
pony," a true pony and not a dwarf horse. It has a small head,
with prominent eyes, small ears, a heavy mane, slender legs,
small joints, well-fonned, small hoofs, and '' tail lock."

ARABIAN

'No race of horses has enjoyed a more sentimental popularity
nor had its history more obscured by myth and tradition than
the Arab (Fig. 03). It is only comparatively recently that any
very definite information concerning them has been available.
Arabs have been considered in a general way as the original
source of the best blood, but this is not the case. There is every
reason to believe that horses similar to the best Arabs were in
Northern Africa more than one thousand years before horses
were known in Arabia. Their introduction was apparently from
Africa and took place some time between the first and the sixth
century.

The number of good horses in Arabia is much smaller than
is generally supposed, and these are chiefly in the hands of cer-
tain families or tribes in the interior desert. The rank and file
of the horses in the hands of the common people are either the
common bred Kurdish ponies, descendants of the original Euro-
pean stock or the produce of these by true Arab sires. The Arab
])roper, a descendant and not an antecedent of the original
Libyan horse, is kno^^m as the Kohl breed, so named on account
of the peculiar blue black or antimony tint which characterizes
the skin of the body. The breed is composed of five strains
which, in turn, are believed by the Bedouins to be derived from
a single mare, named Kelie'det Ajtiz, and the most prominent
strain is named Keheilan, after her. They are mostly bays,
the fastest of any, and resemble most closely the English
Thoroughbred. The Darley Arnhian, the greatest foundation
sire of the Thoroughbred, was of this strain. The others are

TYPES AND BREEDS

the Seglawi, " powerful and fast, but not particularly hand-
some"; the Abeyan, generally the handsomest but small, and
resembles the Thoroughbred least ; the Hamdaini; and the Had-
han. Collectively, the strains are termed Al Khamseli and are
extensively interbred.

There is much confusion in this country concerning the char-
acteristic color of the Arab. Almost any odd color or marking,
such as pure white, piebald, skewbald, leprous or tiger spots, are
attributed to Arab blood. On the other hand, such significance
of aiiy of these coloi*s has been absolutely denied. As a matter of
fact, bay with w^hite markings is most characteristic, and, in the

Fig. 63. — Arabian stallion, showing the general refinement characteristic of this breed.

light of recent kn*Avle<lge concerning the origin of the Arab in
the Libyan horse, is most desirable. Grays are also common,
chestnuts and browns are not uncommon, wliile blacks and even
pure whites are found. It is true, too, that the whites usually
show the Kohl spots about the eyes, muzzle, and elsewhere.
AMiile the odd colors referred to as suggesting Arab breeding are
never found among pure bred Arabs, tliey are noted among their
half breeds, the piebalds and skewbalds, especially, occurring
with a considerable degree of uniformity when the common stock
of Upper Asia and Europe is crossed with Arab sires. This is
shown in the piebald ponies of Thibet, Sumatra, Iceland, the

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 75

Faroe Islands, Java, India, and in our original American range
ponies, which were not many generations removed from an
Oriental foundation. The line back is another 'feature which is
marked in the various shades of dun, cream, and mouse color of
half-bred Arabians.

THE BARB

There are many horses in the Barbary States of Korthem
Africa which are not true Barbs. Pure bred Barbs are found
only in Morocco, where there has been no introduction of foreign
blood, as has been done in the otlier States, where horses from
Prance and England, in Algiers especially, Arabs from Syria,
and the common-bred Italian horses have been crossed with the
native Barbs. It is, of course, assumed that the pure Barb is
the direct descendant of the original Libyan horse.

Description. — The Barb is described as being from 14 to 15
hands in height, body comparatively short .in proportion to
length of leg^, his whole form being conducive to speed. The
head is well proportioned, with a fine ear, broad, full forehead,
large, clear, prominent eye flashing fire and yet expressing in-
telligence, a deep jowl with open angles, a trim muzzle, and a
nostril that is tliin at the margin, capable of great dilation and
continually in play. The head is well set on a long, high crested
neck, well cut out in the throttle, and giving the head a lofty
carriage; shoulders well laid in and sloping, well set up at the
withers; a round, deep rib; a somewhat drooping croup but
high-set tail ; straight hind legs, long pasterns, and rather deep,
narrow feet of the most superior texture of horn. The charac-
teristic bay with white markings indicates the pure Barb, an
out-cross introducing browns, chestnuts, blacks, and grays.

THE TURK

The significance of this name applies, generally, to the horses
of Turkey in Asia, there being but few horses in European
Turkey. Originally, these consisted of Turcoman and Kurdis-
tan ponies, representatives of the common Northern Asia and
European stock. These were later, however, extensively inter-
bred and improved with Arabs, so that it is probable that the

76 TiTES AXD BREEDS

Turks referred to in Thoroughbred history were of this
breeding.

Tlie influence of the so-called Onental blood has been well
extended. The Darley Arabian, Bverly Turk, and Godolphin
Barb, w^th the Barb or Boyal mare?, are considered the real
foundation of the Thoroughbred.

The Percheron owes much to the Oriental sire- with which
the native French mares were mated. Gallipoli and Godolpliin
were two of the most important of these sires.

The Xorfolk trotter was the result of mating Barbs with
the black trotters of Friesland. The Cleveland Bay represents
a Barb- Yorkshire cart horse cross.

Bars I, progenitor of the Russian Orloff, was three genera-
tions removed from Smetanxa, a gray Arabian imfx>rted into
Russia. The Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture
of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the native stock of the
country.

In America, imported Grand Bashaw, a Barb* brought from
Tripoli, founded through his immediate descendants the Clay,
Patchen and Bashaw families. Leopard, an Arab, and Linden
Tree, a Barb, presented to General Grant, were used by Ran-
dolph Huntingdon in his creation of the Clay Arabian. Zil-
caadi, an Arab from Turkey, sired the darn of GobMust, the
founder of the Morgan family of that name.

THE THOEOUGHBRED

Thoroughbred is the proper name of the Englisli runnincf race
horse breed, and any other application of the tenn to horses is
incorrect. It should not be confused nor used synonymously
with " pure bred," the adjective employed to denote the absence
of any alien blood in the ancestry.

It is not probable, in view of what we know of the history of
horses in Great Britain, that the origin of the Thoroughbred was
of Oriental blood exclusively, although their lineage has Ix^en
carefully guarded for so long that all trace of the common stock
of the country, if any ever existed, has long since been bred out,
and they are therefore truly " thoroughbred."

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 77

The principal foundation to which the Thoroughbred traces
consists of the Barb or Royal mares, imported by Charles Second
(1660 to 1685), and the Darley Arabian, a pure Anazah, im-
ported in 1706; the Byerly Turk, imported in 1689, and Godol-
phin Barb, brought from Paris in 1724. The latter had been
Avorking' in a water cart, a discard, no doubt, from the stable of
some mend)er of the nobility to Avhoni he had been presented, as
was commonly the custom.

There are prominent families in the Thoroughbred and
derived breeds wliich can be traced direct to each of these sires.
Eclipse, tlie most conspicuous individual in the history of the
English turf; Blaze, the foundation Hackney sire, and Messen-
ger, tlie progenitor of the American Standardbred, were respec-
tively four, three and six generations removed from the Darley
Arabian. King Ito<-)d, a great race horse, Avas a line descendant
of the ByerlAT'urlvpTnuU^tiltclieni, a noted race horse and sire,
was a grandson of Godolphin Ba?b: — it has been stated that the
American bred Thoroughbreds are, as a rule, closer to their
Oriental ancestry than the English Thoroughbreds and that they
follow their type more closely.

Early Racing. — While the real era of Thoroughbred breed-
ing is usually considered to have begun with the importation by
Charles Second, horse racing of a primitive character was re-
ported in the latter half of the twelfth century. The first real
race Avas run in 1377, between Bichard Second and the Earl of
Arundel. Heni-y the Eighth Avas the first king to maintain a
racing stable of his OAvn, and the English sovereigns since that
time have been enthusiastic patrons of the turf.

Through these centuries of breeding the uiost ligid selection
has been practised, turf performance alone being the standard.
Customs of conducting races and the types of horses that could
Avin have undergone considerable modification Avithin recent
generations, hoAvever. Prior to 1880 it was customary to run
four mile heats and carry top AA^eight, A\'hile the present system
is to sprint short distances under close handicaps, starting as
two-year-olds and campaigning for entire seasons.

Thoroughhreds were introduced into this countiy by the
English colonists in Old Dominion, and the Thoroughbred sen-

TYPES AND BREEDS

timent is still strongest there, especially in Virginia. The first
Thoroughbred of not© to be imported was Diomed, the winner of
the first English Derby, the classic race in England. He was
brought over in 1797. In a straight line of descent from Diomed
came Sir Archy, the first truly American Thoroughbred ; Boston
his grandson, conceded to have been the greatest American race
horse, and liis son Lexington, a scarcely less remarkable per-
former than Boston and a most influential sire, figuring in
American Standardbred and Saddle families as well as in the
Thoroughbred.

Fig. 64. — A Thoroughbred stallion, the sire of race horses.

Descnption. — The Thoroughbred represents the speed type
in the extreme, and, having been the first breed improved, their
distinctive characters are well marked (Fig. 64). Most char-
acteristic are the extreme refinement; the small, well propor-
tioned head; clearly defined features; straight face line; neat
ear; fine throttle; sloping shoulders; well-made ^vithers, miis-
cular thighs and quarters ; straight hind legs ; usually slightly-
bucked knees ; oblique pasterns ; and a rather small foot of dense
horn. Their way of going is especially characterized by being
low and pointing at the walk and trot, but perfection at the

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 79

gallop or run. Their temperament is naturally racy, of sucli a
highly nervous organization as to cause them to become " hot "
and erratic.

Bay and chestnut with more or less white markings are the
common colors, although black, gray, and white were frequent
among the early Thoroughbreds. Typical Thoroughbred weight
is about 1000 pounds, and they stand from 15 to 16 hands high.
Sir Walter Gilbey estimates an average increase of 1 hand 2^2
inches from 1700 to 1900, 15-2% being the average at the
present time.

Relation to Other Breeds. — This breed is of the greatest his-
toric importance. It was the first breed improved, and barring
the Oriental from which it is derived it has the purest blood
lines. For it the first studbook was established. Having been
the first breed improved, the blood of the Thoroughbred has been
most freely used in the improvement of other breeds and types.
In all but tlie draft breeds the influence of the Thoroughbred may
be demonstrated. In the heavy harness division the foundation
blood lines are significant. The._IIai2kney descends from Shales,
the son of Blaze, a Thoroughbred, out of a common mare of
Norfolk. The French denv^.juMui refers to the cross of the
Thoroughbred on French mares. Thoroughbreds are used ex-
tensively in Gennan studs, the Prussian Trakehner being pro-
duced from botliTlioroughbred and Oriental sires. The^York-
shire^Qjc^ch horse represents a Thoroughbred-Cleveland Bay
cross. The three most important foundation sires of American
horses. Messenger. Justin Morgan, and Denmark, are credited
with Thoroughbred pedigrees. In addition, the majority of
hunters and polo ponies, as well as a great many saddle horses,
are clean or part bred.

The greatest value of the Thoroughbred as foundation stock
has no doubt passed, as the breeds which have been evolved from
a Thoroughbred foundation have been improved along their
respective lines to a point where an out-cross to the Thorough-
bred might be a step backward, although Thoroughbred ancestors
are mthin a very few generations of some of the most noted and
successful Hackney, French Coach, Saddle and even Standard-
bred sires.

TYPES AND BREEDS

There is a strong prejudice against the Thoroughbred in
some parts of this country, where he is looked upon merely as a
racing machine^ But any one familiar with the stamp of horse
bred in Virginia, for instance, Avill recognize in the blood of the
Tlioroughbred a breeding leaven, which judiciously and intelli-
gently used produces most desirable results.

When breeders of the Thoroughbred practice selection to
saddle rather than to race horse requirements, with good dispo-

d luintfrs.

sition, size, shape, and substance as the features sought, this
breed will not be so exclusively dependent on the status of the
racing game for patronage.

" Blood " is a term frequently used to indicate Thoroughbred
breeding; " of the blood," " blood like," and " blood horse," all
refer to the Thoroughbred. This being the blood and this breed
being altogether of it, horses cariying but a fractional percentage
are designated as part bred and the number of parts are specified
as two, or half bred, in the case of the get of a Thoroughbred

THE BREEDS OF HORSES

sire, out of a common bred mare; three parts or three-quarters
being used to designate the get of a Thoroughbred out of a half
bred mare. The blood is accounted for in this way even up to
seven-eighths.

Record of Best Performances on the Running Turf.

Distance.

M niile

% mile

3>2 furlongs.
y^ mile . . . . .

41^ furlongs.

5^ mile

5H furlongs.

♦Futuritj' c. .

6 furlongs. . .

614 furlongs.

7 furlongs. . .
lli furlongs.

1 mile

1 m. 20 yds.

1 m. 40 yds.

1 m. 50 yds.
1 ni. 70 yds.
1 m.lOO yds.

1 l-16miles.

1% miles.
1 3-16 miles

miles,

1 5-16 miles
1 m. 500 yds

1%
IM

V/s
2
2 1-

2%
2H

miles,
miles,
miles,
miles,
miles,
miles.
16 miles,
miles,
miles,
miles .
miies .
miles .
miles.

miles.

Name, Age, and Weight.

Bob Wade, 4

Atoka, aged, 103 lbs

Colisse, 2, 123 lbs

Geraldine, 4, 122 lbs

j Preceptor, 2, 112 lbs

t Joe Morris, 2, 103 lbs

Maid Marian, 4, 111 lbs

f Plater, 2, 107 lbs

t Fern L., 3, 92 lbs

Kingston, aged, 139 lbs

( Artful, 2, 130 lbs

( Prince Ahmed, 5, 117 lbs.. . .

f Priscillian, 5, 113 lbs

< Lady Vera, 2, 90 lbs

( Brookdale Nymph, 4, 124 lbs.

f Roseben, 5, 126 lbs

\ Colin, 2, 122 lbs

Restigouche, 3, 107 lbs

r Salvator, 4, 110 Ibsf

Kildecr, 4, 91 lbs

! Kiamesha, 3, 104 lbs

Dick Welles, 3, 112 lbs

Fern L., 3, 80 lbs

Bourbon Beau, 3, 112 lbs.. . .

( Macy, 4, 107 lbs

J Maid Marian, 4, 106 lbs. . . .

( Six Shooter, 5, 111 lbs

f Preen, 4, 104 lbs

\ Main Chance, 3, 114 lbs. . . .

Vox Populi, 4, 104 lbs

Bubbling Water, 4, 121 lbs

Rapid Water, 6, 114 lbs

f Roval Tourist, 3, 104 lbs.. . .
-j Green Seal, 4, 109 lbs

I Gretna Green, 5, 100 Ibn. . . .

f Charles Edward, 3, 126 lbs. .

1 Green Seal, 4, 107 lbs

Scintillant II., G, 109 lbs

f Broomstick, 3, 104 lbs

1 Olambala, 4, 122 lbs

Ballot, 4, 126 lbs

Swift Wing, 5, 100 lbs

Irish Lad, 4, 125 lbs

Goodrich, 3, 102 lbs

Fitz Herbert, 3, 122 lbs

Major Daingerfield, 4, 120 lbs. .

Orcagna, 4, 96 lbs

Everett, 4, 107 lbs

War Whoop, 4, 96 lbs

Joe Murphv, 4, 99 lbs

Ethelbert, 4, 124 lbs

Kyrat, 3, 88 lbs

Ten Broeck, 4, 104 lbs

Hubbard, 4, 107 lbs

Mamie Algol, 5, 108 lbs

f Lucrezia Borgia, 4, 85 Ibs.f. .

( Messenger Boy, 5, 106 lbs. . .

Place.

Butte, Mont

Juarez, Mexico

Morris Park (st. c.). .
Belmont Park (st. c.) .
Louisville (C. Downs).
Morris Park (st. c.) . .
Morris Park (st. c.) . .

Seattle, Wash'n

Sheeps'd B.(C.I.J.C.)
Morris Park (st. c.) . .
Empire City, N. Y. . .

Hamilton, Ont

Belm't P., L. I. (st. c.)
Belmont Park, L. I.. .
Belmont Park, L. I.. .
Belm't P., L. I. (st. c.)
Belmont Park, L. I.. .
Monmouth P. (st. c.)
Monmouth P. (st. c.)
Belmont Park, L. I.. .
Chicago (Harlem) ....

Seattle, Wash'n

Juarez, Mexico

Chicago (Wash. Park)
Chicago (Wash. Park)
Chicago (Wash. Park)

Buffalo, N. Y

Seattle, Wash'n

Oakland, Cal

Oakland (Cal. J. C.)..

Oakland. Cal

Seattle, Wa.sh'n. . . . . .

Fort Erie, Ont

Brighton Beach

Seattle, Wash'n

Chicago (Harlem). . . .

Brighton Beach

Sheep.sh'd Bay (C.I.)
Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.)

Latonia, Kv

Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.)
Chicago (Wash. Park)
Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.)
Morris Park, N. Y. . .

Oakland, Cal

Pimlico, Md

Ontario (Tor'to J. C).
Chicago (Harlem). . . .
Brighton Beach, N.Y.

Newport, Ky

Lexington, Ky

Saratoga, N. Y

New Orleans (CitvP.)
Oakland (Cal. J. C.)..
Louisville, Ky

Date.

Aug. 20,
Sept. 7,
Jan. 17,
Aug. 30,
May 19,
May 8,
Oct. 9,
Oct. 21,
Aug. 8,
June 22,
Oct. 15,
July 29,
June 19,
Oct. 19,
Oct. 14,
Oct. 16,
Oct. 16,
May 29,
Aug. 28,
Aug. 13.
Oct. 9.
Aug. 14,
Aug. 15,
Feb. 14,
July 2,
Julv 19,
June 27,
June 16,
June 29,
Sept. 5,
Nov. 30,
Nov. 30,
Nov. 11,
Sept. 12.
Aug. 28,
July 16,
Aug. 20,
Sept. 1.
July 9,
July 2,
July 1,
July 8,
June 25,
July 16,
July 13,
Oct. 3,
Mar. 2,
Oct. 31,
Sept 23,
Aug. 30,
Aug. 4,
Nov. 18.
Sept. 16.
Aug. 9.
Feb. 16,
May 20,
Oct. 7,

1890.
1906.
1911.
1889.
1908.
1909.
1894.
1902.
1908.
1891.
1904.
1909.
1911.
1906.
1907.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1890.
1892.
1905.
1903.
1908.
1912.
1898.
1903.
1903.
IfiOG.
1907.
1908.
1910.
1907.
1908.
1908.
1909.
1907.
1908.
1902.
1904.
1910.
1908.
1905.
1904.
1898.
1909.
1903.
1909.
1910.
1905.
1894.
1900.
1899.
1876.
1873.
1907.
1897.
1911.

.39 2-5

46
.51
.52 4-5

56%

02>^
.05
.08
.08
1

1.16 3-5

1.17 2-5
1.22
1.23
1.311-5
1.35^
1.37M
1.37 2-5
1.37 2-5
1.37 2-5
1.37 2-5
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.42
1.42
1.40 4-5

1.42 1-5
1.44 1-5
1.44 1-5
1.44 2-5

1.43 3-5
1.50 3-5
1.50 3-5
1.57 2-5
2.02 4-5
2.02 4-5
2.09 3-5
2.101-5
2.17 3-5
2.30>i
2.45
2.57
3.17 3-5
3.25 3-5
3.34J^
3.42
3.49 1-5
4.241^
4.58H
4.58^
5.19
7.11
7.14 1-5

*170 feet less than % mile.

t Races against time.

St. c, straight course.

TYPES AND BREEDS
Heat Races.

DiST.

Name, Age, and Weight.

li mile.
% mile.

J^ mile.

% mile.

1 mile.
1 (3 in 5)

1 1-16 m.
1% miles.
IJ^ miles.
13^ miles.

2 miles.

3 miles.

4 miles.

Sleepy Dick, aged

Bob Wade, 4

( Eclipse, Jr., 4

-^ Bogus, aged, 113 lbs. . . . ,

I Bill Howard, 5, 122 lbs..

f Kittie Pease, 4, 82 lbs. . .

\ Fox, 4, 113 lbs

J Tom Hayes, 4, 107 lbs. . ,

( Lizzie S., 5, 118 lbs

Guido, 4, 117 lbs

L' Argentine, 5, 115 lbs. . . . ,

Slipalong, 5, 115 lbs ,

What-er-Lou, 5.119 lbs

Glenmore, 5, 114 lbs

Patsy Duffy, aged, 11 5 lbs..
Miss Woodford, 4, 107H lbs

Norfolk. 4, 100 lbs

Glenmore, 4, 108 lbs

Place.

Kiowa, Kan

Butte, Mont

Dallas, Tex

Helena, Mont

Anaconda, Mont. . .

Dallas, Tex

San Francisco, Cal.
Morris Park (st. c.) .

Louisville

Chicago (Wash.Pk.)

St.' Louis

Chicago (Wash.Pk.)
San Fran.(Ingleside)
Sheepshead Bay. . . .
Sacramento, Cal. . .
Sheepshead Baj'.. . .
Sacramento. Cal. . .
Baltimore, Pimlico..

Date.

Time.

Oct. 19,
Aug. 16,
Nov. 1,
Aug. 22.
Aug. 17,
Nov. 2,
Oct. 31,
June 17,
Sept. 28,
July 11,
June 14,
Sept. 2,
Feb. 18,
Sept. 25,
Sept. 17,
Sept. 20,
Sept. 23,
Oct. 25,

1888.
1890.
1890.
1888.
1895.
1887.
1891.
1892.
1883.
1891.
1879.
1885.
1889.
1880.
1884.
1884.
1865.
1879.

'0.21H
0.36M
0.48-0
0.48

1.00
1.00 3-
1.101^

\i.iSH

!1.41H
1.43-1
1.513^

,1.56

'2.10
2.41%
3.33

15.27^
7.3034

-0.22 K
-0.3634

.48-0.4
-0.48
-0.483^
-1.00

5-1.01 1-5
-1.125^
-1.13M
-1.41

A4-IA7H
-lASVz
-1.54M
-2.14
-2.41
-3.3334
5.2934
7.31

The English Derby, Epsom Downs — {English Turf.)
(Distance, about VA miles, run since 1788.)

Year.

Owner and Winner.

Sire.

Time.

Second.

1904. . .
1905. . .
1906...
1907. . .
1908. . .
1909 ..

Leopold de Rothschild's St. Amant

Lord Rosebery's Cicero

Maj. Loeder's Spearmint

Richard Croker's Orby

E. Ginistrelli's Signorinetta

King Edward's ^linoru

St. Frusquin .

Satire

Carbine

Orme

Chaleureux. . .

Cyllene

Sunbridge. . . .
Cyllene

2.45 4-5
2.39 3-5
2.36 4-5
2.44

2.39 4-5
2.42 2-5

2.35 1-5

2.36 4-5
2.38 4-5

John O'Gaunt.

Jardy.

Picton.

Siieve Gallion.

Primer.

Louviers.

1910...
1911...
1912...

Mr. Fairie's Lemberg*

J. B. Joel's Sunstar •.

W. Raphael's Pagalie

Greenback.

Steadfast.

Jaegar.

On June 28, 1913, Whisk Broom 2(1, owned by Hany Payne
Wliitney, established a new turf record when he v/on the Subur-
ban handicap at a mile and a quarter in two minutes flat, caiTy-
ing the heavy im^wst of 139 pounds. He was ridden by I^otter.

It is a noteworthy fact that the record price for which any
horse has ever been sold was paid for a Thoroughbred. A French
racing man, Edmund Blanc, gave $200,000 for the ten-year-old
English Thoroughbred stallion, AMiite Knight. Previous record
prices were $196,875 for Flying Fox, $157,500 each for Cyllene
and Diamond Jubilee, and $156,250 for Ormonde. Kocksand
has recently been exported from this country at a price of
$150,000.

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 83

CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS

Breeds may be classified according to the type to which their
representatives conform, as:

Draft Breeds. — Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and
Suffolk.

Heavy Harness Breeds. — Hackney, Yorkshire Coach, Cleve^
land Bay, French Coach, Gennan Coach, and Russian Orloff.

Light Harness Breed. — American Standardbred.

Saddle Breeds. — Thoroughbred, American Saddle Horse and
Arabian.

Ponies. — ^Shetlancl, Welsh, and Hackney.

REVIEW

1. AVhat Is a breed? And of what impoi-tance are breeds?

2. What are the three factors that deteruiiue breed characteristics?

3. What are the essential thiii^s to consider in a stndy of the breeds?

4. What have been considered as the foundation stocks from which all

breeds have had their origin?

5. What additional light have the investigations of Ewart and Ridge-

Avay throAvn on this subject?
fi. What are the most important facts concerning the horses in Arabia?

7. To Avhat extent may color indicate Arab blood?

8. Review the important facts in the history of the Thoroughbredr^
0. Discuss the Thoroughbred in its relation to other breeds. \^

10. AVhat are the possibilities of the Thoroughbred at the present time?

CHAPTER VII
DRAFT BREEDS

The breeds of draft horses here considered are the Percheron,
the Belgian, the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk.

THE PERCHEROX

France affords an exani])le of the couiniuiiity svstem of
breeding. While the production of the different types of horses
is extensively practiced in the country at large, the breeders of
different districts are devoting themselves to the production of
one type more or less exclusively, witli the result that many a
horse breeding section is noted for a class of horses distinctive
of and bearing the name of that community. Thus, we have the
Percheron of LaPerche, the Boidonnaise from that part of the
country contiguous to Boulogne, the Nivernais of ^Uevre, the
Ardennaise of Ardennes, and others.

In America, by common consideration and studbook regis-
tration the Percheron is disting-uished from the other French
draft breeds collectively. In France, both the Percheron and
Boulonnaise are represented by studbook associations.

LaPerche is a district comprising about three thousand square
miles, situated in the northeni or inland part of Xonnandy. It
has a country-Avide rej^utation for its grass land and the horses
produced thereon.

Flemish blood predominated in Avhat may be regarded as the
native stock of France. On this cold blood base, repeated top
crosses of Oriental blood were made, the relative ]u'oportions of
hot and cold blood varying in the case of the different French
breeds.

The foundation of the Percheron was composed of the Xor-
man descendants of the original Flemish stock, mated with
Oriental stallions, these crosses being either incidental to cur-
rent events or made with a definite purpose in ^dew. They had
a most important significance in determining the type of horse
84

DRAFT BREEDS 85

which the Percheron was to be. When the Saracens invaded
France in 732 and were defeated bj Charles Martel, the Orien-
tal horses upon which they were mounted, mostly stallions, fell
into the hands of the Franks and were eventually, by this means,
distributed throughout the different parts of the country. The
successful Crusaders also brought back with them entire horses,
as the spoils of war, and here was a direct though unintentional
infusion of Oriental blood.

Later when the desirable effect of this Oriental top cross was
manifested, there were more or less systematic im]:)ortations of
Oriental sires, the most notable of which was Gallipoli, a gray
liorse, introduced from the Orient in 1820, whose impress on
the horses of the country, especially through his grandson Jean
Le Blanc, was most marked.

Good grass and selection are the other factors chiefly respon-
sible for the Percherons we have to-day. LaPerche is world-
famed as a grazing district.

Early Service. — The service in which the Percheron first
attained distinction was as a stage-coach horse, in the ante-rail-
road days, when all freight and express as well as passengers
were moved in this way (Figs. GQ and 67). It was a rapid
draft job, hauling loads at an eight mile clip for long and hard
stages. An ordinary road horse could not pull the load, while
an ordinary draft liorse could not stand the pace nor the dis-
tance. The breeders of LaPerche specialized in tlie production
of this type of horse, and their success marked the beginning of
Percheron popularity (Fig. GS).

The advent of railroads in the nineteenth century struck a
telling blow at the diligence or stage-coach horse. At tliis crisis
the Frencli breeders displayed a foresight that might well be
emulated by horse breeders of the present motor period. Instead
of howling calamity and defaming the locomotive, they had fore-
sight enough to perceive a new era of agricultural production
on the one hand and of commercial traffic on the other, which
had never before been possible, and which would require horses
in greater numbers than ever. But the nature of service in the
new field created essentially by the locomotive and railway train
would require horses of quite a different stamp than had pre-

TYPES AND BREEDS

DRAFT BREEDS

o £.

5-^

o <

88 TYPES AND BREEDS

viouslj been produced in LaPerche ; the loads to be moved would
be greater, the distance less, and time allowance more liberal.
The true draft horse was to supersede the old ^' diligence " type,
but even in their effoits to meet the demand for a horse of greater
weight and j^ower, the LaPerche breeders did not lose sight of
the desirable characteristics of hot blood derivation, and so far
as they were correlated with the increase in size and draftiness,
attributes of the cold parent stock, they were retaine<l. To this

Fig. 6S. — An old-fashioned Percheron. a rapid draft horse of a
type evolved in the diligence service.

may be attributed the most distinctive features of the present
Percheron.

Distinctive Features. — He may attain ton weight and yet
possess a refinement of head and neck, a general suppleness of
form, a texture of bone and hoof, a degree of quality and finish
throughout, together with an energetic, yet perfectly tractable,
temperament and disposition, not equalled in any of the other
draft breeds. Furthermore, the typical Percheron bears his
great weight with an airiness and boldness that is unusual.

DRAFT BREEDS

But to the same source may be charged some of his deficien-
cies. He is sometimes too fine, not sufficiently drafty in scale
or fonUj and too hot in disposition to qualify, acceptably, for the
heaviest draft work.

The features by which the Percherons (Fig. 69) may be
most readily distinguished from representatives of other draft
breeds, reckoned on the basis of averages, are size, fully up to
draft requirements but hardly equal to that of the Shire and

Fig. G'J.- A IVu n* i«,ii .stallion, showing Ihu breed character, the form,
and the color that are most typically Percheron.

Belgian ; fonn, that is somewhat more up-standing, more
rounded in contour, less square ended and blocky, at all events
not as squatty as in the Belgian, although he is not a leggy, light
quartered horse ; head of good proportions, sharply defined fea-
tures, prominent, full, bright eyes, rather neat ear, a fair length
of neck, well finished in crest and throttle ; bone of good texture
but in some cases too fine, as determined by popular standard ;
canons devoid of feather ; well-formed feet, of medium size and
of the very best texture of blue horn.

90 TYPES AND BREEDS

Color is gray or black most commonly, the former more typi-
cal and growing in favor, as expressed in the demand, although,
bays, browns, chestnuts, and even roans are encountered.

Way of going is not more accurate, but manifests a snap and
boldness not displayed by draft horses as a rule.

Respects in which some Percherons are not strong and to the
correction of which conscientious and intelligent breeders are
giving their attention are the set of the hind legs, the conforma-
tion of the liocks, and the slope of the pasterns.

Economic Importance. — Percherons outnumber in this coun-
try all other draft breeds combined, and their popularity seems
to be increasing proportionately. This is no doul)t due, in part,
to the good start given the breed by the pioneer breeders and
importers. From the time of their introduction into Union and
Pickaway counties, Ohio, in 1851, through their period of de-
veloj^ment in Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa, especially, tliey have been
given every opportunity to make good. But more important than
this, perhaps, has been their general adaptability to meet the con-
ditions of the average American farmer. Even tliough the de-
mand for the highest class of draft horses is from the cities, their
production must, of necessity, involve the farmer. It is useless
to attempt to interest the practical farmer in a proposition which
does not appeal to him in a practical sense. Prom the very first
the Percheron has made a strong bid for his favor. The adapt-
ability which characterizes the Percheron as a breed may also
be noticed in his use as a pure-bred sire. Prom a patronage of
the most miscellaneous sort of mares, a Percheron will average
a large percentage of marketable colts, varying, it is true, from
weight-cariTing saddle horses and hunters, and even harness
horses, to the draf tiest of draft horses, but each good in his class.
The fact that most native American mares have some degree, if
not a preponderance, of hot blood in their ancestry and may,
therefore, be expected to nick better Avith Percheron stallions,
may accoimt for the manifest excellence of the latter in this
respect.

THE BELGIAN

Belgium is a part of the original territory to which the old
Flanders horse was indigenous, and as the history of the breed

DRAFT BREEDS 91

records no other stock, we conclude that this breed is, directly
and exclusively, descended from the old Flemish stock. There
are two respects, however, in which the Flemish ancestry is not
indicated, namely, the absence of much hair and the infrequency
of the black color. Selection may account for these modifications,
however.

Belgium is essentially an agricultural country, flat and low-
lying for the most part, and horse breeding in a limited way is
followed by most farmers. Each one has a colt or two to turn off
each year. The Belgian Draft Horse Society has done nuich in
the way of conducting shows, offering prizes, and providing
subsidies to promote the interests of the breed.

Three Original Types. — There were originally, according
to Herr Van Schelle, who had charge of the Belgian Government
horse exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, three types of draft
horses in Belgium : The Flemish, the largest, produced nearest
the coast; the Braba^on, an intermediate type, bred farther in-
land ; and the Ardennaise, a small, rapid draft horse similar and
akin to the French horse of that name, bred in the border dis-
tricts. There has been more or less amalgamation of these three
originally distinct types in the evolution of the present-day
Belgian cart horses.

The American Type of Belgian. — Tt is claimed that the type
has been considerably modified in accordance with the demand
of American buyers. The old fashioned, more massive, but much
less refined stamp still receives most favor in Belgium. The
accepted type of Belgian horse in America is perhaps the most
unifonnly drafty of any of the breeds, short legs, a compact body
(Fig. TO), wide, muscular ends, and deep, wide, spreading ribs
being the rule. The head is square and medium sized, the neck
short and heavy crested. Eoans and chestnuts predominate,
though bays, browns, and occasionally grays and blacks appear.
Hoofs deficient in circumference, bone that is not sufficiently
flat, and necks that are too short and heavy, with a general
absence of refinement, are features in which average representa-
tives of this breed are still subject to improvement. They show
an interesting confonnation of the hamstring, the muscles being
apparently inserted directly upon the point of the hock, mthout
the usual tendinous continuation. The extreme wddth of the

TYPES AND BREEDS

Belgian may cause liiiii to roll or paddle somewhat at the walk,
but it is surprising how well many of them trot.

The Belgians have made Avonderful progress in this country^
considering that they have been attracting much attention here
only since about 1900. The improvement noted in this time has
been equally remarkable. The Belgian sire has the effect of most
consistently improving the draft fomi of his get, especially those

Fig. 70. — A Belgian stallion of most acceptable stamp, embodying the desirable features of
draftiness and good middle, and subject to little criticism of head and neck or legs and feet.

from leggy, light-waisted mares, and mares of this stamp are most
likely to have the degree of quality requisite to offset the defi-
ciency, in this respect, sometimes showTi by the pure-bred Bel-
gian. Belgian grades are especially popular among feeders, it
being characteristic of the breed to be good doers. They also ship
unusually well. Belgians have probably shown, in this country,
greater percentage increase in numbers and in merit than any
other draft breed.

DRAFT BREEDS 93

THE BRITISH BREEDS

Horse history in Great Britain dates back to 55 B.C., the date
of the Koman Conquest. Caesar's description of the chariot
manoeu\Tes, by which his advance was opposed, would indicate
the existence at that time of a horse, diminutive in stature, but
drafty in buiki, whose feats of handiness were remarkable.
British coins, issued in the first century, confirm this opinion
by the powerful type of horse struck on the metal.

During the seventh century horses came intO' use for riding.
The chief demand was for the mounting of infantry forces, as a
means of transportation only, the idea of cavalry or any form of
fighting from horseback being suggested later by the Konnans.
As the soldier's chain armor at this period was heayj and the
marches Avere hard, a large, stout horse was required.

Later (1300) when plate armor began to replace chain, and
the horses tliemselves were protected, the effectiveness of weapons
liaving been increased, the weight imposed upon them became
still greater and size more essential. Horse breeding was
given most careful consideration by the Throne. The use of
small stallions was discouraged and even prohibited by royal
edict. The condition existed until modified methods of con-
ducting warfare, incidental to the invention of gunpowder
(1650), led to the discarding cf armoir and consequently of
war horses of this type.

Advent of Draft Horses. — Up to the eighteenth century
draft work had been done principally by oxen or by inferior
horses, not fit for service- in war. After the beginning of that
century, with its relegation of the war horse from the battlefield
to IxBcome a humble beast of burden, the real era of the draft
horse began. In the latter part of the eighteenth century two
distinct types of cart horses are mentioned by Young, the Large
Black Old English horse and the Suffolk Punch.

Thus the British draft breeds have had a long period of
development, the primary motive of which was war, not work.
During, or even before, the first century, horses possessed some
of the same characters which are now dominant in these breeds.

94 TYPES AND BREEDS

THE CLYDESDALE

This breed takes its name from the Clyde River in Scotland,
in the valley of which, especially tlie counties of Ayr and Lanark,
it has been developed. The Clydesdale district is characterized
by a rather broken surface and a stiff clay soil. The earliest
history of horses in Britain describes a horse akin to the Scandi-
navian ponies, the size of Avhich Avas systematically increased,
by royal edict, after the importance of greater size in war horses
Avas impressed u])on the Britons by the Boman conquest. While
the original British stock Avas more or less composite, there is no
evidence to contradict that the blood of the British draft breeds
was derived, essentially, from the Flanders source.

The imj^ortation of Flemish stallions into both Scotland and
England in numbers as great as one hundred at a time, as in the
case of King John, is a. matter of record. Furthermore, the
interchange of horses across the border is acknowledged, even
up to comparatively recent times, so that the distingiiishing dif-
ferences between the three British draft breeds must be ac-
counted for in other ways than by their origin in blood, Avliich
it must be gTanted had much in common. The conditions of life
surrounding these breeds during their formative period, and
especially the variance in the notion of Avhat constitutes a draft
horse, as expressed by the Scotchman and the Englishman, are
ample to account for Avhatever differences in type there may be.

The Scotchman's standard attaches especial importance to
tlic locomotory apparatus, legs, pasterns, and feet, and the way
a horse moves. A free, springy stride executed Avith a AA^onder-
ful degTce of trueness and as much flash as is consistent vdth.
poAver haA^e receiA^ed primaiy consideration. As a consequence
of the inevitable law of coiTelation, there has come to be asso-
ciated Avitli this character of stride more length of leg and back,
less Avidth and massiveness, and a somcAvhat shorter rib than
is characteristic of the extreme draft ty]3e.

Characteristics of Clydesdales. — ^Miile Clydesdale and
Shire grades, and CA^en pure breds, Avhich depart somewhat from
the true type, may have much in common, there is no difficulty

DRAFT BREEDS

In clistingiiisliing typical rei^resentatives of the two breeds. In
contrast with representatives of most other breeds, the Clydes-
dale is recognized as a horse standing over more ground, with a
toppy carriage, lacking somewhat in w^idth and compactness, but
well set np on legs, the direction of whicli, viewed from either the
side or the end, is most accurate (Fig. 71). The quality of the

Fig. 71. — A Clydesdale .stallion of most impressive character, showing the form, .set-
ting of hind legs, slope of pasterns, quality of bone, feather, and distribution of white most
desirable in this breed.

lx>ne is ideal ; the conformation of the hocks the most perfect of
any of the draft breeds ; the slope of the pasterns offers tlie great-
est relief to concussion, and at the same time affords an angle of
greatest degree through w^hich to lift. In size and form the feet
reflect the gi*eat care that has been exerted in selection, although
the texture of horn, especially in white points, is not as dense and
tough as in the case of the Percheron. The amount of feather has
been materially reduced in compliance with American demand,

96 TYPES AND BREEDS

its quality being of the finest. The Scotchman still holds to the
presence of feather, even stimulating its growth by artificial
means in some instances. The superiority of the Clydesdale in
action is a point quite generally conceded. The direction and
conformation of his legs are such as to insure the straightest,
springiest stride of which a draft horse is capable.

Color. — Gray Clydesdales have been common at times in the
history of the breed, but are now discriminated against in favor
of bays and bro^^^lS, witli occasional blacks, chestnuts, and roans.
White markings are characteristic, to the extent of splashes of
white on tlie body or an even distribution of white hair through-
out the coat, in addition to white in the face and on all four legs.

Judged by the standards of other breeds, the Clydesdale has
been criticised as deficient in scale and draftiness, and as be-
ing plain in the head, low in the Imck, short in the rib, with a
shelly foot, and too nmch white, with no regularity of distribu-
tion.

Although introduced at a comparatively early date, the
Clydesdale has not received the consideration in this country
Avhich he seems to merit

THE SHIRE

It has already been pointed out, in reviewing the history of
the Clydesdale, that from essentially the same original material
the Scotchman has evolved the Clydesdale and the Englishman
the Shire, in accordance with their own divergent conceptions of
what a draft horse should be, and that, while they have much in
common, the characters which distinguish them are extremely
unlike. To be sure, the low-lying fenn country of Cambridge
and Lincolnshire is more conducive to massive growth than is
Scotland, it being also the home of the largest breed of sheep.
Here the Shire and his antecedent, the black Lincolnshire cart
horse, have been chiefly bred, but this environment has only sec-
onded the English breeder in the attainment of his ideal.

Characteristics. — The typical Shire will weigh more on the
average than any other draft horse, although he is scarcely as
blocky in form as the Belgian (Fig. 72). He possesses the most
substance, such as it is, but there is an absence of quality, marked

DRAFT BREEDS

in size and contour of head, texture of hair, bone, and hoof —
the hair showing an inclination to be coarse and kinky, espe-
cially in the feather, the bone to be round and meaty, and the
hoof to be of a loose, spong;)", or shelly texture. His tempera-
ment is extremely lymphatic, rendering him slower than is
desired by many. On the basis of the scales and tape line stand-

Fio.

'2. — A Shire stallion of most approved type, combining an unusual degree of quality
and character with the size, substance, and draftiness typical of this breed.

ard, the Shire measures up well, but analyzed in minute detail
he is subject to some criticism, especially in so far as liis materials
of construction are concerned.

Color. — The range of color in the Shire is greater than in

any other draft breed. Originally of sooty black, with white

points, he. may now be found of any color, from black through

the different shades of bay, brown, and chestnut to roan and

98 TYPES AND BREEDS

gray. A considerable amount of white, frequently too much, on
face and legs is common.

The popularity of the Shire in this country has been re-
stricted rather than general. There are some parts where he is
bred almost exclusively, others in which he is almost unknown.
His grossness, abundant feather, and sluggish moyements pre-
vent him from making a strong bid for general favor in compe-
tition with the other breeds.

Crosses. — A percentage of Shire blood, especially in the
dams from which market geldings are produced, is acknowl-
edged to be a valuable asset Attention has been called to the
fact that much credit which belongs to the Shire has been as-
signed to other breeds through just this sort of mating, the sires
usually being most conspicuous and the dams obscure. Size and
substance can be derived with greater certainty from Shire blood
than from any other line of breeding.

SUFFOLK

The Suffolks are characterized as being of the purest lineage,
most uniform color, and are bred more exclusively for farm work
than any of the draft breeds.

Their origin is untraced, but horses of this stamp are known
to have been bred in Suffolk for over two centuries. So care-
fully has their lineage been guarded that practically all of the
pure-bred representatives of the breed trace back to a common
ancestor, The Crisp Horse of Ufford, foaled in 1768. They are
produced almost exclusively in Suffolk and adjoining Essex, in
eastern England, by farmers and for farming purposes.

Their especial adaptability for farm service is found in their
good dispositions, which render them so easy of control as to make
it possible to work them in tandem hitches without lines ; their
easy keeping quality, working long hours between feeds; and
their persistence at the collar, pulling true under all circum-
stances.

Their distinguishing characteristics are tlie invariable chest-
nut color of varying shades (Fig. 73) , mth little if any white, but
often with flaxen manes and tails; their smooth, rotund form;

DRAFT BREEDS

and a clean boned leg, devoid of feather. The old-fashioned ex-
aggerated punch form is no longer common.

