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U.B.C. LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

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Mrs. J. Marpoles.

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THE POINTS OP POULTRY.
(Reproduced from " The Fanciers' Gazette.")

1. Comb.
2 Pace.
S. Wattles.

4. Ear-lobe, or Deaf -ear.

5. Whiskers.

6. Crest.

7. Beak.

8. Beard.

9. Neck-Hackle.
10. Breast.

11. Keel, or Breast Bone.

12. Back.

13. Saddle.

14. Frights.

15. Hocks.

16. Spur.

17. Fifth Toe.

18. Back Claw.

19. Muffs, or Leg Feathers.

20. Shoulders.

21. Tail Fluff.

22. Centre Toes.

23. Shanks.

24. Wing-bar.

25. Primary Coverts.

26. Primary Flights.

27. Sickle Feathers.

28. Primary Tail.

29. Secondary Sickle.

30. Tail Coverts.

PROFITABLE

POULTRY KEEPING

BY

STEPHEN BEALE

EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY

MASON C. WELD

AND

A CHAPTER ON AMERICAN INCUBATORS
By H. S. BABCOCK

ILLUSTRATED

THE THOMSON STATIONERY COMPANY, Limited,
G ASKELL-ODLUM- STATIONERS, Limited,

VANCOUVER. NEW WESTMINSTER.

Copyright, 1895,
By Gborge Routledge's Sons.

INTRODUCTION.

I esteem it a privilege and a pleasure to introduce this
excellent hand-book to all who are practically interested in
keeping poultry. I would say to the veriest tyro, provided he
had a modicum of common sense : " Here, take this book of
Stephen Beale's, study it carefully in whatever it is applic-
able to your needs, and follow it. You will find it a safe
guide, and you will almost surely come out well with your
poultry the first year." Any old poultry-keeper may study it
with profit, and if he finds some few passages to criticise, and
opinions advanced with which he does not agree, let him con-
sider that no two parts of the country are subject to the same
conditions of soil, climate and surroundings.

English current literature is far richer than ours in the
results of experience in poultry matters, and the systems in
vogue there and in France among the most successful poultry
raisers are very much superior to general practice in this
country, so that Mr. Beale's obvious familiarity with the best
practice in those countries, in connection with his own large
experience, is a very great advantage to the book.

The author shows himself upon every page to be a practi-
cal man, fertile in expedients, gifted with rare common sense,
with a knowledge of his subject in matters of useful and
essential detail, and one can readily pardon a little verbose-
ness of style and occasional repetitions. It is a business
book, and as such it should be regarded. It was not written
for fanciers, though no poultry book (and these are, gener-

4 Introduction.

ally, primarily fanciers' books) gives better instruction in
regard to the successful rearing of fancy poultry. Yet, giv-
ing well-bred poultry of all kinds their true value, it is replete
with instruction how to make the most money, or at least the
most profit, by their use.

The public is familiar with the advantages derived from
the employment of thorough-bred and pure-bred males in the
breeding of all other kinds of domestic animals. We all know
how that, with sheep and swine especially, grades and cross
breeds of the first generation are much more profitable to rear
for their useful qualities than full bloods are, for the reason
!;hat in such a first cross those high qualities which have
become fixed by a long course of breeding and selection assert
themselves with peculiar force. It seems as if poultry raisers
had been peculiarly negligent of or blind to this natural law,
and had neglected to practise that which in the rearing of
other kinds of farm stock they consider of vital importance.

The chapter on " Cross-bred Poultry" puts this subject in
a very clear light, but hardly dwells sufficiently, to my notion,
on the fact that where it is difficult to obtain pure-bred poul-
try of different breeds, such as one desires to cross, grades
may be reared in two or three years by crossing a pure male
bird of the wished-for breed upon, first, a good flock of com-
mon females, the next year (changing the male) upon the pul-
lets of the first year, and so on. By the time the second or
third cross is made the grade birds will possess almost fully
the useful qualities of the breed from which the cross is
taken, and the hens may be used just as if they were pure in
crossing with a cock of a different breed for market poultry or
for layers, as Mr. Beale directs.

Introduction, 5

Poultry keeping for profit is the laudable ambition of the
great majority of poultry keepers, and poultry are really kept
to the profit of their owners, in the great majority of cases.
Little account is made of them, and no account is kept of
their expenses or of the income derived from them, and yet it
is the settled conviction of the frugal housewife, who looks
more or less after the poultry, and of the farmer, who sees
how large a part of the store bill is settled by eggs, and who
brings home from market or from the shipper who buys his
dressed poultry at Christmas-time a satisfactory roll of bank-
notes, that poultry is really a paying farm crop.

Then, too, when a regular debit and credit account is kept
with the poultry, and a fair allowance is made for labor and
interest, the profit always shows up to be something enor-
mous— often one hundred per cent., or even more.

If there really is so much profit in poultry keeping, is it
not strange that when undertaken on a large scale it is always
a losing business ? Few people consider that farm-yard fowls
of all kinds, ducks and geese included, get a great part of
their living, and in some parts of the year the whole of it,
from what would otherwise be lost or wasted, and from
insects, snails and worms, which are a positive harm to grow-
ing crops. Hence the conclusion is a just one that poultry, if
well managed, are really most profitable as an adjunct to
other farm and garden operations, especially as but little time
is generally devoted to their care which would be more use-
fully employed.

This amount of, so to speak, wasted food is limited, and
when fowls or other poultry are multiplied upon a single farm
or circumscribed area, their care soon becomes sufficient tc

6 Introduction.

require the entire attention of one or more persons. Thus
the point is soon reached when it will be easy to see there is
no hundred per cent, profit in the business.

Parallel cases are numerous. Twenty or thirty hives of bees
may use all the bee-pasturage within the radius of the usual
flight of the honey-gatherers, and, where this is the fact, the
addition of a dozen hives would result in more labor to the
bee-keeper and in the harvesting of a good deal less honey.

Thus it is every poultry keeper's province to study care-
fully his own resources and make the most of them ; and
while Mr. Beale has carefully avoided advising the keeping of
poultry on a large scale, and in fact discourages it, the person
desirous of making the experiment will find the book replete
with sound views and practical hints in regard to its success-
ful accomplishment.

Mr. Beale can hardly be as familiar as I am with the
wretched manner in which a great part of our poultry is sent
to market, and the shocking condition in which it arrives.
New York receives thousands of tons of poultry which must
be closed out in wholesale lots at ruinously low prices, and
which is then sold at a small advance at retail, to secure a
quick sale and prevent total loss. If a reform could be insti-
tuted by which the common farmers of the interior and West-
ern States would properly fatten, pluck, dress, and ship their
poultry, somewhat after the system advised in this book, it
would add almost inconceivably to the profits of poultry
keeping to these people as well as to the general wealth of the
country. I sincerely hope that this may be one of the results

of its publication.

MASON C. WELD.

Closteb, N. J., March, 1884.

CONTENTS.

Iktroduction ,.••••••••&

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The Poultry Mania — Cochins Forty Years ago — Poultry Keeping often a
Hobby — Recent increase of interest in Poultry Keeping — ''armers and
Poultry — Farms in France —Consumption of Eggs— Prices of Eggs —
Value of Fresh. Eggs— Poultry in Paris . • • • • .11

CHAPTER II.

WHO SHOULD KEEP POULTRY ?

Who may Keep Poultry — Value of Eggs for Children and Invalids — Who
should not Keep Poultry — Pleasure in Pursuit — Suburban Residents
— Size of Runs— Cottagers and Poultry Keeping — Does Poultry
Keeping Pay ? •••..*•••• 18

CHAPTER III.

LAYING OUT THE POULTRY-YARD.

Gradual Commencement best — Selection of Ground — Separate Houses —
Aspect of Houses— Walls of Houses — Dividing the Yard — Plans — A
Chicken Yard ••• .25

CHAPTER IV.

POULTRY HOUSES.

Importance of Houses — Cost — Elaborate Houses not Needed — Good
Houses Required — Size of Houses and Runs — Adapting existing
Buildings— Cheap Houses — Sheds — Hou-es in Gardens . » . 30

8 Contents.

CHAPTER V.

THE ERECTION OP POULTRY HOUSES.

Hfl
Material to be Used— Tenant's Fixtures — Too Large Houses Objectionable
— Foundation— Saving of Timber — Frame-Work —Windows and Doors
— Ventilation — Floors — Artificial Heating . , • • 37

CHAPTER VI.

THE FITTINGS AND RUNS.

Perches — Nest Boxes — Sheds — Unfenced Runs— Space to be Given —

Fencing 48

CHAPTER VII.

MORE ABOUT HOUSES AND RUNS.

Effect of Confinement- Houses on Wheels— The Best Plan for Farms— Use
of Fruit Trees in Runs— Kinds of Trees to Plant— Fruit Bushes-
Other Aids 56

CHAPTER VIII.

CHICKEN-HOUSES.

Early Chickens— Position of Chicken House— The Attendant's House —
Gravel and Grass Run — The House — Floor — Provision against Rats —
Size of House 63

CHAPTER IX.

THE KIND OF FOWLS TO KEEP.

Choice of Breeds— Errors in Selection— Cross and pure bred Fowls— Breeds
to be chosen — Confinement or liberty Hardy Breeds— Non-sitting
Breeds— Table Fowls— Sitters and Mothers— General utility Fowls . 69

CHAPTER X.

THE BREEDS OF POULTRY.

Andalusians— Aseels— Bantams — Brahmas — Cochins — Dominiques—
Dorkings — French — Game — Hamburghs — Indian Game — Lang-
sbans — Leghorns — Malays — Minorcas — Orpingtons — Plymouth
Rocks— Polish— Scotch Greys— Spanish— Silkies— Wyandottes . 79

CHAPTER XI.

CROSS-BRED POULTRY.

Farm-yard Mongrels— First Cross only to be Used— Value of Cross-breeding
—Pure-bred Fowls to be the Foundation— Sale of Eggs and Chickens
—Methods of Cross-breeding— Some Crosses— Improving present
Stocks • • • % t • • • • • 125

Contents.

CHAPTER XII.

DUCKS.

PAOB

Docks very profitable — Water needed for Breeders — Not to be kept with
Hens — Duck Farms — Housing — The Wild Duck — The Aylesbury —
The Rouen — The Pekin — The Cayuga — The Muscovy — Ornamental
Varieties — Keeping in Small Runs — Forcing — Breeding — Hatching —
Rearing — Feeding— Preparing Rice 133

CHAPTER XIII.

GEESE AND TURKEYS.

Geese in England — Benefit to Crops— Breeds — Weights attained — Manage-
ment — Turkeys — Said to be delicate — Breeds — Management —
Fattening 147

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SELECTION OP STOCK BIRDS.

Importance of Care in Selection — Influence of Parents — Selection for Layers
— Selection for Table Fowls — State of Breeding Stock — Buying Birds
— Buying Eggs for Sitting —Space for Breeding Stock — Birds not to be
Related — Evils of In-breeding — Number of Hens to Cock — When to
expect Fertile Eggs — Feeding — Importance of Health and Condition . 153

CHAPTER XV.

HATCHING.

Shall Hens sit themselves ? — Selection of Place for Sitting— Hatching
Boxes— Making the Nests — Food and Water — Setting the Hen —
Feeding — Airing the Eggs — Kind of Food for Hens — Dust Bath —
Testing the Eggs — Period of Incubation — Management during Hatching
— Helping the Chicks , , , .164

CHAPTER XVI.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.

A Practical Success - Past Attempts — Difficulties — Later Attempts — The
Turning Point — Rouillier's Machine — Prejudice Against the Hydro-
Incubator — The Incubator Trials— How Superior to Previous Machines

— Drawback to Hydro-Incubator — Voitellier's nydro — Owen's Tabular

— Arnold's Egg Oven —Self Heating Incubators — Hearsonrs — New Cen-
tennial—The "Perfect Hatcher"— The Thermostatic — The Novelty —
iJnxxlers, eto. , , . 176

SO Contents.

chaptee xvn.

REARING— NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL.

VAGI

Size of Eggs — Supposed Ways of Testing Sex and Fertility of Eggs — For*
mation of Egg — The Yonng Chicks — First Day after Hatching — Food
— Coops — Influence of Early Management — Coddling Injurious — First
Three or Four Days— Second Stage — The Run — Food — Meat Diet —
Green Food — System in Feeding — Cold Mothers — Troubles with
Hens — Artificial Mothers— Management — Outdoor Rearers — Heat —
Overcrowding — Teaching Chicks to Eat— Turkeys as Rearers — water. 193

CHAPTER XVIII.

POOD AND FBBDINO.

Food the Fuel of all Life — Effect of Bad Food — Effect of Over-feeding —
Food for Fowls in Confinement not to be same as when at Liberty —
What is Needed in Food — Qualities of the Grains — Barley — Oats —
Wheat — Maize — Buckwheat — Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water • 211

CHAPTER XIX.

EARLY EGGS AND CHICKENS.

Early Eggs and Chickens bring High Prices — How to Secure them — Pullets

to be Used — Hens to be Mated Early — Good Housing and Feeding . 220

CHAPTER XX.

THE PREPARATION OF TABLE FOWLS.

Superiority of French System — Breeds of Fowls Suitable for Fattening —
Methods — Duration of Process — Food — Fattening and Cramming
Machines — Cramming by Hand — Killing Fowls — Dressing in France —
Shaping- boards — Advantage of Dressing — Caponising . , • 224

CHAPTER XXI.

THE DISEASES OF POULTRY.

General Treatment of Disease — Causes— Apoplexy — Bronchitis — Bumble
Foot — Catarrh — Consumption — Cramp — Cropbound — Diarrhoea —
Diphtheria — Egg Organs — Feather Eating — Gapes — Roup— Cholera . 236'

CHAPTER XXII.

POINTS OF MANAGEMENT.

Importance of Details — Keeping an Account — Rotation of Crops — Poultry
Manure — The Dust-bath — The Preservation of Eggs — Packing Eggs —
Sending Eggs to Market • 245

*5bv

\

PROFITABLE POULTRY KEEPING.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The Poultry Mania — Cochins Forty Years ago — Poultry Keeping often a Hob^y
— Recent increase of interest in Poultry Keeping — Farmers and Poultry —
Farms in France — Consumption of Eggs — Prices of Eggs — Value of Fresh
Eggs — Poultry in Paris.

There is an old adage, and one the truth of which is proved
in our experiences almost every day, that " there is nothing
new under the sun," and probably many of those who can
remember the poultry mania of forty years ago, may have
been led to think that the undoubted revival of interest
in poultry which has taken place within the last few years,
is simply a repetition of that mania. Then, as now,
poultry sold for fabulous prices, and it was no uncommon
thing to hear of a bird having realised $200, or a setting
of eggs $25 ; and the fact that during recent years $500 has
several times been paid for game cocks, and $250 for ban-
tams, would at first sight appear to warrant such a con-
clusion as we have named. But on considering the matter
a little further, we find a marked difference in every respect,
save only the large prices paid for specimens. The mania of

12 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

forty years ago was almost entirely relating to one breed
— the Cochin — whereas now all varieties of poultry receive
a share of attention, although there are some greater
favourites and more valuable than others. Then, the
general belief was that the fowls named — which, by the
way, were new, and had only recently been imported from
China— were the greatest layers and best table fowls ever
known, that their importation was of national importance,
and that to obtain possession of some of these birds would
be a sure road to wealth. How this delusion arose— for
delusion it undoubtedly was, the Cochin then and now
being the least profitable of all our breeds of domestic
poultry — it is not our province here to inquire, except to
say that we believe it was, like almost every other mania,
due to designing men, who largely profited by it. At the
present day, poultry fanciers, i.e., those who go in for
poultry breeding as a hobby, without caring much for the
economic qualities of the birds, and who are the persons
that pay such high prices for first class specimens, make
no claim to be regarded as public benefactors, and neither
deceive themselves nor any one else by posing in such a
manner. They say plainly that they keep poultry as a
hobby; it ministers to their pleasure when striving after
an ideal standard, which may or may not improve the birds
so far as their profitable qualities are concerned, but for
that they care little. They claim the same liberty as the
fox-hunter or the sportsman, and are willing to pay for their
pleasure ; and if they pay very high prices for birds, they
do so in the same way as others do for fancy stock, and
can generally get their money back again. Therefore, it
will be seen at once that there is a very marked difference
between the poultry fanciers of forty years ago and those
of to-day, and there is very little probability of any repeti-
tion of the collapse of the present mania, if such it caD

General Considerations. 13

be called, for there is now no deception as to the end in

view.

In considering the question of profitable poultry keeping
there must be no mistake made by mixing up the poultry
fancy, by which term we must be understood to mean those
who breed for fancy points, and the revived interest in
poultry, of which we have already spoken. The latter is
due to an altogether different cause. Recent events have
compelled agriculturists to turn their attention to matters
which they have heretofore neglected, and perhaps re-
garded with contempt. Our State and county agricultural
societies throughout the country have long been in the habit
of offering prizes for poultry from a fancier's standpoint.
This is well, perhaps, but they should not only not neglect,
but should make especially prominent, the properly agricul-
tural— that is, useful — breeds. It is, besides, a sign of the
times, having an important bearing on the future of poultry
raising, that some prominent societies have offered prizes for
cross-bred fowls, shown with reference to their value upon
the table, and one, at least, has conditioned the award of
prizes upon a statement of the breed and sex of the parent
fowls and the age of the chickens. But it is not the only sign,
for all over the country more attention is being paid to poultry,
both by farmers and cottagers ; and we think that the way in
which the matter is now being treated proves that there is more
chance of success than there ever has been before. Those
who have the best opportunity of succeeding are now turning
their attention to it — we mean farmers who have land at
their disposal ; and there is little talk of establishing poul-
try farms pure and simple, which never have, and we do
not think ever will, succeed. Buildings, food, and wages
have cost so much that the managers of poultry farms in
the past have been induced to over-crowd, in the hope of
getting a larger return ; disease has crept in, with ruin and
disaster as a natural result. Examples of this kind have

14 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

been numerous enough ; but the tales which a few years ago
were current as to extensive poultry farms in France, so
plausible and theoretically sound as they appeared to be,
doubtless tempted many to venture on such a speculation.
These huge farms never existed, and were all a myth ; and
we have the testimony of Mr. H. M. Jenkins and of Mr.
Sutherland, and my own observations in that country »
confirm theirs, that whilst almost every peasant keeps a
large number of fowls, and derives a considerable portion
of his income from them, they never saw what could in
any sense be termed a poultry farm. There are some es-
tablishments where eggs are hatched in large numbers for
the peasants of the district, but the latter provide the eggs in
the first instance, and take the chickens when hatched ; so
that such places are simply hatching factories. Upon this
phase of the question we shall have more to say later on.

Poultry and eggs are of such well-nigh universal production
that it is difficult to estimate the numbers produced with con-
fidence that we even approximate the truth. In regard to
those received in the markets of some of our cities a fairly
accurate record is kept, but this is accurate only as to those
transported by railroads and steamboats, and probably falls
short of the facts. Thus, in the city of New York the
amount of poultry reported as received for the year 1883,
ending November 30th, was 27,592,050 lbs., valued at $4,310,-
604 — a little more than 15 cents a pound.

The number of eggs received within the same period seems
enormous, and yet does not equal the demand, as shown by
the number imported from Europe, and by the high prices
paid in our eastern cities — often 40 to 60 cents a dozen in
winter. The receipts of eggs in New York, for 1883, are
reported as exceeding 534,000,000, valued at $10,018,000, or
about 22| cents a dozen. Of the total number, four million
nine hundred and sixty-eight thousand (4,968,000) were im-
ported from Europe at a cost of $82,800, which is 20 cents a

General Considerations. 15

dozen after paying all expenses. Notwithstanding that eggs
are admitted free of duty, there must be some sort of relation
between the price of eggs and the price of feed upon which
they are made, and it seems strange that, with our cheap grain
and other "chicken feed," greaves, pork-scrap, etc., which we
are constantly exporting, it is possible to import eggs with
profit. Though the quantity is small, it shows that the
demand for eggs is increasing faster than the supply.

In England a different state of things prevails, for, during
the last four or five years, which are marked by a great
increase in population as well as in the consumption of poul-
try products, there has been no appreciable increase of impor-
tations. It is clear that the English home producer is waking
up to the advantage which he has over the foreign one. He
is near the market, and can get his goods in to take advantage
of its fluctuations ; and with fresh eggs and poultry, in form
to suit the trade, the highest prices can be realized, and it
would seem that, unless the price of feed in England were
very much higher than abroad, the home producer would soon
be able entirely to shut out foreign competition in first-class
goods. In America of course the producers have no excuse ;
they simply let that eighty-two thousand dollars slip through
their fingers because of their neglect to see and act up to
their own interests.

The prices now paid for fresh eggs, not only in the cities
but in all great manufacturing centres would have been re-
garded as fabulous a few years ago. We can remember that
thirty years ago fresh eggs could be bought at \%\ to 20 cents
a dozen ; but now these are never less than 2 cents each, and
oftener 3 cents, 4 cents, and even 5 cents each. We have
been informed by a lady who lives within two or three miles
of a military head-quarters that during June and July she
can sell about thirty dozen eggs per week at sixty cents
a dozen. They are sent for to her own door, the cash
paid down, and she could sell twice as many if she had
them. This is undoubtedly an exceptional instance, but

1 6 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

only exceptional as to the time of the year, for the price is
not an uncommon one for the winter season. Doctors, when
ordering their patients to have eggs, nearly always insist upon
their heing fresh, as they know how much better they are
than when even only a few days old. And cooks can . tell
the same story with respect to the way in which they use
Ithem. Only those who have kept fowls of their own, or
been favoured by getting properly fresh ones, know the real
pleasure of eating an egg ; and there are many who cannot
eat one if more than three or four days old. And when we
consider how important an addition in its varied uses an
egg is to the breakfast, luncheon, dinner, or tea table, it
will be seen how the matter comes home to every one, apart
from all economic questions. In the same way, but perhaps
not to so great an extent, does the raising of chickens affect
us. The prices which are demanded by poulterers for the
miserable little things we see in their shops, are prohibitive
to the great bulk of the population, and even those who can
afford to get them do so reluctantly. The display to be
seen every week in the Halle s Centrals at Paris has no
counterpart in this country ; but in France the breeds are
studied, and those encouraged which are the best for table
purposes. They are fattened skilfully, and presented in
an enticing manner, with the result that chickens are almost
a regular article of diet with large numbers of the people,
for in Paris during 1880 the average consumption of fowls
was 251bs. per head of the population. These are ques-
tions which require to be dealt with in detail, and cannot
be more than mentioned in what is simply an introductory
chapter. That there is much for our home producers to learn
no one can doubt, and it shall be our endeavour to supply
in a practical form the latest and best information upon so
important a subject. Our object is to stimulate those who
have the necessary space at their disposal to take advantage

General Considerations. 1 7

of their opportunities, and not continue supinely to ignore,
or from prejudice to neglect that which, well managed, must
prove a source of profit. Farmers and villagers will find
the help they need, but we shall not overwhelm them by too
much of detail, — seeking to be practical first of all. We
shall also show how suburban residents and others may
supply their own tables, and, in fact, endeavour to make our
remarks such as shall be valuable to all who may read them.

1 8 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

CHAPTER n.

WHO SHOULD KEEP POULTRY?

Who may Keep Poultry — Value of Eggs for Children and Invalids — Who should
not Keep Poultry — Pleasure in Pursuit — Suburban Residents — Size of Runa
— Cottagers and Poultry Keeping — Does Poultry Keeping Pay ?

It may be questioned whether the title which we have placed
at the head of this chapter is rightly worded, and probably
there are many who will suggest that it should read, " Who
may keep poultry?" This would not, however, give as
much latitude as we require, for, although it is our intention
to show who may, we go a little further and say that all
who have the opportunity of doing so should keep fowls,
whether the number kept be great or small. It is a direct
benefit to the individual to have fresh eggs to place upon
the table, and what is good for the individual must be good
also for the nation, and where there are children in a house-
hold nothing can be better than eggs for them. The
natural object for which eggs are laid is not to provide food
for human beings, but to multiply the race, and the egg
contains within itself all the material necessary for the
formation of the bird and for its support during the process.
Thus, there can be no question that eggs are, in the same
way as milk is, most suitable for children's food, and it is
impossible to find in any other substance of equal bulk
nutriment so equably mixed. We indirectly intimated in
the first chapter that as the egg gets older decomposition

Who should Keep Poultry ? rg

Bets in, though it may not be noticed, and much of the
virtue is gone out of it after a few days. The fact that
chickens hatched from stale eggs are never so strong as
those from perfectly fresh ones, and that the fresher the
egg the stronger the chick will be, is corroborative of this.
"We believe, therefore, that where eggs can enter largely
into the food of children they will prove of incalculable
benefit to them, that is, if given perfectly fresh. Thus it
will be seen that, apart from any selfish motive or desire
for pecuniary gain, where there are children in the house-
hold, it is very desirable indeed that fowls should be kept
if there is accommodation for them. During sickness also,
or for invalids, they are invaluable, and we well remember
how a lady friend was kept alive through a long and severe
illness by eggs we were able to supply her from our own
yard. When appetite failed for everything else, she could
always eat an egg; and the doctor said that she could
not possibly have recovered had it not been for the support
thus afforded.

This naturally leads us on to the question, " Who should
keep poultry ?" and perhaps we can best answer it in the
first place by seeing who should not keep them. We have
often known birds kept in the most unlikely places — in
dark, damp cellars, in attics or rooms, in close unhealthy
sheds, and on ground that is damp if not actually wet.
The ingenuity of man is very great, and he often makes
experiments in the keeping of live stock which may com-
mand our admiration because of their very audacity, but
which we can see are doomed to failure. Certainly we
should no more like to eat an egg laid by a bird living in
such places as these, than we should care for milk from
cows kept in close, badly-ventilated town sheds, or bread
out of some uncleanly bakehouse. It may be assumed,
therefore, that we do not advocate the keeping of fowls in

20 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

unhealthy places, and that unless there can be provided a
reasonable amount of open space, a light, comfortable, dry,
and well ventilated house, it is much better to do without
the birds altogether, and trust to buying eggs from those
who have more favourable opportunities for keeping them.
Natural laws must be respected if success is to be attained,
and we need to remember that fowls when wild are accus-
tomed to live always in the open air, to have perfect freedom,
and if we entirely reverse these conditions we cannot reason-
ably expect to do so without paying the penalty. Domes-
tication undoubtedly means an alteration of the habits of
the birds, but we must make this alteration as small as
possible, and the less it is the more likely are we to keep
them healthy and thriving. Some breeds are stronger and
can stand the change in their natural habits better than
others, and it is always well for the poultry-keeper to select
such if his desire is to make his poultry pay. We shall
show which breeds these are later on.

There is another consideration which will affect those
who only wish to keep a few fowls, and that is the pleasure
and healthfulness of the pursuit. How many there are
whose occupations compel them to be indoors all day, and
they know that exercise is necessary to preserve their health.
They find it most difficult, however, to go out when they
have no direct object in view. Walking, especially alone,
soon gets wearisome ; or perhaps every spot of the district
around has been explored, and the result often is that the
exercise is not taken. The keeping of poultry has been
to many a very great boon in this way, compelling regular
exercise in the open air, and we recently met with an
eminent scientific man who had taken up the pursuit as
a hobby, on this account alone. We know that in our own
case it was so, and we found not only pleasure but renewed
health and strength whilst attending to our feathered pets.

Conveniences requisite. 21

Commencing with those who only desire to supply their
own table, there are hundreds of cottagers and suburban
residents in the outskirts of our great towns, as well as
in the country at large, who might keep fowls very easily
indeed. Kecent years have marked a great improvement
in the houses built in both town and country, so far as
open yards or gardens attached to them are concerned,
and in a few years we hope to see all those dwellings done
away with, where the back yards are just about the size of
a decent scullery. Taking the smaller houses first, if the
yard or back garden be a good sized one it will not be
difficult to give a piece of it, say about 12ft. or 15ft. long
by 6ft. wide, for the purpose of a poultry house and run,
which will be amply sufficient for half-a-dozen fowls. How
to build the house and prepare the run we shall describe in due
course, the cost of which need not be very great, whilst the
pleasure and benefit will be incalculable. Suburban residents
have generally a good strip of ground behind their houses,
and sufficient can often be spared to keep from half-a-dozen to
a score fowls, or even more where the place is an extensive
one. If economy is no object, then the houses and runs can
be made ornamental, and will add much to the appearance
of the garden or grounds. For these also, we shall have
something to say in the way of instructions as to how the
yard should be laid out and the houses built. Then again
as to cottagers, there are few in country places who could
not keep a score of fowls and rear half a hundred chickens
during the year. Any man handy with tools can easily
make houses and necessary appliances, or adapt existing
outhouses for the purpose, and at a very small cost.
Ground is generally to be had at a low cost, but there are-
more often fields near over which the birds can wander with-
out doing any harm, and this more than doubles the accom-
modation without any proportionate cost. But that is not

22 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

all, for birds at liberty can pick up the greater portion of
their living, and we are sure every cottager might make a
considerable addition to his income by the keeping of fowls.
In France the small farmers and cottagers are they who
keep the poultry, and supply the vast numbers of eggs
and chickens, not only sent to Great Britain, but consumed
at home, for it is estimated that in Paris 160 eggs for
every head of the population are used each year. A
cottager can easily attend to the birds himself, without
interfering with his other work, can feed his birds cheaply,
can realise the produce quickly, for there is always a good
demand, especially if large houses are at hand, or if in a
thickly populated district, and he will find himself a happier
and better man for his efforts.

We have now seen that country and suburban residents,
great and small, not only may, but should keep poultry,
and next we come to the farmer, who may be regarded as the
most important of all, for with him it will be a matter of
business, and he may produce upon a large scale if he goes
into it at all. He has advantages which no one else
possesses, having plenty of room for the birds, food for them
at first cost, means of utilising their manure which no one
else can have, and can graft poultry keeping on to his
other work without any great extra expense. He has also
means of getting his produce to market at once, and can
make contracts with large consumers, hotels, &c, such as
a smaller man cannot. But, of course, the business to be
really successful will require thought and attention, which
many of our farmers have heretofore refused to give ; but
they are at last coming to see that " there is money in it,"
and it shall be our endeavour to help them in every way, so
that they may succeed in their efforts.

We must not conclude this chapter without answering
the question so often put, " Does poultry-keeping pay ? " for

" Does Poultry -keeping pay ?" 23

that is the kernel of the whole matter, at least so far as
many persons are concerned, though we think rich folks who
only wish to supply their own table make too much of it.
They are willing to grow fruit, vegetables, and flowers,
often at double what they could be bought for, and never
grumble at the cost, and if they like to expend money on
grand houses and runs, or on high-bred stock, they should
not complain of what their eggs and chickens may cost. But
to others we would say, " Yes, poultry will pay, if properly
managed." Cottagers and private persons can generally
half feed the birds by what is left from their own tables,
and as an illustration of this, we know a gentleman who
at one time was always grumbling at the cost of his wife's
fowls, declaring that they did not pay. To prove this an
account was kept during the next year, when it was found
that the eggs cost actually only one ceut each all the year
through. Then as to farmers, we know a farmer who
makes an annual profit of $500 out of his fowls, and his
stock is by no means a large one, but he has been content
to make his profit, and say nothing to any one. Every-
where there is a constant demand for the produce, and
there can be no question that poultry-keeping does pay,
and pay well, where it is managed in a common- sense
manner.

We may here mention that it is a most desirable thing
in all places where the poultry-keeping is regarded as a
business, to keep a strict account of all expenditure and
income, and of the produce of the fowls. It is a very wise
thing for all poultry-keepers to do, even if they only have
half-a-dozen birds for the sake of their eggs ; but when it
is a question of profit, then we regard such an account
as absolutely necessary, not only as a satisfaction to the
owner, but also as a means of checking expenditure and

24 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

preventing waste. Figures have a very deterrent effect,
and many a man will refuse to spend, when he has to put
it down in black and white, what he would be tempted to
do if such were not involved. An account book need not
be ver^ elaborate, though it should be complete.

Laying out a Poultry Yard. 25

CHAPTER III.

LAYING-OUT THE POULTRY- YABD.

Gradual Commencement best — Selection of Ground— Separate Houses — Aspect
of Houses — Walls of Houses — Dividing the Yard — Plans— Chicken Yards.

We do not assume that those of our readers to whom the
present work is specially applicable are all non-keepers of
poultry at the present time, for probably the great majority
have already stocks of poultry. As we have no means of
knowing the present condition of their yards — and if we had
it would be impossible to show in every case how they might
be improved, if they need improvement — we shall describe
the best ways of laying out a poultry-yard, of erecting the
houses or adapting existing buildings, and by this means it
will be very easy for the reader to apply the hints given
to his own needs and requirements. Of course, those who
contemplate commencing the keeping of fowls, or of laying
out a new yard entirely, will find it easy sailing to adapt
the plans we shall describe. It must not be thought,
however, that we advise any one to commence poultry-
keeping upon a large scale, unless he has had sufficient
previous experience, and even then we think it much
better to begin moderately, and gradually extend the scope
of operations. We say this, not only because improve-
ments can generally be made in the later-built houses,
and that the whole yard is thus more easily got in hand,
but also that the stock can be bred and not bought,

26 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

which of itself will be a very great saving, as pure-bred
birds cannot be purchased in large numbers. Therefore it
is necessary to look ahead a little, and no one must expect
to get into full working order all at once, as it will take twelve
months at least to do this, where the intention is to keep
large numbers ; but of course those who wish to keep only
a few for their own household purposes can buy birds and
have all going on smoothly in a short time. As an instance
of the erroneous ideas not uncommon, we once heard of a
brick manufacturer who, through the depression in trade,
had some of his kilns thrown out of use. It was suggested
to him that if wooden partitions were placed in these they
would make capital fowl houses. He at once seized upon
the idea, and talked about buying five thousand hens at once.
If he had not met with some one who pointed out that, apart
from his own inexperience, his place was thoroughly unsuitable
for poultry, the land being strong clay, very damp, without
grass, and only half a mile from the sea, he would probably
have carried out his plan, and his enterprise could only
have had one result, namely, an entire and dismal failure.
Those who by false statements deceive others deserve more
than ordinary reprobation, and the injury done is not con-
fined to the immediate sufferers, but to the nation at large,
as many who might succeed are prevented making the
attempt from these failures.

The first thing to do, whether the number to be kept is
large or small, is to decide upon where the birds are to be
placed, and the amount of ground that can be given to
them. In many places this will be very speedily settled ; for
instance, in small suburban and cottage gardens, if fowls
are to be kept at all, there will be little if any choice of
position. But where the ground is more extensive, as upon
farms, more consideration will be necessary. In the latter
case it may be decided to scatter the houses all about th»

Position of Fowl House, 27

farm, and as this is a plan we believe to be a most excellent
one, we shall deal fully with it ; but even then there will be
some buildings required near home, perhaps for breeding
pens, or, at any rate, for the chickens, and the ground thus
required should be fixed upon. Much after trouble, expense,
and annoyance will thus be saved, and the little forethought
required will be repaid many times over. <

It is not our intention to recommend that the runs for the
fowls should be laid out before the houses are built, for this
would be a most foolish plan, as the fencing, if any is
needed, and the carefully laid out ground would be damaged ;
but before building it is certainly advisable to have a clear
idea of where the houses are to be placed, and whether the
runs will be the most suitable ones. Nothing is easier than
to have a house built, to fence in a piece of ground, and to
put a dozen hens in H ; but whether it is in the best position
will have much to do with the result, so far as the produce
and health of the birds are concerned. So apparently slight
a matter as the house facing south or east will make a very
great difference in the supply of eggs ; and hence the neces-
sity for care in the selection of the ground and position of
the house and run. Whenever anything else can be done,
and there are very few instances where this cannot be
arranged, the front of a house should never face north, north-
east or north-west; or, at any rate, the doors and windows
should not look in any of these directions. We all know
how penetrating the winds are from these quarters, and
whilst they are blowing the house will be cold indeed, thus
acting unfavourably upon the laying and fattening qualities.
A house with a southern frontage gets all the sun there is
about — a most important matter in the late autumn, winter.
and early spring, when every ray that can be secured is oJ
decided advantage. It almost surpasses belief the difference
in temperature between a house fronting north and one front

28 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

ing south, for, whilst the latter will be comfortable, even
on those days when but little of the sun has been seen,
the former will be cold and comfortless. Practical ex-
perience has led us to make a strong point of this, as we
know the value of having the house in a sheltered position,
and this is one of the little things that needs to be thought
of before a house is erected, as it cannot be easily remedied
afterwards. Of course there are some places where it is
impossible to obtain a southern or southerly aspect, and then
the best must be made of existing circumstances. Even in
such a case as this, by a little planning much can be done,
and we some time ago visited a poultry yard, the grass run
of which was in a cold and bleak place, with an aspect almost
due north. Here a substantial stone wall ran down one side
of the field, and the houses were built on the south side of
this wall, the covered runs being on the other side, and the
two connected by trap-holes in the wall. The effect of such
a plan as this is very great, the temperature in the houses
being several degrees higher than if they were on the north
side, and thus much of the disadvantage of a north or east
aspect can be overcome. If no other plan can be adopted,
we would make the doors and windows at the one least
exposed side or end of the house, having no opening on
the other sides, but even when this is done the walls will
need to be thicker than they would if in a more favourable
position.

Whenever it is possible we should advise that a brick or
stone wall should be made the back of the house, as this is
a great protection and support to the erection, and also gives
additional warmth, as well as being a saving in cost. If this
wall be part of, or next to a stable, a cow-shed, a greenhouse,
an engine- shed, or even a dwelling, the warmth derived will
be highly beneficial. We have repeatedly known instances
where large numbers of eggs have been got in the severest

Planning Poultry Runs, 29

weather, simply because the fowls' roosting-place adjoined a
stable or cow-house. When it is remembered that the reason
why fowls do not lay so well in cold weather is that much of
the natural heat usually expended upon egg-production and
flesh-forming is required to make up for the more rapid
exhaustion of that heat, it will be seen that the value of such
an arrangement as we have suggested is very great.

Supposing, therefore, that the place has been chosen in
accordance with what we have already stated, then the
amount of ground and the number of divisions into which
it has to be partitioned out must be decided upon. If a
number of breeds are to be kept, and there is not sufficient
ground at command to scatter them widely apart, then the
decision as to the number of runs to be given should be
very carefully made, and it will be much better to limit
the number than to cramp the birds. Birds which are
only required for supplying eggs can no doubt be kept in
confined runs, but breeding stock should have good large
runs, or their eggs will not hatch so well, nor the progeny
be so vigorous and strong. In many places a large grass
field is allotted to the fowls, and on one side of this a row
of houses and sheds are built, each having a gravel run —
say twenty yards long by three or four yards wide — and
the various flocks of birds are allowed in the grass field by
turn throughout the day. This is a capital plan where it
can be adopted, and we recommend it to our readers ; but
if runs can be given to each breeding pen twenty yards
square, two-thirds grass and one-third gravel, they will do
equally as well. The first-named plan is advantageous in
one way — namely, that the houses can be all placed together,
and if a passage runs behind, the birds can be seen at
night, or the houses cleaned without going into the open
air. And as they can also be used for chickens as well as
for the breeding stock, this will be found a very great

30 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

advantage, as the early chicks require to he attended to late
at nights, and very early in the mornings. The chief danger
of this plan is the tainting of the ground resulting from
the droppings of the fowls, which is in itself a sure cause
of disease, but we shall show how this can be prevented.

In large yards it is advisable to have a proper chicken
establishment, the house of which should always face due
south, or nearly so, and as far as is possible be well pro.
tected on the north and east either by a wall or thick trees.
We shall describe how this house is to be built in the
proper place, but now mention it so that it may not be
forgotten, as is too often the case. The run, which should
be chiefly grass, requires to be large and roomy, and if it
can be placed near the attendant's house, no matter who
the attendant may be, it will be all the better. Upon
this run the chicken coops will be placed in the breeding
season, and the more room that can be given to it the
better. The actual size can only be regulated by each in
accordance with the special requirements of the case, but
we should be inclined to set aside a quarter of an acre for every
hundred chicks to be reared in this chicken run, in addition
to which other runs will be needed to put the birds in after
they leave the hens. Some of the ordinary runs will come
in useful for this purpose after the breeding season is over.

Construction of Buildings. 31

CHAPTER IV.

POU L TRY HOU SES*

Importance of Houses— Cost— Elaborate Houses not Needed — Good Houses
Required— Size of Houses and Huns — Adapting existing Buildings — Cheap
Houses — Sheds— Houses in Gardens.

Having planned the yard in the manner described by us
in the last chapter, and arranged it in the way that appears
to be most conducive to the well-being of the fowls, the
next consideration must be that of the houses in which
they are to be placed. This is a most important subject,
and takes place in the front rank of those matters which
will have an all-important effect upon the success or other-
wise of the enterprise. Too often is it neglected ; and we
have known men, who thought nothing too good for their
horses, their cattle, or their dogs, put their poultry into
cold, damp, draughty buildings, and then grumble that they
did not pay. Who could expect them to pay under such
conditions? may be reasonably asked. But this is only
a specimen of how the subject has been treated ; and
if any of our readers are resting under such a delusion,
we must ask them to give it up at once, or, as the only
alternative, give up the idea of keeping fowls. Without
due regard to comfort, ventilation, and cleanliness, fowls
will not pay ; but where these things are attended to, and
other things are favourable, they will pay.

Much will depend on the tastes, and length of purse

32 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

of the intending poultry keeper, as to the cost of the
houses and runs. We have visited at various times some
really palatial establishments, where hundreds of pounds
have been spent in erections, and where everything is of the
very best nature — planned and placed so as above all to
please the eye. And we have, on the other hand, seen
yards successfully carried on where the crudest and roughest
houses and appliances are in use, the object being to
secure the desired end with the least possible expenditure.
The fact is, elaborateness has nothing to do with success
or failure. So long as certain definable laws are observed
all will go right ; and whilst first-class houses may add to
the pleasure of the owner, or to ease in working, they are
by no means necessary to — nay, we should say almost a
hindrance to — profit, as the large amount needed as capital
outlay requires a greater charge for interest than should
be laid upon the concern. This is, of course, addressed
to those who regard the matter as one of profit. Those
who do not, can freely gratify their tastes, and can easily
make more ornamental any such houses as we shall describe,
and in all probability the additional cost will be amply
repaid in the extra pleasure thus obtained. But there is
as much care needed in the erection of grand houses as in
smaller ones; and we have known hundreds of dollars spent
in erections that were almost useless. In fact, there is in
such places always a danger that utility shall be sacrificed
to appearance, and against this we must utter a note of
warning.

It must not be thought from what we have said that we
object to substantial and well-built houses, for this is nob
the case, and we believe that often the putting of a few
extra dollars into a building is a good investment, saving
the expenditure of many more afterwards. Nor must it be
imagined that we think any plan is a suitable one, for

Division of Houses, 33

while we encourage cheapness — that is, avoiding all needless
expenditure — we strongly insist that every house, whether
it be new or old, adapted or built for the purpose, made of
wood or stone, shall be warm and comfortable, properly
ventilated, and shall be large enough for the number of
birds that are to be kept in it. Great injury is done for
want of proper housing, both through disease resulting
from it, and in that it is a great hindrance to productiveness.
Fowls kept in a cold, damp atmosphere will neither lay
nor thrive well. In the summer it may not make so much
difference to them, as day and night is then almost equally
warm ; but in the late autumn, winter, and early spring,
just when they will make or mar the balance sheet for the
year, they are consumers without being producers; conse-
quently they are most unprofitable.

