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THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

FIG. 1. Drawing by Michel Angelo Bnonarrotti, from the copper
engraving by Giov. Fabbri (Choulant).

THE PROPORTIONS

THE HUMAN BODY

BERTRAM

A. Vk

\jfINDLE, M.A., M.D., D.Sc.,

QOBBK'S raoraenR or AXATOMY iv THE MAMOM COLLBOB,

PROrCMOR or AMATOMT TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY OT ARTIWT1I,
A HP LCCTVRER IN THE Ml'XICIPAL BCMOOL Or ART,
BIRMl

LONDON:
BAILLIERE, TINDALL AND COX,

20 & iM. KIN<; WILLIAM STREET, STRAND.
1892.

[AU riffktt rtttrved.}

THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS

OP THE

ROYAL BIRMINGHAM SOCIETY OF ARTISTS.

M374382

PREFACE.

THE following pages were prepared and delivered as a
course of lectures for the members of the Royal Birming-
ham Society of Artists. I have expressed my obligations
to various books from which my information has been
drawn, and should like here also to add the names of the
following works, of which, us will be seen, I have made
much use : Marshall, 4 Proportions of the Human Body ' ;
Duval, 'Artistic Anatomy' (English translation by Frederick
E. Fenton ; Cassell and Co.). I have to thank the pub-
lisher of the last work for permission to reproduce some
illustrations. The subject of the proportions of the human
body is one of great interest to artists, and if I have been
able, by bringing together in one place the observations
\vhii-h have appeared upon it, to assist them in any way, I
shall be well pleased.

BERTRAM C. A. WINDLE.
MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM,
October 1, 1892.

LIST OF FIGURES,

i -\..i:

1. Scale of Proi>ortions of Michel Angelo - Front*

2. The Egyptian Canon, or Canon of LepsiuH 22

3. Scheme of Proportions of the Germanicus and the

Apoxyomenos -7

4. Canon of Paul Topinard 41
it. Canon of Chrisostorao Martinez - 44

Diagrams comparing Diameters of the Hips with

Diagrams of the Shoulders in the Male and Female - <>J

K. The Human Body described within a Circle >.l

'.. The Human Body inscribed within a Square '*

1<). Comparison of the Infantile and Adult Proportions T.">

11. Diagrams showing Increase of Thorax and Upper Part of

Abdomen - - 7;

THI; I'liohnmnNs OF THE HUMAN BODY.

[NTBODUCTOBY,

IN the course of lectures which, l>y the courtesy of the
members of this society, I am permitted to commence this
evening, I propose, so far as is possible to me, to lay before
you an historical account of the various methods which
have been inverted in successive ages and by diverse
nations, to establish a rule of proportion for the human
body. So far as I am able I shall endeavour to criti. !-.
these various methods, and in conclusion I shall supply
you with the best authenticated information as to the pro-
portions of the human body, with the varieties \\hich are
due to differences of age, sex, or race. I do not know
whether in this place, and to such an audience as this, any
defence is necessary for one who presumes to offer hard
definite scientific facts to those interested in the study of
art alone. Is science, using the term now in a restricted
sense, really of any use to the true artist ? or is the true
artist he or she who is from power of observation and force
of genius able to grasp so completely and reproduce so fully
all the characters of the human body, in their constantly
varying complexity, as to be independent of all outside
knowledge of cognate subjects ? The question has been so
well dealt with by one who is at the same time one of the
most charming of writers and a skilled artist, that you
will, I am sure, pardon me if I give you his words instead

14 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

of any of iny own. ' The sciences of, perspective, optics
and anatomy,' he says, ' are useful to artists just as the
science of geography is useful to a traveller. Take the
very best of maps ; what does it tell you of the countries
you intend to explore? It is not a substitute for your
observation as a traveller, but simply a reliable informant
as to where the places lie, where you will find them, and a
help to your topographic memory. After having studied
the map you must observe the country itself in all its
detail if you want to know its life. But the map has
helped you, nevertheless, in the arrangement of the work
before you. It has saved you time and trouble ; it has
prevented you from missing your way. What a map is to
the traveller, scientific study wisely pursued is to the artist.
It can never serve him as a substitute for his own observa-
tion, but it may tell him when to apply his power as an
observer and guard him against innumerable mistakes. If
artists could always have nature before them exactly as
they desired to paint it, they might dispense with the help
of science altogether. Any artist who sees quite clearly in
the artistic sense, sees also as much of organic structure as
is necessary to his perfect performance. But when nature
is not present, or is constantly changing, which very nearly
amounts to the same thing, artists need everything which
may counteract the natural infirmities of the memory.'