Suffolks have been alleged to be under draft weight, too light
in bone, unbalanced in the proportion of body to legs, and with
a foot inclining to be flat and shelly. These points have all been
materially strengthened in the most approved type of the present-
day Suffolk.

Fig.

73. — A Suffolk stallion of the punch form, the clean bone and the chestnut color char-
acteristic of this breed.

Distribution. — Suffolks have never been imported or bred
in any considerable numbers in this country, although in some
sections there is an unaccountable prejudice in their favor, espe-
cially among farmers, and in many instances they have been
enthusiastically received when shown. It is claimed they are
not available in large numbers, the area devoted to their produc-
tion being limited and there being an active demand for them

100 TYPES AND BREEDS

at home and in South America, Africa, Eussia, Xew Zealand,
Australia, and Canada.

Crosses. — So far as their grades have heen seen, thej have
been of a rich chestnut color, making it easy to match up a team,
smooth turned, well formed of body, of good size, and set upon
feet and legs not subject to serious criticism. The prepotency
of the Suffolk sire on grade mares is well marked in other re-
spects than color. Grade Suffolk mares are said to make most
■acceptable dams from which to breed mules on account of their
smooth form.

REVIEW

1. Name the draft breeds and the eoiintiy to which each is native.

2. How are the most distinctive charactei-s of the Pereheron accounted

for?

3. To what is the g-eneral popularity of the Pereheron in this country

due?

4. What characteristics of the Belgian are responsible for the increas-

ing favor sho^^^l them in this countiy?

5. What improvement has been marked in this breed since its intro-

duction into America ?

6. Review the early hoi^se history of Great Britain.

7. Compare a- typical Clydesdale and a typical Shire and give reasons

for the differences noted.
S. Describe a representative Clydesdale stallion.

9. Of what value is Shire blood in the production of gn'ade geldings?
10. To what kind of work is the Suffolk, as a breed, claimed to be best
adapted and why?

CHAPTER VIII

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS

Six breeds are here included. They are discussed in the
following order: The Hackney, the French Coach, the Genuan
Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the Yorkshire Coach, and the Rus-
sian Orloff. The American Carnage Horse, now being bred by
the U. S. Government, is of this type.

THE HACKNEY --^-v^t

Curiously enough, tliis horse, which is preeminently a show-
harness horse today and more generally criticised as deficient in
stamina than in any other one respect, was originally a road horse
of most unusual endurance, used chiefly under saddle and carry-
ing great Aveight. The very name '' Hack '^ to which Hackney
was contracted is suggestive of tliis type of horse. The term
Hackney is adapted from the French Haquenee, originally de-
rived from the Latin Equus.

Early Hackney history was set in Norfolk and adjacent
counties where there existed a remarkable family of distance
trotters as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century.
This was in the primitive days of roads and vehicles, so that
these l^orfolk trQtters*v as they were called, were used chiefly
under saddle. Well-authenticated records of seventeen miles
an hour over ordinary roads exist. The fact that this was the
first line of trotters is most significant. England had already
developed the nmning race horse, and there had existed at one
time ambling riding horses,, but this was the first horse in the
world to trot fast. This fact is emphasized, as it has a bearing
on the later evolution of our own Standardbred trotter. This
trotting instinct in the prototype of the modern Hackney has
been accounted for in various ways. Since these horses were
originally stoutly made, blocky, and heavy-fronted and have
remained so until comparatively recently, it is reasonable to
suppose that they carried, in addition to the Thoroughbred blood
which predominated at that time, some degi'ee of cold blood.

101

102 TYPES AND BREEDS

Duteh stock has been suggested as a possible source of this.
There were big black trotters in Friesland, but they showed no
such speed at tliis gait as did the Xorfolk Cob. Perhaps the
speed, courage, and stamina of the Thoroughbred, coupled with
the natural inclination to trot of the colder blooded Friesland
" hart-draver," resulted in the square-gaited, fast, enduring, and
rather high going Norfolk trotter.

The real beginning of the Hackney breed is fixed at the
original Shales horse, foaled 1760, bv Blaze, Thoroughbred race
horse, three generations removed from the Darley Arabian, out
of a stout, common, probably hunting mare of Norfolk.

Families conspicuous in the history of the t>reed have been
the Fireaways, the Denmarks, the Danegelts and the Purick-
willows. Leading sires at the present time are Polonius,
Mathias, Royal Danegelt, and His Majesty.

With the improvement in roads and vehicles. Hackneys were
used more in harness, and their naturally high, trappy step was
cultivated. They have eventually become the harness horse par
excellence in America as in England.

Description. — Typical Hackneys are comparatively short
legged horses, rarely standing over 15—3, although they weigh
well for their stature. They are of true harness form most uni-
formly of any of the breeds (Fig. 74). Their heads are square
in outline, deep in the jowl ; necks well crested, but frequently
too strong, lacking finish at the throttle, and giving a heavy
forehand.

Xatural action, esj^ecially in hocks, is perhaps their most
distinguishing feature ; but it must not be a labored action that
hits the ground hard.

Color, — Chestnut color, with flashy white markings all
'round, has been most common, although bays, bro\vns, roans, and
blacks are all acceptable. Originally, hard, solid colors pre-
dominated in the breed.

Popularity. — The Hackney's premier position in the show
ring in this country is only occasionally contested by represen-
tatives of any other breed, and they contribute largely to the
ranks of the park harness horse. The Hackney stallion is strong

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS

103

in the impress of liis shape and action, and nicks most satisfac-
torily with either Standardbred or Thoroughbred mares in the
production of a high class of harness or saddle horses.

Registration. — The American Hackney Horse Society main-
tains, in addition to the full registration in its studbook, a half
registry, to which the filly foals of registered Hackney stallions,
out of mares of Standardbred or Thoroughbred breeding that

Fig. 74. — A Hackney stallion, showing in high degree the distinctly harness form, the
finish, the bold carriage, and the flash markings which have, together with their natural
action, enabled them to win premier rank in the show ring.

liave been approved by an authorized representative of the So
ciety, are eligible. The filly foals of half-registered Hackney
mares are eligible to full registration.

FRENCH COACH

Origin. — Since the seventeenth century, when the Govern-
ment studs or " haras " were established, the French have been
systematically breeding horses for army service. Their method

104

TYPES AND BREEDS

up to 1840 was to mate Thoroughbred stallions with the native
French mares of Xonnandy, where much of this breeding was
done. These mares being of Flemish descent, the mating con-
stituted practically a hot top cross on a cold base. Horses so
bred were called, most appropriately, demi sang (half blood).
Since 1840 the half-breds have been inter-bred, although Thor-
oughbred blood is still close up to many of the French coachers
that have come to this country.

Fig. 75. — A French coach stallion of the more refined sort.

One of the imported stallions, Young Ivattlcr, brought to
France in 1820, gave rise to the side line of coach horses, whose
production was originally incidental to the breeding of cavalry
mounts. The get of Young Rattler for succeeding generations
were notable for their heavy harness fonn, style, and action.
Some of the demi sang horses show considerable speed. Trot-
ting races, on the turf under saddle for distances from two to
three miles, are common events.

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS

105

There are really three types of demi sang: The cavalry horse,
the trotter, and the so-called coacher. The latter have been most
extensively imj^orted to this country, although there have been
some record trotters among- them.

The correct type of French Coach horse as we know him in
this country (Fig. 75) is a gooil-sized, rather uji-standing indi-
vidual, close and full made, but quite bloodlike in head and
neck, Avithers, feet and legs. The big, drafty coacher is not

Fig. 76. — A French Coacli sire whioh, mated to trotting bred marcs, has produced high
class harness horses with remarkable regularity.

ty])ical of this breed. As a class, they do not flex tlieir hocks
so sliarply as do the Hackneys, and are not always faultless in
knee action.

Color. — Bays, browns and chestnuts, with occasional blacks
and roans, are the us'lial colors, with one or two but rarely more
white points.

The French Coach as a Breeder. — Some almost perfect in-
dividuals are found in this breed, yet they have never proven a
great success in the stud in this country. There are two possible
reasons for this: Having had a cross-bred origin not so many

106\ TYPES AND BREEDS

generations back, the type is not always fixed, as is exemplified
among the breed representatives themselves, hence they may
not breed trne; they have been largely mismated, being stood
along with draft stallions and getting only those common bred
mares that w^ere considered too small to raise a draft colt. Bred
to trotting-bred mares, results have proven very satisfactory in
many instances, in the production of good-sized, well-shaped,
and high-going harness horses (Fig. T6).

GERMAN COACH

Origin. — The different States of Germany have* been pra
ducing big, stout horses for mounting the German cavalry for
so long a time that their origin is obscure. Some Thoroughbred
crosses have been made, no doubt, more especially in certain
States, but as a rule the German horse shows very little of the
refining influence of this blood. It is probable that some Oriental
crosses have also been made, but cold blood dominates in their
veins.

They have been bred more or less under government super-
vision, although the system is not so complete as in France.
Each State has been, to a certain extent, a law unto itself, and
has developed a type somewhat distinctive. Size and substance
requisite to 'carry the heavy weight of the fully equipped Ger-
man trooper have been sought more regularly than the pace and
action of the harness horse.

The type of German coacher which has been brought for-
ward in this country is derived chiefly from Oldenburg and East
Friesland. It is the largest of any of the heavy harness breeds
(Fig. 77), weighing 1500 pounds in some instances, with an ideal
haniess form, if not too drafty, as may be the case, but quite gen-
erally deficient in quality, finish, style, pace, and action — in
short, too cold. The more refined individuals present a most
imposing stamp of coach horse, and some go very well.

Color. — Hard, solid colors are so prevalent that importers
will sell a stallion under a guarantee to get a high percentage of
colts that wdll be bay, brown or black, with very little if any
white.

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS

107

Influence when Mated. — The finer sort of German horses,
mated with mares of trotting or Thoronghbrecl breeding, possess-
ing the quality and snap which the sire lacks, have produced
with a fair degree of uniformity high class harness horses of the

Fig. 77.— a German Coach stallion, showing the size, shape, and color typical of this breed.

brougham type. Their long line of pure breeding has made the
German Coach horse more prepotent than his French contem-
porary. Mated with drafty mares, the result is not satisfactory.
The coach horse is strongly of cold blood extraction, and coupled
with a mare of like inheritance the produce is neither one tiling

108 TYPES AND BREEDS

nor the other. A good rule is never to mate a coach stallion with
mares larger than he is.

CLEVELAND BAY

The Cle^-eland Bay was an old-fashioned stagecoach horse,
occupying mnch the same position in England as the diligence
Percheron did in France, although never so popular nor so ex-
tensively bred. Like the latter, too, he was largely put out of
business by the locomotive. Unlike the Percheron, however, the
line of breeding of the Cleveland Bay, following the advent of
the railroad, resulted in such a dissipation of the blood as to
practically exterminate the breed. The original Cleveland Bay'
could not qualify as a harness or saddle horse, so the mares were
bred to Thoroughbred sires. In turn the best half-breds were
inter-bred, or remated with the Thoroughbred, and produced
either good hunters or carriage horses.

YORKSHIRE COACH

The Yorkshire Coach horse is the result of sucli breeding.
The Cleveland Bay takes its name from the Vale of Cleveland
in Yorkshire, the coach horse from the county itself.

THE ORLOFF

The Russian Orloff is not of much economic importance in'
America, but is of interest in that it is the only other light har-
ness breed beside our own, and from tlio fact tliat there is a
decided interest in American trotters in Kussia. The breed was
developed solely by Count Alexis Orloff Tschismensky, from
whom it takes its name.

The Orloff foundation was laid in a quarter-bred Arab stal-
lion called Bars I, whose dam was a Dutch mare (another in-
stance of the trotting instinct tracing to the black trotter of
Friesland). The sire's dam was a Danish mare. The grandsire
was the gray Arab Smetanxa. This breeding was begun early
in the last quarter of the eighteenth century.

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS

109

Fig. 78. — The lead pair in this road four are pure-bred Orloffs.

Fig. 79. — Cannon, at the head of the government stud of American carnage horses.

110

TYPES AND BREEDS

AYliat few Orloffs have come to this coimtrr have been con-
sidered as heavy harness horses, and the breed is therefore classed
in this division, leaving the Standardbred supreme in the light
harness division (Fig. 78).

AMERICAX CAEEIAGE HORSE

The United States Government has taken advantage of the
fact that it is not unusual to find a trotting-bred horse conform-
ing to heavy harness specifications and that certain blood lines
are most unifonnly productive of this type (Fig. 79), to as-

i-iu. mj. — rairoi t ruiuiig-ui l-u lit- a \ \ luii af.->> iiui ?t-> io Cit-oi gt^ IV phaeton. Undefeated
in their day, either single, aa a pair, or tandem, by representatives of any other hea>'y harness
breed.

semble such representatives as are available, for tlie foundation
of an American Carriage Horse breed. It will apparently yet
require many generations of selective breeding before these
horses can fulfil the requirements of a breed.

Trotting-bred heavy harness horses are better qualified to
meet " pace and action " requirements than they are those of the
high stepping classes (Fig. 80), Their action is frequently unbal-
anced, being deficient in hocks, but they can step away.

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 111

REVIEW

1. Describe the Norfolk trotter and show his relation to the Hackney

and the Standardbred.

2. What breed characteristics have enabled the Hackney to win suprem-

acy in the show ring?

3. Name a noted Hackney sire.

4. Explain fully the meaning of the tenii " demi sang."

5. Aecomit for the lack of uniformity in the representatives of the

French Coach breed imported to this country, also among their
get.

6. What are the most commendable features of the German Coach

hoi-se?

7. To what sort of mares should coach stallions be mated ?

8. What was the original pai'entage of the Yorkshire Coach horse?

9. Describe the origin of the Orloff.

10. What is the so-called American Carriage Horse ?

CHAPTER IX
AMERICAN BREEDS

Native American Horses. — Conditions in this country have
proven most congenial for the production of horses, yet there
were none inhabiting this continent when it was discovered by
Columbus. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact
that fossil remains of a prehistoric horse have been found in
abundance in different parts of this country. It is believed that
the horses originally on this continent passed over what is now
Behring Straits, into Asia, during the early ages.

The restocking of America Avas coincident with its explora-
tion and colonization. Columbus landed horses on his second
ex^^edition, but it is not knoAAii whether or not they ever reached
the mainland. The horses brought by Cortcz, in his conquest
of Mexico, in 1519, are credited with being the first to gain
American soil. In 1527, Cabeza de Vaca brought horses to St.
Augustine, Florida, which were aftenvard liberated. De Soto's
expedition was equipped with horses when he discovered the
Mississippi in 1541, although the majority of them were killed
for their flesh after De Soto's death. These Spanish horses were
derivatives from a Barb foundation with which Spain was orig-
inally stocked.

Horses, presumably of the old Xorman and Breton stock,
were taken by the French into l^ova Scotia in 1004, and four
years later were introduced into Canada. One stallion and six
mares. Thoroughbred, reached Virginia witli the English in
1607. In 1625 Dutch horses, possibly the black trotter of Fries-
land, arrived at I^ew E'etherlands. In 1629 the first horses to
inhabit Xew England came with the English to Boston. This
was the composite origin of the American horse stock, out of
which our breeds have been evolved.

As early as 1678 the descendants of horses that had escaped
from, or were liberated by the early Spanish expeditions, were
ranging wild in gi-eat bands over the prairies of this continent.

The American breeds of horses are the Standardbred, includ-
112

AMERICAN BREEDS

113

ing the Morgan, and the Saddle horse. The first pure breed to
gain a foothold here was the Thoroughbred, and naturally the
Thoroughbred has been the chief contributor in the foundation
of the American breeds.

STANDARDBRED

This breed is so named because the members are bred to a
standard of speed performance, that is, one mile in 2.o0 or better

Fig. si. — A Standardbred stall

ion, a leading sire of the breed.

trotting, 2.25 or better pacing. In fact, the question has been
raised whetlier or not the Standardbred fulfils the requirements
which constitute a breed, as long as individuals may become
standard by performance, though not by breeding. It is prob-
able that in the very near future the rule admitting horses to
registry by standard performance alone Avill be rescinded.

114 TYPES AND BREEDS

Origin. — Orange County, N^ew York, was the original seat
of this breed; then Kentucky, and eventually the States in
general, California in particular. The chief interest in trotters
centered about ^ew York City, where the improvement in the
construction of roads gave a great stimulus to road driving.-
Their foundation blood lines were laid in Orange County.

The two most notable foundation sires in America were im-
ported Messenger and Justin Morgan.

Messenger was a gray Thoroughbred, six generations re-
moved from the Darley Arabian, imported from England, as an
eight-year-old in 1788. He stood most of his life about Xew
York and Philadelphia, where he left numerous progeny. Al-
though himself a running race horse, brought to this country for
the improvement of runners, he soon became noted as a sire of
trotters, and upon his trotting sons and grandsons, daughters
and granddaughters^ the Standardbred is based. It has been
suggested that the fact that the horse stock about New York
was descended from the horses brought over by the Dutch, and
that a family of trotters were native to Friesland, would account
for so many of the get of Messenger being trotters. The infer-
ence is that Messenger imparted the speed and stamina, while his
get derived their instinct to trot from their Dutch-bred dams.
The most notable of Messenger's sons was Mambrino, the sire of
Mambrino Paymaster and Abdallah. Mambrino Paymaster in
turn sired Mambrino Chief, from whom the Mambrino family
of trotters and the Chief family of Saddle horses of Kentucky
are descended. Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the most
conspicuous sire of the Standardbred.

Hambletonian lo, or Eysdyk's Hambletonian, is regarded
as the progenitor of tlie Standardbred, so far as one individ-
ual can claim that distinction (Fig. 82). He was foaled
tho property of Jonas Seeley near Chester, Orange County,
'New York, in 1849, but soon passed into the hands of the man
he made famous, Wm. M. Rysdyk. iJ^otwithstanding the fact
that his stud fees later amounted to $184,725.00, Rysdyk dick-
ered a long time before the purchase price of $125.00 for the
mare and foal was agreed upon. Tliis would indicate that neither
party to the transaction had any conception of the ultimate value

AMERICAN BREEDS

115

and importance of this colt. Attention was first directed, to
Hambletonian by his gelded son Dexter, who in 1864, 1865,
1866, and 1867 defeated the best horses of the day, George
Wilkes, George M. Patchen, Goldsmith Maid, Lady Thome,
Flora Temple, and others. The year that Dexter began his
sensational performances Hambletonian bred 217 mares and
got 148 colts ; subsequently he was so extensively patronized tliat

^je<y^^s^*K3:..^i9^^^

Fig. 82. — Hambletonian lU, at 23 years of age.

he commanded a service fee of $500.00. It need not necessarily
detract from his name and fame to state that no horse ever had
such an opportunity in the stud. It was thus that he became the
founder of the breed, being the sire of 1321 colts. He died in
1876, and a monument was erected to his memory (Fig. 83).

Hambletonian's best son was George Wilkes, a small but
powerfully made bro^vn horse, foaled 1856, out of Dolly Spanker,
a good road mare of untraced ancestry. George Wilkes was both
a race horse and a sire; after a moic remarkable racing career

116

TYPES AND BREEDS

he was retired to the stud, first in Xew York, later in Kentucky.
His prepotency was marvelous and is still breeding on. To
designate a horse as of Wilkes' breeding means little in view of
the numerous ramifications of this family.

George Wilkes' best sons were Brown Wilkes, Alcantara,
Alcyone, Bourbon Wilkes, Baron Wilkes, Jaybird, Kentucky
Wilkes, Onward, Patelien Wilkes, Bed Wilkes, Simmons, Wilkes
Boy, and Gambetta Wilkes.

Fig. 83. — Monunieut over iimve of Hainbletonian 10 at Chester, N. Y., located on a lot
in outskirts of town with a house on either side.

Other sons of Ilambletonian were Alexander's Abdallah,
Messenger Duroc, Belmont, Electioneer, Almont, Volunteer,
Aberdeen, Happy ]\[edium (sire of Xancy Hanks), Harold (sire
of Maud S.), Dictator, and Strathmore.

The dam of Ilambletonian 10 was the Charles Kent mare of
ordinary road ability, sired by Bellfounder, called at that time a
Norfolk trotter, but in the light of present knowledge a Hackney.

AMERICAN BREEDS 117

The Blood Line. — The following arrangement of blood lines
is interesting, in view, first, of tlie prevalence of the trotting
instinct in both, and second, of the successful manner in v\^hich
Standardbreds and Hackneys nick.

Darley Arabian

Flying Childers

Blaze.

/iyvU^

Shales Sampson

Driver Engineer

I . t

Jenkinson's Fireaway Mambrino

I I

Wroots' Pretender Messenger (Imported)

I I

Stevens' Bellfounder Mambrino

Jary's Bellfounder (Imported)^_^-^Abdailah — Mambrino Paymaster
Chas. Kent mare.-"""''^

r Mambrino Chief— |

Mambrino family of Chief family of
trotters saddle horses.

Hambletonian 10

Other families that have been interwoven into the fabric, as
it were, of the Standardbred are :

The Clays, descended from Henry Clay, wdiose ancestry is
shown below.

Imported Grand Bashaw (Barb from Tripoli 1820)
Young Bashaw

Andrew Jackson

Henry Clay

The Mambrinos descended from Mambrino Chief, who sired
Mambrino Patchen, and he in turn sired Mambrino King.

The Pilots descended from Pilot, Jr., the son of a Canadian
pacer, so-called, and noted as a brood mare sire. His best
daughter was Miss Russell, the dam of Maud S., Nutwood, Lord
Russell, and many others.

The Hals, the most distinguished and exclusively pacing
family, descended from KittreFs Tom Hal, a roan, stallion
brought from Canada. His get, in Tennessee, founded this

118

TYPES AND BREEDS

Fig. 84. — Green Mountain Maid in 1873.

Fig. 85. — Inscription on monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford.

AMERICAN BREEDS

119

pacing family through Tom Hal, Jr., or Gibson's Tom Hal, the
sire of Brown Hal, who begot Star Pointer and a numerous
progeny of Hals, all very fast pacers. In Kentucky the Hals
are identified with the foundation of the Saddle breed.

The greatest brood mare in the foundation of the Standard-
bred was Green Mountain Maid (Figs. 84 and 85), daughter of
Harry Clay, and dam of Electioneer, one of the most con-
spicuous sires of the breed. The greatest pacing dam was
Sweepstakes.

Fig. 86.

-An "ideal representative" of the Standardbred. In addition to 2.10 speed, he
possesses beauty of form, finish, style, and intelligence.

Demand for Standardbred Horses. — The popularity of har-
ness racing and road driving has enabled this breed to make
remarkable j^rogress in a half century. They are now the recog-
nized exponents of the light harness type, and are exported in
large numbers, especially to Russia and Austria. In fact, the
rate at which some of the best stallions and mares are being taken
abroad indicates a lack of the true constructive breeder's spirit,
and forebodes ill for the future of the breed. Unfortunately,

IIM

IN ri'lS AND lUJI'll'ihS

s|)('(mI |h'I roniiMiice mIoiic luis lu*(M» lli(^ stnndjifd ol sclcci imi, mimI
while Mllniiimciils in lliis line Iimv(> Immmi j^tcmI, llicrc is :i woeful
l;ick el" uiiiroiMiiil V niiioiii;' Irollrrs. 'TIicv ('oiiie ill nil s1iii|M'S,
sizes, :iii(l eitldi's. Aliioiii;- llie repi-eseiil al i\'es of llie lu'eetl \\\'{\
iimnv ideiil iiuli\ i«lu:ils willi a wide I'liiii^v »d' :idM|>laltilil_v ( b'i^\
S('») |() almost aii\ kind of ser\iee, l)ul l<><i iiiaiiv are ollierwise.

I u.. .s/. A li. hau.l. rJ(Hi p.-uiHl .slaiuiaia i- , i,., m.i , u !,...,• ,'i .h.- iIm- ,■,
liDi.srs oit tlu' iimjoiily ul liirms wiiliiu ii wulc liuluii ol Ins Imint'

The shew riiii;' has serx'ed a eoimiieiidahle |>iir|tese wherein
the race I rack has faileil in lliis eonneelion, and it is i;ral i t'vini^
to s(>e a nniforni slandai'd of exeellenei" ii'radnallv Immiii;- evolved.

The versatility of the Standardbred is demonsl raled hv ihe
fnef that llu> ehainition lieavv harness horse of ihis eounlrv,
Nala, ami the champion saddle niar(> (d' a few v(>ars hack. Miss
Anne, were holh «d' this hreediiio', wliil(> in iiiaiiv parts of the
Masl, hii«', stout, i^-ood headed trotters are doino- the farm work
(Fig. STV Many Imntei-s are all m- part Stamlardhre<l, and this

AMKJUCJAN HKKKDH J2I

blood HcctuH Uy fn; tiu>H\, i'uvorcd for i\\<: f)n>'liif'J Io»i of aririy n;-
HioiiiitH \)y i\i(>H() wlio i\rc w(rll infonncd. 'Dicrc }in; ^r(!}it [H)HHi-
((ilitir'H in tlif \)V('j'<] wfiicJi liavf; \><'(tu ovi^rlookcd in ;in ill Jidvi-itrl
effort, to rjii-r- vucc }ir>rH(tH uu(\ nicAi lior.scjH only.

Rules of Eligibility. — TIk; Hi^nificancc! of tho rninic. Stanrj-
anlf>n;H in nuido (•U-nr by a cr>n.Hi(l(;ration of tiie. rulcH of cli^i-
bilit,y t// n'^i.Hlry in tfir; Ani(!ri('an Trotting itf^i.stfr.

'/'Ar^ 'rrotliruj Hlfindard. — Wbfti ;ui ;inin)al rncctH tJicHc rc-
qnircnicntH ;in'l i-; duly nr^int/'rcd it, h[i}jII b(; afvcptf*! ms a Stand
ardbnd trotter:

I. TIkj [jro^eny *)f' a n'^'iHtci'f'd Ht,;i,n'l}ir<l trotting'" lior-r- and n
rc^iHt(!r(;d Htand;ird \v<t\\i\i<2- imwc.

(/ 2. A Htallion ninrd by ji rc^ist('n;d Htandard trotting borne,
provifbrd liiHrbini Jind ^'^nindani were Hired by registered Htandard
trotfin;r Iiothc^h, and be bini-elf b;i-, n trotting*; record of 'Z.'.U) nwd
\h tbe .sirr; of tbree trotteiv- uitb rer^ordn of 2j..'iO, from difbrf-nt,
rnar(;.s.

/ *{. A mare vvlio.se .sire; in a regiHtered Htandfi rd trotting bors(%
and w'fioHc; darn and ^Tandain wen? Hiri(;d \>y re^i,Ht(;rod Htandard
trotting' \\orHCH, prrjvirjed H[)(r berHelf ban a trotting record of 2.-'f()
or is tbe djini of one trolt(-r witb u reeoni of 2.'>0.

/ 4. A mare sintd by a registered .standard trottifi^^ bor-f, pr<^
vidrfd hIk* is tbe dam of two trr)t,t/;rH witb rrrr^ords of 2.'>().

r>. A mure .-^ired by a re^i.ntered Htfindji rd trotting bor.se, [)ro-
vided ber first, seeond, and tbird dams an- ejieb Hii'(;d f^y a re^JH-
tered standard trotting bor.se.

7'lif' /^aciuf J Standard. — Wb(;n Jin jinifnMl incciH i]\('M<', r('j\\\\rcr
ments find is duly nj^istered, it sbiill be }ieer-|, t(;d jis a Standard-
l>red [);ieer:

1. TIh' progeny of a ro^istx-rrrd Ht;ind;irrl ]mcj})^ bor.se }ind a.
regist^Ted standard })aein^ mare.

2. A tttallion si nrd by a rr^^islered stMiidurd pjiein^ bor.sf;,
firmidefj iii-, dfim jind ^nn\(\ntn worr; Hired by rf;^Ht/;r(»d Htandard
f)aein^' liorses, {inrj lie bifnself bas a pjjejn^' rer^ord of 2.25, and
is tbe. sin; of tbn^* f)ae,ers witb reer)rds of 2.25, from diffrtre.if
rnaroH.

/ 3. A marf; wbose sire is a r(;^istered standard \m('An^ fiorsr;
and wb^iHO dam anrl grandam werr5 nircd by rr^^isterfid ntandanl

122 TYPES AND BREEDS

pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2.25,
or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2.25.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, pro-
vided she is the dam of two pacers vnth records of 2.25.

5. A mare sired bj a registered standard pacing horse, pro-
vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a reg-
istered standard pacing horse.

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of
a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered standard
pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare.

Speed Records. — The follomng are the record perfonn-
ances to date for one mile (from " Horseman's Annual ") :

Gelding, trotter "Uhlan" 1.583^

Gelding, pacer ''Prince Albert" 1.59^

Stallion, trotter "The Harvester" 2.01

Stallion, pacer "Dan Patch" 1.55M

Mare, trotter "Lou Dillon" 1.58^

^Z: ^^S?;::::::::::::::::"EatMaudc"}'^------ ^-ooj^

Yearling, trotter "Miss Stokes" filly 2.19M

Yearling, trotter "Wilbur Lou" colt 2,193^

Yearling, pacer "Present Queen" filly 2.20}4

Yearling, pacer "Frank Perry" colt 2.15

Yearhng, pacer "Rollo" gelding 2.283^

Stallion, trotting to wagon "John A. McKerron" 2.10

Stalhon, pacing to wagon "Dan Patch" 1.57^^

Mare, trotting to wagon " Lou Dillon" 2.00

Mare, pacing to wagon " Aileen Wilson" 2.0434

Gelding, trotting to wagon "Uhlan" 2.00

Gelding, pacing to wagon " Little Boy" 2.01 14

Team, trotting { lii^ui^""^" I ^.07^

Team, pacing {;;?atTaud C'^'' } 2.02M

The Light Harness Type.— The Standardbred (Fig. 81)
represents so ti-uly the light harness type that his detailed de-
scription would be a duplication of that already given under the
light harness division, in the classification of horses (see
Chapter V).

THE MORGANS

The propriety of designating the Morgan a breed is ques-
tionable. To be sure, there is a studbook maintained which has
been duly recognized, but the requirements for registry are so

AMERICAN BREEDS 123

open as to include many individuals that could not fulfil the
specifications of a breed. The important part played by the
Morgan horse in the establishment and development of tlie Stand-
ardbred and the American Saddle horse is sufiiciently important,
however, and his characteristics distinctive enough, to justify his
being considered apart from the other breeds with which he has
been closely identified.

Justin Morgan shares honors with Messenger as a founda-
tion sire of the Standardbred, and tlie correction and verification
of pedigrees of noted sires and dams have increased the credit due
him. He was a remarkable individual foaled at Springfield,
Mass., in 1789, and lived to be thirty-t\vo years old. He was a
small horse, about 14—2 hands high and 950 pounds weight. Of
him wonderful performances of endurance, speed, pulling power,
and intelligence are recorded. His individuality was no more
striking than the prepotency with which he impressed his get.
Had the Morgan blood been kept pure, there can be little ques-
tion of its having ultimately fulfilled all the requirements for
recognition as a breed. Even the wide dissemination of the blood
has not resulted in the complete obliteration of the Morgan
character, which may be discerned though but a fractional part of
Morgan inheritance is represented.

The breeding of the original Morgan horse has never been
satisfactorily established, as the horse himself and those who
knew of him were dead before any effort was made to trace his
ancestry. Colonel Joseph Battell, who has devoted much time
to an investigation of this matter, has given the sire as a Thor-
oughbred called Beautiful Bay and the dam as a member of the
Wildair family of Thoroughbreds. Such breeding is not indi-
cated, however, by the descriptions of the horse with which we
are furnished, although the Thoroughbreds of his time Avere
more like him than are the Thoroughbreds of the present. A
Dutch origin similar to that of the I^orfolk trotter has been sug-
gested and does not seem unreasonable, since Dutch blood was
available at the time of his breeding and he more closely re-
sembles in type the old-fashioned Hackney than any other breed.
The Thoroughbred ancestry, however, is the one usually ac-
cepted, though not altogether satisfactory.

124

TYPES AND BREEDS

Sons of Justin Morgan— The three most notable sons of
Justin Morgan were: (1) Bnllrush Morgan, the descendants
of whom are especially noted for their size, substance, and sound-
ness, and represented by the Morrill family; (2) Woodbury
Morgan, who is described as possessing attractive action and
spirit and ^\dio was the progenitor of the Gifford and Morgan
Eagle branches; and (3) Shennan Morgan, from whom came, in

-r^t"^'.-^^

Fig. 88. — Original photo of Ethan Allen made in 1859. It shows the inaccuracy of some of
the old cuts alleged to be true likenesses of this hor.se.

successive generations, the three greatest horses of their days.
Black Hawk (Vermont or Hill's), Ethan Allen (Fig. 88), and
Daniel Lambert. In Daniel Lambert the type underwent some
alteration, as the blood lines of the two foundation American
sires were brought together, Fanny Cook, the dam of Lambert,
being by Abdallah, grandson of Messenger and sire of Hamble-
tonian.

Morgan Blood in Other Breeds. — With the development of
trotting speed and the increasing popularity of the Hambleton-

AMERICAN BREEDS 125

ians, the prestige which the Morgans had enjoyed as road
horses was shattered. Morgan mares were mated with, sons and
grandsons of Hambletonian, and later those of Denmark, to such
an extent that for years the breed, in its original purity and type,
has been threatened with extinction. To this very fact, however,
may be attributed, in some part at least, the merit that has been
attained in the Standardbrcd and the American Saddle horse.
A study of the blood lines of a great many of the most conspicu-

FiG. 89. — A Morgan siiillion, showing the size, form, and character
typical of thia family of horses.

ous representatives of the two breeds reveals to what extent the
Morgan has been incorporated, especially through foundation
mares. The blood has, therefore, been spent rather than lost.

A description of Justin Morgan is typical of his descendants
(Fig. 89). lie was brown, slightly over 14 hands in height, 950
pounds in weight, very compactly made, with a short, strong
back, round, deep rib, broad loin, and strong coupling; a breedy
head, proudly carried, rather heavy neck, with prominent crest,
short legs well set and of unusual substance ; and an airy, busy,
but not high way of going. Bay, bro^vn, and black colors prevail

126

TYPES AND BREEDS

in the breed outside the Lambert familj, where chestnut with a
light sprinkling of white predominates.

Improving the Breed. — The United States Department of
Agriculture has undertaken to assemble enough representative
Morgans to form the nucleus of a stud, the objecc of which shall
be the preservation of the stock and improvement in the line of
a more approved type, better calculated to meet modern demand,

1- iG. UO. — General Gates, at the head of the gov^ernment Morgan stud.

especially in the matter of size (Fig. 90). We are reminded,
in this connection, of the statement that when an Arab exceeds
14—2 he ceases to be an Arab. There is reason to believe that it
may be necessaiy to sacrifice some of the most distinctly Morgan
characters in order to attain the desired size, and in view of the
active demand for cobs, which old-fashioned Morgans are, the
wisdom of such a course is not altogether apparent.

The Morgan Horse Club, recently organized, has inaugu-
rated an active campaign in the interest of the Morgan horse.

AMERICAN BREEDS 127

At recent Vermont State fairs and ITational horse shows some
very creditable classes of Morgans have been exhibited under the
auspices of this club.

,-,A/sM^

n^izi

y ^ - 'THE AMERICAN- SADDLE HOESE

The development of this breed has been parallel in many
respects with that of the American trotter. Both are the result
of a Thoroughbred top cross on what might be termed a native
mare foundation, and in each case the descendants of one indi-
vidual have constituted a family which has dominated the breed.
Their respective histories are also more or less contemporaneous.
Denmark, the Thoroughbred whose progeny founded the Saddle
breed, was foaled in 1839, while Messenger reached this country
in 1788 and his great grandson Hambletonian was foaled in
1849.

Evolution of the Saddle Horse — The chief differences which
influenced the evolution of the Saddle horse and the trotter are
those which concerned the native mares and the ends in view of
the breeders. The original American Saddle horse was born, of
necessity, on the frontier where horses' backs afforded the chief
means of transportation. The easy, lateral, ambling gait was
cultivated, and those horses which showed greatest aptitude in
this direction were selected for breeding. On the other hand,
road and vehicle construction progressed most rapidly in the
vicinity of the large Eastern cities, hence the breeding of the
trotter or road horses centered around ITew York City and Phila-
delphia, and the foundation was laid in mares which had proven
themselves best adapted to trotting in harness. While horses
were more extensively used for riding than for driving purposes
in this country during the earlier period, the Saddle breed, in
its present degree of development, is of more recent origin than
the Standardbred. Furthermore, selection in the case of the
Saddle bred horse has not been to a standard of performance
alone, but ideals in type, conformation, and quality as well have
been sought and are as clearly ma-rked in the prepotency of the
foundation families as is performance.

128 TYPES AND BREEDS

Foundation Stock. — In order to establish a definite begin-
ning, the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association orig-
inally accepted these sires as constituting foundation stock :

Denmark (Thoroughbred) by Imported Hedgeford.

John Dillard, by Indian Chief (Canadian).

Tom Hal (Imported from Canada).

CabelPs Lexington, by Gist's Black Hawk (Morgan).

Coleman's Eureka (Thoroughbred and Morgan).

Van Meter's Waxy (Thoroughbred).

Stump-Tlie-Dealer ( Thoroughbred ) .

Peter's Halcorn.

Davy Crockett.

Pat Cleburne, by Benton's Gray Diomcd.

Influence of the Thoroughbred. — The extent to which the
Thoroughbred has been involved in the origin and development
of the Saddle breed is shown by the following census of the
breeding of all individuals registered in Vol. I of the studbook:

Thoronghbred 3

50 per cent. Thoroughbred blood -10

25 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 290

12*73 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 343

6M: per cent. Thoroughbred blood 152

3 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 36

Uncertain 203

Denmark was a Thoroughbred, by Imported Hedgeford, of
whom little else is recorded, foaled in Fayette County, Kentucky,
in 1839. He never achieved great fame as a race horse, although
it is claimed that his races were characterized by unusual game-
ness and stamina. He had a numerous progeny, the most notable
of which was Gaines' Denmark, whose dam, the Stevenson mare,
w^as a great natural ambler, representing the then common stock
of the country and believed, by some, to be of greater foundation
importance than Denmark himself.

Gaines' Denmark is considered the founder of tht breed,
although other lines have since been developed from which good

AMERICAN BREEDS

129

results have been secured, either independently or in combina-
tion with the line of Denmark. These blood lines are shown
below.

i Gaines' Denmark 61
Polly Hopkins 46
by Cockspur.

fRex Denmark 840
1884-1902

Daughter of.

Lucy Mack 2459.

Black Squirrel 58.
1876-1898

Star.

Bourbon Chief.
No. 976 (S.).

Harrison Chief .
No. 1606 (S.).

Belle.

Annie C

Wilson's King. .
No. 2196 (S.).

By.

fStar of the West

^Daughter of

fMohawk

[Black Eagle 74
1869-1888

MoUie 70

Old Star Davis

fKing William 67
IKitty Richards (th.)

IGiltner's Highlander
Betty 69 by McDonald

Mollie /Sam Martin's Farmer

Clark Chief.
No. 89.

Lute Boyd.

fMambrino Chief.
J No. 11.

(Little Nora.

fjoe Downing.
No. 710.

Eagle, by
1 Bruce.

Robert

Latham's Denmark.
No. 69 (S.).

By.

Harrison Chief. .
No. 1606 (S.).

{Washington Denmark.
No. 64 (S.).
Queen.
No. 48 (S.).

[Bellfounder.

f Clark Chief.
I No. 89.

(Lute Boyd.

(Parsons' Abdallah.
By Yellow Jacket.
No. 112 (S.).

flndian Chief.
Richelieu No. 1718 (S.).

Kentucky Chief, by
Indian Chief No.
1718 (S.).

By Salmon's Glencoe
(Th.).

By.

130 TYPES AND BREEDS

The above pedigrees of two of the greatest sires of the breed
represent the two lines of breeding, the former being a strongly
bred Denmark, while the latter has a combination of the blood
of Mambrino Chief, Gaines' Denmark, Edwin Foi-rest, and
Black Hawk through Harrison Chief, Latham's Denmark
(grandson of Gaines' Denmark) and Indian Chief. The pedi-
gree of Bourbon King also shows a degree of close breeding which
is rather typical. The Chief family which Bourbon King rep-
resents are the principal contemporaries of the Denmarks.

Other prominent sires are Highland Denmark and Chester
Dare, both by Black Squirrel and out of daughters of Dave Akin,
Montgomery Chief, by Bourbon Chief, Wilson's King, by Har-
rison Chief, and Wyatt's Red Cloud, by Indian Chief, the latter
two being more particularly the sires of harness horses.

Three of the greatest producing mares are (1) Xannie Gar-
ret, by Dave Akin, (2) Annie C, by "Wilson's King, and (3)
Little Kate, the dam of four of the best horses showTi in 1913 —
Kentucky's Choice, Kentucky's Best, Kentucky's Selection, and
Undulata Queen, all by My Own Kentucky.

The chief centres of Saddle horse breeding are the central
counties of Kentucky and the region about Columbia and Mexico,
Missouri.

The War a Setback. — The Civil War caused a serious set-
back to the progress of the Saddle horse breed, all available
mounts being pressed into ser\dce, many of w^hich were sacri-
ficed, while others were kept out of breeding for a considerable
period. Some of the most noted stallions of the breed served
as officers' mounts during the Civil War. This breed also suf-
fered from the increased popularity of the Standardbred during
the period subsequent to the war. Many of the best Saddle bred
mares were mated with Standardbred stallions. The present
popularity of the Saddle horse has brought this breed into a
more conspicuous position than it has ever before occupied.

Characteristics. — The Saddle horse is characterized by being
rather up-standing, possessed of a most beautifully molded and
set head and neck, a very smoothly turned form, short back, level
croup, and high set tail (Fig. 91), From an artistic point of
view, he is perhaps the most beautiful of all horses, being the

AMERICAN BREEDS 131

extreme embodiment of quality and finisli, an ideal which has
been fostered by the so-called " model '' classes of Southern shows.
Some have been bred so very fine, however, as to be markedly de-
ficient in substance. His flashy way of going, with head and
tail carried high, has led to his being rather contemptuously
dubbed a '' peacock " by advocates of the jolainer but perhaps
more substantial part-bred hack.

Fig. 91.— An American Saddle stallion, showing the heautifully molded form, the stylish
carriage of head and tail, and the extreme refinement characteristic of this breed.

Colors of the Saddle horse are not confined mthin any limit,
although certain families are very uniform in the transmission
of color, especially black in the Denm arks and chestnut in the
Chiefs and Kings. Bay is also common.

Gaits. — Saddle horses~wefe previously required to go the five
gaits in order to qualify, but the increased demand for walk-trot-

132 TYPES AND BREEDS

canter horses has led to their being given more consideration by
Saddle horse breeders.

Uses. — The American Saddle horse is not used exclusively
for saddle purposes. Not only are all representatives schooled
to go in harness, but some of our best American bred harness
show horses have been produced by Saddle breeding. Also some
of the best harness horses in Kentucky and Missouri have event-
ually become winners in the saddle classes of the greatest Ameri-
can shows. Horses of this breed meet the present demand for
combination horses more naturally than those of any other breed.
Their intelligence, instinctively good manners, beautiful con-
formation, style, and finish, as well as their dual usefulness,
enable them to command the admiration especially of those who
use horses for the horse's sake. Their ability to go the slow gaits
has also led to their being used for riding after cattle and for
general business saddle purposes, while much has been claimed
for them as cavalry mounts and officers' chargers. Saddle-bred
horses make most acceptable models for artists and sculptors.

REVIEW

1. Review the original stocking of this continent with horses.

2. Why is the foundation of the Standardbred laid in New York, that

of the Saddle horse in Kentucky?

3. Explain the relation of Messenger to the Standardbred.

4. Identify Hambletonian 10, George Wilkes, Mambrino Chief, Green

Mountain Maid, Henry Clay.