The question of size of house deserves more considera-
tion than it generally receives. It has been found by very
many persons, from practical experience, that not more
than fifty birds can be profitably kept together in one house ;
and though this does not necessarily mean that if it is
thought advisable to erect a house divided into several
compartments, not more than fifty birds may be kept under
one roof, it does mean that they should be kept well apart
with runs of their own, and for this reason we prefer the
plan of having a distinct house for every fifty fowls, where
the room is at command. A few breeding runs may be put
together ; but for layers the other is the better plan. Why
large numbers together are not so prolific as when there
are fifty and under, we cannot say, and any expression of
opinion would be merely theoretical ; but such is undoubtedly
the fact, and we must urge our readers not to keep more
than the number stated in one house. These should
have half an acre of grass run, in order to keep them in
health and condition, that is, if they are to be restricted

34 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

at all ; and those of our readers who have only a limited
amount of space at their disposal will be able to decide how
many birds they can keep upon it.

The first thing for the intending poultry keeper to do
is to see whether there are any existing buildings which
can be adapted for his birds. This is, of course, more
easily done by those who wish to keep a few than by those
who go into the matter extensively ; and cottagers or suburban
residents will often be able to find an unused shed, an out-
house, or a stable which, with very few alterations, can be
made to meet all their requirements. In most of these the
floor is the greatest drawback ; but this can be remedied very
easily, as we shall show in our next chapter. Failing such
places as we have mentioned, other things can be " requisi-
tioned" for the purpose, and where the cost is a most important
matter, a little ingenuity will do a great deal. A hogshead
can be made into a very good roosting-place for half a dozen
birds, if it is raised on its side above the ground by bricks
or stone, all chinks stopped up, well tarred outside and
whitewashed inside, the upper half of the lid fixed, with a
few holes bored in, and corresponding ones in the other end
for ventilation, and the lower half made a hinged door, and
a couple of perches and nests placed inside. A large packing
case can be used in a similar fashion, if it has a sloping
roof placed above the top of the box, so that the wet can
run off easily, and in fact almost anything can be utilised,
as we have seen old railway cars, discarded carriages, and
summer-houses made to do duty. A short time ago we read
of a large farmer in Essex who keeps several hundred head
of fowls, and has bought up a number of old menagerie
vans at a cheap rate, which have been made the houses for
his fowls, and very comfortable ones we are told they are.

The objection to be brought against this kind of roosting
places, is that they do not provide sheds in which the birds

Sheds for Shelter in Bad Weather. 35

have shelter during cold or wet weather. No matter how
large and comfortable a house may be, poultry have a very
strong objection to spend any portion of their time in it
except when at roost or on the nest, and the result is that
they often crouch about under bushes or even the lea of
the house, sooner than go inside. This may be very stupid
on their part, but there the fact is, and we must recognize
it. Sheds should, therefore, be provided, and will be also
useful for the dust bath — a most needful provision. In
the case of any adapted out-house or shed, if large enough,
the outer portion can be made into the shed, or if not large
enough, a wooden erection about three feet high, and quite
as large as the house itself, with open or a wired front,
can be easily and cheaply erected. Where a hogshead or
packing case is used, it should be lifted sufficiently high
so as to leave a good space below. If the supporting
bricks are built in the form of a U-shaped wall, they will
be protection enough ; but if not, folding flaps of wood
should be placed on three sides so as to keep wind and
rain from the birds below.

The small amateur who has accommodation for only a
very few birds, and must confine them, would do well to
so place his house that there will be a run on each side
of it. In a suburban or cottage garden this will not be
at all difficult, and the house and shed can be arranged
according to circumstances. The object of the double run
is to give the birds fresh ground, and thus prevent any
tainting of it, so great a cause of disease in small yards.
Only one run at a time will be used, and the other can be
planted with vegetables, which will be found to grow amain
on such a place, and be better and larger than any other in
the garden, and at the same time clean the ground. If each
run is thus used four months at a time, there need be no fear
of disease. We know of an instance where this has been

36 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

tried most successfully, and on a fairly large scale, with very
heavy crops, and the birds kept in perfect health, though
the runs are smaller than we like to see. We do not see why
farmers should not make poultry one of the series in the
rotation of crops, as by this means the land would get well
manured by the fowls, and before being used again for them
would be sweetened by the produce grown thereon. This is
a subject we shall return to again, as it is worthy of fuller*
consideration. If the small poultry keeper is unable to
give these double runs, it will be better to lay down the
one run he has in gravel, as it can be more easily renewed, and
is less liable to contamination than earth. But as our subject
is the houses, we must insist that if he uses an outhouse or
any of the things we have already named, he will see that
it is watertight above, dry below, properly ventilated, and
comfortable. If he has to build a house he can follow the
directions we give in the next chapter.

Materials of House. 37

CHAPTER V.

THE EBECT10N OF POULTRY HOUSES.

Material to be Used —Tenant's Fixtures — Too Large Houses Objectionable-
Foundation — Saving of Timber — Frame Work — Windows and Doors —
Ventilation — Floors — Artificial Heating.

Before the question of building can be entirely settled
there is a matter requiring to be entered upon, which will
probably have very much to do with the material of which
the house will be built. There can be no question that for
comfort and durability, a brick or stone house is best both
for birds and owner, as it is much warmer, less liable to
draughts, and more lasting than a wooden one. If the
land be the property of the intending poultry keeper, or if
the lease is sufficiently long to warrant a permanent erection,
then we should certainly advise such being built ; but if
there is any uncertainty as to the length of time during
which the ground can be retained, then it will be better to
put up a wooden one, as this is removable, whereas a brick
or stone erection becomes the landlord's property if the
tenant leaves. Of course the rule we have laid down can
be varied according to circumstances, as there are districts
where timber is comparatively scarce and dear, and where
bricks or stone are comparatively cheap, and vice versa.
But as a rule wood is the cheapest material, and as it is

38 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

easy to work with, as well as being capable of removal
without much damage, if removal is necessary, there is no
objection whatever to it, if sufficiently thick timber is
used throughout, and the whole well and strongly put
together.

The question of size is one that must of necessity be ruled
by the inclinations of the owner. We do not mean the
n amber of fowls he intends to keep, so much as whether
he prefers to have only one house, or several scattered
about. We must confess to having a preference for the
latter plan, where there is sufficient room to allow of it,
but at the same time there are doubtless advantages in
having the birds all in one house, not the least of which
is that they can be easily seen and are less liable to be
stolen. Then it is also cheaper to build one house for
two hundred birds than four houses to hold fifty each,
and even where the question of cost is not regarded so
closely, a much more pleasing structure can be erected than
if divided into a number Of small ones. Perhaps the best
plan is that indicated by us in the previous chapter, namely,
to combine both these systems, and to have the breeding,
and chicken houses near at home, and the others more
widely scattered about. However, these are arrangements
which can be safely left to be decided individually, and
our instructions as to building poultry houses will apply
to small and to large houses equally. A house twelve feet
long by six feet wide, and seven or eight feet from the floor
to the eaves, will be large enough to accommodate fifty
fowls, and we should not recommend that it be made larger
than this. Too small a house is dangerous, as the vitiation
of the atmosphere which naturally results breeds disease,
but on the other hand too large a house is equally an evil,
as the birds are exposed to a very large amount of cold
air during the winter, which absorbs the heat from their

D intensions of House. 39

bodies, and they are chilled and miserable during the long
nights. If the house be of a reasonable size, the natural
heat of their bodies is not absorbed, but remains to support
them against the severity of the weather. These are
matters which may not be so easily regulated when a build-
ing is adapted, but when a house is built, then there is no
more trouble in making it right than wrong.

In all erections the first thing is to get a good foundation,
and even when built of wood it will be better to put down
bricks first, these to stand six inches above the ground. If
well tarred after they are laid they will prevent the damp
rising, and also protect the wood. As much of the latter as
rests on, or is sunk into the ground should be well tarred also.
The timber used for the walls should be tongued, or feathered
and grooved. The superiority of this over straight edged
deals is very great, keeping out both wind and wet more
effectually, and the cost is small. Upon no account should
the boards be less than an inch in thickness, no matter how
small the house may be, and where it is large it will be found
much better to have them an inch and a quarter. Many
persons commit the mistake of having the deals too thin,
the result of which is, the houses are cold and easily pene-
trated by damp. A capital plan is to make the house in
length and width twelve feet, or a divisible fraction of it,
that is, four, six, or eight feet, or if larger, eighteen or twenty-
four feet. The object of this is, that as timber is generally
sold in lengths of about twelve feet, if any of the sizes
named are selected there will be no waste whatever, every
inch being used up. Of course the house can be twelve feet
long by six feet wide, or twenty-four feet long by twelve feet
wide, or any other size that will be convenient. The shed
which we have already mentioned can either be a portion of
the building, the same in height and width, or it can be a
less lofty erection placed in front or at one end of the house

40 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

proper. Where a number of houses are placed together, it
is better to have the sheds in front and part of the main
building. Such sheds should be quite as large as the roost-
ing house, and be separated from the same by a partition
made of the same thickness of wood as the outer walls. The
front of the shed should be of wood two or three feet up,
and of wire netting above that.

Having laid the foundations, the next step will be to
prepare the framework, which should be of scantling, three
or four inches square, according to the size of the house and
the strain which will be put upon the frame. An extra up-
right should be placed every three or four feet; but one
horizontal crosspiece, in a wall six to eight feet high, will be
quite sufficient. The framework of a door not less than
thirty inches wide, and of one or more windows, must be fitted
in, and these should face the south or east. The windows
are better when made to open, and simply hinged to swing
outwards. The boards when nailed on should be laid
horizontally, tightly clenched down, and nailed firmly to the
frame, so as to prevent any warping. French nails are
the best, as they do not destroy the wood, should it be
necessary to afterwards take the house to pieces. A small
trap, fifteen inches high by twelve inches wide, will be required
for the fowls ; and this should have a sliding door, so that
they may be kept in if necessary. The matter requiring
greatest care in the erection of a wooden house is, to see that
it is perfectly air-tight, except as afterwards provided, and
all fissures or chinks stopped up. This is especially necessary
with the door and window fittings, as draughts very often find
their way in just at these places.

The roof may be of shingles, slates, corrugated iron, or
wood, the two first named being the most suitable for per-
manent buildings. A tin roof really has many advantages,
as it is reasonable in price, easily fixed, and perfectly water-

Provision for Ventilation.

4*

tight. But against these have to be placed the- fact, that
from its being so thin, and also being a rapid conductor of
heat and cold, it is very hot in summer and very cold in
winter, and unless lined out with boarding the house is
Bubject to these unfavourable conditions. If it is boarded,
however, this is counteracted, and then it makes a capital
roof — one that will last many years if given a coat of paint
every twelve months. When wood is used as a roof, it should
be firm and well put together, and be covered with felting,

Fig. 1.— Ventilating roof.

which needs to be well tarred and sanded once a year, thus
making a warm and substantial cover. It is important to
have a good slope in a roof of this kind, so that the water
may run off rapidly ; and when this is done, a wooden roof
is as good as anything else.

The question of ventilation is a most important one, and
worthy of more consideration than is usually given to it.
The way often adopted is to make a few holes in one end
of the house, and let the air get in and out the best

42 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

way it can. We have actually known houses built with the
boards left an eighth of an inch apart, in order to provide a
current of air : but such a method partakes considerably of
madness. The plan we are about to describe is a very simple
one, and will cost very little, if anything ; it is equally
suitable to a single slope or to a gabled roof, but we shall
describe the latter, and our readers can adapt it to the former.
In the roof a small chamber should be formed, by nailing
half-inch boards across the same, about midway between the
eaves and the apex, and we give an illustration (Fig. 1) of
the roof showing this method of ventilation. The crossboards
forming the bottom of the chamber may either be closely
nailed together, and have holes bored in them, or be left a
quarter of an inch apart. At each end of this chamber, in
the gables, louver boards should be inserted, or a ventilating
trap, such as can be bought from any ironmonger, or a few
holes bored into each end will do, but not so well. In
addition to this, a couple of traps may be fitted about half-
way up the walls of the house, but these are optional, and
can be done without. If they are used, then a square
wooden box, much larger than the trap, will need to be put
over each one inside the house, having a very few holes in, it
on the upper side only, so that when the fresh air comes in, it
will be directed up to the roof, and not strike against the
birds. The system of ventilation we have described is a
perfect one ; there is a constant current of air through the
ventilating chamber, carrying oif the vitiated air, and this
prevents any draught whatever in the house itself ; but, at
the same time, the birds always have pure air to breathe ;
and go into their roosting-house at any time, day or night,
it is fresh and sweet so far as the atmosphere is concerned.
In winter some of the ventilating holes can be stopped up,
as they will not be required, and the facility with which the
current can be regulated is the advantage the trap ventilators

Importance of Proper Floor. 43

have over the holes or louver boards. No holes must be
made near the ground, or anything done to create a draught
upwards, as when this is done there is great danger of the
fowls having to roost midway between two openings — a plan
which sooner or later results in colds and other diseases.
This done, the house itself is complete, with the exception
of painting outside and whitewashing inside ; two or three
coats of the former and two of the latter will put it in
capital order.

The next part we have to deal with is the floor, which if it
be damp or cold will militate very greatly against the com-
fort and consequent success of the inmates. Such a subject
as this needs to be specially dealt with, as there are many
persons who appear to think that if the house itself is dry
and well built the floor is of no consequence. Such an idea
probably arises from the fact that the birds are almost always
either on their perches or outside the house. But whilst
this is undoubtedly the case, it must also be remembered
that the nests are generally made on the ground, and what
is of still greater moment, the atmosphere of the house is
considerably affected by the floor, for if it is damp there is a
cold, chilly feeling always present. In our own dwellings
this is so, and all the efforts made to warm a damp house
never succeed in making it comfortable; besides which there
is the great injury to our health, and if this is. the case
where warmth and light can be freely given, how much more
must it be felt in poultry houses.

The first thing to be decided upon is that the floor of
the house shall be not less than six inches above the ground
outside. The object is to prevent the water running into the
house, which it will do if below or upon the level. Cement
makes a capital floor, and if well laid there is no danger of
water standing, or of a damp atmosphere resulting from it.
It is cleaned very easily, and will not become charged with

44 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

moisture from the droppings ; but it is very cold, and on
this account, if used, should always be kept covered with two
or three inches of fine soil or ashes. Bricks are often used,
and if well drained below make a firm and dry floor. But
they have one very decided drawback, consequent upon their
porous nature and the interstices which must exist between
them, namely, that they absorb the moisture from the drop-
pings, and in time become impregnated with ammonia,,
which reacts upon the atmosphere in the house, and is very
unhealthy for the birds in it. Were it not for this, bricks
would make one of the best floors that could be desired.
Wooden floors also are not to be recommended, except
where the space is limited, when it is necessary to raise the
floor of the house, in order to provide a sheltered run for
the fowls below, or wooden floors may be used where movable
houses are adopted. In either of these cases only such a
floor is possible; but of course it must be kept thickly
covered with coal ashes, or fine soil, to be renewed con-
stantly, and thus kept fresh.

Of all the floors which may be laid down in a poultry
house, we have proved the following to be decidedly the
best : — In the first instance, dig the ground out to a depth
of twelve or fifteen inches, and then fill up half of this with
broken bricks, gravel, burnt ballast, coarse stones or slag,
which must be well beaten down. A compost of coal
ashes, fine gravel, quicklime and water must next be made,
well mixed together, and spread over the other so as to raise
the floor to the required height above the ground. This,
when hardened, will be a perfectly dry floor, one upon which
water will not stand, and yet it will be hard and firm in its
nature, as well as warm and comfortable. It is easily
cleaned, inexpensive, and in every way the best floor we
know of. Of course, ashes or soil must always be spread
thinly over it, as they should be upon every kind of floor, and

Heating Poultry Houses. 45

renewed every day or two. In some places the floor simply
consists of a few inches of fine, dry earth ; and where the
ground below is porous and warm there is no objection to
this, but it must be raked over every day, and entirely re-
newed every few months, or the air will be vitiated. Any one
with a sensitive nasal organ can, however, very soon tell
when there is anything the matter in this way, so that will
be of itself a protection ; but we do not approve of the plan
some people adopt, of using carbolic powder and other disin-
fectants so freely, that their smell may overpower any other
one. This is not the way to do. By cleanliness a house
should be kept sweet, and whilst the articles named are
most valuable to the poultry keeper, yet they must not be
made substitutes for, but assistants to, cleanliness.

Perhaps it may be as well, before we deal with the ques-
tion of fittings, to say a few words with respect to the much
debated question of henting poultry houses. The arguments
adduced in favour of artificial heating are very plausible
indeed, and there need be no wonder that many are misled by
them. The reason why hens do not lay so well in winter, is
because the natural heat or reserve force of the body is more
rapidly exhausted in winter than in summer, and there is
less surplus to go to the formation of eggs or flesh. Thus
it would appear very reasonable to suppose, that if, by sup-
plying artificial heat, this rapid exhaustion can be prevented,
then the birds would be as productive at one time as another.
The fallacy of this is in the fact that birds cannot always be
kept healthy indoors, and if there be high temperature, then
when they go out, the sudden transition is very great, and
disease results. So that for this reason, it will be seen that
artificial heating is likely to do more harm than good, except
under such conditions as we shall presently mention. Fowls
cannot put on an overcoat when they leave their houses, and
we know the danger ourselves of going from a heated room

46 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

into the cold air unprotected in this way. But in addition
to this there is a very grave objection to the burning of oil or
gas in a house, as they vitiate the atmosphere greatly, and
the birds having to breath air charged with impurities, must
be injured thereby. This injury may not declare itself at
once, but will do so sooner or later.

In addition to the methods of heating already mentioned,
which are more used for isolated houses than those in blocks,
hot water pipes have been employed, but though these are
much better than stoves of any kind, it is only a question of
degree, and the use of them is to be equally condemned.
We do not say that a gentle artificial heat is not beneficial,
if it come from outside the house, and, for this reason, we
recommended in a previous chapter that, where possible, the
house should be built adjoining " a stable, a cow-shed, a
green-house, an engine-shed, or even a dwelling," but this
is altogether different to placing a stove inside a house, as
the heat is then evenly diffused all over the house, without in
the slightest degree vitiating the atmosphere. Even in such
a place as this, care must be taken to keep the temperature
from rising very high, and the ventilation requires to be well
looked after.

It is often found convenient, where large numbers of fowls
are kept, to have the buildings in large blocks, and when this
is so artificial heat may be introduced without much danger,
especially if there is a centre compartment into which all
the others open. Here a fire-stove can be placed, and if
the ventilation is so arranged that the fresh air can be
supplied through this compartment, then the fowls will get
warmth without danger of any great excess of it. But we
may as well say at once, that, in a well built and properly
ventilated house, there is no need of any artificial heat what
ever, and even though the eggs are not quite so numerous
as might be the case were it employed, the prevention of

Straw Lining Useful. 47

future trouble, and the hardiness of the birds, will more than
compensate for this deficiency. In very severe weather the
houses may be lined out with straw, but this is only needed
where the walls are thin, and it will be found that good sub-
stantial food and free range, will do more real good than any
artificial heat, however carefully applied.

48 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTER VL

THE FITTINGS AND RUNS*

Perches — Nest Boxes — Sheds — Unfenced Runs— Space to be given— Fencing.

The perches should he regulated according to the kind of
birds kept. For heavy ones, such as Brahmas, Cochins,
Dorkings, Langshans, Wyandottes, and Plymouth Rocks,
a foot above the ground is quite high enough, as birds are
often injured in flying down from high perches, or, what
is equally as bad, roost upon the ground and are cold and
starved all the night through. Some time ago we saw a
capital perch for Brahmas, made of strong wood, about four
inches wide, and in the form of a huge T, the three ends
resting upon cement blocks built into the walls, and of course
lying lengthwise parallel with the floor. We also give from
Mr. Tegetmeier's Poultry Book an illustration (Fig. 2) of
a capital frame for heavy fowls to roost upon, which has the
decided advantage of being easily moved. Perches should
always be made so that they can be got out of, and into the
house without difficulty. As a rule, for lighter birds, where the
perches are placed higher, fir poles sawn in two make the best
ones, but when these cannot be got, oval shaped bars, about
three inches in diameter and sawn in two, are most suitable.
Or if flat ones are used they should not be narrow, but
have the edges taken off. In small houses it is best to get
thick bent iron or wooden supports, made in the form of the

Hen- Ladder s%

49

letters (J or J ; the former are the best, as the perches
are not so easily knocked out by the birds. One of these
rests must be fixed at each side of the house, and the perch
ends made to fit them, taking care that the poles are not too
short, or they will drop out when the birds get on to them.

In large nouses it is much better to make a hen ladder,
which consists of two stout planks laid at each end of the
house, at an angle of about forty degrees, the top resting

Fig. 2. — Frame for Roost.

against the back wall and the bottom on the ground, or,

of course, by making a back upright to hold the planks

spoken of, it will not be necessary to rest the same against

the walls. Or, again, the latter may be made double, like

the letter J\, with perches at both sides, though, for a

reason about to be given, this is not to be recommended

except where there are windows on both sides. At a

distance of about every two feet, notches are made on the

upper side of these deals, of course, corresponding with each

other, and into these the perch ends are dropped, and then

the ladder is complete. This ladder should face the window,

wherever this is placed, as fowls always roost with their heads

in that direction, and then the droppings fall on the floor

without touching the birds on the lower perches. If the

birds are allowed to roost the other way, each row will receive

the droppings from those on the one above. Fine soil or

ashes should be laid on the floor below the ladder, and raked

over daily, as by this means a most valuable manure is made.

50 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

and can be removed weekly. Whether the house is a large
or a small one the perches should be made removable, so as
to facilitate cleaning, and once every month the ends can
be dipped in petroleum or carbolic acid, by the doing of
which insects are kept away easily. Many people would be
surprised at the myriads of insects which swarm over birds
when they are roosting that are not so protected, but dipping
the ends effectually prevents their reaching the fowls.

Nest boxes will, of course, require to be fitted into the
house, and in numbers sufficient to prevent any crowding of
the hens, or they will fight for possession, and perhaps be
thus led to lay away. These nest boxes can be made in a
variety of ways, and if the house is a small one a couple of
bricks, a box, or a basket can be used. Perhaps the first
named is the best, as it is most easily cleared away, and can
scarcely be neglected when the house is cleaned out, for
the nest must be renewed constantly to keep it supplied with
straw. In such a house as this, where room is not over
plentiful, the nests may be arranged with a shelf above them,
and if the perch is above that, then the hens will be quiet
and retired, and no droppings can reach them. But, of
course, such an arrangement necessitates great attention to
cleanliness, and for this reason it is most important to have
shelves removable, and to see that they are taken out at
least every week. We have found in practice that if this is
not done the nests below get neglected, and the backs of the
shelves become harbours for insects, and dirt of all kinds.

It may be taken as a standing rule, that one nest will be
required for every three hens ; and in large houses, where
forty or fifty birds are kept, a different plan to any yet spoken
of will have to be adopted. We do not like nests in sets as
usually made, because there are no facilities provided for
easy cleaning, rather the reverse ; but the following plan is
one that can be adopted with safety : — In a house for fifty

Nest-Boxes. 5 1

hens we should make three rows, of five or six nests in each,
every nest to be twelve to fifteen inches square, according to
the size of fowls by which they will be used. The nests
should have no bottoms, backs, or fronts, save only a strip of
wood, three inches wide, nailed along the lower part of the
fronts, and another exactly like it at the back. The top of
each row will have to be entirely covered, and each of the
two bottom rows have a ledge of about six or eight inches
wide standing in front. This will complete the nests, and
they will, therefore, consist simply of the partitions between
each nest, the ends, the tops, and the strips, back and front.
When put together the bottom row will stand on the ground
next to one of the walls, the second row above it, and the
third row above that. In order to prevent the fowls pulling
the nests over when jumping on to the ledges, strong iron
catches should be fixed to the end of each row with staples
in the wall, so as to keep them firm and secure. As will
have been seen, the top row will have no ledge, as one is not
needed there, but it will be necessary to have a sloping top,
or the birds will roost upon it, and thus constantly make it
foul and dirty. These nests can be taken to pieces in a
couple of minutes and re-erected as speedily, the great
advantage being that, having no floor, the moment they are
removed everything inside falls out, and there are no corners
where dirt or vermin can congregate. They should have a
good lime-washing inside and outside once a month, and this
will keep them perfectly sweet and clean.

Heavy fowls, such as Cochins, Brahmas, and Dorkings,
will require some other arrangement, as the flying up and
down to the nests would injure them just as much as when
high perches are employed for them. This can be overcome
by placing all the nests on the ground, and having a sloping
board above the same the whole way round the house, or,
what is still better, make the top of the nests sloping

52 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

from back to front, which will effectually prevent the birds
roosting on it. In this case, we should make the nests in
sets of two or three each, as they will then be much
easier to handle when cleaning. We have also seen hanging
boxes made, not unlike a very large sink soap tray, but with
wire bottoms ; and, where there is enough room in the house
to allow of these being hung on the walls, about eighteen to
twenty-four inches apart from each other, no better system
can be adopted. They must be a foot or more above the
ground, and the nest itself should be about six inches in depth,
so that there may be no danger of the hen knocking out the
eggs when getting out herself.

In the chapter on " Poultry Houses " we mentioned the
necessity for having a shed in addition to the roosting house.
This should, if possible, be as large, if not larger than the
house, but can be open or wired at the front. It must be
perfectly dry, with good floor, which may be the same as the
house floor, or be a foot in depth of fine sand. In one
corner a hole should be dug, or a box placed, about two feet
deep, and kept constantly supplied with fine dry ashes or
soil. This dust bath is absolutely necessary to the well
being of the birds, and must be given in order to keep down
insects. Where large numbers of birds are kept we have
seen a house or shed devoted to this purpose alone ; and any
reasonable amount of trouble is worth taking, as fowls can-
not possibly thrive if they are troubled with insects.

The question as to how much space is required to keep
birds in perfect health i« somewhat difficult to answer, be-
cause there are some breeds which require more than others ;
and there are breeds which can live on a grass plot without
destroying it, whilst others would eat it bare in a month. Of
course, it is much better when freedom can be given, and
birds can then be divided without the use of netting or any-
thing else, thus effecting a large saving in first cost. It is

Space Desirable.

53

wonderful how close birds can be kept together without mix-
ing one with the other. A short time ago the writer visited a
farm where several hundred head of fowls are kept, compris-
ing about a dozen pure varieties, and in one field of about
ten acres two houses were placed, of course at the extreme
limits from each other. In one were Dorkings, and in the
other white Leghorns, and though they were in sight of each
other, yet they had never been known to mix, nor even to

Fig. 3. — Range of Poultry Houses and Runs.

approach sufficiently near to quarrel. Probably each clan
telt itself immeasurably superior to its neighbour, and that
it would be derogatory to associate with the others ; but
whatever might be the cause, the effect was satisfactory to the
owner. And under such circumstances, namely, where there
is an abundance of room, for the farm in question was nearly
a thousand acres in extent, the question of run3 is easily
settled, as even breeding flocks can be kept unpenned.

54 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

Where runs are at all restricted, and must be kept within
certain limits, then it is necessary to know how much ground is
absolutely required to keep grass fresh. Under such conditions
it will be needful to give half an acre to every fifty fowls of the
lighter kinds, but rather more than this will be required for the
heavier breeds. But where houses are built in sets, such as is
•shown in Fig. 3, which is a capital range of houses made by
Bolton and Paul, Norwich, Eng., we prefer the plan given
by us in a former chapter, uamely, to give gravel runs to the
houses, and have a large field into which the birds can go in
turns during the day. They in this way thrive just as well as
if on grass always, and the latter is preserved and kept in good
order. Nothing appears worse to us than to see grass eaten
and trodden down, as then it does no good to the fowls, and
is much worse than gravel, which is clean at any rate, and
does not lead the attendant to suppose that the birds have
all the green food they require. Grass is only beneficial
when fresh and clean, and hence the importance of what we
have said.

When fencing is necessary, the best material is wire-
netting, which can be bought very cheaply, especially if in
large quantities, and if it is galvanized it lasts a long time.
That with a two inch mesh is fine enough, and it is as well
to get it good and strong, as it will be found least costly in
the end. Where something more showy is required, there is
a wire fencing made in sections of three feet wide, and six
feet high, fitted to iron standards in the ground by means of
small bolts. These are made in straight lattice work, and
generally have ornamental tops, so that they are pleasing in
appearance. Another admirable fence is one easily made
to order by any woven-wire works, like Figure 4, the bottom
half of which is made of galvanized iron, and the upper
half of wire, thus forming a complete division between runs,
and being at the same time a first-rate shelter against sun,

Iron Fencing.

55

rain, or wind. The height of the fences will need to be
regulated by the variety of fowls kept. Heavy birds will be
easily restrained by a three or a four feet fence, whilst most
other breeds can be kept in only by one six feet high. Ham-
burghs, however, must have one at least ten feet, and often
that is not sufficient, so that it is better to clip their wings.
Gates must be provided, and it will be found advantageous
not to have too few, as thus many a long walk may be saved
— no small consideration on a wet or stormy day ; and where

Fig. 4. — Poultry Fence.

several runs join each other they must be boarded up three
feet above the ground, if the fencing just mentioned be not
used, in order to prevent the cocks fighting with each other,
which they will certainly do if this precaution is not taken.

56 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTER VII.

MORE &BOUT HOUSES AND RUNS,

Effect of Confinement— Houses on Wheels — Tbe Best, Plan for Farms— Use of
Fruit Trees in Runs — Kinds of Trees to Plant — Fruit Bushes — Other Aids.

We suppose that, as it is human nature, when restricted
within certain specified limits, to get as near the outer region
of those limits as possible, even though there is an abun-
dance of room, and a more nominal than actual curtailment
of liberty, the same instinct is shown in fowls, because, no
matter how large a run may be given them, if it be fenced
in, they will be sure to wear down the grass near the boun-
daries, whilst that in the centre will probably be untouched.
On this account, where space is abundant, it may be the
best plan do use movable houses, either small enough to
be carried by a couple of men, or on wheels, so that a horse
or pony can take them easily from one place to another.
Various patterns can be seen in the lists of poultry
house builders, and we give illustrations of two of these,
showing the ones which appear to us the best (Figs. 5
and 6). As is seen, one of these houses, for which we
are also indebted to Spratt's Patent of London, who have
made some of the best poultry houses we have seen, has a
run beneath, and side flaps to afford protection, whilst the
other, which is an admirable form for farms, made by Thos.
Christy & Co., of Fenchurch Street, London, is without the
run ; but if the latter plan is adopted, a small shelter should
be made so as to stand adjoining, and for convenience of

Portable Houses.

57

removal, it can be separate. The houses and shelters can
be with, or without floors, as may be preferred, but if the
soil is clay, or damp, it will be much better to have wooden
floors, but even when it is dry soil we much prefer not to
have them. Of course, in any case it will be necessary to see
that the houses are not placed in hollows, or, when it is
wet weather, they will be standing in pools of water.

Movable houses of this kind have many great advan-

Fig. 5. — Portable House.

tages, but, of course, theif use is limited to such as have
plenty of ground at command. In the first place, a much
larger number of birds can be kept than in a stationary
house, as the ground is fresh, and they can ander about
at their own free will. The fowls also cost ies, to keep, as
they are able to find a great portion of their own food in the
shape of worms, grubs, seeds, Yooit, and berries. There is
less expense for material, as fencing is not needed, and

58

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

even though wire netting is very cheap, when it has to be
purchased by the hundred or thousand yards, it adds a very
considerable item to the capital account. Then, again, the
fowls clean and manure the land, which is a specially valuable
thing after ploughing or harvesting, and we know farms
where the birds are kept on the pasture land during the
early part of the year ; but, as soon as the hay, corn or root
crops are off, the houses are immediately moved thereon,
and kept there as long as possible. On one farm we are
acquainted with, the fowls are allowed to wander about
among both corn and root crops, as soon as the plants are

Fig. 6.— Poultry House for Farms.

about twelve and six inches respectively above the ground ; and
the owner informs us that the injury done is really nominal,
whilst the benefit is very great. Fortunately, the time of year
when the number of birds is greatest, is during the late summer
and early autumn, when the land is most at liberty, and thus
the poultry do not hamper or hinder the other work of a farm.
Finally, there can be no question that birds kept in movable
houses are hardier, thrive better, and lay better, than if in
confined spaces ; but, of course, there are some disadvantages,
such as risk of the birds laying away, additional labour in
feeding and attendance, and, in some districts, danger of

Cost of Movable Houses. 59

foxes. The two former can be overcome without difficulty,
and the latter only needs greater care and watchfulness to
be exercised, with the fastening up of the birds at night.

With such a plan as we have suggested, we are certain
that there are few farmers who could not find room for one
of these houses to every five or ten acres of his occupation,
and the cost would very soon be repaid. The benefit would
be great, and touch the part where every one is susceptible,
namely, the pocket. We are not speaking from mere
theory, as we know several instances where the fowls are a
profit, both indirectly through the benefit to the land, and
directly in actual cash. Houses can be built to hold
about twenty-five fowls for 112 each, or to hold about fifty
fowls for $20 to $25 each, without wheels ; or with wheels,
which must be broad and large to prevent their sinking in
the ground, for a few dollars more ; or, sometimes, various
things can be adapted at even a less cost than this. We
have seen old carriages, railway cars, and many other things
adapted to the purpose, and in one instance read of a
number of old showman's vans being so used, and very
successfully too.

It will have been seen , from what we have already said, that
we believe in poultry farming more as an adjunct to an
ordinary farm, than as a separate business, with land devoted
to it, and to nothing else. But in some cases, there may be
ground at command, just sufficient to keep going a fair
number of fowls, and then it is imperative to make the
best possible use of it. If rent has to be paid, anything
which can be done to help the paying of it, will be a great
assistance to making the concern profitable, and at the
same time do away with the temptation to overcrowd the
ground — a certain cause of disease and consequent loss.
This, we believe, can best be done by the planting of fruit
trees, which may not be a new suggestion, but it is one which

6o Profitable Poultry Keeping.

has not been brought very prominently forward of late.
That it is a good suggestion few will be prepared to deny,
tor birds in a state of nature find all the protection they
need in trees, as there are no houses or sheds to shelter
them. But, of course, they are not restricted, and can
keep themselves warm by exercise, whereas those that have
not this liberty must have some artificial protection ; and
the plan of putting birds in open runs, where they are
restrained by wire fencing, without any corner to which
they can retire, so as to be out of the reach of wind and
weather, is foolish in the extreme, and we cannot wonder the
birds do not thrive at all well.

It is best as a rule, when planting runs in this way, to
use large fruit trees, such as apple, pear, plum, and, in
suitable places, cobnuts. These are generally regarded as
a source of profit in themselves, for land is given up to them
alone ; but, when this is so, they are nearly always planted
too closely to suit poultry, at least in wet weather, and thus
ordinary orchards cannot be looked upon as more than
occasional or extra runs. If there are these near to where
the poultry are kept, they will be a great boon, as in such
places there is an abundance of insect life, which is highly
beneficial to the birds. They also provide shelter during
very hot weather, and protection from storms, the chief draw-
back being that a closely-planted orchard or wood is nearly
always damp, and therefore not suitable during the winter
and late autumn.

We have recommended the planting of large trees, but as
they take a few years to get into full fruit bearing condition,
and cannot be easily removed, some may prefer to use bushes,
such as gooseberry or raspberry. These afford a capital pro-
tection, as they are low, and thick near the ground, which is
not the case with large trees. They, however, have one dis-
advantage, and that is, the birds pick off the fruit when they

Fruit Trees and Bushes. 6 1

are in the runs. A capital plan we recently saw adopted,
was to lay the runs out in wide strips, say, about one hundred
feet long and fifty feet wide. Between these the various
bushes were planted, of course being separated from the
fowls by wire netting. Here, the plan adopted, was to let
the fowls run on the ground for two or three years, then
transplant the bushes into the runs occupied by them, and
give the birds the strips where the bushes had been. This
doubtless would involve considerable trouble, but not so
much as might be imagined, and the bushes got the benefit
of the well manured, and the fowls of the clean soils. Some
such plan as this, or the protecting of the bushes by tanned
twine netting during the fruiting season, is necessary where
small fruit trees are planted. Or, if there is plenty of shelter
from other trees, runs which had been occupied by poultry
for two or three years, could be planted with strawberry plants,
fresh runs being given to the birds, and, we venture to say,
that the quality and quantity of the fruit on the former, would
lead to a still further extension of the system. The benefit,
as we have already hinted, will be twofold. Not only will
the profit from the fruii, which can easily be made to almost
if not more than pay the rent, but the land will be thus kept
perfectly pure and sweet, and consequently there will be much
less risk of disease among the stock.

It is not necessary for us to go into any details as to the
methods of planting, the number of trees per acre, and the
kinds of trees to be chosen. These can easily be obtained
elsewhere ; but our readers having received the suggestion
can adapt it in their own way. The plan can doubtless be
considerably developed, and other things found to help forward
the same end, if brains are set to work. For instance, in a
yard where the pens are divided either by wood or wire, the
appearance of these can be greatly improved by planting
creepers about them, and for this purpose there is nothing

62 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

better than the ordinary sc.arlet runner beans. Near large
towns or fashionable watering places, rose bushes would be
a source of profit, as both buds and flowers find a ready sale ;
but each poultry-keeper must consider what will best meet
the demands of the district, and what will suit his place, and
the soil at his command.

The Chicken House. 63

CHAPTER VIII.

CHICKEN-HOUSES.

Early Chickens — Position oi Chicken House — The Attendant's Honse — Gravel
and Grass Run — The House — Floor — Provision Against Rats — Size of
House.

In all large poultry yards, especially where it is intended to
hatch early broods, a special chicken-house is required ; and
when we have described how it is to be built, then we have
done with the subject of houses. The object of having a
chicken-house is that the early birds may be protected from
the bad weather generally found in the beginning of the
year, and, when properly built, they can be kept indoors, if
necessary. Consequently, such a house must be large and
roomy ; but, as it can also be used as a hatching-house, there
will be no waste of space in it. If the birds are crowded
they will not thrive, and in building, this must be borne in
mind.

The position of a chicken-house must be facing south,
south-west, or south-east, and to this rule there can be no
exception whatever, as it is an essential that early in the
year, when the sun's rays are few and far between, all of
them be gathered into the house ; for loss of this heat means
more difficulty in rearing. Wherever possible, the back of
the house should be a brick or stone wall ; and, if there is
any measure of certainty about the occupation of the place

64 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

upon which it is built, it will be worth the cost of building
such a wall, if there is not one already which can be used.
Of course, if the wall of a dwelling-house, stable, or cow-
shed is available for such a purpose, so much the better ; but
upon no account must the aspect of the house be altered,
even to obtain the benefit of a warm wall. Heat of this
kind is good, but the sun's natural heat is far better ; and
for early chicks the latter is absolutely indispensable. If
both can be obtained, well and good ; if not, let the one we
have indicated be taken in preference. Whenever possible,
it is well to have the chicken-house as near to the dwelling
of the attendant as possible. In a plan of the yard of Sir
Henry Thompson, near Hampton Court, which appeared in
one of the Poultry Journals, we noticed that the chicken
run is directly in front of the poultryman's cottage, the
house being only a few steps away. Of this we heartily
approve, as the birds require very great attention during the
first weeks of their existence ; and, if the attendant has a
considerable distance to go to them, he will be unable to give
them the same amount of care, as when they are close at
hand ; whereas, if only a few steps away, he will often go,
even though his presence by strict rule may not be absolutely
required. As far as possible let labour be saved, and the
saving will be far more than repaid.

It will be necessary, in selecting the site for a chicken-
house, to arrange it so that there may be a good-sizeJ run in
front. The object of this is, not so much that the birds in
the chicken-house may have plenty of space, when they are
allowed to run outside, but that later on in the year, say in
April and May, when the coops are placed outside altogether,
as they should be, after the birds are a few days old, there will
be room enough for them. This, we believe, to be a much
better plan than scattering the birds all about the place, as,
when the latter is done, they are not sufficiently under the

Importance of a Turf Run. 65

eye of the attendant. A quarter of an acre will be sufficient
upon which to rear a couple of hundred chickens ; and,
perhaps, if more than this number is to be hatched, it will be
well to divide both the house and run, giving a quarter of an
acre for every two hundred birds. We do not mean that two
hundred chicks with their mothers can be kept on this
amount of ground at one time, for that would be crowding
with a vengeance ; but, as the older ones are deserted by the
hens, they will be drafted off into other houses, and younger
ones be coming on ; so that probably there will be seldom
more than fifty to eighty upon the ground at one time, and
this only during four or five months of the year. One-fourth
of the ground — that immediately in front of the house —
should be laid in gravel, and the rest be in grass. The nicer
and smoother the latter is, the better for the birds ; and upon
no account must the grass be allowed to grow very long, or
the chicks, in wandering about it, will get at times damp and
wet, and the result be disease among them. Many ladies
who keep fowls upon a fairly large scale, place the coops out
upon their lawns during the spring, and as the grass is kept
short, the ground, generally drained, and in a sunny place,
the chickens thrive well. No harm, but a considerable
amount of good, is done to the grass, as the manure enriches
it very much. We know poultry yards, where the grass in
the chicken-yard is as carefully cut and rolled, as a lawn
can be ; but this is where feather-footed exhibition birds
are kept.

The house itself will best take the form of a long <ind
rather narrow shed. It need not be more than eight or ten
feet wide, and any additional ground space had better be
put into the length than the breadth, as there is in this way
a larger frontage for the sun to play upon. Where it can
be done, we prefer the slope of the roof to be to the back ;
the chief objection to this being, that if the back wall of the

66 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

house is of brick or stone, and only the height of the roof
there, the roof itself presents a large amount of space for
the north and east winds to play upon, so that unless it be
very substantial the house will be greatly chilled in conse-
quence. If the back wall is higher than the roof, then a
spout will be needed to carry off the rain ; and the joint
between the roof and wall will have to be very well made, or
the water, and snow especially, will find its way through, and
thus make the inside of the house damp. Another object in
having the house this shape, is, that nearly all the front — that
is from the roof to within a foot of the floor — should be of
glass, the same as in an ordinary green house ; for, by this
means, the birds inside will receive benefit from the sun,
though it may shine only for a moment or two, and at
the same time be effectually protected from the weather
outside, no matter what it may be. Even on a winter's day,
when there is no sun at all, a house facing the south, having a
glass front, with a substantial back wall, will be many
degrees warmer than one facing the other way; and birds
will be quite comfortable in it, whilst they would be chilled
and miserable in the other. If it is not thought advisable
to have the slope to the back, but the other way, then the
front must be of glass, as already stated ; and it will be as
well to have glass windows (about three feet square) in the
roof, at the lowest part of it, divided by, say, three feet
of the roof itself, so that in a house twelve feet long
there would be two windows in the roof. If the house
faces south, a window can be inserted in each end, near
the front ; if south-east, in the western end only ; and if
south-west, in the eastern end only. Portions of the front
of the house should be made to open, so that in fine weather
the birds can get in and out quite easily. A large door will,
of course, be wanted ; and it will be worth the extra cost
to have water spouting put round the roof, as thus the drip-

Defence against Rats. 6 J

pings from the same will not fall on to the birds, nor yet
saturate the ground in front of the house.