Anatomy, rightly understood, whether for the artist or for
the scientific student, is not merely the study of dry bones
and the muscular masses which put them in motion, it is,
or should be, far more. It includes the knowledge of the
peculiarities of infancy, youth, or age ; of sickness or robust
health; of the contrasts between manly and muscular
strength and feminine delicacy ; of the appearances which
pain or death presents. Such knowledge belongs to its
province as much as the study of the muscles of the face
when aftected with emotion. And, as the writer just quoted
proceeds, viewed in this comprehensive light, anatomy
forms a science, not only of great interest, but one which
will be sure to give the artist a true spirit of observation,

teach him to distinguish what is essential to just expression,
and direct his attention to appearances on which the effect
and force, as well as the delicacy of his delineations will
be found to depend. But whilst anatomy is, to use Bell's
phrase, the grammar of art, a complete knowledge of
anatomy will no more make an artist than deep learning
in grammar will make a master of composition. The
trained observation of the artist will sometimes discover
btofti which have been missed by the anatomist. I may
perhaps be permitted to make mention of an instance of
thi>. An attack made upon the accuracy of tin- M-ulptor of
the Venus of Milo on account of certain a>\ mmetries in
the face of that statue, led a (it-mum anatomist to examine
the figure carefully. He found that whilst the portion
lying below the nose was comparatively *\imuetrical, the
upper part presented various deviations. Thus the nose
deviates to the left, the left ear >tand> higher than the
ri^ht, and the left eye is higher and nearer the middle line
than the right. Struck h\ these facts, he was led to make
i art fill observations of the measurements of skulls and of
the heads of living persons. As a result he found that
whilst symmetry of the lower half of the face is the rule,
deviations such as those occurring in the statue commonly
occur in the upper half. Anatomy can supply the artist
with hard and fast rules arrived at from the study of
averages. It is the truly ^reat sculptor or painter who,
appreciating that

* Variety's the very spice of life,
That gives it all ite flavour,'

and employing it,

4 Not chaos-like together crushed and bruised,
But as the world harmoniously confused,
Where order in variety we see,
And where, though all things differ, all agree,'

produces the masterpiece of art to be a joy to all succeeding
generations. The quest for the ideal human figure upon
which, as upon a scaffolding, the artist may build up the
creature of his imagination, is one which has exercised
many minds, some approaching it from what I may he

16 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

allowed to call the aesthetic direction,, others from that of
pure science. Hogarth, who states that there is no
practicable rule by lines for minutely setting out propor-
tions for the human body, and that if there were, the eye
alone must determine us in our choice of what is most
pleasing to itself, was yet desirous of showing the
importance of appreciating the just proportions of the ideal
human figure. ' I fear,' he says, ' it will be difficult to
raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the
utmost beauty of proportion, such as is seen in the
Antinous, which is allowed to be the most perfect in this
respect of any of the antique statues, and, though the
lovely likewise seems to have been as much the sculptor's
aim as in the Venus, yet a manly strength in its propor-
tion is equally expressed from head to foot in it. Let us
try, however, and as this masterpiece of art is so well
known, we will set it up before us as a pattern, and
endeavour to fabricate, or put together in the mind, such
kind of parts as shall seem to build another figure like it.
In doing which we shall soon find that it is chiefly to be
effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have
of what certain quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest
to produce the utmost strength for moving or supporting
great weights ; and of what are most fit for the utmost
light agility, as also for every degree, between these two
extremes. He who hath best perfected his ideas of these
matters by common observations, and by the assistance of
arts relative thereto, will probably be most precisely just
and clear in conceiving the application of the various parts
and dimensions that will occur to him, in the following
descriptive manner of disposing of them, in order to form
the idea of a fine-proportioned figure. Having set up the
Antinous as our pattern, we will suppose there were placed
on one side of it the unwieldy elephant-like figure of an
Atlas, made up of such thick bones and muscles as would
best fit him for supporting a vast weight, according to his
character of extreme heavy strength ; and on the other
side, imagine the slim figure of a Mercury, everywhere