5. Of what economic importance is the Standardbred?

6. In what respects were the foundations of the Standardbred and the

American Saddle horse similar and in what respects did they
differ?

7. Describe the Denmark branch of the American Saddle breed.

8. What of the outlook for the American Saddle horse, and why?

9. Who are Bourbon King, Rex McDonakl, Cabell's Lexington, Har-

rison Chief, Little Kate?
10. Describe Justin Morgan and explain his work ay a foundation
American sire.

CHAPTER X

PONY BREEDS

Here are discussed the Shetland ponies, the Welsh ponies,
and the Hackney ponies.

THE SHETLAND PONY

Environment has had more to do in determining the charac-
teristics of the Shetland than any other breed of horses. It has
not, however, been the only factor, as suggested by Darwin, there
having been a separate pony race indigenous to this part of the
world, the Equus celticus of Ewart. The Shetland Islands,
situated about 200 miles off the north coast of Scotland and
within 350 miles of the Arctic circle, are rough and unproduct-
ive, and the people poor. Only a few of the large group of
islands are inhabited.

This breed of ponies has developed under the most adverse
conditions, being close companions in adversity with the native
crofters, even to the extent of sharing their huts and provisions.
Their most characteristic diminutive size, hardiness, good dis-
positions, and meagre requirement-s may be thus accounted for.
Their chief occupation in the islands is to carry peat for the use
of the crofters, the customary load consisting of from 120 to
140 pounds, which is packed and carried over the roughest and
hardest of trails.

The first real impetus to their systematic breeding came from
Scotland and England, where they were found to be of service
in working out the shallow veins of coal. They were bred most
extensively for mine use by the Marquis of Londonderry. It
was later that there arose an active demand for Shetlands as
children's ponies, and it is claimed this call came chiefly from
Amenca.

The type of the old country Shetland is that of a draft horse
(Fig. 92) in miniature, the maximum of horse power in the
smallest compass. In this country more refinement, in keeping

133

134

TYPES AND BREEDS

with saddle and harness use, is desired (Fig. 93). A slightly
less blocky pony not so low do^vn is better shaped for riding and
will have more stride.

Wtt' ■ *»*• -

^m M- r-^5^*a^

■ - '•^tMS^^^r "^^^^^^MWBal^Bi^^^Sii^^"'~~^wi^^^^^

-•■;.:;

M. i^ii

g„^

Fig. 92. — The old country idea of Shetland type is a miniature draft horst

^>^ -y^--M

Ik" ^—

Fig. 93. — A Shetluud siullion, American bred, and representative of tlie t\"po most in favor

in this country.

This breed's chief asset for their work in this country is
their patient, docile, and demonstrative disposition. They are
generally fearless and thoroughly reliable under all circum-
stances. They do not have an ideal saddle conformation nor

PONY BREEDS 135

heads and necks that make for light mouths, but the notion enter-
tained by some that they are bullish and wilful is largely due to
the fact that, being naturally tractable, they receive but the most
elementary schooling.

A standard height of 42 inches has been fixed in this coun-
try, with a proportionate discount up to 46 inches. If in excess
of this they are disqualified.

Colors. — Solid colors, black or a cinnamon brown being most
typical, are preferred by breeders, while buyers of ponies to use
generally express a preference for the skewbalds and piebalds.
The widest range of oddest colors is permissible, but broken
colors are suggestive of some Iceland or Faroe Island foundation
in the remote ancestry.

Too Little Discrimination. — While the demand for chil-
dren's ponies is strong and they meet with ready sale, there is not
sufiicient discrimination among buyers to stimulate much im-
provement in the breed. All ponies look alike to the majority,
it seems, and so long as they are clever and safe, no further ques-
tions are asked. The result is that the average pony falls short
of ordinary horse standards, leggy, coarse^headed, flat-ribbed,
steep-rumped, cat-hammed, and crooked-legged individuals, with
no step, being all too common. On the other hand, some wonder-
fully typical, good-going ponies have been brought out by those
who have given time and study to their production.

THE WELSH PONY

The Welsh pony is native to the rough mountain districts of
Wales, but has long been bred for actual road work. Their open
life, ranging in bands, has made them extremely rugged and
thrifty. Some improvement in their way of going has been
secured by the use of small ]N'orfolk trotting stallions from time
to time, although not enough crossing has been done to destroy
the original integrity of the breed.

The true type of Welsh pony is comparable to a miniature
coach horse (Fig. 94), pony built, yet with a good head, neck,
and forehand, well formed legs, and considerable speed and action
at the trot, with unusual endurance. They are snappy and free.

136

TYPES AND BREEDS

all horse for their size, and are, therefore, better adapted to the
use of junior equestrians than as playmates for little children,
the field of the Shetland pony.

The foreign Welsh Pony and Cob Studbook gives this classi-
fication according to height :

A. Ponies not exceeding 12 hands, 2 inches.

B. Ponies 12 hands, 2 inches to 13 hands, 2 inches.

C. Ponies 13 hands, 2 inches to 14 hands, 2 inches.

D. Ponies 14 hands, 2 inches to 15 hands, 2 inches.

Fig. 94. — A Welsh pony stallion, showing the size and form characteristic of the breed.

The last three show an increasing percentage of the Norfolk
cob blood. Those of class D are in excess of the pony limit and
are therefore cobs proper.

Colors are chiefly bay, although brown, chestnut, gray, and
roan occur.

Importance of Size. — The frequency ^vith which motors are
met on the road and the consequent danger in sending children

PONY BREEDS

137

out unattended make a pony of more size than the typical Shet-
land in greater demand than formerly. Furthermore, Welsh
ponies are really useful and need not be confined to children's
use. A smart pair, properly appointed, is well adapted to ladies'

use.

THE HACKNEY PONY

The Hackney pony is a representative Hackney under 14
hands, 2 inches (Fig. 95), eligible to the same registration and

Fig. 95. — A Hackney pony stallion; a typical representative of the Hackney breed, under
the pony limit of stature.

frequently bred in similar lines on one side as are full-sized
Hackneys. As Hackneys have been used in the improvement of
the gait and action of the Welsh breed, there has no doubt been
a reciprocal cross in the making of Hackney ponies. Some Welsh
breeding in the dams of registered Hackney ponies is not uncom-
mon nor prohibited by the rules of registry.

Show Ponies. — Hackney ponies are the smartest thing in
horse form, possessing all the flash and excessive action of their
larger namesakes in an exaggerated degree. A distinction should

138 ' TYPES AND BREEDS

be drawn, however, between a child's pony and a show pony, and
few of the sensational Hackney ponies of the show ring inspire
much confidence in their trustworthiness for children. On the
other hand, there is a well-marked preference expressed for the
larger ponies, if thoroughly reliable, as mounts for juvenile
equestrians, the number of which is increasing.

OTHER PONY BREEDS

Other pony types or strains to which reference is sometimes
made but for which no studbooks exist, in this countrv^ at least,
are the Exmoor, Dartmoor, 'New Forest, Cumberland, and West-
moreland of England ; the Connemara of Ireland ; the Galloway
and Highland ponies of Scotland; and Arabs under 14 hands,
2 inches, as many of them are.

REVIEW

1. What is believed to be the foundation stock from which all pony

breeds are derived?

2. Which of the pony breeds has been most influenced by environment

and how?

3. What is the difference in the accepted type of Shetlands in America

and Great Britain and how is it accounted for?

4. To what breed characteristics does the Shetland owe its universal

popularity ?

5. Describe the origin of the Welsh pony.

6. What out-crosses have been made and why?

7. What larger type is the typical Welsh pony the miniature of ?

8. What classification of Welsh ponies and cobs is made?

9. What is the Hackney pony; to what purpose are they chiefly

devoted?
10. Name the other pony stocks.

CHAPTER XI

JUDGING HORSES

Purpose. — Judging is selection ; the means by wliicli the
breeder niohls forms by mating the approved and culling out
the undesirable individuals. It should not be understood to mean
the placing of awards in the show ring only, although that is a
most important function of the judge, imposing upon him the
responsibility of establishing ideals and standards which are to
lead or mislead the rank and file of breeders. The successful
buyer or breeder must be a competent judge, whether he has
ever placed a ribbon in a show ring or not.

What Judging Involves. — Judging is more than measuring
to a standard or the analysis of the individuals imder considera-
tion ; the element of comparison must figure in the observations,
from w'hich definite conclusions can be drawn. It is the balanc-
ing of the sum total of merit and deficiency of one individual
against that of another, after the same fashion that a judge on
the bench weighs all the evidence before returning a verdict.
There are capable buyers of market horses, who, in car load after
car load, will not have a poor one, yet they would not essay the
task of designating the first, second, third, and fourth choice in
any one car lot. They have a definite standard in mind by which
they can accept or reject, with unerring accuracy, but when it
l>ecomes necessary to arraign an especially good head and neck
but rather defective hocks of one against a good back but poor
feet of another, they fail. Yet selection in breeding and buying
most frequently involves the choice of one from among several,
as does the ranking of show entries.

Accuracy and Rapidity. — The dispatch with which decisions
are arrived at is second only to the accuracy of the decisions
themselves. The man who stands at the sales ring side and buys
at the rate of a horse a minute must have rapid, accurate decision ;
so must he who picks his short leet and ultimate winners from a
class of half a hundred stallions. The expert is able to place an

139

140 TYPES AND BREEDS

entire class of show horses or to pick out a car load in the time
required by the novice to score one individual. The former has
a fixed standard and a trained eye, which enable him to discern
instantly any deviations from his standard.

Furthermore, he recognizes the law of con-elation and goes
by indices, largely, ^Wthout delaying to consider each detail
minutely. One feature or part is correlated Avith another, while
to a third it may be extremely opposed. Dimensions of the same
class are coiTelated, for instance, while those of opposite classes
are related as extreme. A long legged horse is also long in neck,
body, and stride, but is proportionately narrow and shallow
bodied ; a horse in which width is marked will be short and deep
bodied, with a short, thick neck, low set on his legs, and having
a short but perhaps trappy stride.

A systematic method of making observations contributes both
to accuracy and dispatch in judging. By this means each look
is made to count, re|>etitions or omissions ai*e avoided, the pro-
portions and relations of the parts are kept in mind, and a more
comprehensive conception of the whole is obtained.

System of Examining. — The most logical system of exami-
nation begins with a view of the horse from in front, noting the
temperament and disposition as indicated by the expression of
the countenance, all features of the head, the ^Wdth and depth of
chest, the station, the direction and conformation of the forelegs
and feet. Then passing to the side, near side usually, consider
the stature and scale, length or compactness, station, depth (espe-
cially in the flank), the carriage and shape of head and neck, the
shortness and levelness of the top line, the length and straight-
ness of under line, height and shape of the withers, the slope of
shoulder, direction and conformation of forelegs and feet, the
back, rib, loin, flank, coupling, croup, tail, stifle, thigh, direction
and confonnation of hind le2:s and feet. From the rear the s^^n-
metry, levelness, width and rotundity of hips, fulness of thighs
and quarters, direction and confonnation of hind legs and feet
may l>e determined. Viewing from the opposite side to confirm
the original side view would complete the examination of the
horse standing.

He should then be moved away from tlie obsen^er, in order

JUDGING HORSES 141

that the directness and rapidity of his stride, especially behind,
may be seen. Then as he comes back, or " meets you,'' note the
directness, rapidity, and freedom of the stride in front, the bold-
ness, courage, and manners displayed. As he is led past deter-
mine the length, the height, spring, regularity, and balance of
the stride, together with the placing or set of the horse in action.
An expert judge may seem careless of and indifferent to any
system, yet this very manner may have been acquired from long
practice, in a systematic way.

A show ring judge should not act without good and sufficient
reasons. He should have the courage of his convictions and be
able to give a full account of the whys and wherefores of his
work. The Avisdom of an award appears very different to on-
lookers at the ring side many times, with the light of the judge's
reasons thrown upon it.

Features to Consider in Judging Horses. — The features to
which the judge should give special consideration in making his
observations may be summarized as follows :

1. General Appearance : (a) Height, (h) weight, (c) style,
(d) symmetry, (e) color and markings.

2. Form: (a) Station (setting on legs), (h) width, (c)
depth, (d) compactness, (e) contour.

3. Confonnation. (As outlined in Chapter II.)

4. Quality: (a) Hide and hair, (h) bone, (c) finish, (d)
general refinement.

5. Substance: (a) Proportion of weight to height, (h) bone,
(c) muscling.

6. Constitution: (a) Chest and abdominal capacity, (h)
evidence of thrift and vigor.

7. Condition: (a) Degree of fatness, (h) fitness for work.

8. Way of Going. (As outlined in Chapter III.)

9. Age: (a) Determination of, (h) significance of.

10. Soundness: (a) Examination for, (h) importance of.

11. Temperament and Disposition.

SCORE CARD

The score card consists of a word picture of the ideal horse
in which a numerical value is attached to each part for the pur-

142 TYPES AND BREEDS

pose of indicating its relative importance. The hock is a no
more essential part of the horse's anatomy than the forearm,
yet tlie defects to which the hock is subject are so much more
numerous, and their effect on the serviceability of the horse of so
much more importance, that it is deserving of more careful con-
sideration. On this basis the hock is allotted six units or counts,
the forearm two.

Scoring is the application of the score card as a standard of
merit to the individual, for the purpose of detennining and
expressing numerically his degree of perfection. Applied suc-
cessively to a number of individuals, it affords a means of deter-
mining their relative merits. However, this system is not appli-
cable to show ring judging or sales ring selection. The chief use
of the score card is in the classroom, where continued practice
in scoring affords the best means of training the eye in making
accurate obser\^ations, while there is being acquired, at the same
time, a mind picture of the ideal. Once the ideal expressed on
the score card is indelibly fixed in the mind, the card may be
given up and the mental picture take its place as a standard of
judgment. In the development of good judgment the score card
is indispensable, but for the practice of judging it is of little use.
Condensed or summarized score cards have been arranged which
facilitate scoring for such objects as the advanced registry of
dairy cattle and other purposes, but for students' use the full,
detailed accounting of every part is essential.

The Draft Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of
points and standard of excellence for tlie draft horse :

General Appearance. — 16. Counts

1. Weight

2. Height

3. Form — low station, wide, deep, compact, massive 4

4. Substance — bone ample, joints broad, proportioned to scale 4

5. Quality — bone dense and clean, tendons and joints sharply defined,

leg broad and fiat, hide and hair fine, refinement of head,
finish 4

6. Temperament— energetic, disposition good, intelligent 4

Head and Neck. — 7.

7. Head — size and dimensions, in proportion, clear cut features,

straight face line^ wide angle in lower jaw 1

JUDGING HORSES 143

8. Muzzle — ^broad, nostrils large but not dilated, lips thin, even,

trim 1

9. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even

curvature 1

10. Forehead — broad, full 1

11. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1

12. Neck — long, muscular but not thick, well crested, throttle well cut

out, head well set on 2

Forehand. — 24.

13. Shoulders — long, sloping, smooth, muscular 2

14. Arm — short, muscular, elbow in 2

15. Forearm — wide, muscular 2

16. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2

17. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well

back 2

18. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

19. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2

20. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frogs large and
elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense,
smooth, dark color 6

21. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into
two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line
dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through
the centre of the elbow- joint and meet the ground at the centre
of the foot 4

Body.—n.

22. Withers — well defined but muscular 2

23. Chest — wide, deep 2

24. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2

25. Back — short, straight, strong, broad . 2

26. Loin — short, broad, strongly coupled 2

27. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1

Hindquarters. — 32.

28. Hips — wide, level, muscular 2

29. Croup — long, level, muscular 2

30. Tail — attached high, well carried 1

31. Thighs — deep, muscular 2

32. Stifles — broad, thick, muscular 2

33. Gaskins — wide, muscular 2

34. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth,

well supported 6

35. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well

back 2

36. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well set back, straight, well supported. . 2

37. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 3

38. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight,

elope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars
strong, frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of
toe; horn dense, smooth, dark color 4

144 TYPES AND BREEDS

39. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of
the foot 4

Way of Going. — 10.

40. Walk — straight, strong, active 6

41. Trot — powerful, free, moderate action 4

Total 100

» The Heavy Harness Horse Score Card. — The following is
tlie standard of excellence and scale of points for the heavy
harness horse:

General Appearance. — 12. Counts

1. Height

2. Weight

3. Form — close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical 4

4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten-

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general re-
finement, finish 4

5. Temperament — proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelligent. 4

Head and Neck. — 7.

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features,

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even

curvature 1

9. Forehead — broad, full 1

10. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1

11. Neck — long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out,

head well set on 2

Forehand.— 22.

12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1

14. Forearm — broad, muscular 1

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

18. Pasterns — long, obhque (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic,
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth,
dark color ; 6

JUDGING HORSES 145

20 Legs— direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped
from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot
into two lateral halves; viewed from the side, a perpendicular
line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass
through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at
the centre of the foot 4

Body.—n.

21. Withers— well set up, narrow, extending well back 2

22. Chest — wide, deep ^

23. Ribs— well sprung, long, close ^

24. Back— short, straight, strong, broad ^

25. Loin— short, broad, strongly coui)led ^

26. Flank— deep, full, long, low under Ime 1

Hindquarters. — 32

27. Hips— broad, round, smooth 2

28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth ^

29. Tail— set high, well carried ^

30. Thighs— full, muscular ^

3L Stifles— broad, full, muscular ^

32. Gaskins— broad, muscular • • • ^

33. Hocks— straight, wide, point promment, deep, clean cut, smootn,

well supported ,• • , ^ • •,• • ' 1 ' ' ii Y ' i" o

34 Canons— short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back Z

35. Fetlocks— wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported. ... 2

36. Pasterns— long, obUque (50 degrees), smooth, strong ... ^

37 Feet— large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight,

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full one-third height of
toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color • • • •. • • 4

38. Legs— direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same hne
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular hne dropped
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre ot
the foot

Way of Going. — 16.

39. Walk— straight, snappy, springy, proud, stylish J V ' V '

40. Trot— in line, bold, flashy, extreme flexion of knees and hocks,

balanced, regular

Total 100

The Light Harness Horse Score Card. — Following is tlie
scale of points for the light harness horse :

General Appearance. — 12.

1. Height

2. Weight , 4

3. Form— rangy, deep, lithe, angular .••••••. • • • • • ' •

4. Quality— bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten-

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general
refinement \' '■ ' i li-' '1 a

5. Temperament— nervous, active, disposition good, intelligent *

146 TYPES AND BREEDS

Head and Neck. — 7.

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features,

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even

curvature 1

9. Forehead — broad, full 1

10. Ears — medium sized, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1

11. Neck — long, lean, crest well defined, extended carriage, well cut

out in the throttle, head well set on 2

Forehand. — 23.

12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1

14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 2

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well

back 2

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

18. Pasterns — long, obhque (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic,
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth,
dark color 6

20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into
two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line
dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through
the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre
of the foot 4

Body.— 11.

21. Withers — well set up, narrow, extending well back 2

22. Chest — medium w^dth, deep 2

23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2

24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2

25. Loins — short, broad, strongly coupled 2

26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1.

Hindquarters. — 3 1 .

27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2

28. Croup — long, level, smooth 2

29. Tail — set high, well carried 1

30. Thighs — full, muscular 2

31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2

32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2

33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth,

well supported 6

34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well

back 2

35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2

37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight,

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-thirS height
of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4

JUDGING HORSES 147

38. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line

Way of Going. — 16.

39. Walk^ — long, free stride 6

40. Trot — long, rapid, straight, reachy stride 10

Total 100

The Saddle Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of
points and standard of excellence for the saddle horse:

General Appearance. — 12. Counta

1. Height

2. Weight

3. Form — close but not full made, deep but not broad, symmetrical. 4

4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten-

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general
refinement, finish 4

5. Temperament — active, disposition good, intelligent 4

Head and Neck. — 8.

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features,

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even

curvature 1

9. Forehead — broad, full 1

10. Ears — medium size, pointed, set close, carried alert 1

11. Neck — long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throttle

well cut out, head well set on 3

Forehand. — 22.

12. Shoulders — very long, sloping yet muscular 3

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1

14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 1

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well

back 2

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

IS. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic,
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth,
dark color 5

20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot
into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicu-
lar line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass
through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at
the centre of the foot 4

148 TYPES AND BREEDS

Body.—\2.

21. Withers — high, muscular, well finished at top, extending well into

back 3

22. Chest — medium wide, deep 2

23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2

24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2

25. Loin — short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled 2

26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1

Hindquarters. — 3 1 .

27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2

28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth 2

29. Tail— set high, well carried 2

30. Tliighs— full, muscular 2

31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2

32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2

33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth,

well supported 5

34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2

35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2

36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2

37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight,

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height
of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4

38. Legs^-direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular fine

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some
Httle distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of
the foot 4

Way of Going. — 15.

39. Walk — rapid, flat footed, in line 5

40. Trot — free, straight, smooth, springy, going well off hocks, not

extreme knee fold 5

41. Canter — slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter 5

Total 100

SOUNDNESS

A horse is sound provided there be not a partial or total loss
of function, preventing or likely to prevent him from perform-
ing the ordinary duties of his class.

The real significance of soundness is quite generally misun-
derstood by the tisers of horses, much to their own disadvantage
and to the misfortune of many an unsound horse. The impor-
tance of an existing unsoundness is directly proportionate to the
extent to which it incapacitates a horse for the service to which
he is otherwise best adapted. If it causes him little or no incon-

JUDGING HORSES 149

venience, and is not liable to, it is of little or no consequence.
The technically sound horse is an exceptional individual and
has less actual additional value over the serviceably sound horse
than is generally credited to him.

On the other hand, the nature or extent of an unsoundness
may be such as to cause the total disability of a horse either at
present or in the future. Serviceable soundness is all that it is
practical to seek or require; and just what constitutes service-
able soundness is arbitrarily determined by the nature of the
work which the horse is expected to do. If more thought were
given to the real causes of unsoundness, present and prospective,
and less to its technical existence, it would probably give less
annoyance.

The durability of any machine is a matter of construction,
covering the grade of materials used, the assembling of all parts,
the alignment and adjustment of all bearings and wearing parts
in order to minimize friction, distribute wear, and to facilitate
operation in general. Allow any little cog to slip or an adjust-
ment to become displaced, and either the whole machine is
rendered useless or its operation is greatly impaired.

The Equine Machine. — It is so with the equine mechanism.
Most unsoundnesses have their origin in stinictural defects or
imperfections. The spavin and the curb make their appearance
on the crooked hind leg as a result of the cuneifonn l)onc and
curb ligament being called upon to do more than their nonnal
share of the work of the leg, on account of the deflection in the
line in which weight is borne and power applied.

Side bones are most common on the outer quarters of wide-
fronted draft horses, because such horses are inclined to be " toe
narrow," which brings the outer quarter nearer to the centre of
weight bearing, thereby imposing weight and wear which should
be borne by the other quarter. As a consequence the cartilage
ossifies or changes to bone.

If an existing unsoundness has apparently developed, inde-
pendent of predisposing causes of conformation, and does not
impair the horse's usefulness, it is of less account than when
the causative defect in confonuation is apparent but no actual
unsoundness exists yet. In the first place, a repetition of the

150 TYPES AND BREEDS

unusual condition to which the unsoundness is due is not likely ;
while in the second case, the predisposing cause is continually
operative, and the ultimate development of actual unsoundness
is well nigh inevitable. Once developed, its condition is repeat-
edly aggravated by the same means which originally induced it.

Rejecting for Unsoundness. — It is not consistent to reject a
horse, in all other respects suitable for one's purpose, because he
cannot be certified absolutely sound, only to finally accept on the
strength of a certificate of soundness a horse woefully deficient
in regard to most other requirements. Counsel of the veterina-
rian should be on the true importance of the unsoundness, if it
exists, rather than for its mere detection.

Soundness is but one of the attributes which render a horse
of service. Horses unsound in some degree are giving perfectly
satisfactory service in all fields in which horses are engaged, and,
so long as that is the case, it is unjust to the horses and detri-
mental to the owners to discard them for a mere technicality.
Provided a horse goes sound in spite of some unsoundness to
which he is subject, and promises to continue so to go, the un-
soundness should not outweigh in importance the other essentials
of a good horse, as type, conformation, and performance.

Age. — The Determination of Age. — There is nothing mys-
terious nor empirical about the determination of the age by tlie
teeth. Up to five years, it is simply a matter of the eruption of
the teeth, which in the normal individual follows the same reg-
ular course that characterizes all other physiological processes.
After the permanent teeth are all in, the indications are the
result of wear, which is uniformly accomplished in the normal
mouth on account of the extreme durability of the individual
teeth and their arrangement.

Certain general features must be understood before any at-
tempt is made to differentiate the appearance of the mouth at
various years. The permanent teeth may be distinguished, after
their eruption, from the milk teeth, which are shed as the perma-
nent teeth come through, by greater size, a broader neck showing
no constriction, perpendicular, parallel grooves and ridges on
their face, and a whiter color.

The incisor teeth, which are the ones depended upon because

JUDGING HORSES 151

they are most easily exposed to view, are originally oval-shaped
at the table or wearing end, gradually becoming triangular to-
ward the root. The longitudinal dimensions of the teetli are
curved, with the convexity forward, toward the lips, the con-
cavity toward the mouth. The table itself is cupped out in the
centre by a depression, into which tlie enamel of the tooth dips.
As wear commences, the surface enamel is worn off, leaving two
distinct enamel rings, one around the margin of the table and the
other around the cup. This cup itself becomes gradually more
shallow until it is finally worn almost completely away. As
wear on the table removes more and more of the end of the tooth,
the level of the pulp cavity in the centre of the tooth is finally
reached, and the exjiosed tip of this canal appears between what
is left of the cup and the front of tho t<x)th. Other sequences of
the continued wearing away of the tooth are the changes in out-
line of its transverse diameter, becoming, first, more oval from
side to side, then more distinctly triangular as wear continues
toward the root. Also, as the mouth end of the tooth is worn
away the level of the tables and their contact is maintained by
the tissues closing in behind the root and forcing the tooth for-
ward. This gives the angle of the arch of the incisors less curve
and more slant, at the same time rendering the margin and out-
line of the jaw sharper and flatter. As the arch becomes more
slanting, the surfaces of the teeth meet at a different angle, and,
in the case of the comers, the lower teeth do not wear clear to
the back margins of the uppers, so that a hook or notch is grad-
ually formed, Avorn away, and formed again at different years.
Tlieso, with the eru])tion of the caninrs, which occurs in males at
from five to six years, are the princi]ial changes upon which the
age is reckoned. It remains now to indicate just what changes
are characteristic of the different yearly periods (Figs. 96-116).
The Importance of Age. — Age plays an important part in
determining a horse's market value. Statistics show the best
selling age to be from five to eight years, while, on the
contrary, experience has demonstrated that the best wearing
and most serviceable age is from eight tx> twelve. Aft^r a horse
passes eight and has had some city wear, the market classes
him as second-handed and discounts his. value accordingly.

152

TYPES AND BREEDS

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JUDGING HORSES

153

Fir.. 07. — Longitudinal and median section of a permanent inferior pincer (enlarged).
FA, anterior face; FP, posterior face; C, cement; E, enamel; /, ivory; PL, pulp cavity;
CU, cup; T, table; R, root.

154

TYPES AND BREEDS

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This is more in response to demands of buyers than to any real
depreciation in the serviceability of the horse. The average
horseman reckons the probable period of usefulness as the dif-
ference between the present age and the age to which the average
horse lives ; but there are too many other influences which may
impair a horse's usefulness or terminate his existence altogether
to make this a sound line of reasoning. A horse that has with-

lii;. I 17. — 'I'lii-^ \\i>r'u-' h:n :\ r(-fc,rcl nf twonty-thrne years in the delivery service of a
large city depurtnient store. The reason is evident in the superior breeding and conforma-
tion which he manifests.

stood ordinary wear so well that he is comparatively fresh and
sound at twelve years of age gives promise of having more years
of usefulness ahead of him than the average six-year-old just
from the country. Both city stables and the farm afford numer-
ous instances of horses that have been from sixteen to twenty
years on the job and still give little evidence of the infirmities
that are supposed to come with advancing years (Fig. 117). The

174

'TYPES AND BREEDS

Fig. 118. — This horse has served eighteen years in the city as an ambulance horse and, by
virtue of his superior type, conformation, and intelligence, is still serviceable.

FlO. 119. — This horse, o£f type and of inferior conformation, with little sense, has been
rendered unserviceable by the same work in one year.

JUDGING HORSES 175

mechanical excellence of conformation is a much more important
factor in determining the period of usefulness of a horse than his
age (Figs. 118 and 119).

Disposition and intelligence have much to do mth a horse's
usefulness. Together they determine the character of his per-
formance, within the limits of his possibilities as fixed by type,
conformation, and soundness. A good, honest, game horse will
oftentimes give more satisfactory service in spite of some phys-
ical infirmity than a sound horse that is sour, crabbed, or deficient
in horse sense, WTiether one rides or drives for profit or pleasure,
that end is greatly enhanced by the cheerful responsiveness with
which the horses do their work. Horses are being more and
more exclusively used for sporting purposes and to realize the
greatest delight from a ride or a drive the horse should enter
fully into the spirit of the occasion.

Both intelligence and disposition are reflected in the horse's
countenance — the expression of the eye, the poise of the ear, and
his general behavior. Some horses are much more demonstrative
than others.

REVIEW

1. What are the responsibilities of the judge?

2. What does judging- involve beside an analysis of the individuals

under consideration ?

3. Of what assistance is the law of con-elation to the practical judge?

4. What is the importance of a system of examination in judging?

Outline the most logical system.

5. What features are to be considered in judging?

6. Discuss the proper use of the score card.

7. Upon what will the importance of an unsoundness depend?

8. What Ls the relation of confonnation to the possible occurrence of

unsoundness?

9. How do the teeth come to have a definite appearance at different

ages ?
10. What can be said in defence of the old horse?

PART III

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

CHAPTER XII

THE BREEDING OF HORSES

The breeding of horses is done on a limited scale as a side
issue to a general farming proposition, more commonly than the
breeding of any other class of stock. The majority of farmers
raise only a few colts, the bulk of the market supply being pro-
duced on a small rather than a large scale.

Ideals Differ Geographically. — The corn belt farmer is most
concerned Avith the weight of a horse, and scorns all that cannot
work, no matter how proficient they may be in other lines of
service. On the other hand, the Kentuckian is for a " model "
horse, possessing quality in the extreme and capable of a sporty
performance, either in the show ring or on the race track, be he
saddle or harness horse. The Southerner has no more time for
a ^' bull '' of a drafter than his contemporary of the Middle
West has for the '^ dude " show or iniquitous race horse. In
many parts of Virginia the first thought concerning a horse is
^' How well can he jump ? " and it is regarded as desecration of
blood to breed to anything but a Thoroughbred stallion. The
average Eastern breeder measures all other types to a road horse
standard, and he may be found stinting common farm mares to
a little crooked legged pacer that may happen to be the idol of
the community since winning the county race at the last fair. It
is all a matter of difference in the point of view, and in some
communities this point is so indelibly fixed as to make it unwise
to advocate a change, but rather to recommend the pursuit of the
local ideal in the most intelligent manner. There is a ready
market for a good horse of almost any type, and a breeder will
usually do best by that which he favors most. It may be imprac-
ticable, for instance, to force the breeding of draft horses on the
Kentucky farmer whose family traditions, intuitive genius, and
available blood all make for a very different stamp of horse.
Qlnvestm^it^^^Horse breeding requires a larger initial in-
vestmesf lor a longer time than most other live stock enter-

179

180

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

prises, but if well managed yields a proportionately greater
return.

Principles of Breeding. — Breeding is the direction and con-
trol of tlie inherent life forces, heredity and variation, by means
of selection and mating. Its practice offers a means of regulat-
ing the progeny by control of the parentage. Improvement
should be the motive, it being something more than a mere mul-
tiplic<ation of numbers in the next generation.

The forces involved are heredity, by means of which char-
acters are transmitted from generation to generation ; and varia-
tion, through the agency of which new characters are introduced.
The natural tendency in reproduction is toward variation, or the
production of unlike individuals, with heredity, acting as a
brake or check, opposed. The more intense the hereditary force,
the less marked the variation. The strength of the hereditary
force, so far as a specific character is concerned, is determined
by the extent to which that character is represented in the an-
cestry. The greater the number of individual ancestors there
are which possess it, and the greater the degree in which it is
possessed, the stronger the likelihood of its being transmitted.

Heredity is, therefore, not a matter which involves only the
individuals mated, but all tliose ancestors whose characters and
hereditary forces the individuals in question possess. If the pre-
potency of all individuals in the ancestry were equal, the relative
influence of succeeding generations and individual ancestors
would be in accordance with Gralton's law as shown in the fol-
lowing: table : ^

Effective Heritaqe Contributed by Each Generation and by Each Separate An-
cestor According to the Law of Ancestral Heredity as Stated by Galton.

Generation
backward

Effective contri-
bution of
each generation

Number of ances-
tors involved

Effective contri-
bution of
each ancestor

2
3
4
5

}4 or 0.5

H or (0.5)2

1/8 or (0.5)'

1/16 or (0.5)<

1/32 or (0.5)5

1^ or 25.0%
1/16 or 6.25%,
1/64 or 1.56 + %
1/256 or 0.39 + %
1/1024 or 0.09 + %

* Davenport, " The Principles of Breeding. "

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 181

There are usually a few individual ancestors who, by their
great prepotency, dominate the ancestry and have more than
their regular fractional influence in determining the nature of
the progeny. The more of such impressive ancestors there are,
provided their impressiveness is along the same line, the stronger
the transmission of their characters will become. Line, or in-
breeding, is practiced with this in view, the same individuals
being used as many times as possible, thus intensifying the
hereditary transmission of their characters.

The germ plasm, representing the union of the two sex cells,
is the physical basis of heredity. It represents both the char-
acters of the ancestry which are dominant in this generation, and
will therefore be manifested by the individual developed from
the germ plasm, and the potential characters of the entire an-
cestry, which may remain recessive in this generation and not
be manifested in this particular individual, but may, in the next
succeeding generations, become dominant, some in one indi-
vidual descendant and some in another. Thus the unlikeness of
brothers may be accounted for.

Transmission is, therefore, not from the individual parent
but from the ancestry through the parent. The individual mani-
fests but a part of the characters which he inherits, and is con-
sequently capable of transmitting characters which he himself
does not possess. All the possibilities of transmission can be
learned only by a study of tlie ancestry. Unkno^v^l individuals
in the ancestry introduce unknown possibilities into the progeny,
hence the advantage of the pure-bred parent, the known excel-
lence of whose ancestry is established. A superior but short-bred
individual may happen to manifest all the good qualities of his
or her ancestors but transmit none of them. A lack of uniformity
in the ancestry is sure to result in a miscellaneous progeny.
However, registration and pure breeding are not sufficient, as
inferiority possessed in uniform degree by the ancestors will
render the progeny of a correspondingly low order of merit; and
even some pure-bred and registered horses are inferior in both
individuality and anccstiy.

Pedigree is but a record of the ancestry, and the value of the
pedigree, provided it is complete in recording all ancestors of

182 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

the first five or six generations, is in proportion to the merit of
the individuals recorded.

Prepotency is the breeding power of a stallion or mare,
measured by the degree witli which their likeness is transmitted
to their get. It should be distinguished from fecundity, which
is the reproductive power, measured by the regularity with
which progeny are begotten by the sire or produced by the dam.
Prepotency is determined by the uniformity of the ancestry,
which, in turn, is most intensively insured by line and inbreed-
ing. There is, furthermore, a difference in the prepotency of
individuals similarly bred.

Fecundity is marked in certain families, showing its hered-
itary and transmissible nature, and is frequently associated with
longevity. The individual element is also a factor in fecundity.

Line breeding is the mating of tsvo individuals having a
common ancestor but a few generations removed. It is prac-
ticed for the purpose of intensifying tlie hereditaiy force derived
from certain individuals. It is a compromise on inbreeding.

Inbreeding is the mating of brother and sister, sire and
daughter, son and dam, thus eliminating all but the blood from
certain individuals. It is rarely practiced by horse breeders.

Cross-breeding is the mating of pure-bred individuals but
of different breeds. Indiscriminate cross-breeding is to be con-
demned, but intelligently conducted it is justifiable for certain
purposes, as in the production of hunters in this country. Cross-
breeding has the effect of producing variation. The more radical
the cross the more extreme and uncertain the variation. It is
resorted to for several purposes : (1) Either to restore vigor and
fecundity to stock that has been bred too long in one line or
under the same environment; (2) to graft on one breed some
desirable characters of another; (3) to blend, permanently, the
breed characters of two breeds ; or simply to combine these char-
acters in the progeny of one generation. To this end it may
consist either of making a single infusion of the blood of an
alien breed, as the Thoroughbred cross on the Standardbred ; of
making cross-breds the basis of a new breed, as in the foundation
of the French Coach from the demi sang ; or continuing to cross
breed without interbreeding the cross breeds, as in the production

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 183

of the original demi sang (French half-breed) for army service;
also in the production of hunters.

Most uniform results are obtained when the hereditary tend-
encies of the two breeds crossed incline in the same general
direction, as in mating a Standardbred and a Saddle horse, or a
Thoroughbred with either, and are least satisfactory when radi-
cally opposed hereditary forces are united, as in breeding a
trotter to a Shire. Such extreme crosses may prohibit any blend
of characters and often result in a colt possessed of a draft
horse head and body on a trotter's legs and feet, or some similar
combination of the extreme characters of each.

Cross-breeding was attended by much greater advantages
during the formative periods of our breeds than can be claimed
for it at the present time. With a particular breed especially
well adapted to almost all requirements, there is little excuse for
mixing them up.

Some of the renovating effects of cross-breeding may be se-
cured, yet the identity and integrity of the breed maintained, by
resorting to the so-called climatic out-cross, the mating of indi-
viduals of the same breed but reared under different conditions
of environment, as English and American or Australian Thor-
oughbreds, or Kentucky and California Standardbreds. The
most extreme system of crossing involves species instead of
breeds, and is called hybridization.

Equine hybrids are the mule and the zebroid. The common
ancestor within the genus, in tliis case, is so extremely remote
as to render the hybrids sterile. Bovine hybrids, however, are
more or less completely fertile, the supposition being that their
common ancestor was more proximate.

The nick, commonly referred to by horse breeders, is a
mating resulting especially favorably in a foal superior to either
parent. It is supposed to be due to a special affinity of hereditary-
forces which results in a most harmonious blend or union. A
mare may produce good colts to the service of one stallion, but
mating with another stallion of equal merit as a sire may result
in utter failure, so far as the character of the get is concerned.

Atavism or reversion is the reappearance of the type of a
remote ancestor or a harking back to a preexisting form. It is

184 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

most likely to follow hybridization, and is exemplified by the line
back and leg strii:)es commonly seen on mules.

A pure bred is, practically, one whose sire and dam are both
registered. The " purity " of the breeding depends upon the
eligibility rules of the respective registry associations. Lit-
erally, a pure bred is one in whom there is no trace of alien
blood, but such a degree of purity is approached only by the
breeds of greatest antiquitj^, as the Thoroughbred and the Arab.

Grading up is the mating of common bred mares to pure bred
stallions, or the reverse, producing half-breds. By mating the
half-breds back to pure breds, of the same breed, the percentage
increase of the pure blood will follow the proportions of three-
quarters, seven-eighths, and so on, for each successive generation.
A horse so bred is called a grade, and the greater the number of
generations through whicli the grading-up process has been car-
ried, the higher the grade.

A mongrel or scrub is one whose fractional breed identity
c-annot be established.

Top cross refers to the male line of ancestors — the sire's sire,
his sire, and thus on back.

Dams. — First, second, third, and fourth dams represent the
female line of ancestors — the dam's dam, her dam, etc.

Brothers in blood are the progeny of mating full brothers
-\\ith full sisters, tlie same stallion with full sisters or the same
mare with full brothers. In each case the mating results in in-
dividuals whose pedigrees after the first generation are identical.

Pedigree and Studbook Registration. — In order to keep
pedigree records complete and accurate, as well as reliable and
authentic, registry associations representing the different breeds
have been formed. Entries are made in either alphabetical or
numerical order, and show the name, date of foaling, description,
breeder, and owner of the horse, with the name and number of
sire, and name, number, and usually some of the breeding of
the dam. These records are published in book form at more or
less regular periods, annually, if the association does sufficient
business, and are available to any one at a nominal charge.

Transfers of ownership of registered horses are required to
be recorded for the purpose of keeping all records up to date.

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 185

A pedigree certificate of registration (Fig. 120) has no nego-
tiable value unless properly issued and executed by the officers
of the association whose seal and signature it bears. Its value,
even then, is contingent upon the standing of the association.
Formerly an accredited list of studbooks was issued and vouched
for by the United States Department of Agriculture, but their
authorization has since been withdrawn, and the standing of the
different associations is based on the personnel of their officers
and members.

The eligibility rules for registry are (lra^\Ti up by the asso-
ciations themselves and are not uniform in their requirements.
The term '^ pure-bred,'^ as applied to the different breeds, has
a significance that is arbitrarily detennined by the respective
associations. For instance, a horse may be '^ pure-bred " on the
basis of eligibility to registiy in the French Draft Studbook yet
be ineligible to the Percheron Studbook, and therefore of impure
Perchcron breeding. In the same way a " pure-bred " Morgan
may not be eligible to Standard registration and, as a matter of
fact, may possess but a small percentage of Morgan blood, on
account of the open nature of the Morgan register.

When a pure-bred, registered horse or mare is bought for
breeding purposes, the pedigree certificate often plays a more
important part in the transaction than the horse itself. The
real value of such a horse lies in the blood lines which he is capa-
ble of transmitting, and no just claim to these blood lines can bo
made unless verified by a pedigree certificat-e. Title to breeding
can be conveyed by no other means. Many pure-bred stallions
arc deprived of- the full credit to which they are entitled through
the carelessness or indifference of OAvners in keeping up records
and transfers.

Duplicate pedigree registry certificates can be secured upon
application to the secretaries of the associations and by sub-
mitting satisfactory evidence that the original has been lost or
destroyed.

EUgihility to registration is established by conforming to the
rules of entry of the registry associations. These rules are not
unifomi in the different assr)ciations, nor are they fixed, but are
subject to change whenever authorized by vote of the association.

186

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

THE BREEDING OF HORSES

187

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188 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

Revision of the rules is generally in the direction of increased
requirements and is justified in the case of comparatively new
or young breeds which have increased in numbers to a point
where the old and more liberal rules are no longer necessary. The
American Trotting Registry Association has already dropped
rules which during the formative perio<^l of the breed were essen-
tial. It is reported that they contemplate further tighteniug
up tlieir requirements by elimination of tlie " standard by per-
formance " clause.

Stallion Legislation. — Stallion license laws have been passed
by a numlx r of the States. Because of the much longer time and
greater capital involved in the breeding of horses than of other
classes of li\^ stock, some legal regulation of the standing of
stallions f of public service, having in view the protection of tlie
mare owr .^r and the promotion of the interests of the good bi-eed-
ing sires, is important. The idea is not new ; all foreign coun-
tries in which horse breeding has made any great advancement
have either patronized or protected the horse breeding interests
by statute. The French systeui is perhaps the most elaborate.

The Fren-ch System, — All breeding stallions in France are
either oT\nied by the government or have government authority
to stand for service. All privately owned stallions which are
accepted for service must be free from roaring and moon blind-
ness or periodic ophthalmia, as detennined by inspection to Avliich
they are required to submit, aud this fact is attested by the
star branded on their necks. Then they are classified according
to merit. Those of the l^est class are designated as " approved/^^^
and many of them are liberally subsidized in order that they may
be made available to all owners of high class mares ; those which
are not quite up to the requirements for approval but are yet
desirable sires are classed as " authorized " ; while all others
which have passed the veterinary inspection covering roaring
and moon blindness are simply '' certified." The stallions from
the government ^' haras " are systematically distributed through-
out the breeding districts during the season.