The floor of the house should be dug out to a considerable
depth, especially if the soil is at all clayey in its nature,
and filled in, first with a few inches of rubble stones, and
then levelled up with dry sand. If rats are troublesome
they must be guarded against, or they will make great
havoc with the chicks, as we have known them carry off fifty
— even taking birds from under the hens — within a very few
days. Two most effectual plans can be adopted, either of
which will prove a sure protection. One is to get a large
number of bottles, or thick glass of any kind, and break them
up into moderate sized pieces, so that the rubble stones will
be almost covered. The other is to get some very strong wire
netting, not larger than three-quarter inch mesh, and lay
this over the stones, bringing it up the sides of the house
above the ground. Either of these must be done before the
sand is put on, which can then be spread on as before des-
cribed, and a sure preventive will be provided against the
destructive rodents. The wire netting will only last about
three or four years, as it then gets rotten ; but the glass
will not be affected in that way, and is probably both
cheapest and best. A floor made in this way, supposing
that the sand is about twelve to eighteen inches in depth,
is warm, clean, and not easily contaminated, but it will
require to be raked over every morning and all droppings
removed, to be dug over twice or thrice each season, and be
renewed every year or two. Sand is, however, inexpensive
in most places, and hence there need be no bar to its use.

The hatching boxes and coops are placed on the sand
(these are described in the chapters on hatching and
rearing), and it is well to have a shelf at the back of
the house, say about 2J or 3 feet above the ground, under
which the boxes and coops, can be placed ; this shelf can be

68 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

used for many purposes, such as for an extra row of hatching
boxes, for a row of pens, if exhibition is to be attempted, and
for surplus birds, or for a place upon which to keep coops
and other things, when not in use. The size of the house
is a question which must not be ignored. For a yard
where a couple of hundred chicks are to be reared, that is,
if many early ones are required, it should be twenty-four
feet long by ten feet wide. In height it should be seven
feet at the highest point, sloping down to three or four
feet at the lowest part of the roof. If made of wood it must
be kept well whitewashed inside, and painted or tarred out-
side, and have proper arrangements for ventilation. As the
house will probably be needed in bad weather, the ventila-
ting traps should be made to open and close, as suggested
in the chapter on Building Poultry Houses. This done, the
chicken house will be all ready for its inmates.

Choice of Breeds. 69

CHAPTER IX.

THE KIND OF FOWLS TO KEEP.

Choice of Breeds — Errors in Selection— Cross and pure bred Fowls — Breeds to
be chosen — Confinement or Liberty — Hardy Breeds — Non-sitting Breeds —
Table Fowls Sitters and Mothers — General utility Fowls.

Before commencing to describe the many varieties of fowls,
it is necessary that we should show what kinds should be
kept by different persons. Success in poultry keeping
means, not only the proper feeding and management of
the birds, but the selection of a breed that is suitable to the
place where they are to be kept. In addition to this, the
question of what is most in demand must be taken into
consideration, for in poultry keeping, as in every other pur-
suit, opportunities must control circumstances, and circum-
stances adapt themselves as far as possible to opportunities.
It would be folly for any one to select a breed that is most
suitable for table purposes, in a place where eggs are wanted
and chickens at a discount, or, on the other hand, to keep
laying fowls, where chickens are sought for most of all and
eggs very plentiful. And it is equally foolish to rear birds of
no breed whatever, which, having no special characteristics,
are neither suitable for one purpose or the other. This
is a most important matter, and, as an illustration of the
mistakes often made in this way, we may mention that we
once knew a poultry farm commenced under most favourable

70 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

auspices, situated within a short distance of a large manu-
facturing town, where eggs could be sold in any numbers at
high rates. The ground laid out for the farm was in many
respects very suitable, and the houses and runs designed
with a considerable amount of skill and foresight. The owner,
however, who was thus careful in almost everything else,
suddenly became negligent when he began to stock his yards,
and, instead of buying a few birds of a good laying breed and
breeding from them as many layers as he required, he went
into the market and bought some hundreds of hens, paying
no regard whatever to age or breed. It is true that he got
them at a less rate than he could have bought pure bred stock,
and he began to get returns from the sale of produce at once,
which he could not have done had he bred his stock. But
the returns were miserably small, the bulk of the hens soon
wanted to sit, and more hens were bought in order to supply
the demand for eggs, disease crept in through overcrowding,
and the balance-sheet showed a very decided margin on the
wrong side. Disheartened and disgusted, the owner soon
turned up the whole affair, a sadder, a poorer, though
perhaps not a wiser man. Such instances as these could be
multiplied to almost any extent, and it has probably been
more due to want of knowledge or thought, that the idea has
taken root that poultry-keeping does not pay

There is an idea very prevalent, that cross-bred poultry
are much more profitable to keep than pure bred ones, and,
whilst there can be no question that it is a decided advantage
to cross certain breeds one with another, in order to obtain
specific results, that is, of course, if the crossing is scien-
tifically and skilfully performed, having an end in view, this
is altogether different to the breeding of mongrels, which is
so common. In the former case there is method, in the
latter there is none, and it is to this indiscriminate crossing
that we owe the present degenerate races of farmyard or barn-

Crossing of Breed. Ji

door fowls, small, subject to disease, poor as layers, equally
as useless on the table, and certainly neither profitable nor
creditable to the owner. The first cross may be useful, if
properly made, but, it has been found as the experience of
many, that if these are bred from, the progeny deteriorates,
both in fecundity and size with every generation. This is a
matter deserving fuller consideration, which shall be given at
the proper time ; but, we have mentioned it now, so that it
may be understood that when we speak of cross-bred fowls,
we mean the first cross only. Others we shall designate by
the only term they deserve — mongrels. The basis of every
yard should be pure-bred stock, but where there is room,
these should only be used for breeding layers or table fowls.
If only a few can be kept for home consumption, then we
should advise that crossing be not attempted, but only pure-
bred birds kept, unless there is some means of getting the
cross-bred ones at a reasonable price, with the certainty that
they are as represented.

Perhaps the consideration we must deal with first of all, is
the kind ol soil upon which the birds are to be kept, as this
will have a great deal to do with the kinds of birds that can be
kept thereon. Any birds can be kept on a dry, sandy, chalk,
or gravel soil, upon which they will do well ; but there are
many breeds which never thrive where the ground is cold,
damp, or clayey. On wet, low-lying lands, we should
strongly urge that no poultry be kept at all, except it be
ducks or geese. These will do well in such places, and as
there is always a demand for water-fowl, and at good prices,
a considerable profit can be made where fowls would
entail a heavy loss. We regard duck breeding as one of
the most profitable portions of poultry keeping, and are
surprised that more attention is not paid to it. Upwards of
$100,000 is paid annually to the cottagers in the vicinity of
Aylesbury, England, for ducklings, and they have no more

72 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

advantages or opportunities than are to be found in many
other places.

As we have already stated, any breed can be kept on a
dry, sandy, chalk or gravel soil, and those who have this ad-
vantage are unlimited in their choice of a breed. But on
the clay this choice becomes at once restricted, and we should
advise that in such a place the following breeds be altogether
avoided ; — Dorkings, Spanish, Polish, Creves, and La Fl&che ;
and, we may add, that it will be found Minorcas, Leghorns,
Houdans, Brahmas, Langshans, Game, Andalusians, Ply-
mouth Bocks, Wyandottes, Orpingtons, and Cochins will be
best able to stand such a soil.

The next point to be settled is whether the birds are to
be kept in confinement or given their liberty, because this is
a very important consideration, as there are some breeds
which never thrive unless they can have a large amount of
space given to them. The worst of all in this respect is the
Hamburgh, which scarcely ever does well in a confined
space, and after it we must place the lighter varieties of the
Spanish tribe. The hardier of these, such as Minorcas and
Leghorns, are often successfully kept in small runs, but of
course thrive better when they can have a reasonable
amount of liberty. We need hardly say that every breed
does much better when it has freedom than when cooped
up, and it is a mistake to expect eggs to be very plentiful
without liberty, except by very great care and attention ;
and hardy chickens are scarcely to be hoped for in the small
miserable pens so often devoted to breeding stock. Those
who wish to keep about half-a-dozen fowls, simply to supply
eggs for their own tables, may do so in a small run, but they
must not feed them too well, or internal fat will ensue, and
this will stop the laying as well as bring on disease. The
birds so confined should never be bred from, and it will be
found advisable to kill them off when about twenty-seven

Laying Breeds, 75

months old. For such places as these we should recommend
Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Plymouth Rocks, or Wyan-
dottes, the first three of which are non-sitters.

The majority of poultry-keepers have eggs as their
primary object, and where this is the case they will do
well to select one of the non-sitting breeds, for, not only are
these the best layers, but they give no trouble in the way of
wanting to incubate. Many are the sorrows of a poultry-
keeper whose hens want to sit when he desires eggs, and
it is hard work conquering a determined bird of this kind.
These non-sitting breeds are Hamburghs, Minorcas, Leg-
horns, Scotch Greys, Redcups, Andalusians, Houdans, Span-
ish, and Polish, which are here given in rotation according
to their laying powers. The Hamburghs lay small eggs, too
small for ordinary market purposes, and the Spanish and
Polish are rather delicate, so we should recommend that
the choice be restricted to the other six varieties, which,
whether they be kept pure or crossed will be found first-rate
layers of good-sized eggs. They are also very hardy, and can
be kept successfully in nearly every place, unless it is really
a wet one. We do not recommend to have more than two
laying breeds, but where there is sufficient room we should
certainly advise two, as they can then be crossed one with
the other, if that is thought desirable.

Coming now to those breeds of domestic poultry which are
specially characterized for their table qualities, and which
should be kept where there is a demand for dressed fowls, for
in time quality must tell, we cannot but place at the head
the Game variety, though they are rather too small for
ordinary market purposes. Then come in rotation La
Fleche, Dorkings, Creve-coeurs, Houdans, Langshans, Ply-
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons. These are
much larger than the Game, and will be found to excel any
other breeds for quality of flesh. The Game crossed with

y6 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

Dorking has been stated to have the smallest amount of
offal, to be very deep in flesh on the breast, and is a cross
which can be highly recommended.

In all large yards it will be necessary, unless the artificial
method of hatching is adopted, to have a sitting breed, and
as the table varieties are nearly all good sitters, one or two
can be chosen to serve both purposes. Some breeds do not
make good mothers, and others, such as the Cochin and
Brahma, though the maternal instinct is very great in them,
are so clumsy that there is great danger of their crushing
both eggs and chickens. The best for this purpose are Dor-
kings, Games, Dominiques, Plymouth Rocks, Langshans,
Wyandottes, and Orpingtons, or amongst cross-breeds the
Brahma-Dorkings. Thus there will be no difficulty in select-
ing a breed, which will prove first-rate mothers and good
table birds.

In more limited yards, where there is not accommodation
for more than one or two breeds, and it is desirable to have
such as are both good layers, table fowls and sitters, we
should recommend Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, Wyandottes,
or Orpingtons, or if sitters are not required, then there is no
better breed for the purpose than the Houdan, which has
been described as " one of the best fowls for ordinary pur-
poses that we possess." We have thus rapidly shown the
varieties of useful fowls, with the qualities for which they
are noted, but in describing the breeds themselves we shall
enter more fully into the questions here only touched upon.

,

Andalusians. 79

CHAPTER X.

THE BREEDS OP POULTRY.

Andalusians — Aseels — Bantams — Brahmas — Cochins — Dominiques — Dork-
ings—French— Game — Hamburghs — Indian Game — Langshans — Leg-
horns — Malays — Minorcas — Orpingtons — Plymouth Rocks — Polish —
Scotch Greys — Spanish — Silkies — Wyandottes .

We shall now proceed to briefly describe the various breeds,
together with their leading characteristics, so that it will be
easy to decide which varieties will be most suitable to thp
place where they are to be kept, and to the requirements o\
the poultry keeper. We shall put them in alphabetical order
for easy reference, and do not intend to go into long de-
scriptions, which can only puzzle the reader, but will content
ourselves with a few particulars. Nor do we think it
necessary to do much more than mention those breeds that
are purely fancy, for, though perhaps very beautiful, they
are of no use for commercial purposes. The illustrations
of the various breeds we give are very correct representations,
from which the reader will have little difficulty in recog-
nizing them when seen. We would, however, advise the
reader who wishes to see for himself the various breeds, to
visit some poultry show, as he will then be able to verify
and confirm his own ideas on them.

Andalusians.

This is one of the leading varieties of the Spanish group,
and is sometimes known by the name of Blue Spanish. The

80 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

appearance of all this group has been well described as fol-
lows : — A close, compact, smallish- sized body, placed upon
legs of a good length ; the neck rather long, with a fine
head ; a large, upright-single comb in the cock, and in the
hen also large, but falling over on one side : and the cocks
have large sickle-shaped tails. Of course the colour of
plumage, legs, &c, are different in the several varieties, but
the general appearance is as here described.

In Andalusians the plumage is slate-coloured, but on the
cock's neck and back it is dark purple or nearly black. The
birds are of a good size, are prolific layers of large white
eggs, are precocious as chickens, very hardy, bear confine-
ment well, are fair table birds when young, can be kept on
all fairly dry soils, and are non- sitters. In selecting birds
attention should be paid to size, to erectness of carriage ;
and any white on the face, which ought to be red, should be
avoided, as this indicates a cross with the black Spanish.

ASEELS.

These are Indian game cocks, used in that country for
fighting purposes. They are good in flesh, but very poor
layers, and so savage that they are not to be recommended,
and, therefore, we need not say more respecting them-

Bantams.

The number of varieties of Bantams is very great, and
*as we anticipated in our first edition, the list is con-
stantly increasing by the addition of new breeds. As a
rule they are simply small specimens, though in some
cases some differences can be discerned. We only give
illustrations of two varieties, the white and the Japanese,
as all Bantams are purely " fancy " fowls, being popular

Brahmas. 83

chiefly because of their beauty, and that they can be kept in
places where large fowls cannot, as well as from the fact
that they make capital pets. In the Game section there
are all the varieties known in large game, and in the other
section we find Black and White Kose-combed, Gold and Sil-
ver (or laced) Sebrights, Japanese, Cuckoos, Pekins, Brah-
mas, Malays, &c, but as they have no commercial value we
need not do more than mention their names.

Brahmas.

One of the most prominent of the breeds of poultry is the
Brahma, and from an exhibitor's, or a fancier's point of view,
once the most valuable. Two hundred and fifty dollars was
no uncommon price for a really first-class bird, and eggs from
certain strains were almost literally worth their weight in
gold ; but there has been a great decline in recent years.
It is undoubtedly a manufactured breed, and for some years
there was a great controversy as to its origin. At the first
it was not very attractive in appearance ; but this was in time
remedied, and of late years it has been so carefully and
skilfully bred, that its characteristics are firmly fixed and
clearly defined. It is chiefly valuable for its great size and
hardiness, and for laying well in winter, although the eggs
are often small and disproportionate to the size of the fowls
themselves, but they are rich in quality, next in this respect
to cochins. They are buff in color, and with many purchas-
ers this is a decided attraction.

^ Brahmas cannot be regarded as first-class table fowls, so
far as quality of flesh is concerned, having the flesh laid
more on to the legs than the breast, which is always a dis-
advantage ; but when they are young they are by no means
to be despised, especially when their size is considered. For
a family fowl they are unequalled, and a large Brahma

84 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

chicken is sufficient for the dinner of a moderate sized
family. For crossing purposes they are very useful, when
table fowls are in view, and we shall have occasion to recom-
mend them for that purpose.

There are two varieties of Brahmas, the dark and the
light, of which we give three illustrations. Both of these are
alike, save in colour. The shape of a good bird is most pleas-
ing, as they are well-proportioned and very handsome ; the
heavily-feathered legs, the deep massive bodies, the neat
heads, with small pea-combs, all combine to complete the
effect. They are capital sitters and mothers — though when
old, rather clumsy and heavy for this purpose, are very docile,
can be kept on almost any soil that is not absolutely always
wet, are fairly good as layers, and whilst they should have a
fair amount of liberty they do not require very extensive
runs, and can always be kept within bounds by a three-foot
fence.

Cochins.

At one time this was the most popular breed of all, and
there are many now living who can remember the Cochin
mania of thirty years ago. Fabulous sums were then
given for both eggs and chickens, sums which are not ex-
ceeded by the high prices now obtained, and poultry shows
were at that time crowded by the fashion and beauty of the
period, and were mines of wealth to the promoters. It
was expected that the hens would lay two or three eggs
a day, and many persons invested their money in them in
the hope of thus making a fortune. But the breed was
never worth the fuss made about it, and soon subsided
into the background, so far as its commercial qualities were
concerned. Cochins somewhat resemble Brahmas in shape
and appearance, but have more abundant feather, and are
rather rounder. They are fairly good as winter layers, but

COCHIN COOK.

Cochins, 89

in the spring and summer are so continually broody that
very few eggs indeed are obtained from them. In fact, they
are the most inveterate sitters of all fowls, and on this
account cannot be recommended ; for sit they will, and when
they will, choosing all kinds of unlikely articles if they
cannot obtain eggs. They are clumsy, and often break
the eggs, or crush the chickens given to them. They are
very hardy and easy to rear, can be kept on any soil, are very
docile, but make poor table birds, except so far as size is
concerned, having coarse flesh and large bones. We give
portraits of a fairly good pair of buffs, though the best exhi
bition birds are now bred higher in the tail and with more
leg and footfeather than is here represented. There are four
colours — buff, partridge, black, and white — all of which are
very handsome, and look well in a show pen, or on a lawn,
where appearance and not utility is looked for. But as com-
mercial fowls they are of no use whatever.

Dominiques.

These are birds of American origin, and resemble Cuckoo
Dorkings in shape and in some other respects, but have a
rose comb. They have yellow legs, are very hardy, will thrive
on almost auy soil, are capital layers, fairly good table birds,
good sitters and mothers, making altogether a most useful
breed for general purposes. They have not, however, come
into anything like general favour, and therefore are not
very easy to obtain, but would, we think, amply repay any
one who took them up.

Dorkings.

Dorkings and Games are, perhaps, the oldest and best
preserved of all the English pure-bred fowls. The general

90 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

characteristics are, a square -shaped body, with a quiet stately
carriage, the breast being put well forward. Some varieties
have a single, and others a rose comb, but in all cases the
head is large, yet neat. The wattles are large and pendant ;
the neck is short, taper and with full hackle ; the body is large
and deep when viewed sideways, almost forming a square ; the
breastbone is deep, the back broad, the tail full, and the thighs
large and full ; the legs are white in colour, straight, strong,
and clean, have five toes ; and the whole frame is large.
Full-grown cocks weigh 101b. to 111b., and hens 81b. to
10 1b.

This breed is the old-fashioned Sussex fowl, and' takes its
name from the town of the same name in that county. It
has long held the pre-eminent position among English table
fowls, and deservedly so, for its white flesh, deep breasts,
white legs, and light bones make it one of the best fowls
that can be placed upon the table. There are four kinds of
Dorkings — white, silver grey, cuckoo, and coloured — all of
which are equally good for table purposes, the last named
being the largest. In England great size is attained, some
cockerels weighing 81b. to 111b., and adult birds 101b. to
141b., which, unlike some other breeds, is not made up of
heavy bones, thick shanks, and fleshy thighs. The great
drawback to this breed is its tenderness. Whilst the birds
can stand any amount of cold, as is proved by their being so
largely bred in the north of Scotland, they cannot thrive in a
damp place ; and, consequently, unless the ground is of a
dry, porous nature, some other breed should be chosen.
Good housing and feeding will do much, but even these will
not be sufficient on a heavy clay soil, which is always fatal.
All Dorkings have five toes, and, as is generally found, this
characteristic is generally accompanied by a tendency to
"bumble foot," which is an enlargement of the joints there.
To obviate this as far as possible, the birds should have low

o
g

French. 93

perches and soft floors and runs. Dorkings are not very
good as layers, being table fowls first of all.

French.

The French people have devoted considerably more atten-
tion to poultry than the English have, — at least so far
as the economic qualities are concerned, and as a result
their fowls are much superior in commercial characteristics,
with one or two exceptions, to the English breeds. In all
cases they have regarded egg laying and quality of meat
before mere feather, but at the same time have bred to
certain general standards, and avoided the production of
mongrels, which has not been the case either in America
or England. Many of the French breeds are remark-
able, both for size, quality of flesh, and depth of breast,
and, as those of our readers who have been in Paris can
testify, are prepared in a much superior manner to the ones
at home, and look much better upon the table. Upon this
aspect of the question we shall have more to say later on,
when our remarks will be more appropriate. Unfortunately,
nearly all the French breeds have dark legs, and, therefore,
are objected to in many places where there is a prejudice
in favour of white ones. But we hope this prejudice will
soon die out, and were it not for poulterers and cooks, it
would have died a natural death already. They are the
culprits in the matter, and if their influence was being
rightly Used in favour of quality and not mere appearance,
their customers would very soon be reconciled to the change,
for the legs, in spite of all that may be believed, are no
criterion as to the colour of the flesh. We shall now
briefly describe the chief French breeds, as known in this
country.

The Houdan is one of the most useful breeds we have,

94 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

and is now thoroughly acclimatized here. It is espe-
cially worthy of the attention of those who have not a
very dry or warm soil, but who desire a good layer, and,
at the same time, a plump, large table fowl ; or of those
who have to fight against the black leg prejudice, and
yet from the nature of their place cannot keep Dorkings.
The breed has undoubtedly been produced in the first in-
stance by crossing, but the same can be said of many of
the other breeds, and it is no disadvantage to it, as it
certainly breeds pure, and is one of the best farmer's or
cottager's fowls we have. As will be seen from the illus-
tration we give, the head has a small crest ; the plumage is
black and white spangled, the legs are pinky in colour, the
fifth toe is present, as in Dorkings, the form is bulky and
the size large. It bears confinement well, can be kept on
any soil, is very hardy, lays well, its flesh is all that can be
desired, and it is a non-sitter. We should not, however,
advise purchasers to take birds simply because they have won
in the show pen , but get them from some place where Houdans
have been kept for years, and bred chiefly for economic qualities.
They are then most valuable, and as Mr. Tegetmeier says,
they " may certainly be regarded as the Dorkings of France.
Large, heavy, short-legged, five-toed fowls, with small
light bone, a remarkable absence of offal, and with irregularly
speckled or mottled plumage, they strongly recall to mind
the old-fashioned coloured Dorking, as it existed before
any attention had been directed to uniformity of feathering
by the poultry shows. Their merits as table fowl are of
the highest excellence. No pure bred chickens mature with
greater, or perhaps with as great, a degree of rapidity ; they
feather early, are extremely hardy, and consequently easily
reared. The old birds are robust, and the eggs which are
numerous, are remarkable as being almost invariably fertile."
Of all the French breeds La Fleche stands at the head for

hi

f

«

La Fleche. 99

table qualities, and for the great feast of Mardi gras, held
in Paris on Shrove Tuesday, it is no uncommon thing for
one hundred francs to be given for a pair of these birds,
weighing 101b. each, plucked and dressed. The flesh is beau-
tifully white, and there is plenty of depth on the breast. They
feed well, but, unfortunately, have been found in America to
be somewhat delicate, at least in damp situations, and where
they have not full liberty. It was formerly thought that they
were too delicate for England; but in the year 1882, Mr.
W. B. Tegetmeier, when over in Paris, was so struck with
the table qualities of these fowls that he purchased some
for his own use. These he placed in his grounds at Finchley,
on the north side of London, where the bed of clay is one
of the heaviest in the neighbourhood of the Metropolis.
The birds were given full liberty, and his experience has
been that they are as hardy as any other breed when so
kept. In confinement they are undoubtedly delicate, but
with freedom can be kept by almost any one. They are
large, tall, well-shaped birds, with glossy, green-black
plumage : have red faces, white ears, and a horned comb,
the last of which does not add to their beauty, giving them
an almost satanic appearance. They are clean legged, the
legs being dark in colour, are non-sitters, and in France
are specially bred for table qualities.

The Creve-Coeur is a large bird, with metallic black plumage,
but of a lower, squarer build than La Fleche. It is also
much more attractive in appearance ; its head is surmounted
by a handsome crest, which, in young hens especially, is
beautifully round and pleasing. The legs are also black
but the flesh is almost equal to the best English or French
fowl. It is hardy, easily reared on any moderately dry
soil, is a non- sitter, and a fairly good layer, but the eggs
are small. It is necessary to have a good shelter for
Creves, so that they can be protected in wet or cold weather,

IOO Profitable Poultry Keeping,

as they are rather liable to colds and roup if the crests get
wet ; but for this they would be oftener kept than they are.

There are, in addition to the breeds already named, several
others, such as La Bresse and Courtes Pattes, but as these
have no special characteristics more than we have already
named in the others, and are not very easily obtained in this
country, we need not do more than mention them here.

Game.

These are about the oldest of the pure English breeds,
and have been bred for many generations with great care and
skill. In olden times cock-fighting was a pastime almost
national, and was indulged in by both rich and poor. Game
fowls were bred for this purpose, courage and endurance
being most sought after, and these were combined with great
beauty of plumage. Some of the highest men of England
thought it no dishonour to breed fowls for this purpose ; and
important " mains" were regarded with as great interest as
are some of the chief race meetings now — this too within
the memory of man, for there are many living now, and not
old men either, who were accustomed to indulge in this cruel
pastime. In modern times a higher standard of taste has
done away with cock-fighting, except such as is carried on
secretly ; but the change has not spoiled this splendid race
of fowls, though it is much changed from the old fight-
ing days. Unfortunately, however, the pugilistic nature
remains, and for this cause most people are unable to keep
game birds pure. For crossing purposes, as we shall after-
wards see, they can be utilised ; and, as all kinds of games
are fair layers, splendid sitters, attentive mothers, have the
finest eating flesh of any race of domestic fowl, are very
hardy, easy to rear, and can be kept on any soil when at
liberty, if this crossing is judiciously done, these characterise

I

Hamburghs. 103

tics can be larg3ly retained, without the fear of constant
warfare.

The chief kinds of Games are the black-breasted reds,
brown-breasted reds, duckwings and piles, all of which are
very handsome ; and we cannot wonder at the popular-
ity of the breed among those who have opportunities for
keeping it, considering its great beauty, endurance and
pluck.

The prices realized for high-class show specimens are
very great, and over five hundred dollars has been paid
for a single cock two or three times during the last few
years. Of course good birds can be obtained at reasonable
prices ; but no one should attempt to keep this variety
unless he has plenty of room, and, for those whose object
is profit, we can scarcely recommend it except for cross-
ing purposes.

Hamburghs.

First and foremost among all laying breeds of fowls stand
the Hamburghs, for they are undoubtedly the most prolific
layers wo have, and it is no unusual thing for hens to lay
200 to 230 eggs per annum. Unfortunately, however, their
eggs are small, and the fowls do not bear confinement very
well. They have, from their great beauty, come to be regarded
as a fancier's fowl, pure and simple ; and whether we look at
the cock, with his neat head, beautiful plumage, close com-
pact shape, and sweeping tail, ornamented by a well shaped
rose comb, and pure ear lobes, or at the hen, neat and saucy
as she appears, rich in colour and sprightly in carriage, we
cannot but be attracted by them. As show birds there are
five varieties now most recognized, namely, gold pencilled,
silver pencilled, gold spangled, silver spangled, and black.
Of all these the blacks are the most useful, they being much

104 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

larger than the others in body, lay larger eggs, and, either
alone, or crossed with some breed that will increase the size of
the egg, such as any one of the Spanish varieties, will be found
profitable, if plenty of room can be given to them. Hamburghs
must have space ; if wired-in, a ten-foot fence is necessary
to restrain them ; but on farms where they are not at all
restricted they will do very well. It must, of course, be under-
stood that we are speaking of where they are kept in large
numbers, when we say that they must have room. A few
birds can easily be kept in a moderately confined place, as is
done in hundreds of instances, and some of the very best
birds bred every year, both in this and other varieties, are so
bred, in places where the fowls have little more than moving
room. When they have plenty of room most of the varieties
of Hamburghs are hardy, easy to rear, and, as they are non-
sitters, make most useful fowls, where the size of egg laid is
of less importance than the number.

As already stated, the blacks are the best for commercial
purposes, and the silver spangles come next in point of size
and hardiness. In selecting such birds for stock purposes,
mere show qualities, such as fineness of ear lobe and comb,
should be ignored, and size of body, good shape and liveliness
of carriage be looked for principally. The larger the fowl whe
larger the egg, as a rule, and by selection both can ?ery
materially be increased. There are other varieties besides
those named, such as red caps, creels and pheasants, which
lay good sized eggs, and can be recommended equally wtih
the blacks as useful fowls.

Langshans.

About the origin of this breed of fowls considerable con-
tention has taken place ; but we have no desire to enter here
into the controversy at all. It has only been a very few years

Langshans. 107

in America, being first introduced from China through
England and vaunted by its sponsors as an entirely new
breed ; but, as it bears some resemblance to Black Cochins as
they were at first, it is thought by many that the two breeds
are very nearly allied. There can be no question but that
they are vastly different now, resembling each other only in
colour ; for, whilst the Langshan is a splendid layer and a
capital table bird, not too determined a sitter, and a most
valuable fowl for general purposes, the other is just the
opposite of all these. The Cochin is handsomer in appearance,
but that is all. We are disposed to think the truth of the
whole matter is, that the Langshan of the present day and
the Black Cochin of forty years ago, are, if not exactly the
same, very nearly so, but that the latter has been spoiled by
the breeding for fancy points alone.

The Langshan is a large bird, standing upon somewhat
long legs, which are only very slightly feathered. It has a
single upright comb, beautiful metallic plumage, and has
much of the Cochin Y shape. In addition to the qualities
already named, it is very hardy, easily reared, can be kept on
any soil, bears confinement very well indeed, and is a most
faithful mother, but, as we have already indicated, not so
constant a sitter as is the Cochin. It is, indeed, one of the
most valuable additions to our list of fowls that has been
made of late years, and its beautiful bright plumage makes
it most attractive.

Leghorns.

This is a sub-variety of the Spanish type of birds, which
originally came from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea,
principally from Northern Italy, where it is the common
breed of the country, and is known all over the continent as
the "Italian " fowl. Leghorns were brought some years

:o8 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

ago to the United States, and their intrinsic merits soon
made them one of the most popular breeds in this country
for those poultry breeders who regard utility as of equal, if
not greater, importance than fancy points. It was from
America that Leghorns were originally taken to England ;
and although at first they were met with a great amount of
prejudice, they have gradually overcome it, and are now very
popular indeed. Originally there were but two varieties, the
white and the brown, but now there are others, the black,
the cuckoo, the pile, the darkwing, and the buff.

The chief characteristics of Leghorns are — a somewhat
large-sized single comb, with deeply cut serrations, and the
comb itself extending down over the back of the head ; long
pendant wattles, red face, with white ear lobes, yellow bill,
and clean legs of the same colour, the hackles full, and a
sweeping tail in the cocks. The body is smallish, but close
and compact, and the whole appearance sprightly and pleasing.
The comb of the hen is large, and falls over on to one side,
in a single fold. So far as colour is concerned, in the whites
it is that self colour throughout the plumage ; but in the
browns the markings are very like brown-red game, though
not quite so bright, In the cock, the hackles are golden bay,
striped with black ; the back red, each feather having a stripe
of brighter bay ; the breast rich black, standing out full in
front ; the wings large, of a dark red, striped across with bars
of bay and green-black ; the sickles long, green and black in
colour ; and the legs yellow, as we have already stated. In
the hen the breast is a light salmon brown ; the neck hackle
yellow, striped with brown ; the back brown, with slight pen-
cilling thereon ; and the action sprightly and graceful. The
blacks are self colour, and the cuckoos, black and white
mixed, the piles and darkwings are as in game, and the buffs
have yellow coloured feathers.

BROWN LEGHORNS.

Leghorns. in

Leghorns are splendid layers of fair-sized eggs, the whites
being both the best layers and producing the largest eggs.
They are very precocious and hardy (we have known pullets
commence to lay at fifteen weeks old, and heard of an instance
where the second generation was bred within five months),
bear confinement very well, and can be kept almost on any
soil, but they are not good as table birds. They are small
eaters, and, when at liberty, splendid foragers. For those
who wish to produce eggs for iffiask'i;, it is one of the best
breeds that can be kept.

Orpingtos esI

This breed has been manufactured out of the Langshan,
the Plymouth Kock, and the Minorcas, owing most to the
first named variety. In fact, it has been called a clean-legged
Langshan. There are both single and rose-combed varieties,
and the breed has a host of admirers for its splendid eco-
nomic properties.

Malays.

The Malay is of East Indian origin, and was doubtless at
first bred chiefly for fighting purposes. As a commercial
fowl it is not to be recommended, for it is not only a poor
layer, but also very quarrelsome. It can be used to cross
with the Dorking for table purposes, as the meat is very
richly flavoured ; but, except for this, it is not worth keeping.
It is tall, gaunt, and almost ugly, with huge shanks and
^bones, and a coarse head.

Minorcas.

These form another variety of the Spanish section, and
have been carefully bred for very many years in the south-

112 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

western districts of England, outside of which, until some
years ago, they were scarcely known. But now their great
value as layers has made them very popular indeed all over
that country, and they have become first favorites in this
as well. Nor can we wonder at it, for their great fecundity,
the large eggs they produce, their precocity and hardiness,
their adaptability for all soils and places, whether con-
fined or otherwise, makes them one of the most useful
breeds we possess, and being non-sitters we must give
Minorcas the first position among all the laying breeds ol
poultry.

The Minorcas are in many places known by the name of
"Red-faced Spanish," and are the nearest, in shape and
appearance, to the Black Spanish of all varieties of fowls.
It is probable that the two races were originally one, and
that the faces then were red, as the Minorcas now have them ;
but the Spanish have been bred with white faces, and spoiled
by too fine breeding. The shape is not unlike the Leghorn,
but the comb is much larger, and there is the red face, the
white ear lobes, and the clean legs also. There are two
colours, the blacks and the whites, but the latter are very little
seen, and the blacks are the ones of which we have been
speaking, being really splendid birds. Their metallic black
plumage makes them very handsome, and they are for the
same reason very suitable for keeping in towns, or in such
districts as are not over clean, from the proximity of factories
or works of any kind. As layers Minorcas are about the
best breed we have at present ; they can be kept on any soil,
either at liberty or in confinement, are capital foragers,
small eaters, and, were we about to commence keeping a
large number of fowls on a farm, we should certainly select
this as the laying breed, either alone, or to cross with some
of the other Spanish varieties.

BLACK MINORCAS.

Polish. 117

Plymouth Rocks.

This is a variety of New England manufacture, but is
nevertheless a most useful breed for general purposes,
and is wonderfully popular wherever it goes. The barred
variety are cuckoo in plumage, and resemble a Cochin
in shape more than anything else, as that variety has
doubtless had much to do in the making them. There
are three varieties barred white and black. They are
large in body, adult birds being of ten and twelve pounds
weight ; have strong yellow legs ; are very good layers,
(but the eggs are small, though very rich in flavour) ;
are capital as table birds, with a good supply of meat
on the breast ; are fairly good sitters and mothers ; very
hardy, can be kept on almost any soil, and bear con-
finement very well indeed. Throughout the United States
they are great favourites, competing with Leghorns for
first position, and are doubtless most useful for general
purposes.

Polish.

The Polish must be regarded as one of the most beautiful
of all the races of poultry, but it is more suitable as a fancy
fowl than for commercial purposes. In fact, it is not to be
recommended for the latter at all. There are four principal
varieties — the gold-spangled, the silver-spangled, the white-
crested blacks, and the buff, or chamois, all of which are very
beautiful indeed. Polish are of a medium size, with well-
shaped bodies, very rich coloured plumage in the coloured
varieties, clean legs, sweeping tails, but their chief glory is a
large globular crest which surmounts the head. The illustra-
tion which we give is representative of a good pair of white-

Il8 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

crested blacks, which is about the most striking of all the
Polish tribe. They are fairly hardy, but require to be kept
where they can have plenty of shelter in wet weather, for
they are very subject to colds and roup. They are good
layers and table birds, are non-sitters, and most suitable
in dry town runs, where they have not a great amount of
liberty.

Although not generally placed under the head of Polish,
yet as they are undoubtedly of the same origin, we now
mention the Sultan fowl, which has several points in
common with the Polish. It originally came from Turkey,
and hence its name. The size is small, the plumage is
pure white and very plentiful, the head is surmounted by a
large crest, with heavy muffs below, the hock and leg feathers
are well developed, and the birds are fairly hardy. They
are good layers and non-sitters, but cannot be regarded as
commercial fowls.

Scotch Greys.

Until a few years ago, very few of these handsome birds
were to be seen in England and almost none in America.
They have been long kept in Scotland, and the first Edin-
burgh show we ever visited was a revelation to us, for some
two or three hundred birds were there exhibited. They are
really a large, hardy, cuckoo Dorking without the fifth toe,
and are capital layers, generally non-sitters ; are first-rate
table birds, hardy, and can be reared on almost any soil,
though they do best in dry places. Having white or mottled
legs, they can be used both for a chicken trade and as layers,
and their economic qualities will doubtless insure them a
welcome in many places, where they have heretofore been
unknown, and where a hardy and large fowl is specially
needed.

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Silkies. 1 2 1

Black Spanish.

This breed was at one time the most popular of all, and
certainly merited everything that could be said in its favour,
as it was a small eater, a prolific layer of large eggs, and bore
confinement very well. But that was before it had been
spoiled by the attentions of the fanciers, who, by breeding for
fancy points, have almost ruined it ; we mean by the foolish
development of the white face, which has been at the
expense of its stamina and strength. It is still a good
layer, but the chickens are troublesome to rear, are very
slow in feathering, and the adult birds get through the moult
with great difficulty, and it is poor as a table bird. In a few
strains, which have not been bred for show purposes, and in
which the white face has not been unduly developed, these
failings are not so much found, and the birds have all the old
strength and value ; but these are very scarce and difficult to
obtain, and we should advise any one who wishes to keep
Spanish for profit, to cross them with the Black Minorcas, as
by this means strength will be secured, and without injury to
the laying properties. As will have been seen from what we
have said, Spanish need a warm, dry soil, and special treat-
ment during chickenhood, and the moulting season. The
plumage is bright black, the comb single (erect in the cock,
lying over in the hen, as is shown in the illustration), the face
white, the tail sweeping, and the legs black.

Silkies.

These are scarcely to be regarded as commercial fowls, but,
as they are often used for hatching other eggs, for they are
exceptionally good mothers, and as they are of great anti-
quity, they cannot be regarded as out of place here. They
are small in size, have purple coloured faces and flesh of a

122 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

similiarly dark hue, but their great peculiarity is, that their
feathers are not webbed, as are those of other fowls, but
separate, and giving the appearance of a covering of silk or
down.

Wyandottes.

The Wyandottes is another new variety of American origin,
and one which has won great favor, promising to rival all
others in popularity. It is the first large breed to carry the
Sebright lacing, for which reason it is a bird of great beauty
when in anything like perfection. The Silvers were first
introduced, but since then there have also been Golds and
Whites, the Golds being very rich in colour, and of a very
pleasing appearance. The shape is Asiatic, but the legs are
clean, and the comb is rose. It is a splendid layer, an admi-
rable table fowl, and a good sitter and mother.

i

I

Cross-bred Poultry, 12

CHAPTER Xlc

CROSS-BRED POULTRY.

Farm -yard mongrels — First Cross only to be Used — Value of CrosB-breeding—
Pure bred Fowls to be the Foundation— Sale of Eggs and Chickens — Methods
of Cross-breeding — Some Crosses— Improving present Stocks.

Considerable attention has been of late devoted to the
subject of cross-bred fowls, and the real value of crossing,
as well as the lines upon which it should go, have at last been
agreed upon. The ordinary cross-bred poultry, such as we
see on too many farms, are simply mongrels, crossed and
re-crossed ; but we do not mean these at all. When we say
cross-bred, we must be understood to refer to a cross between
two pure breeds, by which definite characteristics are to be
obtained. Therefore, in using the term cross-bred, it must
be remembered that we mean a first cross only, for if cross-
bred birds be bred from, the stock rapidly degenerates, and
loses those qualities for which the crossing had been made.
It has been advocated by some writers, that, because the first
cross is profitable, following ones must be the same ; and, in
one place, we read that poultry should be crossed " as much
as possible, as you cannot have too many breeds mixed."
This is simply nonsense, and it has been proved over and
over again, that repeated crossing is positively injurious, and
that where this system is practised, the birds get smaller in
size, weaker in body, and less prolific. Crossing can only be
beneficial when it is conducted with skill and foresight, both

126 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

of which can easily be attained, by any one having ordinary
common sense. If crosses are made without relation to the
characteristics of the birds so used, or without due apprecia-
tion of what is wanted in the progeny, or, again, simply made
for the sake of crossing, then the result can hardly fail to be
unsatisfactory.

It will be asked by those who have large numbers of fowls,
which they keep for the sake of profit only, and who do not
care or who have no desire for pure-bred fowls as such, whether
it is better to keep the birds pure or crossed. We certainly
prefer the cross-bred birds for profit, but there must be pure-
bred fowls to supply the stocks of layers or table birds, and
these will have to be mated together in a systematic manner.
There are many advantages to be obtained by crossing, the
first, and perhaps principal, of which is the greater hardiness
of the birds so produced. The tendency of all high-class
breeding is to develop some point or quality, which is generally
secured only by the sacrifice of others, and thus, as these
points or qualities are by no means general, a certain amount of
in-breeding must take place ; or, the strength and constitution
of the animals are regarded as minor matters, and the result
is a weakening of the system. A first cross remedies this,
but, strange to say, the second generation begins to go back
again ; and the promiscuous crossing and in-breeding among
farm-yard fowls is undoubtedly the great cause of their de-
terioration. There is a natural law f*>r this, but we have not
space here to enter into the details ot it. Another great ad-
vantage is, that certain qualities can be bred for, which are
only to be got in pure-bred stock after many years of labour,
and not even then if feather is made the chief point. For
instance, Leghorns are good layers, but only moderate table
birds. To remedy the latter defect, without injury to the
laying powers, if present outward characteristics were to be
preserved, would be a long and weary taok ; but in one year,

8ILS.IB8.

Cross Breeding. 129

by means of a judicious cross, fowls can be obtained that
will retain the good laying qualities of Leghorns, and yet be
vastly superior for table purposes. Of course, the distinctive
colour and shape would be largely done away with, and,
therefore, if this were objected to, such a cross should not
be made. As we have already said, there must be a certain
amount of in-breeding among pure-bred stock, which natur-
ally weakens the system, and reacts upon the commercial
properties of the fowl. For profitable purposes, therefore, we
strongly recommend cross-breeds, as they are much superior
to the pure breeds, if properly mated. Hap-hazard mating
of birds will do no good, but rather the reverse, and there
must be an object in view in all that is done, or more harm
than good will certainly be the result.