Ideals in stallion license laws differ, there being a marked
lack of uniformity in the provisions of those enacted in the dif-
ferent States. A stallion may be licensed to stand for sen^ice

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 189

in one State while barred from service in another. Local con-
ditions govern, of course, in the case of each State, but there can
hardly be sufficient difference in the prevailing conditions to-
warrant such a variety of laws.

The objects of stallion laws should be (1) to protect the mare
owner, by preventing misrepresentation of the breeding or the
soundness of the stallion; (2) to protect the owners of superior
breeding stallions by eliminating or discouraging the use of infe-
rior competitors ; (3) to promote the interests of the mare owners
by encouraging the purchase and standing of better stallions ;
and (4) to promote the interests of the stallion 0A\Tier by edu-
cating the mar© owner to be discriminating in his patronage.

The first object is best insured by requiring an examination
of the pedigree registry certificates and a uniform inspection,
by one board or commission, of every stallion for which applica-
tion for license is made, all stallions found acceptable to be class-
ified according to breeding, whether pure-bred, grade or scrub,
sound or unsound, and said classification to be specified clearly
in the license certificate.

Purity of Breeding. — Pure-bred is such an arbitrary term,
contingent upon so many conditions, that it is more accurate and
just in many cases to certify a stallion to be registered or unreg-
istered rather than of pure breeding or not of pure breeding. In
many instances ineligibility to registry may be strictly technical,
due to neglect on the part of previous owners, and may not in
any way alter the purity of breeding of the stallion or his value
as a sire. The fact that the horse is unregistered, however, can-
not be disputed.

Hereditary unsoundness is such an elusive condition, so diffi-
cult of prognosis, that to specify just what conditions of unsound-
ness shall, by their presence, disqualify for sei'v^ice, will necessi-
tate the elimination of many individuals of much breeding value,
although their get may be in no way predisposed to the unsound-
ness which they themselves possess. The same unsoundness may
be quite regularly transmitted in one case while perhaps never
appearing to be hereditary in another. The most careful obser-
vation and inquiry warrant the conclusion that spavin and roar-
ing, for instance, can only be regarded as of an hereditary nature

190 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

when their transmission has actually been demonstrated in the
progeny.

The existence of a defective confonnation is to be regarded
witli as much apprehension as the actual unsoundness itself,
especially if the latter be unaccompanied by an apparent pre-
disposing cause. In making such a determination, it must be
borne in mind that some unsoundnesses, as roaring, may not
manifest themselves, even though transmitted, until such age that
the horse in question may have been lost track of, although, as a
rule, a sire of colts that develop unsoundness with any degree
of uniformity can soon be detected.

Suitable Laws. — Any law to be workable and meet the varied
conditions, as they exist in most States, should have some flexi-
bility in its application, permitting arbitrary consideration of
each case by those in charge of its administration. With a suffi-
cient number of registered, sound stallions available to the
breeders of a community, a law might be very strict in its re-
quirements as to breeding and soundness, but there are localities
where the interest in horse breeding is such as to need a boost
and is not capable of withstanding much of a knock. As long
as the State itself is not empowered or equipped to place there
a good stallion, but must depend upon private o^\Tiership for
whatever breeding there is done, stallions that should be barred
from service, if in competition with good sires, may be permitted
to stand, if not doing more harm than good. Meanwhile, the
efforts of the stallion board or commission may be devoted to an
educational campaign which will ultimately bring better stallions
into that distpiet.^

<CDifficult PoTitts^It is most difficult to establish the fact
that ast^ttmn is uimt for service on account of an existing un-
soundness or a short pedigree, while his get are annually selling
for more than the colts of other stallions fully accredited on the
basis of strict stallion law requirements. Not until the poorest
pure-bred is superior as a sire to the best grade and until much
more is known of hereditary unsoundness, can we consistently
make legal discrimination against all grade and all unsound
stallions, without effecting detriment to the breeding industry.
Elimination of the unfit is only one means of protecting and pro-

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 191

moting the interests of the fit, and what constitutes fitness itself
is more or less arbitrarily determined by local conditions.

The average of merit of stallions standing for service is so
low that it will take time to attain to the theoretical or ideal in
actual practice. France, with her system of government owner-
ship, can afford to be much more independent and dictatorial
than our States, which are dependent on private enterprise and
capital for whatever breeding there is done. Too oppressive re-
strictions may be so discouraging as to destroy the business alto^
gether. An individual or company, for instance, may invest
$2,500 in a two-year-old draft stallion, which at the time of pur-
chase passes an examination for soundness and is accompanied
by a registry certificate. In the course of a year or two this colt
may develop an unsoundness or some fraud may be detected in
his pedigree registry certificate. To require his retirement from
service on either of these accounts, would entail a most unjust
financial loss upon his owners, and would undoubtedly dissuade
them from ever making a similar investment.

The Attitude of Mare Owners. — The mare owners, while
not directly named in stallion license laws, should receive a
share of the consideration of the administrative boards. They
really hold the key to the whole situation, in the discrimination
they show and the amount of the fees they will allow in their
patronage of stallions. Stallions capable of becoming good sires
are costly, and their fee must be sufficient to insure some return
on the investment. With a liberal policy adopted by the mare
owners, there need be no dearth of good sires. The scrub is
costly to patronize though the fee is low. As long as the scrub
can command his share of the patronage, there is little to induce
one to invest in a first-class stallion. It is a fact worthy of note
that the average stud fee prevailing in those States from which
the bulk of the market supply of horses of this country is drawn is
about double that of those districts where the horse business is
given up as unprofitable.

'No law can compel mare owners to patronize superior stal-
lions, nor is it constitutional to deny them the patronage of the
inferior ones, unless they are proven to be an absolute menace
to the industry. Education is the only solution, and that is

192 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

%\dtliin the province of, and should be vigorously prosecuted by,
the licensing officials.

The Community System of Breeding. — There are many
advantages in the breeders of a community getting together and
working to a common end within the same breed. Such a system
makes possible the use of a stallion which no individual member
of the comnmnity could o^vn. It promotes cooperation and
mutual helpfulness, which in time revert to the benefit of all
concerned in the way of a district reputation for horses of what-
ever type produced. Buyers are thus attracted where they could
not be induced to come to see but a few widely scattered horses
or colts, in the hands of jealous owners who were not disposed
to reveal the whereabouts of other possibilities in case their own
failed to meet the buyers' requirements. Individual advantages
are subordinate to the interests of the community, the general
policy being to insure the buyers finding the horses sought, each
owner helping his neighbor to make a sale, in case he himself
has nothing to suit. Once satisfied, the buyers are most likely
to return when those who Avere unable to sell the first time may
have their inning.

A^^len different types and breeds are represented in a com-
munity, partisan sentiment is almost certain to prevail. Each
breeder cannot accomplish alone what might be possible by the
combined effort of all, and their offerings in any one line are not
sufficient to attract the best buyers.

The Breeding Stud. — A horse breeding establishment is
spoken of either as a stud or stud farm, the breeding sire as the
stud horse (Fig. 121).

The equipment of a stud farm should consist of comfortable
and hvgienic quarters, productive pastures, preferably underlaid
with limestone and provided with ample shade and running
water, safe fences, and competent help.

QuaHers. — Breeding stock does not do well in close confine-
ment, but dry, light, roomy, loose boxes or sheds, well bedded,
should be provided, to which the hoi*sos may have ready access
voluntarily, if not regularly stabled. For stallions, box stalls
opening into paddocks, the doors fastened back, are best; mares
are better cared for in the same way if practicable, although they

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 193

do fairly well in open sheds and lots, if too many are not turned
together and there are no quarrelsome ones in the lot. For draft
mares that are worked regularly, the paddock would be superflu-
ous, but they should be allowed loose boxes in which they can lie
more comfortably as pregnancy advances.

Maternity stalls may bo kept purposely for foaling, but as
mares are more finicky than other females at parturition time
there is some advantage, so far as their peace of mind is con-
cerned, in keeping them regTilarly in the quarters that they are to
be permitted to foal in, alongside of their accustomed mates.

Pastures.- — The greatest horse breeding districts are char-
acterized by luxuriant pastures, a most important feature of any

Fig. 121. — A breeding stud. In the work ring are two Hackney stallions in the fore-
ground, two Hackney pony stallions to the left, two show pony mares, the product of the
stud, on the right; show horses, brood mares and foals, weaning colts and fillies in the back-
ground. The stallion stable is on the right, the quarters for marea and colta on the left.

breeding farm. Size and early maturity are sought in all but the
ponies, and since the body is G to 9 per cent bone, and bone is 00 to
70 per cent ash, and 80 per cent of the ash is calcium phosphate, a
limestone foundation is a pasture essential. The seeding should
include such variety of grasses and legumes as to keep the forage
coming all through the season. Pastures should be well drained,
not too rough or stony ; all dangerous places, such as quarry holes,
pits, bogs, and stump lots, should be well guarded. Shade, run-
ning water, and possibly a fly flap complete the pasture requisites.
Fences should be at least four and one-half feet high, strong,
and of material and construction affording no opportunity for
the horses to be snagged or cut. The post and rail, common in the
East and South, is perhaps the most satisfactory horse fence. If

194 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

any barbed wire is used, it should be the top strand kept tight.
The ideal fence has been described as '' hog tight, bull strong, and
horse high '' — such is the post and rail, four rails high.

THE STALLION

Selection of the sire is the most important single step pertain-
ing to the establishment of a breeding stud. His is the most
potent influence for either good or bad in the operation. Like
the bull, he is more than half the l^erd. On account of his being
the parent of so many individual offspring in a given season, his
influence is much more extended than that of the mares. It
would require the use of as many superior mares as a stallion may
beget foals to accomplish the results that might be attained with a
single stallion, and then the progeny would be much less uniform.
In the case of an individual, his dam may have as much to do with
determining his merit as the sire, and it is important that only
good mares be bred, but the most practical method of improving
the mares of future generations is to grade up by means of a su-
perior sire. But one parent being pure-bred, his or her characters
will dominate in the offspring, since purity of breeding is a cause
of prepotency. As a rule, the pure-bred parent will be the sire.
In selecting a stallion, whether it be to head a select band of pure-
bred mares or to patronize with but a single mare, he must be
considered from three angles, — as an individual, as representing
and transmitting the characters of an ancestry, and as the pro-
genitor of a future generation.

As an individual,' he should be just what is desired in his
get, i.e.^ of the right type, good conformation and sound, being
strongest in those respects in which the mare or mares with
which he is to be mated are most deficient (Fig. 122). Further-
more, he must be masculine in appearance, possessing that de-
velopment of forehand, hardness of feature, and boldness of
demeanor which bespeak the impressive sire.

Testing Stallions. — The ancestry is the antecedent of the
progeny and should be carefully studied in order to forecast the
character of the progeny. Just as the proof of the pudding is in
the eating, so the real value of a sire cannot be determined with-
out an inspection of his get. They alone are sufficient either to

THE BREEDING OF HORSES

Figs. 122a and 122b. — A successful sire of the right type, good conformation, sound,
and masculine in appearance, whose prepotency is demonstrated by the trueness to type
and uniform excellence of his get.

196 THE PRINICIPLES OF BREEDING

commend or condemn the individnal as a breeder. Xone but a
proven sire should be put at the head of a breeding stud. The in-
feriority of a horse as a breeder may not be manifested until his
get are fairly mature ; in the meantime, the best mares have been
bred to him, perhaps for more than one season, and the damage
wrought in the stock as well as the time lost may take generations
to efface. The prospective sire should be tried out in a limited
way with a few mares before being trusted in premier place. It
is only for this purpose that the use of stud colts is justifiable.
, Early sem^ice cannot improve the development of the colt, and
unless carefully managed may be harmful, yet from the owner's
point of view it is often desirable to know, early, something of the
youngster's ability as a sire. To this end he may be used as a two-
or a three-year-old on a few selected mares, all to be served in a
short period, so that there may be no interruption in his growth.

The care and management of the stallion through the breed-
ing season may be summarized in a discussion of the feeding, ex-
ercise, regulation of service, and grooming. A mutual balance
between food and exercise is the key to condition of the stallion in
service. A most effective prescription employed by a prominent
veterinarian in one of the most extensive horse breeding districts
of this country is, " Halve the ration and double the exercise
when the stallion is not giving a vigorous, sure service."

Feeding. — Vigor and tone are secured for the sire by a ration
rich in tissue-building, protein and ash, but with little of the
fat forming starches, the whole to be counterbalanced by exercise
of some form in the open air. ~Ro better grain ration can be
offered than oats, but for the sake of variety and relish there may
be substituted a little barley or corn, and bran is always a valu-
able supplement to any grain ration, since it relaxes the system
generally, corrects or prevents digestive disorders, and furnishes
an abundance of bone and tissue-building material.

The draft stallion is most likely to be the victim of a stimu-
lating ration that is not counterbalanced by sufficient exercise.
The demand for ton horses is responsible for a system of fitting
which is not intended to insure foals. Many draft stallions
offered for show or sale are in anything but breeding condition.
On the other hand, it should not be considered necessary to

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 197

reduce a draft stallion to anytliing like race horse condition in
order to insure virility. It is natural for a draft horse to be fat
in a degTee which would be abnonnal in a road horse, and he is
not at his best in any other condition. There is what might be
termed an optimum or best normal weight for any horse, i.e., his
weight when in normal condition as to flesh, muscular tone, and
vigor. If that can be determined and then maintained by estab-
lishing a balance between feed consumed and exercise taken, the
greatest virility may be expected.

Exercise. — If a horse is gaining over his normal weight, in-
crease his exercise first, and if he continues to gain, reduce his
ration. If he falls below normal weight and is receiving only
a reasonable amount of exercise, increase his ration first, then,
if necessary, reduce the exercise. But it is generally the former
rather than the latter condition which the stud groom has to
meet. The old country practice of travelling the horse is one
of the most practical means of solving the exercise problem, and
is for that reason commendable, although there seems to be a
prejudice against it in some parts of this country. It is often
found practicable to give the draft stallion work about the farm.
If there is no such opportunity, he should be led or driven several
miles per day, but at a walk. This is the draft horse's gait, and
if a more ingenious than industrious groom imagines that he can
concentrate the benefits of a long walk into a short trot, he will
find the results much in favor of the walk.

Exercise is just as essential to the best breeding condition of
tlie light stallion, but the trotter is more certain of his daily jog
and the Thoroughbred of his morning gallop than is the drafter
of his walk. In the lighter classes of stallions there is not the
premium placed on weight\which induces the feeder to fatten the
horsft^bpyond ^IL.^e»6Ql3 . ^^^^-^

Regulation- of the services of wc stallion is of vital impor-
tance. '^pTTrTTTrrs-dTif^TaiToji^^ such regulation should be,
but nearly all agree that many horses are misused in service.
It is well to remember that a horse's success is not measured by
the number of mares he serves, but by the number and character
of the colts he gets in a given season. ISlo definite number of

198 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

mares can be assigned as best to allow the horse, since the num-
ber that can be properly bred will depend upon their distribu-
tion through the season, the age of tlie horse, and his preparation
and fitness for the work. The most consen^ative estimate is an
average of one service per day the season through for a mature
horse. However, the mares do not always come in regular order,
distributed throughout the entire season. Hence, it often be-
comes necessary to make two or even three covers iri a single day,
and this may be done, occasionally, ^dth no injury to the horse.
It should not be repeated, however.

Grooming is necessary, not only to make the horse more at-
tractive in appearance, but to assist exercise in maintaining the
best of health and condition. The functions of the skin must
be kept active. A lack of exercise and neglect in grooming are
together responsible for many serious conditions about the legs
and feet of the big, lymphatic draft stallions, especially those
with much coarse feather. The grooming must not be so rough
nor severe as to cause irritation either of the skin or temper, but
it should be thorough, with special care taken to keep all parts
clean and free from any foulness.

THE BROOD MAEE

We have as yet no definite information to show that the parent
of either sex has any special influence in determining the char-
acter of the offs])ring apart from what is governed by prepo-
tency. The relative influence of sire and dam is apparenihj in
favor of the sire because the female line is so often lost or un-
traced. Many noted families, however, have been founded by
females, and the evidence of Arab pedigrees, which have been
traced through the dams for centuries, demonstrates the impor-
tance of the mare.

The dam is not only a source of hereditary transmission, like
the sire, but she serves as a host to the developing foetus. Selec-
tion of the brood mare involves the same general consideration
as selection of the stallion. Her manifestation of sex character
is found in a comparatively light forehand, a sweet, refined head

THE BREEDING OF HORSES

199

and neck, and a matronly appearance throughout (Fig. 123).
In order to sustain the growth of the foetus well, she should be
deep-ribbed and roomy, and somewhat more openly made, with
more length, than is desirable in the stallion. She should pos-
sess every indication of capacity and vigor (Fig. 124).

Care and Management of the Brood Mare. — The feed, work,
and care, at and after foaling, are of greatest importance in con-

FiG. 123. — A producer — sweet, refined, and feminine.

ate

noction with the mare. Food and exercise

the condition of the mare as taIIU»ft*rniii'ie suc/^ess or -faihirfi in

together, so re

the product ion j^^jToaL It is a matter of give and take between
them. A balance is manifested by the condition which is indi-
cative of the greatest activity of the vital functions, i.e., vigor,
expressed in the clear eje^ the sleek coat, and the keen appetite
which the feeder describes as " hearty,'' together with a general
evidence of nerve and muscle tone. The mare in this condition

200 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

will carry no superfluous flesli, but is herself sufficiently well
nourished to insure ample nutriment for the perfect development
of the foal.

The ideal conditions for the brood mare, namely those in
which the balance between feed and exercise is most easily main-
tained and the feed of the best sort secured, are those surround-
ing mares at pasture. Fresh air and sunshine, without exposure,

Fig. 121. — A brood mare of i)ro\'(n worth, (Iccp-rihhcd and roomy, with every indicatif

of capacity and vigor.

freedom to move about at will, with little danger of slips or
fatigue, and an abundance of nutritious, succulent forage, fur-
nishing the elements essential to the growth of the foal and the
production of milk by the dam, are the things nature has pro-
vided at the season of the year when most females naturally bring
forth their young. These can hardly be improved upon, and if
they must be modified or substituted on account of economy, they
should still be the standard by which other systems are measured.

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 201

However, the average farmer must either breed his working
mares or work his brood mares. The question which confronts
him is how to secure natural conditions for his mares while per-
forming artificial service.

It must be borne in mind that feed furnishes energy^ and
tissue-foiTQing material, and tliat the perforaiance of work re-
quires energy and uses up tissue. Thus tlie balance between
them is maintained. The mare at work is just as well off, in the
matter of exercise, fresh air, and sunshine, as the one at pasture,
but she has imposed upon her labor which demands more energy
and uses more tissue^building material. She is also subject to
fatigue, mechanical injuries, and nervous disturbances that never
come to the mare at pasture.

Exercise and Worh. — In general, the management of the
brood mare should have for its object the feeding of such a ration
as will supply the demand for energy and tissue and still allow
ample nourishment for the development of the foal, either before
or after birth, together with such a regulation of the work as
will protect the mare from becoming tired, overheated, or in-
jured in any way. She must not be fretted either by another
horse or by a rough hand, while heavy, jerky pulls, extreme
speed, rough saddle work, or jumping are to be strictly prohibited
as pregnancy advances. But to work a mare up to within a
month of foaling and then confine her in a stall with no exercise
whatever is almost as injurious as to begin working her liard
after ten months' rest, following breeding. It is not unusual for
mares to foal, successfully, while in the field at work, but it is
safer to gradually diminish the work, so that during the last
few weeks of pregnancy only the lightest work is done or exercise
in the yard is taken.

Avoid Extremes. — It is a peculiar fact that, while the two
extremes in condition are both unfavorable to breeding, statistics
indicate that the birth rate among nations has showTi a marked
increase following devastation by war and famine, conditions
of life in which the females become reduced to the extreme of
low condition. This w^ould seem to be in response to a natural
law for the preservation of the race, and should not be taken to

202 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

indicate that starvation and extremely low condition are favor-
able to reproduction. It is tiiie that a thin mare is more apt to
breed than a pampered one, but a mare in low condition has no
reserve on which to draw for the nourishment and groAHh of
her colt. Her whole system is in an impoverislied condition,
which must be corrected before the nutrients will be available for
the growth of the foal.

Feeding. — The quality of the ration is of as much impor-
tance as the quantity. Fat production is to be avoided, and the
formation of blood, muscle, and bone sought instead. Hence, a
comparatively naiTOw ration should be fed.

ne tendency of females to fatten as pregnancy advances
must be guarded, as mares may become so fat as to interfere with
the development of the foal, and oause abortion or trouble at
jjjrth. Just before and after foaling, the ration of the dam
should be lightened and made more laxative by tlie addition of
bran, either dry or in a mash, to be continued until both dam and
foal have fully recovered from the ordeal through which they
have just passed.

After Foaling. — Exercise should be permitted after the sys-
tem of the mare has readjusted itself, but regular work should
not be begun inside of three weeks. It is better not to work the
mare until the foal is weaned.

THE FOAL

Navel Infection and Impaction of the Bowels in Young
Foals. — There are two active causes of death in young foals, a
better understanding of which might matenally reduce the
fatalities ordinarily reported during the foaling season. One,
perhaps the most common, is due to an impaction in the bowels
of the excrement accumulated during the development prior to
birth. This material is called meconium, and its prompt re-
moval is essential to the well-being of the new born animal.
Mature has provided for the accomplishment of this by giving
to the fore-milk or colostrum, as it is called, purgative properties.
Thus, if IsTature's plans are not interfered with and the first

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 203

milk is taken, there is usually no trouble in clearing the bowels
after birtk. However, the dam may have some trouble with her
milk at first, or the young, through weakness, may not get a
good draft of fore-milk ; in some cases even, care is taken to draw
off the colostrum before the young thing suckles, in the belief
that it is unfit to be taken ; and the colt suffers accordingly. In
order to avoid the difficulties arising from this cause, the first
care should be to insure a good portion of the fore-milk for the
young creature. Then if, from any cause, tlie digestive tract has
not been cleared of its contents within twenty-four hours, the
bowels must be stimulated to action by a tablespoonful of castor
oil and a warm water injection.

The other cause of many deaths in young animals' is infec-
tion with pus and disease germs through the navel. At the
moment the umbilical cord is ruptured there is a direct commu-
nication from without to some of the vital internal organs and
blood of the foal. This opening is later closed naturally by the
swelling and final drying and sloughing off of the end of the cord.
There is thus a brief opportunity for the entrance of bacteria
which may later affect the system generally or locally and
produce serious results. It has been- satisfactorily demonstrated
that the so-called navel or joint ill, in foals, is due to organisms
entering through this channel.

If this affection has prevailed in a stable it would be well
to remove pregnant mares to clean, uninfected quarters and
allow tJiem to foal there. The new-born foal should be dropped
only on fresh litter, and it would be safer to wash the stump
of the cord with a saturated solution of boracic acid and then
dust with boric acid powder. These precautions have been the
means of eradicating the difficulty from many stables where
deaths had occurred year after year.

It is not advisable to cut or ligate the cord, but allow it to
break naturally, as it will do if left alone. A torn or broken
blood-vessel will not bleed, whereas, one that is cut directly
across will, and it takes a skilled hand and sterilized materials
to make a ligature that mil not do more harm than good. If it
were more generally known that the newly broken umbilical cord

204 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

offers a channel of infection which may admit the most danger-
ous bacteria, more care would be taken to prevent such infection.

During the existence of the colt as a suckling some especial
precautions must be taken in addition to those already men-
tioned. The milk flow must be maintained by succulent forage,
the colt must be fed often, and the dam must at no time be in
such a condition as to render the milk injurious to the foal.

Most breeders advise leaving the colt in the stable while the
dam is at work, but others allow the colt to follow the dam to
the field. The objection to the former method is that unless the
mare is returned at least once during each half day the colt
becomes very hungry, and when the mare comes to him sweat-
ing he gorges himself on the milk mth which the udder is dis-
tended. This milk is often rendered injurious by the heated
condition of the mare, and it thus becomes a cause of serious
digestive disorder, especially when so much is taken. It is a
good thing to encourage the colt, as it grows older, to take a
few oats, preferably crushed, from its. mother's allowance, or a
creep may be especially constructed for the foal to feed in. If
two mares and foals are allowed together, the youngsters will
foiiu an attachment for each other which will prove of great
service in reconciling them to the weaning process.
<^;T'he Next Breedingfi^Observations have shown that a mare
may be bred with greater certainty of success on the ninth day-
after foaling than at any subsequent date. It is also known that
mares which have their sexual ardor somewhat suppressed by a
moderate degree of fatigue are more apt to conceive than mares
in an extremely nervous condition at the time of sendee. It is
for this purpose that the Arab gives his mare a sharp run just
prior to service.

Breeding Two-Year-Old Fillies. — Tiie advisability of
breeding fillies at two years of age is an economic question
which is frequently considered, and concerning which there
is a great deal of difference of opinion. It may be said, in the
first place, that it all depends upon the filly. Horses of draft
breeding mature much earlier than the hot-blooded sort, so that a

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 205

draft fiHy at two years of age is often as forward as one of
trotting breeding almost or fully a year older. Again, there is
a gi-eat difference in individuals and their development. Usually
a smootlily turned, neat, well-finished youngster makes its growth
much sooner than an apparently rougher but more growthy indi-
vidual, although as a rule the latter attains, eventually, to much
greater scale. Furthermore, the same individual may develop
in much less time in the hands of the feeder who keeps her con-
tinually " doing " than Avhen required to make all her growth
on pasture, with a material setback due to improper feeding each
Avinter season.

It does not seem feasible to include in this discussion any
but the Avell-matured draft filly, she being the only one which
should, imder any circumstances, be bred as a two-year-old.
It is not reasonable to suppose that, from the point of view of the
filly herself, early breeding is beneficial, but as a business propo-
sition it has been demonstrated that, whatever slight injurious
effect the filly may suffer, it is not sufficient to offset the advan-
tage of having her make some return, as a three-year-old, to the
man who has his money invested and is paying for her keep.
It is more satisfactory to have a tAvo-year-old filly pay her way
by raising a foal than by going to work in the field, as she is very
much more apt to suffer permanent injury from this than from
being bred. Even though a great many two-year-olds are capable
of doing a considerable amount of selected work, they cannot
take the. full part of a horse's work without danger of its becom-
ing detrimental to their ultimate worth.

The breeding of fillies is believed to insure their becoming
better mothers and more certain and regular breeders, eventually,
than though they be permitted to fully develop and become some-
Avhat " staggy," as they do occasionally, before being bred.

Practice Elsewhere. — The best means of solving this prob-
lem is to accept the findings of the other great horse-producing
countries where it has been thoroughly worked out. In Scotr
land, for instance, the practice is to breed the Clyde fillies the
spring they are two years old, allowing them no work whatever
that season. Then, after weaning their foals, they are taken up

20g THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

as three-year-olds and put to work, but not bred again until they
are four years old. This seems to be a very practical system
and worthy of our adoption.

Spring or Fall Foaling. — The natural time for foals to ar-
rive is the springy and under ordinary conditions, especially in
breeding studs, this is customary. However, nature is perverted
in many ways by modern methods of domestication, so there are
circumstances which make it more desirable to raise fall colts.
With good stables, abundance of feed, and the necessary help,
there is no reason why mares should not be made to foal in the
fall, if it is more convenient to have them do so. This may be
the case with farm mares which are expected to do the season's
work in addition to raising a colt. In fact, if one is forced to
choose between a spring foal, with no chance to properly favor
the mare, and a fall colt which arrives and is suckled while the
mare is laid by, the latter would be more desirable. During the
winter, however, both mares and foals Avill require.more attention
and should not be " roughed through." By late foaling the
youngsters can be given a good start before they are set back by
the inevitable short pastures and flies of midsummer.

Of course, breeders of race and show horses take eveiy ad-
vantage of the age limit and therefore favor early foaling.
There are also the unquestioned benefits to be derived from the
life in the open and the new grass to commend the spring time
for foaling, but prejudice against the fall date is not altogether
warranted and circumstances may be such as to make it most
advantageous.

Weaning the Foal. — The foal is usually weaned at from
four and one-half to six months of age, depending upon the cir-
cumstances. If pasture is short, or if for any reason either mare
or foal is not doing well, it is advisable to wean the foal com-
paratively early. If, on the other hand, the mare has a full flow
of milk and her services are not needed, there is no reason for
making a change under six months. Weaning is more a matter
of preparation than of the absolute removal of the foal from

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 207

the dam, and the simplicity of the weaning process itself depends
upon the thoroughness of the preparation.

If the proper provision is made for the foal to take more and
more gTain as he grows older, he will gradually reduce the
amount of milk taken from his dam, so that when the time for
weaning arrives very little if any setback or disturbance is caused
either foal or dam. If, however, the foal must learn to eat after
being deprived of his ordinary source of sustenance, he will
require some time to accommodate himself to the new regime,
while the mare will demand especial care on account of the
removal of the colt before her milk supply has been to any ex-
tent diminished. Furthermore, a little foal acquires a spirit
of independence as he becomes self-sustaining, and for that
reason the absence of the dam becomes a less disturbing factor
to him, especially if he has the company of another foal, than
to the young thing which has been entirely dependent upon its
dam until she is suddenly taken away. When once the dam and
foal are separated it is better for both if the separation is com-
plete ; if, after both have become reconciled to the parting, they
are permitted to see, hear, or smell each other again, all that has
been gained up to this time is lost, and it will be necessary to
begin over. Especial care should be taken to see that the new
quarters, where the weanlings are confined, are so constructed
and arranged as to make it impossible for them to injure them-
selves, in case they make a demonstration of their resentment at
being so treated.

Care of the Colt's Feet. — The relation between the direction
of the colt's legs and the form of his feet is so close as to make
the cxire of the latter a most important means of enhancing his
usefulness in later years. In the» first place, the natural attitude
of the leg determines, in large part, the form of the foot.
But, on the other hand, the natural attitude of the leg may
become altered to conform to an unnatural condition of the foot
resulting from neglect. Therefore, if the natural attitude of the
leg is correct, the natural form of the foot should be guarded
in order to preserve the correct position of the leg. It is even

208 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

possible, within certain limits, to so shape a colt's foot as to
induce correction of some defect in the position of the legs which
existed at birth. For example, the horse which stands toe mde,
nigger heeled, or splay footed as it is commonly called, ^vi\\
have the inner wall of his foot much shorter and more upright
than the outer wall. The condition is probably due primarily
to the position of the legs, the foot at birth appearing normal.
If, however, the animal had been bom with the legs straight,
but for some reason during the first fcAV months of his life the
out-er wall of his foot had been allowed to become longer than
the inner w^all, this unnatural form of the foot would tend to
bring about a toe wide position of the legs which were originally
straight Or, if the feet of a toe wide colt had been kept in
proper form, they would have influenced the toe wide legs to
assume a proper direction.

Horses become unsound of limb when the wear and tear is
not equally distributed, certain parts bearing an undue amount.
Equal distribution of weight bearing and other functional activ-
ities are possible only when the form of the foot and the direc-
tion of the leg are correct. Any deviation from the proper
standing position of whatever degree will, in all probability,
cause a proportionate overtaxing of certain parts mth its result-
ing unsoundness.

Handling the Foal. — It is much easier to train the young
plant or to mold the clay before they are set in some definite
form. In tlie same way the young animal, and notably the horse,
has fewer ideas of his own, and is more ready to accept the direc-
tions of a superior intelligence the younger tliis work is taken up.

The too common notion that education and work are insepar-
able is largely responsible for the fact that so many colts are
allow^ed to assert their independence until such time as they are
fit to go to work, their general usefulness being in most cases
impaired on this account. The horse should be reasonably ma-
ture before he is called upon to do. any service, but any time
spent on his education prior to the date at which he first goes
into commission, as it were, will be repaid many-fold in the moite
satisfactory manner in which he performs his service.

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 209

The profit and pleasure to be derived from the use of a horse
of anv class are so dependent upon his being readily subservient,
to his master's will that the earlier this spirit is created tlie
better horse he will be. A common custom in the Middle West
is to take the unbroken two- or three-year-old, put him between
two or three other horses to the gang plow, and thus " break "
him. He pulls when the others pull, makes the turns when they
do, and finally becomes of about as much service at that work as
the other horses in the team, but he is not broken. Take him by
himself and he will not stand, back, lead, rein, or allow a foot
to be picked up without as much or more resistance than was
offered before the breaking process began.

Subordination,— LMe foals- should be taught subordination
at the very start, and not allowed to become wilful or head-
strong. An early effort in this direction mil not only simplify
that culmination of their education, too often most properly
termed " breaking," but it will insure that end being more com-,
pletely accomplished. On the other hand, the idea of fear must
be kept as- remote as possible, as the timid horse is usually the
one whicli has some teiTifying experience to remember. Even
before the time for haltering arrives, the youngsters may be
taught to stand over, have tlieir feet raised, and in a general way
to respond to the master mind.

Halter Breaking. — When halters are to be placed on the
colts in order that they may Ix^come accustomed to them, one of
the light web variety' is preferable to the heavier strap halter
commonly used, and'care should be taken not to pull heavily on
the nose, band at any time. Many deformed face lines have been
caused by this means. It is not necessar>^ to drag a colt by the
halter in order to sugge&t to him that his bu-siness is to follow.
As a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder
a colt is pulled, the harder he pulls back. If, on the contrary, he
is coaxed along some accustomed route, as to the water trough
and back, he will soon catch on and follow promptly whenever
the halter is taken in hand.

The first time the colt is tied up by the head, see to it that the
halter will hold him in case he pulls. If it does and he fails in
14

210 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

the first few attempts, a string mil probably ser^^e as well as a
chain to keep him in his place tliereafter, while if he succeeds in
freeing himself at the first few attempts he will never cease
trying to repeat what he has once accomplished.

Bridle and Harness. — The first step toward getting a colt
going successfully in harness is to properly bit and mouth him.
In the old countries a common practice is to back the colt into a
slip stall and hold him there by cross-ties snapped in the bit
rings. He thus works against the iron, first bearing, then yield-
ing, until he becomes accustomed to its presence and tlie pressure
exerted by it. The dumb jockey or more simple bitting ring,
commonly used here, serves much the same purpose, but no
mechanical device is as effective as the pressure of the hand on
the rein ; better mouths are made in this way. One of the most
effective ways of developing a good mouth in a colt and of teaching
him to flex his neck is by riding him as soon as he is old enough
to be " backed.'' Many of the best harness horses received much
of their preliminary schooling from the saddle. Inasmuch as
the conveyance of the master's thought to the horse's mind, for
execution, is via hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can be
made and none should be attempted until this fundamental
means of communication has been established. Simple physical
power is a poor means of control when applied to the horse. On
the contrary, control is a matter which involves to a greater
extent the mental faculties of both horse and master. If he has
been inspired from colthood with the idea of man's dominance,
obedience will receive a great deal more consideralion from him
than will rebellion.

AMiile teaching the horse subordination by loading liim to
underestimate certain of his powers, it is also essential tliat he
be made to believe that there is no limit to certain others. In
the breaking process the kick strap should not be left off until
the habit has been acquired, nor should any pains be spared to
prevent an initial performance at either rearing, backing, wheel-
ing, or running. On the other hand, it is just as important not
to overload a pair of draft colts, with a view of creating in them
the notion that they can pull anything with two ends loose. For

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 211

the same reason a prospective race horse should be given no
occasion to believe that he is anything but invincible. Thus by
exaggerating our equine servant's notion of those of his powers
which are most useful to us, and at the same time deceiving him
as to those attributes wkich, if realized, might impair his use-
fulness, we promote his serviceability.

It is not necessary here to discuss the various systems of
breaking, nor the art of driving. The idea is simply to impress
upon the breeder the importance of properly handling the colts
and fillies w^hich he has bred. At all events, give them a liberal
education and begin early. Then, when the buyer comes along,
the colt so handled is more likely to sell well for three reasons :
( 1 ) He is worth more ; ( 2 ) the owner has a better opportunity to
shoAV the colt oil to his oavti advantage, presenting him with the
best foot forward, as it were; and (3) the buyer has a much
better chance to observe the real merit that he possesses.

Sterility is thK-cau^eofco^sid^fable loss to horse breeders
annually. Since actual test in the stud is the only means of de-
termining its existence, large prices may be paid for breeding
animals wliich prove utterly useless for that pur]30se. Some
knowledge of the causes of sterility may enable the breeder to
guard against the purchase of barren animals, to prevent it in
his breeding stock, or to regain the breeding power of animals in
Avhich it is temporarily impaired.

Sterility may be either permanent or temporary, and involves
both sexes. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, the result
of an incomplete or abnormal development of the generative
organs. Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or disease
affecting the genital system, or such general constitutional con-
ditions as may result from a change of environment, either ex-
treme obesity or general debility, and excessive use in the stud.

Sterility in the stallion may consist either of an inability or
an indisposition to sen^e a mare ; or that operation may be accom-
plished but with no resulting impregnation on account of the

212 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

absence of live, vigorous spermatozoa. Sterility of the latter
class may be complete or only partial, as when the breeding
powers are impaired but not lost. Double cryptorchids, in which
both testicles are retained undeveloped in the abdomen, are usu-
ally sterile, while single cryptorchids (ridglings), in which one
testicle only is involved, may be sure breeders. The latter are
objectionable as sires, hoAvever, since the condition is frequently
transmitted, thereby seriously complicating the 0}:)eration of
castration.

Many instances are reported of imported stallions which have
had successful stud seasons abroad proving impotent the first
year or two in this country, after which their potency is regained.

Stallions remain potent to an old age as a rule. Many valu-
able sires are sacrificed just as their true worth is beginning to
be appreciated, because they are growing old. Experienced
breeders who retain their proven sires find them potent to an
advanced age and much more valuable than many untried young
stallions prove to be. Most stallions are sold Avith a guarantee
to get 60 per cent of breedable mares in foal, but a much higher
percentage is maintained by some.

Sterility or barrenness of the mare consists of an inability
to produce a living colt. She may either be unable to conceive,
to carry the foal the full period of fcetal development, or to de-
liver the foal alive at the conclusion of gestation.

Some mares are so irritable or excitable in the presence of
the stallion as to make it necessary to resort to artificial impreg-
nation in order to get them bred.

If a twelve or fourteen-year-old mare has never had a foal,
her generative organs have probably undergone more or less
atrophy from disuse, and the possibility of getting her with foal
is much lessened. There are numerous instances, however, of
quite old mares having become pregnant for the first time. Mares
frequently suffer from cysts or tumors of the ovaries, the irrita-
tion of which keeps them almost continually in heat and renders
them practically useless, yet they fail to get in foal, when bred.
Such mares should be spayed and considered as work geldings
rather than brood mares.

THE BREEDING OP HORSES 213

Extensive breeders of imported mares have experienced con-
siderable difficulty in getting some of them in foal the first season
or two after their arrival unless they were in foal when brought
over; others breed as readily as native mares.

Occasionally a mare is encountered which breeds only every
other year. Others will not come in season, or at least conceive^
while suckling a foal. It is usually more difficult to get mares
in foal in the fall than in the spring. The age to which maret?
will continue to breed is variable, but many have remained pro-
ductive after passing the quarter century mark. Their breeding
power declines gradually, being marked by occasional misses,
occurring with increased frequency.

A mare which produces a good foal regularly is of priceless
value in the breeding stud. When an apparently valuable
breeder, although not in foal at the time, is offered for sale, it
is safe to assume that she has proven herself barren or at least
a shy breeder, unless, of course, there are other obviously good
reasons to account for her being sold.

Herniaphrodites, individuals in which the sexual organs of
both sexes are more or less completely represented, are, of course,
sterile.

Reproduction is a natural function which requires simply a
normal state of health and vigor for its accomplishment. The
stallion does not need the artificial stimulation of drugs to in-
sure his potency, neither can there be any virtue in " breeding
remedies '' for mares, other than that they may, like any anti-
septic preparation, overcome acidity or correct a catarrhal con-
dition in the genital tract.

When intelligent management of breodins: animals, insuring,
especially, a balance between feed and exercise, fails, it is
probable that breeding is either str'^cturally or functionally
impossible.

Artificial impregnation is. quite generally resorted to now by
breeders of all classes of horses, both as a means of extending
the services of the stallion and to insure the mares' getting in
foal. The method of conveying the spermatic fluid from the
vagina of the mare served, into the uterus of the same or other

214 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

mares, by means of either the gelatine capsule or the impreg-
nator — a specially designed syringe — is familiar to most hoi*se
breeders. When first advocated, artificial impregnation was
opposed by mare owners, but when it is demonstrated that colts
so conceived can not be distinguished from colts sired in the
natural way, this prejudice gradually disappears. Peter the
Great, the leading sire of trotters, got from seventy to eighty
foals a year as a result of artificial impregnation being used in
his case.

It is fundamental to the successful practice of artificial im-
pregnation to know that the vitality of the male geiTa cell is so
susceptible to the infiuence of light and temperature that it must
be carefully handled and quickly transferred. " Colts by mail ''
is hardly feasible.

Artificial Insemination. — This method of breeding is re-
ported to have been long practiced in crude fashion by the Arab
horsemen and by dog men, in a limited way, but it has recently
come into more general adoption by horse breeders. The simpler
anatomical arrangement of the cervix and the longer heat period
of the mare make artificial insemination much more practical in
horses than in cattle.

The objects of resorting to artificial means to inseminate
mares are to distribute, yet conserve, the services of a valuable
sire, to insure conception in some mares which fail to settle to the
ordinary service of the stallion, and to obviate the danger of
serving some nervous or irritable mares.

The technic consists in collecting the seminal fluid from the
depressed floor of the vagina of a mare just served by the horse,
in the regular way, by means of an uncovered capsule or a
syringe, carrying it to the genital tract of other mares ready to be
bred and inserting it directly through the cervix into the uterus
of these mares. All this must be accomplished without subject-
ing the semen to much variation from body temperature, in order
not to impair the \atality and motility of the germ cells. It may
be advisable to capsule the mare already served by the horse.

The strictest cleanliness should be obser\^ed throughout the
operation and mares showing vaginal discharge or any unhealthy

THE BREEDING OF HORSES 215

condition of the generative organs should be avoided. The oper-
ator's nails should be short and clean, the hand and arm thor-
onglily washed and lubricated with mild soap suds or vaseline.
The utmost care must be exercised not to abrade or infect the
mucous surfaces in manipulation. The collection of the semen
is best made with a syringe which can be boiled and a flexible
nozzle is an advantage. The fluid is then transferred, one by one,
into as many one-ounce conical shaped gelatine capsules as there
are mares to breed, the syringe being immersed in water at
body temperature, in the interval between the filling and insert-
ing of each capsule.

No special restraint is necessary, as a rule, but restive mares
may have a twitch applied to the nose, and possibly a side line to
hold up one foot. Heavy or stiff tails would be better tied to
one side or bandaged.

Testing the Potency of a Stallion. — Recognizing the part the
male may play in sterility, it is important to test the semen from
time to time, not only to detect impotency, but to determine the
results of too heavy service, masturbation, overfeeding, emacia-
tion or any condition which may affect the vitality of the male
germ cells. A sample of semen is received in a clean container
at the conclusion of a service, and a few drops placed on a slide
or cover glass to be examined under a low power microscope.
Normally the spermatozoa or male sex cells will be seen actively
motile, forcing their way across the field by a vigorous lashing
of their tails. They are present in great numbers, 428,000
per cm.* Their motility is gradually lost under the influence
of drying, light, and high temperature.

REVIEW

1. Describe the forces involved in breeding.

2. What is the relation of the parent to the ancestry on the one hand

and the progeny on the other?

3. Explain the greater breeding value of the pure-bred parent. What

is the pedigree?

4. What is meant by prepotency and upon what may it depend?

5. What are the objections to cross-breeding and when is it justifiable?

* Lewis, Okla. Exp. Station Bui. 93 and 96.