There is yet another advantage in having pure-bred fowls
to breed from, and that is, there are many persons all over
the country who have room for only a few fowls, say, half-a-
dozen to a score, and who only wish to supply their own
tables with eggs, and, in a few cases, with a chicken now and
again. Many of these have not space sufficient to allow
them to go in for breeding, and others only want to rear a
very few chickens every year, say, one or two batches at
roost. Such persons do not care for showing, but at the
same time like to have pure-bred fowls. They are generally
willing to give two dollars for a good cockerel, and two-thirds
as much for a nice-looking pullet ; or, when they take a fancy
to rear a few chickens, they prefer to obtain a few eggs from
another yard, and will pay two or three dollars for a setting
of eggs. There are some poultry yards where hundreds of
settings of eggs, and hundreds of birds, are sold in this way
every year ; and we do not see why every farmer who goes in
for poultry should not do a little in this way also. Of course,
if every one did this, each one would make less out of it,
than those who have it all to themselves now do; but, as there

130 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

is always a demand for birds to provide a change of blood, and
there are probably fifty poultry-keepers, who have only a few
fowls for their own household purposes, to every farmer who
could go in for the business we have mentioned, there would
even then be plenty of room for all ; and we may reasonably
suppose that the number of small poultry-keepers would in-
crease as rapidly as the larger ones, if, indeed, not more
rapidly. Not only is the demand for pure-bred stock greater
for this purpose than for cross-breds, but the prices are
much greater also. There is always a pleasure in looking at
birds which have a decided individuality of their own, at
least, where the keeping of them is made a hobby; and it is
surprising how much greater pride is taken in fowls of this
kind than is taken in mongrels. Cross-bred fowls will sell
for very little more than killing prices, and their eggs, for
hatching purposes, will only realize market prices per dozen ;
whilst pure-bred ones, even though the parents in each case
may be of the same family, will bring twice and often three
times the money. Thus it will be seen that the keeping
of a stock of pure-bred birds is the best paying system of
the two.

When commencing, the best plan is to purchase one or
two pens of pure-bred fowls, if there are none that can be
used for the purpose already in the yard, the cocks to be of
a breed that will help the qualities of the hens. Each pen
will require to be kept by itself, and should have a good run,
or perfect freedom, as exercise has much to do with the hardi-
ness of the chickens. If the houses are placed a good
distance from each other, there will be very little danger of
intermixing. Only the eggs from these pens should be
hatched, and (calculating that half will be cockerels) in
sufficient numbers to completely stock the yard with laying
hens in the autumn, when the present stock of hens, if any,
can be fattened and killed off, just before they go into the

LAOBD WYANDOTTE 006£t

LAOED WYANDOTTE HEN.

Desirable Cross Breeds. 131

moult. By this means a race of first-class birds will be
obtained, and the difference in returns the following winter
if mongrels have been previously kept, will show the wisdom
of the course adopted. Layers can easily be got that will
produce an average of 1 50 to 200 eggs per annum, and table
fowls that will grow and fatten very rapidly. The breeding
hens can be put among the young ones in the autumn, as they
will be wanted again the following spring. In all well-regulated
yards it is customary to kill off the hens when about nine-
teen months old, just before they go into their second moult,
as they are still good for eating, or, at any rate, much
better than they will ever be again ; and, as every moult gets
more severe and protracted, and the number of eggs laid
fewer, it is much more profitable to supply their places with
young hens. But the same breeding stock will do again,
simply filling up the ga^s, or introducing fresh birds as may
be found necessary. As breeders of laying fowls we suggest
the following crosses, the first-named of each pair being the
cock : — Black Minorca — Leghorn ; Minorca — Houdan ; An-
dalusian — Leghorn ; Andalusian — Minorca ; or, Andalusian
— Houdan. For good all-round fowls — layers, sitters, and
table fowls : — Game — Houdan ; Game — Langshan ; Game
— Brahma ; or, Game — Scotch Grey. And for first-class
table birds : — Game — Dorking ; Game — La Fleche ; Game
— Creve ; or, Dorking — La Fleche. These crosses will be
found sufficient for those who wish to try the plan suggested,
and we should recommend them not to keep too many varieties.
One laying and one table-fowl cross, will be sufficient for
most yards.

Doubtless there will be some of our readers who have a
stock of hens which they do not wish to part with, and would
prefer to improve these by obtaining some fresh cocks. We
do not look upon this as the best plan, but at the same time
give such information as will help those who prefer to adopt

132 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

it. The way to proceed is, to select twelve to fifteen clean-
legged, close-bodied hens, known to be good layers, and not
more than two years old, and buy a couple of Minorca, Houdan,
or Andalusian cockerels, if layers only are wanted, and Lang-
shan or Game, if both layers and table birds are desired.
Mate these up with the hens spoken of, and the progeny will
be vastly superior to the present stock, which can be partially,
or entirely, cleared out in the autumn. The cockerels just
named should be got rid of also, and the following spring a
similiar number of the pullets bred should be selected, and a
couple of fresh cockerels obtained, of the same breed as before,
which will have to be repeated every year. By this means
the fowls will gradually improve, and in a very few years the
character of the yard will be entirely altered. Or, another
plan, is to buy five cocks for every fifty hens, and let all run
together, killing off the old hens in the autumn, and buying
new cocks every spring. Both these methods are, however,
slow, and the one we first named, will be found cheapest and
best in the long run.

Ducks. 133

CHAPTER XIL

DUCKS,

Ducks very profitable — Water needed for Breeders — Not t& be kept with Hens —
Duck Farms — Housing — The Wild Duck — The Aylesbury — The Rouen —
The Pekin — The Cayuga — The Muscovy — Ornamental Varieties — Keeping
in Small Runs — Forcing — Breeding — Hatching — Rearing — Feeding — Pre-
paring Rice.

Of all the various kinds of domesticated poultry, which can
be kept by farmers or cottagers, there is no doubt that ducks
are the most profitable ; but they need a suitable place to be
kept in, and are not so capable of adapting themselves to
circumstances as are hens. They are, however, hardy,
easily reared, feed up quickly, and can, at the proper season
of the year, or in some places at almost any season, be sold
very readily at good prices. Where there are towns within
a reasonable distance of a farm, arrangements can be made
to supply hotels, restaurants, private houses, or dealers, and
we are sure the result will be a satisfactory one. Of course,
water will be required, and a running stream is best of all,
but the soil can be of any nature, though where it is gravel
or sand, it is all the better for the purpose, as ducks require
one or other of these to help them in the digestion of their
food, and the more easily they do digest the food the better
they will thrive. Ducks do not want good land, but can be
kept on uncultivated ground, and it will be none the worse
for them if they can have some good shelter, such as trees or
bushes afford. They must not, however, be kept with hens,

134 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

or the latter will be found to suffer in consequence, as ducks
thrive in dirt, and hens do not, so that, if there is not
sufficient room to permit of their being widely separated,
then hens or ducks should be selected, for which the place and
soil is most suitable, and for the produce of which there is most
demand in the district. As an instance of what is done in
this way, we may state that the Aylesbury district, England,
is great for ducks, and it is said that upwards of $100,000
per annum is paid to the cottagers around the town of
Aylesbury for ducklings, which are chiefly reared for the
London market.

Some time ago a description appeared in the Field, of
London, of a duck farm near to Dunstable, in Bedfordshire,
which has been found a profitable investment by its owners.
A large house was built about a couple of years ago to
keep and fatten the young birds in ; and the object of
the owners is to get the ducklings ready for market as
rapidly as possible, for which purpose they are fed on boiled
rice ; to this meat is added for the older ones, during the
two or three weeks previous to their being killed, and
some hundreds are sent to market every week in the season.
Since the above description appeared, a lady, who writes
under the name of " Hen wife," has given, in the Live Stock
Journal, the results of her own work in this direction. She
gayS : — << j»n the spring of 1881 I obtained from my own
stock of Aylesburys, and from purchases of eggs, upwards of
500 ducklings. Of these I lost from rats, heavy rains, and
an incursion of cattle, about thirty-five. The twenty birds
which I set aside as breeding stock were hatched in March
and April. Having set eggs in December, 1880, I had
ducklings fit for the table in Februrary, which I sold at 16s.
to 18s. per couple. I had a constant supply of Ducklings
until August, 1881. On November 10th my reserve breed-
ing stock began to lay, being then about seven months old,

Duck Keeping. 135

and from these eggs fine ducklings were hatched on the 20th

December I never keep ducks over eighteen

months old, as I find they eat idle food from the end of
August to March, which is better bestowed on their young
ones, at that time laying. I except from this rule any
particularly large bird, or one remarkable for its laying
qualities."

One great advantage in keeping ducks is, that they are
hardy and easy to rear, in proof of which we may quote
what was told us some time ago, by one of the largest breeders
in the kingdom, namely, that he very seldom finds any eggs
infertile, that the proportion of eggs failing to hatch is very
small, and that the mortality among the ducklings is almost
nil — so that the duck breeder has every chance of success.
So far as the fattening is concerned, we have fed ducklings
up to 81b. and 101b. the couple, in eight weeks, at a cost
of about 30 cents to 40 cents each ; and as the price to be
got even at an ordinary time would be not less than 18
cents, and probably 25 cents a pound, whilst earlier in the
year it would be much greater, there is plenty of margin for
profit. Besides, ducks are most prolific layers, and there is
always a good demand from cooks and confectioners for their
eggs. Ducks are undoubtedly large eaters, but as the old
birds kept need not be very numerous, this does not affect
the matter ; and there are thousands of cottagers and others,
living near small streams, who might add very considerably
to their incomes by keeping ducks, and without any great
outlay in the first instance, or much time and money after-
wards. But the place must be suitable if profit is to be
made. We do not for a moment wish to say that ducks
cannot be reared without water. In fact, in our early poul-
try days we hatched and reared every year sufficient ducks
to supply our table for months, on a very small plot of ground ;
but we never attempted to keep adult birds, buying the eggs

136 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

for hatching, and rearing the ducklings, which had only a
pool of water about six feet in diameter to disport them-
selves in. Had we attempted to keep layers we should
doubtless have failed, for it is an undisputed fact that ducks
which are to be used as breeders, must have a fair amount
of water, enough to swim about in. And if this cannot be
given, the plan we have adopted should be followed, or no
ducks kept at all. Otherwise, failure will be the inevitable
result.

So far as the housing of ducks is concerned, they require
a comfortable house in the winter or late autumn. One
low in the roof is the best, as they always lie upon the floor,
which should be made in the same way as that already
described for ordinary poultry houses. If the roof is three
feet above the ground, that will be sufficient, but it must
be properly ventilated, and dry both above and below.
Clean straw should be kept on the floor, and bricks and
straw used for nests, but no shed is needed if the house is
of reasonable size, as the birds rather enjoy rain than other-
wise. It is best to have an enclosure round the house,
made of low wood railings, in which the birds can be kept
until about ten o'clock in the morning, for if allowed out
before that time they will lay in any out of the way place,
where the nests will not be very easy to discover. Where
plenty of water is at hand for breeding ducks, then one drake
will be sufficient for five or six ducks, and, as they are peace-
able in their nature, all the stock may be kept together, except
there is an object in separating them, such as when there are
different breeds, or there is a desire to keep families separate.

There are many varieties of ducks, some of which are
purely fancy ones, whilst others are chiefly noted for their
economic qualities ; but it is generally admitted by natu-
ralists, that the various breeds of domesticated ducks have all
descended from the wild duck, or Mallard, as it is called,

The Aylesbmy Duck. 137

which is to be found over all the continent of Europe, in most
parts of North America, and has also been seen in portions
of Northern Africa and Western Asia, though it is most
numerous on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is
not much unlike the Rouen in its plumage, though more
upright in shape ; and, as is generally the case with wild
birds, it is much more active in its habits. It is found chiefly
in marshes and fens, and, in parts of the West and South
especially, it is shot in very large numbers, but there are
many other parts of the country where it is also to be met
with. In a wild state ducks are monogamous, and thus the
domesticated ones have been corrupted by civilization. Wild
ducks are often tamed, which is done by obtaining the eggs
and hatching them under hens, when the progeny do not
appear to seek for or desire liberty. In two or three genera-
tions they begin to vary in colour ; and, doubtless, if the
experiment were continued long enough, the breeds we now
have could all be produced again in this way. It is a strange
fact, that it takes several generations to teach tamed birds the
polygamous customs of domesticated duckdom, as they at
first go in pairs, like their wild progenitors, but afterwards
the descendants lose this trait of their nature.

The Aylesbury. — Of the many varieties of domestic ducks,
probably the Aylesbury is the best known, and it is found,
more or less, all over the country. This variety, as might
be supposed, takes its name from the little thrifty English
town, in the neigbourhood of which it is kept in such large
numbers. It is perfectly white in its plumage, the slightest
discoloured feather denoting impurity of breed, and being
regarded as a disqualification for the show pen. The bills
of birds of this variety are of a pale pink colour, and the
nearer they are to the delicate tinge of a lady's finger nail,
the better are they looked upon, whilst their legs are a bright
orange. They are certainly the most easily acclimatised of

138 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

all the duck varieties, often thriving in very unsuitable
places ; and they are hardy, mature rapidly, and grow to a
great size. The only difference between drakes and ducks
is, that the former are rather larger than the latter, and have
a curled feather in the tail, by which the sex is very easily
distinguished. The average weight of these birds, when
twelve months old, is 71b. for the drake, and 61b. for the duck ;
but, of course, by special feeding, such as is adopted for
exhibition birds, and those for table purposes, these weights
can be exceeded to a considerable extent ; and the winning
birds at the Birmingham show of 1882, were upwards of
201b. the pair. Ducklings generally weigh, if properly fed,
about 41b. when seven or eight weeks old, which is the usual
age for killing : for when they get older their adult feathers
begin to form, and they are neither so plump, nor yet so
presentable on the table. The nearest in appearance are
Pekins, but it is not very difficult to distinguish Aylesburys
from them, as the pure-bred Aylesburys are perfectly white, of
a boat shape, with short legs and a long fine neck ; and any
deviation from these points denotes impurity. We often see
so-called Aylesburys with a partially erect body, yellowish
bills, or canary-coloured plumage, all, or any of which, show
that Pekin blood has been introduced, too many of our birds
being thus crossed now-a-days. We do not object to this
cross, and it is doubtless at times very advantageous, but we
prefer to do it ourselves, and not have others sell us as pure-
bred stock birds that have been so adulterated.

The Kouen. — This may be regarded as the handsomest
of all the larger varieties of the duck tribes, and, as we have
already stated, is like the wild duck in its plumage. But
domestication has resulted in its losing the more graceful
shape of the latter, for it is decidedly thicker and heavier in
build, but has the decided advantage of being more easily
fattened. The drake has a clear yellow bill, with a slight

The Pekin. 1 39

greenish tinge, and in shape, long and broad. The head is
rich green, glossed with purple, which extends down the
neck, where there is a ring of pure white. The breast is a rich
deep claret brown, and the under parts are a delicate French
grey. The back is a rich greenish black, and the curls in the
drake's tail are dark green. The wings are greyish brown,
and have a ribbon mark across them, this being of a bright
and distinct blue, with a white edge on each side. The flights
are grey and brown, and the legs orange. The duck has a
brown head, with two distinct shaded lines on each side.
The breast is brown, pencilled over with a darker shade of
the same colour, and the wing has a ribbon mark like that
of the drake. The weight of* these birds is about six te
eight pounds, and the heaviest pair at Birmingham show
in 1882, was over twenty-one pounds, but once this has been
exceeded by nearly two pounds. The Rouens grow to a
greater size than the Aylesbury, but take a considerably
longer time about it, and on this account are not so profit-
able for market purposes. We therefore regard the Ayles-
bury as being the better of the two, for a Rouen duckling at
eight weeks is no larger than an Aylesbury at six weeks.
They are, however, equally as hardy and as prolific, though
their eggs are not quite so large ; are as easily reared, and
have one decided advantage, namely, that as their plumage
is dark, they do not show dirt Su soon, and consequently
suit places where the white-feathered birds would always
look filthy.

The Pekin. — The Pekin is a recent introduction, and, as
the name implies, is a native of the Celestial Empire. It
was first heard of in 1873, when specimens were imported
into the United States, and they were hailed with great
eagerness. Soon afterwards a few were imported into Eng-
land, and, from their large size, splendid laying powers,
great hardiness, and striking appearance, soon won favour,

140 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

becoming very popular indeed; but they have not main-
tained their position, for they are larger in frame than in
flesh, and have an abundant plumage, which gives them the
appearance of greater bulk than they actually possess. They
do not mature so rapidly as the Aylesbury, and their flesh is
not of the same rich and delicate flavour as is that of the
Aylesbury, Kouen, or Cayuga. On the other hand, they are
heavy layers of large well-flavoured eggs ; the eggs are, as a
rule, very fertile indeed, and the ducklings easy to rear, for
which reasons they have been largely crossed with the Ayles-
bury, in order to counteract the evils of in-breeding in some
strains of the latter variety. Many of the winning show
Aylesburys are so crossed, the canary tinge in the plumage,
yellowish bills, and the peculiar carriage being the best
signs of this cross. The Pekin differs from all other ducks
in the shape and carriage of its body, which is of a peculiar
boat shape. The legs are set well back, and the bird walks
rather upright or penguin fashion. The head is large, and
the neck long ; the legs and bill are of a rich yellow, and
the plumage generally has a peculiar cream colour running
through it, sometimes scarcely noticeable, but often so
decided that it is really a canary colour. It is very graceful
on the water, and for crossing with the Aylesbury is a very
valuable variety. The progeny are easily fattened, and have
good flesh, two most important matters to those who wish
to obtain a rapid return.

The Cayuga. — This is a variety which deserves to be
much more kept than it now is, for it is a most useful fowl,
of capital size, and extraordinarily good as a layer. Cayugas
are very hardy, mature rapidly, fatten well, and their flesh
is of high flavour — said to be even better than that of the
wild duck. The drakes weigh about nine pounds, and the
ducks about a pound less, when matured ; and they have a
very good characteristic, namely, that they do not wander

The Muscovy. 141

away from home, but can be left at liberty without fear of
their straying away. They are very similar in colour to the
East Indian ducks, being of a brilliant black throughout, with
lustrous green reflections on the head, neck, and wings ;
both males and females have a bright purple or claret brown
tinge on the back and wings, but the secondaries are more
blue than green ; the drake also is more strongly tinted
with green than the duck. The drake's bill is greenish
yellow, but not so yellow as the Rouens, and it has a clear
black bean at the tip. The bill of the duck is black at the
base, and tipped with a greenish slate colour ; and the colour
of the bill, like that of the Rouen, changes at different
seasons of the year. The shape of the bill differs from that
of any of the other breeds already named, as it does not
come straight from the skull, but curves down to the centre
and up towards the tip, in dish shape. The legs are of a
smoky orange colour, and, from the colour of its plumage,
the Cayuga is very suitable for any place, whilst its
economic qualities make it one of the most valuable of all
water fowls.

The Muscovy. — This duck was brought from South
America, and hence it is sometimes called the " Peruvian "
duck, but the name usually given to it refers to its musky
odor. The drake is much larger than the duck, which is a
good layer, hardy, easily reared, and rich in flesh. Being
most pugnacious and tyrannical, the muscovy duck cannot be
recommended for farmyard purposes. No other fowl can
exist with comfort, and it is best either to have no other
birds about the place, or to confine them to a run of their
own, which is not always a convenient matter. Of this
variety there are the black, blue, mottled, and white ; the
featners are very profuse and long, and in the dark drake the
colour is exceedingly lustrous. The head is noticeable for a
fleshy bunch at the base of the bill, and there is also a red

142 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

fleshy arc round the eye, the face being of the same substance,
and bare. The drake is furnished much more profusely
than the duck, and the sex is much more easily distinguished
than in any other breed, notwithstanding the entire absence
of the usual curl in the tail, as the male bird is generally
three or four pounds heavier than the female. These birds
are by no means pleasing in appearance, and are not to be
recommended for the reasons already given, though they
make an exceedingly valuable, but infertile, cross with any
of the large breeds, the muscovy drakes being used.

In addition to the five chief varieties of ducks which we
have mentioned there are several others, but these are
chiefly fancy ones, and consequently scarcely fall within our
province. We may, however, be permitted to say, that for
such as have a piece of ornamental water, there is nothing
prettier, or will add to its beauty more, than a few of the
rich-coloured Mandarins or Carolinos. The small black East
Indian breed is also very good for this purpose, but it is
difficult to get hardy or strong birds, for in-breeding has been
so much resorted to, in order to obtain diminutive size, that
the breed has really been ruined. Where the place is clean
and free from smoke and dirt, the White Call, or decoy ducks,
are very nice, and this variety has one decided advantage,
namely, that it is tame and domesticated, not given to fly or
wander away, like some of the other birds. In addition to
these there are many other varieties, such as Spotted Bills,
Whistlers, Pintails, and Kasarkas, so that those who desire
ornamental waterfowl, need have no difficulty whatever.

In the keeping of ducks, it is necessary to have a clear
idea as to the object for which they are to be kept. As we
have previously pointed out, a reasonable amount of space
and sufficient water for the breeding birds must be provided,
and it is of no use attempting to keep and breed from ducks
cooped up in a very small run. In that case it is better to

Manageiitent of Ducks. T43

buy eggs and hatch them, or buy the ducklings, when very
young, and rear them. But, granting that the place is
suitable, then in rearing the birds, those intended for early
killing require to be treated in a different fashion, to those
that are to be kept for future breeding purposes, or to be sold.
If birds destined for the table are fed upon foods that develop
bone, or that which is offal in the birds when they are killed,
then there is a direct waste, for these things cannot be eaten,
and prevent the laying on of that flesh, which is, or should be,
the aim and object of fattening. But, on the other hand, to
feed birds that have to be reared to maturity, on flesh-forming
foods alone, would be equally as foolish, for, in that case, there
would not be sufficient bone to support the flesh, and, though
the bird might apparently thrive for a time, it would begin to
fail before long, and probably die. It must be clearly under-
stood, that an undue forcing of any part of the nature of the bird,
cannot but be at the expense of some other part ; consequently,
if too much prolonged, the balance of the system is upset,
and the bird dies. This is the reason why birds, when fattened,
begin to go back and lose flesh, if the process is extended
too much, and the fact that feeding continuously on food of
a fattening nature induces disease, would appear to show
that the statement of those scientific men, who say that all
fat is a disease, has something to support it, although it may
be that it is the excess of fat, and not the moderate quantity
of it, that really causes disease.

When keeping ducks for breeding purposes it is best to
give them a running stream, if it be convenient to do so, for
this is much better than a pond, but one or the other is
indispensable. Two ducks should be given to one drake, or,
if the birds are young ones and of a vigorous breed, five ducks
may be given to two drakes. Drakes are not to be relied
upon for breeding purposes when more than two years old,
and it is better, therefore, not to keep them after that age,

244 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

but to fatten and kill them off. Ducks are capital layers, as
a rule, and the eggs, when the drake is not older than we
have just mentioned, very fertile. In hatching, large Cochin
or Brahma hens should be used, as these can cover eleven, or
sometimes thirteen eggs, very easily ; but, it is necessary to
remember, when hens are used, that a duck in sitting a nest
will, on going off to feed, have a swim before she returns,
and, as her feathers will be wet in consequence, the eggs
get the benefit of it. Eggs under hens, therefore, must be
kept moist, or they will not hatch, for, when this is not done,
the inner skin gets hard and tough, so that the little inmate
cannot make its way out. The nest should be in a moist
place, but if this cannot be arranged, then the earth below it
must be kept damp, much more damp than is required for
fowls. We have always found it very advantageous to
sprinkle the eggs with a little warm water when the hen is
off feeding, so that the shells get moist all over. Ducks'
eggs can easily be hatched in incubators, and we have been
very successful in this way ; but one thing must be borne in
mind, that ducks' and hens' eggs are not to be put into one
machine, as each kind requires different treatment. Hens'
eggs only need a reasonable amount of moisture, and should
never be sprinkled, whereas, for ducks' eggs, the moisture
trays are by no means sufficient, and they should be sprinkled
daily, so that the air in the machine will be more heavily
charged with moisture than is good for ordinary eggs. Not
only so, but duck eggs hatch all the better if given con-
siderably more air, and a longer time for cooling, than is
good for hens' eggs, and for these reasons, it will be seen
that separate machines are required for the two kinds of eggs.
The period of incubation for ducks is twenty-eight days,
but, when the eggs are very fresh, they very often hatch a day
or two earlier. If the sprinkling of the eggs is attended to,
there is seldom any loss during the process of hatching ; but,

Feeding Ducklings. T45

in order that all may come out together, or within a short
time of each other, it is best to select eggs as nearly equal
in age as possible. Duck eggs should be tested in the way
we shall describe for hens' eggs; but it is best to make
the first examination on the ninth or tenth day, and the
water test on the twenty-fifth day. Of course, a daily look
at the eggs is advisable; and if any get broken, all must be
washed, and the nest re-made. As a rule, we do not approve
of the plan of removing any of the little things from under
the hen, should the hatching be irregular ; but if any are
greatly delayed in hatching, then those ducklings that are
dry, may be taken away, and put in a flannel covered basket,
near the fire. They need, however, to have something
against which they can put their backs, and thus a good
cushion may be put over the flannel, of course, seeing that
there is enough ventilation through the sides of the basket,
or the ducklings may all be smothered. The morning after
the hatching is completed, the hen and her brood should
be removed to a coop, placed under a shed ; and, as they
do not require any food for the first twenty-four hours
after being hatched, they will now be ready for their first
meal, which should consist of hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine,
and mixed with boiled rice. This food may be continued for
two or three days, when Spratt's or Chamberlain's foods, or
boiled rice, or barley meal, the two latter mixed with greaves,
should be given, if the birds are intended to be killed at an
early age ; but if not, the greaves should be dispensed with,
and the boiled rice reduced in quantity, to made only an
occasional food. The greaves consist almost entirely of fat,
whilst the rice contains only a trace of bone-forming sub-
stances in it, so that both these foods are admirable for the
purpose of forcing birds for the table ; but, they are not at
all calculated to build up the frames of those birds intended
to be reared to an adult age. In the latter it is necessary

\^6 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

to have slower growth, less development of fat or flesh, and
more stamina ; in the former all that is required, is to get
as much flesh as possible, in as short a time as possible,
with little bone, or other offal. Thus, when they are to be
reared, ducks should have no forcing food, and plain barley
meal or ground oats, made into a crumbly mass, will be the
best food. It may be well to give boiled rice as a variation,
for there can be no doubt that variety is appreciated by the
birds ; but, if it is given, it should have a good handful of
bone meal, to every quart-measureful of the rice, which will
make up for the deficiency in bone-forming qualities.

As very many persons do not know the best way to prepare
boiled rice, we will give our method, for this food is a first-
class one for fattening any kind of fowl. The kind known
as poultry rice can be bought from nearly all corn dealers at
a reasonable price, and it is good enough for the purpose, if
the sample is a clean ane. The way to prepare it is to
put, say, a pint of rice into a gallon pan, with three quarts
of water, a small handful of the chopped greaves, and a tea-
spoonful of aromatic compound. This we place upon the
side of the fireplace, and allow it to simmer for two or three
hours. In that time the rice will have swollen out and
absorbed all the water, so that it will be crumbly moist, like
a well-made rice pudding. If this is given to the birds when
warm, though not actually hot, the eagerness with which
they will eat it will be sufficient proof of how much they
relish it. Those who follow our directions should remember,
that it must not be allowed to boil in the usual way, or it will
be soft and sloppy, but it should be allowed to gently simmer
in the manner as described by us, and then it will be all
that can be desired in the way of an appetising and useful

&od*

Geese and Turkeys. 147

CHAPTER XIII.

GEESE AND TURKEYS.

Geese in England — Benefit to Crops — Breeds — Weights attained — Management ~
Turkeys— Said to be delicate— Breeds— Management— Fattening.

We have now near.y got to the end of our list of com-
mercial poultry, and come to the two great — i.e., so far as
bulk is concerned — varieties. Of these geese are the hardier,
and much easier 10 rear, so that in many places they are
much preferred to turkeys, if fat, bringing always a good
price in the market. They pay very well indeed for keep-
ing, and the farmer will, as a rule, find it worth his while
te have a few of them in the autumn, when his grain crops
are off the land. In the eastern-middle counties of England
very large numbers are kept, and a ride through that portion
of the country would be quite a revelation to those who had
not been there before. On the fields and the commons, flocks
of geese and turkeys are to be seen, and the place where they
are not to be found is the exception, not the rule. They are
a considerable source of profit, and, consequently, are not
neglected ; and the vast numbers which are sent to London
every year is astonishing to those who are not conversant
with the facts of the case. In these counties the majority of
farmers breed their own birds, but there are many who buy
goslings in the early autumn, and simply fatten them for
the market. In this country the sale of young goslings is
rare, as those who fatten hatch their own stock, and no
one part of the country is especially famous for its geese,

148 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

By putting on goslings in the way we have described, the
land is made profitable after the crops are gathered, and
they do it an immense amount of good. The birds pur-
chased are generally bred by those who live near commons
or waste land, and there is no need why this should not be
done in every district. If it were done, the benefit derived
would be great, and probably the farmers near small towns
who need it most, would reap the benefit, and would also
supply a demand which has generally to be met from a dis-
tance.

Of the various breeds of geese the Toulouse and the Emb-
den are the chief, and, as a rule, for commercial purposes, it
will be found better to select one of these. The Toulouse
is commonly known as the grey goose, because its plumage
is of that colour; and the Embden is called the white goose,
its plumage being pure white throughout. The latter is said
to be the earliest and best layer, which is a very great recom-
mendation, and its feathers always bring a higher price, than
do those of the coloured variety. In some places, however,
pure white birds would not look at all well, because of the
presence of smoke ; but, these are considerations which must
be left to be decided individually, according to circumstances.
Both these varieties are about equal in point of size and
quality of ilesh. At the Birmingham Show of 1882 the
weight of the winning pair of grey geese was 451b. 4oz.,and
of the whiles 4Mb. 12oz. ; but generally at that exhibition
the Toulouse are heaviest. Of course these weights are
abnormal, and only obtained by a very careful and continued
system, which our readers will do well not to follow, but
be content if they get birds from 121b. to 181b. weight,
for the Christmas market. In addition to the varieties
named, there are the Sebastopol, the Chinese, the Canadian,
and the Egyptian, but we do not think that they will be found
BO profitable as the Toulouse and the Embden.

Management of Geese, 149

A capital description of the method of management ap-
peared some years ago in the Farmer, and was deemed worthy
of being reprinted in Mr. Tegetmeier's Poultry Book. This
we now give for its practical value : — " A good-sized pond,
with a plentiful supply of water and good pasturage, are in-
dispensable to make goose-keeping a paying business, for
they are very large consumers. Let them have an outhouse
all to themselves, regularly supplied with clean straw, with
which to make nests on the floor as the laying season ap-
proaches, and partition the nests off according to the number
required. One gander will be sufficient for three or four
geese. They generally lay about twelve eggs each, which
number they will hatch. The eggs, for safety, should be
collected daily and placed in bran, until the geese, by re-
maining on their nests, show their desire for sitting. The
eggs must then be placed under them, and the house so
arranged that they can have free liberty of egress and ingress
at all times of the day, as they will require food and water
daily, to which they will help themselves, if a pasture-field
and pond of water be near, and afterwards return to their
nests. Little attention is, therefore, required whilst they are
sitting, beyond keeping their nests undisturbed, and protected
from vermin. When the time of hatching has arrived, in
case any young birds are out, see that all shells are removed,
for fear they may cap the other eggs, and thereby prevent
their hatching. Allow the goslings to remain in the nest for
a night and a day ; they will not require feeding during that
time, but will gather strength ; and, if the following
morning be fine and sunshiny, they can be moved at once
upon a grass-plot or other convenient place, where they will
be safe, and supplied with an abundance of nice young grass,
of which they will soon partake (this, their natural food, suits
them better than to be crammed with oatmeal pellets), not
forgetting to place them some water in a shallow vessel, with

150 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

which a little oatmeal maybe mixed. If the weather is un-
favourable, they must be confined in an outhouse, and plen-
tifully supplied with nice green grass turfs and water. . . .
The most critical time for young geese is about midsummer ;
if it is very dry weather, and the pasturage and water is not
plentiful, it is then desirable to give them a few oats night
and morning to assist nature over this peculiar juncture,
and help them on until the stubbles are ready for them,
and when those are cleared they will be in nice condition for
fattening, which is best done by making them up in lots of
ten or fifteen in number, according to the size of the place,
supplying them with plenty of water and an unlimited
quantity of oats for three weeks, giving them a clean bed of
straw when required ; they will then be ready for the market.
The day previous to killing, turn them on to the pond for the
purpose of washing their feathers, and supply a clean bed of
straw in the feeding-house before their return ; but take
away all food and water, and let them fast until killed the
next day, when they must be dressed for the market. There
is not the slightest doubt geese pay well where there are
conveniences for keeping them, but they must be well man-
aged, and kept out of the mowing grass and cornfields, or
they will soon do damage to the amount of double their
profit."

The same plan, as is here described for fattening, may be
adopted equally by those who only rear the birds, as by those
who breed them also ; goslings can be bought about August
and September at low prices, and will fatten up very rapidly,
if fed in the way described. There is only one thing we
need add to what has been already said, and that is, geese
must never be put in compartments alone when fattening, as
is done with ordinary fowls, for in that case they would fret
and lose flesh, instead of gain it.

Turkeys have the name of being very delicate and difficult

Turkey Rearing, 151

to rear, in consequence of which they are often not kept,
where they might be with advantage, for, in a suitable place,
they are one of the most profitable of all domestic poultry.
They are undoubtedly delicate if kept on damp soil, but
where the ground is dry, and the position not too exposed,
they will do well. Just at one period of their growth, when
they are "shooting the red," that is, when about six weeks
old, and the red skin is appearing on the head, they need
extra care and to be well sheltered, for getting wet just then
is almost certain to be fatal. The prices obtained for turkeys,
and the heavy weights to which they grow, make them very
profitable indeed, and wherever it can well be done, we
should strongly urge that a few of them be kept.

The varieties of turkeys known in this country are the
Wild, Bronze, Narragansett, Black, Buff, and White. Of these
the Wild is the hardiest, firmest fleshed, and highest flavored,
even when bred in domestication ; the Black approaches it
most nearly but fattens more readily, while the Bronze,
which closely resembles it in coloring, is the most rapid in
growth, quickest to fatten, and heaviest of all. The Nar-
ragansetts and Whites are the most domestic. Large size is ic
matter that must be considered, for the price turkeys realize
in market increases with the weight, and the fact contrary
to the rule in most things, that, the price per pound of a
thirty-pound turkey is considerably greater than that of
one half its size is especially true in early winter, but not at
all times of the year.

Turkeys are not fully grown until they are three or four
years old, bui, it will be found that birds can be bred from,
without fear, when two years of age. The young birds
produce more eggs than the older ones, and begin to lay
earlier in the season, and, also, are not so savage. A turkey
hen generally lays about twenty eggs, but she should not be
allowed to sit all these ; and it is better to give the first half-
dozen to hens, letting her have the rest herself, for it is very

152 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

cruel, and does not pay in the long run, to prevent her having
a nest, in addition to which, she will prove a better mother
than any hen could be.

The period of incubation is twenty-eight days, and the
first food for the young birds should be hard-boiled egg,
with dandelion, ]ettuce, onions, or nettles chopped up, and
all mixed with bread crumbs : and to this may be added a
little rice boiled in sweet skim milk, a little suet, or greaves,
and in cold weather a little aromatic compound, with grain
of all kinds for the birds, as they get older. We have also
heard the very highest accounts of the value of Chamber-
lain's meal in rearing turkeys, even from those who had
failed before they used it. A fresh site for the coop is neces-
sary every morning, and a little exercise, by letting the
mother out of the coop, which must be large and roomy, not
less than three feet square, will do the chicks a lot of good.
When the birds are about ten or twelve weeks old they may
be put on to barleymeal as the staple food, mixed with a little
greaves, and alternated with corn, barley, and small wheat.
As soon as they are deserted by the mother, the birds should
be put in a large roomy house at night ; and, it is then neces-
sary, to see that they do not perch on rails or hurdles, as
crooked breasts would be the certain result.

Christmas turkeys are shut up in a light, dry, and roomy
shed, or house, about the first week in November; and the
Norfolk system is to keep troughs filled with maize and
good barley always near them, but giving twice a day a good
meal of just as much barleymeal, mixed with skim milk, as
they can then eat up, and also milk to drink. The troughs
are cleaned every day, and all surplus food removed. Sliced
mangolds, turnips, swedes, and cabbages are also given ; and
plenty of sand, lime, and brick dust kept in one corner, so
that the birds can get it when they wish. This is all the
feeding they need, to bring them up into prime condition for
the market. They are killed by having the neck broken.

The Selection of Stock Birds, 153

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SELECTION OF STOCK BIRDS,

Importance of Care in Selection — Influence of Parents — Selection for Layers —
Selection for Table Fowls— State of Breeding Stock — Buying Birds — Buying
Eggs for Sitting — Space for Breeding Stock — Birds not to be Related— Evils
of In-breeding — Number of Hens to Cock — When to Expect Fertile Eggs —
Feeding — Importance of Health and Condition.

The choosing of birds or animals for breeding is one of the
most important matters, that can command the attention of
any keeper of live stock, for, in accordance with the care and
skill given to it, will be the quality of the produce. Parents
impress upon their progeny those characteristics which they
themselves possess, in so far as there are no counteracting
influences. If these characteristics are good ones, they should
be preserved by judicious mating, but if they are bad ones,
then, it must be the object of the breeder, to get rid of them
as quickly as possible. And in order to secure this it is
necessary to have a clear idea of the influence of each parent,
for the influence on either side is different to that on the
other. Without this knowledge, there can be no possibility
of arriving at a true appreciation of the question.

We have said that the influence of each parent is different,
and, to this we may add, that, as a rule, the characteristics of
both can be traced in the offspring. Sometimes, however,
qualities are developed which were not found in the parents,
nor yet can be regarded as a combination of qualities from

154 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

either side. As these are generally characteristics to be
avoided, it will most probably be found on examination, that
they have descended from the grandparents, or from progeni-
tors even further back than that. Hence the value of pure
stock, as there is with it a much greater certainty in breeding.

It may be taken as a certain rule that the male parent
affects the external structure, the shape, and the outward
appearance generally, including the locomotive peculiarities ;
and that the female parent controls the internal structure,
the constitution, the temper, and the habits. But, we must
in this be regarded as speaking of pure-bred birds, for with
such as have been bred in any sort of way, in which all or
no breeds have been mixed up, it is almost impossible to
look for any certainty, as there are constantly unexpected
and unwished-for developments turning up. The purer the
breed, the greater the certainty of obtaining those points or
qualities we are seeking for, and it must also be noted, that,
if one of the parents is of a purer descent than the other,
it will exert the greater influence upon the chickens.
This will account for the rapidity with which a pure-bred
cock improves the birds bred in a farmyard, when one is
introduced, which doubtless many of our readers have
observed.

Considering these facts, it may be worth our while to
study the question of the influence of parents, a little more
closely than is usually done, and, taking the male parent
first, it will be found, as already indicated, that it affects the
external structure as well as the shape of the bird. Thus,
in selecting cocks for breeding purposes, it is necessary to
see that they have size, which, of course, means bone and
flesh, not merely feathers, and that they are of a right
shape. If a bird is short in either of these qualities, as
certain as can be such defect will be transmitted to its
descendants. Thus it will be seen how foolish it is to choose

Selection of Stock Birds. 155

a bird small or of a bad shape, no matter how good he may
be in other respects. It can serve no useful purpose to have
a bird unshapely, even though this does not influence its
profitable qualities ; but, whilst we should not kill a good
laying hen if she was mis-shapen, yet we would not breed
from such an one, as the weakness inherent from the
deformity would probably transmit itself to the chickens,
and thus more than counterbalance the merits of the parent.
As a rule, those birds are best which look best. And again,
it would be unwise to use for stock purposes, any bird weak,
or deformed in his organs of locomotion, for, though he
might be as good upon the table as another one, perfect in
these respects, his defects would be reproduced in his
progeny, and probably intensified. As an example of this,
we may mention that the breeding for white faces in Spanish
— though the white face is not a defect but a sport — having
been carried to a ridiculous extent, has so weakened the
breed that it is now a delicate variety, not to be recommended
for general purposes. In selecting a cock bird, therefore,
for breeding, and this equally applies to all varieties, whether
pure or otherwise, one should be chosen, close and firm in
body, not too large in size — that is, not abnormally larger
than the majority of his kindred, though a little larger is an
advantage — clean on leg, tall, and active in his habits. Such
a bird will not counteract, but, rather assist those qualities
which, in a hen, conduce to the breeding of good layers. But,
if a bird is wanted for breeding table fowls, one must be
chosen heavy in body, deep in breast, short on the leg, and,
perhaps, not so active, though by this we do not necessarily
mean a non-flying bird, as these generally develop flesh on
the thighs, and not on the breast. The former may be heavier
in weight, but the meat is not carried in the best place, and
is not of the same quality. A bird similar to what we have
described, will help forward the end we have in view, and

156 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

assimilate his qualities readily with those of the hens to
which he may be mated, if they are chosen with equal care.

It will be remembered, we stated that the hen affects the
internal structure and vital organs of her chickens, in which
are included the laying qualities, as well as the temperament
and the constitution. A good, quiet mother, generally pro-
duces pullets that exhibit the same qualities in their turn,
if she is properly mated, and, on the other hand, a restless,
uncertain mother, will impress these characteristics upon her
chickens. A poor layer, must not be expected to produce
hens much better than herself, no matter with what bird she
is paired, and though there is wisdom in the belief of old
henwives, that it is always well to breed from hens that are
known to be good layers, it is necessary to see that the cock
does not counteract this influence. By judicious selection
of the male bird, it may be possible to gradually improve
the laying powers, as it is possible to alter the characteristics
of any birds ; but, of course, this can only be a slow process,
and it is better to commence breeding with suitable birds,
and to depend upon the hens for such an improvement,
instead of on the cocks. As shown when speaking of the
male birds, the purer the parents are, the more certainty
there is in breeding, and this is the case equally with both
sexes, though, as the cocks influence the externals, the result
is more seen on their part, than on that of the hens.

When breeding with the object of producing good laying
fowls, the hens selected should be shapely, have no grave
defects, and, above all, be known as good layers, or from a
good laying strain. To be sure of this latter point may
yivolve some trouble ; but it need not be very great, as any
one who attends to the fowls, and really takes an interest in
them, knows which are the best layers. By this means, it
is quite possible to very largely increase the laying powers of
any strain of birds ; and, the care thus taken, will be rewarded

Selection of Brood Hens, 157

by a great difference in the production of eggs. Of course,
if the male birds are bred from hens that are known to be
good layers, then this will greatly facilitate the matter.
Therefore, where it is thought desirable to have laying birds
only, or, in places where eggs are most in demand, it is better
to have non-sitting fowls, such as Minorcas, Leghorns,
Andalusians, or Houdans, as these birds have been bred as
layers for generations ; and, their attention not being taken
off by maternal duties, they consequently are much better
layers. On the question of selecting hens for breeding table
fowls, very little more need be said, than what we have already
remarked in connection with the male birds, except that it
is important to choose quiet, contented fowls, as these will be
found to fatten up best of all ; restless birds never do this,
and as a consequence are not profitable. The breeds to be
chosen should be either La Fleche, Dorkings, Creve-cceurs,
Houdans, Langshans, Plymouth Kocks, or such crosses as
Game-Dorking. These must be selected in accordance
with the rules laid down in the chapter on laying out the
poultry-yard, where we spoke of the soil and position of the
poultry-yard, and the influence these must have upon the
breeds kept.

Closely associated with the question of breed to be chosen,
is that of the general condition, and state of the birds selected
for breeding. Here we must emphatically warn our readers
against what we have indirectly mentioned before, namely,
that no bird tainted with disease, or organically deformed,
must be bred from in any way. Such diseases and defects
will be transmitted, probably in an intensified form, to the
descendants, which in their turn will probably be the means
of passing them on to others. There can be no question
that the breeding in of defects, or the transmission of disease,
are very easy matters, whilst the breeding of them out h
not only difficult, but often impossible. Stamina, and

158 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

good condition are two most important elements, which
should never be lost sight of by the poultry breeder, as with-
out these it is impossible to succeed ; and, whilst great care
should be taken to see that the other qualities of the birds
are suitable, nothing should ever induce the use of sickly
ones for stock purposes. And, also, in deciding upon the
selection of breeding fowls, there must be a clear understand-
ing as to what is required — we mean, to what purpose the
chickens are to be put, and then, keeping this end in view,
let them be chosen accordingly. Hap-hazard breeding never
did, and never will, succeed ; though, at times, a lucky hit is
made, but there is no certainty as to its being repeated. A
careful study of the birds to be so used will be well repaid ;
and, if they have to be purchased, it will be time well spent
to make inquiries as to the qualities of the birds. Poultry
fanciers expend both time and money freely, in order to
obtain all the information possible about a bird they pur-
pose buying, knowing the great injury which may be done
through want of a little care ; and the matter is equally as
important to the poultry farmer. Because of the want of
information, we do not advise buying in a poultry show,
except it can be obtained, and many a yard has been ruined
by diseased, or otherwise unsuitable birds, bought in this
way. The best way is to go, or send, to known breeders,
who have a reputation to keep up; and, though a little more
money may have to be paid in the first instance, it will prob-
ably be found the cheapest way in the end. In the spring of
the year, a very common way of getting fresh blood into a
yard, or, of commencing one afresh, is to purchase eggs, and
if fairly dealt with, this is both a cheap and good means of
doing so ; but, unfortunately, there is a good deal of roguery
in the business. Where it is desired to get the yard into
full operation, or to have the benefit of the new blood at
once, this plan will not do, and birds must be bought instead.

Management of Breeding Pens, 159

We now come to the putting together of the breeding-
pens, and the management of the birds in them. In the
first place, there is the question of space to be given to them,
and it is here necessary to utter a warning — though we have
dwelt on the question of runs already — against the very
common practice, of putting breeding stock into very small
houses and runs. Nor do we, on the other hand, think the
system of breeding from the ordinary stock a wise one, as this
does not permit of the proper improvement of the stock, which
might otherwise take place. The best plan, is either of those
we have already recommended, namely, to have separate
houses in which the birds can be kept, or a row of houses with
large open runs. Weakly chickens are very often caused by
want of sufficient exercise on the part of the parents ; and it
will be found, that the more liberty that can be given to
the breeding stock, the hardier the chickens will be. There-
fore, it should be a rule, that, whether the laying fowls have
an abundance of room or not, the breeders must have plenty ;
and, upon no consideration, should the latter be cooped up in
small runs. We have given in a previous article, the smallest
amount of space necessary to keep birds in health and con-
dition, and this will be a guide to our readers in this respect.
A sufficient number of chickens can be bred from one pen
of fowls, in a single year, to stock a good-sized yard, and thus
it is worth while giving them sufficient room.

Then it is a most important matter, that a cock and hen
mated together for breeding purposes, should not be related
to each other. A very large amount of harm has been done
by in-breeding, and the degeneracy of many of the races of
high class poultry, is entirely due to this practice. Poultry
fanciers, whose object is to obtain fine feather, or peculiar con-
formation, regardless of all commercial considerations, may,
if they think fit, resort to in-breeding, for they are willing to
pay the price ; but, those to whom it is necessary that their

160 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

birds shall have stamina, size, and unimpaired laying powers,
must not indulge in so foolish a practice. The state of the
breeding stock, in very many of the farmyards of this country,
where we find miserable, weedy mongrels, of no use either
for laying or to put upon the table, is very largely due to
the in-breeding which has gone on generation after genera-
tion, and to the want of regard for the selection of breeding
birds. Of course, it may be accepted as a fact, that all our
various breeds of birds have been produced by more or less
in-breeding ; but even acknowledging that much, it has been
a gradual process, and not a forced one. Therefore, it is
more than necessary, that the birds mated together should be
unrelated. Only by care in putting them together, can this
be secured ; but the result is worth all the trouble.

The next subject which must be touched upon, is that of
the number of hens to be put with each cock, as the fertility
of the eggs will naturally greatly depend upon this. No
certain rule can be laid down applicable to all breeds, as
the number varies, not only with the breed itself, but with
the circumstances under which they are kept. For in-
stance, birds in a confined run are more indolent and less
vigorous than those at liberty, whilst the state of the
weather has much to do with the question also ; and, again,
a young bird should have a larger harem than an old one.
So far as a rule can be laid down, not more than four hens
should be given to a cock of any of the larger and heavier
breeds, i.e., Cochins, Brahmas, Dorkings, Langshans, and
Scotch Greys, when in confinement ; but, if at liberty, then
this number may be increased to six or eight. The lighter
breeds can take six or eight in confinement, and a dozen when
at liberty. These numbers will have to be varied according
to the season of the year ; of course fewer being given in
severe weather, and more added, as it gets warmer and finer.
The best test is, that when too few hens are given, they will

To secure Fertile Eggs, 161

be found stripped nearly bare on the back, and when this
is seen, then more should be supplied to the cock. This
must be done even if hens of a different breed can only be
used, as too few hens is as great a cause of unfertile eggs, as
too many, and the strain upon them is also very liable to
cause them irreparable injury. As the bare backs can be
seen by the most casual observer in a poultry yard, there can
be no excuse for the neglect of it.

As a rule, eggs may be depended upon as fertile within a
week of the birds being mated together ; but, we make it a
rule, never to use the first two or three eggs produced by each
hen after she is so mated, especially, if she has been running
about in the open yard, or been mated with other cocks.
Those who breed birds for exhibition, are most careful not to
allow any cock to have access to the hens, except the one
mated with them, during the breeding season. The reason
adduced for this is, that the effects of such a cross may be
noticed in the chickens, even though a considerable time has
elapsed, between the alliance and the laying of the eggs.
Whether this is so or not, it is quite unnecessary for us to
inquire here, as it does not sufficiently concern those who
breed only for commercial purposes, but, of course, it is wise to
prevent mixing up in this way unnecessarily. In any case,
we should not advise the using of the first two or three eggs,
as they are almost certain to be either infertile, or to show
signs of previous mating, neither of which is desirable.

The feeding of breeding stock, is a point on which a mis-
take is made by too many poultry keepers. Fowls will not
lay if they are fed too well, and on this account, great care
must be exercised in what is given to them, both as to quan-
tity and quality. All fattening foods must be avoided, as
these cause internal fat, which acts upon the egg organs, and
prevents, instead of helping, the object in view. We believe
in good food, that is, food oi a sound nature, and this will

1 62 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

be found most satisfactory in the end. Barley, wheat, buck-
wheat, oats, and dari, both whole and ground, are all first-
rate foods, and may be relied upon as best for the purpose.
If the birds are in runs, where insect life cannot be got very
freely, then a very little meat may be given to them, but not
otherwise. And on wet or cold mornings, a little stimulating
powder is very helpful, but upon no account should it be used
when the weather is warm and dry. Green food is also very
essential, and a barrow load of cabbages will be greatly re-
lished, as well as be highly beneficial, even when the grass run
is an extensive one. For a system of feeding we prefer the
following : — First, a meal of soft food, mixed with boiling
water, early in the morning, the sooner after the birds leave
their roosts the better; second, a handful of grain in the
middle of the day ; and, last, a good feed of grain about an
hour before they go to roost at night.

A question is sometimes asked, How much food should
be given to each fowl every day ? This it is impossible to
answer, by stating any quantity, as the appetites of the birds
vary with the season of the year, and with the different
kinds of fowls, some being much greater eaters than others.
The only safe rule is to either throw the food down in hand-
fuls, or put it in dishes or troughs, and to cease giving, or
remove it, as soon as the birds cease to eat eagerly. There
is just one exception to this rule, and it is one that needs to
be very especially mentioned here, for there are some cocks
of a very gallant nature, which will not touch any food, until
all their hens have been served. They call their mates to it,
and see that they get enough, but do not attempt to touch
it themselves. Therefore, unless the attendant is very
observant, the bird will get very little to eat — certainly not
enough, and will go down in condition, infertile eggs being
one of the results. Where this is observed, either a little
more food must be given to the cock or he must be fed by

To secure Hardy Chickens. 163

himself. Either plan will answer the purpose so long as it
is seen to. We need only just mention that material will
be needed for the formation of the shells, and this may be
old mortar, broken oyster shells, lime and gravel, the last
being specially useful, in assisting the birds to digest their
food, and should for that reason always be supplied.

The chief object should be, to keep the breeding stock in
the best of health and condition, as this is most conducive
to the production of strong and hardy chickens. It can
only be secured by selecting good birds, in the way indicated
by us, by giving the birds as much room as possible, by
housing them well, and by feeding them in a systematic and
sensible manner. Neglect any of these points, and the
result will show itself in the progeny, because in this, as in all
other similar operations, effects follow causes remorselessly.
We do not say that the effect is always immediate, or even
apparent at once, but it is nevertheless there, and sooner or
later will declare itself.

164 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTEK XV.

HATCHING.

Shall Hens set themselves ? — Selection of Place for Sitting — Hatching Boxe*—
Making the Nests — Food and Water — Setting the Hen — Feeding — Airing
the Eggs — Kind of Food for Hens — Dust Bath — Testing the Eggs — Period
of Incubation — Management during Hatching — Helping the Chicks.

The time when hens should be set, will depend very largely
upon the purpose for which the chickens are required, and
the breeds of poultry kept. If eggs are the object in view,
and any of the breeds we have named as most suitable in
such a case as this are selected, then March and April are
the best months ; but, if heavier breeds, such as Brahmas or
Langshans are chosen, then no chickens should be hatched
after the first week in April, or, at any rate, as few as possible.
Birds intended for table purposes, whether chickens or duck-
lings, may be hatched at any time, but it is best to do so
as early as possible, even in autumn. Those hatched at
other times, mature, and are placed on the market, when it is
overstocked, and, consequently, they do not realise so paying
a price. The rapidly maturing fowls may be hatched much
later than those which are more deliberate in this respect,
and these are the questions which must decide the time of
hatching, for, with layers, the object is to have them laying
before the winter sets in, and, with table birds, it is to get them
to market when prices are at their highest point. Those
who breed fowls lor exhibition, generally get their birds out

Hatching* 165

as early in the year as possible, to have them matured
before the autumn and winter shows, except in the case of
Bantams, in which, small size being a desideratum, they
are bred late, so as to prevent undue growth. Thus it will
be seen, that there is a way provided for all denominations
of poultry keepers.

Among old-fashioned henwives there is a very general
impression, that it is a much better plan to let a hen set
herself, than to provide a nest for her. This is doubtless
true to a certain extent, with some breeds, as they are thus
content, and, being under perfectly natural conditions, often
produce larger broods than they otherwise might. But, where
there is any attempt at careful breeding, it is almost impossible
to adopt such a system, unless the amount of ground at
disposal is very large indeed, and the birds are at perfect
liberty. In addition to the need for space, there are other
drawbacks to a plan of this kind. In the first place the
owner is at the mercy of the birds — he must wait their con-
venience, and it may be lose the best weeks of the year.
Time is everything, and if none of his own hens are broody,
he should seek for others that are, if he wishes to succeed.
Then, in the second place, no other eggs than the ones laid
by each hen herself can be used for hatching, which is, of
course, simply out of the question ; and in the third place, if
a hen elects to set herself in the laying house, constant
fighting will be the result, probably ending in the spoliation
of the whole nest. Some hens resist being removed, and
refuse to sit anywhere but in the places they select ; but, as
a rule, they are much more reasonable than this. On a large
farm where hatching is to be extensively adopted, it is
better to have a docile sitting breed, and for this we know
of none better than Brahma-dorkings, as they will allow
themselves to be handled, are large, without being clumsy,
cover a goodly number of eggs, make excellent sitters and

1 66 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

mothers, and are very good all-round fowls. Often, however,
other hens have to be obtained, and, when sitters are scarce,
they must be taken. The plan we are about to suggest will
generally be found to answer for all, except, it may be, very
wild ones.

Where it is only necessary to hatch one or two settings
each year, there need be no difficulty in setting the hens, as
they can be put separately in outhouses, empty runs, or any
other places of that kind, but, where a number of hens have
to be kept at work at one time, then some other system must
be adopted. If the farm or ground space available is very
large, the hens may be distributed in various parts, under
charge of the cottagers, but, as a rule, we prefer to keep them
near home, where they can be looked after by one person,
whose sole care they will be. And, for this purpose, it is best
to devote a good, large, comfortable room, such as an empty
stable, an unused coach-house, a loft above a stable, a cool
conservatory, or, even a large empty room in the house itself,
and, during the early part of the season, the chicken-house,
if one has been made, may also be used. But, when the
chickens begin to appear, it will be much better to put the
sitting hens elsewhere, as they are very apt to get fidgety and
restless, hearing the " cluck, cluck " of the mothers and the
"peep, peep" of the chickens.

"Whatever is the place selected, it should be warm, com-
fortable, well ventilated, free from draughts, and as even in
temperature as possible, but, except in very severe weather,
it is not necessary to keep a fire in it, for, if well built, it will
be warm enough, though if adjoining a stable or green-house
it will be all the better. In very cold weather some arti-
ficial warmth is necessary, or the hens will be most likely to
desert their nests. The room selected need not be well
lighted, and, in fact, a somewhat dim place is the best, for
the birds sit quieter in the dark. The same room can be

The Hatching Box.

167

used as a fattening place later on in the year, if not in a
dwelling-house, and, if dark, the inmates will thrive more
rapidly than in light, but hatching and fattening must not
be carried on at the same time. An earthen floor is best,
though when it is made of brick, cement or wood, the same
result can be arrived at by laying down ashes or fine earth,
about a foot thick, over the same. Upon this, all round the
room, hatching boxes may be placed, if the first plan we are
about to describe be adopted.

The kind of nest box we prefer, having used it for many
years, is a plain deal box, about eighteen inches in height,

Fig. 7. — Hatching Box.

and fifteen inches square, similar to that shown in Fig. 7,
which should be kept by all dealers in poultry supplies. It
is made without bottom, or only with wire netting to keep
out rats, but with a solid top ; the upper two-thirds of the
front forms a door, which may open either upwards or down-
wards, the latter preferred, and, if hinged and provided with
a simple catch, is easily opened and closed, and, when closed,
the inmate is perfectly secure, and cannot be molested.
Holes for ventilation are bored in the top and the sides, and
a coat of whitewash inside completes the whole. We have
often made half-a-dozen of these boxes in a single afternoon,
at a small cost, but they can also be bought at reasonable

1 68 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

prices. We prefer these to any others, especially to those made
in sets, as each one can be removed at any time for cleaning
purposes, and, consequently, vermin are not harboured. And
as a score boxes can be kept in one room without difficulty,
they answer all the purposes required. We do not approve of
hatching nests in tiers, not only because they harbour insects,
but, also, because the air cannot circulate about the nests, as
it can in the boxes we have described. This is most im-
portant, and is sufficient to account for the non- success so
often found where the nest boxes are made in sets.

Other plans can be adopted for hatching boxes. For
instance, we some time ago visited ti very large poultry yard
and were surprised to see in use, in the hatching houses,
what to us was a new plan, but which at first did not appear
to be a good one. The hatching boxes were suspended to
the wall, about two feet above the ground, and were made so
that the hens could be securely shut in. The bottoms of
these boxes were pieces of wire netting stretched upon frames,
and removable, so that the inside could be properly cleaned
out. The nests were simply straw — no earth or grass sod,
or anything, but straw — and the owner informed us that dur-
ing the previous season, the success in these nests was greater
than in any other. His idea was taken from the nests
of wild birds, and he believed that free circulation of air, is
of the greatest importance for successful hatching. This
bears out what we have already said ; and whilst we cannot
now go so far as to recommend this system to all our readers,
yet there is undoubtedly something in it. Of course, there
are many who succeed well in hatching, with only plain boxes,
or even a couple of bricks ; but, where a number of hens are
to be set, this plan necessitates a separate place for every one,
which is not at all times possible.

As already stated, where the hatching boxes recommended
by us are used, the floor should be covered with fine soil, or

Arrangement of Hatching Boxes. 169

ashes, about a foot thick, and upon this the boxes must be
placed. The object is to keep the underside of the eggs
cool, and the atmosphere in the nest moist. A hen, when
allowed to choose her own nest, generally selects a cool, damp
spot, so that we are only following nature in doing this ; and,
as the boxes are without bottoms, the moisture in the earth
or ashes naturally affects the nest itself. The best plan is
to put these boxes all around the room, with their backs to
the walls, and a space of a foot between each. Thus, in a
room fifteen feet square, between thirty and forty nests can
be accommodated. As each hen has to be allowed out to feed
separately, it is sometimes thought advisable not to put so
many in one room, but to divide them, so that two or more
may be off feeding at one time. We have also seen a capital
plan adopted in some places, namely, having half-a-dozen
large roomy pens at one end of the room, in each of which
food and water is provided, and plenty of fine dry ashes for
a dust bath. By such an arrangement as this, half-a-dozen
hens can be fed at one time, but, of course, they will have
to be lifted off the nests, put into the pens, and returned
to the nests again, when they have been properly fed. The
saving of time by so doing is very great, for, allowing fifteen
minutes to each bird, it would take six hours to feed twenty-
four, whereas, in the way we have described, one hour would
be sufficient. If the attendant has little or nothing else to
do, then it is, perhaps, not worth the extra cost ; but where
there is plenty of other work to do, it will be found a very
economical method.

After the box is in position, a good shovelful of fine soil or
ashes should be placed inside, and then hollowed out with
the hand like a saucer, so as to make the nest a proper shape.
Care is necessary, to see that the corners are filled up, or the
eggs will be very liable to roll away from under the hen, the
result of which will be chilling and addling. Above the

170 Profitable Poidtry Keeping.

earth, some soft straw must be laid, oaten preferred, or, if
wheaten is used, it should be well beaten or rubbed in the
hands, and then the nest is ready for the eggs, and for the
hen.

Most of our readers will be sufficiently learned in poultry
matters, as to be able to tell when a hen is "broody," or
"clucking," as it is often called. Any one who has lived in
the country will have no difficulty in the matter, but it may
be, that a few denizens of the towns may not have this
knowledge. The best sign is that the hen sits closely on her
nest, and makes a sound not unlike " cluck, cluck." If
taken off, she gets back again as fast as possible, resenting
the interference more or less, according to her temperament.
The best plan of putting a hen off being broody is to move
her about ; and, therefore, when she is wanted as a sitter, she
must not be disturbed too soon, but left alone until the broody
fever is fully developed.

In the case of a hen, which has been proved in previous
years to be a really good mother, then the eggs may be
placed in a hatching box, and she can get to work at once ;
but with a young or unknown hen our plan has been to put a
few dummy eggs — i. £., either chalk or spoiled eggs — into the
nest, in order to test her, before the eggs to be hatched are
given. By this means very many valuable eggs may be saved,
which would otherwise be lost through the removal having
upset the hen. The best time to set a hen is at night, as
then she is more likely to settle down to her work, not having
seen the surroundings. The eggs should be put into the
*nest, with some food and water near, and, if the rays from a
lantern or candle be thrown upon the eggs so that the hen
can see them, the food, and very little else, she will gene-
rally go on of her own accord, as soon as she has fed herself.
Should she be reluctant to do so, gentle force may be used,
and the hen placed on to the nest, and shut therein. As a

VMJ

Management of Sitting Hens. 171

rule, if left undisturbed for twenty-four hours, a hen so treated
will be found sitting closely, and all will go on well after-
wards. The real eggs can then be substituted for the others ;
but, if she is at all unsettled, this must not be done for
a day or two longer.

As already indicated by us, each hen must be allowed off
the nest for feeding purposes once every day, and thus, in a
room where there are a large number of sitters, it should be
arranged that this shall take place in rotation. The period
may be varied, according to the season of the year, and the
temperature of the place where the hens are sitting. Hens
which find their own nests are accustomed to leave them an
hour at a time ; but, it must be remembered, that, as a rule,
they never sit except in moderately warm weather, such as can
generally be found in the late spring. It will not do, there-
fore, to adopt the same plan at all seasons. Eggs will stand
a very great deal, and we have known them hatch, even after
being stone cold for twelve hours ; but this fact must not be
taken as a warrant for carelessness. As a general rule, it
may be accepted that ten to fifteen minutes is long enough,
early in the year ; but, later on, or, if in a warm place, then
half-an-hour will do no harm. If the temperature is very
low, the first-named period would be sufficient to kill the
eggs ; and, when this is the case, something must be done
when the hen is off, either by closing the box or covering the
eggs, to prevent their getting chilled. If the nest is made
in a proper place, however, there will be no danger of this,
and the periods given by us may be taken as a rule. The
leaving of the nest by the hen is necessary, not only for her
sake, but that the eggs may be cooled, without which they
will not hatch. It is supposed that the cooler air is required
to expand the lungs of the embyro chick, and that fresh
vigour is thus drawn through the pores of the shell. At any
rate, whatever may be the reason, it is no doubt a fact that

172 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

too close a sitter generally spoils her nest, and fails to bring
out any chicks. Upon this account, therefore, if a hen
shows any reluctance to come off, she must he lifted off. To
do this properly, care is necessary, and the hands must be
slid below the wings, so as to prevent any eggs that might
happen to be tucked under them, falling down when the hen
is lifted, and breaking the others in the nest. She must
then be lifted up by the wings ; and, if she makes any attempt
to run back without feeding, the door of the hatching box
should be closed until the time named has expired.

The food given to a sitting hen must always consist of
hard grain, as corn, wheat or barley, and never of soft food.
The latter causes looseness of the bowels, and the poor hen,
unable or unwilling to leave her nest, fouls it. If this should
happen, or, from any cause an egg gets broken, the eggs
remaining, must be well washed, and the nest re-made. This
is best done by having a pail half full of warm water, just hot
enough so that the hand can bear it. The eggs should be
placed in this, and properly cleaned with a sponge ; and the
legs and thighs of the bird must also be washed, to prevent
the eggs sticking thereto, and, perhaps, falling and breaking,
when the hen gets out. A dust bath will be needed also,
say, a box half filled with dry ashes or earth, with a sprink-
ling of carbolic powder in it. This will help to keep down
\ice, which are not only troublesome to the hens, but danger-
ous to the chicks, causing that most dreaded of all chicken
diseases, the gapes.

Considerable discussion has arisen as to the testing of eggs.
This is done to prove their fertility, during the process of incu-
bation. Some there are who advocate a " let alone " policy; but
we do not, as we firmly believe in xke testing, and always do it.
If carefully done no harm can ensue ; and, if unfertile eggs are
present, as they very often are, especially early in the season,
they can be removed, and thus six or eight hens made to do

Testing Eggs. 173

the work of a dozen under the old system. Whether heng
or incubators are used, all eggs ought to be tested on the
seventh day, and, in order to obtain the full benefit of this,
two or more hens should be set at the same time, so that, if a
number are barren, one of the sitters can have her egga
given to the others, and a fresh nest made for her instead;
Eggs may be tested in various ways. The original method
was to grasp the egg with the thumb and forefinger of the
left hand, using the other fingers, and the other hand, also, to
shade off the light from the eyes. Many hundreds we have]
done in this way ; but now egg testers are sold at about a
quarter each, which dre more certain, at any rate to those
who have not tried the testing before. If there is only one
window in the room, place the egg in the tester between the
light and the eye, when the egg will appear cloudy or clear,
as it is fertile or unfertile. At seven days, a " live " egg will
have a black spot in the centre, gradually shading off to the
edges, where it is much clearer, whilst an unfertile egg
remains clear all the time. When working an incubator, we
can tell fertile eggs thirty-six hours after they are put into
the machine, but this requires considerable experience, and
it is not wise to disturb a hen so early as the time named.
In testing, perhaps the safest way, is to examine the eggs at
night, by a candle, a lamp, or a gas jet, but care must be
taken that they are kept at least six inches from the flame, or
the heat will kill the embryo. All eggs found unfertile can
be removed, and will be perfectly good for cooking purposes,
or may be used for feeding chickens.

After this examination, nothing more need be done until
the nineteenth day, except to see every day when the hen
is off for feeding that the nest is all right, and, in drj
weather, or, if upon a boarded floor, about a pint or a quart
of hot water should be poured round the outside of the box,
so as to keep the earth in the box damp, and thus provide

174 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

the necessary moisture. This is a most important, but often
neglected, precaution. On the nineteenth day, a further
examination will be advisable, but this time by water. A
pail, about three-parts full of water heated up to 103 degs.,
which is just as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it,
must be at hand, and in this all the eggs placed. The
dead, or addled ones will generally sink to the bottom, whilst
those that contain strong chicks will float in the water, and,
in a minute or two, begin to bob about in a most peculiar
manner, sometimes almost jumping out of the water. This
is caused by the efforts of the chick to escape from its prison,
and often may the chicks be heard to chirp in the shell.
Only such eggs as have moved, and they need to be carefully
noted to prove this, as the motion in the water may deceive
as to whether they have moved or not, should be put back
in the nest, as the others are certainly dead. We have
tested hundreds, if not thousands, in this manner, and never
found but two or three in which we had been mistaken.
The benefits of this test are obvious. The water softens
the shell, making the escape of the chick easier, and the
removal of the dead eggs gives the birds more room as they
come out, the attention of the hen being entirely devoted to
them, and not partially taken away in expectation of the
appearance of others.

As is generally known, twenty-one days is the period of
incubation for chickens, but for one or two of the more
active breeds, a day less, in which case the water test should
be applied the same period of time earlier. If the eggs are
very fresh when put into the nest, it will be found, when the
hen is off on the day after they have been tested, that many
are chipped, or even the chicks out of the shell, and, if this
latter is the case, the egg shells must then be removed, and
every three or four hours afterwards, the nest examined foi
the same purpose. These vacant shells have a very dangerous

Breaking the Shell. 175

habit of fitting themselves on to the other eggs, which
simply means, that the chicks in the latter cannot get out.
Unless the hatching is very uneven, we do not advise the
removal of any of the birds from under the hen, but some-
times this is necessary, when they should be placed in a
basket near a fire, and covered up with a piece of new flannel.
This uneven hatching is more the result of some of the eggs
not being fresh, than from any other cause.

Should any of the chicks appear to be unable to get out of
the shell, they may be aided, but, as a rule, if they cannot
get out themselves they are generally not worth the trouble.
We have found, however, that the use of the water on the
nineteenth day, almost entirely prevents any difficulty in this
respect, but, if it is thought desirable to help the hatching,
the way to do it is to get a bowl of warm water, in which they
are placed, taking care to keep the chipped portion out of the
water0 In this the eggs are kept for a couple of minutes,
when they are returned to the nest. Breaking the shell
is very dangerous, for if blood is drawn, then death or
deformity ensues, but the plan we have here recommended
does all that is necessary in the majority of cases, and, in
the others, the birds would probably drag out a miserable
existence, and be neither of use, nor give pleasure to the
owner. A little patience is needed, as sometimes hatching
is delayed, and we should not give up eggs that had
" bobbed " in the water, for two or three days after the time
they were due to hatch. If two or more hens are set at
once, then these late eggs can all be given to one, and the
others have the chicks.

176 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTER XVI.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.

A Practical Success — Past Attempts — Difficulties — Later Attempts — The Turning
Point— Rouiliier's Machine — Prejudice Against the H)rdro-Incubator — The
Incubator Trials— How Superior to Previous Machines— Drawback to Hydro-
Incubator — Voitellier's Hydro — Owen's Tabular — Arnold's Egg Oven — Self
Heating Incubators — Hearson's— New Centennial — " Perfect Hatcher" — The
Thermostatic— The Novelty— Advice to Workers.

It is not at all necessary, now-a-days, to make any excuse
for introducing the subject of artificial incubation into any
work upon the keeping of poultry, for such a method of
hatching has passed out of the theoretical into the practical
stage ; and, it is not too much to say, that there are thousands
of machines at work in Great Britain, in France, and in
America, as well as very large numbers used for ostrich hatch-
ing at the Cape. It is no longer a merely theoretical and
expensive hobby, only to be taken up by those who have
plenty of time and money at command, but has become an
acknowledged success, neither intricate in its method of
working, nor expensive in the first cost and subsequent
management. But this has only been reached within the
last few years, as many can verify, and there is every sign
that the use of incubators is very likely to last, the results
already attained being sufficient to justify this belief.

In theory, there has never been any difficulty about
artificial incubation, because, so far as can be seen, when

A rtificial Incubation. 177

eggs are laid by the hen all that is needed, if they are fertile,
is to give the same amount of heat, air, and moisture as if
brooded by the mother, and the chickens must come. This
has not, however, been found so very easy in practice. In
the first place, the heat must be kept regular, like that of
the hen ; and, in order to obtain this, most elaborate and
ingenious machines have at various times been devised, the
object being, of course, to regulate the supply of heat, so
that the temperature to which the eggs are subjected might
be maintained as evenly as possible. Many of these worked
splendidly, so long as the mechanism did not get out of
order ; but this mechanism was necessarily so intricate, that
very little upset it, and, in addition to this, the cost was so
great that only the wealthy could afford to risk so much money
over a doubtful experiment. In other machines, where the
regulating power was not so susceptible, all went well so long
as the outer atmosphere was moderately even, but, as soon
as a sudden change came, the calculations were upset,
and the eggs chilled or roasted. A hen's body is always
about the same in heat, and she sits closely or lightly, in
accordance with the weather ; but, as a machine can never
be made to think, and cannot be endowed with instinct, pre-
parations are necessary to meet all conditions, and these
preparations, in many instances, meant complexity and expen-
siveness. The accounts of the egg ovens of Egypt, China,
and Siam, where artificial egg hatching has existed for
centuries, led many to attempt reaching the same end here,
and the records of the Patent Office, show the large numbei
of attempts made to find success, many of which exhibited
very great skill and scientific knowledge. It was forgotten,
however, that what was possible and easy in the countries
we have named, where the temperature is high and very even,
is most difficult in an erratic and cold climate. Even with
natural hatching, the difficulties in the way, are greater in

1 78 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

America than in many other countries ; and, wherever a
changeable climate is found there are great difficulties to
contend with, both in natural and artificial incubation.
This is even exemplified in the difference between the south-
ern and the northern parts of the country, for in the former
chickens can, as a rule, be hatched some three or six weeks
earlier than in the latter.

As we have just stated, many attempts have been made
to solve the problem, some of which promised to, and did,
attain a measure of success. A generation or two ago,
Messrs. Brindley, Schroder and Cantello, worked hard at
the question; and, in later years, Messrs. Vallee, Boyle
and Penman have done the same ; but, it is with no idea of
discrediting those gentlemen, that we say, they did not really
help to arrive at the true solution. Mr. Boyle spent a very
great deal of time, and several hundreds of pounds, in his
experiments, and his machine displayed great scientific know-
ledge and skill. It was fitted with the best regulator we
have ever seen, which was so delicate, that we have known
it maintain the temperature for weeks, with a variation of
only half a degree, in most changeable weather. The incubator
of Mr. Penman was also very cleverly devised, and worked
well ; but, in both these machines, the mechanism made them
expensive, and the many fine and delicate movements, to
regulate the supply of air, moisture, and heat, made the
working of them difficult, or, at any rate, too difficult for the
results. Doubtless the makers, and a few others, were able
to work them, but ordinary folks could not ; and, although
many tried, few succeeded in their endeavours. And, again,
gas or oil lamps were used as the heating power, the cost
for either of which was expensive under the system adopted,
and, not only so, but the great consumption of gas or oil,
charged the air with impurities, which often killed the germ
in the egg, either early or late in the process. And, in

Successful Incubators. 179

addition to this, the art of artificial rearing was very little
understood, so that even when the birds were hatched, they
died off in large numbers afterwards.

The numberless failures — for there were scores who made
and tried artificial incubators, who were never known to fame
— gave the general impression that there must be something
supplied by the hen, unknown to man, but which is necessary
for the successful hatching of the eggs. This was after-
wards proved to be erroneous, and that the failures had
been the result of a false system, upon which they had all
been made. The Paris Exhibition of 1877 was an im-
portant period, so far as this question was concerned, for, at
it, there were shown incubators upon an altogether new
principle, and these have revolutionised the system, turn-
ing into a success that which was an entire failure pre-
viously. The machine we novv speak of, is the hydro-
incubator, invented by a Frenchman named Eouillier, and
which, in its arrangements and mode of working, is simplicity
itself, so simple thai; we wonder no one ever thought of it
before. The main idea worked upon is, that a large body
of water, embedded in non-conducting material, so as to
prevent exposure to the atmosphere, will retain its heat for a
very long time. These incubators have very large tanks,
holding about fourteen gallons of water, which are divided
into three horizontal compartments, each communicating with
the others by means of a few small holes. This tank is
placed in a wooden case, and surrounded on all sides, save
the bottom (under which is the egg drawer), by an inch or
more of felt, or some other non-conducting material, tightly
pressed down. When this tank is filled with hot water, it
is found that the water only loses from two to five degrees,
every twenty-foar hours, according to the temperature of the
place where it is kept. If the water in the top compartment
only be drawn off, and that in the lower ones be left undis-

l8o Profitable Poultry Keeping,

turbed, the former being again filled with boiling water, the
heat from this will gradually affect the lower body, and prevent
its going down. By repeating this every twelve hours, the
heat in the egg drawer can be maintained at almost anv
degree of temperature, with a scarcely perceptible variation,
and, as there is no great expense in the making of such a
machine, no intricate mechanism to get out of order, no cost
for gas or oil, or combustion of these latter to vitiate the
atmosphere, the advance upon the old system is very great,
and, in practice, the hydro-incubator has been found very
simple and efficient, so that now there are large numbers in
operation. The inventor of this machine has stated that, in
one year he hatched upwards of 44,000 chicks in these
machines. In the district of France where he lives, the
poultry keepers bring their eggs to him to be hatched, and g<j
three weeks afterwards for the chicks, one in three of the
birds thus brought out being paid for the trouble involved.

Hydro-incubators, on their introduction to our breeders,
had to contend with a. very great deal of prejudice and oppo-
sition. They were altogether against all preconceived notions,
and apparently were more for playthings than actual work,
The very fact of having to supply a gallon or two of boiling
water twice a day was deemed too great a trouble ; but a few
bolder spirits tried the machines, found them succeed very weli
indeed, and, at a public trial held in 1879, the hydro came off
victorious, which was sufficient to give it a position at once.
Many defects had by this time been remedied, so as to make
it more fitted for Great Britain ; and the rearers sent out with it
were found to be, beyond all question, first-rate things. Thus
the hydro at once silenced all opponents, and, from its com-
paratively low price, at once became the machine. We believe
we are right in saying that of its opponents in the trial of
1879, only one machine is now to be purchased, the others no
longer being made. This success has made artificial incuba-

The 4 ' Hydro- Incubator, n 1 8 1

tion a fact, and thousands of chickens are hatched every year
in incubators. The bearing upon the question of poultry
farming is very great, as the attention given to a machine is
not more than is needed by a couple of hens, whilst it will
do four or six times the work, and with greater certainty.
This has, undoubtedly, had much to do with the recent revival
of interest in poultry keeping, and we, therefore, are justified v
in dealing fully with the question.

As might naturally be expected, the hydro-incubator was
not allowed to have all the field to itself. If its introduction
had not done any other good, that of showing where the
mistake was in the construction of previous machines was
enough to earn our favour. All these machines had been
made on the principle of having a small tank of water above
the eggs, heated by a continuously burning lamp, or gas jet.
In some, the tank was partially embedded, but in others, it
was entirely exposed, and in all it was very liable to external
atmospheric influences. The result of this was, that every
variation of the temperature affected the machine, and, during
sudden changes, it was almost impossible for any regulator to
withstand the pressure brought to bear upon it. Only one —
Boyle's — did actually work smoothly in this way, and that
was doubtless partly due to the fact, that its tank was the most
protected of all. This constant variation in the temperature,
could not but be hurtful to the eggs. But there was another
great evil, namely, that the rapid exhaustion of the heat,
consequent upon exposure, necessitated the consumption of a
comparatively large quantity of gas or oil, with vitiation of the
atmosphere already spoken of. On the introduction of the
hydro-incubator, therefore, it was at once seen that, with a
larger body of water in the tank, and the tank protected from
external influences, the heat in the machine would be steadier,
the consumption of oil or gas would be very small, and the
vitiation of the atmosphere reduced to a minimum, or entirely

1 82 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

prevented, and this led to experiments, which have resulted
in machines with continuous burning lamps, but without any
of the objectionable features in the incubators of the past.

The incubators now upon the market, both in England
and America, are numerous, and there is a considerable trade
in them. It is not necessary for us to do more than refer
to their leading characteristics, and then any of our readers,
who may be inclined to invest in a machine, can form
their own opinions as to the one most suited to them ;
not only so, but, as each maker issues a pamphlet or circular
relating to his own machine, very full information can be
got out of these.

We have seen that the great improvement which the hydro-
incubators exhibit over the older ones, is in the larger body
of water, as this makes the working of the machine a great
deal easier, and maintains the temperature much steadier,
than in the old machines, where the bulk of water was only
one-sixth or one-eighth as great. The chief drawback to the
"hydro,'' is the trouble involved in the partial emptying and
refilling of the tank twice a day. In places where there is
plenty of hot water at command, or, in a large room specially
fitted up for the purpose with hot- water pipes, this is of small
moment ; but, with ordinary folks, it means a great deal of
labour and trouble. One plan adopted is to have a large tin
boiler, holding four gallons of water, standing upon a gas
stove on the top of the incubator, in which the water is boiled
twice a day, and the water run into the tank direct. Oil
stoves have been introduced for the same purpose, where gas
is not available ; but, about two years ago, a modification
was introduced in the shape of small heating boilers, affixed,
by means of a couple of pipes, to the side of the machine as
is shown in fig. (8), and so constructed, that the water in the
tank can be re-heated twice or thrice a day, without the trouble
of emptying and refilling. This is done by the simple process

The Hydro- Incubator.

183

of having a lamp or gas jet under the hoiler, and, by the
natural circulation of water, that in the upper compartment
of the tank gradually passing through the boiler and thus
being re-heated.

By the use of this boiler twice a day for about an
hour each time, the machine can be worked ; and, though
this system requires care, yet with that care it is both simple
and easy. The makers of the hydro-incubator are Messrs.

Fig. 8. — Christy's Hydro-Incubator, with Circulating Boiler.

Thos. Christy and Co., of Fenchurch Street, London, who
have by their enterprise done a very great deal to solve the
problem of artificial incubation and rearing, and their
machines are now well known all over the world. In a place
where hot water is not to be obtained easily, and in sufficient
quantity, we know of no better machine than theirs, and we
should in such a place strongly recommend it, as there is no
danger of fire, no vitiation of the atmosphere, and there are
no regulators to get out of order.

184 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

The other machines made on this hot- water principle are,
first, that of M. Voitellier, of Nantes, in France. This is
very similar to the Christy machine, except that it has the
egg drawer rather differently situated. It is one of the oldest
machines, and we have heard very favourable accounts of it,
both in this country and in France. Secondly, there are the
tubular incubators made by Mr. John Owen, of the Minories,
London, which are very similar to the Christy, having a boiler
at the side. In this case, the water in the tank is not reheated
by flowing through the boiler, but, connected with the boiler
are pipes through which the heated water flows, and these
heat the water in the tank. And, thirdly, there is the " Egg
Oven," a machine invented by Miss May Arnold, of Acton.
This is almost conical in shape, and the tank above the eggs
forms an archway. The body of water held in it is very
large, so that the quantity to be supplied, in order to keep up
the heat, is very small indeed. Capital arrangements are made
for ventilation, cooling, and moisture ; and, though we have
not had an opportunity of testing it in actual practice, as it
is of but recent introduction, we have great faith in it, as it
appears to be made upon very sound principles. All these
machines are made in various sizes, from thirty-six eggs
upwards, and are reasonable in price.

The trouble involved with the hydro-incubators, led many
to experiment with self-heating machines, and we appear
now to be returning to the original system of continuous
burning lamps; but, certainly, they are in a much less
objectionable form than at first, as the water tanks are large,
consequently the loss of heat is small, and the boilers are
made small so that the water in them heats very rapidly.
As a result of these alterations, the lamp flames or gas jets
are diminutive, compared with the old ones, so that the vitia-
tion of the atmosphere is reduced to a minimum. These
are decided steps in advance ; and, though we should prefer

" Hear sons Incubator" 185

the hydro-incubators if we were working on a large scale, in
which case the supply of boiling water could be easily pro-
vided for, we are almost inclined to think that the self-heating
machines are better for those who do not wish to conduct
operations so extensively. The latter are certainly much easier
to work, and are very little more costly than the others. The
greatest dangers are in over-heating, and, in the case of lamp
machines especially, making the air in the apartment where
it is kept impure — a danger which can be obviated to a large
extent, by the exercise of a little care in the working of the
machine, and by having the room well ventilated.

One of the best machines of this <jlass, is that known as
Hearson's, made by the Sun Auto-Pneumatic Company, of
Southwark. We have heard the very highest testimonies as
to its capabilities, and recently heard a gentleman, who
has about a dozen incubators of various kinds, say that he
prefers this one to all the others. Above the lamp, which
is placed at one side of the machine, is a chimney, which has
two outlets. The first of these is immediately over the
lamp, but the other runs through the water-tank and back
again, the top of which is the side of the one first named.
There is no boiler above the lamp, and the only method of
heating is by means of the hot air passing through this
longer chimney, for, when in operation, a cap fits on to the
shorter one, and the heated air cannot escape in that way,
except under such circumstances as we shall presently indi-
cate. Below the tank, and just above the egg-drawer, is a
metal capsule about two inches square, and in this is some
fluid, unknown except to the makers, which expands enor-
mously when the heat rises to more than 104 degrees. On
the upper side is a rod, which passes up a tube through the
tank, communicating, by a lever, with another rod, which is
attached to the cap fitting on to the chimney immediately
above the lamp. When the machine is in its normal con-

1 86 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

dition, this cap remains in position, and the hot air has tc g©
the circuit already named ; but, when the heat rises above
104 degrees, the capsule expands, the lever is acted upon, and
the cap is lifted from off the chimney, so that the hot air
escapes there, and the machine soon cools down. This cap-
sule is wonderfully susceptible, and the incubator is found to
work admirably. The usual arrangements are made in it for
ventilation, and moisture, without which no machine could
succeed.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

Although the exact date cannot be ascertainedi, it is
believed that the first hatching machine was exhibited in
the United States prior to the year 1844. This was a ma-
chine presumably of English manufacture, and was called the
Potolokian. It was shown in the city of New York. No
reference is made in the records of the United States Patent
Office to any machine for hatching chickens earlier than the
year 1847. In that year, as we learn from the report of
Charles H. Page, the then Examiner of Patents, two patents
were granted for methods of artificial incubation. As show-
ing the state of the knowledge upon this subject and how
well these early inventors comprehended the problem await-
ing solution, this report is of special interest. The Exam-
iner says, "The operation of hatching chickens by artificial
heat is much more extensively practised in Europe than in
this country, though of late years the traffic in such busi-
ness has increased. Two patents have been granted for
modes of artificial incubation ; the point aimed it in both
being to imitate as clearly as possible the circumstances of
nature. A good idea of the invention and its objects may
be gathered from a short preamble to one of the specifica-
tions as follows :

" 'Heretofore, in arranging apparatus for the hatching of

American Incubators. 187

eggs by artificial incubation, it has been usual so to con-
struct the same that the eggs are placed in a heated atmos-
phere of a temperature which is thought the best for the
purpose, so that the whole surface of each egg has hereto-
fore been subjected to the same temperature, which I have
discovered, after numerous experiments, is highly injurious,
and only a very low percentage of the eggs submitted to arti-
ficial incubation can by such means be hatched, and I at-
tribute that result to the evaporation of too much of the
fluid of the egg. It will be found, and it is a well known
fact, that the germ of the egg floats at the upper part of the
egg, and the bird in natural incubation applies the direct
heat of the body to that part of the egg, and the lower part
of the egg is comparatively at a much lower temperature
than the upper part where the germ is. In addition to
which the bird often leaves the nest for a time, by which
each egg is more or less ventilated.