216 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING

6. What is the importance of studbook registration?

7. What are the objects of stallion legislation?

8. Why is " pure bred " an arbitrai-y teiin ?

9. When may an unsoundness be considered hereditaiy?

10. Name the advantages of the community system of breeding.

11. Of what does the proper equipment of a breeding stud consist?

12. Describe the ideal sire and direct his care and. management.

13. Describe the ideal brood mare and direct her care and management.

14. What can be said of breeding two-year-old fillies; of fall foaling?

15. What should the proper care of the foal from birth to marketable

age include and how much should it cost?

PART IV

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

CHAPTER XIII
RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER

History. — Tlie first reference to the domesticated horse is in
the Book of Genesis, Chapter xii^ verse 43, and records him in use
hy the Egyptians in Joseph's time, 1715 B.C. Modem research,
however, leads us to believe tliat the Egyptians derived their
horses and ideas of horsemanship from the Libyans, the people
(jf the other division of the Hamitic branch of the white race
inhabiting [N'ortheni Africa and with whom the Egyptians were
frequently brought in contact. From this centre the general
distribution of horses throughout Arabia, Asia Minor, Asia, and
Europe was accomplished with greater rapidity than has marked
the advance in the domestication of any other animal. Con-
trary to a popular belief, there were no horses in Arabia at the
beginning of tlie Christian Era. The horse has been and is yet,
in primitive countries, preceded as a beast of burden by the dog,
camel, ox, and ass.

Recently archaeologists have uneartlied evidence that the
horse not only existed but was subjugated to the service of man
in the Old Stone Age, when men lived in caves, worked and
fought with implements and weapons of stone of most crude
design, and were supposed to have domesticated only the dog and
the reindeer.

The first use made of the horse was in warfare. The war
chariot has been regarded as a creation of the Egyptians, but it
is believed now that the design was borrowed from the Libyans.
Later, the Avar horses were ridden, and hand-to-hand combat with
spear or lance and shield was waged by their riders, although at
first the horses served only for the transportation of the com-
batants to the field of battle, where they dismounted and fought
on foot. With the adoption of annor, the size of the horse was
materially increased, in order that he might be capable of carry-
ing the gross weight of rider and armor both for man and horse.

219

220 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

With the invention of gunpowder the type of war horse was
modified in accordance with the change in methods of warfare.
Our modem cavalry charger is quite a different horse from the
ancient '^ Great Horse '' of the armored knight, which eventually
became the prototype of our present drafter.

In ancient times it was customary for the victors in a con-
flict to drive their chariots through the towns in celebration of
their victory, a practice now emulated by college students. This
led to the adoption of the chariot as a feature not allied to war
but representing the Church and State. White horses were pre-
ferred for this service, and a. race of white horses was perpetu-
ated in Lombardy and the purity of their lineage was guarded
with great zeal solely for this purpose. The horse has been an
important factor in civil and religious ceremonies ever since.

At an early period the horse was engaged in the sports and
pastimes of the people. During the latter half of the twelfth
century primitive horse sports, the most remote antecedents of
modern polo and the gymkhana, were popular in England. In
1377 the first race was run between Richard Second and the Earl
of Arundel. Racing and hunting have been followed in England
for five centuries.

The general use of horses in the industries came later,
although there is evidence of their having worked at draft in
England during the eleventh century. Their importance in this
line of service has increased in proportion to the development of
agri<?ulture and commerce.

Man's Obligation to the Horse in Service. — The horse is an
involuntary, despondent party of the second part to all contracts;
a silent and submissive partner in his alliance with his master.
Theirs is a business relation in Avhich the credits are all on one
side, .the debits on the other, and the horse is never accorded an
accounting. Yet if the master would be fair and equitable, he
must either concede a moral if not a civil obligation to pay for
services rendered, or exact only such service as his care and
management of his horses has placed to his credit.

In the feral state the horse is self-sustaining, expending his
energy by utilizing his power or speed in securing feed, water,

RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 221

and protection from the elements and predatory foes; under
natural conditions such expenditure may be considerable.

In Domestication. — The husbandman, with his system of
domestication, substitutes an artificial for a natural environ-
ment, relieving the horse of all responsibility in the matter of
feed, water, and protection, conserving to himself the energy
that would otherwise be expended for that purpose. There
is thus made available to the husbandman energy for work of
whatever character the horse is capable, and to just the extent
that energ;)^ has been saved. To balance the account, horses
working up to their full capacity must be furnished all that is
required for their subsistence and comfort; to underfeed or
overwork is to overdraw the account, and against one who has
not the usual privilege of protest.

Economic efficiency of the horse in service is more essential
now than ever before, on account of the high cost of foodstuffs
and the continued improvement in the motor vehicles with which
the horse is in competition.

Two men may ride or drive the same horse or team over the
game route with the same load and in the same time, yet there
will be a marked difference in the condition of their horses after
having accomplished the same task. This difference is due to a
more intelligent use of the available motive power in the one
case than in the other. If the various ways in which energy
may be expended in the performance of work were more care-
fully taken into account, both the period of usefulness and the
daily capacity of the average horse would be much increased.

A Horse's Capacity for Work. — The unit of measurement
by which work is expressed is the foot pound or the foot ton, i.e.,
the ]iower required to lift a weight of one pound or one ton to a
height of one foot against the force of gravity. The energy re-
quired to do work equivalent to 33,000 foot pounds per minute
constitutes a horse-power. This estimate of a horse's power is
not literally correct, however, but exceeds the capacity for work
of the average horse by about one-third.

Horses have been forced, experimentally, to do the equiva-
lent of 7800 foot tons in a day, but that is far in excess of their
normal capacity, as shown by the marked loss in weight which

222 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

attended such efforts. Three thousand foot tons has been fixed
by Col. Fred Smith, Veterinary Department, English Army,* as
a reasonable daily requirement of the horse, in work. This
amounts, in actual performance, to:

Distance travelled.

Walking at 3 miles an hour for 8.7 hours 26 miles

Walking at 4 miles an hour for 5.3 houi^s 21 miles

Walking at 5 miles an hour for 3,7 hours IS miles

Trottino; at S miles an hour for l.o hours 12 miles

Cantering at 11 miles an hour for 1 11 miles

The same authority has determined a horse's maximum
muscular exertion to be 68 to 78 per cent of his body weight,
as registered by his pull on the dynamometer, not on the load.
Such a pull, however, could be exerted but a few seconds, as
in the starting of a very heavy load. The walking draft of a
horse is given by Kingf as about 50 per cent of his body weight,
while for a steady, continuous pull a draft of from one-eighth to
one-tenth of his own weight is all that can be expected.

The weight-carrying capacity of a horse as reported by Smith
is from one-fifth to one-sixth his weight, at severe exertion. If
the pace- is more moderate the weight carried may be increased.
The weight carried is expressed in England by stone — one stone
being fourteen pounds.

The factors determining the severity of a horse's work are
the draft of the load, the pace at which the load is hauled or car-
ried, and the duration of the period of work.

Draft of the Load. — The traction required to move a load
is dependent upon the following conditions, acording to King:

1. The extent to which the pull is opposed by the force of
gravity. The increase in the draft required to move a load up
hill is proportionate to the increase in the grade. A 10 jwr cent
grade increases the draft 10 per cent of the load.

2. The resistance offered by the road-bed to the wheel. This
is least when the road is smooth and hard ; greatest when rough
or yielding. Eougli roads impose a senes of obstacles over which

* Veterinaiy Hygiene,
t Agricultural Physics.

REIATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 223

the wheel must travel, while the depression of a soft road surface
by the wheel creates a grade up which tlie wheel is continually
being drawn, in effect, the degree of the grade being proportion-
ate to the depth to which the wheel cuts. Experiments have
sliowTi that tlie traction of a given load over a connnon
road is from three to five times as great as in the case of a well-
paved surface.

3. Friction of the box on the axle. The degree of friction
depends, primarily, upon the weight of the load, but may be
modified by the style and condition of the axle and bearings.

4. Width of the tire. On the ordinary road the wide tire
reduces the necessary draft by distributing the weight borne by
the wheel over a greater area of road surface, thereby reducing
the tendency of the wheel to cut into the roadway and giving
tlie effect of a hard road, with its advantages. In an unusually
soft or muddy road the wide tire may be a disadvantage. The
saving in draft of as much as 120 per cent has been effected by
the use of a six-inch tire instead of a one and one-half inch tire
on ordinary going.

5. Size of wheel. It has already been shown that the de-
pression of the road by the wheel results in that wheel being con-
tinually pulled up a grade, the steepness of which is in inverse
proportion to the diameter of the wdieel. Furthermore, the lia-
bility of tlie wheel to cut is in direct proportion to its diameter.
The larger the wheel the greater the base of support for the load
and the less the tendency to depress. Therefore, the smaller
the wheel the greater the draft. Also, the gi^eater the diameter
of the whe^l the more easily it is lifted over the obstacles which
tJie rough surfaces of some roads present (Fig. 125).

6. The distribution of the load on the wagon. When only
part of a load is carried it is customary witli teamsters to place
it well forward on the wagon for obvious reasons, but when a
full load is put on it should be so distributed as to balance and
divide the weight equally on all four comers, if the wheels are of
equal size, or if the hind wheels are somewhat larger, as is
usually the case, more weight should be allowed on the rear
axle. Lightening tlie load for^vard has the advantage of per-
mitting a certain amount of play in the front axle over rough

224 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

going. If the load is not evenly distributed, whichever wheel or
wheels are overloaded cut more deeply into the road-bed, thus
increasing the draft as described above. Furthemiore, by the
cutting in of one or more wheels the weight of Uie load is shifted
in that direction, which increases the degree of the cutting still
deeper.

7. The line of draft. As a general principle the line of draft
should be parallel to the direction in which the wheels travel.
On an absolutely unyielding surface this plane is parallel to the
general surface of the roadway, hence the draw bars on railway
cars and locomotives line up parallel with the rails. The ordi-
nary wagon, however, is hauled over surfaces more or less yield-
ing, consequently, allowing for the depression of the wiieels,

Fig. 125. — The draft acting in the line A B pulls on a bent lever, BCD, raising the
weight which may be considered as concentrated at D. The longer the arm B C and the
shorter the arm C D, the more easily will the draft raise the weight of the wheel and for the
same sized obstacle the larger wheel will evidently have the advantage. In the figure the
lines of draft make the same angle with the radius-arm of the lever. If the lines of draft
are parallel, the advantage of the larger wheel is still greater.

they are really travelling more or less up hill at an angle with
the apparent surface of the road. There should, therefore, be
a corresponding slant in the line of draft, to avoid pulling down
upon or against the incline of the depressed surface. The ad-
justment of the line of draft is governed by the length of the
tracer, on the one hand, and the height of their attachment at both
hame and single-tree, on the other. In making such adjustment
it should be borne in mind that, other things being equal, the
traction is less the nearer the team is to its load.

8. Attachment of traces to hames. Whatever adjustment
of traces is made for the purpose of giving the proper line of
draft, it should not interefere with the angle which this line

RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 225

forms witli the liames. With a properly fitted collar, the pull
should be as near as possible at right angles to the line of resist-
ance, the hames, in order that the collar may bear directly
against the shoulder, and not be borne down upon the withers
nor up against the trachea. Furthemiore, the height on the
hames at which the attachment of the traces is made should be
such as to distribute tlie bearing proportionately over the collar-
bed, and allow the greatest freedom of shoulder motion. If
attached too high the greatest weight is borne on that part of
the collar-bed which is least capable of sustaining it, while if
attached too low, as is more commonly the case, the point of the
shoulder is overworked as well as being seriously hampered in
its movement (Fig. 126).

9. The fit of the collar. While not directly influencing the
degree of traction required to move a load, it has much to do
with the application of the power by which the load is pulled.
A horse^s draft capacity is very often seriously impaired by his
inability to exert himself to the limit against an ill-fitting collar.
It is far easier to keep shoulders right than to restore them to
that condition once they have gone wrong. The collar should be
so well made as to retain its shape in use ; it should be perfectly
smooth and quite hard on its bearing surface, sweat pads more
often inducing than correcting shoulder ills ; it should conform
to the general shape of the forehand of the horse, draft horses,
with their comparatively low but muscular withers, requiring
ample width at this point; and it should fit in such a way as
to insure the best relation between the collar itself and those
structures constituting the collar-bed with whicli it comes in
contact (Fig. 127). A properly fitted collar should admit the
tliickness of tlie fingers between it and the shoulder all around,
with sufiicient room for tlie hand or even the wrist, over the
trachea and the withers. Made-to-measure collars are a good
investment, and, needless to say, the fitting should be made with
the horse in working condition.

Dutch or breast collars should be so adjusted as to just miss
the point of the shoulder below, yet not compress the windpipe
above (Fig. 128).

The Rate at which the Load is Moved. — The pace at which
15

226

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

a horse is capable of exerting his draft power to the best advan-
tage is from two to two and a half miles per hour, the ordinary
walking rate. Power and pace are not correlated ; the speed
horse to accomplish his utmost must have the lightest impost
of weight, while the draft horse requires full time allowance
for the best performance of which he is capable ; therefore, as
more pace is required, less load can be hauled.

The Duration of the Period of Work, or the Distance
Travelled. — The traction which a horse is capable of maintain-
ing continuously, for a day's work, as plowing, is much less

Fig. 126. — The angle
formed by the traces with
the hames should be as near
a right angle as possible in
order to insure the proper di.s-
tribution of collar bearing on
the collar bed.

Fig. 127. — The scapulo-
humeral and elbow-joints,
showing the position of the
bones of the shou^der and
arm and their relation to
collar bearing.

Fig. 128. — The
breast or Dutch collar
in proper position.

than that which can be accomplished in one short, supreme effort,
as in the starting of a load or even for a short haul.

There is an intimate give-and-take relationship existing
among these factors by which the severity of a horse's work is
determined. They represent the means by which energy is
expended.

The Application of the Power. — \Vliat might be considered
as the application of the power, on the part of the rider or
driver, is a most important factor in limiting what a horse can
do. Two drivers will show very different results in what they
take out of their horses in accomplishing the same work. One
husbands his horse's strength, speed, and stamina in such a way

RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 227

as to secure tlie maximum return for every unit of energy ex-
pended, with always a reserve upon which to draw, if need be.
His horses are working or going well within themselves. An-
other, either by his ignorance or inconsideration, is always ex-
pending more of his horse's resources than is necessary to ac-
complish a given task, with the result that he is continually
overdrawing the amount of energy available, and his horses are
soon spent.

Warming Up Slowly. — To suddenly open wide the tlirottle
of an engine or to throw to the last position, in one stroke, the
control lever of a trollej^ car is productive of great mechanical
injury, yet such abnipt application of horse power is common.
A new engine runs ^^ stiff '' till warmed up ; so does a Iku-sc, and
especially an unsound one. A horse starting on a day's work
or a road trip should havc^ the collar wanned and shaped to his
shoulders, his muscles actively contracting and extending, his
joints thoroughly lubricated, breathing and heart action grad-
ually accelerated, and bowels evacuated before he is called upon
for his best effort. In the reverse order he should be gradually
cooled and blown out before being put away at the conclusion
of the day's work or road trip.

Notice to Drivers. — The following advice to drivers copied
from a large city stable is typical of what is sought in most
well-managed establishments:

1. Walk your horses for ^ve squares going to and from the
stable.

2. Water horses as often as possible.

3. In case of a sick horse notify the stable immediately.

4. Have your horses' manes and tails brushed, buckles
straight, and straps in keepers before starting.

5. 'Reliable information of the ill treatment of any of our
stock by drivers will result in suspension and, in serious cases,
in prosecution.

Trotting down hill is much more injurious to legs and feet,
though less fatiguing, than trotting up hill. A horse holds his
breath during extreme effort, as in pulling; one with a tube in
his throat will have his pulling power much impaired because

228 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

he cannot hold his breath bj closing the glottis. Therefore, an
opportunity to fill the lungs by a couple of full, deep breaths at
frequent intervals during a hard pull will not only slow down
the hurried, shallow breathing, but will actually increase the
power of the horse to pull. Every advantage of grade and going
should be availed of, and the horse spared most when great effort
would be most futile.

The Natural Gait. — The majority of horses acquire a natural
pace which they maintain with little effort. If continually urged
to a slightly faster rate of speed they are soon distressed, even
though the actual saving of time in the distance travelled is
immaterial.

Condition. — The fundamental factor determining efficiency
for work, other things being equal, is condition or fitness. Fit-
ting renders a horse more efficient, because by it there is estab-
lished a state of health, vigor, and muscular tone in which there
is a concordant action between lungs, heart, muscles, digestion,
and nerve control. Condition is indicated by a spirit of keen-
ness for work, brightness of the eye, bloom of the coat, and an
absence of fat, exposing the outline of the individual muscles,
with a characteristic hardness of the muscles themselves. Con-
dition is a matter of degree, the most extreme of which is found
in the race horse and hunter, less in the road and work horse,
and still less in the park or show horse, a surplus of fat being
desirable in the latter case.

Fat is an element of condition in the draft horse in which it
has the real advantage of adding to his weight in the most natural
way, as well as affording him a reserve store of energy upon
which to draw in his long hours of arduous daily service. It
must be put on, however, under the same conditions as obtain
in the regular life of the draft horse, namely, Avhile at work;
otherwise it will prove an impediment and will not be retained
long.

Balance Between Feed and Exercise. — Condition is the
result of the mutual balance between feed and exercise, and re-
quires the keenest powers of observ^ation for its detection. Over-
feeding and insufficient exercise on the one hand, and under-

RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 229

feeding with, overw^ork on the other, are the two causes which
destroy the balance necessary for condition. It can only be
obtained by degrees and cannot be forced without disastrous
results. Exercise and feeding should be gradually begun and
results carefully noted day by day, with a uniform increase up
to the maximum and a correspondingly gradual decrease when
the horse is to be thrown out of training.

Hardening the Skin. — Draft and saddle horses should have
their skins hardened to the friction of the collar and saddle in
addition to being rendered physically fit.

A marked difference between individv/ils is found in the
manner in which they round into form, in the fitting process.
Frequently those which attain fitness most readily are the first
to go stale.

Degree and Time. — The more extreme tlie degree to which a
horse is conditioned the shorter the period during which that
degTce of fitness can be maintained. The modern practice of
keeping race horses in training and fit to start at any time during
prolonged campaign seasons presents many more difficulties than
fitting for a single race, when the horses can be trained to the
minute.

An Intuitive Ari. — The fitting of horses for racing, showing,
or work is an art which requires the keenest horse sense, judg-
ment, and discernment. There is no school for trainers ; the
art is natural, not acquired, and it is doubtful if the master
trainers themselves could coach another to do what is intuitive
with them.

Condition has an economic importoMce, for a horse is capable
of his maximum efficiency, in his respective fields of ser\dce,
only when fit. The work horse, on account of tlie regularity of
liis occupation, offers the least difficulty to tlie conditioner;
while the saddle and harness horse, whose work is more severe
when it does come, and it comes mth the greatest degree of
irregularity, in accordance with the whim of their owner, re-
quire special care. There is no coiTelation between fitness for
work and resistance to unsoundness, but a leg-weary horse is
especially liable to interfere, forge, stumble or slip, thus predis-
posing to permanent injury.

230 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

REVIEW

1. When, where, by whom and for what purpose were horses first

used f

2. What is the master's obligation to his horse?

3. What is a horse's average capacity in foot tons per day, draft, and

weight carrying f

4. What factors detennine the severitj^ of a horse's labor?

5. Upon what does the draft of a load depend ?

6. Describe the proper fit of collar and adjustment of traces and hames.

7. How should horse power be used for gi-eatest efficiency?

8. When is a horse in condition and how is it indicated ?

9. Of what does conditioning a hoi>;e consist? and what personal

qualifications are involved?
10. What may be the consequences of working horses when not in con-
dition ?

CHAPTER XIV

THE FEEDING OF HORSES

One of our leading texts on feeding has this most appro-
priate quotation on its fly leaf : '^ The eye of the master fattens
his cattle/'

The feeding of stock is both an art and a science. The artist
docs not employ a T-square and compass, nor does he resort to
mathematical equations to express his conceptions on canvas.
The accuracy of his results is in proportion to his skill. The
scientist, on the other hand, is exact to the fifth decimal and is
held to the most absolute accuracy in his methods of determi-
nation.

Scientific research has provided us witli most valuable data
bearing on the subject of nutrition, but the possession of such
data alone does not constitute all of the qualifications of a suc-
cessful feeder. In an effort to make feeding an exact science
there is danger of losing the art. Provide two feeders of similar
classes of stock with the same scientific data and allow them both
access to the same mows and bins, yet there may be a wide varia-
tion in the results obtained by each. One lacks the art of apply-
ing the science; it is as essential to know how as what to feed.

Art in Feeding Horses. — This is especially true of the feed-
ing of horses. The block animal has simply to &(3 a superior
carcass, and to tliis end he is provided with every advantage,
and requires from but a few wrecks to three years, at the most, for
its attainment. A horse's obligation is to do rather than to he;
he is required to perform more complex functions, and for a
period of such duration as Avill justify the gTcater initial invest-
ment which he represents. The nature of a horse's work is so
exacting and yet so variable, his opportunity for mental and
physical disturbances so great, and his misuse so common, that
in his case no standard or rule can be applied unalterably.

Successful horse feeders are " artists " with eyes for the
" fattening " of their stock. They balance their rations, not so

231

232 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

much from a knowledge of either German or American feeding
standards, as from the actual requirements of the horses them-
selves. These requirements are indicated by their spirit or
" feel " ; the expression of their countenance ; the condition of
their coats and legs ; and the color, odor and consistency of the
faeces. If feeders read these signs aright it will usually be found
that the rations fed will check up very closely to what would be
a balanced ration if calculated on the basis of generally accepted
feeding standards.

Two Systems Compared. — In the feeding of cattle and hogs
the lot is the usual unit, but in the case of horses, even more than
with dairy cows, the individual is the unit, and even his individ-
ual requirements may be subject to considerable variation.
One system of supposedly economic feeding is to calculate, in
the office, from the requirements set forth in the Wolff-Lehmann
or modified standards, the rations to be fed, compare them with
the stock of feed on hand and the number of horses to be fed,
then notify the stable boss that his feed should last till a certain
date, and hold him responsible for any shortage. This system
ignores, completely, the individual requirements of the different
horses, which only the artist feeder can appreciate and meet.
Another way is to employ a thoroughly competent feeder, pro-
vide anything and everything that he may desire in the feed
line, allow him every latitude in the use of it, and then hold him
responsible for results only, as measured by the fitness and
capacity of his horses for their work. The former method may
be more economic of feed consumed, but the latter will be much
more productive per unit of feed consumed, which is the real
economic consideration.

How the Feed is Used. — The horse utilizes the constituents
of his ration, — the water, ash, protein, carbohydrates and fat,
chemical compounds, — in the growth and maintenance of his
body structure, in supporting the vital processes by which he
lives, and in performing those functions which we designate as
work. The extent to which the ration contributes to either or
all of these depends upon the relative proportions of each of the
compounds it contains.

Water is present in considerable amount in all tissues, being

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 233

contained in the protoplasm of tlie cell, the unit of structure of
the animal body.

The inorganic material of bone, to which its strength and
texture are due, is largely calcium phosphate, although other
mineral or ash constituents are present in other tissues of the
body.

Protein is the chief source of the cell protoplasm and is the
most important tissue builder.

The carbohydrates are fat formers and, in addition, furnish
the energy necessary to do" work, after the operation of the vital
functions and the maintenance of the body temperature have
been taken care of.

Fat ser\^es the same purposes, but with a caloric or heat
value 2.25 times as great.

Rations Not All Alike. — ^It is obvicms that mature animals
at work, at rest, pregnant mares, or growing colts require rations
made up of these compounds in different proportions. When the
proportions of the protein on the one hand and the carbohy-
drates plus the fats on the other are such as to just meet the
requirements of the horse in question, with no excess of either,
the ration is said to be halanced. The relation of the protein
to the carbohydrates plus fats is expressed as the nutritive ratio.
This is determined by adding to the digestible carbohydrates
contained in the ration, the fats multiplied by 2.25, then divid-
ing the sum by the amount of the protein. The protein is to the
carbohydrate as one is to the quotient.

The ration is considered wide if the ratio of carbohydrates
plus fats is large Avhen compared with the protein. If the ratio
is small the ration is called narrow.

There is no relation between the balance and the sufficiency
of the ration. A horse may stance on a perfectly balanced ration
of insufficient quantity, or he may be surfeited with feed and
yet suffer from malnutrition if the relative amounts of protein
and carbohydrates plus fats are not properly balanced.

In view of the fact that maintenance requirements, which
amount to about 50 per cent of a full ration, Avill be satisfied
before anything is available to be turned to work, the full ration,
so far a^ quantity is concerned, is most productive.

234 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Nutritive Requirements of the Horse. — The horse's daily
nutritive requirements, according to the Wolff-Lehmann feed-
ing standards, are as follows. The amounts are for one thousand
pounds of live weight :

Dry Carbo- Nutritive

matter Protein hydrates Fats ratio

Light work 20 lb. 1.5 lb. 9.5 lb. .4 lb. 1:7

Medium work 24 1b. 2 lb. 11 lb. .6 1b. 1:6.2

Heavy work 26 lb. 2.5 lb. 13.3 lb. .8 lb. 1:6

Smith * concludes, however, from the investigations of Lang-
worth, of the United States Department of Agriculture, and
others, that the protein standard is too high ; that the majority
of American work horses are doing their work acceptably, with-
out loss in condition, on a ration of 1 to 8 instead of 1 to 6.

Three Types of Feed. — A ration may be composed of three
types of feedstuffs, — concentrates, roughage, and succulence.
The relative amounts of each, which the ration should contain,
will be determined by the class of horses fed. The horse is an
automobile in that he moves by his own power, and is not a sta-
tionary engine, as are cattle, sheep, and hogs, so far as their pro-
ductiveness is concerned. It is important, therefore, that he
expend as little as possible of energy available, in simply trans-
porting the mass of his o^vn body. Hence, the horse at work must
carry his ration in more or less concentrated form, according to
the nature of the work. But some bulk in the digestive tract
is necessary, for physiological reasons. A horse would prac-
tically starve to death on concentrates alone. Roughage should
be allowed but its amount regulated according to the nature of
the work, and it should be fed mostly at night, when it will cause
least interference. An idle horse can take a greater proportion
of his ration in roughage than one at work, and the drafter
moving at a walk, with weight an advantage, can be allowed
more roughage than the race horse, in whose case weight is a
handicap and bulk an impediment.

Succulence is useful in the ration, not only for the nutrients
it contains but for the palatability which it lends and its physio-

* Profitable Stock Feeding.

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 235

logical effect on the digestive tract and condition of the animal
in general. The use of succulence for horses at work must be
g-uarded or it will induce such a lax condition of the bowels as
to seriously interfere with their serviceability. Succulence is
admissible according to the nature of the work a horse does, as
in the case of roughage.

CONCENTRATES FOR HORSES

Oats. — The concentrate best adapted to the feeding of horses
is oats ; on account of both chemical and physical composition,
they stand first in this class. They not only meet the protein and
carbohydrate requirements best, but the hull is an advantage, in
so extending the kernel as to insure most complete digestion.
Besides, there seems ample reason for believing that oats improve
the fettle, especially of haniess and saddle horses. The cost
])rice of oats is high, however, and in the interests of economy
they may be displaced by the other feeds, either wholly or in
part, without any serious detriment to the ration.

Corn is the logical substitute for oats in most sections of this
country. In fact, economy demands the use of corn in the ration
of the work horse to a much greater extent than it is used at
present.

Wlien its general use in the corn belt States is considered,
much of the prejudice of the Eastern feeders loses weight. The
average Iowa horse, for instance, is produced by a dam which
was raised on com, and had no other grain during the period
of carrying and suckling her foal. The foal receives a little
cracked corn or even cob com for his first bite, with the amount
gradually increased until he is allowed from 20 to 40 ears per
day at maturity. In spite of this fact, when these very horses
come East, top our markets, and pass under the management of
the city stable boss, com is absolutely prohibited as dangerous to
feed; yet it requires a long time to induce and teach some of
these horses to eat anything else.

Corn Supplements. — An exclusive com ration is not to be
recommended, but com in combination with either oats and
bran, bran or cottonseed meal alone is all right. Recent inves-
tigations at the Iowa station have shown that com with cotton-

236 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

seed meal, in the proportions of 9 to 1, constitutes a perfectly
satisfactory ration for the work horse, and is effective of a very
material saving in cost.

Ear corn is most desirable for horse feeding, as the kernels
keep best in the original package, as it were. There is a certain
freshness about it that horses prefer, and, besides, they are com-
pelled to eat it slowly. Corn in this form, however, is bulky to
handle in the trade and few city stables are equipped to store it
in any quantity. The most reasonable objection to the more
general feeding of com, off the farm, is the difficulty in securing
ear com in good condition.

Shelled or cracked com is more convenient for all but the
farmer feeder. It is not so safe nor satisfactory as ear corn,
however.

Cornmeal coarsely ground, and in combination with oats,
bran, or cottonseed meal is excellent, providing the corn can be
ground as required. But the commercial meal is more liable to
cause trouble by its oil becoming rancid and the mass spoiling
than is corn in any other form.

It is probable that the opposition to corn for horses, so
common among both city feeders and their veterinary advisers,
is due more to the qviality and condition of the corn which usu-
ally reaches city horses than to the composition of the com itself.
The satisfactory results which attend its judicious use in the
country, generally, would seem to vindicate the contents of the
com crib from responsibility for the alleged evils of com feed-
ing. By properly balancing the ration of which corn forms a
part, the nuich dreaded " heating " effect may be largely over-
come.

Bran ranks third as a horse feed, although it can hardly be
considered as an exclusive feed, except for occasional or exce]>
tional use. In work stables it is customary to feed a bran mash,
preferably wet, at least once a week, and that Saturday night.
The practice is commendable, as it tends to offset the effect of
continued high feeding of horses at hard work, as well as being
acceptable to the horses for the sake of variety. Much depends
upon the preparation of the mash. The coarse, flaky, winter
wheat bran is preferable; add sufficient water to moisten it

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 237

thoroughly, so that it breaks nicely, but without any sem-
blance to a slop, then season with salt and a little ginger or
gentian.

Shorts and middlings are too concentrated to be fed to horses
except in small quantities, and then they should h^ in combina-
tion with some of the other more bulky grains. Some horses show
an especial susceptibility to digestive disturbances when mid-
dlings are fed.

Dried brewers* grains, now quite generally fed to dairy
cattle, have not been utilized by horse feeders to the extent that
trials of their feeding value would seem to justify. The in-
creasing demand for them among dairymen will no doubt ad-
vance the price, but they are comparatively much cheaper than
either oats or bran. In combination with either of these or with
com they have given satisfaction so far as they have been tried.
They are reckoned about equivalent to oats, pound for pound.

Barley is the most common cereal feed for horses in some
parts of the country where it is extensively grown. It is well
adapted for that pui'pose provided it is crushed before feeding.
The presence of the awns may prove irritating to the horse's
mouth.

Canada field peas deserve more general consideration than
they receive from horse feeders. When available they may be
profitably employed in combination with other concentrates in
making up the work horse ration.

Linseed oil meal is more commonly fed as a conditioner than
for its nutritive properties, although the Iowa station has sho\vn
favorable results from oil meal combined with corn and oats for
the purpose of reducing the cost of the ration, the oil meal dis-
placing the oats otherwise required to balance the com. It has
a most valuable physiological effect on the bowels, coat, and the
nutritive functions in general. It helps restore condition in
horses which have either been overdone by feeding or are in a
state of malnutrition. It is usually fed to secure finish and
bloom, in fitting horses for show or sale, in quantities up to but
not exceeding a pound per day.

Cottonseed meal has been tested in feeding trials at both
the Pennsylvania and Iowa stations, with such satisfactory re-

238 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

suits that it is now generally recommended as a complete or
partial substitute for oats, in combination with corn, to cheapen
the ration. No bad results are repoi-ted from feeding two pounds
per day. It is not palatable and its taste should be obscured in
the mixture with other feeds.

Molasses. — Little was said of molasses as a horse feed, al-
though it had been fed to a limited extent as a conditioner, until
about 1900, w^hen a United States Army veterinarian, Doctor
Griffin, reported its exclusive use with hay by the native Cubans,
their hardy ponies doing remarkably well. This report was pub-
lished in the American Veteriyiary Review and engaged the at-
tention of Doctor Geo. L. Bems, of Brooklyn, New York, who
gave it a thorough trial in some of the large stables of draft
horses under his supen'ision. The results were such as to thor-
oughly convince him that molasses deserved a place in the dietary
of all work horses, not alone for the sake of economy but because
it has a most beneficial effect upon the digestive system. Dr.
Berns still holds to this opinion, which has been quite generally
confirmed by otbers who have made observations along this line.
Remarkable results have been secured by a liberal feeding of
molasses in bringing back to condition horses either convalescent
from sickness or those in very poor flesh. It is a valuable
" coaxer '' to shy feeders. Its laxative effect must be guarded
against to a certain extent. Molasses is usually fed in quanti-
ties of from one pint to one quart, per feed, diluted with at least
an equal quantity of water and preferably mixed with other
feeds. Reports are made of feeding as much as ten pounds per
day to mules in Louisiana. There are about twelve pounds to
the gallon. It is especially well adapted to the coarse, mixed
ration in which cut hay or straw forms the base.

Whatever the ration, its palatability as well as its nutritive
value is increased by the addition of molasses. It is a constit-
uent of many proprietary feeds, serving to disguise and render
more edible the fraudulent ones. The black strap cane molasses,
not the beet-sugar product, is the kind fed. Undiluted molasses
is unsatisfactory, as it smears the muzzle, and from it the sides
of the horse, and is especially objectionable in fly time.

Wheat and rye both make acceptable horse feeds provided

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 239

they are crushed to prevent tlie formation of paste in the mouth.
The market price of wheat, especially, allows of its being fed
only under unusual conditions.

Other materials, the availability of which is more or less
restricted, may prove worthy of a place in the horse's ration Avhen
and where they can be secured at low cost For example, one
enterprising Philadelphia city teamster met the high cost of
oats and com, of recent years, by introducing a ration of mo-
lasses and stale bread, on which his horses did well.

ROUGHAGE FOR HORSES

Timothy is in a class by itself as a roughage for horses, the
leafless nature of the plant insuring nearly perfect curing and
freedom from dust in the hay. In addition there is a constrin-
gent property in timothy by virtue of which horses filled up with
it keep hard and do not become washy on the road, as horses will
if fed on the hay from a legume or on fresh grass. The market
value of timothy hay is not in accordance with its chemical com-
position. The very feature which horsemen favor in it is cor-
related with a low coeflicient of digestibility. As a means of
affording, in the ration, the bulk and volume necessary for a
physiological distention of the digestive tract, to maintain it
normally functional, timothy is ideal. Horses like it, if not too
ripe, but as a source of nutriment it is inferior to the hay of
clover, alfalfa, and other legumes.

Legumes, with their extensive leaf surfaces, are much richer
in digestible nutrients but more difiicult to properly cure. When
im]^roperly cured they are unfit to be fed to horses. The causal
relation between clover hay and heaves has been fairly well
estal)lished. It is alleged not to be due to the dust, in general,
with which clover hay is likely to be filled, but to a specific
fungus, the growth of which is peculiar to legumes. It is true
that the history of most cases of heaves reveals clover hay in the
ration, although there is notliing remarkable about this, as tlie
majority of horses are so fed. On the whole, we cannot afford to
count clover-mixed hay out of the ration of the average horse.
But in view of the possibility that may result from feeding it,
we should consider carefully the quality, and guard the quan-

240 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

tity, of that allowed. It is best mixed with timothy in about such
proportions as come in the second season's cutting from a timo-
thy-clover seeding.

Alfalfa is in the experimental stage as a constituent of the
horse's ration. There is no reason why its judicious use, in com-
bination with timothy, should not be recommended. Grood
alfalfa hay is about the most tempting thing that can be put
before a horse in the winter time, as he himself will attest if
allowed tlie opportunity. In addition to its paiatability and
high content of easily available protein, alfalfa has a beneficial
action on the digestive tract. The amount fed, with timothy,
can be so regulated as to control the bowels to a fine degi^ee. On
account of its 10 to 15 per cent of protein, alfalfa should be
balanced by the other constituents of the ration, lest an excess
of protein be fed. An excess of nitrogen would require elimina-
tion by the kidneys, which may prove injurious.

Alfalfa hay has not been fed in the East extensively enough
to determine whether or not it may induce heaves. Those parts
of the country where it is most extensively grown and fed fur-
nish only exceptional cases of heaves from any cause. It would
be difficult to obtain a cured forage plant in a more perfect state
of preservation than some of the alfalfa hay that is produced in
the semi-arid Kocky Mountain States. So long as hay produced
under the ideal conditions for growth and curing Avhich prevail
there can be placed on Eastern markets, to compete with the
home-grown product, favor is likely to be shown the fonner.
The Eastern fanner should be encouraged in the production of
alfalfa. The addition of alfalfa hay to a ration will both reduce
the cost of maintenance and improve the condition of any class
of horses.

Groimd alfalfa may be used in place of bran, in combination
with other concentrates, but unless combined with molasses or
moistened it is so light and fine as to be readily blown away,
and has the objection of being dusty. Many prepared alfalfa
feeds, of this class, are offered to the trade. The hay has the
same nutritive value and, if of good quality, will be as com-
pletely and enthusiastically consumed as when artificially pre-
pared. These facts argue for the more general use of the hay.

Cow pea and soy bean hay are both reported upon favor-

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 241

ablj by those who have fed them as a part of the roughage. Like
corn stover they are available to feed only on the farms where
grown.

Corn Stover. — In the early winter, before the leeching and
blowing away of its most nutritive and palatable parts has been
accomplished, corn stover is one of the best kinds of roughage
for horses, eitlier at rest or at work. It has a nutritive value
about equal to timotliy hay, from which it affords a change.
Horses do not fill to excess on it as they do on hay, and it is posi-
tively beneficial to horses which have mild cases of heaves
aggravated by the feeding of hay of even good quality. Horses
eat the leaves and pick at tlie stalks readily without shredding.
In fact, they seem to prefer stripping the leaves from the stalks
rather than seeking out tlie finer parts from among the sections
of stalk, in the cut or shredded stover. Idle horses will strip
and eat quite a large portion of the stalk itself, if not over-sup-
plied with the finer parts. More com stover will be eaten if hay
is not furnished at the same time.

In many parts of tlie Soutli the tops and leaves are pulled
from the corn plants, cured, and done up in bundles for horse
feed. Pulled com and sheaf oats are highly esteemed for the
purpose of bringing back a stale show or race horse or to start
one already in poor condition.

Oat straw, if bright, well cleaned, and not too Hpe, does
well for horses not at hard work. Its feeding condition is im-
proved by chaffing and moistening with diluted molasses.

Sheaf Oats. — ^\^len available, sheaf oats are excellent for
horses with am]^le time in which to feed.

Cereal Hay. — The cereals, especially barley and oats, either
or both in combination with field peas, make excellent hay for
horses if cut in the dough stage. Their use, like that of sheaf
oats and pulled corn, would he resorted to in order to meet special
requirements or secure unusual results, rather than in the eco-
nomic maintenance of horse power.

SUCCULENCE

Succulence is most essential to horses which do not have the
stimulating effect of tlieir ration offset by an abundance of ex-
16

242 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

ercise, although its use is not objected to either with work horses
or even race horses in training.

Pasture. — Grass is the most natural and satisfactory form
in which to furnish succulence, as it also necessitates healtliful
exercise in the open air in order to secure it. Unfortunately, it
is not available at all seasons of the year nor under all circum-
stances. It must, therefore, be substituted or supplemented.

Carrots are the best root crop for horse feeding. Like other
roots, their physiological benefits outweigh their nutritive value.
For the winter feeding of colts and brood mares they are espe-
cially desirable, while they form a staple article of diet in most
stallion-importing establishments, where it is necessary to carry
the horses along in high condition all the time and yet keep them
right Carrots are fed either whole or sliced, but to slice them
to a size too large to swallow but too small to chew is more liable
to induce choking than if fed uncut.

Soiling crops are sometimes fed to breeding or sho-w horses.
In France it is common to feed green cut alfalfa (Lucerne).
Such green material must be fed to horses as soon as \\dlted and
before heating or decomposition of any degree begins.

Silage has been condemned by most horse feeders and justi-
fiably so, for much of the data concerning its us& have been
unfavorable, fatal results being commonly reported. Recent
feeding experiments, however, have demonstrated that silage
may be safely fed to work horses and growing colts, if of best
quality and limited to from ten to twenty pounds- per day.
Silage the least bit moldy or spoiled is dangerous for horses.

WATER

Water of good quality and ample quantity is essential to the
good health, comfort, and efiiciency of horses at work. A thirsty
horse does not make the most of his ration ; his digestive func-
tions are impaired by the sense of thirst. Horses should be
watered regularly, so they may be able to anticipate their oppor-
tunities. Regular watering at frequent intervals will probably
insure the horse drinking more of fresher w^ater in the course of
the day than though allowed free access to water in the stall at

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 243

all times. The idea, more prevalent than one would believe,
that a horse should be stinted in his water supply is incompre-
hensible. If the horse has much liberty in this matter he will
rarely drink to his own detriment.

Watering when Warm. — It is dangerous to allow a fill of
water when the horse is very warm, but better then than never,
as is liable to be the case in many poorly managed stables. A
moderate drink will refresh and benefit any horse at any time.

Public Watering Troughs. — Indiscriminate patronage of
public watering troughs in cities is fraught Avith the danger of
glanders infection. A bucket, which could be filled direct from
the inflow, and the horses watered from it, might well be made a
part of the equipment of each Avork horse outfit.

'Time to Water. — Theoretically, watering should precede
feeding, in order not to flush on into the intestines the incom-
pletely digested feed contained in the stomach, at the time the
drink is taken. In practice, ho«w"ever, it is found that many
horses Avill refuse to drink before eating, especially in the morn-
ing, and will seek a drink soon after feeding, if allowed any free-
dom in the matter. It is best not to follow feeding immediately
by a drink.

A horse's drinking periods should be so arranged that he will
not go to work immediately after a full drink. The common
practice of alloAving horses to drink their fill upon coming into
the stable from work and again when going out is most conven-
ient, but is not safe, although often followed with impunity.

The one time at which a horse requires and appreciates a
drink most, yet is offered it least frequently, is the last thing
at night, after having consumed his full allowance of roughage
and being ready to lie down to sleep. Every horse, having worked
through the day, should be allowed an opportimity to drink at
this time.

SALT

Salt is required in small quantities, frequently, and regu-
larly. The irregular allowance of too much salt with its con-
sequent drinking of an excess of water does not meet the require-
ments in this respect. If given frequently or provided for the

244 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

horse to help himself, only limited amounts will be taken. A
satisfactory method of furnishing salt is to season the grain feed.
A limip of r(x?k salt in the feed box does fairly well, although the
quality of the salt is not good. One of the best patented de-
vices is a container for a cylindrical cake of high-grade salt, so
arranged that the cake rotates as the horse licks the bottom of
it. This insures the salt being used off evenly, the cylinder last-
ing until it is but a thin disc. The container screws into the
wall of the stall at a convenient height. Loose salt should not be
made too easv of access.

METHODS OF FEEDING

Regularity of Feeding. — Horses are creatures of habit and
should be so managed that their daily routine is regular in order
that each event may be anticipated in turn. This rule applies
to feeding Avith especial force, it being the most important event
of the day. Regularity of feeding promotes digestion, assimi-
lation, and peace of mind. All horses in a stable should be fed
at once, with as little delay as possible in getting to each, in turn,
after the operation has begun. In most large stables the drivers
have nothing to do with the feeding, that matter being better
attended to by one man, who feeds each horse impartially and in
accordance with his individual requirements.

Time of Feeding. — The daily ration is divided into three
feeds given, when circumstances will permit, about six hours
apart. City delivery service often necessitates much longer in-
tervals between meals. Just a bit of roughage should he allowed
in the morning, the bulk of it going with the evening feed. The
division of grain is about equal for the three feeds, less being
allowed at noon if tlie dinner hour is short.

Omission of the noon feed is practiced by some employers
of horses and with apparent good judgment. The horse's di-
gestive system, unlike that of the ruminating cattle and sheep,
is so arranged that he requires feed in small amounts, at com-
paratively frequent intervals. There can be no argument of the
fact that, under ideal or natural conditions, he should receive at
least three feeds a day. But it is economically impossible to in-

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 245

sure, to all work horses, ideal conditions. Short noon hours,
horses hot when noontime arrives, and compelled to stand in the
sun and fight flies while eating, wasting much of their ration,
and then to go directly to hard work after feeding — this is the
experience of many work horses. The nose-bag or other feeding
device which will prevent the waste of a large part of its con-
tents, especially in fly time, has not yet been perfected. It is
as injurious to feed a hot, tired horse as it is to water him when
liot. Feed consumed under such conditions is not well digested
and assimilated, even if it does no harm, and its nutritive value
to the horse is, therefore, small.

The danger of colic from putting a horse to work immedi-
ately after eating is unquestionable, as most cases of indigestion
in working horses occur between one and four o'clock in the
afternoon. In view of all these facts, there is good reason to
conclude that the noontime spent in rest after a moderate drink,
and the amount of the noon feed added to the night allowance,
would be more beneficial to the horse if it is impossible to allow
him proper time and place in which to feed.

The character and amount of the ration should be modified
to meet each change in the work of the horses. Those well fed
and working regularly are very susceptible to the so-called
" Monday morning " disease, if laid off for a day or two. A
short period of idleness calls for a material reduction of the con-
centrates of the ration and an increase in the lighter constit-
uents, as bran or succulence. Horses temporarily put out of
business by storms or holidays should be exercised, in addition
to having their ration cut do^vn. Once a horse has shown, by
previous attacks, that he is especially predisposed to trouble of
this character, he demands the closest attention, yet if this be
accorded him he may work as satisfactorily as any horse in the
stable.

Special preparation of the feed is of little advantage to the
normal horse, under usual conditions. The crushing of oats at
the ordinary mill is not considered worth while; although the
installation of small mills, in stables which are already supplied
with the electric current, may bring the cost of crushing down
to a point where the end justifies the means. For old or over-

246 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

worked horses, the artificial mastication insures the more com-
plete utilization of the feed. Crushed or rolled oats have a
corrective effect on the bowels of horses prone to be washy, which
would warrant their use in such cases.

Cutting or chaffing hay or straw makes it possible to com-
bine it witli the concentrates of the ration to the mutual improve-
ment of both. The roughage extends the concentrates, so that
they will be more slowly eaten and more perfectly digested. The
addition of the concentrates induces the horse to eat more of the
roughage, especially if tlie latter is straw.

Moistening hay or straw, especially if chaffed or dusty, im-
proves its condition.

Variety in the ration is most acceptable to the horse and is
to be sought, but its introduction should not involve any sudden
or radical change, especially if either corn or middlings be used.

REVIEW

1. Why should horse feeders, especially, be "artists"?

2. How is the feed used by the horse?

3. What are the daily nutritive requirements of a horse?

4. Of what three types of feed may the ration be composed, and what

are the special requirements of the horse in regard to each?

5. Why are oats considered the most desirable concentrate for horse

feeding?

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of com as a hoi-se

feed?

7. To what extent may molasses be fed to advantage?

8. Why is timothy hay especially in demand by horse feeders?

9. Of what value is alfalfa to the horse feeder and how should it be

fed?

10. What is the importance of succulence for horses and what may be

its source?

11. At what times, in what quantities, under what conditions and where

should horees be pennitted to drink?

12. Why should horses be fed at regular periods?

13. Under what circumstances may it be advisable to eliminate the noon

feed?

14. What precautions should be observed in the feeding of work horses,

temporarily idle?

15. When should the grain be ground, the roughage cut, or the ration

varied?

CHAPTER XV

STABLES

The character of the habitations in which horses are re-
quired to live varies from the simplest kind of an enclosure,
affording no protection whatever, to the most luxuriantly ap-
pointed quarters, as those in which some gentlemen's show horses
are stabled. As a rule, the more artificial the conditions under
which horses are used, the more complete the system of stabling
required.

There are two general classes of stables, town and country,
the principal features of location, design, constniction, and man-
agement of which are, necessarily, quite different.

Location. — There can usually be very little option exercised
in the selection of the site of the town stable, but in the country
the situation of the horse's quarters should be given careful con-
sideration. The horse stable may be distinct from or included
within the farm barn; but in either case it should be built on
high, well-drained ground, with a southern exposure, if prac-
ticable. The benefits of the light and heat of the sun's rays are
insured for a longer period in the day, and the temperature of
the stable is maintained more uniform, if admitted through
southern vdndows. If a double row of stalls, back to back, are
to be provided for, an east and west exposure will be fairest to
the occupants of both sides.

The design and arrangement of stables should be made with
a view to providing sufficient room to accommodate' the requisite
number of horses and vehicles to be housed, proper light, venti-
lation and drainage, comfort and security of the horses, and con-
venience of attendants and patrons. These being insured, the
simpler the design the better.

Construction.^ — Frame stables predominate in the country,
and if well built are entirely satisfactory, so far as the essentials
outlined above are concerned, mth the exception of greater
danger from fire. Town stables are more frequently built of

247

248 . THE HORSE IN SERVICE

brick, stone, concrete, terra-cotta block, or plaster. In the use
of these materials for construction it should be borne in mind
that a solid wall of masonry is cold and damp, and therefore
sweats when the moist, wann air of the stable comes in contact
with it. ^\llen horses are to stand next to outside walls they
should be built with a hollow centre for a dead air space. Either
concrete blocks, the hollow tile, terra cotta, or plaster have this
advantage over the solid wall of stone or brick or the poured
concrete construction. The plaster or stucco, either rough cast
or smooth finished, on expanded metal lath, is a form of con-
struction which has proved very satisfactory in a limited way
and is comparatively inexpensive.

Dimensions of a stable are determined by the individual
allowance for stalls, alleys, floor space, and other requiromonts.

Stalls are of two sorts, (1) tfi^ loose box stall and (2) the
straight, standing, or slip stall. Box stalls allow a horse more
liberty, either standing or lying doA\ai, and freedom to roll, an
opportunity very much appreciated by most horses. Every
stable should have at least one, but on account of the additional
room and extra care required they are not practicable for all
horses in large stables. The idea of turning a horse ^' loose " to
" run " in a box stall is unreasonable. There is no advantage
in having them larger than twelve feet square except in the case
of a maternity or hospital st:all, where it is necessary to get about
the horse readily and to accommodate a foal. The straight stall
is the one in Avhich the majority of horses are confined, and
should be of sufficient length to protect the horse from being
kicked liack of the heel post, and wide enough to enable him to
lie down in comfort, yet not to induce him to attempt to roll.
At least eight feet from manger to heel post and five feet in
width is necessary for that purpose, the size of the horse to
govern. Horses shoAv better in shorter stalls, and in sale and
show stables safety is often sacrificed on this account.

Stall partitions should be about eight feet high in front and
five to six feet in the rear, heel posts carried to the ceiling, and
should not be built up solid, but be open to allow a free circula-
tion of air through the stalls. In a stall with solid walls the
horse lying down is deprived of fresh air to such an extent as to

STABLES 249

almost smother him in some stables. Planks or panels should
be horizontal, not upright, in order not to be split or shattered if
kicked. This arrangement brings the impression of the shoe
across the grain of the wood. Floors can be kept drier and be
more thoroughly cleaned if the partition does not come quite to
the floor (Fig. 130).

Bales. — One of our most experienced American authori-
ties * is an ardent advocate of the bale in place of the fixed par-
tition to separate hoi*ses, claiming for it economy of space and
more latitude and comfort for the hoi*ses, with equal safety. The
bale consists of two planks or boards, _ironed together, to make
a widtli of three feet, suspended 18 inches\from the floor by a
hook and ring in the Avail at the head of the stall and by a rope
or cliain at ihe rear. Four feet is a sufficient allowance for an
ordinary sized horse between Ijales, and they will do well in even
less.

Stall Floors. — Stall floors may be of clay, plank, or pave-
ment. In the selection of flooring material there are many ends
to be considered. Well tamped clay is noiseless, affords a firm
footing unless wet, and without question places the horse on the
most natural tread. It does very well in country stables where
the clay is available, straw is cheap, and manure is of value, with
the horse out of the stable much of the time. It is especially well
adapted for use in box stalls. However, it is not easily cleaned
and requires frequent repairing to keep the surface even and
free from holes and depressions. Plank floors do not tire a
standing horse, are warm to lie upon, and are not slippery, but
they are neither durable nor sanitary, being more or less pervious
and absorbent. Paved floors liave the advantage of durability
and are most sanitary, being impei-vious and easily drained, but
they are hard to stand upon, slippery, noisy, cold to lie upon, and
generally undesirable from the horse's point of view. Notwith-
standing, they are well-nigh indispensable in large city stables,
and a satisfactory compromise, in consideration of the horse's
personal preference in the matter, is made by supplying a well-
fitted rack. This is made of slats running lengthwise of the

* Ware, " First Hand Bits of Stable Lore."

250 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

stall, fixed at such distance apart as to admit but not catch the
narrow calks or to prevent the entrance of broad calks, depending
upon the type of horse to be stalled, the entire rack to be readily
taken out, permitting thorough cleaning of the floor beneath.
These racks, of course, wear out, but are more easily replaced
than a floor, and while the horse stands on wood the sanitary
features of the paved floor are procured. Concrete, rough cast
or corrugated, vitrified or cork brick, are the common paving
materials.

Concrete floors may be made comparatively dry and wann
by insulating the top coat from the rough bottom Avith a layer
of tar paper or two coats of tar paint. Cork brick has proven
satisfactory in dairy stables but has not yet been much used
under horses.

Drainage. — The drainage of stalls may be by open or cov-
ered drains. Common experience is in favor of the open drain,
the covered drain becoming stopped up frequently in spite of
gratings and traps to prevent such occurrences. Drains consist
of either a central or. two lateral troughs, running either from
about half way to the front of the stall, or the centre of the box,
to a main drain passing in the rear of the stalls. Two lateral
drains at the sides of the stall interfere less with the horse stand-
ing or getting up and do\Aai than does the central drain. The stall
floors should incline slightly toward the drain but not enough
to unbalance the standing position of the horse. Undrained
stalls, in which absorbent litter is depended upon for the removal
of the liquid manure, are most practicable for the average coun-
try stable and can be kept sanitary provided an abundance of
litter is used. The high cost of bedding materials and the
objectionable features of accumulated manure, together with
the available sewer connections and possibility of frequent flush-
ing, render the drained stable much more desirable in the city.

Litter for Bedding. — Bedding is used for several purposes :
(1) To insure comfort to the horse, thereby inducing him to lie
down and save his feet and legs as much as possible ; ( 2 ) to keep
the horse clean and free from stable stain ; (3) to absorb and thvis
facilitate the removal of liquid manure ; (4) to dilute and thus

STABLES 251

improve the physical condition of the manure for fertilizing
purposes.

Bedding materials consist of stra,ws, sawdust, shavings, peat
moss, and, in the country, corn stover and leaves. The durability
of the straws is in the order of rye, wheat and oat, while their
absorbing capacity is reversed. Their relative values, therefore,
will depend upon whether or not they are to be used in drained
stalls. If that is the case they will be valued in the order named,
but with an abundance of straw, and value attached to the
manure, tliey would have an inverted valuation in the undrained
stable, where the absorption by the bedding is depended upon
for the removal of the liquid manure. The chaffy nature of oat
straw would make it objectionable to use in drained stables. The
market price is greatest for untangled rye straw, which is espe-
cially demanded in high-class stables, where the appearance is
much enhanced by ^^ setting fair'' the bedding; then tangled
rye, wheat, and oat in the order named.

Shavings and sawdust have the advantages of economy in
most locations, a cleanly appearance in the stable, and to a cer-
tain extent they counteract odors, but they are difficult to handle,
rather cold to lie upon, and undesirable in the manure on accou.nt
of their dearth of plant food. Sawdust holds better on the stall
floor but it is not so easily removed from the horses' coats as are
shavings.

Peat moss is much more commonly used in England and
Scotland than in America. It is imported by the shipload in
large bales, chiefly from Holland and Germany, and is there-
fore cheapest in the Eastern cities. It has the advantage of
durability, will absorb about ten times its volume of Avater,
while straw absorbs but three, prevents stable odor, affords a
comfortable bed either to lie or to stand upon, and does not stain
gray horses, a property which alone is responsible for its use in
many large stables. Like shavings and sawdust, stalls thus
bedded are somewhat difficult to muck out. Peat moss has some
fertilizing value and is therefore not objectionable in the manure,
as are shavings and sawdust. If available at a price of about $12
per ton it will be found a most economical and satisfactory
litter.

252 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Com stover must be either cut or shredded in order to be
conveniently used for bedding. It is customary to feed a gen-
erous allowance and permit what is not consumed to go under
the horses for bedding.

Feed boxes sliuuld be easily taken out in order that they may
be frequently cleansed and kept sweet. Vai'ious schemes have
been devised for the purjDOse of preventing too rapid bolting of
feed and throwing it out. Aside from the i)atent slow fee<l-
ing contrivances, a broad, flat-bottomed box which insures the
feed being spread in a tliin layer, or a few good-sized cobble-
stones placed in the ordinary box will serve to prevent hogging,
while a flange about the rim of the feed box will help retain the
grain, altliough increasing the difficulty of removing what feed
is left, in case it may be necessary to do so.

Mangers for the roughage should not be placed higher than
the level of the feed box and should be provided with either
cross slats or some other means to prevent the hay being thrown
out. They should be open at the bottom in order that they may
be kept clean from dirt, chaff, and all trash. It is recommended
by some that feeding be done from the floor, inasmuch as that
is the natural position of the grazing horse. It has the advan-
tage of cheapening construction and economizing stall space, as
vv^oll as enhancing the security of the horse in the stable. It
requires a careful allotment of hay, however, as what is not
readily consumed will be wasted, and with those horses which
have acquired the habit of pawing whatever is in front of them
back under their hind feet it will prove a wasteful practice.

Ties. — A horse should be tied securely in his stall for the
protection of lx>th himself and others in the stable, but the method
of tying should be such as to enable him to rest comfortably, yet
w^ithout danger of becoming either cast or entangled in the halter
shank. Comfort requires that a horse be permitted to lay his
head flat on the floor, yet much more length than this ^vill enable
him to get a foot over the halter. Both comfort and safety are
met by attaching a weight to the end of the halter shank equiva-
lent to the weight of the shank itself, allowing the shank to slip
through either a ring or a hole in the manger without being tied.
The weight keeps the halter shank taut to the extent of not being

STABLES

253

slack in ^^iiatever position the horse's head may be Tvithout ex-
erting any drag on the head. Another method is to tie a short
halter shank to a ring which travels a perpendicular rod, in
much the same manner as some cow ties are made. The length
and adjustment of both rod and halter shank should be such a^
to allow the horse ample freedom, either standing or lying down,
yet never permitting any slack in the strap. Halter shanks,
whether rope, strap, or chain, should be attached to the head
stall by a snap to insure certain and prompt release of the horse
in case of emergency.

Passageways both behind and between stalls should bo of
ample ^ddth, and if paved should be roughed in some manner
to prevent slipping. A smoothly finished concrete or asphalt
pavement mav be made safe by a thin coating of shai-p sand re-
plenished daily, or, better yet, the concrete may be corrugated or
rough surfaced, even to the extent of a layer of fine crushed stone
to give a foothold. This last, however, is more difficult to sweep
and clean. If bricks are used they should be laid on an angle
and be so bevelled and pointed as to afford a catch for the shoe.

Doors should be so located as to be most convenient yet least
productive of drafts in the stable. Single doors should not be
less than four feet in width and double doors eight feet. The
usual height is eight feet. Kolling doors are preferable to hinged
doors, especially in the interior of the stable as on box stalls, for
the reason that'^they are always out of the way, while a partially
open hinged door may project into a passage in such a way as to
seriouslv injure a horse.

Windows should be ample in size and number to provide
requisite light and ventilation. They should be placed high
enough over the horses' heads to protect their eyes from the direct
lio-ht^of the sun. In the simpler systems of ventilation, the
wtndows serve for inlets, and should for that purpose be so con-
structed as to drop inward from the top, thus directing the air
toward the ceiling where it becomes diffused and gradually
settles to the floor of the stable. The sides of the windows should
be protected bv fenders, which prevent side and downward drafts.
The opening should be regulated in accordance with the velocity

254 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

of the wind. Outlets are usually provided at the ridge pole,
by direct flues from below or by an open ceiling.

The King system of ventilation is to be recommended when-
ever its installation is i^racticable. It is made up of two kinds of
flues: (1) Those for intake of fresh air, and (2) those for the
outtake of foul air. The intake flues start at a point two feet or
more above the ground outside and extend to the inside near the
ceiling. The outtake flues start near the floor of the barn and ex-
tend above the highest point of the roof.

Fresh Air Requirements. — The fresh air and cubic space
requirements per horse should be considered in the constmction
of stables and the provision of windows. It has been estimated
that a horse of average size requires approximately 15,000 cubic
feet of fresh air per hour, and this is the ideal aimed at in the
English Army. Col. Fred Smith in his book on Veterinary Hy-
giene describes a simple method of arriving at the horse^s fresh air
requirements and of determining whether or not these require-
ments are being met He bases his conclusions on the fact that
the horse inspires about 100 cubic feet of air per hour while in
the stable, and his expirations completely vitiate air, to the ex-
tent that it would not sustain the life of a mouse, at the rate of
twenty-five cubic feet per hour. This air requires a dilution of
150 times in order not to be injurious when rebreathed as it
would be in the ordinary stable. De Chaumont's test makes it
very simple to detect an injurious amount of respiratory impurity
in the air. By actual analysis it has been determined that the
sense of smell upon first entering the stable from the outside may
be relied upon, not only to detect but to gauge the amount of res-
piratory impurities present. An amount up to .2 per thousand
may be present without being perceptible; .4 per thousand gives
to the air a smell suggested by the term " rather close " : .67 per
thousand " close " ; .9 per thousand " very close — offensive."
Therefore, it is concluded that sufficient vitiation to be detected
by smell renders the air unfit to be breathed and .2 per thousand
has been taken as a standard of requirement. By the equation

Amount of carbonic acid exhaled per hour ( ^^^t- ^j^ required, I5,OJ)0

-— ; — — — ; — I f-. = \ cubic feet per hour is de-

The permissible organic impunties ( termined to be necessary.

STABLES

255

The cubic air space of the stable should be ample to insure
to each horse the requisite 15,000 cubic feet per hour without
such frequent changes of the volume of air as to cause drafts or
a continuous fluctuation of temperature. Sixteen hundred cubic
feet per head, requiring a complete change in the volume of air
nine and one-half times per hour in order to furnish 15,000
cubic feet per head per hour, is the ideal aimed at in the design-
ing of the English Army stable. Changing the air so frequently
keeps the stable decidedly fresh and renders a horse more fit for
sei-vice than for show. About one cubic foot per pound of
weight is the usual rule in figuring the air space of the stable.
It should be remembered, however, that the nearer the tempera-
ture and the atmosphere of the stable approaches that outside,
the more capable the horse is of hard and fast work.

The size of the inlet or window necessary to admit the re-
quired amount of air is computed from the following table :

Daiaj

or Calculating Size of Inlet

Description of wind

Mean velocity in milea
per hour

Size of inlet to admit

15,000 cubic feet of

air per hour

Calm

Light air

Sq. ft.

Light breeze

0 2

Moderate breeze

Fresh breeze

0.12
0.12

Rule for Computing. — Multiply the number of animals to be
supplied with air by tlie size of the inlet corresponding to the
estimated velocity of the wind. This divided by the number of
ventilators on the inlet side of the building gives the size in
square feet which each ventilatx)r or window should be opened.
Outlets should have the same opening in order to facilitate the
movement of the air.

Fresh Air for Horses. — On account of the fact that most
horses work regularly in the open air, the principles of ventila-
tion are violated with greater impunity in their case than in the

256

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

case of dairy cows. Existence in some citj subway stables would
be impossible were it not that the horses spend most of their time
outside. The care of the stable and stable drainage are both
factors concerned with fresh air, and j^roperly done they remove
an important source of contamination of the atmosphere.

The interior of the stable should be made as free from
])rojecti()ns and possible sources of injury to the horses as may
1)0. All hardware should be countersunk; harness hooks put

Fig. 12U.

>Tk horse stable, .showing the main allt
arrangement.

above the level of the horses' heads ; dung forks, shovels, and all
other implements put safely away; manure pits and trap doors
thoroughly ])rotected.

Wagon and harness rooms should be completely shut off
from the stable and so situated as to be convenient for the har-
nessing and putting- to of the horses. In fact, the whole stable
arrangement should be such that the turning out of the equipage,
whether for business or pleasure, may be accomplished by pro-
gressive steps, Avith no retracing, from the grooming floor to
the outside door.

STABLES

257

Fig. 130.— a in..(K.l w(,rk horse stable, .shuwiiig width of stalls, corrugated concrete floors,
wooden racks in stall floors, width of alleys, drains and ventilating flues.

f- 4. J ■ I'i-— '^^od^l^ork horse stable, showing length oi stalls, open partitions and
iront doors, the latter being a convenience for caretakers and obviating the danger of back-
ing heavy horses on shppery floors.

258

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

The assignment of stalls should be made with a view of pro-
moting congenial relationships between neighboring horses and
avoiding the consequences of incompatibility. Furthermore,

■L '> ~ D^o n^» n n •* n n

76.0O

c.c.r.

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06

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£fi

UncoverecL ccretm tr&.j>

Folding Blarikei JfoVer

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3" A S

Fig. 132. — Plan and specifications for a small work horse stable with open front stalls.

Fig. 133. — Floor plan and specifications for a convenient, comfortable, and sanitary

city stable.

in large work stables, it is well to stable togetlier those horses
which work during the same hours. This enables them to rest
better, with less disturbance while in the stable (Figs. 129, 130,
131, 132, and 133).

STABLES 259

STABLE MA^-AGEMENT

Grooming is essential to the health and general appearance
of the horse. Systems of grooming vary from the simple use of
the hare hand and arm, as practiced hy the Indians, to the most
thorough and vigorous employment of a variety of utensils.
The more highly hred, finer coated horses require more delicate
treatment than the heavier coated and phlegmatic work horses.
Utensils in common use are the metal curry-comb, bristle body-
bnisli, com brush, rub rag, sponge, wisp, and hoof pick. All
grooming should be thorough but gentle, with due consideration
for the sensibilities of the horse. Dandimff consists of shed
particles of skin, Avaste products of metabolism, fat, and some
salt. It complete removal is the primary object of grooming.

The first step usually is the use of the curry-comb the reverse
way of the hair for the removal of dandruff and diy. stable dirt,
if there be any. The curry-comb should never be used about the
head nor below the knees and hocks, should be dull (new ones
preferably filed dull), and used with the greatest care. It is
not permitted in many well-regulated stables, the wisp of straw
and the com brush accomplishing the same purpose. The bristle
or body brush is used the right way of the hair tO' remove what
the curry-comb or wisp has brought to the surface, also to brush
the head and legs. The corn brush is used chiefly on mane and
tail, although the latter may require additional picking by hand.
The use of a comb, except on docked tails and pulled manes, is
not desirable. The rub rag, used the right way of the hair unless
in cooling out hot horses, puts the final finish on the coat.

In show and race horses the rubbing may amount to a most
vigorous massage. The eyes, muzzle, and region under the tail
should be sponged off ; also the feet, after having been picked out.
AMiite points may be washed if necessary. Motor brushes and
vacuum cleaners have not as yet been very generally adopted,
even in large stables (Fig. 134).

Washing. — The frequent application of soap and water de
stroys the lustre of a horse's coat, beside rendering him espe-
ciallv liable to chill if not thoroughly dried out. Except in the

260 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

case of jiure white horses or in hot weather, washing is not to be
commended, but is too frequently resorted to by indolent care-
takers. There is really nothing gained in either time or labor,
as it is as difficult to properly wash and dry a horse as to groom
him completely.

Fig. 134. — A vacuum grooming machine in operation. A vacuum is maintained in
the pipes which draws the dirt out of the hair and conveys it to a receptacle where it collects
and can be removed.

Care of the Legs. — Horses of a lymphatic temperament, as
most business horses are, working continuously in all kinds of
going, require especial attention to keep them right in their legs.
A proper balance between feed and exercise is the first consid-
eration in keeping legs right. Then they must be thoroughly
groomed, and dry grooming keeps the skin much less predis-

STABLES 261

posed to disorder. So does the presence of hair, the arrangement
of which, about the fetlock, naturally turns the water off the leg
instead of iimning it down into the heel where the skin is most
delicate. The most intelligent and exj^erienced managers of
city work horse stables, where the clipping of legs in the winter
lias been tried out, are opposed to it on this basis. Once the skin
becomes affected, it may be necessary to remove the hair in order
to reach the seat of the trouble. The old country plan of rub-
bing out legs with considerable feather is the best means of dry
grooming them. Too much rough brushing may be irritating.

Horses' legs should not be washed unless thoroughly dried.
If necessary to put away wet, the legs may be loosely bandaged
to prevent chilling, until they have dried out. The fetlocks,
pasterns, and heels may be protected against the snow brine
common on city streets, and other irritating influences, by smear-
ing them thoroughly with a coating of linseed oil before leaving
the stable.

Care of the Feet. — The importance of having a horse ^^ good
on the ground," as the saying goes, is generally appreciated ; but
the structure of the foot itself, as a most important feature of
conformation, is not always well understood. Furthermore, the
necessity for keeping horses shod, Avliich, in itself, is an injuri-
ous practice at best, renders consideration of tlie principles in-
volved especially essential.

Shoeing. — The foot is not an innnobile block to which a shoe
can be nailed, but is capable of motion, interference with which
will defeat the purpose which the foot is most ingeniously de-
signed to serve, namely, the relief of concussion. Comi^are the
unshod foot of the colt with the foot .of the horse that has been
shod in the ordinary way, for a number of years, and the detri-
mental influence of shoeing will be apparent. Xotice the smooth,
worn foot surface of the shoe that has been properly applied and
the extent to which the foot expands and contracts, laterally, will
be indicated.

Physiological Movements of the Foot. — This is what happens
when the foot comes to the ground at the conclusion of the stride :
As the weight drops on the foot the fetlock and pastern settle
downward and backward, the internal structures of the foot are

262

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

borne down upon, and in the normal unshod foot further de-
pression is opposed by the contract of the frog with the ground.
The structures compressed between the pedal or coffin bone
above and the unyielding ground or roadway beneath are elastic,
and yield in the line of least resistance, which is laterally.

Fig. 134a. Longitudinal median section of the foot, showing the internal structure.

Three bones form its osseous base and permit it to accomplisli its various movements.
These are: the third phalanx or pedal bone (a); the second phalanx, or coronanj bone {b)\
finally, the navicular, or fniall sesamoid bone (r), situated behind the preceding and comple-
menting the articulation which the other two form.

Short, strong ligaments consolidate the joint on the sides, while two wide fibro-cartilagi-
nous plates, lateral cartilages of the third phalanx, intimately united to this bone, seem like
two elastic and diverging springs, placed on the outside and on the inside of this bone, to
prevent it from descending or rocking too suddenly in the hoof at the moment when the
latter strikes the ground.

Two strong, expanded tendons terminate upon the third phalanx: the anterior (d) carries
it into extension; the posterior (e) permits, on the contrary, the flexion of this bone upon
the OS coronae. It glides over the inferior face of the navicular bone by means of a synovial
sheath designated under the name small sesamoid sheath (better called the naiictdar sheath).

Finally, a voluminous fibro-elastic cushion (?/), called the plantar cushion, bifurcated
behind and pointed in front, is placed under the flexor tendon, to which it serves as a flexible
bufl'er when the foot has reached the ground. All pressure upon the hoof from below up-
ward tends to depress it and force it against the lateral parts, where it is maintained by the
two elastic cartilages indicated above. (Gonbaux and Barrier.)

This sidewise expansion of the internal structures of the foot
presses the bars and lateral cartilages outward, and with them
the wall at the quarter, thus increasing the transverse diameter
of the foot from one-fiftieth to one-twelfth of an inch. As this
expansion is most marked in the back half of the foot, there is
a corresiDondino^ narrowing of the hoof head in front. Fig. 134a.
Interference, by shoeing or otherwise, with this lateral ex-

STABLES

263

pansion of the quarters, not only causes the full force of the con-
cussion incident to the contact of the foot with the ground to bo
felt, but induces a cramped, stilty stride, as a result of the
horse's effort to come down easily and thus spare himself the
pain of concussion. It is a. condition analogous to that of a man
with a tight shoe, which pinches as the weight is borne on it.

The destruction of the elasticity of the lateral cartilages by
ossification, in the formation of side bones, has the same effect,
marked both in the stride and in the altered form of the foot,
the quarters becoming more narrow and straight.

Fig. 135. — An untrimmed
hoof with an excess of horn
(a) at the toe which breaks
the foot axis backward.

Fig. 136. — An untrimmed
hoof with an excess of horn
(b) at the heel, which breaks
the foot axis forward.

Fig. 137.— Hoof dressed
and foot axis straightened
by removing excess of horn
below dotted lines in the
two preceding illustrations.

Proper shoeing consists, first, in so dressing the foot that the
removal of surplus horn does not destroy the balance of the foot,
but leaves it with its axis unbroken either up or down, in or out,
tlius insuring an even distribution of weight and wear on the
joints above (T'igs. 135, 136 and 137). Only such horn should
be removed from the sole or frog as is loose; the bars, natural
braces to prevent contraction, should not be cut through, the
heels " opened up," nor the sole concaved. The shoe must be
uiade to fit the foot, not the converse, its upper surface being
perfectly level and smooth to favor the sliding of the wall in
the outward expansion of the quarters, not bevelled to turn the
heels out ; the nails should be placed far enough foi-ward to leave
the back of the foot free to expand on the branches of the shoe.
Hot fitting, properly done, insures a better fit than is possible
when the shoe is fitted cold, and is not injurious to the horn ; in
fact, there is some advantage in searing over the ends of the
horn tubules.

Common styles of shoes are the plain open shoe, the bar

264 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

shoe, designed for the purpose of giving frog pressure or pro-
tecting weak heels, tips, and pads.

Hoof Dressings. — The boot blacking idea applied to the
feet of horses is inexcusable. No dressing is so attractive as the
natural horn, perfectly clean. If it is desired to prevent the
drying out of the horn after the removal of the natural varnish
in the operation of shoeing, neatsfoot oil without the customary
lampblack does not disguise but rather improves the natural
appearance of the foot.

Clipping. — The removal of the hair consists of trimming and
incomplete or complete clipping.

Trimming is the removal of the hair from certain parts only,
as the foretop, fetlocks, or ears. Trimming is largely a matter-
of fashion.

Fashion in Horses. — The rule of fashion is not confined to
the boxes about the arena of the horse show; it prevails also in
the loose boxes adjoining the paddock. In compliance with the
dictates of fashion heavy harness and walk-trot-canter saddle
horses are docked, their manes pulled, but foretops left. By the
same authority, light harness and gaited saddle horses carry full
manes and tails ; while the former have foretops removed, as
a rule, the latter have their tails artificially set and have been
known to wear " wigs." Hunters and polo mounts must submit
to a hogging of manes and foretops, while the tails nowadays
are suifcred to remain full length, except for a square blocking
of the end, perhaps, while the bulk of the tail is reduced by pluck-
ing the hair from the sides of the dock.

Drafters are docked but the hair is not trimmed. In the
show ring their manes are plaited * or rolled f and tails tied and
decorated.:}: The docked tail of the harness and saddle horsv
may be trimmed short like a brush, or have the hair parted,
breaking straight down when the tail is set, with the ends evenly
trimmed off, or the hair may be left untrimmed, as in French
tails ; the second method is most popular in this country.

All " light-legged " horses have the feather and fetlocks re-

* Lisher, Breeders' Gazette, March 11, 1915.

f Dinsmore, Breeders' Gazette, September 24, 1913.

% McChord; Montana Stallion Registration Board, Circular No. 4.

STABLES 265

moved to give a trim appearance, while some feather at least is
desirable on the draft horse, to augment the appearance of bone,
and even mild blisters may be resorted to for the purpose of
stimulating its growth.

Business horses may have foretops trimmed and tails blocked
as a matter of convenience. In stables of 100 horses, for in-
stance, the additional time required in doing up and brushing
out a long tail in bad weather is a considerable item in labor.

Partial clipping consists in removing the hair from the legs
but not from the body, as is frequently done with business and
road horses; or the reverse, as is customary with hunters,
the hair being left on the legs for the protection it affords in the
hunting held.

Complete clipping is justifiable and even necessary under
certain conditions. The horse naturally grows a heavy protec-
tive coat of hair in the fall which would be of the gi'catest service
to him under his original natural conditions. However, the
artificial conditions under which the average horse lives and
works render an excessively heavy coat objectionable. The horse
thus protected sweats unduly at either ordinary or fast work, is
generally enervated and his system is relaxed, thereby rendering
him especially liable to contract colds. Furthermore, it is difii-
cult and sometimes impossible to completely dry him after a
day's work. The removal of such a coat early enough in the fall
so that a light, protective coat may yet be grown before severe
weather is encountered, with care that • artificial protection is
always afforded, will render the horse more fit for work. Unless
a horse is afflicted with an exceptionally heavy coat, and cer-
tainly not unless he will be provided with ample clothing at all
times when not at work, he should not be clipped.

Clipping is also resorted to in the spring after the shedding
process has begim, but before the new coat has started to grow
out, to obviate the disagreeable features of the shedding coat,
especially in the case of gray horses. Here, too, the substitu-
tion of blankets for the natural coat is required.

Clothing consists of blankets of various weights, hoods, and
bandages. It serves to protect from cold, flies, and dii*t. Show
horses are heavily blanketed and covered for the purpose of

266 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

keeping down their coats, althongli some fitters of draft horses
secure the highest bloom without blanlvcts. All blankets should
fit comfoi-tably, have their girth adjusted, and be put on in such
a Avaj" as to leave the hair smooth beneath them.

The hlanhet is usually folded once each way, the cross fold
being made first, then caught up so as to double lengthwise. The
blanket should be taken up in such manner as to unfold in the
reverse order from that in which it was folded up. If this is
done the longitudinal fold will open as it is thrown over the horse,
and if carried well over his withers, with the open edges of the
transverse fold forward, the last step in the unfolding will bring
the blanlvct over the horse's loins and croup, drawing it in the
direction of the hair. To remove, it should be folded trans-
versely backward, then caught up where the lengthwise fold is
to come {ind drawn off backwards in such a manner as to leave
the hair smooth.

Hoods are used m conjunction with blankets on race and show
horses to cover all but the eyes, ears, and muzzle. It is impor-
tant that they should fit well about the eyes and ears.

Bandages are used either to protect the extremities from chill,
in which case they are rolled loosely, or to exert gentle pressure
in order to prevent filling of the subcutaneous tissue, commonly
termed stocking. They are applied by starting at the middle of
the canon, rolling down to or including the fetlock joint, then
up to the knee, and back to the starting point. By rolling down-
Avard first better support for the bandage is secured.

Stable Vices. — Wind suching, as indicated by the name, is a
practice in which the horse assumes a position with the upper
teeth bearing on the manger or other projecting object and pro-
ceeds to suck wind into his stomach, accompanied by a long-
grunting sound. Wind suckers are difficult to keep in condition.

Crih-hiting is a vice in which the edge of the manger or any
other projection is gi-asped between the teeth and gTadually bitten
away. The habit results in a characteristic bevelling of the front
margins of the teeth, although the wear of a rounded iron feed
box may produce much the same appearance of the teeth. Wind
sucking and crib-biting are usually associated, although a horse
may be subject to one and not the other. The habit is not con-

STABLES 267

fined to the stable, but may be practiced whenever the oppor-
tunity offers. Either a smoothly finished stall in which there is
nothing to offer a toothhold or the use of a strap fitted closely
enough about the throat to compress the lar^Tix when pressure is
borne on the teeth, but causing the horse no discomfort when
not indulging in the vice, are the usual means of preventing, al-
though not curing, the habit.

Weaving is a rhythmical shifting of the weight of the fore-
hand from one forefoot to the other in much the same manner
that is displayed by a bear in captivity. As a rule, enforced
idleness is an active cause. It has been suggested that horses
tied with chain halter shanks have acquired this habit in order
to rattle the chains.

KicMng. — Horses kick from various motives, such a mali-
ciousness, good feeling, or wilful attempts to injure either com-
panions or attendants. A gTcat many horses which never mani-
fest an inclination to kick elsewhere acquire the habit of kicking
in the stable. Mares are more frequently wickers than geldings.
Some horses kick only at feeding time, thus giving vent to their
impatience. A true stable kicker appears to have no other ex-
cuse than the satisfaction of kicking; for such horses a swing-
ing bale partition is recommended. It offers little resistance to
the kick and for that reason seems to destroy the desire. Either
hobbling the two hind feet or even shackling one to a weight is
sometimes resorted to, but such practices are attended with more
serious danger than the original offence.

Some horses kick only in the dark, and the presence of a light
in the stable will stop them. Some are provoked to kick by an
especially uncongenial companion in the next stall. Finally,
horses perfectly well behaved in the stable under ordinary cir-
cumstances kick from sheer spirit and energy when confined for
an unusually long period.

Tail Biihhing. — The presence of animal parasites or neglect
of the region under the tail, which may become foul, are usually
the causes of the first offence at tail rubbing. Once acquired,
however, the practice will be persisted in, even after the correc-
tion of the conditions which originally induced it. If thorough
gi'ooming will not stop it, the horse may have to be put into a
specially constructed loose box, provided either with a fender

268 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

arranged at such a level that the horse can neither rub his tail
against it nor touch any other part of the stall, or, better yet, a
bevelled wall to about the height of the horse, giving it an upward
and outAvard slope from the floor so that the horse, with his heel
against the wall, cannot reach it to rub, at the height of his tail.
Shields and bandages may be employed, but they are liable to
injure the hair of the tail.

Halter Pulling. — Confirmed halter pullers are best secured
by ropes or chains snapped across behind them. The habit may
be broken in the earlier stages by a slip noose about the flank,
the rope being carried forward between the front legs, through
the halter ring, and then fastened securely. After pulling back
and tightening the noose about the flank the horse will usually
take gTeat care to keep the rope slack.

Bad Ilahits. — Horses are most likely to fall into bad habits
from want of something else to do. A regular daily routine,
therefore, of either moderate exercise or work, and a ration not
too stimulating, are the best safegiiards against their acquisition.
Furthermore, much can be done to make the stable life of n
horse congenial by so arranging the occupants as to promote good
fellowship and avoid incompatibility among them.

REVIEW

lid well-an-anged stables provide?
determines the dimensions of a stable?
,^ive specifications for a straight stall.
1 1 t. How large should a box stall be and why?
y^ 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of paved stall floors?
/^^ / and how may the disadvantag-es be partially overcome?

' G. What pui-poses does bedding seinre? Name the bedding materials iji
common use and the relative ments of each.

7. What should govern the number, size, and placing of the windows?

8. What are the fresh air requirements of the average horse and what
cubic space in the stable is necessary to meet them ?

9. What consideration should be given to the assignment of stalls in
the stabling of horses?

10. What special care do the legs of horses require?

11. Of what does proper shoeing consist?

12. Discuss the advisability of clipping horses.

13. How does fashion govern the trimming of horses?
34. To what extent do horses require clothing?
15*. To what are most bad habits, which hoises acquire in the stable, due?

CHAPTER XVI

EQUITATION

Horsemanship involves the mastery of mind over matter in
a way, but the control of the matter is accomplished, indirectly,
by the mastery of a superior over an inferior intellect. A horse's
usefulness is in proportion to the completeness of his subjuga-
tion, and the more we know of his mental capacity the more
completely may we accomplish his subjugation.

Control of the Horse. — There is a sentimental opposition to
a recital of the horse's mental limitations wliich must be over-
come, and these limitations appreciated, if the most satisfactory
service is to be had from him. For instance, it has been alleged
that the horse is both a fool and a coward, and while these un-
complimentary terms may arouse tlie ire of horse lovers, and
apparently justly so, it is the actual possession of these two
traits, perhaps more moderately called credulity and depend-
ence, which makes it possible to use horses, at all, with safety and
satisfaction. Our whole system of breaking, schooling, and
driving is fundamentally deceptive. We aim to give the horse an
exalted notion of those of his powers which are useful to us and
at the same time create the idea that certain others, which might
prove detrimental to our purpose, are hardly worthy of the
horse's consideration.

The all too common notion that the primary essential in riding
or driving is to be able to '' hold liim '' leads one wide of the mark
in the rudiments of real horsemanship. Such misconception of
facts is responsible for many of the disasters in which runaway
horses are conspicuous. !Most convincing proof of the absurdity
of such an idea is the faultless performance wliich a pair of
horses may put up in a class for ladies to drive, while the same
pair, under identical conditions, had proved unmanageable for
some heavy-handed, strong-armed man driver in a preceding
class. Control, or at least the only system which renders horses
serviceably safe, is of the mental, not muscular activities of the

269

270 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

horse; therefore, the proper method is by suggestion, rather
than by force. The execution of whatever act has its origin, so
far as the horse is concerned, in his brain, not his bra^\Ti ; so- that
is the logical headquarters through which to transmit instruc-
tions. If the orders, emanating from this centre, for execution
on the horse's o^^^l initiative, should happen to conflict with the
physical efforts of the rider or driver, tliere is liable to be a
rebellion in favor of the horse, who regards his o^^tl motive as
taking precedence. On the other hand, by suggesting to the
extent of bringing the horse to be of the' same mind as the driver,
there can be no conflict of orders, and most harmonious response
on the part of the horse results.

Compare the horse which has been educated and driven by
the strong arm method, which requires a flogging to make-him go,
a man's weight to stop him, and two hands to pull him. round a
corner, with the possibility that he may conceive and carry out,
at any time, some fool notion which it is beyond the physical
power of man to check, with the thoroughly schooled horse re-
sponding to the light yet firm and strongly suggestive hand of
the master reinsman, who is able to stop, back, start, and drive
any place, without a word or even a perceptible twist of the wrist.

Transmitting the Impulse to Act. — Xow that the principle
has been exposed, the system may be outlined. It may be sum-
marized in a consideration of hands and mouths. These are the
two essential factors in the system of control, ser\dng alternately
as transmitters and receivers. By means of the former, either
the instructions or demands in the mind of the driver are con-
veyed, by the medium of the reins, to the sensitive structiu'es
constituting the mouth of the horse ; to be forwarded after being
received through the sensory nerve-trunks to the brain of the
horse; thence the motor nei'ves convey the authorized instruc-
tions, as it were, to the proper parts for execution. Wliat
is here described at length and in detail is aceomplished in a
flash, but it is well to follow the actual transmission of an im-
pulse in order to appreciate good horsemanship.

If we are to realize the most prompt and delicate response,
the horse must be taken and kept well in hand, so that, telegraph-
ically speaking, the line of transmission from hand to mouth

EQUITATION 271

may be instantly called into requisition witliont waiting to get
the wires up and connections made. Driving with a careless rein
or continually jabbing not only lets tlie driver but the horse
off his guard, and both must be called to attention by taking in
hand, before communication can be established. Delays of even
tliis long may be disastrous.

Hands of the right sort are capable of such delicate manipu-
lation as to constantly feel and be felt by the mouth, without
maintaining a drag, which destroys all sensibility in both. Such
hands convey to the mouth graduated pressure, from the lightest
touch to the most compelling pull if occasion demands, and all
with a firmness that is convincing.