" i Now the object of the first part of the invention is so to
arrange apparatus for artificial incubation that the heat
may be contact heat from above, whilst the lower surfaces of
the eggs are kept comparatively at a low temperature, and
by such means to imitate nature as nearly as may be. I
would remark that the arrangement of apparatus for obtain-
ing the requisite heat from above to the eggs, for carrying
on the process of artificial incubation according to my
invention, may be varied; and, therefore, although I shall
hereafter describe an arrangement of apparatus such as I
have found fully to answer, and is what I believe to be best
v for the purpose, I do not confine myself thereto so long as
the peculiar mode of carrying on the process of artificial
incubation by top contact heat be retained.

" i The second part of my invention relates to the arrange-
ment of apparatus to serve the purpose of the mother in
imparting warmth to the young bird, and consists of circu-
lating heated fluids through flexible pipes, so that the

1 88 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

young birds can pass under and press themselves against
such heated flexible pipes or surfaces : and such an appara-
tus will be found to offer a like mode of applying warmth
to the young to that which is offered by the mother ; and
the young having a warm yielding surface above, against
which they can press themselves, they will not be found to
huddle together as has been heretofore very commonly the
case in bringing up young birds ; and such huddling
together renders the young very weakly and tender, and
very few are raised to maturity/ "

The first of these patents for artificial incubation was
granted to L. G. Hoffman of Albany, N. Y., on Feb. 20th,
and the second to W. J. Canteto of England, on July 24th,
in the year 1847. Both from the records of the Patent Office
and from other sources the fact seems to be established that
Mr. Hoffman was the first American citizen to produce a
hatching machine.

From 1847 to 1870, a period of twenty-three years, the
U. S. Patent Office granted no patents to inventors for ma-
chines or for methods of artificial incubation. The first
machines doubtless failed to satisfy the expectations of their
makers, and the problem of artificial incubation still was to
be solved. Although no patents were granted during this
period, we are not to suppose that the problem had been
given up as insoluble by human skill. Probably men were
observing, studying, thinking of the various factors, and
though no record remains we are justified in regarding this
as not an entirely fruitless period. On December 27th of
the year 1870 a patent was granted to Jacob Graves of Read-
ing and Henry Graves of Boston, Mass., for an incubator,
the first patent granted by the United States for a machine
with that name, for the patents of 1847 were for methods
rather than machines. While it is not absolutely certain
that this is the machine to which Mr. James Rankin, the
great duck producer, alludes in his little work, " Sixteen

American Incubators. 189

Years' Experience in Artificial Poultry Kaising," yet it cer-
tainly possessed many of the characteristics of that machine.
That machine was exhibited in Boston in 1868, and appears
to have been of very thorough construction. " It was most
thoroughly built in every part, and could generate all the
heat needed to incubate eggs in a temperature below freezing
point." But in operation the difficulty was found to be in
controlling the heat. ' ' The regulating apparatus consisted
of a glass syphon, some two feet long, filled partly with
alcohol and partly with mercury ; the alcohol being inside
of the machine and the mercury outside. In this mercury
was inserted a wired cork. The heat was expected to expand
the alcohol, force up the mercury, and raise the cork."
This cork was attached by a small wire to the ventilator,
and by another wire to a cut-off on the lamp, and had it
worked well, it would have cut off the flame and opened the
ventilator simultaneously. The difficulty lay not so much
in the conception of the regulator as in the placing of the
alcohol in the bottom of the egg chamber, where the heat
was the least, so that by the time the heat had expanded
the alcohol the eggs had been seriously injured by overheat-
ing. The machine also was heated on all sides, except where
the door was, as well as overhead, which last is the only
method now in use, and the reason for which had been fully
understood by the inventors of 1847, as appears in the pre-
amble quoted. This machine, though showing that consid-
erable advance had been made, nevertheless proved quite a
disappointment. Inasmuch as the claims in the patent of
1870 show a combination of a burner, cylinder, cork float,
tube, rod, lever, spring, and crank, so disposed as to accom-
plish the purpose, substantially as set forth in the description
of the machine given, and as both appeared in the same local-
ity, it does not seem a strained conclusion that the same
machine is under consideration in both cases.

In 1871 patents were granted to E. Woodward and N. J.

190 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

Millet of Charlestown, Mass., and also to H. J. Haight of
New York City. The patent of the latter was for a rotary
incubator, so arranged as to turn around gradually, the
movement supposing in some way to secure the more perfect
hatching of the eggs. This was a hot water machine and
was considered self -regulating.

In 1872 but one application, and this for some appliance
to an incubator, and not for the machine as a whole, was
granted to Jacob Graves of Heading, Mass., doubtless an im-
provement to the incubator, the patent for which had been
previously granted. In 1873 no patent relating to artificial
incubation was granted, and in 1874 but one, to Mr. H. J.
Haight, the inventor of the rotary incubator. In 1875
there were two ; in 1876, one to H. W. Axford ; in 1877
there were four and the name of E. S. Kenwick appears
among them ; in 1878 there were two ; in 1879 we count six,
among which is J. L. Campbell ; in 1880 the same as in 1879,
and J. Dennis Jr. among the number ; in 1881 seven names
appear, and that of A. M. Halsted for the first time ; in 1882
five patents appear to have been granted, and the following
year the same number ; in 1884 but three names are given,
but among them appears that of James Rankin ; in 1885
there were thirteen patents granted, in 1886 twenty, and
in 1887 nine ; in 1888 there were nine, the following year
five, and in 1891 eleven ; in 1892 six patents were granted,
in 1893 sixteen, and the data for 1894 can not yet be had.
We have, therefore, in the last twenty-four years, beginning
with 1870, no less than one hundred and thirty-five patents
granted for incubators or parts of incubators. And this
number by no means adequately represents the number of
conceptions that have been embodied in machines for artifi-
cial incubation, for there are doubtless as many more that
have been built for use but never have been patented. Not
a few of these unpatented machines are automatic in regula-
tion and very successful in operation. The writer has in mind

American Incubators. 191

now one machine, built to hold one hundred eggs,from which
its inventor almost invariably hatches fully eighty-five per
cent, of the fertile eggs, and has actually taken out of the
machine at a single hatch eighty-five bright healthy chicks.
If we were to add to the successful unpatented machines
all of the unsuccessful experiments that have been made the
list would become formidable indeed, and it would prove
that the American people are in means of accomplishing
artificial hatching, as well as in other matters, a nation of
inventors.

Incubators are broadly divided into two classes, hot water
and hot air machines. Each class has certain advantages
over the other. The hot water machines, by reason of the
heat remaining in the water for a long time, prevent the
eggs from becoming chilled in the event of the lamp going
out. The hot air machines heat more quickly and easily
and hence consume less oil in their operation. If the heat
rises suddenly the opening of a ventilator cools off the egg
chamber quickly before injury can be done to the eggs,
whereas if there were a body of superheated water the cool-
ing would take place more slowly, and it might take place
so slowly that the eggs would be ruined. Water tanks, espe-
cially if made of iron, often become leaky in a few years,
and may become so during a hatch at the risk of spoiling a
batch of valuable eggs. The advantages and disadvantages,
however, when the machines have good care, are so evenly
balanced that one class of machines can be said to have but
little if any real superiority over the other. There used to
be a vigorous contention over the character of the heat sup-
plied, the advocates of the hot water machines claiming that
the heat from their incubators was more moist, and that
therefore they prevented the eggs from becoming too greatly
evaporated. This contention, it is needless to say, really
had no merit in it beyond the fact that if the tube used for
filling the tank was left open there would be a little evapo-

192 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

ration, and a very little indeed, from the water in the ma-
chine, and this would produce a small amount of moisture
in the air surrounding the machine. As machines are now
constructed with a tight fitting cap to the opening into the
tank, no moisture can escape into the outer air, no evapora-
tion take place, and therefore the heat is just as dry in one
class of machines as in the other. This contention has been
altogether silenced as the truth has become known,

Incubators are also broadly divided into two classes,
according to the method of regulating the heat. In one case
this is accomplished by an automatic regulator which opens
a valve allowing the warm air to escape from the egg cham-
ber, or which lifts a cap allowing the heat from the lamp to
escape so that no more can be added to the egg chamber
until the temperature drops back to the desired degree. In
the other case it is accomplished by what is known as a
lamp trip, which is, usually, a small metal sleeve slipping
over the lamp burner and attached to the automatic regu-
lator. As the temperature rises the regulator draws up this
sleeve, thus diminishing the size of the flame and the
amount of the heat. These two methods are sometimes
combined in the same machine, the flame being diminished
and the warm air being allowed to escape simultaneously.
When but one method is employed, although there may be
an honest difference of opinion, it seems to the writer that
the first is the preferable. The lamp trip does not always
work successfully, at least upon some machines, and, espe-
cially in hot water machines, there is often needed a sudden
cooling of the eggs which cannot be secured by the lamp
trip alone. A combination of the two methods usually
works admirably, but such a combination adds to the com-
plexity of the machine.

The most obvious classification of incubators is that into
those without a regulator and those provided with a regu-
lator. The former class has been almost entirely supplanted

American Incubators. 193

by the latter in the markets, though frequently home-made
incubators have no automatic regulator. Among the most
noted machines of this first class is the invention of J. Den-
nis Jr. of East Providence, R. I., patented in 1880. This
machine deserves especial notice, not only because it has
been quite a successful hatcher, but also because it intro-
duced a unique feature into incubators. The most of Jhe
incubators which are operated without a regulator depend
upon the fact that an inclosed body of hot water retains its
heat for a long time, the cooling process being very gradual.
This is reduced to the minimum by inclosing the tank in a
casing packed with non-conducting material. At stated
periods a portion of the water is drawn off and its place sup-
plied by an equal quantity of boiling water. But the inven-
tion of Mr. Dennis, the Reliance Incubator, makes use of
soapstone to retain the heat. The soapstone, in which are
imbedded hot water pipes, to furnish it with the desired
amount of heat, is placed in the upper part of the incuba-
tor, over the eggs, in the position occupied by the usual
tank. The heat is supplied to the hot water pipes by an oil
stove of special pattern. As the hot water circulates
through the pipes, the soapstone absorbs the heat, which it
gradually radiates through the egg chamber. The body of
the machine is made of metal, with an inch space between the
inner and outer casings, to be packed with non-conducting
material. There are two egg drawers and over each is a
ventilator that is kept constantly open. Evaporating pans
supply moisture to the air as it enters the egg chamber.
The regulating of the heat depends upon the size of the
flame in the oil stove. A little experience with a machine
enables one to gauge the flame quite accurately for securing
the desired temperature for the eggs. This machine, though
practically out of the market, did really good work in its
day, as has been learned from those who operated it. The
perfection to which the various regulators have been brought

194 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

has practically driven out of market machines without regu-
lators, though home-made machines are often constructed in
this way. Outside of the Olentangy Incubator, made by
Geo. S. Singer of Cardington, Ohio, the writer is unable to
recall a machine now manufactured for sale that is without
an automatic regulator, and even the Olentangy is claimed
to be self regulating, though having no automatic device for
this purpose. Ten years ago this was not the case, for,
besides the Reliance, there were a number of such incubators
on the market, among which were the Pacific and the
Novelty.

The number of really valuable automatically regulated
incubators is so great that one is embarrassed in the selec-
tio n the most representative for description. Popularity
is no sure index of the comparative value of the machines,
for the one which is the most popular to-day may be eclipsed
by a rival to-morrow. Fortunately the purpose of this work
is not to decide which is the best, but to show how some of
the most representative machines are constructed, with a
brief mention of others, perhaps equally as valuable for prac-
tical use.

Among hot water incubators none is more popular than
the Monarch, or " Improved Monarch," as it is now called
by its inventor and manufacturer, James Rankin of South
Easton, Mass. This machine grew out of a need Mr. Rankin
felt in carrying on his business as a practical poultry raiser.
A machine which he bought, now nearly a quarter of a cen-
tury ago, having proved a failure, induced him to experi-
ment in the hope of ascertaining its defects and of discover-
ing remedies for them. The outgrowth of all these experi-
ments was the incubator which has now been so long and so
favorably before the public. The machine, of which a cut is
shown, is constructed with two cases, the inner one of gal-
vanized iron, the outer of wood, with an inch space for dead
air and heavy sheathing paper. It is furnished with three

American Incubators,

195

doors, two inner ones of glass and an outside one of wood.
The tank, which holds about thirty gallons of water, is made
of galvanized iron, and is located above the egg chamber.
It is packed at the sides and on the top with heavy hair
felting an inch in thickness. The machine is regulated by
the expansion of water. At one end of the tank is attached

The Improved Monarch Incubator.

a tube some three or four inches in diameter. In this tube
is inserted a float of thin brass foil, which acts upon a hori-
zontal bar connected with the extinguishers on the lamps.
The action is as follows : when the water in the tank
becomes heated above the degree that is desired it expands
and, as it expands, it forces up the brass float, which tilts
the horizontal bar and communicates its action to the metal

196 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

sleeves, which are drawn up so as to diminish the size of the
flame. When the water cools, it contracts again, and the
metal float following the water pulls up the horizontal bar,
which causes the sleeve on the burner to drop down and
increase the size of the flame. On the largest machines two
lamps are used, though one is usually sufficient to furnish all
heat required. The lamp heats the water through a small
copper boiler and a constant circulation is kept up. The
machine is furnished with adjustable trays, the egg chamber
is roomy, and excellent results have been had from its use.
The inventor hatches from 8,000 to 10,000 ducks and chick-
ens each year, and many other large establishments use
these machines.

In describing this, and other machines, a free use is made
of the manufacturer's description.

The Challenge Incubator.

The Challenge Incubator, invented and manufactured by
Wood and Paige, Lynn, Mass., practical poultry raisers, is
a machine that is giving very general satisfaction among its
users. It is a double cased machine, the outer of wood, the
inner of zinc, with a space of two inches, firmly packed
with sawdust, between the two cases. The floor is also
double, with sheathing paper between. The tank is made
of heavy galvanized iron, the boiler of copper, and the con-
nections of brass. The circulation of the water is about the
edges of the tank, then through the centre and, as it cools,

American Incubators.

197

it flows through a lead pipe passing around the bottom of
the machine and thence into the boiler. A good circulation
is thus secured. On this return pipe the moisture pans rest,
about two inches above which the egg trays are placed.
The eggs are turned by a train of friction gears, the simple
motion of pulling out a rod turning every egg in the
machine. The regulator is a ball attached to a lever, and
operates by the expansion of heated water. As the water
expands, it rises into a small glass globe. This globe is

The Eureka Incubator,

attached to a long lever, one end of which is attached to the
cut-off on the lamps. As the water expands, its weight
causes the end of the rod to drop, the motion reducing the
flame and thus shutting off the source of heat.

The Eureka Incubator enjoys an excellent reputation.
Its inventor and manufacturer, Mr. J. L. Campbell of West

198 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

Elizabeth, Pa., has been for years a more than ordinarily
careful experimenter in artificial incubation, and the results
of his many experiments he has embodied in his machines.
The case of the Eureka is double and well put together.
The tank or, in double tray machines, the two tanks are
made either of galvanized steel or of copper. The steel tanks
are painted inside before they are put together. Moisture
is supplied from a pan, and in the double tank machines
this pan is a covered arrangement over the surface of which
as much or as little air can be passed as is desired. The
heat is regulated by a thermometer placed directly over
the egg and attached to the centre of a balanced bar or
walking-beam situated on the top of the incubator. One
end of this beam is provided with a wire that connects with
the lamp burner, the other is connected with a valve.
When the heat rises the lamp trip operates by diminishing
the flame, and the heat is kept at any required degree.
The valve will also open and let out the over-heated air.
The cut-off on the lamp is of a peculiar pattern, instead of
a metal sleeve which slips up and down, being so con-
structed that it opens and shuts against the wick from each
side. The eggs are automatically turned by a clock-work
arrangement, the clock being set to turn the eggs at any
hour or hours the operator may deem advisable. Machines
are made of various capacities and with both double and
single trays as may be desired.

Among other hotwater inc ubators which have an excellent
reputation may be mentioned the Climax, manufactured by
the Climax Incubator Co. of Fitchburg, Mass. ; the Im-
proved Monitor, made by A. F. Williams, Bristol, Conn ;
the Improved Noxall, manufactured by Geo. W. Murphy,
Quincy, 111. ; the Improved Victor, manufactured by the
Geo. Estell Co., of Quincy, 111. ; the Buckeye, made by the
Buckeye Incubator Co., of Springfield, Ohio ; the Juniata,
made by the Juniata Incubator Co., of Yeagertown, Pa. \

American Incubators.

199

the Flower City, manufactured by the Flower City Incuba-
tor Co., Kochester, N. Y. ; the Perfected, made by H. D.
Moulton, Taunton, Mass. ; and the Keliable, made by the
Eeliable Incubator and Brooder Co., Quincy, 111. This list
is by no means complete, but it gives some idea of the great
number of really good machines that are now manufactured.
Among hot air machines there is none that enjoys a
greater popularity than the Prairie State, manufactured by

/ PRAIRIE STATU INtaJJi

The Prairie State Incubator.

the Prairie State Incubator Co., of Homer City, Pa. This
machine is used extensively in centres of broiler-raising, in
the establishments of market poultrymen, and in the more
limited quarters of the fancier. The machines are " single-
decked, " that is, have but one tier of trays. The air for the
egg chamber enters from below within a tube which sur-
rounds the lamp flue, by which means it is warmed, and in
its ascent it passes over the moisture pans, which are situ-
ated in the centre of the machine and the top of the egg
chamber, thus securing the desired humidity. The flue of
the lamp passes upward through the machine and through

200

Profitable Potdtry Keeping.

the radiator and enters a galvanized iron radiator covering
the entire top of the egg chamber. Thence it passes upward
and out of two pipes at the end of the machine. This gal-
vanized iron radiator, warmed by contact with the heated
air, radiates the heat from above down upon the eggs to be
hatched. The heat is regulated by a thermostat of metal,
operating a valve by means of a connecting rod. This valve

The Pineland Incubator.

covers the top of the lamp flue, compelling the heat to pass
upon the above described circuit, but, when the tempera-
ture becomes too high in the egg chamber, the valve is
lifted by the thermostat and the heat escapes from the lamp,
being no longer forced through the radiator. The operation
is a very simple and reliable one. Below the egg tray there
is a considerable space, and as the chickens hatch they drop
down into this space. This space becomes a nursery for the
chicks until the hatch is completed.

The Pineland, manufactured by the Pineland Incubator

Amei'ican Incubators. 201

and Brooder Co., of Jamesburg, N. J., is another machine
that has a good and growing reputation. In construction
and general principles this machine is quite similar to the
Prairie State. It is regulated by a lamp trip, and it radiates
heat from a radiator above the eggs. Its thermostat is a
hard rubber bar. In the larger machines there is a division,
making them practically two machines. Two lamps are
provided and the sides can be operated independently, or
one side can be filled with hens' eggs and the other with
ducks' eggs, and the hatches will not interfere with each
other. This idea is claimed to be original with the Pine-
land, though some other machines are now built upon the
same principle.

The Thermostatic Incubator, of E. S. Kenwick, is one of
the most scientific machines ever produced, but its compli-
cation has prevented its general introduction to the public.
A mechanic would doubtless pronounce it one of the most
perfect machines ever invented. In the hands of one who
has a little mechanical ingenuity it would seem that this
machine could not fail to give satisfaction, but many oper-
ators of incubators lack this ingenuity and consequently
prefer a simple, if less scientific, machine. The air, warmed
by contact with metallic lamp flues, passes over surfaces of
water and, ladened with moisture, is radiated upon the eggs
from above, and then, passing through the nursery at the
bottom of the machine, it is conducted out of the incubator
by a flue at the rear. The heat is regulated by a thermo-
static bar which operates a clockwork arrangement that
opens and closes the lamp flues as less or more heat is re-
quired. The machine embodies devices for turning the
eggs, for permitting the chicks to drop into the nursery,
for governing the heat, and for whatever else may be neces-
sary to secure a compliance with all the requisites of arti-
ficial incubation.

202

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

The Simplicity, manufactured by the Von Culin Incuba-
tor Co., of Delaware City, Del., is a thoroughly well built
incubator. Its walls are five inches thick, the space between
the inner and outer walls being packed with a light, non-

* In order to give as clear an idea as possible of the construction of
an incubator we publish the following illustrations, which show the
interior parts of the Improved Simplicity Hatcher. A careful study
of these illustrations will show exactly how this machine is con-
structed, and will make clear the terms used in describing the other
incubators mentioned in this work.

Von Culln's Improved Simplicity Hatcher.

Fig. l.

Figure 1 is a view of the Hatcher, showing one of the lamps, and
the general exterior of the machine.

Fig. 2 is a view in perspective, showing the body of the improved
incubator with top and outer walls removed.

Fig. 3 is a longitudinal section on line XX of Fig. 4 of the improved
incubator, showing the thermostat and its connections.

Fig. 4 is a view in cross section of the space between the inner and
outer walls of the improved incubator.

American Incubators.

203

conducting material. The inner door of the machine is
made of glass, but the outer door is of equal thickness with

Similar letters refer to similar parts throughout the several views.

AA are inlets for con-
ducting hot air into the
heater S through pipes
BB. When E is open, it
allows the hot air to pass
up A A and CC, through
D, and out at E, making
a draft which draws hot
air out of the heater S at
BB, at the same time
drawing cold air into
the heater S at IIII.
-p. 2 D is a discharge pipe

double the capacity
of C, and carries off hot air from CC out at E when E is open.

E is the main outlet for hot air, S is
the hot air heater, five inches deep.
H is the egg chamber.
IIII are tubes running through the
top of heater S, through which cold air
is drawn into heater S, when E is open.
K is a thermostat in the egg cham-
ber and is on a level with the eggs.

L is a metal rod connecting the ther-
mostat with the lever M.

J is a ball or cover suspended
at the outer end of the lever M,
and is made to open or close
the outlet E by action of the
thermostat K.

P is a tube running from the
egg chamber H through the
heater S, and through which
the rod L passes. X is one of
the lamps, two being used at

ffififffl

JCJLi

Fig. 3.

A

YfiYrYJ

Fig. 4.
diagonally opposite corners of the incubator.

204 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

the walls. The thermometer is mounted on a wooden rod
and is pushed through a hole in the side of the machine.
To examine it one can pull it out and note the temperature
without opening either outer or inner door. The thermo-
stat consists of a rubber and brass bar, connected with an
upright rod, which in turn is connected to a long but very
light wooden bar. At the end of this bar is attached a
metal cap that fits over the lamp flue. As the temperature
rises the thermostat bends down, pulling with it the upright
rod, which operates the long bar and lifts the cap, thus
allowing the heated air to escape. Heat is radiated from
above. This machine, owing to its thick walls and to the
complete circuit of hot air, is very inexpensive to operate,
the lamp consuming but a very small quantity of oil. The
thermostat is sufficiently sensitive to enable an operator to
run the machine through a hatch with scarcely any varia-
tion of temperature.

The Surprise Incubator, invented by Frank C. Beardsley
and manufactured by the Surprise Incubator Co. of East
Billerica, Mass., and the Homer City Incubator made by
the Homer City Incubator Co. of Homer City, Pa. are well
indorsed as successful hot air machines.

Nothing in the circulars of manufacturers of incubators
is more misleading than the impression they give, even if
they do not directly assert, that experience is not necessary
for the successful operation of the advertised machines.
It is doubtless true that remarkable hatches have been
secured occasionally by inexperienced persons, but it is
equally true that experience is valuable in operating incu-
bators. There have been condemned, without doubt, many
really valuable machines simply because the operator lacked
experience ; machines, which, in other hands, would pro-
duce admirable results. One of the most successful poultry
fanciers in the United States, a man who raises several
thousand chickens each year, said, in an address delivered

American Incubators. 205

in 1893, " I have tried them for several years, having used
all the best machines ; and I would not take the best one
that is manufactured to-day as a present, if I was obliged to
use it myself. Chickens hatched by the hen are much
stronger, larger and finer in plumage ; there is as much
difference between artificially produced chickens and nat-
ural ones as there is between Jersey butter and oleomarga-
rine." And yet there can be named a number of fanciers
who could not be induced to hatch and rear their chickens
by hens, who find that size, color, hardiness and every
other valuable point can be secured by artificial means
equally as well as by natural means and with much less
trouble. The idea that artificially hatched chickens are infe-
rior to those produced by the natural method has largely
died out, though it still persists in a few very conserva-
tive minds. From the time of Reaumur, who introduced
the art into France, by hatching chickens in barrels by the
heat of fermenting manure, to the present there have not
been wanting objectors to the artificial process. It will be
remembered that people asserted in Reaumur's day that the
chickens he hatched in his barrels were unfit for human
food because they tasted of the heating material, and that
such chickens were absolutely sterile and if the process were
persisted in the race of fowls would necessarily die out.
Modern objectors have not been quite so absurd, though
they have claimed that size would be deficient, shape im-
perfect, hardiness impaired, plumage less perfect, and for
exhibition the birds would score at least two points less.
And these objections had a certain basis, the basis of inex-
perience in operating the machines. One gentleman, whose
experience may be given as a type of that of the average
operators of incubators, has expressed himself to this effect :
"The first year that I ran an incubator the results were
such as to lead me to think the machine was a delusion
and a snare. The few chickens I hatched out of many

206 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

eggs were deficient in size and plumage. The second year
I had better results, but the artificially hatched and brooded
chickens were inferior to those produced in the natural
way. The third year, however, when I had learned how to
run my machines, gave me such satisfactory results that I
prefer the artificial to the natural method. I find I can
produce as large, as handsome, as hardy and as valuable
chickens by the artificial as I can by the natural method,
and I really think I can do even better than that, for my
artificially produced chickens are the finest I ever reared.
It took me three years to learn how to do it, and I do not
feel now that the whole art has been learned ; I expect to
improve still more in the future." If this gentleman's
recital of his experience is true, and if it is a typical exper-
ience, then the best that can be hoped to be done by sug-
gestions is simply to shorten the period of learning, not to
do away with its necessity.

One of the first things to be considered in operating an
incubator is its location. Many manufacturers claim that
their machines will hatch anywhere, and perhaps they will,
but the place where they will do the best work is where
there is the most stable temperature with a supply of pure
air. The cellar of a dwelling house, or what is perhaps even
better, a basement underneath the ground on three sides,
will secure an even temperature and proper ventilation. It
does not matter so much what the temperature is, provided
it is not subject to sudden or great changes, because incuba-
tors as now constructed are capable of generating a sufficient
degree of heat in the egg chamber even in a temperature
that is nearly at zero.

Another requisite of successful management of incubators
is the securing the proper degree of humidity in the atmos-
phere. Reaumur found that he could hatch no chickens in
his barrels until he had excluded all moisture, but the
necessity in his case may have been quite as much the keep-

A merican Incubators. 207

ing out of foul gases as the exclusion of moisture. Experi
ence with incubators, however, has led to quite a change of
ideas in reference to the necessity of moisture. At first it
was supposed there could not be too much, but less and less
moisture has been supplied with constantly improving
results. Some admirable hatches have been secured without
the use of any moisture in the egg chamber. It seems to be
tolerably well settled that when a hygrometer shows the
humidity to be about forty-five degrees the air is sufficiently
moist for hatching purposes. If this degree of humidity is
present there is no necessity of adding to it by evaporation.
If, however, the air be very dry there is danger that the
liquid within the eggs will evaporate too rapidly, and that
the membranous lining of the shell will become too tough
for the chicken to break out when the three weeks of incu-
bation are passed. On the other hand unless the egg evapo-
rates sufficiently the chicken grows too large and is unable
to turn about in his shell and break his way out. The
golden mean between too much and too little moisture
should be preserved.

Numerous experiments have proved apparently that eggs
need to be turned once at least in every twenty-four hours.
Many ingenious mechanical devices for turning the eggs have
been invented, and they are useful, provided the tempera-
ture of the egg chamber is the same in all its parts. But
this is frequently not the case, and the result is that, when
these automatic burners are used, the eggs in one part of the
machine hatch, while those in other parts do not. It is always
advisable to test the various parts of the egg chamber, and
see whether the heat is alike throughout. If it is not do not
turn the eggs automatically, but by hand, and take pains to
shift the positions daily, so that each egg will, in the course
of the three weeks, jccupy every place in the chamber.
More uniform hatching will be secured in this way.

Eggs should be tested after they have been in the ma-

208 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

chine a week and the clear eggs removed. This will be early
enough for beginners, though with experience one can test
them successfully when they have been in the incubator
three days. Such eggs as are removed at this testing are
perfectly suitable for human food, and are much better than
the majority of " store " eggs, especially such as one buys in
the summer. A second testing should be made on the tenth
or fifteenth day, and every egg that does not have a strong,
live embryo should be removed from the machine.

After the eighteenth day until the hatch is completed the
incubator should not be opened. It may be difficult to
restrain curiosity, but it is advisable to do so. If the door
is constantly opened the temperature becomes variable at a
time when it should be uniform, the hatching eggs are sub-
jected to cold draughts that may chill and even kill the
chickens just breaking their way out. The percentage of
many hatches is doubtless greatly lowered in this way. If
you must see how things are going on, content yourself with
peeping through the glass of the inner closed door, and do
this just as infrequently as possible. When the chickens
are out and dried will be time enough to count them. As
they do not need any food until they have been hatched
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, because of the al^orp-
tion of the yolk of the egg, there is no cruelty to them in
waiting for the completion of the hatch. When the hatch
is completed and the chickens all nicely dried they are ready
for removal to the brooder which has already been warmed
for their reception.

Rearing — -JSlaturaL and Artificial. 209

CHAPTER XVII.

REARING NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL.

Sue of Eggs — Supposed Ways of Testing Sex and Fertility of Eggs — Formation
of Egg — The Young Chicks — First Day after Hatching — Food — Coops —
Influence of Early Management — Coddling Injurious — First Three or
Four Days — Second Stage — The Run — Food — Meat Diet — Green Food —
System in Feeding— Cold Mothers - Troubles with Hens — Artificial Mothers
—Management — Outdoor Rearers — Heat — Overcrowding — Teaching Chicks
to Eat — Turkeys as Rearers. —Water— Milk.

There is a great variety in the size of eggs laid by the
different breeds of domestic poultry, but, the size of the egg
is very little indication of the size of the fowl which it will
produce. Of course Bantams lay much smaller eggs than
ordinary fowls, and ducks much larger ones ; but, if we take
the Spanish tribe, which are almost the smallest in size of
body, save only Bantams and Hamburghs, they have almost
the largest egg of any ; whereas, on the other hand,
Brahmas and Cochins, which are the largest fowls, have very
much smaller eggs than any other domestic fowls, except
those already named. Doubtless, they are very rich in quality,
whilst the Spanish are rather dry ; but, what we have said,
shows that the size of fowl and the size of egg have no regular
relationship, and, therefore, larger eggs than those usually
laid by the fowls should not be selected for hatching. Very
large eggs are generally double yolked and unfertile, or,
if fertile, produce mal-formed chicks. The best, and only

2 jo Profitable Poultry Keeping.

safe plan, is to select ordinary-sized, smooth-shelled, and good
shaped eggs, refusing such as are abnormal in any way.
We have heard it stated that long and pointed eggs produce
cock birds, and that short, round eggs produce hens ; but
the belief upon which this supposition rests, is so wanting in
proof, and the opposite has been so often shown, that it must
be dismissed as incorrect. We have also heard that eggs
laid before noon produce hens, and after that time of day
cocks, the promulgator of this extraordinary theory declaring
that he has proved its truth scores of times ; but this must
be dismissed as nonsense. It has been also said, and with a
greater measure of probability, that the fertility of eggs can
be told by placing the broad end to the mouth, and breathing
upon it. If the egg feels cold, it is unfertile ; but if it is
warm, or, to describe it more accurately, appears to give
back warmth, it has been impregnated. The reason for this
is stated to be, that a fertile egg contains the germ of life,
and that there cannot be life without heat ; therefore, the egg
does not absorb the same amount of heat when breathed
upon, as when an unfertile, and, consequently, entirely cold
egg is tested. We have known many instances where this
test has been applied, and the eggs selected accordingly, with
the result that they have turned out as marked, when placed
in an incubator ; but, we have known other instances, where
it has not been found so reliable, and we cannot, therefore,
state that the test is an entirely safe one. It is a fact, how-
ever, that after eggs have been in process of incubation for
ten or twelve days, and are exposed to the atmosphere for
five minutes, the living and the dead ones can easily be
distinguished, if held in the hand. The former are as warm
as when the hen was on them, whilst the latter are quite
cold, or very nearly so.

The formation of an egg is truly a wonderful process,
and puts the poor, weak inventions of man into the shade

Rearing — Natural and A rtificiaL 2 1 1

The yolk, which contains the germ, when detached from the
ovary, finds its way to the oviduct, and is there coated in
succession with numerous thin layers of white — which is
largely composed of albumen. It has the chalazas — which
hold the yolk in position, and are known as the portion
which cooks take out when beating up an egg — fixed, is then
covered with the two outer membranes or skins, and, finally,
before being voided, is covered with the shell. The white is
the matter from which the chick is formed, when the germ of
life is present, and the egg subjected to the proper conditions.
The yolk-bag contains the food of the chick, and, during the
process of incubation, this bag hardens, and is absorbed with
its contents into the stomach of the bird, shortly before it
emerges from the shell. Thus, by a bountiful provision of
nature, no food is needed by the chick during the first twenty-
four hours of its existence, and giving any food during that
time, is not only useless, but positively injurious, so that no
attempt should be made to force the birds to eat. Young
poultry keepers often get anxious, because the food put down
during the first day is not eaten, but for the reason just
stated, there is no need to have any fears on that account,
and the appetite will come in proper time, for which patience,
must be exercised. Another custom is observed by some per-
sons, which is a useless one, namely, the giving of a pepper-
corn to the newly-hatched chick ; but, unaware as we are of
the reason advanced for this custom, it is not based upon
experience or upon common sense, and we can only charac-
terise it as " an old wives' fable." A still more foolish
custom is occasionally found, which deserves the strongest
condemnation, namely, that of tearing off the hard scale found
on the beaks of all young chicks — so placed to enable them to
break through the shell — and putting it down the throat of
the bird. This is not only without anything to recommend
it., but is, at the same time, cruel and barbarous, and also

212

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

unnecessary, as the scale naturally falls off after a few days.
Possibly, if we could trace it, this custom originated in some
old superstition, born in an age when there was a charm in
cruelty, or, when no thought was given to the sufferings of
those who were weak and defenceless.

When the process of hatching is entirely over, and all the
birds are out, it is better not to disturb the hen, after having
given her a good feed, for twenty to twenty-four hours, when
some hard-boiled egg, chopped fine, mixed with an equal
quantity of bread crumbs, and slightly moistened with milk,
should be given to both the hen and her brood. The best
plan for making the bread crumbs is to get a sieve, about
ten or twelve inches in diameter, and of a moderately fine
mesh. This, in use, is turned upside down, and bread rubbed
through with the hands, in which way, if the loaf is not too
new, nice even crumbs will be made very rapidly. When
giving the first feed, it is best to put the food upon a board
in front of the nest, and the hen and chickens placed near it,
when the tapping of the hen's beak will be sufficient to attract
the attention of the chicks, and they will soon begin to feed.
No more than they eat readily should be given, and any
that is left ought to be removed at once, for the best rule for
feeding chicks is, little and often. Only sufficient should be
moistened to serve two or three times ; and, when the weather
is cold or wet, a pinch of stimulating powder will be very
beneficial. Clean water in clean dishes must be given, or,
what is better, warmed milk ; but shallow dishes or saucers
should be used, or the birds may get drowned. We once
bought some dishes which were made with a series of rings
or ridges on the upper side, so that the birds could not
possibly come to any harm, and the quantity of water which
each held was, so small that they had to be refilled twice or
thrice a day. But small fountains, with a cup at one side,
are even better than these, for the birds can drink out of

The Hen Coop. 213

them, but cannot stand or get into them. They are made
both in ware and zinc, and can he obtained at reasonable
prices.

After the hen and her brood have had their first feed, they
should be removed to a coop, either placed in a shed (such
as we have before described), or in some warm, dry, sheltered
spot, where the sun will reach. A lawn, a meadow, a wood,
or, in fact, any place that is grassy, and, what we have said,
will answer ; but it must be away from the ordinary hens,
as they are very apt, from jealous motives, to interfere with
chickens ; and, for the same reason, coops must not be too
near each other, without some provision to prevent the hens
fighting, which will not be to the advantage of the young
broods. Coops of all patterns, shapes, and sizes can be
obtained, but if cheapness be desired more than appearance,
a box or a barrel is capable of being made into a good coop,
by any one handy with tools. The things to be sought for
in a coop are — that it shall be dry above and below, ventilated,
but free from draughts, easily moved about, having laths or
bars at the front, so that the chicks can get out and in, but
not the hen, and have a folding shutter, so that the whole
can be closed up at night. If the ground be dry and sandy
in its nature, or, when the coop is in the shed, there need be
no floor, as the straw used will be sufficient ; but, if it be at
all damp or cold, a wooden floor should be used. A flour
barrel, which can be bought for a quarter^ will make two
good coops, if the head be fixed on and the barrel itself sawn
in two. Laths can then be nailed on to the only open part,
constituting it the front, and two or three staves can be taken
out of the under sides, so that there will be no floor, or it
can be raised up above the ground by wooden feet or bricks,
which should always be done when a wooden floor is used.
Thus in a very simple manner can a capital coop be made,
and at little cost; but if something better is needed any

214

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

joiner can make one to look nice, or there are plenty sold
both at low and high prices. We like those best that have
floors separate to facilitate cleaning, and nailed on to two
pieces of scantling, the floor fitting inside the coop, and the
two sides of the latter resting upon the scantling, for by this
means all chance of the wet getting in is obviated. Fig. 10
is a capital example of one of these. If the coops cannot
be put very wide apart, it is better to use wire runs, as these
prevent the chicks wandering away and getting mixed with
other broods. In fact, it is always better to use a run for

Fig. 10.— Chicken Coop.

the first week, if the coop is outside, moving it to fresh ground
every day, but after then, if there is plenty of ground, the
run can be dispensed with, and the hen allowed to be out
also, at least for a few hours in the day.

The growing stage in the life of young chickens, as
in children, is the time that very largely controls their
size and stamina, and therefore much depends upon
the method of treatment during such growth. Unless
there is a good supply of nutritious food, the strain upon
the system will not be provided for, and the chicken soon

Feeding Young Chicks, 215

dies, or, grows up a weedy, stunted thing, of no use to
any one. We must not be thought from this to be
advocating pampering or coddling, for we do not believe
in such a system ; but, there is a way of feeding well in
which there is no pampering, and as to coddling, whilst we
certainly think that the young chicks should be protected
from the severe storms, it is much better to put them out
of doors — except in severe weather — as soon as they are a
week or ten days old. This, of course, does not apply to
very early hatched chicks, for, as they are brought into the
world at an unseasonable period, they need special treatment,
and must be kept in such a house as we have already
described. There is another advantage also, in giving them
liberty, and that is, they can find grubs and worms, which,
it must be remembered, are their natural food. But on these
topics we have already said all that is needed.

For the first three or four days, it is better to continue the
egg and bread crumbs, of which the hen should be allowed
a share, as it is necessary to get up the tone of her system,
which, naturally, is much reduced during sitting, in order
that she may begin to lay as soon as she gives up her charge :
otherwise, if she is not well fed, there may several weeks
elapse before she does this, and thus " penny wise " will be
" pound foolish." The chicks require to be fed as soon after
daylight as possible, and at intervals of two hours until the
evening ; a final meal to be given by candle-light, about ten
o'clock at night. If it is not possible to be up so early in the
morning as this may appear to require, a little canary seed
should be left overnight, where the birds can get it as soon
as they are astir ; but this will not take the place of warm
food and fresh milk, so that it must not be made an excuse
for idleness. A bad riser is certain to be behind with his
chicks — all other things being equal — compared with ona
who is a good getter up.

216 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

Inexperienced poultry keepers are very apt to make a great
mistake in rearing chickens, by neglecting those a month old
and upwards, for the younger broods. The reason of this is
not difficult to realise, for, it is thought that the birds, having
got so far in safety, are able to look after themselves, and
do not require the same amount of attention as the younger
ones ; whereas, the fact really is, that the birds at the age
mentioned, need actually more care than they ever did
before, or will again. Doctors tell parents that boys and girls
in their teens need more support than at any other time.
So it is with chicks ; and neglect at this period is attended
with very serious results, more birds being lost then, than at
any other stage of their growth. The cause is, that the down
or nest-feathers, which have enveloped the body, are being'
shed, and the full-grown feathers taking their place, thus
causing a continual drain upon the system ; it is, in fact, a
first moult, and there is not the same strength to meet it as is
found in adult birds. Extra warmth, additional nourishment,
and careful feeding, are all most important to the well-being
of the chick, and undue exposure to cold or wet will be very
dangerous, and ought to be g-iarclted against. Of course,
some breeds are hardier than others, and get through this
stage much more easily, but the strongest need such care as
we have indicated. In fine open weather tta feeding will be
the great point requiring attention, but, in bad weather, it
will be a good plan to put the coop inside the chicken-house.

When the coop is outside it is better to have a wire run
for the chicks, though this can be discarded after the first
week, and the birds allowed to run about freely. At the end
of another week the hen may be allowed out also ; but she
must be kept within an enclosure, or be watched, for, if left
alone, she will probably lead them away too far, and tax their
strength more than they can bear. For food, oatmeal,
Spratt's, or Chamberlin's prepared meals, may be given

Choice of Food. 217

alternately, with some crushed hempseed, which, when they
are three weeks old, can be substituted by dari or buckwheat,
both of which, and the latter especially, make capital chicken
foods. Some correspondence has appeared in poultry journals
of late, in which the rearing of chicks on grain alone was
advocated, and some writers stated, as their experience, that
it is better than soft foods. We believe too much pampering
does takes place, but, at the same time, we think that, for early
broods especially, these warm, nutritious foods are of immense
service. Rice is a food which chicks are wonderfully
fond of, if properly prepared ; but as it is entirely deficient
in bone-forming qualities, some bone meal should be mixed
with it, or leg weakness will probably ensue. The best way
to prepare it is, to put a pint of poultry rice into three pints
of water, and allow it to simmer (not boil), on the stove or
side of the kitchen fire, for a couple of hours, when it will
be found that the rice will have swollen out and absorbed all
the water. If the soil upon which the chicks are kept,
contains plenty of worms and slugs, it can be dug up a little,
and there will be no need to provide any animal food ; but if
it is sandy, or the birds are kept in a confined space, then
some provision must be made in this way. Dead fowls come
in very useful for the generation of gentles, and should be
allowed to hang a few days, when thousands of fresh flies'
eggs will have been deposited. If buried in the run the
maggots will soon begin to show themselves, much to the
advantage of its inmates ; though upon no account should
a diseased fowl be used in this way. Green food should also
be supplied, and can take any form that is most convenient.
Grass is, of course, to be desired, but not cut grass, if any-
thing better can be got. Lettuces, cabbages, and, in fact,
any garden stuff of this nature may be given ; and we know
of one of the largest breeders in the kingdom, who puts down,
in. his chicken run, a barrowful of lettuces every morning,

2i8 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

and he declares that he would never be able to raise such
fowls as he does, were it not for this. A spare corner of the
garden may very profitably be set on one side for growing
lettuces, and a plentiful supply thus secured.

There can be no question that the best system which can
be adopted in feeding chickens is little and often. For the
first fortnight they ought to be fed every two hours, for the
next month every three hours, and after that, until they reach
maturity, four times a day. As already stated, the first food
should be given as soon after daylight as possible, and the
plan, or rather want of plan in some yards, of allowing
chicks to run about three or four hours before getting their
first meal, is calculated to do more harm than most people
think of. The leaving of seed overnight is better than
nothing, but a warm meal is very much to be preferred.
Jn large yards, where the food takes some time to prepare,
the following system, which we saw recommended some time
ago, may be adopted with advantage : — Get a square wooden
box, strongly made of thick wood, and line this out with felt,
or felt carpeting — sides, bottom, and lid, so that the centre
compartment may only be about one-fourth the size of
the box itself, the dimensions of which must be regulated by
the requirements of the owner. Last thing at night, half
cook some food in a tin kettle or pan with lid, made to fit the
centre of the box, and put kettle and food just as it is into it.
Then close the box, and next morning the food will be found
perfectly cooked, and quite hot, whenever opened. By this
means, all the trouble consequent upon lighting a fire and
' getting water to boil will be obviated, and the chicks can be
fed as soon as any one is astir, at least half an hour before
food could be prepared for them. The last feed at night
should be given about an hour before dusk, except to the
birds less than a month old, who need a feed by candle-
light, and this feed must consist of grain, as it takes longer

Separation of Brood from Hen. 2 \ 9

to digest than meal, and, consequently, keeps up the warmth
much longer than soft food would. Intermediate meals
should be varied, and it is a good plan to try and change the
food as much as possible, as by this means the appetite is
tempted and growth encouraged. A bad feeder can never be
anything but a bad thriver, and, change of diet by tempting
the appetite, is the best method of inducing the birds to eat
heartily. Overfeeding must, however, be carefully avoided,
and food should be removed as soon as the birds are satisfied,
never being allowed to stand about.

When the chicks are about six to eight weeks old, the hen
will begin to get restless and neglect them, when she should
at once be returned to the laying house, and the chicks then
put into a separate house and run. If the weather is at all
cold or stormy, cold mothers may be provided, or, if not,
broad shelves covered with dry sand or earth will answer best.
These cold mothers are simply wooden frames across which
canvas is stretched, and on the underside of this canvas, strips
of flannel, or thin felt, is stitched, so that when raised up or
fitted into grooved ends, the chickens get under and are
protected from the cold. Generally, however, there is no need
for anything of this kind, as the hen remains long enough
with her brood, to enable them to do without further pro-
tection ; but, as we stated at the beginning of this chapter,
care and attention are specially necessary at this stage of
a chicken's existence ; it is better to be on the safe side,
and, as there is no artificial heat in a mother such as we
have described, there the birds are not coddled by the use
of it. Plenty of room should also be given, and we prefer,
whenever possible, to divide our chickens, which can easily be
done by means of the movable poultry-houses, recommended
in the chapter dealing with the subject. The older chicks are
very prone to ill-treat the younger ones, and it is for the sake
of these latter, as well as to prevent overcrowding, that we

220 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

adopt this plan. The giving of room allows the chicks to
run and fly about, which develops their wing and breast
muscles, keeps them in health, and assists their growth.
Nothing is more miserable than to see chickens, from a
month to three months old, cooped up in a small run. No
wonder they grow slowly, and are always small and stunted in
appearance.

As we have given a detailed acount cf the various incuba-
tors now offered for sale, together with a brief history of the
question of artificial incubation itself, it is necessary that we
should say something about artificial rearing, for one would
naturally appear to depend upon the other. All poultry keepers
have at some period been troubled with bad sitters, and,
also, with clumsy, negligent mothers, the latter especially,
being very annoying. It is, doubtless, very provoking to have
a setting of eggs spoiled, but it is even more annoying, when
they have been hatched, and the chicks are running about
strong and lively, to find some crushed to death, and others
dying for want of proper attention from the hen. Hence
many attempts have been made, to solve the problem of rear-
ing by artificial means.

These artificial mothers were in use by a few persons, a
considerable time before incubators arrived at anything like
their present stage of perfection, and, as might naturally be
expected, they are now very largely used. At first the makers
of incubators fitted them to their machines, but this, we
believe, helped to make the latter even more unsuccessful
than they otherwise might have been, for when any chickens
were brought out, they were necessarily kept in runs a foot
or two square, and, of course, indoors, so that in a few days
they died off, from want of fresh air and proper exercise.
The first step towards success was in the separation alto-
gether of the mother from the incubator, and they have,
since this has been done, been found most successful. At

Incubators. 221

first sheepskins were used, with the wool downwards, and
above the skin there was a hot-water tank, but the chickens
were very often hung in the wool, and they, therefore, never
became really popular. The first to win anything like
popular favour, was a contrivance similar to the one just
named, but, with the important exception, that flannel strips
were used instead of the sheepskin, and, as there were capital
arrangements made for heating, ventilating, and cleaning,
much real success was attained by it. The present writer
reared large numbers of chickens during several seasons in
these machines ; and, as at that time the incubators were
unsatisfactory, hens were used for hatching, but, as the
artificial system of rearing presented so many advantages
over the natural one, the chicks were taken from the hens,
when a day old, and placed in the artificial mother. The
demand for these mothers was but small, and that kept up
the price, so that only a few persons went in for them.

When incubators a few years ago became more easily
worked, there came with the demand for them, one also for
the mothers, especially as many who might have thought it
cruel to separate the hen and her chickens, could have no
such feelings with respect to machine-hatched birds, and all
the makers of the former have been compelled to provide the
latter also. These are generally made very similar, both in
appearance and methods of working. There are, therefore,
the hydro or hot water mothers, and, also, those in which there
is a continuous burning lamp ; but, whilst we in great measure
prefer the former method for incubators, the mothers upon
this system are rather troublesome when kept out in the
open, as boiling water has to be carried to them twice or
thrice a day, and this, in many cases, involves an amount of
trouble which becomes a serious burden. To obviate the diffi-
culty, some of the hydro-mothers have a lamp and circulating
boiler fitted to them, so that by lighting the former, for an

222

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

hour or two every day, the heat is kept up. This is much to
be preferred to the other plan, and saves unnecessary trouble,
but the lamp must be so protected so as not to be easily blown
out. One of the best mothers we know of, is made by Messrs.
, Tomlinson & Co., Birmingham, Eng., called "The Winged
'Brooder." It is fitted with a continuous burning lamp, so
arranged that it can scarcely be affected by wind, or anything
else, outside. At the sides are flaps or wings closing in at

THE "ACME1* IN-DOOR REARER.

Fig. 11. — Owen's "Acme" In-door Rearer.

night, and it can be fitted with outside cover and runs, so
that, altogether, it is a most useful appliance. Another
very good one, of which Fig. 11 is an illustration, is that
made by Mr, John Owen, of the Minories, London. This
is provided with a lamp and has a covered run. It can
also be fitted with a cover so that it can be used in the open.
Mr. Jas. Watson, of Kilwinning, Scotland, has a very good
one also, and all the other makers send out mothers more or
less near to our ideal.

At first it was the custom to keep the mothers in houses
or sheds, but that was found to be a bad plan. It may be advi-
sable to do this for the first few days, and hence the value of
a small chicken nursery made by Messrs. Tomlinson and Co.,
but we do not approve of the plan for older birds. Chicks
need, and must have, plenty of fresh air, and the only shelters

Out-door "Rearers"

223

we should use, after they are a week old, except very early in
the season, are the covers sold with most machines, which
protect the mothers from wet, and give the birds a dry run.
This is shown in the Christy out-door rearers (fig. 12).
These, as will be seen, have wooden sides and glass tops, and

Fig. 12. — Christy's Out-door Rearer.

can have wooden floors, or not, as may be desired. They
have doors, so that the chickens can be allowed out or kept
in, as the attendant may think best, and generally are easily
moved about, so that the birds may have fresh ground every
day. During the first week the chicks should be kept in the
chicken house, but after that, unless the weather be excep-
tionally severe, they are much better outside. The run
should always be dry below and changed every day, with
fresh sand or dry earth thickly covering the floor, if it be a
wooden one. Pure air and cleanliness are essential to success,
and, for this reason, the mother should every day be lifted out
of its place, so that all vapours and foul air can get away, and,

224 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

at the same time, the whole should be thoroughly cleaned.
Where there is flannel for the chicks to nestle amongst, this
should be taken out and purified, by having plenty of dry
earth well shaken through it. The heat also needs to be
well looked after, as many poultry keepers make a great mis-
take in having their machines too hot, which is a much
greater evil than a little cold would be. Mothers should never
be allowed to go above 80 degs., and, except in summer,
below 65 degs., but the margin between these two is sufficient
for the variations of the weather. It is true that the chicks
will not get so close to the tank, if hotter, but too much heat
makes them tender, and it is to be remembered, that the heat
from their own bodies increases the temperature, so that in
summer if the mother was 80 degs. before they went into it,
it would probably be ten or fifteen degs. higher after they had
been in for a time. The best test is to put the hand against
the bottom of the tank, when it may be accepted as all right
if just warm and comfortable, but if the hand cannot be kept
against the metal it is too hot. Overcrowding is also very
dangerous, and we would not be inclined to put more than
forty chicks a week old, or twenty- five above that age, into
one machine. Nor is it wise to keep them in it too long ;
for, if healthy and strong, they may, when five or six weeks
old, be transferred to the cold mother, which, as we have
already described, is simply one without any water tank ov
heating arrangements. The state of the weather and the
strength of the birds will, however, largely decide this
question. As to teaching the birds to eat, which the hen
does, this only needs to be done with the first brood. The
way to proceed is to put some food on a piece of board,
and tap the same with a pencil or piece of stick, to which
imitation of the hen's pecking the chicks will readily answer.
Later broods can have an older chick put with them, and it
will in this respect act a maternal part.

Hatching under Turkeys. 225

In many parts of France, turkeys are very largely used for
the hatching and rearing of chickens, the advantage of these
birds being their docility, their capability for covering a large
number of eggs, and caring for a large number of chickens.
It is no uncommon sight to see turkeys, with fifty or sixty
chicks, being driven in the morning to a wood adjacent to the
residence of their owner, where they are left all day in
charge of decrepit old women or young children. In some
instances, the chicks have been hatched in incubators, but
this is generally in those districts where there are hatching
factories, if we may use the term, at which places egg hatch-
ing is conducted on a large scale, the peasants taking their
eggs to be incubated, and paying a percentage of the chickens
for the trouble. But in England, also, many persons have used
turkeys with very good results. There are, however, several
things necessary to make this plan a success. In the first place,
it is necessary to have ground enough, as putting a turkey with
half a hundred chicks upon a small piece of land would be
a failure, for there would not be moving room, and the ground
would soon get contaminated. But, on the other hand, if an
unlimited run be given, the turkey must be watched, or she
will lead the chicks astray and overtax their strength. It
is true she may be cooped, but after the first ten days this is
not advisable, and the best plan is to keep her in a fenced
run. Where this can be done, turkeys will be found to answer
admirably, but, of course, the houses or coops used for
them need to be well ventilated and roomy ; especially so,
in fact, because of the larger number of birds to be kept
therein. They are very easily managed, and the way to get
one to take charge of a brood, is to allow it to sit on potatoes
for a few days, and then the chicks may be put under her
at night. We have seldom known one refuse accepting a
charge of this kind ; but, in order to be on the safe side, it is
as well to put only a few in at first If she attempts to

226 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

injure them, they must he removed, hut if net, all may he
given to her, and she will he delighted to have so large a
family, nursing them in most respects better than an ordinary
hen would or even could. When this system of rearing is
adopted, special care will have to be given to the weaklj
ones, and any so found, should at once be removed where
they will not be crowded, and can have individual attention.
When the birds are a month old, if of a strong, hardy breed,
the largest may be removed to a cold mother, and this will
give more room to the rest. As soon as all appear to be
grown enough, they may be taken away and a fresh batch
given to the turkey, which will rear a couple of hundred in
a season in this way without the least objection.

From first to last the necessity for drink should never be
forgotten. Water is the natural drink of all poultry. It
should be pure and fresh, the drinking vessels being filled
at least daily, and, whenever filled, carefully emptied and
cleansed. There are numerous convenient forms of drink-
ing fountains, but in the use of them there is a constant
temptation for the attendant to neglect to empty them, but
to simply fill them afresh. These should never be used for
milk, which is excellent for chickens and fowls of all ages ;
but this should be presented in shallow pans, so protected
that the chicks cannot get into them.

AMERICAN BROODERS.

American brooders are even more numerous than Ameri-
can incubators, for every manufacturer of an incubator is
also a manufacturer of one or more styles of brooders.

Like incubators, brooders are divided into two classes, hot
water and hot air. Both kinds do really good work, but the
preference is generally given to the hot water machines.
The body of hot water will long retain its heat, and as

American Brooders, 227

brooder lamps are rather more exposed than incubator
lamps there is more danger of their becoming extinguished.

Brooders are also divided into top heat, bottom heat, and
a combination of the two. Top heat brooders are the most
popular, and are usually tank or hot water machines. Bot-
tom heat is popularly supposed to cause cramp in the chick-
ens, though there is not the best of proof to support this
supposition. A combination of top and bottom heat works
admirably. This may be secured either by the hot water or
hot air method of warming the brooder. In the hot water
method the tank is situated beneath the floor of the brooder,
there being a space between the top of the tank and the
floor of the brooder. The air in this space becomes heated
and warms the floor of the brooder. Pipes are inserted into
the brooder floor and extend up nearly to the top of the
brood chamber. Then pipes conduct the warm air from the
space between the tank and the brooder floor to the upper
part of the brood chamber, from which it falls upon the
chickens.

In top heat brooders the chickens like to get their backs
up near the source of warmth, while in bottom heat or in
bottom and top heat combined they will flatten themselves
out upon the floor. They appear to be very comfortable in
either style of brooder.

Brooder chickens are sometimes kept too hot, sometimes
too cold, and in neither case will they do well, although it
is better to keep them too cold than too hot. The brooder
should be kept for the first week at a temperature of about
ninety degrees, Fahrenheit, and the temperature should be
reduced from live to ten degrees each week until the chick-
ens are removed from the brooder. This removal can take
place at four weeks of age in moderately warm weather, but
in cold weather they can be allowed to remain one or two
weeks more. Some successful raisers advocate the removal
of the chickens at the age of three weeks in moderate

228 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

weather, and in four weeks no matter how cold the weather
might be.

While the chickens are in the brooder it is advisable not
to overfeed them. Keep them a little hungry, so that they
will be eager for their five meals each day, and this will
induce them to take the needed exercise. While many
advocate a dough of some kind for the chickens, the writer
is of the opinion that a dry diet is the best. This may con-
sist of millet, cooked oatmeal, very finely cracked corn and
wheat, and beef scraps. A mixture of equal parts, or the
different articles fed at different times in the day, will pro-
duce the best results.

Grit, shiny, clean, fine is greatly needed. This can be
purchased all ready for use or can be made at home by taking
a little trouble. But it should be provided. It is very
important for the health of the young chicks.

Fresh water or milk or both should be furnished for
drink. If milk is used give it to them before it turns sour.
Sweet milk will make them grow rapidly. But when it is
not convenient to give them milk, see that the water dishes
are kept full of pure, clean, fresh water.

Cleanliness in the brooder and about all food and water
dishes is indispensable. The brooder should be cleansed
daily and fresh sand or wheat bran dusted over its floor.
Both sand and bran are good and it is difficult to decide
which is better for this purpose.

By following the above suggestions and by keeping the
chickens out of the brooders, exercising in the fresh air as
much as possible, to which end they should never be fed in
the brooder, and by securing one of the many admirable
brooders made, a very large percentage of the chickens can
be reared to maturity.

Among the best American brooders is the Billings, manu-
factured by the L. C. Billings Co., of Milford, N. H. This
is a well built machine, having a tank for the hot water situ-

American Brooders, 229

ated above the brood chamber. The brooder is divided into
compartments, usually two or three, the floor of each being
removable like a drawer in a desk. It is but a (moment's
work to draw out this floor, empty the fouled sand, add new
sand and put it back into its place. Unlike most brooders,
the Billings is provided with an automatic regulator, so
that the heat can be perfectly governed even in changeable
weather.

Another excellent brooder is that made by the inventor,
Earl Barney of Schenectady, N. Y., and. called after his
name, the Barney brooder. This is a well built, hot water
brooder, but is a rather expensive machine, the price being
from $30 to $40, according to finish and whether for outdoor
or indoor use. The same inventor has also a hot air brooder
embodying similar principles to his hot water brooder and
selling for something less.

The Pineland Incubator and Brooder Co., of Jamesburg,
N. J., manufactures several styles of brooders, among which
the Sectional is perhaps the best known. One feature of
this firm's make of brooders is the adjustable floors which
adapt the height of the brood chamber to chickens of any
age and size. The brooders are tank machines, the heat
being distributed by the circulation of hot water. They are
all well built and do good work.

The Prairie State Incubator Co., of Homer City, Pa. is
also a large manufacturer of good brooders in several styles.
This company builds outdoor and indoor, hot water top heat
and hot air top and bottom heat brooders, and in construc-
tion and execution these machines are equal to the reputa-
tion of this well-known company.

The Ayer Brooder Co., of Ayer, Mass., manufacture
the Apollo brooder, the invention of A. A. Fillebrown.
This brooder operates admirably and is a very successful
machine, its principal drawback being the difficulty of clean-
ing it. This it is hoped the inventor will remedy.

230 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

The Olentangy Brooder, made by George S. Singer of
Cardington, Ohio, has had a large sale. It has a cireular
tank in the centre of the brooder which holds the heated
water. It is claimed that this arrangement prevents crowd-
ing and that the chickens will spread out around the sides.

Many more admirable brooders could be named, but the
above perhaps sufficiently illustrate the principle upon
which they are constructed. There is little danger of get-
ting a really poor brooder, though of course all are not
equally good. But whatever make is used it is desirable to
avoid bottom heat alone ; let the brooder be either top heat
or a combination of top and bottom.

In addition to the many separate brooders which are
made, there are numerous designs for brooder houses, the
general principle of which is the same, though the particu-
lar applications may differ in details. This principle is a
number of hot water pipes, with returns to a boiler or
heater, by means of which a constant circulation of hot
water is kept up. The chickens warm themselves beneath
these pipes. While this method reduces the labor and can
be employed, perhaps, with advantage in large establish-
ments, it is not believed to give so good results as are ob-
tained by the use of separate brooders. Such a system is
not needed by the person who rears one or two hundred
chickens annually.

Food and Feeding* 231

CHAPTEK XVITE.

FOOD AND FEEDING.

Food the Fuel of all Life— Effect of Bad Food— Effect of Over-feeding— Food for
Fowls in Confinement not to be same as when at Liberty — What is Needed in
Food — Qualities of the Grains — Barley — Oats — Wheat — Maize — Buckwheat
— Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water.

The question is often asked, especially by new beginners in
poultry-keeping, what is the best food for poultry, and the
matter is of such great importance, that we wish to deal with
it fully, so that our readers may know what is the best food
for poultry under the conditions in which their fowls live.
That food must have a very great influence upon the health
and success of the birds, will be acknowledged at once by all,
for it is virtually the fuel which keeps the engine going, and
any neglect to supply this fuel, or the supplying of improper
fuel, means that the machine will not work properly, and
that there will be a great loss of power. This is the case
with all animals, and the attention which has been paid to
the question of feeding by scientific men during late years,
shows that the importance of the matter has been somewhat
realized. But even yet there is a considerable amount of
ignorance on the matter, for there are many who appear to
think that so long as an animal or bird gets plenty of food,
that is all that the owner need care about ; but this disregard
to the kind of food so given, to its effect upon the birds
themselves, and to the conditions under which they labour,

232 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

is most injurious, for the saying, " What is one man's meat
is another man's poison," holds good so far as fowls are con-
cerned, as much as it does for human heings. Feeding upon
bad or unsuitable food must always be very harmful, for, as
the food is given to repair the waste of the system which
goes on daily, and the body in its various parts is really
renewed by the food eaten, it will be seen that this bad food
naturally brings on diseases, or injures the system by failing
to supply those elements that are necessary to it. Eating
to repletion by fowls is generally due to want of system in
feeding, or the giving of food that is tempting to the appetite
— probably because of its being rich in its nature — and
this means that the food will have certain qualities or
elements in excess, which will, in their turn, develop other
qualities in the birds, and thus may be positively injurious
instead of beneficial. There is, perhaps, more harm done by
the giving of rich and unsuitable food than in any other way,
and many diseases at one time foreign to fowls have been
thus made prevalent. How much food should be given has
already been dealt with, in the chapter on " The selection of
stock birds, " and we need not repeat it here.

It will be seen that one object in giving food, is to supply
the daily waste that goes on in the system, for, if the matter
thus eliminated is not replaced, the bird will soon die from
exhaustion. The first thing, therefore, is to supply this
waste, but if only this is done, the bird will be just kept
alive, no more. As fowls must be regarded as producing
machines, they have to be supplied with the materials
necessary for production, or it cannot take place, and we must
have regard to the elements needed for composing whatever
is produced, if we wish to do it with the greatest ease, and
with the least wear and tear to the fowl. But in addition to
this, we must not forget the conditions under which the
fowls are kept, for, the activity of the birds, the amount of

Food and Feeding. 233

space given to them, and the kind of food they are able to
obtain for themselves, all of which should guide the selection
of that given to them. Many persons appear to think, that
if they give the same food to fowls in confinement that
they obtain when at liberty, all will be well ; but such is not
the case. Under the latter circumstances the food consists
of worms, slugs, and grain, the two former chiefly, and we
are sure that if the same amount of animal food was given
to birds in a limited run, that is obtained by those at liberty,
it would result in disease very speedily. Birds with plenty
of space are much more active than those in confinement,
and eliminate surplus matter from the system very rapidly.
As this elimination means exhaustion of fatty matter chiefly,
because exercise causes warmth, which is the result of a
consumption of oil in the body, fat-forming foods can with
advantage be given to such fowls ; whereas, on the other
hand, birds that are in confinement do not consume the oil
so rapidly, and if as much fat-forming food is given to them,
it cannot be used, but will clog up the machine, storing the
fat by laying it on internally, and this storage will be found
an evil instead of a benefit. The great chemist, Liebig,
used to say that all fat was a disease, and that it should not
be allowed under any circumstances ; but, whilst we are
not able to accept this statement fully, for it must be
remembered that a slight reserve of fat is beneficial as a
reservoir of heat, yet there can be little doubt, that if this fat
is not consumed before any more is stored up, and one layer
piled upon another, then it takes the form of disease. It
is not a pleasant thought, but, nevertheless, it is a fact, that
what we are accustomed to consider ripeness or tenderness,
is but the first stage of decay. For instance, a piece of meat
may be rather hard if cooked soon after the animal has
been killed, but if kept a few days will become tender. We
do not for one moment wish to argue that such " tender M

234 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

meat is injurious, for, on the contrary, if not tainted it is
much easier to digest, and better in every way than newly-
killed meat ; but we are using the fact simply as an illustra-
tion of our point, namely, that fat, unless soon consumed, is
of itself a tendency to disease.

> In addition to what we have already said, namely, that the
conditions under which the birds are kept must be considered,
the object for which they are fed needs to be regarded also.
The various foods have many different qualities, some grains
being well balanced, and others having an excess of one or
two elements. Thus it is necessary to consider what is the
object in view, for it will be obviously manifest to all, that
foods which may be useful for one purpose will be useless for
another. Thus where eggs are to be produced, for which
many elements are needed, chiefly albumen and oil, with no
one element greatly in excess, then a well-balanced food is
needed. But where birds are being fattened for killing,
then it is best to give foods which contain a large quantity
of flesh or fat-forming qualities, as these cause the plumpness
which is so desirable in table fowls, and where such foods are
not given, then if the birds do get into good condition, there
must be a large waste of unneeded qualities before this can
be secured. And when chickens are being reared, it is most
desirable that they should have food which will develop bone
and muscle, not merely fat, except when intended to be early
killed for the table, for birds fed upon flesh-forming foods
only, have not strength of frame to support the flesh, and
though they may thrive for a time, will soon die off for want
of stamina. Birds forced too much go back in the same way,
and, therefore, forcing should only be employed with birds
intended to be killed early.

What is required in the food given to fowls, is well
described by Mr. Tegetmeier in his Poultry book, when he
says : — " To supply the materials required for the growth of

Requisite Constituents of Food. 235

young animals and for the formation of eggs, as well as
those required to repair the waste arising from the move-
ments of the living body, a second variety of food is required
(in addition to warmth-giving foods), for the starch and other
substances before enumerated cannot supply these wants.
Substances possessing this power are termed flesh-forming
food. The most important are the gluten, and similar sub-
stances, existing in variable quantities in different grains ;
in large proportions in the varieties of pulse, as beans, peas,
&c. ; and in the materials which form the solid parts of the
flesh of animals, of eggs, of milk, &c. In consequence of
these substances containing the element nitrogen, which is
wanting in the other varieties of food, they are frequently
termed nitrogenous foods ; whilst the fat- forming and
warmth-giving are called carbonaceous foods. The mineral
and the saline substances contained in the bones, and in other
parts of the bodies of animals, occur in larger proportion in
the bran than in the inner part of the grain. A due supply
of bone-making and saline materials is absolutely requisite
to the growth of a healthy animal ; as if wanting in the
food, the bones become soft and the general health speedily
fails." It will thus be seen that what is required in a well-
balanced food, are qualities for warmth-giving, flesh-forming,
fat, or oil, and bone-making ; but, as there are few foods which
are so balanced, and at the same time as foods are required
for special purposes, such as chicken-rearing and fattening,
only those foods suitable should be used, or a combination
of them.

By examination the qualities of the various foods have
been abundantly proved. If we take barley, one of the com-
monest grains given to poultry, we find that it contains a
very small quantity of fat or oil, has 13 per cent, of flesh-
forming properties, 55± per cent, of warmth-giving, and 4
per cent, of bone-making substances. It is, therefore, most

236 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

suitable for rearing purposes, and for egg production, though
in cold weather some food with more fat in it should be
given, so as to make up for the deficiency in this respect ; but
in summer this is not necessary, and then barley is one of
the best foods we have for the purposes named, whether
whole or ground. If used in the latter way, care must be
taken to have the meal good, pure, and freshly ground, for
often it is made of inferior grain, or the good meal is mixed
with some other stuff to cheapen it. The pure can
easily be told, as it is rough, and there is not much fine dust
about it.

We come next to oats, which are, perhaps, the best
balanced of all the grains, having 6 per cent, of fat or
oil, 15 per cent, of flesh-forming, 47 per cent, of warmth-
giving, and 2 per cent, of bone-making properties. The husk
or fibre is extremely great, being 20 per cent, of the whole.
Oats are not, however, very much used, as only the best
kinds are relished by the fowls, and these are somewhat
expensive. Poor kinds, such as are known as long or Tartar
oats, are not good food, and contain more husk than anything
else, which, though good in its place and in proper quantities,
is not of much use. Provided the best oats are ground up,
husks and all, they make an admirable food ; but we have
commonly found great difficulty in obtaining these ground
oats, and millers do not appear willing to take the trouble
involved in the making of this meal, especially as so little is
used. Oatmeal is of a different nature to either whole or
ground oats, for the process it undergoes on the kiln, and
the removal of the husk, gives it different qualities. It is,
however, splendid for chickens, and for fattening purposes,
and a fowl fed upon it makes splendid eating.

The chief of all the grains, wheat, is not much used for
fowls, except on farms where there is plenty on hand, for it
is an expensive food. There are, however, large quantities of

Grain Food. 237

^nrunken wheat, the screenings from the better and perfect
grain, used ; and also the smaller and inferior samples.
The best contains 3 per cent, of fat, 12 per cent, of flesh-
forming, 70 per cent, of warmth-giving, and 2 per cent, of
bone-making properties, with very little husk or fibre, and
it is, therefore, one of the best winter foods for general
purposes, though not suitable for fattening. It may be
interesting to many of our readers to learn that the small
wheat, or screenings, is, as a rule, better for poultry feeding
than the best quality of grain, as it is richer in flesh-forming
qualities than is the other. When ground up for poultry
feeding, the meal so made should be mixed with some other
kind, such as barley meal or ground oats, as it is rather too
stiff and pasty when the water is added to it, if given alone,
but if so mixed this will be prevented.

Indian corn, or maize, is a food which has always been
employed in this country, chiefly because of its cheapness,
for it is undoubtedly, or has been, the cheapest of all grains.
It has more fat or oil than any other, namely, 8 per cent. ;
it has also 12 per cent, of flesh-forming, 65 per cent, of
warmth-giving, and 1 per cent, of bone-making qualities ; so
that its tendency is to lay on fat, and the want of bone -form-
ing substances makes it by no means a well-balanced food,
except for fattening purposes. The free or exclusive use of
it often does harm, as it promotes the formation of internal
fat, which soon checks laying, and, if long-continued, induces
apoplexy and probably diseases of the internal organs. It is,
however, an admirable fattening food, but, when used for
this purpose, should be ground and swelled with scalding
water and fed in alternation with whole corn or some other
grain. It is admirable for feeding whole to all kinds of poul-
try for the night feed, especially in cold weather, as it digests
slowly and keeps them warm all night. Corn or cornmeal
should only be given to laying fowls in cold weather, and even

238 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

then ought to be accompanied by three or four times its bulk
of other kinds of grain or meal, and it should not be fed too
freely to birds in confinement. All this may appear to be a
strong condemnation of it, yet it is no more than necessity
requires, and the undoubted value of the grain in some
respects, makes such a condemnation all the more needful.

The food most used on the continent of Europe for fowls
is buckwheat, which is a most admirable food for laying birds.
It contains 11 per cent, of oil, and of the other properties,
\\ per cent, of flesh-forming, 54 per cent, of warmth-giving,
and 2 per cent, of bone-making substances. It will be seen
from this that the fattening property is small, but the other
qualities and its stimulating nature, make it specially suitable
for laying fowls, and it is equally so whether whole or
ground. If ground, the husk should not be taken from it,
for though this does not contain much nutriment, it prevents
the finer meal becoming stiff and pasty, which it would be
very much inclined to do were it absent.

All kinds of pulse, such as peas, beans, and tares, are very
strong in flesh-forming substances, having 2 per cent, of fat
or oil, 23| per cent, of flesh-forming, 48 per cent, of warmth-
giving, and 2£ per cent, of bone-forming qualities. These
are not suitable for fowls if given alone, as they are too
stimulating, and the excess of flesh-forming qualities causes
a hardening of the muscular fibres, and the flesh produced is
too hard for eating. In fattening fowls for table use, these
are found useful to mix with other foods, but alone are not
to be recommended for the reason already given.

Rice consists almost entirely of warmth-giving qualities,
starch forming the chief of all. Of fat or oil there is but a
trace, of flesh-forming substances but 6£ per cent., and of
bone-forming qualities only J per cent., whilst of the warmth-
giving qualities there is 75^ per cent. On this account it is
only suitable for birds being fed for the table, and layers

Food for Young Chickens. 239

kept on it do not thrive at all, whilst for chickens not intended
for early killing, it is one of the worst foods possible. It
should, therefore, not be used except for the special purpose
already named by us. Dari, millet, hemp, and other seeds
are all useful for young chickens, but otherwise are not suit-
able for fowls. Although not really a poultry food, in the
sense that birds can be fed on it alone, bonemeal is a most
useful thing for mixing with such foods as are deficient in
bone- forming substances. For chicken rearing it is invalu-
able, and is a great preventive of leg weakness, also being
very good for adult fowls occasionally. Care must be taken
to purchase the right kind, made from fresh bones, and not
the scrapings from the bone-handle makers, which are of no
use whatever.

Fowls of all kinds and ages should have access only to pure
water. Barnyard leachings, water from the kitchen sink, or
in villages that flowing in gutters and alley-ways are all un-
wholesome and liable to cause disease. Stagnant water of
any kind is bad. Fowls should always be supplied with fresh,
pure water, and the drinking vessels should be easily acces-
sible for confined fowls in the runs or houses. The drinking
fountains before mentioned, which are of tin, galvanized iron
or earthenware, are excellent devices provided they are emp-
tied, cleansed and rinsed out whenever filled.

240 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTER XIX.

EAKLY EGGS AND CHICKENS.

Early Eggs and Chickens bring High Prices— How to Secure Them. — Pull«ts to
be Used — Hens to be Mated Earlj — Good Housing and Feeding.

The first object of every poultry keeper, who wishes to
succeed in his business, is to have his produce ready for market
when the commodity is scarce, as, of course, he can get a
much higher price then than at any other time. This holds
good in everything, and if we compare the cost of articles
in season and out of season, it will be seen how large the
margin is to pay for the additional labour and trouble
which must be expended in order to obtain the articles
out of due time. That this labour and trouble is needed,
no one need doubt for a moment, and the getting of early
eggs and chickens demands it, but the profit far more than
compensates. Really fresh eggs can be sold, in many towns,
from November to March at forty-five to sixty cents a
dozen, and fine, plump chickens vary from twenty to
thirty-five cents a pound until May, the highest prices being
obtained in Eastern cities. We do not mean to say that
these are the prices actually obtained by the producer,
for, unfortunately, middle-men take far too large a share
of the profits ; but, wherever there is a large permanent
population, customers can always be found for really fresh
eggs and plump home-fed chickens, and at the best prices.

Early Eggs and Chickens, 241

There are also large dairy companies and hotels ready to
contract for taking fresh eggs all the year round at good
paying figures ; but in every case, whether the sales be made
privately or not, there must be the certainty of the eggs
being fresh. Ordinary (so-called) new-laid eggs, as sold in
the shops, are generally a week or ten days old at least,
because they are only sent to market once a week, so that
probably the freshest ones were laid two or three days before
that, and others are still older. This uncertainty makes
eggs really new-laid in constant demand.

A very frequent complaint amongst poultry keepers, is
that they can get any number of eggs at the time when
they are plentiful, and therefore cheap, but when eggs are
scarce they get few or none. In many instances this is due
to the unsuitability of the breed ; but we need not say more
on this question, as it has been dealt with very fully in a
previous chapter. What is wanted is to keep only those
birds known as prolific layers, such as Leghorns, Minorcas,
Houdans, Black Hamburgs, Langshans or Plymouth Rocks.
Then, again, there is the matter of housing and feeding, both
of which are most important, and should have the greatest
attention. We need not, however, say more on this matter
either, as we have dealt with both these questions before.
There are people who have the right kind of birds, who
house and feed them well, and yet who cannot obtain eggs
very early in the year, and, of course, cannot have early
chickens, the entire cause being that their birds are too
old. Birds above two years old do not commence laying
until the end of February or the beginning of March, no
matter how good layers they may be, and if only these be
used, then neither early eggs nor chickens can be expected,
and certainly will not be obtained.

Hence it will be seen that to obtain early eggs, only
young birds, that is pullets of the first or second year, must

242 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

be used. Birds of the various breeds already named, if
hatched in March and April, will begin to lay at latest in
September, October, or November, and will continue to do
so right through the winter. At first the eggs will be
small, but will gradually improve in this respect, and
pullets of the previous year will, if well housed, begin to
lay about December, and their eggs will be large and well
formed ; so that the matter, if carefully managed, is not
very difficult, and a constant supply of eggs can be obtained.
It is of no use expecting that May or June hatched birds
will commence to lay before the spring ; they may do so,
if the autumn and early winter are very favourable ; but
that, of course, is not a matter that can be arranged.
January and February hatched birds are too early to be
used as layers, and do not, as a rule, answer for this purpose,
as they begin about August, fall into a moult a little later
on, and are very uncertain in their produce during the
winter. For eggs, therefore, we prefer birds hatched in
March and April, and not more than two years old. In a
well-arranged yard, half the stock of layers will be bred
each year, and half will be killed off annually. This plan
we have seen adopted in many yards, and can strongly
recommend it.

Those who wish to have early chickens must follow the
same rule. The pens should be mated together early in
November, for the earliest hatches, and later in the month
for those not required so soon. By using pullets of the
first year for the former, and those twelve months older
for the latter, with young and vigorous cockerels, fertile eggs
may be expected within a few days of the birds being mated,
and thus a succession of chickens produced, to be ready at
the time when they are scarce and dear. Of course the
number of pullets to each cock must be regulated, and
should not exceed half-a-dozen at the outside, and that

Management of Pullets, 243

number only for the most vigorous breeds. The birds will
require to be housed comfortably and fed well, and in
winter time the eggs should be gathered as soon after
they are laid as is convenient, for they are apt to get frosted
in the nest during severe weather ; this, as we all know, is
a thing to be avoided if possible.

There will, doubtless, be some who object to this plan of
using pullets for breeding purposes. Chickens, they say,
bred from immature birds never do very well, and this
objection is perfectly correct so far as ordinary fowls are
concerned, as doing this gradually weakens and reduces
the size of any race of fowls. For birds that it is intended
to rear to maturity, we do not like breeding from pullets
of the first year, and, therefore, would always breed the
laying fowls from birds of the second year, and also those
to lay the eggs from which the early chicks are expected.
This simply means that if last spring we bred some
laying pullets, and also some specially suitable for table
fowls, from two-year-old hens, we would use the former to
produce eggs for sale, and the latter to produce eggs from
which we would hatch the chickens for early killing. As
the latter are not intended to be reared, the breeding from
immature birds can do little or no harm, and this is the
only way by which very early chickens can be obtained.
It is not natural for fowls to breed until March or April,
when pullets are about twelve months old, so that, if
we break through the rules of nature, we must be prepared
to spend care and trouble in order to obtain what we
require, but if we do this, we may reasonably hope that the
result will far more than repay us.

244 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

CHAPTER XX.

THE PREPARATION OF TABLE FOWLS.

Superiority of French System— Breeds of Fowls Suitable for Fattening— Method!
— Duration of Process— Food — Fattening and Cramming Machines — Cram-
ming by Hand — Killing Fowls — Dressing in France — Shaping- boar da — Advan-
tage of Dressing — Caponising.

The question of preparing fowls for the table, is not one
that can be neglected, even by those poultry keepers whose
object is primarily eggs, as they have many birds which,
if fattened and killed off, would sell profitably ; but, unfor-
tunately, the question of preparing for the table" is very
little understood, and there is very great room for improve-
ment in this respect. The great superiority of the French
dressed poultry, which is evident to all who visit Paris, is
due to three things : first, the greater care taken in breed-
ing table fowls ; second, the capital methods of fattening ;
and, third, the splendid way in which the birds are trussed
when offered for sale. In our American markets we find a
different state of things altogether. There is, at the outset,
little or no care taken with respect to the breeds — except,
perhaps, in one or two districts; the birds are, as a rule,
picked up out of the farmyard and killed at once, without any
preparatory feeding whatever; and they are, as a rule, simply
plucked, not even drawn (much less dressed and trussed,
except in hew England), and with head and feet on. We
hope, however, that a change for the better will soon take

The Preparation of liable Fowls. 245

place ; and there are signs that lead us to hope that a consider-
able improvement will be found within a few years. Prejudice
is hard to kill, and it may be that the French plan of trussing
will never be adopted in this country ; but, if a system of fatten-
ing becomes general, that will be a considerable step in advance.
We have already pointed out in previous chapters, the kinds
of fowls most suitable for table purposes, therefore it is not
necessary to enumerate them here ; but we may mention
again, that those birds which have the meat upon the breast

Fig. 13.— Christy's Fattening Pen.

and not upon the thighs, are generally the best for fattening.
The question we have now to deal with, is that of the fatten-
ing of the fowls, and the methods adopted in France are
worthy of being fully described here. The commonest plan
in France is to keep the chickens in square pens, just
sufficiently large to allow them moving room, but no more.
In some instances a room is completely lined out with these
pens, and, when all the pens are full, and feeding time is on,
then the scene is a very busy one. The partitions are made

246 Profitable Poultry Keeping*

of wood, and the front half of the floors of the same
material ; hut the hack half is formed of wire rods, so that
the droppings can fall into sliding trays, full of earth, provided
below each row of pens for this purpose. The fronts are
formed either of wire rods or of wood, with an oblong hole
just sufficiently large to allow the bird's head to come
through for feeding purposes, as is shown in fig. 13,
which is an appliance for fattening twenty - four birds
introduced by Messrs. Christie and Co. If there is only
one row of pens, then the tops are made to open, for the put-
ting in and taking out of the birds ; but when two or more
rows are placed one above another, then the fronts are made
removable. The rooms in which the pens are kept are always
warm and well ventilated, but dark, as the chicks are
found to be much more contented than when kept in the
light. Thorough cleanliness is observed, both in the pens
and the feeding-troughs, which are placed in front of the
cages, and the birds are fed four or five times a day. Such
a house as this is easily fitted up, as both wood and wire are
cheap, or the small fattening pens can be made in sets of
three, six, or twelve, by any handy joiner. The compart-
ments should be fifteen inches from back to front, twelve
inches wide, and eighteen inches high, which will be large
enough for all ordinary sized fowls. The trays must not be
omitted, and whenever the pens are made more than one tier
high, each row had better be made separate, as this will greatly
facilitate cleaning.