Relation of Hands' and Mouth. — Mouths are the product of
hands, therefore reciprocal in every respect. The heavy, rough
hand is productive of a hard, unresponsive mouth and destruc-
tion of any other kind ; while tlie light, impressionable hand can
be> relied upon to create or preserve a most sensitive mouth. There
are features of this- relationship between hands and mouths which
can neither be described nor prescribed. They are best learned
by contact, the one with the other ; only one who has experienced
the intimacy of such a fine system of communication has any
conception of all that it means. With many the possession of
good hands is intuitive ; they can neither tell why or how they
do as they do; others are heavy handed in spite of tliemselves,
and are fully conscious of their offence and its attendant bad
result. Of course, practice has much to do Avith this ; one accus-
tomed to driving trotters will find himself in trouble with the
lighter mouth and different bitting arrangement of the actor;
while he who has had his schooling with the latter class of liorses
may be incapable of taking a strong enough hold to steady and
support the horse at speed.

The bit is the instrument by means of which communication
between the hands of the driver and the mouth of the horse is car-
ried on. An impulse arising in the mind of the driver is repre-
sented in a manipulation of the reins, so as to bring the pressure
of the bit on the structures of the mouth with which it is in
contact in such a manner as to suggest a corresponding notion
in the mind of the horse, which, if he be well schooled, he imme-

272

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

diately executes. In the reverse order the horse may conceive
the idea of taking some steps on his own initiative, the premedi-
tation of which will be felt by the driver, and if not in order
he flashes back counter instructions. This is the advantage of
keeping the horse always in hand.

Intelligent use of the bit requires some knowledge of the

t'iG. 138. — Tongue held back to show the bara (a) of the mouth upon which the bit bears.

structures of the mouth involved and the methods by which the
bit operates.

Following are the structures with which the bit is more or
less in contact, the extent and nature of their importance depend-
ing upon the style of tlie .bit :

1. The bars of the mouth, that region of the lower jaw be-
tween the incisor and molar teeth (Fig. 138).

2. The tongue.

3. Angles of the lips. '•>• *:i'

EQUITATION 273

4. The skill of the groove on the under surface of tlie lower
jaw just in front of the union of its branches.

5. The lower premolar teeth, in some instances.
Classification of Bits. — Bits may be classified as snaffle,

curb, and special. Snaffle bits consist of a straight or jointed
bar, in which the principle involved is a direct pull on the
mouth. The jointed snaffle (Fig. 139) is more severe, as it puts
the pressure chiefly on the bars of the mouth, while the plain
snaffle bears equally on the tongue, which has a cushioning
effect.

The four-ring snaffle (Fig. 140) is doubly sever© on account
of the rings at the ends of the cheek pieces being drawn into tlie
mouth.

Curb bits consist of a plain or port bar furnished with a
cheek lever or shank at each end, in place of snaffle rings, at the

Fio. 139. — The jointed Fig. 140. — The four-ring

snaffle bit. snaffle bit.

upper ends of which are attached the chain or strap which bears
in the groove imder the lower jaw, wliile near the lower ex-
tremity of the shank the reins are attached. The length of the
shank is usually one^third above the mouth-piece and two-thirds
below. The principle involved with the curb is one of leverage,
the restraint of the u])per arm of the shank by the curb cliain
or strap constituting tlie fulcrum, the power being aj^plied on
the lower arm of the shank, the pasition of the attachment of
the reins determining the leverage, while the weight is the mouth-
piece of the bit borne by the bars and t>oiigue. The lower the loop
into which the reins are buckled, the stronger the leverage. The
possible attachments of reins are the plain cheek, the half cheek,
the first or second loop. The bearing of the curb chain is in-
tended to be sufficient only to establish the leverage of the shank
by holding its upper extremities stationary and establishing a
fulcnim. The severity of the bit may be increased, however, by
18

274

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

shortening the chain or strap or roughing the chain by twisting
its links. The action of the curb bit is also made more severe by
the U-shaped mouth-piece (Fig. 141) which ^^rovides a port, into
which the tongue passes when the bit is in operation, thus throw-
ing all the pressure upon the bars of the mouth. Without the
port in the bit, the pressure is cushioned on the tongue before
being borne by the bars.

The plain bit is usually corrugated on one side, if of the
reversible Liverpool pattern, which makes it a little more severe
than if the smooth side is used.

There are four standard styles of curb bits : The Liverpool,
the elbow, the Buxton, and the Pelham. The Liverpool (Fig.
142) has a straight shank. The elbow (Fig. 143) has an angle

Fig. 141.— Port of curb bit.

Fig. 142.— The
Liverpool bit.

in the shank to prevent the horse from catching it in his lips and
preventing the operation of the bit. The Buxton (Fig. 144)
has a long S-shaped shank serving the same purpose as the
elbow, the lower extremities being united by a cross-bar to pre-
vent their becoming caught in parts of the harness. The Pelham
(Fig. 145) is the style of bit commonly used in riding bridles.

The special class of bits includes all those designed to meet
extraordinary requirements, and tliey are too numerous to men-
tion. The majority of them are a modification or corruption of
the snaffle type, causing such distortion of the horse's mouth as
to make any hold of the bit impossible. Many are ruinous to
a good mouth and aggravating to a bad one.

The Bitless Bridle. — There has recently been put on the
market a bitless bridle, in which a metal nose band is equipped

EQUITATION

275

with, rings through which pass the ends of a flexible chin strap
into which the reins are buckled. The idea is an old one, sim-
ilar bridles having long been in common use in Southern Europe.
For some horses with spoiled mouths this bridle might give good
service, but with it the nicer responsiveness of a good mouth to
light hands is impossible.

The proper fit amd adjustment of a bit are as essential to the
preservation of a good mouth as is the type of tlie bit itself. It
should just hang easily in the mouth, wide enough not to pinch
the cheeks and low enough neitlier to stretch the angles of the
mouth nor to draw the cheeks in against tlie teeth. Curb bits
should be lower in the mouth, as a rule, than the snalile, some

Fig. 143. — The
elbow bit.

Fig. 144.— The
Buxton bit.

Fig. 145.— The Pelham bit.

being constructed so that the bar has play up and down on the
shank in order that the position of the bit may be, to a certain
extent, automatically adjusted. The curb chain should be loose
enough to admit from two to three fingers when the bit hangs
naturally with no pressure upon it. Then the bit should be so
adjusted as to bring the chain into its proper groove. If too
hig-li, its pressure comes on the sharp margins of the low^er jaw
with injurious effect.

Accessories. — ChecJc or Bearmg Rein. — The overdraw check,
attached either to a small check bit, a chin strap, or some modi-
fication of either or both, takes the bearing directly over the
pole and therefore has the effect of extending the nose and at
least favoring, if not suggesting, an extension of stride. It also

276

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

prevents the compression of the larynx and the interference with
breathing, which come from sharp flexion of the neck under a
pull. The overdraw check rein accompanies the snaffle bit,
never the curb. The rein should not be attached to the snaffle
bit itself, as its bearing will displace the bit in the horse's
mouth, tliereby destroying its relation with the structures on
which it is supposed to bear.

This rein is used on speed and road horses Avhich are not
reined up long periods at a time and are driven at a pace, at
which they go against the bit in such a way as to put the head

Fig. 146. — The side check or bearing rein with bridoon bit.

and nock in a position in which the bearing of the check rein is
very nuicli relieved. The check bit may even be dropped com-
])letely out of the mouth, although the rein seemed tight when
the horse was standing.

They are out of place on the horse which is required either
to do continuous road work, to pull any load, especially up hill,
or to stand hitched for any length of time. Ignorant or thought-
less use of the overdraw check is one of the most common and
severe abuses which horses have to endure.

The side or bearing rein is attached either directly to the

EQUITATION 277

bridoon bit (Fig. 14:G) or to a pulley bridoon (Fig. 147). It
places the bearing at the side of the head, having the effect of
drawing the chin in and arching the neck mthout necessarily
elevating the head very much. This rein is an adjunct to the
curb bit, co-operating with it in suggesting a shorter but higher
stride and a more collected way of going.

Its use is especially indicated in the case of horses which
yield to the curb with the entire neck instead of with the head
only, which brings the chin to a position almost against tlie
breast. Severe reining of this character, especially in short,
thick-necked horses, may seriously compress the larynx, in addi-
tion to causing extreme discomfort and nmscular cramp.

Fig. 147. — The pulley bridoon bearing rein.

The Coupling Rein. — In pair harness the reins consist of
tlie draught or outside reins and the inside or coupling reins,
one of which is attached to each draught rein and passes to the
inside of the bit of the opposite horse. A pull to right, for in-
stance, is thus communicated to the off side of each horse's mouth
and in equal degree, provided the adjustment of the coupling
reins has been properly made.

Coupling is the finishing touch in putting a pair of horses
together, and determines whether they are to drive " like one
horse '' or whether the driver is to be ever conscious of the pres-

278 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

ence of two horses in. his team. In order to exert equal pressure
on both sides of each mouth, the relative carriage of heads,
promptness in driving, disposition, etc., of both horses must be
taken into consideration. Witli a pair of horses closely matched
in everv way, the coupling reins should be from four to six
inches longer than the draught reins, since they are the hypo-
theni of triangles. If one hoi*se carries his head higher than tlie
other, his coupling rein should be on top in order not to be borne
down upon by that of the lower headed horse. If one-horse sets
his liead and neck in a flexed position, his rein should be short-
ened to take up the slack so. produced. Or if one drives more
freely than the other, his rein must be shorter to keep, him under
restraint without juilling the other horse. In order, however,
to keep the horses' heads an equal distance apart and their bodies

N N'
Fig. 1-JS. — The adjustment of the coupling reins is shown by the dotted lines.

parallel VMth the pole, whatever is taken up in one rein must be
let out in the other. Having the coupling reins too short draws
the heads together and throws the horses out from the pole, some-
times causing them to fall, on pavements and do^vn grades. Too
long coupling reins turn the heads out and the bodies in against
the pole.

Fig-ure 148 illustrates by solid lines the position of the reins
when the horses carry their heads and necks alike, AB and CD
representing the bits of the two horses, AM and DN the draught
reins, BN and CM the coupling reins. If, however, the off horse
carries his chin in, or for other reasons requires his rein to be
shortened, the altered position of the coupling reins is sho^vii by
the dotted lines. Coupling rein BN is taken up on the draught
rein to iV^, the take back on the draught rein to ^^ being made
by the hand of the driver. This, however, would shorten coupling

EQUITATION 279

rein CM unless it be let out on its draught rein to the same
extent that BN has been shortened.

The more* nervous horse is often put on the off side so as to
bring the other horse between him and objects to be passed in the
road, it being the. American rule of the road to keep to the right.
It also brings him closer to the hands of the driver, who sits on
tlie right side. The largest horse is customarily put on the off
side for the reason that in turning to the right on roads the sur-
faces of which are crowned, as is usually the case, the off horse
is called upon to pull more in retuniing the load to the centre of
the road.

Blinds or Winhers. — Many horses are rendered much more
serviceable by having their field of vision restricted to the direc-
tion in which they are supposed to go. Both nervous horses,
which will jump at any sudden movement of those behind them,
and lazy horses, which are disposed to loaf, usually drive much
more steadily and promptly with winkers. Careful adjustment
of the winker, both as to height and as to length of the winker
stay, should be made so as to prevent the horse's looking over it,
but. allowing full vision forward. A sudden change from a blind
to an open, bridle or the reverse may bo most disconcerting to the
horse. Appointments require winkers on heavy harness; with
light harness they are optional.

Martingale. — There are two varieties, standing and ring.
A standing martingale is a strap passing from the belly band,
between the forelegs, to eitlier the bit or nose band, and has the
effect of preventing the elevation of the head beyond a certain
level. It is most generally employed on trotters that are diffi-
cult to catch in breaks, saddle horses that rear, and polo ponies
that endanger their riders by throwing their heads up in response
to the severe curb, when pulled up sharply.

The ring martingale is not attached to the horse's head, but
terminates in two rings througli which the reins pass. Its action
is generally the same as the standing martingale but in less de-
gree. Its adjustment should always permit of the reins being
almost at the level of the bit and turret rings, thus holding but
not pulling the horse's head down. It is used on both light bar-

280 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

ness and saddle horses ; the snaffle rein only, in the case of the
latter, passing through it.

Nose Band. — The object of the nose band is to keep the
mouth shut and the bit in position, thus preventing jawing and
lugging. It also serves as an attachment for the standing mar-
tingale. IIea\^ harness and most riding bridles are regularly
equipped with nose bands.

Chill Strap. — This is a strap that passes under the chin
either in front of or through the bit especially designed for it,
and serves to place the bearing of the check rein under the chin
instead of on the upper jaw, to keep the mouth shut, and to
prevent the lateral pulling of the bit through the horse's mouth.

The bristle bun- is a round leather disc fitted around the bit
inside the ring or shank, against the cheek, and is often applied
to one side only. It is used on horses which either side rein or bolt
to one side, in order to keep them off that side of the bit.

The Word. — Well-schooled horses, in competent hands, may
either be started, pulled up, stopped, backed, or changed in their
gait without a word being spoken. Only a few words, such as
" whoa," '' back," and possibly " steady," are justifiable under
any circumstances, and tliey should be spoken distinctly and
always for the same purpose. It is more the tone and modulation
of the voice, in speaking, tlian the word itself, which the horse
interprets. The objection to a careless and indiscriminate use
of Avords in either driving or riding is that they are not only con-
fusing oftentimes to the horse for which they are intended, but
may disturb all other horses mthin hearing. Every horse should
know and heed the command " whoa," which should always
mean a full stop.

The whip should be used more for punishment than persua-
sion. The continued tapping of the whip, like the jabbing of
the reins, will make a loafer of any horse. Discretion in its
application will insure both uniform and prompt response.

FOEM

There are two ends sought by good horsemanship : First, the
safety and comfort of the individuals who are riding or driving,
which depends upon one's ability to keep his horse both between

EQUITATIOlsr 281

fences and on his feet ; and second, the ease with which this is
accomplished.

Form may be simply defined as the manner in which a thing
is done. So much importance is attached to form in some in-
stances that results are all form and nothing else. Form usu-
ally marks the made equestrian, whose real horsemanship still
lacks something. On the other hand, it is probable that the
naturally good rider or driver will number form with his other
accomplishments.

Following the thought of the definition, it may be inferred
that good form consists in doing a thing in the correct way.

Fia. 149. — Reins held in left hand, right hand free for take-back or whip.

Right, in this sense, does not mean according to the dictates of
fashion but in that manner which insures its being done with
greatest efficiency and readiness. We should accept what has
been established as the correct manner of riding and driving
as that which contributes most to the safety, comfort, and appear-
ance of those directly concerned. If beginners in horsemanship
could be induced to take advice from some one who really knows,
ultimate results would be much more satisfactory to both them-
selves and their horses. One frequently sees accidents narrowly
averted or the most flagrant cruelties practiced purely through
the ignorance of the perpetrators, who would be as much dis-

282

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

tressed as any one if they fullv realized the seriousness of their
mistakes.

The Rudiments of Driving. — The rudiments of the proper
way to drive are as follows : Under ordinary conditions drive
with the left hand, with the right hand free for either take-up or
whip ; hold the near rein ov^er the forefinger, the off rein between
tlie middle and ring fingers, thus leaving the reins separated by
two fingers, which allows sufficient space to introduce the fingers
of the right hand (piickly, to take back (Fig. 149). This is
done by dropping the thumb and forefinger of the right hand over

Fig. 150.— The take-back.

tho near rein, slipping the remaining three fingers between the
two reins at. such distance in advance of the left hand as may be
required (Fig. 150). The reins should be gripped by their edges
rather than by their flat sides. Either rein may be taken up
by the right hand as in the case of a turn, and the off rein may be
released by the left hand, passing through the right hand and
over the thumb in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig. 151).
The position of the left hand should be with the knuckles
turned forward and perpendicular, the forearm honzontal and
at very nearly right angles with the reins. This position insures
the greatest freedom of wrist and fingers, is conducive to a light

EQUITATION

283

hand, and renders almost impossible a continuous, dragging
pull.

Gloves permit of botli a better grip and more easy manipu-
lation of tlie reins, but tliev should be a size too larce and un-
buttoned to allow the greatest freedom of the fingers and wrist.

Riding,— Holding the Reins. — The usual method of hokling
tlio reins of a curb and snalHc riding bridle is to take the near
snaille rein over tlie little finger of the left hand, the near curb
rein between the little and ring fiugers, then pass the off curb rein
between the rinc: and niiddlo finaers and the off snaffle rein

Fig. 151. — The two-hand grip.

between the middle and index fingers, the ends of all four reins
coming out of the hand over tlie index finger and clasped by the
thumb (Fig. 152). Eitlier curb or snaffle reins can be taken up
independently by tlie right hand back of the left, or the right hand
may be dropped in front of the left, the little finger between the
off curb and snaffle reins in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig.
153). The hands may be separated and their position on the
reins changed by running the reins through the fingers as the
hands are drawn apart.

The single rein from the plain snaffle bridle is usually simply
crossed through the hands.

284

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

The trooper holds his single curb reins in the left hand, the
two separated by the little finger, then passed through the hand
and over the index finger, where they are clasped bj the thumb.

Fig. 152. — Riding, reins in one-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B' , curb reina.

Fig. 153. — Riding, two-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B', curb reins.

The COW puncher uses an open, unbuckled rein which falls
to the ground the moment it is released from the hand, serving
to hold his pony as though anchored securely. He usually holds

EQUITATION 285

the reins loosely, separated by the forefinger, or with both reins
gripped between the thumb and forefinger.

The trooper, mounted officer, or cowboy rides with one hand
in order to have a free hand for sabre, gun, stick, or rope, but
for riding in the park and cross country it is not only per-
missible but advisable to use both hands. Continued one-hand
riding with tlie other hand hanging disengaged has a tendency
toward an unsymmctrical development and carriage of shoulders.
Since the trooper and cow puncher guide their horses by the rein
on the neck exclusively, using the bit only for restraint, the finger-
ing of the reins in their cases is quite different from that which is
employed in riding a gaited or high school horse, for instance.

The use of the reins implies pressure on the bit, with one
notable exception — the saddle horse. All saddle horses, but
especially those ridden with a single rein, are schooled to respond
to pressure of the rein on the neck (rein wise), turning away
from the side against which the rein is carried. If the reins
are crossed in front of the horse's neck, pressure on one side of
the neck puts pressure also on the opposite side of the mouth,
with the usual result so far as the horse is concerned. Gradually
he can be taught to respond to the rein on the neck without wait-
ing for the pressure on the bit ; clever horses even learn to follow
the movement of the hand as though bringing the rein against
the neck on one side or the other. Of course, the reins are not
crossed after the habit has been acquired.

REVIEW

1. Of what importance are the horse's mental limitations?

2. What is the principle which underlies our system of control?

3. What is the line of iransmission, from driver or rider to horse, of

instructions for execution?

4. What are irood hands; a good moutli; and wliat is Iheir rehition?

5. Describe the snaffle and the curb bits, naming* the structures of

the mouth involved by each.
G. When is a bit of the i-ight size and properly adjusted?

7. For what puri:)Ose was the over-draw check designed and to what

extent is it abused?

8. When are the coupling reins of a pair of hoi-ses properly adjusted?

9. To what extent should the word be used in riding or driving? Why?
10. What is the proper manner of holding the reins in driving? Why?

CHAPTER XVII
VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE

It is quite natural to assume that horses were ridden long
before they were driven, although the war chariot is mentioneil
in some of the earliest references to the horse in the service of
man. The use of the vehicle is so generally dependent upon the
construction of roads, and the nature of the roads in early times
was so poor, that the comfort of passengers and safety of goods
were much greater on the backs of horses and mules. It is so
even to-day in the newer parts of our ovm countrs^ Even after
roads were built, the primitive vehicles were so crude and luml^jer-
ing that they Avere used chiefly for agricultural hauling.

After the pillion method of conveying people came the
horse litter (fifteenth century), a carriage swung between two
poles which were supported at botli ends by horses which were
either led or ridden.

The evolution of the wheeled vehicle may be traced in steps :
First, the most cmde sort of a sledge, often consisting of the
forked branches of a tree, dragged in the manner of a stone boat ;
second, the addition of fixed rollers ; third, the turning of large
rollers into the fomi of wheels or rollers on the ends of a revolv-
ing axle, this being the first semblance of wheels (Fig. 15-i) ;
fom'th, a fixed wooden axle on which the wheels revolved, being
held in place by pins; fifth, the construction of the metal axle
with boxed hub wheel, designed to meet if not to minimize
friction ; sixth, the highest development of this idea, represented
in the modern lubricated or even roller and ball-bearing axles,
with wheels of the strons^est vet lightest constniction.

The Wheel. — The roller is the means bv which rubbino^ fric-
tion is transformed into rolling friction, which requires very
much less draught to overcome, and the wheel is the highest type
of roller. The two parts of the wheel concerned with friction
are the tire, which rolls on the road, and the box of the hub,
286

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE

287

which rubs on the axle. The tire rolls not only on the ground
but also over any obstacle which the surface of the road may
present. The widdi of the tire has already been discussed under
" Draft of the Load/' Chapter XIII.

The resilience of the tire is a matter the importance of
which has been made more appar-
ent by the development of bicy-
cling and motoring. The resil-
ience is the springing back of the
tread behind the point of contact
of the wheel with the ground. It
may be present either in the tire
of the wheel or the surface over
which the wheel rolls. The force
of the resilience is equivalent
to the additional force required
to compress the tread ahead of
the j^oint of contact, as the wheel
rolls.

Rubber tires have the general
effect of the wheel travelling over
a yielding surface, which in-
creases the draftj but if the
rubber is sufficiently resilient to
restore the force thus expended,
the actual draft required may
be reduced, since the rubber
cushion acts like a spring in ab-
sorbing shock and thus prevent-
ing waste of power in lifting
the load over every little obstacle,
then letting it fall, with a pound,

on the road again. This saving

Fig. 154. — The evolution of the wheel.

is greater the higher the speed
at which the vehicle is pulled.

The pneumatic tire, acting on the same principle, very mate-
rially reduces the draft of vehicles so equipped, as shown by the
experiments of Morin :

288

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Iron tires — Walk three miles per hour .require traction of 48 lb. per ton
Iron tires — Trot GVa miles per hour. . . .require traction of 59 lb. per ton
Iron tires — Fast trot 9.4 miles per hour .require traction of 77 lb. per ton

Pneumatic tires — Walk require traction of 48 lb. per ton

Pnemuatic tires — At other paces requii'e traction of 50 lb. per ton

Bearings. — Rubbing friction between the axle and tlie box of
the hub with which it is in contact is controlled by lubrication
and special bearings of rollers, cones or balls, in place of the
simple friction bearing.

(ZZ

Fig. 155. — The cylindrical axle arm.

Fig. 156. — The tapered axle arm.

Axles are either cylindrical or tapered. The cylindrical
axle arm (Fig. 155) insures a truer bearing and easier imnning,
in case the road is level from side to side, the tire at right angles
to the face of the wheel and the arm itself horizontal. There are
many reasons for modifying these conditions prerequisite to the
best results from tlie cylindrical axle, however, which render the
tapered axle better adapted to common use. The tapered arm

^. y/y/v7^y////////.

Fig. 1571-^— Tapered axle arms pitched.

Fig. 158. — An unpitched tapered axle.

(Fig. 15G) is stronger for a given weight, since it is heaviest at
the point of greatest strain, the shoulder. With the tapered axle
it is a much simpler matter to maintain a good fit between axle
and box by the use of leather washers placed between the wheel
and the shoulder of the axle than in the case of the cylindrical
axle, in which no subsequent adjustment is possible. For tliis
reason the tapered axle is much more easily constructed. Axle
anus are so pitched (Fig. 157) as to keep the wheel running

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE

289

snug to tlie shoulder instead of running off as it would tend
to do witli an unpitched tapered axle (Fig. 158). Incidentally,
this pitch places tlie tops of the wheels fartlier apart and, there-
fore, throws the mud or dust away from instead of against the
body of the wagon.

Wheels are dished, that is tlie spokes are set in the hub at an
angle, instead of perpendicularly, for several reasons (Fig.
159). In the case of a pitched axle, dish-
ing brings tlie spokes of the lower half of
the wheel into an upright position, in
which they are capable of sustaining the
greatest weight. Dishing also braces the
wheel against being spnmg by a lateral
thrust from the inside, as occurs when the
vehicle bounds back and forth from side
to side over the road. Dishing also
affords an automatic means of keeping
wheels tight The effect of wear and con-
tinued battering over stones, rails, and
all kinds of rough roads is to expand
metal tires, thus allowing the sjDokes to
loosen in both hub and felloe. In the
dished Avheel, however, the spokes are not
only set at an angle, but the tire, after
being expanded by fire, is fitted so close
that when suddenly contracted by cold
water it draws the ends of the spokes
into a still greater dished position than
they were originally set in. Therefore,
any expansion that occurs in the tires
is immediately taken up by the spokes

springing toward the perpendicular. The centrifugal force of
the revolving wheel also operates to throw the spokes into a per-
pendicular position, Avhich assists in keeping tliem taut against
the felloe and tire, by which they are bound.

In pitching the axle arms or dishing the wheels, care must be
taken to keep the tire parallel with tlie road surface so as not to
drag or scuff, as motorists say, but roll evenly over its entire width.
19

Fig. 159. — The dished
arrangement of the spokes in
the hub.

290

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Very light wheels may have the spokes set in the hub in
staggered fashion (Fig. 160) in order to brace the wheel against
being sprung by a side thrust from either direction. Instead of
being lined up in tlie hub evei*y other spoke is set
outside the centre of the hub, which is directly
in line with the felloe, the other spokes being
set inside. Thus each alternate half of the
spokes braces the wheel in opposite directions.
Wheeled passenger vehicles were first intro-
duced into England in 1555, according to Sir
Walter Gilbey, and were in limited use in
France a little before that time. Queen Elizabeth
was the first sovereign to use a coach, it having
been brought from the ^Netherlands and pre-
sented to her by a Dutchman, William Boonen,
who later became her coachman. This was one'
of the first carriages seen in England and was of most cumber-
some but pretentious design (Fig. 161).

Progress in carriage building was as rapid as the gradual im-

FiG. 160.— The
staggered arrange-
ment of the spokes
in the hub.

Fig. 161. — One of the cumbersome and pretentious early coaches.

provement of the roads would permit, and they remained in very
bad condition until late in the eighteenth century.

Steel springs were first used in 1670, although our buckboard
idea had been represented at a much earlier time, in the way of

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE

291

strap siipi")Oi*ts in which the body of the vehicle was slung (Fig.
162) J or two long, supple poles, supported at the ends by the
axles, and upon which the body was suspended. Iron tires were
rej)orted in the first half of the nineteenth century, although
wooden rims, braced with iron at the joints, had been previously
used.

Use of Biihher. — Early attempts Avere made at shock absorp-
tion, it being no doubt more imperative then than now, on ac-
count of the rough condition of the roads. The pneumatic tire
Avas patented in France in 1846, but proved impracticable at
that time. Before this, inflated cushions over the springs,

Fig. 162. — Strap supports in wliich the bodj^ of the vehicle was slung.

rubber cushions inside the hubs, and spring spokes had all been
attempted. In 1883 rubber cushions under the iron tires were
tried.

The first brakes Avere used 1860 to 1865.

Superior IFoor/xS. — A distinct advantage is claimed for
American carriage builders over those of any other country on
account of the superior AA^oods Avhich are available to them.
Hickory is fast replacing oak in carriage construction, and
American AA^oods are extensively exported for the use of foreign
manufacturers. The American idea in carriage design is light,
rigid strength of the " split hickory " sort, Avhile foreign car-
riages are much heavier. It is interesting to note the exchange
of ideas betAveen England and the United States ; while carriages

292

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

of English type have come to dominate our show rings, the Eng-
lishmen are showing their high steppers to a bike wheeled vehicle
not unlike our American road wagon (Fig. 163).

Fig. 163. — A class of English harness horses.

Vehicles Classified. — Vehicles may he classified as follows :

I. For the transportation of merchandise :

1. Van 5. Wagon

2. Dray 6. Express Delivery

3. Truck T. Light Delivery

4. Cart

II. Four-wheelers for the transportation of passengers:

1. Omnibus 9. Eockaway

2. Opera Bus 10. Mail Phaeton

3. Wagonette 11. Demi Mail Phaeton

4. Station Wagon 12. Stanhope Phaeton

5. Berlin 13. Spider Phaeton

6. Landau 14. George I V( Lady's) Phaeton

7. Brougham 15. Sayler Wagon

8. Coupe 16. Victoria

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 293

17.

Cabriolet

22.

Trap

18.

Surrey

23.

Park Drag

19.

Eun about

24.

Eoad Coach

20.

Road Wagon

25.

Brake

21.

Spe«d Wagon

Two-wheelers for the transportation of passengers

1. Gig 4. Brake Cart

2. Hansom 5. Jogging Cart

3. Jaunting Car 6. Sulky

THE HARNESS

There are three general classes of harness, — work, hea\^,
and light. The chief distinctions bet^veen the latter have already
been referred to. Heavy harnesses are differentiated as coach,
gig, and runabout. The typical light harness is also designated
as a single strap or track harness.

THE SADDLE

Horses were ridden long before saddles were thought of, but
saddles of various sorts were described at an early period. The
horse cloth was used first (800 b.c), but real saddles, with trees,
were reported in tlie fourth century a.d. The side-saddle w^as
introduced by Anne of Bohemia in the last half of the fourteenth
century.

Types. — There are in general three types of saddles and, cor-
respondingly, three ^vays of sitting them or " seats ":

The English or flat, pig skin saddle is used for park riding,
hunting, polo, and racing, wdth some modifications especially
adapting it to each purj^ose. Its chief characteristics are a low
tree, also low pommel and cantle, padding, skirts usually with
knee pads, buckled girths usually double, and open steel stir-
rups. Seat. — Natural sitting posture, stirrups medium length,
knee grip, posting the trot. See illustrations of gaited and walk-
trot-canter saddle horses. Chapter V.

291

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

The McClellan saddle is the regulation United States Anny
saddle. Its features are a medium liigli, open tree, open seat,

Fig. 164.— PLilaJciijLia u.uuni.--d p^'li.- 'Muipi-.-l u

curb bridle.s.

MrCl-lll

dlks and single-rein

Fig. 165. — The style of riding to which the stock saddle is best adapted.

high, pommel and cantle, blanket pad, cinch, and hooded stirrups.
Scat. — Close, pommel and cantle support, long stirrup and thigh
grip (Fig. 164).

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 295

The stock or Texas saddle is used exclusively for range work
and for rough riding in general throughout the West. Its feat-
ures are a heavy steel tree, a very high pommel surmounted with
a horn for roping, deep seat, very high cantle, heavy square skirts,
double cinch, no buckles, and heavy wooden or steel, hooded or
open stirrups. Seat. — Comparatively loose but balanced,
straight leg and long stirrup (Fig. 165).

BRIDLES

Eiding bridles are snafEe, curb, or curb and snaffle. The
plain snaffle is used on race horses, some hunters, and ponies;
the curb alone in cavalry and police ser\ace and by stockmen;
the curb and snaffle on either gaited or walk-trot-canter saddle
horses, some hunters, and polo ponies.

A special hunting snaffle, with double rein, one of which is
run through a ring martingale, is most commonly used on hunters.

REVIEW

1. Why do we presume that horses were ridden before they were

driven ?

2. What were the steps in the evolution of the wheeled vehicle 1

3. Why does a wheeled vehicle require less traction than a stone boat?

4. What is the effect of rubber tires on draft?

5. Why are axle anns pitched?

6. Wh}^ are wheels dished?

7. How are vehicles classified? Give an example of each class.

8. What are the three classes of harness and the essential features of

each?

9. What are the chief differences in the three types of saddles and the

" seats " with which they are ridden ?
10. Name the types of riding bridles and the uses of each.

CHAPTER XVIII

MARKETS AND SHOWS

The horse show serves a manifold purpose. It entertains
the jDublic, furnishes high-class sport for exhibitors, stimulates
interest in horses and equestrianism, promotes the horse breed-
ing industiy by affording the best means of advertising, and,
most imix>rtant of all, it establishes ideals or standards for the
guidance of breeders.

Classes of Show Horses. — Show horses are classified into
market and breeding divisions. In the market division the
classes are made up on the basis of type, primarily, the hoi-ses
of each type being classified either according to weight, height,
or performance and further into singles, pairs, threes, fours,
sixes, and so on. Age, sex, and breed are not as a rule consid-
ered in the market classification. Any class may in addition
have special requirements, as " performance only to count " or
" conformation 40 per cent., performance 60 per cent.''

Breeding classes are made up on the basis of age, duplicated
for each sex and in connection with each breed. In addition
there are usually classes for get of sire, produce of dam, groups
either bred or o^\Tied by exliibitor, and specials.

Fitting horses for the show ring consists in schooling them
for a creditable performance and feeding and grooming them
into the condition and bloom in which tliey make the best ap-
pearance. All show horses, of whatever type, should be fat
in some degree.

Showing. — Breeding classes are shown " in hand " either
with lead bridle or on the lung-e rein, in the case of stallions;
to halter frequently, in the case of mares. Trotters and pacers
are usually sho^m beside a pony, while drafters and heavy har-
ness horses are sho^\ni by runners on foot.

Market classes are shown in harness or under saddle, as the
case may l^e. An exception is made in the case of drafters,
which are shown to halter as well as in harness. Harness horses
296

MARKETS AND SHOWS 297

should be put to appropriate veliicles ; appointments may or may
not count, as indicated in the class requirements. Harness and
saddle horses should be either driven or ridden well into the
corners of the ring, in order to go as much of the route as pos-
sible straight away.

Exliibitors are at all times subject to the direction of the
ring master, who acts under the instmctions of the judges. Con-
testants, not in the short leet or disqualified for any reason, are
dismissed from the ring or '^ given the gate."

HORSE MARKETS

C^ommerce is the interchange of commodities, and the market
is the medium for this. The exchange takes place between the
producer on the one hand and the consumer on the other, market
vahies being dctennined by the balance maintained between the
amount produced and the anioimt consumed. Consumption be-
ing fixed, over-production bears or depresses the market while
under-production will bring about an increase in market values.
With a given amount produced, excessive consumption bulls or
increases market values, while a decrease in the demand from
the consumer \\i\\ have an opposite effect on values.

The demand of the consumer not only determines market
values, but also the character of the product for which the top
price can be secured. Therefore, while both the producer and
the consumer are concerned in maintaining the strength of the
market and with the character of the product involved, it is the
consumer who really rules. This is a most important fact for
the horse breeder to realize.

The Breeder and the Market. — ^Unfortunately there is a dif-
ference between horse breeding and the production of market
horses. Too many breeders operate independently or in total
ignorance of market conditions and requirements. Their ideal of
a market horse is both single and selfish and does not comprehend
t\^e or class distinction. It is not unusual to find an ow^ner
sacrificing a colt which has some real outcome in a market class
for which the demand is strong but of which the owTier knows
nothing, while trying to secure his price for one of whose value

298 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

he lias either an erroneous or exaggerated notion. '' Picked out
of the bushes " means bought cheaply from an obscure owner who
had no concei)tion of the hole's idtimate value. It represents the
practice of buyers who measure tlieir profits by the ignorance^ in
horse matters, of those from whom they buy.

With the exception of drafters, the horse breeder receives a
smaller percentage of the price his colt eventually brings than
in the case of any other live stock product. It is true that most
fanners are not equipped with time or facilities to properly
school or train high-class saddle, show, or race horses, the ex-
pense of which is usually w^orth about as much as the original
cost of the green horse, but they frequently do not receive full
value for their product in the rough, to which they are justly
entitled.

In order to produce salable colts and to realize full value for
them, the breeder must keep himself well informed as to the
character of the horses that are topping the markets. And the
horse that brought the high price years ago may not be the best
seller to-day, since market demand is continually undergoing
some modification which should be taken into account by the
producer, if he is to be successful. Furthermore, the breeder
should be able to see, in prospect, into just what his colt is
capable of developing.

A knowledge of dealers, conditions of sale, and other essen-
tials also aids materially in negotiating a satisfactory sale.

The particular class desired will of course depend upon the
purpose for which the horse is purchased. It is important, how-
ever, that the requirements of some definite class shall be met, as
those horses which are oft' type or misfits constitute the remnant
stock of the horse market for which the lowest price and least
profit are realized.

First-handedness. — Service in the city usually draws the
line between first- and second-handedness. Marked evidence, of
a horse's being second-handed consists of the blemishes and minor
unsoundnesses which come as a result of wear and tear, such as
jniffs, sprung knees, and cocked ankles. The dealer in buying
first-hand country horses prefers that they should be untrimmed
in any way.

MARKETS AND SHOWS 299

Sex. — As a rule geldings outsell mares on account of their
more general usefulness throughout the season and also in view
of the possibility of mares being in foal. Spring fann trade
may demand mares.

The Origin of Market Classes. — The origin of market classes
is based on utility. Horses are required to perform a certain
kind of service, and it is determined tliat those of certain definite
features are better adapted to do this particular line of work than
liorses of any other sort. Thus, demand takes the form of
S])ecific requirements by the consumer, and there are created
distinct market classes. Some of the classes are more or less
arbitrary as to name and requirements, so that on different
markets it is not always easy to distinguish between them. The
major divisions, however, can be differentiated on the broad
basis of type.

Market horses are, first of all, either classified or unclassified
(see chapter on the Classes of Horses).

Sales are eitlier public or private. Public sales are con-
ducted by auctioneers and dealers; private sales by private
owners and dealers. Sales, whether public or private, are usually
followed as soon as possible by a transference of the liorse to the
buyer, who is allowed two days in which to give the liorse fair
examination and trial, at the end of which time, if the hoi-se is
not returned, the sale is considered complete. '^ Two days " is
the rule most strictly abided by, but under certain conditions
this may be extended to ten days or even two weeks, if so stated.

Letters or evidence bearing upon a contract may complete it
m law, -so that when horses are bought by correspondence the
letters and documents act as a part of tlie contract.

When any defects or unsoundnesses, otherwise apparent, are
purposely covered up or hidden in any way, and discovered after
the sale, the buyer has redress. The measure of damages he can
recover is the difference between the price paid hy him and the
price he receives upon selling the horse in an open market .

Auctioneers are usually licensed as such and are legally
bound to conduct their sales under certain conditions.

Conditions of Sale. — The buyer should familiarize himself
with the conditions of sale. In all cases horses must be as rep-

300 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

resented, but in catalogues or bills the owner's statement below
the description of a horse is not to be taken as a part of the con-
tract or guarantee. As a nile, age, height, weight, and speed
are not guaranteed in these sales.

Sales are usually for cash, subject to the terms set forth in
catalogues and bills and specified at the opening of the sale by
the auctioneer.

The owner is the only responsible party in sales. The auc-
tioneer is an intermediate party acting as the owner's agent or
representative, but he is also a protection to the buyer, as he can
hold the seller to any statements he may make concerning the
conditions under which the horse is sold.

In most markets horses previously sold may be run through
the sale like any other horses in order to give it life, color, and en-
couragement, and this is not considered an unlawful practice.

Sales Ring Warranty. — In Chicago, the largest horse market
in America, horses are sold under five different guarantees of
soundness, viz. :

1. Sound. — The horse meets all requirements of soundness ;
comparatively rare.

2. Serviceahhj Sound. — Unsound in some respect, which
does not interfere with his fitness for the particular service for
which sold.

3. Sound to Wind and Work. — The horse's wind is good and
he will work, but he is otherwise unsound.

4. Worker Only. — True to woi*k; all other conditions are
to the eye of the buyer.

6. At the Halter. — Carrying witli it no warrant or guarantee
Avhatever.

Often horses sold at the halter are those that have been sold
under previous guarantee and turned back, or sold to adjust some
dispute or difficulty.

With all Faults. — AMien a horse is sold " with all faults "
the seller is relieved from all liability.

Private Sales. — It is often desirable for intending pur-
chasers to buy from private o\Miers or dealers, under conditions
which pei-mit of more thorough examination.

How to Buy a Horse. — There is probably nothing about the

MARKETS AND SHOWS 301

purchase of which there is so much suspicion and misgiving
as a horse, yet there are horses sold on their merits and at prices
which they are well worth. It may be further stated that there
is nothing else in the purchase of which the buyer expects so
much for so little. There probably always will be gyp dealers,
but the only excuse for their existence is the credulity, ignor-
ance, short-sightedness, and narrow policy of buyers. These
traits of character constitute the business assets of tlie illegitimate
seller.

On the other hand, much has been accomplished in an effort
to ])ut the horse business* on a sound basis, where dealers stake
their reputation on their sales the sauie as is done with pianos,
real estate, diamonds, or any commodity of trade. Oue does not
hesitate to pay a premium for a watch, a hat, or even a bottle of
milk, which is the product of a house or finn Avith a i'e])utatiou
for furnishing full value* in their gooxls. Yet a horse dealer is
charged with unfairness and even chicanery, in many cases, if
he charges much more than the cost of the raw material after
having " made " the horses and sold them with a guarantee which
protects the buyer from even the inevitable. This; is done
at the risk of the seller, who hazards niiiny things for which he
is in no way responsible, even should they occur. Another source
of difficulty is the indiscriminate manner in which advice is
accepted. The coachman, the town liveryman, the village black-
smith. Uncle Hiram, and all the others are regarded as the wise
ones, whose conflicting opinions must be accorded more consid-
eration than the claims of the perfectly respectable citizen whose
own business prosperity depends upon the horses he sells making
good all he claims for them.

It is a ridiculous situation. Any person who cares suffi-
ciently for a horse to use him intelligently and with satisfaction
should be competent to buy one. He should be able to deter-
mine, by trial, whether or not the horse meets the buyer's require-
ments ; and if he is, temporarily at least, sound of eyes, wind,
and limb. If there is any question in regard to an obscure un-
soundness, the services of a veterinarian should be employed to
settle that point. If one does not feel qualified to make his oa\ti
selection, but finds it necessary to seek advice, he should go direct

302 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

to the dealer — onlj reputable ones to be considered — admit his
ignorance, state his requirements, and put himself, without any
reservation, in the dealer's hands. It should not be difficult to
find a dealer who would measure up to a responsibility of this
kind. But he will charge, in the price of the horse, a reasonable
fee for telling the truth about things of which the buyer is free
to confess he knows little or nothing. For such advice the buyer
can well afford to pay. If, however, he 2)laccs no faith in the
dealer, nor credits him with any conscience, but he and his
advising friends proceed to bluff their way to a satisfactory
jmrchase, they are tempting fate — and the dealer.

Avoid all go-hetweens who are '^ in the deal " for a profit.
If it is a harness or saddle horse that is to be bought, do the
dealer the honor to eliminate the coachman from the transac-
tion. It is astonishing how gentlemen who consider themselves
so thoroughly competent to manage their own affairs that they
resent the least suggestion on most matters, make their coachmen
tlic absolute masters of the situation in all affairs pertaining to
their stables. This is one of the most difficult and aggTavating
l)ropositions witli which the square-dealing horse seller has to
contend, and has much to do with keeping the price of horses
high. If some '^ direct to the consumer " method of conducting
the horse business were permitted by buyers, it would be much
to the mutual benefit of all concerned.

When huying gree7i Jiorses in the country, or whenever the
buyer has no recourse but to rely on his own ingenuity in making
a selection, some system should be followed. It is import.ant
that the horse be inspected in the stable. !N'ote the condition of
his stall ; this is the place to detect such vices as kicking, crib-
bing, and weaving. Consider how he stands on his feet and the
manner in which he backs out on the floor. The first few steps
taken after standing vnW often reveal what the next few will
quickly obscure. "Watch him harnessed, put to, and driven out
Here again and here only many disagreeable traits may be dis-
covered. Try him out in whatever way desired, ^ever buy a
horse " hot," i.e., warmed up. It may be more convenient to
have a horse or a pair brought round for inspection, but there
are a number of conditions of unsoundness that a horse may be

MARKETS AND SHOWS 303

wanned out of. Examine the eyes with a shadow cast on them ;
note the relative size of the two front feet; then wind him and
work him to see how he goes.

The company plan of selling stallions may or may not be a
perfectly legitimate transaction. It has its advantages and
disadvantages to both buyers and sellers. It frequently happens
that ten or twelve mare o^vners in a community w^ould prefer
taking a share or two of company stock to owning a stallion out-
right. To them the company plan renders available the services
of a valuable stallion of which they would otherwise be deprived.
If they simply subscribe for their own stock and take no further
part in the deal, they may expect the expense of organizing the
company and selling the horse to them to be included in his cost
price. Yet if a good selection is made, each subscriber may re-
ceive good value, allowing for his o^vn time saved. When, how-
ever, the company plan is adopted as a means of unloading a
counterfeit stallion for which there is no sale at the firm's stables,
the horse being shipped to the to^vn selected, accompanied by a
smooth salesman abundantly supplied ^\atli cash with ^diich to
mix among prospective subscribers and finally put through a
sale, it should be condemned.

The company plan of huying is preferable to the company
selling plan. Let the organization of the company be instigated
and perfected by tliose interested, and one or more of the mem-
bers be delegated to go direct to the seller's headquarters, make
a selection, and pay cash. Othen^^se the cost of the same stallion
will be about 20 per cent more, if sold on the company plan
and the cost of the sale a.dded to his price.

REVIEW

1. What is a market, and how are market classes and values determined 1

2. What is the importance of market information to the breeder and

feeder?

3. Explain the creation of market classes.

4. What is a second-handed horse ?

5. What are the usual conditions of sale"?

6. Name six "don'ts" to obsel'^'e in buying; a horse.

7. Is the company plan of seHins: stallions commendable?

8. How are show horses classified ?

9. Of what does fitting for show consist ?

10. How are the different classes of horses shown?

CHAPTER XIX

TRANSPORTATION

Hace and sliow horses and also market horses for sale, which
are shipped long distances, as from the Middle West to the
Eastern markets, are usually carried by exj^ress, while individ-
ual horses or even a carload, shipped to or from local points,
ordinarily go l>y freight.

Express Cars. — The express companies furnish either horse
cars fitted with adjustable stall partitions which accommodate
from twelve to sixteen horses standing four abreast lengthwise of
the car (Fig. 166) ; or large, loose horse cars open about one-
fourth the way down from the top and accommodating twenty-
eight head with sufficient space to permit of their moving about
and picking mates. The former type of car is used most by stal-
lion importers, while the latter is preferred by the shippers of
market geldings.

For freight shipment open stock cars are found to be less
draughty and afford better ventilation than closed box cars. Ex-
perienced shippers of the highest class of horses declare they
have less sickness subsequent to shipment, even in winter, in the
open car. Horses are much less likely to contract colds if con-
tinuously exposed to low temperatures than if chilled, even
slightly, after a period of overheating, and the danger of infec-
tion is always inverse to the amount of fresh air available. Most
stock cars built nowadays are equipped with double coil springs
to insure easy riding whether loaded heavy or light, a rigid steel
underframe to prevent sagging, shock-absorbing draw-bars,
rounded edges, countersunk bolt-heads and nuts in the interior,
and are even of steel construction (Fig. 167).

It is further advised, on good authority, to turn horses loose
in the car, even if but one or two are to go. They are less liable
to be thro^Mi than if tied, ride much more comfortably, some in-
stinctively lying do^\Ti as soon as they enter a well-bedded car,
and they come off the car at the end of the trip in much better
shape.
304

TRANSPORTATION

305

The more common practice, however, is to cross tie and even
tie from above, allowing but little play. It usually matters not
whether the horse is headed or backed to the locomotive, as a
car rarely arrives in the same direction in which it was started,

Fig. 166.— Express horse car partitioned into stalls, four groups of four stalls
each lengthwise of the car.

unless on a short, straight run. If a mixed car of stock is shipped,
necessitating the partitioning of the car, such partitions should
be very substantial in both material and construction. Horses
have been seriously injured an^ ji^rmanently blemished by being
thro^vQ through or against frail or makeshift partitions.
20

306 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Freight tariffs are not Tiniform the country over, but the fol-
lowing one is fairly typical :

A carload is hilled at a minimum of 20,000 pounds ; single
horses or less than a carload at 5000 pounds for one mare or
gelding; 3000 pounds for each additional head. Stallions are
rated at YOOO pounds straight, whether alone or in a mixed car
of stock other than horses, although a stallion shipped in a full
carload of horses only is not discriminated against.

Care During Shipment. — Shipments of horses come under
the federal law requiring all stock to he unloaded, fed, and
watered every twenty-eight hours ; this time may he extended to
thirty-six hours if so agreed between the shipper and carrier

Fig. 107. — Stock car for shipping horses.

beforehand. Less than a carload, accompanied by an attendant
who feeds and waters them, are not subject to this law. Most
carloads of horses are shipped unattended, as a man can do little
to either prevent or overcome trouble in the car en route.

Horses are best prepared for shipment by a good fill of tim-
otliy hay and only a moderate ration of soft feed. They require
little if any feed en route within a twenty-eight-hour limit, a
small amount of hay to pick over being sufiicient. The Penn-
sylvania Railroad is eliminating the hay racks from its latest
featured stock car, on the ground that hay is unnecessary with
the operation of the twenty-eight-hour unloading law, that much
of it is usually wasted, and that the racks take up valuable head
room and, becoming loose or broken, as they frequently do, are a
constant source of danger to the heads and eyes of horses.

TRANSPORTATION

307

Race and show horses are frequently covered from tip to toe,
hoods, blankets, and bandages being provided to protect them
from possible draughts. Unless accustomed to much clothing,
horses so covered are liable to become overheated and not ship
so well as others that are but lightly blanketed or perhaps not
covered at all. The closeness of the quarters insures against a
very low temperature if there are many horses in tlie car. Band-
ages rolled low around the coronets to protect from tramping,

Fig. 168. — Just off the car from the West.

pads about the eyes and poll, and knee pads are often provided
as an extra precaution.

Injury During Shipment. — The chief injury to horses in
transit consists of bruises at the point of the hocks. There is
little difficulty occasioned by horses getting down in the car, and
if they dp get down tliey usually experience little trouble in
getting up on their feet again unless old or crippled, as is often
the case in the second-hand horse trade.

The well-nigh inevitable influenza or shipping fever, so-called,
could probably be controlled to a certain extent if thorough dis-
infection of cars were insisted upon.

308 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Some liigli-stnuig, ncn'ous horses are subject to car fits, as
they are called, a form of hysteria resulting from the excitement
and perhaps the cramped position which causes extreme dis-
comforts They will sometimes rear, pitch, and throw themselves
to such an extent as to make it necessary to stop the train and
remove them from the car in order to prevent them from doing
serious damage to themselves or mates. ]\Iuch travel will some-
times enable them to overcome tlie dithculty, while in other cases
it simply aggravates their condition (Fig. 168).

REVIEW

1. When are lioi-ses shipped by express and when by freight?

2. Describe the express cars furnished to hoi-se shippei-s.

3. AVhat type of freiji'ht cars are best for hoi-se shipments and why?

4. Should horses be tied or turned loose during shipment?

5. How are horses best prepared and cai*ed for during shipment?

CHAPTER XX

THE MULE

The importance of the mule as a factor in American agri-
culture justifies a consideration of his production and use in a
general discussion of Horse Husbandry.

The mule conforms to the definition of a hybrid in that his
sire is of one species, Equus asinus, and his dam is of another
species, Equus caballus, the common ancestor within the genus
being so remote as to render the hybrids sterile.

Mule breeding was practiced by the ancients, and in some
countries they are depended upon almost altogether for work.
The inverse cross, which produces a hinny, is more difficult to
accomplish, the hybrid being smaller and less useful as a rule,
although it is contended by some that hinnies cannot be distin-
guished from mules.

Mules have always been bred most extensively in semi-tropical
regions, the line being quite shar[)ly drawn between the produc-
tion of mules and draft horses.

Classes of Mules. — An extended classification of mules is
given, but they are all bred for essentially two purposes, — work in
the fields and in the mines. Fann or plantation mules, or sugar
and cotton mules, as the market classes tliem, are bred chiefly
from well-bred mares of so-called hot blood and are therefore
rangy, fine, and snappy movers. The Southerner regards it as
no desecration to mate good saddle or trotting bred mares with
a jack, and some extremely breedy mules are the result (Fig.
109).

The mine demand, which is of necessity for a draftier, bigger
lK>ned mule (Fig. 170), is met by mating the smaller, smoother
class of draft mares with big-boned jacks. Mine mules work
l)oth on the surface and down in the mines. The latter range
in height according to the veins in which they are to work. The
little 12-hand pitters are much in demand and bring a price out
of proportion to their size.

309

310

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

As Draft Animals. — Mules are not a success for heavy draft
work on city streets, as tbey do not have either the weight or cir-
cumference of foot to give them a good hold on pavements. Fur-
thermore, it is the experience of teamsters that a mule pulls by
a direct forward push instead of by the lift with which draft
horses start their load. This, too, is conducive to slipping.
Some light pairs of mules do well in light delivery ser^^ice, and
their feet ^Hthstand the battering of the jDavements especially welt

I ! ''. — Representing the Kent 1 - i Imli't imili- ixcclltuir. Their size, rangy,

smooth form, quality, breediness, and temperament are such as are reciuired of the highest
class sugar mule.

on account of a very thick, strong wall and sole, and their 2>eculiar
shape, which prevents both a contraction of heels and dropping
of sole.

The Mule's Advantages. — The mule has some distinct ad-
vantages over the horse for some kinds of work. They may be
enumerated as follows :

He stands hot weather better and is less susceptible to diges-
tive disorders and founder, it being customary to feed mules from
troughs, where they may take tlieir fill, like cattle. A mule
takes better care of himself in the hands of an incompetent driver

THE MULE

311

than a liorse does, accepting his lot more philosophically, being
naturally more of a plodder and therefore more steady and less
fretful.

On account of the peculiar fonn and structure of the mule's
foot, he is less subject to foot lameness and the ordinary injurious
effects of shoeing than is the horse, which is more connnonly
incapacitated for work on this account than any other. Lame-

Fio. 170.-

-A rugged pair of more drafty form and ample bone, representative of the best
grade sought for mine use.

ness in a mule is most often due to spavins and ringbones, but he
will get along with a spavin which would practically put a horse
out of business. Mules are almost invariably good walkers.
Stabling requirements for mules are much less elaborate than for
horses, double stalls, with or without bales, or even pens in which
a number are turned loose, being all that is needed. Age and
infirmities seem to count less against mules, and as a rule an old
or second-hand pair will outsell horses of equal merit.

312

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Mules are subject to a general prejudice which militates
against them in all but limited parts of this country, and on
account of this it is difficult to secure competent drivers for them.

The mule is usually more sagacious than the horse, and is
scarcely less responsive to proper treatment, yet the idea prevails
that whatever service is gotten out of him must be knocked out,
the black-snake whip and gag bit being considered essential fea-
tures of mule team appointments.

Fig. 171. — A Kentucky jack of the aize, aubaiauv^

iiiuie bfcediug.

Mare mules outsell horse mules on account of their smoother
turned bodies and the fact that they are more easily kept in
condition.

The Jack. — Jack stock breeders distinguish between the type
of jack best adapted to mating with jennies for the production
of jack breeding stock and the stamp of jack best suited to mating
with mares for the production of mule hybrids.

The Standard of Excellence, — The jack most desired for

THE MULE

313

mule breeding is at least 16 hands high. The more weight and
substance he has the better. He is long and wide in form, having
good-sized, wTll-shaped head and ears, straight legs of ample
bone, and well-shaped feet of good size and texture (Fig. 171).
Black with light points is the color most favored, not only for
api^earance sake, but because the get of such a jack out of mares
of 'any or all colors have proven most uniformly of good colors.
He should also be stylish.

The native jack, so-called, although but a few generations
removed from imported stock, has the reputation of getting a
higher class of mules than the imported jacks themselves. Of
the imjiorted breeds, the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, Andalu-
sian, Majorcan and Italian, the former is most popular.

Fig. 172. — The right stamp of mares as attested by their produce.

The Mare. — The mule is believed to take after the sire in the
matter of head, ears, bone, and foot, while its stature and form of
body, especially, are derived chiefly from the dam. There are
many exceptions to this rule, however. Mares of good size and
shape, black, bay, brown, or chestnut in color, and with a dash of
hot blood, are best adapted to the production of mules (Fig. 172) .

REVIEW

1. What is a mule? a hinny?

2. What are the two general classes of mules and how is each produced ?

3. What can be said in favor of using mules instead of horses for farm work?

4. What type and breeding of jack is most desired for breeding mules ?

5. What sort of mares make the most satisfactory dams of mules ?

CHAPTER XXI

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR

The force of the foregoing statements concerning the profit-
able production and use of horses will be influenced by one's
conception of the future status of the horse. To this end the
motor must be reckoned with. At no time in history has the
horse been subjected to such keen competition for place and favor
as at the present.

The motor is such an important factor as to require considera-
tion in any discussion of equine affairs. The view-point, how-
ever, should be fair and logical, not obscured by such sentiment
or entliusiasm as characterizes a partisan review of either side
of the question. There are ardent motorists who would have the
horse annihilated for all time, while some riders and drivers
would legislate the same end for all motordom; yet neither of
these positions is warranted by the facts.

Other Factors. — History is but repeating itself, apparently,
as in the case of the invention of gunpowder ; the advent of canals
and, later, railroads ; tlie adoption of the cable and the trolley on
street railways ; and the past popularity of the bicycle ; each of
which in turn threatened to supplant horses in their different
fields.

Advantages of the Motor. — An analysis of the situation at
present concedes to the motor three distinct advantages over the
horse: Speed, endurance, especially in hot weather, and vogue.
Whenever the miles covered or the time consumed is the sole
consideration it is reasonable to suppose that the motor will be
shown the preference. So it is in the case of the doctor or the
sales solicitor, men whose earning capacity is limited by the
facility with which they can get about; likewise the travelling
public and society folk have become so accustomed to a minimum
time allowance for making trains or keeping engagements that
they could hardly be expected to dispense with the taxicab or
limousine. Suburban deliveries are made much more expedi-
314

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 315

tiously by auto when tliej entail long, straight-awaj runs with
few stops ; and die moving of large loads to a distant distributing
point can be more quickly and cheaply done by the big motor
trucks even than by railroad freight.

Advantages of the Horse. — For the about-town delivery of
many small parcels, each one to a different house, requiring
almost continuous starts and stops, with frequent runs in and out
of short streets, the auto deliveries are more costly and less effi-
cient. Horses have their routes, and lend their assistance in
anticipating stops and starts or even turning round themselves
and waiting round the comer while their driver resorts to a short
cut across lots.

^ATierever much time is spent in standing or waiting the ad-
vantage is with the horse-dra^vn vehicle on account of the smaller
investment ^presented and the less depreciation involved.

Cost of Feed and of Gasoline. — Clever motor salesmen have
taken advantage of the abnormally high cost of horse feeds for
the past few years in their calculations of the relative economy
of horse-drawn and motor vehicles. But with feed inclining
again to a normal level, while the cost of gasoline is advancing
at such a rate as to threaten automatically to check the patronage
of the motor, unless other fuel or motive power is resorted to,
there is little weight in such arguments.

A Motor Age — There is every evidence of this being a motor
age ; the motor idea is conspicuous in our mode of dress ; it pre-
dominates in our conversation. Whereas the small boy of past
generations straddled the broomstick or harnessed two overturned
chairs and played horse, he now turns his ingenuity to the con-
struction and operation of racing pushmobiles of the latest type
and full equipment; patrons of the remnant counters demand
that the goods purchased by them shall be delivered by auto, in
case the firm is so derelict as to still retain some antiquated speci-
mens of the genus Equus in their delivery service. All this is
fully appreciated by those engaged in the business of catering to
public patronage, and it is played upon in every possible way
by the auto salesman.

Vogue gives to the automobile, however, a much less stable
advantage over the horse than does its greater efficiency in long,

316

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

fast runs. Popular favor is self-limiting, and the stronger the
wave of general popularity the harder the brakes will set. The
pacemakers of fashion are the ultra-exclusive set; a^ soon as a
fad which thej have started gains sufficient momentum to reach
the butcher, the baker, and so on, it is considered common and is
dropped by the very ones who first became sponsors for it, and
their example is invariably followed (Fig. 173). The remark-
able increase in the number of cars used each season, together
with the great variety of individuals enlisting in the ranks of

l«

^^^Bb^ %^t^'' r^^BBn^^^^g

-■.Sl^

^. I .

Fig. 173.

-Park horse to victoria, correctly appointed. An equipage with an individuality
which can never become common.

the motorists, suggest that we are rapidly approacliing the crest
of tlie wave.

The horse markets, shows, park drives, and bridle paths offer
substantial evidence that the horse is being gradually reinstated,
not in his former capacity perhaps, because the automobile has
modified uses and customs, but in gTcater favor than ever, so
far as some types are concerned. If the activities of the' motor
road monopolists were properly regulated, both as to the con-
struction and use of roads, a preference for the horse would be
shown by many drivers who have been forced off the road by fear
of fallen horses and collisions.

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 317

With the present vogue abated, the motor will become, no
doubt, a cold business proposition, which facilitates affairs in
such a multitude of ways as to be indispensable, like the tele-
phone.

Supplements to the Horse in Service The roadster the

touring car, and the limousine have all added so much to our
possibilities in their respective fields that they must be included
in every completely equipped establishment, but there is nothing
to render them incompatible with the horse in a kindred relation-
ship. The commercial truck, also, performs so many lines of
service so much more acceptably than the. horse> ever can, that
its supremacy within limits cannot be denied. Yet in this the
motor is supplementing, not supplanting, the horse in service.

Demand for Saddle Horses. — It may seem like overdrawn
optimism to attribute to the automobile any advantages accruing
to the horse, but such is not difficult of demonstration. The
motor car has been a most important factor in the prevalent
countiy life movement. Distances are so contracted by its use as
to place the country within easy access of many who could not
otherwise enjoy it. The country without a, horse is like a library
without books. Fox limiting is becoming the sport of a greater
number, of people in this country each season, partly, at least, on
account of the rapid transit facilities offered by the automobiles.

There are more people riding to-day on doctors' pre-
scriptions than ever before. The convenience of the auto has
removed the necessity for even a physiological amount of exer-
cise, which must be compensated for in some other Avay. Thus,
while no doubt depi-essing the market for coach and road horses,
the automobile has furaished a boom to the saddle horse trade.

There is a sentimental side to the subject under discussion.
Motor possibilities have left horses, except those in the commer-
cial field, chiefly in the hands of people who want them because
they are horses, with the result that they are in their highest
estate, a condition most satisfactory to them and most gratifying
to those interested in their well-being (Fig. 174). ^o one who
cares for horses regrets either the substitution of the taxicab for
the hoi-se-drawn hansom or four-wheeler, nor the transference of
the ordinary livery patronage to the garage. He w^ho rides only

318

THE HORSE IN SERVICE

for the thrill would confer a favor on horse kind by devoting
himself to aeronautics.

Breeding of Better Horses. — Finally there is an economic
significance to tlie whole situation. Competition stimulates to
best efforts. I^ow the consumers of horses are discriminating;
demand is for horses of the highest type. It has been observed
that after an experience in buying and maintaining automobiles

Fig. 174. — Motor advantages enjoyed by the horse.

in service one becomes more appreciative of horse values and
more liberal in his allowance for cost. The result Avill be more
intelligent and systematic breeding for a definite purj^ose, with
consequently less failures, and, finally, a more liberal profit to him
who meets the demand of those who can afford to discriminate
and pay well for what they require.

Costs of Delivery With Horses and Trucks. — Figures taken
from the books of Wilson & Co. show that it cost in the month of
March 25 cents per cwt. to deliver products by use of two-ton
trucks, 13.3 cents per cwt. by use of one-horse wagons, 7.9 cents

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 319

per cwt. by use of two-horse wagons, and 5.9 cents by use of
four-horse wagons. The information from which these costs are
figured is embodied in the following tables :

Wagon Report.

Single Double 4-Horse

Wagon Wagon Wagon

Days in service 26 26 26

Hours in service 325 3261/2 337

Pounds hauled 132,007 274,000 517,500

Miles travelled 599 297 483

Loads ■ 56 62 53

Average pounds per load 2,357 4,418 9,764

Average miles per trip 10.6 4.8 9.1

Average stop per trip 10.9 1.6 1.4

Stops 614 101 77

Expense.

Interest, 6 per cent $1.50 $2.25 $4.24

Depreciation 4.42 6.80 13.10

Fire insurance .28 .56 .84

Liability insurance 1.68 3.36 5.00

Labor, driver and helper 138.13 146.93 171.87

Stable help .2.00 4.00 8.00

Oats 9.36 18.72 37.40

Hay 7.35 14.79 29.39

Straw 96 1.92 3.84

Shoes 3.40 6.80 13.60

Medicine 20 .40 .80

Grease .20 .40 .80

Estimated repairs and overhauling 5.00 6.15 9.61

License and tools 1.80 3.60 5.40

Total expense $176.28 $216.68 $303.89

Average cost per cwt. hauled $.133 $.079 $.059

Truck Report.

Days operated 24

Hours operated 27 1 ^/^

Pounds hauled , 118,978

Mileage 1,162

Loads 48

Average pounds per load 2,478

Average miles per trip 24

Average miles per gallon gasoline 5

Average stops per trip 9

320 THE HORSE IN SERVICE

Expense.

License for month $ 2.76

^Mechanic's labor 25.25

Parts 44.03

Interest 8.10

Depreciation 30.00

Insurance 0.72

Driver's labor 125.09

Garage expense 9.24

Gasoline 44.48

Oil 4.30

Grease .75

Alcohol glycerine .98'

Total expense $302.36

Average cost per owt. hauled $ .25

Average cost per mile .25

The trucks referred to are of two-ton capacity. They are
geared at 30 miles an hour. They cost $2,200 each. Sixteen of
them are used to deliver packing-house products in the Chicago
suburbs bounded by Waukegan, West Chicago and Gary. They
leave the Wilson plant at 6 a.m.^ and get back at 4 p.m. They
are out on the long drive only three days a week. One extra
truck is used for replacement purposes. It replaces a different
truck every day, so that one tnick is overhauled every 1(3 days.
This system is found to lengthen the truck's life by 2 years. Tlie
cost of delivery will be 5 cents per ewt. higher this year than
a year ago, because the trucks are a year older and require more
repairs, tires, and so on.

The Wilson delivery teams weigh from 3^200 to 3,500
pounds. They jouniey to the loop with more than 2 tons to
the load. They may be loaded up to 41/0 tons or more than twice
as much as the trucks will carry. An overloaded truck soon
goes to pieces ; an overloaded team will struggle along for awhile
and the owner is out only an extra handful of oats. A single
horse will haul easily 4,000 pounds, which is the capacity load
for one of the trucks in question.

The average cost of teams is about $500. A double wagon
costs $375 aud harness about $95. The highest-priced work

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 321

horse in the Wilson stables cost $28Y. As an instance of how
depreciation works ont in the stables, the South Chicago branch
house took out a team 8 years ago at $540. Recently the team
was sent back and the branch house manager thought enough of
it to bill the horses back at $540 !

The Avage scale for truck chauffeurs is 46% cents per hour.
Drivers of four-horse teams receive 50 cents an hour, drivers of
two horses 45 cents, and drivers of single horses 421A cents.
A horse driver is allowed 30 minutes to clean his horse before
starting out. * * *

The cost for incidental help to keep equipment in shape is of
course much higher with the trucks than with the horses. For
23 pieces of auto equipment four mechanics and six helpers must
be maintained. For 92 horses and 40 wagons three barn men
and two wagon washes are required.

REVIEW

1. What other factors have in the past threatened to supplant the horse

as in the present case of the motor?

2. What are the undisputed advantages of the motor car in commercial

service ?

3. What advantages must be conceded to the hoi-se in commercial

service ?

4. Why may the present vogue of the automobile be expected to abate ?

5. What classes of horses have felt most keenly the competition mth

the motor car?

6. What classes owe their increased demand in part, at least, to the

motor car?

7. How has the adoption of the motor vehicle improved the welfare of

some horses?

8. Will the motor vehicle supplant or supplement the hoi-se in sei-vice ?

9. What will be its probable effect on the horse breeding industry?
10. To what extent has the common use of the motor affected the horee

maa-ket?

INDEX

Accessories to bit, 275

blinds, 279

bristle burr, 280

chin strap, 280

coupling rein, 277

martingale, 279

nose band, 280

overdraw check, 275

side or bearing rein, 275

whip, 280

word, 280
Age, 141

dentition of horses, 152

determination of, 150

importance of, 151

mouth at different ages, 154-173

structure of tooth, 153
Alfalfa, 240
American Breeds, 112-132

native American horses, 133
American Carriage Horse, government

stud of, 110
American Saddle horse, 127

characteristics of, 130

color of, 131

evolution of, 127

foundation stock of, 128

gaits of, 131

influence of Thoroughbred on, 128

producing mares of, 130

prominent sires of, 130

uses of, 131
Arabian, strains of color of, 73
Artificial impregnation, 212

insemination, 214
Atavism, 183
Auctioneers, 299

responsibility of, 299
Axles, 288

bearings, 288

conical, 288 -

Axles, cylindrical, 288

pitched, 288
Azaturia, 245

Bad habits, 268

Barb, 75

Bariey, 237

Base of support, effect of rapidity of

stride on, 8
Bedding, 250

corn stover, 251

peat moss, 251

purposes of, 250

sawdust, 251

shavings, 251

straw, 251
Belgian, 90

American type of, 91

origin of, 91

use of sires, 92
Bitless bridle, 274
Bits, 271

classification of, 273

fit and adjustment of, 275

structures with which in contact,
272

use of, 272
Blinds or winkers, 279

open bridle, 279
Bourbon King, pedigree of, 129
Bran, 236

mash, preparation of, 236
Breeding, 25, 179, 317

a side issue to general farming, 179

brothers in blood, 184

community system, 192

cross-breeding, 182

dams, 184

ideals geographically different,
179

323

324

INDEX

Breeding, inbreeding, 182
investment required, 179
line breeding, 182
spring or fall foaling, 206
stud, 192
top cross, 184

Breeds of horses, 70
classification of, 83
definition of best breed, 70
inherent qualities of, 71
study of foundation stock, 71

Bridles, 295

classes of, 295
uses of, 295

Bristle burr, 280

British breeds, history of, 93-100

Brothers in blood, 184

Canada field peas, 237
Capacity for work, 221

daily capacity, 221

horse power, 221

pulling capacity, 222

weight carrying capacity, 222
Care of feet, 260

of legs, 260
Carrots, 242
Celtic pony, 73
Centre of gravity, 7

displacement of, 8

location of, 7

stability of, 8
Cereal hay, 241
Charles Kent mare, 116
Chin strap, 286
Chunk, 51

Classes, origin of, 299
Classes of horses, 45

basis of distinctions, 45

chart of, 49

differentiation from types, 49
Cleveland Bay, 108
Clipping, 264

complete clipping, 265

fashion, 264

partial cUpping, 265

Clipping, trimming, 264
Clothing, 266

bandage, 265

blanket, 265

hood, 265
Clover, 239
Clydesdale, 94

characteristics of, 94

origin of, 94

quality of bone of, 95

Scotchman's standard, 94
Coach Horse, 53
Cob, 55
Colic, 245
Collar, 225

Dutch or breast, 225

fit of, 225
Color, 45

bay, 46

black, 47

black points, 48

brown, 47

chestnut, 47

classification of, 46

cream, 48

dun, 48

gray, 47

importance of, 46

leprous spots, 49

mouse, 48

odd markings, 49

piebald, 48

roan, 48

skewbald, 48

tiger spots, 49

white markings, 48
Combination horse, 65
Common stock, origin of, 72
Community system, 192

advantages of, 192
Concentrates, 235
Condition, 45, 141, 228

conditioning, 229

degree and time involved, 229

fat and element of, 228

importance of, 228

INDEX

325

Condition, indication of, 228

the result of, 228
Conformation, 10, 23, 141
regions of, 11
sti:.dy of, 10
arms, 12
back, 13
body, 13
canons, 12-14
chest, 13
croup, 13
ears, 10
eyes, 10
feet, 12-14
fetlocks, 12-14
forearms, 12
forehand, 12
forehead, 10
gaskins, 13
head, 10
hindquarters, 13
hips, 13
hocks, 13
knees, 12
loin, 13
muzzle, 10
neck, 10
pasterns, 12-14
ribs, 13
shoulders, 12
stifles, 13
tail, 13
thighs, 13
withers, 12
Constitution, 141
Corn, 235

com meal, 236
cracked, 236
ear corn, 236
opposition to, 236
pulled com, 241
shelled, 236
stover, 241
supplement, 236
Cottonseed meal, 235, 237
Coupling, 277

Coupling rein, 277
Cow pea hay, 240
puncher, 284
Crib biting, 266
Cross-breeding, 182
advantages of, 183
climatic out-cross, 183
methods, 182
purposes, 182
results, 183
Cross-firing, 31
Curb, 149
bit, 273

Buxton, 274
curb chain, 273-275
elbow, 274
Liverpool, 274
operation of, 273
Pelham, 274
port in, 274
principle of, 273

Dealers, 298

auctioneers, 299
conditions of sale, 298, 299
knowledge of, 298
private sales, 300
Denmark, 128
Dexter, 115
Direction of leg and form of foot, 24

relation of deviations in, 25
Draft breeds, 84-100
type, 35
bone, of, 36
class, 49
form of, 35
height of, 50
quality in, 37
score card, 142
temperament, 37
way of going of, 37
Dried brewers' grains, 237
Driving, 282
reins, 283
rudiments of, 282
Dwelling, 31

326

INDEX

Equitation, 269

control of horses, 269
horsemanship, 269
mental limitations, 269

Equus celticus, 133

Ewart, Professor, researches of, 72

Expresser, 52

Fecundity, 182
Feeder, 52
Feeding horses, 231

an art, 231

concentrates, 234

feed, how used, 232

methods of, 244

nutritive requirements, 234

omission of noon, 244

rations, 233

regularity of, 244

research concerning, 231

roughage, 234

succulence, 234

systems of, 232

time of, 244

types of feed, 234
Fences, 193

''Fine" harness horse, 66
Flemish horse, 71
Foal, 202

bitting of, 210

care of feet of, 207

deception concerning powers of,
210

education of, 209

feeding, management in, 204

halter-breaking, 209

handling of, 208

impaction in, 202

importance of education of, 211

navel infection in, 203

tj-ing up, 209

weaning of, 206
Forelegs, 3

direction of, 12

function of, 3
Forging, 30

Form, 45, 141, 280
definition of, 281
importance of, 281
French Coach, 103

as a breeder, 105
color of, 105
correct type, 105
demi sang, 104
origin of, 103
types of, 105
draft breeds, 84
Ardennaise, 84
Boulognaise, 84
Breton, 84
Xivernais, 84

Gaines' Denmark, 128

Gaited saddle horse, requirements

of, 59
Gaits, 17

amble, 18

canter, 20

fox trot, 23

gallop, 19

jump, 20

pace, 18

rack, 18

running walk, 23

stepping pace, 23

traverse, 23

trot, 17

walk, 17
General appearance, 141
George Wilkes, 115

sons of, 116
German Coach, 106
color of, 106
influence of, 107
origin of, 106
type of, 106
Gloves, 283

fit of, 283

use of, 283
Grade, 184

grade stallion, 190

grading up, 184

INDEX

327

Grade, high, 184
Green Mountain Maid, 119
Grooming, 259
stallion, 198

Hack, 59

park, 59

road, 59
Hackney, 101

color of, 102

derivation of name, 101

description of, 102

history of, 101

ponies, 137

breeding of, 137
show ponies, 137

popularity of, 102

registration of, 103
Hals, 117

Halter pulling, 268
Hambletonian 10, 114

dam of, 116

sons of, 116
Hands, 270, 271

position of, 282
Harness, 293

classes of, 293
Hay, 246

chaffing of, 246

cutting of, 246

moistening of, 246
Heavy harness breeds, 101-112
division, 52
score card, 144
suggestiveness of term, 52
Height, 45
Heredity, 25, 180

germ plasm, 181

law of ancestral inheritance, 180

transmission from ancestors
through parents, 181
High School horse, 285
Hind legs, 3

direction of, 14

function of, 3
History of horse in service, 219

History of horse in the feral state, 220

man's obhgation to, 220

under domestication, 221
Hoof dressings, 264
Horse in service, 221

application of power, 226

capacity for work, 221

economic efficiency of, 221

factors determining severity of,
222

work, 222
Horsemanship, 280

driving, 282

form, 280

riding, 282
Horse's mechanical structure, 3
How to buy a horse, 301

buying green horses, 302

company plan for buying stal-
hon, 303

employment of veterinarian, 302

go-betweens, 302
Hunter, 61

classification of, 64

requirements of, 61

size of, 62
Hybridization, 183

bovine hybrids, 183

equine hybrids, 183

Inbreeding, 182

advantages of, 182

methods, 182

purposes, 182

results, 182
Intelligence, 175
Interfering, 30

Jack, 312

distinctions in type, 312

imported jacks, 313

native jacks, 313

the mare for mule breeding, 313

type most desired, 312
Judging horses, 139

accuracy and rapidity in, 139

328

INDEX

Judging, features to consider in, 141

law of correlation, 140

system in, 140

what is involved in, 139
Jumper, 64
Justin Morgan, 123

breeding of, 123

description of, 125

eons of, 124

Kicking, 267

Legiunes, 239
Light harness division, 56
horse, 57

pacers, 57

road horses, 57

score card, 145

speed horses, 57

trotters, 57
Line breeding, 182

advantages of, 182

methods, 182

purposes, 182

results, 182
Linseed or oil meal, 237
Locomotion, 4
Loggers, 51

Mambrino, 117

Manners, 45

Mare, 191

after foaling, 202

artificial impregnation, 212

attitude of owners, 191

breeding fillies, 204

brood mare, 198

care and management of, 199

exercise and work, 201

extremes of condition in, 201

feeding of, 199-202

foaling time, 199

ideal conditions for, 200

importance of, 198

next breeding, 204

patronage by owners, 191

potency of, 212

Mare, relative influence of, 198

selection of, 198

sterility or barrenness, 212
Market classes, 299
origin of, 299
Markets, 297

auctioneers, 299

classes, 299

consumers, 297

dealers, 298

prices, 298

producer, 297

sales, 299

sales ring warranty, 300

second-hand horses, 298

sex, importance of, 299

values determined by, 297
Martingale, 279

ring, 279

standing, 279
Mechanical analogy, 5

appliances, 29
bit, 29

going surface, 29
hopples, 29
shoes, 29
weight, 29
Messenger, 114
Middlings, 237
Molasses, 238
"Monday Morning Disease," 245

azaturia, 245
Mongrel or scrub, 184
Morgan, 122

as a breed, 122

blood of, in other breeds, 124

description of, 125

government breeding of, 126
Morgan Horse Club, 126
Motor, 314

advantages of, 314

advantages of horse over, 315

age, 315

breeding horses, influence of
motor on, 317

cost of feed and gasohne, 315

INDEX

329

Motor, demand for saddle horses, 317
draft horses, influence of motor

on, 319
importance of, 314
other factors influencing demand

for horses, 314
prices of horses, influence of

motor on, 318
supplementing horse in service,

316
vogue of motor, 315
Mouths, 270, 271
Mule, 309

advantages of, 310
breeding of, 309
classes of, 309
importance of, 309
mare mules, 312
Muscular action, 6

Nick, 183
Nose band, 280

Oat straw, 241
Oats, 235

crushed, 245
oat straw, 241
sheaf oats, 241
Oriental horse, 72

influence of, 76
Orloff, 108
Overdraw check, 275
abuse of, 275
use of, 275

Paddling, 30
Park horse, 53
Pasture, 242
Pastures, 192

limestone in, 192
Pedigree, 181

certificate, value of, 185

duplicate, 185

eligibility for registration, 185

short pedigree, 190

transfers, 184

value of registration, 184

Percheron, 84

distinctive features of, 88

early service, 85

foundation of, 85

importance of, 90

modification of type of, 85
Pilots, 117
Pointing, 31
Polo ponies, 69

Ponies over 1 1-2, not exceeding 14-2,
69

under 46 inches, 69
Pony breeds, 133-139

division, 66

classification of, 66
Pounding, 31
Prepotency, 182

definition of, 182

determined by, 182
Principles of breeding, 180

definition of breeding, 180

heredity, 180

law of ancestral inheritance, 180

variation, 180
Private sales, 300
Pulled corn, 241
Pure-bred, 184-185, 189

Quality, 45, 141

Race horse, 57

runner, 59

hind leg of, 59
Raising horses, 213
Ration, 245

amount of, 245

character of, 245

preparation of, 245

sudden changes in, 246

variety in, 246
Reins, 282

fingering of, 282

grip of, 282

take-up of, 282
Reversion, 183

330

INDEX

Rex McDonald, pedigree of, 129
Ridgeway, Professor, researches of, 72
Riding, 283

curb rein, 283

holding reins, 283

open unbuckled reins, 284

plain snaffle bridle, 283

single curb rein, 284

snaffle rein, 283
Rolling, 31
Roughage, 239
Runabout, 54
Rye, 238

Saddle, 293

cow or Texas saddle, 295

seat, 295
early use of, 293

types of, 293
English saddle, 293

seat, 293
horse, 317
division, 57

classification of, 60
height, 60
score card, 147
weight, 60
McClellan saddle, 294

seat, 294
type, 42
form of, 44
performance of, 44
way of going of, 44
weight carrying, 43
Sales ring warranty, 300
at the halter, 300
serviceably sound, 300
sound, 300

sound to wind and work, 300
with all faults, 300
worker only, 300
Salt, 243

necessity for, 243
provision of, 244
Scalping, 31
Schooling, 26

Schooling, bitting of, 210
education of foal, 209
halter breaking, 209
handling, 28
handUng of foal, 208
importance of education of foal,
211
Schwyter, Dr. H., 13
Score card, 141

chief use of, 142
■ draft score card, 142

heavy harness score card, 144
light harness score card, 145
saddle horse score card, 147
scoring, 142
Scrub or mongrel, 184
Sheaf oats, 241
Shetlands, 133

chief asset of, 134
color of, 135
discrimination in, 135
height of, 135
types of, 133
Shire, 96

characteristics of, 96
crosses of, 98
Shoeing, 261

hoof dressings, 263

hot fitting, 262

physiological movements of the

foot, 261
proper shoeing, 262
removal of horn, 262
Shorts, 237
Show type, 41

form of, 41
quality of, 42
substance of, 41
temperament of, 42
way of going of, 42
Showing, 296
in hand, 296
in harness, 296
rules, 297
under saddle, 296
Shows, 296

INDEX

331

Shows, classes of, 296

fitting for, 296

horses for, 296

purposes of, 296
Side bone, 149
Side or bearing rein, 275

use of, 277
Silage, 242
Snaffle, 273

jointed, 273

four-ring, 273
Soiling crops, 242
Soundness, 141

definition of, 148

durability of equine machine, 149

hereditary unsoundness, 189
rejection for unsoundness, 150

significance of, 148
Soy bean hay, 240
Spavin, 149
Special bits, 274
Speed type, 39

form of, 39
quality of, 40
runner, 40
temperament of, 40
trotter and pacer, 40
way of going of, 40
Speedy cutting, 31
Springs, 290

first use of, 291
Stable management, 259

care of feet, 261

care of legs, 260

clipping, 263

clothing, 265

grooming, 259

hoof dressings, 263

physiological movements of the
foot, 261

shoeing, 261

washing, 259
Stables, 247

arrangement of, 247

assignment of stalls, 258

classes of, 247

Stables, construction, 247
design of, 247
dimensions of, 248
doors, 253
interior of, 256
location of, 247
passageways, 253
quarters for breeding stock, 192
vices, 266

wagon and harness rooms, 256
windows, 253
Stale bread, 239
Stallion, 191

average of merit, 191

care and management of, 196

exercise of, 197

feeding of, 196

grooming, 198

legislation, 188

French system, 188

ideals in laws, 189

importance of, 188

objects of, 189

stallion license laws, 188

suitable laws, 190
potency of, 212
regulation of service, 197
selection of, 194
service of, 196
service of colts, 196
sterility, 211
testing of, 194
the draft stalHon, 197
the Thoroughbred stallion, 19
the trotting stallion, 197
Stalls, 248

bales, 249
bedding, 250
classes of, 248
dimensions of, 248
drainage of, 250
feed boxes, 252
floors of, 249
mangers, 252
partitions of, 248
ties, 252

332

INDi^.X'

Standardbred, 113

American Trotting Registry As-
sociation, 188

demand for, 119

eligibility rules for registration
of, 121

foundation blood lines of, 117

notable individuals, 114-120

origin of, 114

pacing standard, 121

significance of name, 113

speed records of, 122

standard by performance, 188

trotting standard, 121

versatility of, 120
Sterility, 211

artificial impregnation, 212
potency of, 212

barrenness in mares, 212

breeding remedies, 213

classification of, 211

cryptorchids, 212

importance of, 211

in stallion, 212
potency of, 212
Straw, 246

chaffing of, 246

cutting of, 246

moistening of, 246
Stride, 4

features of, 17

phases of, 5
Stud, 192

definition of, 192

equipment of, 192

stud horse, 192

the breeding stud, 192
Substance, 45, 141
Succulence, 241
Suffolk, 98

distinguishing characters of, 98

distribution of, 99

origin of, 98

TaU rubbing, 267
Temperament, 45

Temperament and disposition, 141
Thoioughbred, 72

"blood" significance of, 80

description of, 78

early racing, 77

foundation of, 77

importance of, 79

introduction into America, 78

origin of, 72-76

records of, 81

"relation to other breeds, 79

significance of term, 76
Timothy, 239
Transportation, 304

car fit, 308

care in transit, 306

express, 304

express car for, 304

freight, 304

freight tariffs, 305

injury during, 307

preparation of car, 305

preparation of horses for, 307

shipping fever, 307

stock cars for, 304
Trappy, 31
Trooper, 284
Type, 23

definition of, 35
Turk, 75

Unsoundness, 189

demonstration of, 190
rejection for, 150
unsound stallions, 190

Variation, 180
Vehicle, 286

American road wagon, 292

axles, 288

classification of, 292

construction of, 291

evolution of, 286

introduction of, 290

primitive, 286

progress of, 290

INDEX

333

Vehicle, springs, 290

superior woods for, 291

wheeled, 2o6

wheels, 286
Ventilation, 254

calculation of requirements of, 255

cubic air space, 255

fresh air requirements, 254

impoifance for hon-es, 255

King system, 254
Vices, 266

Walk-trot-cantor horse, 59

saddle bred, 60

Thoroughbrv:d, 60

trot of, 59
Washing, 259
Water, 242

allowance of, 242

necessity for, 242

public watering troighs, 243

time to water, 243
Way of going, 17, 141

action, 17

defects and peculiarities in, 30

factors determining, 23

pace, 17
Weaving, 267
Weight, 45
Welsh, 135

classification of, 136

colors of, 136

size of, 136

type of, 135

use of, 137
Wheat, 238

Wheels, 286

dishing of, 289

experiments of Mcrin, 287

resilience of, 287

rubber. 287-291

size of, 223

staggered spokes, 290

tire, width of, 223, 286
Whip, 280
Winding, 30
Wind sucking, 266
Windows, 253

as inlets, 253
Winging, 30
Winkers, 279
Word, 280
Work, 222

application of power, 226

attachment of traces to hames,
224

collar, fit of, 225

distribution of load, 223

draft of load, 222

duration of period of, 226

factors determining, 222

friction of box on axle, 223

gravity, 222

horse division, 50

fine of draft, 224

rate at which load is moved, 225

road bed, 222

severity of, 222

size of wheel, 223

width of tire, 223

Yorkshire Coach, 108

nOPERTY UMURY

N. C. State College

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