The period in which fowls may be fattened varies very con-
siderably, but about three weeks, if properly managed, should
bring them into capital condition. Some of the dead fowls
shown at the French shows, are fattened for a much longer
period, and we have heard that a prize pair of birds had
been in preparation no less than nine weeks, but for ordinary
purposes the period we have named is quite sufficient. The

Fattening. 247

food given should consist of Indian, barleymeal, oatmeal, 01
buckwheat meal, all fresh and sweet, and mixed with skim-
milk. Any of these meals may be given separately, but the
better plan is to have a mixture made of equal parts of each,
to which a little fat, such as lard, or dripping from meat, is
added just before the milk. It is wise to boil the milk first,
and mix the food stiff, but not too pasty — crumbly moist is
the best definition we can give of it. This should be supplied
to the birds warm, and when they appear satisfied what is left
in the troughs should be taken, made into finger-pieces shaped
like a bolus, and after dipping these in milk one or two may
be put down the throat of each fowl, or, if the crop of any one
is found to be unfilled, as many as will fill it up. There are
some poultry fatteners who do not allow the birds to eat
anything naturally, but cram them entirely in the way
described. This is, however, unnecessary, and entails more
labour than the plan we have recommended, without any
corresponding advantage. Two or three pounds can be added
to the weight of a large chicken in about three weeks by
this method, and the flesh will be of the finest colour and
texture, more succulent, and in every way superior to that
of the fowls ordinarily purchased in the poulterers' shops. A
demand for such birds will soon grow up, and the prices
obtained will repay all the trouble and labour expended.
We know instances where orders cannot be half supplied —
orders from private families, and at very good prices indeed,
and a little effort would secure the same result in most
places.

Another system of fattening in France, is by means of cir-
cular and revolving cages, some consisting of over two hun-
dred compartments, and with these are cramming machines.
The cage revolves upon a centre pivot, and the birds are
fastened into the compartments by straps fastened to their
legs. The cramming apparatus is charged with liquid food,

248 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

made of buckwheat meal mixed with milk, to which a little
suet or fat is added. This is fitted into a square cage in
which the feeder stands, and in the larger machines he can
elevate this cage to any tier he wishes to be at. As soon as
the revolving cylinder is turned, and one of the compartments
thus brought opposite to him, he seizes hold of the inmate
with the left hand, deftly opening its beak at the same time,
and holding in his right hand the brass nozzle of an india-
rubber tube connected with the machine, inserts this into the
throat of the bird, then with his foot presses a treadle, and
sufficient of the liquid for one meal is forced into the crop of
the fowl. The process is repeated writh each bird four or five
times a day, and they are in prime condition in three or four
weeks. Many think the process a cruel one, but we have
watched it repeatedly, and can vouch for the fact that the
fowls are always eager for their turn to come.

In some parts of Sussex, England, and in France also,
really the same system is adopted, though the method
employed is rather varied. Cages line the room, in the
centre of which an attendant is seated on a bench, having
a cramming machine with a short nozzle pointing towards
him. Another attendant hands him a fowl, into the mouth
of which he inserts the nozzle of the crammer, and, pressing
a treadle with his foot, the food is injected into it. Mean-
while, another bird has been brought and is exchanged
for the one fed, so that no time is wasted. We have seen
it stated, that a couple of active men can feed two hundred
birds in an hour in this way.

Where cramming is preferred, and we ourselves see no

objection whatever to it, perhaps the best plan is that

adopted by Madame Aillerot, a great French poultry

breeder and fattener, famous for the excellence of her

stock, and who has for several years taken first prize for

dressed poultry at the great Paris exhibitions. Buckwheat

Best Mode of Killing. 249

meal, suet, and milk are made up into patons, as the
finger-pieces are called. The paste is first well worked
together until it is very smooth, and with a dish or
basket of these patons the round is commenced. The
head of the bird to be fed is taken into the left hand, the
beak opened, and three or four of the crams, which are
first dipped in milk, put down the throat. Birds are so
fed about four times a day, and the only drink given is
milk, the result being that the flesh is beautifully white
and tender when killed. But, whatever be the system
adopted, it is absolutely necessary to carefully watch the
birds, and as soon as they are seen to be losing their
appetite, or to show signs of going off — for if the fattening
is too much prolonged the fowls begin to lose flesh again,
instead of gaining it — they must be killed forthwith.

Much depends upon the manner of killing fowls for the
table, and the appearance of the birds when dressed will be
largely affected in this way. But no matter what system
is adopted, the birds should be starved for fifteen or eighteen
hours before being killed, so that all the food in the crop may
be consumed. Often we see chickens offered for sale with tlj
crops full of grain, the result of which is that it soon begins
to sour, and the fowls lose that fresh smell which they would
otherwise have retained for a considerable time longer. The
ordinary plan is to dislocate the neck, in which case death
is instantaneous, as the spinal nerves, arteries, and veins
are all torn asunder, the head remaining attached to the
body only by the skin. The disadvantage of this plan is
that if the fowls are hung up, there is a large accumulation
of blood in the neck, which tends to decomposition ; but
this can be easily avoided by making a deep cut in the
roof of the bird's mouth, when the blood will flow freely
away. Then there is the simpler method of chopping
the head off, but to both plans some persons object on

250 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

account of the movements of the fowls, which continue for
some minutes after the neck is broken or cut. These
movements are due to muscular irritability, and the bird
is not sensible of any pain ; but, if objected to, the body can
be put into a basket until after the movements have ceased.
We think, however, that this is a feeling soon overcome, and
that the best plan is to tie the fowl by the legs, and hang it
to a hook in the wall; then break the neck, and make a
cut so that the blood can run away. Death can also be
caused by cutting the throat, in which case it is imme-
diate, or by simply passing a sharp knife through the roof
of the mouth to the brain, but the plan we have recom-
mended will be found the simplest and most effective in all
respects.

One of the reasons mentioned by us for the great supe-
riority of French fowls as seen in the markets, lies in
the dressing of the birds after they are killed. The Gallia
poulterers have reduced this to the nature of a science,
for it is recognized that the method of preparation has
much to do with the appearance of the birds, both when
offered for sale and when on the table. The fowls are
plucked immediately they are killed — not left with the feathers
on them, as is too often the case here — and are then
laid upon shaping-boards with their backs upward. One
of these boards is simply a flat piece of wood, about the
same width as the fowl to be placed upon it, having a block
at each end, one to support the neck and the other the
rump, and thus the bird is kept perfectly level. Great care
is taken to see that the bird is manipulated before it gets
cold and set, and this is first done by bending in the rib
bones, after which the knee is pressed into the back, the
breast forced inwards, and the legs fastened over the breast
so as to keep it in its place. The fowl is then placed upon
the shaping-board back upwards, and a wet linen cloth

Dressing Fowls, 251

fastened tightly down over it, by means of tapes tied round the
bottom board. When kept in this way for twelve hours, the
flesh is firm and the whole appearance shapely, with no
loose flabby flesh to repel the sight. This shaping of the
birds accounts for the great difference between French fowls
mid our own, and there is no doubt but that the trouble
involved is amply repaid. The method offers other advan-
tages, as well as that of mere appearance. When the cook
gets the bird, she cuts the string which fastens the legs, for
the shaping-boards and cloths are not sold with the fowl,
and forces these down again, which brings the meat out on
the breast without the bone rising. When on the table, the
carver does not meet with the pieces of bone which obstruct
the passage of the knife in an English dressed fowl, and
it is a pleasure to be able to cut slice after slice off the
breast. This is one reason why French fowls appear to
have so much meat on them, but, it is also a fact, that they
are fed up to greater weights than are fowls in America.
We have seen a statement, that at one of the great Paris
shows, the first prize pair of La Fleche fowls weighed
twenty pounds, plucked and dressed, whilst the pullets of
the same breed turned the scale at sixteen pounds the pair.
It may not be possible to adopt the French system, as
just described, in its entirety in this country, but, at the
same time, we do not see why a portion of it might not be
grafted on to our own plan, or plans. For instance, there
would be no difficulty, either as regards expense or trouble,
in using the shaping-boards and cloths, by which means
(the birds would be braced up and made shapely, and thus
'do away with the soft appearance which is so objectionable.
In all our principal markets it is found that birds well
dressed bring more money than those sent in a careless
manner, and labour spent in this way is never lost. It 11

252 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

customary for some poulterers to break the breastbone
of fowls, in order to make them have a full appearance, but
this only hides bad work in the fattening process, and it is
thoroughly unnecessary, when the birds are properly fed
before killing. It is also a source of annoyance to the
carver, preventing slices being cut off the breast as easily
as they otherwise would be, and at the same time accounting
for the ragged appearance of the cut, when laid upon the
plate. Properly selected, well fattened, and carefully dressed,
there is no need for such a practice as this, and the sooner
it is abandoned the better. Prejudice is undoubtedly hard
to kill, but it is not impossible to overcome it, and the
benefit to both producer and consumer is so striking, that
it would not be long before prejudice would acknowledge its
error, by following in the same course.

This would appear to be a suitable opportunity for saying
something about another custom, which is largely adopted
in France, but which has never become very general in this
country, namely, that of caponising, which is the taking
away from cockerels the power of reproduction, by the doing
of which, the weight of the birds, and the tenderness of the
flesh, are both greatly increased, and fowls so treated are
to be met with very generally all over the Continent, at least
in those districts where poultry breeding is largely practised.
In some places pullets are also operated upon, for a young
hen that has never laid, is regarded as daintier than any
male bird, but, as a rule, these are fed up and killed before
laying has commenced, so that there is no need to subject
them to the operation. One of the best descriptions of
caponising is that given in Tegetmeier's Poultry Book,
which is of itself a translation from a French treatise by
Mdlle. Millet Kobinet :—

M The instrument employed in the operation should be

Caponising. 253

very sharp ; a surgeon's small operating- knife, termed a
curved-pointed bistoury, is far better than an ordinary knife,
as it makes a much neater wound, and so increases greatly
the chances of healing ; or a curved-pointed penknife may
be used. A stout needle and waxed thread are also requisite ;
a small curved surgical needle will be found much more
convenient in use than a common straight one.

"It is necessary that there should be two persons to
perform the operation. The assistant places the bird on
its right side on the knees of the person who is about to
operate, and who is seated in a chair of such a height as
to make his thighs horizontal. The back of the bird is
turned towards the operator, and the right leg and thigh
held firmly along the body, the left being drawn back
towards the tail, thus exposing the left flank, where the
incision has to be made. After removing the feathers the
skin is raised up, just behind the last rib, with the point
of the needle, so as to avoid wounding the intestines, and
an incision along the edge of the last rib is made into
the cavity of the body sufficiently large to admit of the
introduction of the finger. If any portion of the bowels
escape from the wound it must be carefully returned. The
forefinger is then introduced into the cavity, and directed
behind the intestines towards the back, somewhat to the left
side of the middle line of the body.

" If the proper position is gained (which is somewhat diffi-
cult to an inexperienced operator, especially if the cock is of
full size), the finger comes into contact with the left testicle,
which in a young bird of four months is rather larger than
a full- sized horse-bean. It is moveable, and apt to slip
under the finger, although adhering to the spine ; when
felt it is to be gently pulled away from its attachments
with the finger and removed through the wound — an opera-

254 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

tion which requires considerable practice and facility to
perform properly, as the testicle sometimes slips from
under the finger before it is got out, and, gliding amongst
the intestines, cannot be found again readily ; it may,
however, remain in the body of the animal without much
inconvenience, although it is better removed, as its presence
is apt to excite inflammation.

" After removing the left testicle, the finger is again
introduced, and the right one sought for and removed in a
similar manner. It is readily discovered, as its situation
is alongside of the former, a little to the right side of the
body. Afterwards the lips of the wound are brought
together and kept in contact with two or three stitches
with the waxed thread. No attempt should be made to
sew up the wound with a continuous seam, but each stitch
should be perfectly separate, and tied distinctly from the
others.

"In making the stitches great care should be taken;
the skin should be raised up so as to avoid wounding the
intestines with the needle, or including even the slightest
portion of them in the thread — an accident that would
almost inevitably be followed by the death of the animal.

" After the operation the bird had better be placed under
a coop in a quiet situation, and supplied with drink and
soft food, such as sopped bread. After a few hours it is
best to give him his liberty, if he can be turned out in
some quiet place removed from the poultry-yard, as, if
attacked by the other cocks, the healing of the wound
would be endangered.

" After the operation the bird should not be permitted
to roost on a perch, as the exertion of leaping up would
unquestionably injure the wound ; it should, therefore, at
night be turned into a room where it is obliged to rest on

After-Treatment of Capons. 255

the floor previously covered with some clean straw. For
three or four days after the operation the hird should be
fed on soft food ; after that time it may he set at liberty,
for a short period, until it has recovered entirely from the
operation, when it should be put up to fatten."

256 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

CHAPTEK XXI.

THE DISEASES OF POULTRY.

General Treatment of Disease — Causes — Apoplexy — Bronchitis — Bumble- Foot— *
Catarrh — Consumption — Cramp — Cropbound — Diarrhoea — Diphtheria — Egg
Organs — Feather EatiDg — Gapes — Roup — Cholera.

Such a work as this would be incomplete were no reference
made to the diseases of poultry. We do not intend to go
into any long descriptions of the diseases which affect
domestic fowls, for they would mystify the reader, but shall
give short descriptions sufficient to enable a disease to be recog-
nized, and the best methods of treatment. It is a fact, however,
that the treatment of disease in birds presents a considerable
amount of difficulty to the ordinary poultry keeper, for the
body of the fowl being covered with feathers, and there being
so few ways in which the special complaints can be diagnosed,
one form of disease can very easily be mistaken for another.
There are, however, symptoms to be found accompanying all
diseases that may, by a little careful examination, be dis-
covered, and from these it is possible to learn, what is the
matter with a fowl. We may say that, where there are a
goodly number of fowls, it is much better to kill any bird
right off that presents the appearance of having an infectious
disease upon it, rather than to run the risk of allowing it to
communicate the same to others. If the bird so affected be
a very valuable one, then an effort may be made to save it ;

The Diseases of Poultry. 257

but it will generally be found cheaper in the long run to kill
it. Especially is this so with roup, which is a most
infectious and fatal disease ; and when it once gets into a
yard, is very difficult indeed to get rid of. In any case,
when a bird is seen to be ailing, it should be put somewhere
by itself, so that it may not be near the other fowls ; and
should the complaint from which it is suffering be a con-
tagious or infectious one, then probably the other birds can
be kept free from it ; but if it is not, no harm will have
been done. This is a rule which should never be broken ;
and, if the attendant will' every day look round the fowls, he
will soon see if any are moping or refusing their food, and if
these are removed, as we have suggested, disease may and
will, in many cases, be kept down.

There can be little doubt that diseases have been greatly
fostered and increased by the present system of keeping
fowls. Naturally birds are subject to but few diseases; but
the feeding upon rich or unsuitable foods, over-crowding and
keeping upon the same ground for a long period, gradual
weakening of the system by in-breeding, and exposure by
sending to shows, all have had the tendency to make the
birds more subject to various forms of disease, to which at
one time they were entire strangers. Hence the necessity
for treating fowls in a common-sense manner ; for by this
means much may be done in the way of preventing disease,
which is at all times much better than cure, and much easier
also. It would be beyond our province to go very deeply
into the treatment of diseases, but for facility of reference
we will give them in alphabetical order.

Apoplexy.- Birds, which have been apparently in good
health, are sometimes found lying on the floor of the fowl-
house, being unable to move, having fallen from their perches.
This is apoplexy, and is the result of over-feeding, by which we

258 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

mean not only too much food, but also too rich food. Indian
corn has been found to be a great cause of this disease ; and
the death of one bird, should be taken as an indication that
the others can only be saved, by reducing the food both in
quantity and quality. If the bird so affected is not dead, a
vein on the under side of one wing should be opened, and
the blood taken will reduce the pressure on the brain. The
bird should be fed on light food for some time, and kept in a
quiet place.

Bronchitis. — When a cold settles on the lungs or chest,
instead of in the head, and the bird is constantly coughing,
without having any other symptoms of cold, then it is a form
of bronchitis. The bird should at once be removed to a
warm, moist atmosphere, which will generally be sufficient
to effect a cure, though a few doses of homoeopathic tincture
of aconite wil] materially assist it. A warm day must be
chosen for returning the fowl to its ordinary house, and the
same precaution is necessary in all bronchial or respiratory
affections. For this disease, Mr. Tegetmeier recommends
the administration of one grain of calomel and one-eighth
of a grain of tartar emetic to be given at night.

Bumble Foot. — Dorkings and Houdans are subject to
this more than any other varieties, though we have found it
in others. A wart-like substance appears in the ball of the
foot, and if allowed to grow the bird becomes entirely lame.
The cause is generally high perches, but constant walking
upon cement or stone will have the same effect. The corn
should be removed with a sharp knife, and fie part
be touched with nitrate of silver, after which it is better to
keep the bird on clean straw for a few days. The inflamma-
tion may be reduced by bathing the foot with warm water,
and the heat of the body should be also reduced by some
aperient medicine.

The Diseases of Poultry, 259

Catarrh or Common Cold. — This complaint is indicated
by the same symptoms as we find in human beings, namely,
a running at the nostrils, and a slight swelling of the eyes.
It arises from cold or exposure, and if not attended to may
develop into roup or consumption, both of which should be
consulted for further information. For cure, the bird should be
kept in a warm place, and have doses of roup pills, or homoeo-
pathic tincture of aconite, and have nutritious food, rather
stimulating in its nature.

Cholera. — See page 364.

Consumption. — This is often an hereditary disease, and
when so is impossible to cure ; but it is also caused by damp,
dark, badly ventilated houses. Scrofulous tubercles form in
the lungs, and when the bird takes cold, that settles there.
The bird is seen to gradually waste away ; there is cough and
constant expectoration, and the poor thing soon dies, a mass
of bones and feathers. No bird suspected to have any seeds
of consumption in it should ever be bred from, but if the
disease is acquired, not hereditary, then it may be cured if
taken in time. Good housing, wholesome and abundant diet,
are necessary, and capsules of cod-liver oil with quinine, or
Parish's chemical food, and capsules of cod-liver oil only, will
be the best treatment. We should, however, strongly urge
that any bird so affected, even if apparently cured, be not
bred from, as there is always danger of its transmitting the
disease to its progeny, and the system must be weakened.

Cramp. — Chickens kept upon a clay soil, or in a damp
place, are often subject to cramp, which is known by the
toes of the birds beginning to curl in, and then the bird has
to walk or its knuckles. When discovered, the chicken
should be placed on a perfectly dry floor, and fed upon stimu-
lating foods. It will also be a help towards cure, if the feet
and legs are bathed with warm water, and afterwards rubbed
with turpentine.

260 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

Cropbound. — Fowls, from various reasons, are sometimes
unable to pass the food from the crop into the gizzard, and
the former becomes charged with food, hanging like a bag in
front of the bird. If not relieved, it will soon die of starva-
tion, for, no matter how much it may eat, none of the food
can pass into the stomach so long as the obstruction remains.
When discovered, some milk and warm water should be
poured down the throat of the bird, to soften the food in the
crop, which should then be well kneaded with the hands.
Often, if dealt with early, this will be found sufficient, but if
not, then an incision must be made through the skin to the
crop, and its contents removed with the aid of an egg-spoon.
Care must be taken to see that all is removed, for if the
original cause of the obstruction be left, then all will have to
be done over again. The crop should be washed out with
warm water, and must then be stitched up, the inner skin
first and the outer one afterwards, for which purpose silk or
horsehair are the best materials. The bird needs to be
fed on soft food, such as sopped bread, for three or four days,
and kept without water, when it will be none the worse for
the operation.

Diarrhoea. — The use of bonemeal will generally prevent
this complaint, which may arise from an insufficient supply
of grain, or from unwholesome food. Some boiled rice
mixed with powdered chalk will often stop it, and we should
not advise any stronger remedy in slight cases. When,
however, the diarrhoea becomes excessive ; then chlorodyne,
given in water as prescribed on the bottles, is the best thing
'for it.

Diphtheria.— We have never heard of this disease making
its appearance except in exhibition yards, and the ordinary
poultry keeper need not fear it, except when buying birds.

The Diseases of Poultry. 261

Its indications are, severe cold with high fever, and in the
throat white spots are seen filling the glottis. Any bird
so affected should be killed forthwith, as it is one of the
most contagious and fatal diseases known, and when once
it gets into a yard, it is not often got out again without the
sacrifice of all the stock.

Egg Organs. — The delicate mechanism by means of
which the egg is formed and voided, is sometimes put out
of order, but, as a rule, this is the result of bad feeding,
which stimulates or forces the organs, and the ordinary course
of nature is upset. Or, it may be, that the insufficient supply
of shell-forming materials, results in soft or shell-less eggs
being voided. Birds at liberty are not often so troubled,
and those in confinement need to be carefully fed, and to
be supplied with the materials for shell formation. Some-
times a hen becomes egg-bound, when a little castor oil
maybe tried, but if that fails, then a little olive oil should
be injected into the oviduct, and this will generally secure
the object in view. Great care must be taken in so treating
a bird, as rough usage may easily break the eggf such a
circumstance being almost always followed by a fatal
result.

Feather Eating. — Few birds at liberty are ever found to
acquire the disgusting habit of feather eating, and in confine-
ment it is found mostly amongst the Asiatic varieties and
Houdans. When once contracted it is very difficult indeed
to cure the habit, and it is best to remove any bird found
so transgressing, and, if not valuable, to kill it, at the same
time trying to remove any cause that may exist.

Idleness is a very great cause of feather eating, and
hence the having nothing to do, tempts birds in confinement
to pluck out each other's feathers. It may also be that

262 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

birds so confined, do not obtain something that is necessary
to them, which we know nothing of, and cannot supply, but
which at liberty they can find for themselves, and the
feathers satisfy the craving thus engendered. And for
this reason we have sometimes found bonemeal of great
service, once curing a hen by putting a large quantity of
this into every dish of food she had for several days, giving
her soft food all the time. But in other cases we have known
this remedy to fail entirely, and we are fain to acknowledge,
that at times we have been completely puzzled how to proceed.
Thirst also is said to induce the practice, and the treatment
recommended in the following translation from an article
which recently appeared in a French poultry journal, will
indicate further measures : —

" The cause appears to us, to be attributed to the general
discomfort felt by all classes of poultry during the cold
weather, and especially the east winds. The poor things,
huddled together in a sheltered corner, dare not come out
in the open unless at feeding time, and then they never
scratch about, nor look for insects, grass, or those
little nothings which constitute the essential part of their
food, and which is found in every run well attended to.
Under these circumstances the want of animal food has
made itself felt, and the opportunity and temptation being
within their reach, they have pulled at one another's
feathers, which they eat with evident satisfaction. The
only immediate remedy is to set them at liberty, but as
this cannot be done in every case, one has to be satisfied
with the means at his disposal. Let them hav8, several
times a day, green-meat. Mix with the soft food, some
meat cut up into small pieces. Avoid tainted meat.
Renew the sand in the runs, and especially put dry sand
under the sheds where the fowls generally dust themselves.
Care must be taken with a hen, although not picked herself,

The Diseases of Poultry. 263

but always pursuing the others, to isolate her. One single
bird is sufficient to set a bad example. In small runs it
is the cock which is generally picked first. Is it from
excess of affection, or is it spite and revenge ? It is difficult
to say. At all events, he seldom resents it, and allows
himself to be plucked without resistance. In this case the
best way to protect him, is to rub him over with a sponge
dipped in paraffin. In repeating this operation two or
three times, at an interval of some days, the hens will
entirely cease to strip their lord and master. "

[I believe & judicious salting of the food will cure a feather-
eating flock almost always. W.]

Gapes. — Chickens are sometimes troubled with what is
known as gapes, so called from the constant gaping of the
mouth. This action is the result of the presence of worms
in the throat, and if these are not removed, the chicken
soon dies from suffocation. The cause of these worms is
difficult to ascertain. Some are able to prevent them, by
the application to the heads of newly-hatched chicks, of a
mercurial ointment, but in other cases they appear to arise
out of the ground, and all efforts to get rid of them are in
vain. The worms can be dislodged from the throat, by
dipping a small quill feather in turpentine, and then
passing it into the throat, where it is twisted around and
jerked out, thus dislodging the worms. Fumigating with
carbolic acid is also a most effectual cure, and where chicks
are largely affected, it is worth some trouble to save their
lives. We have also seen recommended, placing the chicks
in a box and dusting them well with fine lime, which gets
into the throat and makes the birds cough, thus bringing
out the worms. In both these cases care must be taken
not to kill the birds by suffocation, which may easily be
done if the treatment is continued too long.

Roup. — It has been stated that cold never becomes roup

264

Profitable Poultry Keeping,

without the blood is in » scrofulous condition, and we
are inclined to think that this is so. Mere cold is not
difficult of cure, whilst roup is, and the latter is best known
by the breath having an offensive smell in conjunction
with the cold. It is necessary, therefore, to do more than
merely attend to the cold ; something to counteract the
affection of the blood is needed. A roupy bird may be
known by the offensive breath already spoken of, the discharge
from the nostrils, and the swollen face and eyes. It is ex-
ceedingly contagious, and will soon spread through a whole
yard, if not arrested. In consequence, birds affected should be
rigidly secluded, or killed off at once. Sulphur or charcoal
are the best to correct the scrofula, and Walton's roup
pills or copaiba capsules should be used for the cold. The
face, nostrils, and mouth should be well washed with
Condy's fluid, or solution of chlorinated soda, so as to kill
the mucus which gathers there. Especial care is necessary
to see that the birds do not communicate it one to the other,
as in drinking out of the same fountain, or eating out of the
same dish. All dishes, etc., should be at once washed in
diluted carbolic acid, and the houses well lime-washed out.

Cholera. — This is an epidemic disease peculiar to this
country, attacking and often nearly destroying isolated flocks
and yards having poor sanitary arrangements or care. It is
probably malarial in its character, affects the liver, poisons
the blood, causes violent diarrhoea, and is often exceedingly
rapid in its action and termination. The fowl attacked is
droopy, weak, in high fever, with thirst, rough and draggled
plumage, and has diarrhoea with green droppings. Drs. Dickey
and Merry recommend pills as follows : Blue mass, 60 gr. ;
camphor, 25 gr. ; Cayenne pepper, 30 gr. ; rhubarb, 48 gr. ;
laudanum, 60 drops ; made in 20 pills and given one every
four hours till they act freely, and, when they have acted,
half a teaspoonf ul of castor oil and ten drops of laudanum to
each fowl.

Points of Management 265

CHAPTER XXn.

POINTS OF MANAGEMENT.

Importance of Details — Keeping an Account — Rotation of Crops — Poultry Manure
— The Dust-bath — The Preservation of Eggs — Packing Eggs — Sending Eggs
to Market.

Our last chapter must be given up to those details of man-
agement, which we have not been able to touch upon
previously, or only in an indirect manner. It must not be
assumed, however, that because we have left these to the last,
that they are unimportant ; on the contrary, they are most
important, and though they may be regarded as only details,
yet these details will have a very great influence upon the
result, for the neglect of one thing only will, in the course of
a year, even if most trivial in itself, become an appreciable
matter. This we need not dwell upon, for the same thing
is found in all pursuits, and in every department of life.

We should, at the outset, urge all who go in for poultry
keeping to keep a strict account of every item of expenditure
and receipt, and to annually make a balance sheet, for there
can be no question that in this, as in many other matters,
there is far too great laxity in the keeping of accounts.
Wealthy persons, who do not care how much a thing costs
them, may be permitted to dispense with all such records as
we are now recommending, yet even they will find it advanta-

266 Profitable Poultry Keeping,

geous to have them. But so far as those are concerned who
look upon their poultry as a means of adding to their income,
and with whom they must be profitable if kept at all, it is
almost essential that they should set down every item of
expenditure and receipt, not only for reference and as a
means of seeing whether the fowls pay, but also for future
1 guidance. Armed with a full and faithful record of a year's
work, an intelligent poultry keeper will be able to avoid past
mistakes, to see in what direction he may develop his busi-
ness, with the greatest probabilities of success, to know
which breeds have proved the most profitable, what expenses
can be cut down, and, it may be, can discover how to turn
a loss into a profit. Figures are stubborn things, but a
study of them has saved many a man from ruin, and we
believe that in every pursuit of life, whether it be our ordinary
affairs, or those outside things which minister to our plea-
sures, but especially in matters of business, a strict account
should be kept of every item of expenditure. Without
this, there is great danger of getting the balance on the
wrong side. We have no wish to write a homily on the
economies of life, though such a subject is full of the deepest
interest, but this is not the proper place for it. We urge
every one, however, whether the number of his birds be small
or great, to keep an account of the same. The cost of a
book in which to keep the account, need not be more than a
shilling or two, and, except where very large numbers are
kept, one book will be sufficient. A quarto book, bound in
^oards, ruled with $ and cts. columns, and containing about *
k. hundred pages, can be obtained for a quarter, and the]
majority of our readers will find this as large as they will
require.

The poultry keeper must begin his account by taking stock
of all his birds, houses and appliances on hand at the beginning

Points of Management. 267

of the year (which does not necessarily mean January 1st), and
the money value of these will represent the capital invested
in the yard. Then he will require several pages to be set
aside for the cash account, in which all his money receipts
and expenditure should be set down day by day, together with
the particulars of the same. Next will come the egg account,
which will show the number of eggs laid, and the way in
which they are disposed of. If the number of fowls kept be
only few, and not very fluctuating, it will not be requisite to
have a poultry register ; but if the stock be a large one, then
it will be advantageous to keep such an account, adding all
the birds hatched or purchased, and, of course, taking from
those the sold, killed, or otherwise disposed of. A hatching
record is very useful during the breeding season, in which
the date of setting the hens, the date the eggs are due, the
number fertile and hatched, and breeds, can be enumerated.
This prevents many mistakes being made, but in some yards
a simpler plan is adopted, namely, that of hanging a card
above each hatching box, upon which these particulars are
entered, and all that need then be put in the books are the
numbers hatched. At the end of the twelve months the
stock of fowls, &c. should again be revalued, and a balance
sheet made, showing the operations of the twelve months,
with the result thereof. We must just remind the poultry
keeper, that the value of eggs and chickens used in the
household must be placed to the credit of the yard, or the
balance sheet will not be a true one.

In one of our earlier chapters, we hinted at a system which
can be adopted by small farmers and other occupiers of land,
in which the fowls really form one in a course of rotation of
crops. This is not necessary on a large farm, for there the
birds can be placed on the land after harvest, or, as we have
sometimes seen, the houses may be widely scattered apart, and

268 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

the fowls allowed to wander about even amongst the growing
corn or roots. Fowls will do no harm to either of these crops,
when they are four or six inches above the ground, and as they
are as fully grown as this by the time the chickens need be
put out, there is no difficulty in adopting the plan ; the birds
will thrive amain, for they will get just the food most suited
to them — insects and worms — and, in return, the crops will be
benefited by their droppings. Where smaller runs have to
be given, it is a capital plan to have double runs to each
house, using these on alternate years, and growing vegetables
on the ground not in use. By this means the ground will be
kept sweet and clean, it will not get contaminated, disease will
be prevented, and the crops grown thereon will be very heavy
indeed. Of course the system can be largely extended, and
fields lying fallow for a year may be used for poultry keeping.

This leads us to the subject of poultry manure. Although
there is no doubt that the droppings from fowls is most
valuable, though not quite so good as has sometimes been
represented, it has not yet become a marketable commodity
of any importance. There is a limited demand for it amongst
gardeners, but, as a rule, it is much better to have some
means of using, instead of selling, it. None should be
wasted, and mixed with fine dry soil it becomes a most
valuable manure for any kind of crops. We know one farmer
near Aylesbury, who buys large quantities of the duck manure
for his root crops, finding it the best he can get for them,
and certainly the cheapest. It has been estimated that the
droppings of a fowl is worth fifty cents a year to the
land, and if that is so, then the keeping of poultry be-
comes of still greater importance than we have ever claimed
for it.

In our chapter on the sitting hen, we spoke of a dust
bath, and this is needed by ordinary fowls also; those

The Dust Bath. 269

who know the value of such a bath, both in summer
and winter, consider it essential to successful poultry keep-
ing. And how few of our poultry keepers there are,
who give their fowls an opportunity of revelling in a
heap of loose earth or ashes, either in the hatching season,
or when the ground is damp and they cannot obtain it
naturally. The dust bath is to poultry, nature's cleaner
and renovator, and is as necessary for cleansing the feathers
of fowls from vermin and effete matter, as a cool pure water
bath is to the person of cleanly habits. Poultry with free
range in summer, will be able to help themselves to a dust
bath, if they have to roll in the newly made flower or
vegetable beds, but with fowls in confinement the means
and material must be supplied. A dry mass of fine sand
or road dust, fine loam or coal ashes, old mortar, or in fact
anything of that kind will do. This mass of dry material
should be under a shed to protect it from rain in summer
time, and in the sunniest corner of the hen-house or shed
in winter. A capital plan is to have a small shed adjoining
the fowl house, with or without a connection thereto, and
devote this entirely to the purposes of the dust bath. Such
a shed need not be more than a couple of feet high, and
should be entirely open at the front, with a sloping roof to
keep out the rain.

If we watch the habits of all wild birds, we can see them
in the open clearings and on the country roads, at early
sunrise, dusting themselves as rapidly as possible ; and if
we give our domestic fowls a chance, we can see an instinctive
desire in the young, as well as the old, to scratch, and pul-
verize the earth, if in lumps, and they will then adjust their
feathers, and by the rapid action of their claws dust them-
selves thoroughly, and by shaking, rid themselves of lice.
The dust bath is made more effective by putting a handful

270 Profitable Poultry Keeping.

or two of sulphur and carbolic powder through the mass,
and mixing them together. The ground should be excavated
out six inches, or the shed have a front ledge of the same
width, and this filled up with the ashes, or whatever is used.
If of much less depth than this the birds will be unable to
get a thorough cleansing. Cleanliness in every way is of
the greatest importance. Uncleanliness about the fowls, their
quarters, or their runs, is a sure cause of disease. It gener-
ates vermin, and vermin saps the foundations of health.
Hens will not lay well, nor thrive while infested with lice,
or while they roost in filthy places, and inhale the noxious
gases which emanate from their accumulated droppings.
Ill-ventilated fowl houses, and the absence of light and sun,
exert a powerful influence on the health of fowls.

There are many poultry keepers who make a great mis-
take, in that they do not take sufficient care to send their
produce to market in the best way. We have already dealt
with this subject in its relation to fowls, but it is also
necessary to say a few words upon it so far as eggs are
concerned. Purchasers of eggs know what a great difference
there is in what are known as new-laid eggs, and we believe
this is largely influenced by the method of preservation.
Eggs can be kept for three or four weeks in a very simple
manner, and it will be difficult for even an expert, at the
end of that period, to tell the difference between such an
eggf and one three or four days old. If they can be kept
fresh for this length of time, they can be so kept for a
shorter period, and as in many places it is convenient to
get them to market only once a week, such a system as we
are about to recommend will be found of the greatest value.
The place selected for keeping eggs should be cool in
summer, but not cold in winter, that is, it should be kept
at a temperature of from 45 to 60 degrees all the year

Preserving Eggs Fresh.

271

round. If too cold, the eggs will freeze and crack, if too
warm, they will commence to decay and get stale sooner than
they otherwise would. Shelves should be fitted up with holes
bored in them, sufficiently large to keep the eggs upstanding,
but, of course, not large enough to allow them to pass
through. These shelves will be very inexpensive and will serve
a lifetime. The eggs should be placed in these holes broad-
end downwards, and tests have proved that they will keep
fresh in this position, very much longer than with the broad
end upwards. Some keep eggs in bran, but the pierced

.'

Pig. 14. — Travelling Egg Box.

board is much preferable, and the free circulation of the
air round the eggs, assists greatly in their preservation.
Instead of the pierced shelves, cardboard partitions, as used
in egg boxes, may be adopted, but we do not think that they
are so good or so handy.

The advantage of getting eggs to market as soon as
possible after being laid, has led to the adoption of special
boxes for the purpose of sending them by rail. The old
system of packing in straw may serve very well where time
is of little object, but it is clumsy and not very safe. The
boxes we are now speaking of, are made in almost all sizes
from one dozen upwards, and consist of strong square

272

Profitable Poultry Keeping.

wooden boxes, generally with lock and key, inside of which
are cardboard partitions, forming squares, of sufficient size
to allow an egg to stand upright in each. Between each
row, a sheet of thick felt is placed, and no other packing
is required, the eggs travelling in this way with very little
danger of breakage. Fig. 14 shows one of these boxes, hold-
ing six dozen eggs. The benefits of the system *Bre obvious,
for the boxes are easily filled, as easily emptied, and can
be used over and over again, so that the first, is the only
cost, and that is by no means a heavy one. Another kind

Fig. lo.— The " Ovifer " Egg Box.

of package is that known as the " Ovifer," shown in Fig.
15, the eggs in this being held by springs fixed to tin trays,
which latter are fitted into a wooden box. It is customary with
those who send their eggs to market every day, to date each
one as soon as collected, but, whilst in their case such a
plan is to be recommended, for obvious reasons it would
not be wise for others to do so. But when eggs can be sent
out daily, better prices will be obtained, and present ex-
press rates, as well as the cheap freight now charged by

Facilities for Carriage. 273

the railway companies, offer facilities to poultry keepers to
reach consumers, which were never given before. Arrange-
ments can often be made with hotels and large houses,
for supplying eggs at good paying prices. The energetic
poultry keeper, will take care to omit no opportunity of this
kiud, in order to make his profits as large as possible.

INDEX.

Page

Page.

Account, Keeping an .

22

Chicken house, Floor for

67

Adapting existing buildings

34

Position of

66

Andalusian Fowls .

79

" Size of

. 68

Apoplexy .

257

" yards

. 30

Artificial heating of houses

45

Chickens during the first f e^

T

" Incubation

176

days .

. 213

" Mothers .

203

" Early

63

Aseel Fowls .

80

" Food of .

238

Attendant's house .

64

" How to secure early

240

Aylesbury Ducks .

, 137

" Management of

215

American Incubators .

186

" Rearing .

214

Cochin Fowls

84

Cochins forty years ago

12

Bantam Fowls

80

Confinement, Effect of .

56

Bone Meal

215

Consumption

259

Brahma Fowls

83

Coops . . . .

213

Breeds, Choice of .

69

Cottagers and poultry-keep-

Hardy

71

ing .

21

" Non-sitting

75

Cramming Fowls .

248

" Sitters and mothers

76

Cramp ....

259

Bronchitis

258

Cropbound

260

Bumblefoot .

258

Crops, Benefit to, by Geese

. 147

Buying birds .

158

Cross-breeding.

4, 126

" eggs for sitting .

158

Cross v. pure-bred Fowls 7

0, 126

Caponising Fowls .

252

Diarrhoea

. 260

Catarrh

259

Diphtheria

. 260

Cayuga Ducks

140

Diseases of Poultry

. 256

276

Index.

Page, i

Page

Dominique Fowls .

89 1

Food, qualities of the various

Dorking Fowls

89

grains

237

Dressing Fowls, French sys-

" the fuel of all life

231

tem of

250

" What is needed in

237

Duck farms .

134

Fowls suitable for fattening

241

Ducks, Breeding, hatching

France, Farms in .

14

and rearing .

143

French Fowls

93

' Feeding of .

145

French table Fowls, Superior

" in small runs

142

ity of

244

' ' not to be kept with hen

s 133

Fruit trees in runs .

59

* ' water needed for breed-

ers

133

Dust-bath, The . 52, 17

2, 269

Game Fowls .

100

Gapes ....

263

Geese, Breeds of .

148

Egg organs, Affections of

. 261

" in Norfolk .

147

Eggs, airing during incuba-

" Management of.

149

tion

. 171

General-utility Fowls .

76

' ' Consumption of .

. 14

Gradual commencement best

25

" Formation of

. 209

Gravel and grass runs .

65

" How to secure early

. 241

Ground, Selection of.

26

Packing

. 271

" Preservation of .

. 270

" Prices of

. 15

Hamburgh Fowls .

103

*' Testing the.

. 172

Hatching-boxes

167

" Value of fresh .

16, 18

Hatching, Management

during

174

Health and condition

163

Farms, The best plan for

. 57

Hobby, Poultry -keeping of tei

1

Farm-yard mongrels

. 125

a

12

Fattening, Methods of .

. 245

Houses, Aspect of .

. 27

Feather-eating

. 261

" and runs, Size of

33

Feeding of breeding stock

. 161

Cheap

34

fencing for runs .

54

Cost of .

32

Fertile eggs, When to expec

t 161

" elaborate ones not

Floor for chicken-house

. 67

needed

82

Food, Effect of bad

. 232

" Floorsin .

43

" for fowls in conflneme

nt

" Foundation for

39

and at liberty .

. 236

" Framework for

40

' ' for sitting hens .

. 172

" good ones required

32

Index,

277

Page,

Page.

Houses, Importance of .

31

Langshan Fowls .

. 104

" in gardens .

35

Leghorn Fowls

. 107

' ' Materials for

37

" on wheels

56

" Position of Chicken

63

Malay Fowls .

. Ill

" Saving of timber .

39

Mania, The Poultry

. 11

" Separate

27

Manure, The value of Poultry 268

" Tenant's fixtures .

37

Minorca Fowls

111

" too large, are objection-

Mongrels, Farm-yard

128

able . . . .

38

Mothers, Artificial .

. 220

" Ventilation in

41

Muscovy Ducks

. 141

" Walls of

28

" Windows and doors in

40

Housing of Ducks, The

136

Nest boxes

. 50

Hydro-incubator, The .

179

Nests, Making the .

. 168

Non-sitting breeds .

. 75

Number of hens to cock bird

. 160

In-breeding, Evils of

159

Incubation, Artificial

176

" Period of

174

Ornamental Ducks

. 142

Incubator, The Hydro- .

180

Over feeding, Effect of .

. 232

" Owen's Tabular

184

" Arnold's Egg Oven .

184

" Hearson's Champion

185

Packing eggs.

. 271

" Patents for

188

Parents, Influence of

. 154

Incubators, Advice to workers

Paris, Poultry in .

16

of .

186

Pay? Does Poultry-keeping

22

* American

186

Pekin Ducks .

. 139

' The Monarch

.194

Perches . . . .

48

" Challenge .

196

Pleasure in keeping. Poultry

20

■ " Eureka

197

Plymouth Rock Fowls .

117

' " Climax.

197

Polish Fowls .

117

" Prairie State

199

Poultry, Diseases of

256

' " Pineland

200

" keeping, Recent increas

B

' " Thermostatic

201

of interest in

13

* " Simplicity .

202

" Who may keep

18

" Who should not keep .

19

Preservation of Eggs

270

Killii

ag Fowls

249

Profit, Aids to secure

62

278

Index.

Page.

Page

Rats, Provision against .

67

Stocks, Improving present

131

Rearing Chickens .

. 209

Suburban Residents

21

Rouen Ducks .

. 138

Roup ....

. 263

Runs and fencing .

54

Table Fowls .

75

Runs, Size of.

21-33

" " Superiority of

French .

244

Testing sex and fertility of

eggs, Supposed ways of

210

Sale of eggs and Chickens 129

Testing the eggs .

210

Scotch Grey Fowls

. 118

Turkeys as rearers

225

Selection, Errors in

. 69

" Breeds and manage-

Sheds ....

. 35

ment .

150

Silky Fowls .

. 121

" Fattening

. 152

Sitters and mothers

. 76

Sitting Hen, The .

164-170

Sitting Hens, Food for .

. 172

Water .... 239-226

Place for

. 166

Wild Duck .

136

Space required for Fowls

53

Spanish Fowls

. 121

Stock birds, Importance 0

f care

Yard, Dividing the

29

in selection of .

. 153

Yards, Plans for .

. 29

uOLt.

University of British Columbia Library

DUE DATE

FORM 310

649498

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