INTRODUCTION. 17

neatly formed for the utmost light agility, with slender
bones and taper muscles fit for his nimble bounding from
the ground. Both these figures must be supposed of equal
height, and not exceeding six feet. Our extremes thus
placed, now imagine the Atlas throwing off by degrees
certain portions of bone and muscle proper for the
attainment of light agility, as if aiming at the Mercury's
airy form and quality, whilst, on the other hand, see the
Mercury aii^nicnting his taper figure by equal degrees, and
growing towards an Atlas in equal time, by receiving to the
like places from whence they came the very quantities
that the other had been casting off, when, as they approach
each other in weight, their forms of course may be
imagined to grow more and more alike, till, at a certain
point of time, they meet in just similitude ; which, being
an exact medium between the two extremes, we may
thence conclude it to be the precise form of exact propor-
tion fittest for perfect active strength or graceful
movement, such as the Antinous we proposed to imitate
and figure in the mind/ It is with more exact methods
than tin- i hut I have in these lectures to deal, yet would I
crave your permission, before proceeding to them, to lay
before you those luminous passages in which Sir Joshua
Reynolds showed his appreciation of the existence of a
type-form of the human body, together with his knowledge
of the order which really exists under the seemingly
indefinite variations from that type. * All the objects,' he
says, * which are exhibited to our view by Nature, upon
close examination will be found to have their blemishes
and defects. The most beautiful forms have something
about them like weakness, minuteness, or imperfection.
But it is not every eye that perceives these blemishes. It
must be an eye long used to the comparison of these forms,
and which, by a long habit of observing what any set of
objects of the same kind have in common, has acquired the
power of discerning what each wants in particular. By
this means we acquire a just idea of beautiful forms ; we
correct Nature by herself, her imperfect state by her more

18 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

perfect, and make out an abstract idea of forms more
perfect than any one original. From reiterated experience
and a close comparison of the objects of Nature, the artist
becomes possessed of a central form from which every
deviation is deformity. To the principle I have laid down,
that the idea of beauty in each species of being is an
invariable one, it may be objected that in every particular
species there are various central forms, which are separate
and distinct from each other, and yet are undoubtedly
beautiful ; that in the human figure, for instance, the
beauty of Hercules is one, of the Gladiator another, of
Apollo another, which make so many different ideas of
beauty. It is true, indeed, that these figures are each
perfect in their kind ; but still, none of them is the
representation of an individual, but of a class. And as
there is one general form which belongs to the human
kind at large, so in each of these classes there is one
common idea and central form which is the abstract of the
various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus,
though the forms of childhood and age differ exceedingly,
there is a common form in childhood and a common form
in age which is the more perfect as it is more remote from
peculiarities. But I must add further, that though the
most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the
human figure are ideal, and superior to any individual
form of that class, yet the highest perfection of the human
figure is not to be found in any one of them. It is not in
Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the Apollo, but in
that form which is taken from them all, and which
partakes equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the
delicacy of the Apollo, and the muscular strength of the
Hercules. There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or
proportion which may properly be said to belong to
deformity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall or short,
though deviating from the type, may still have a certain
union of the various parts which may contribute to make
them, on the whole, not unpleasing.'

PART L HISTORICAL.

IN considering the various systems of proportion it will be
convenient to deal with them under the headings of the
nations amongst whom they were originated or used. One
of the earliest known canons is that given in an early
Sanscrit work, the * Silpa Sastra,' or ' of the fine arts.'
In this canon a vertical line is divided into 480 parts, which
are thus distributed throughout the body :

Upper part of Head - - 1 .'

Face ....

Neck- ...

Chert

To umbilicus

Lower part of Abdomen

To knee ... - 90

Knee - 30

Leg. - I"- 1

If this canon be estimated in terms of the head, it will
be found that the entire body is made to contain a little
less than seven and a half heads. According to Quetelet,
this scheme of proportion is met with in several of the
paintings of Raphael.

The earliest information which we possess as to the
canon of the wonderful Egyptian people is due to Diodorus
Siculus. Unfortunately, this writer, who was a contem-
porary of Julius Caesar and Augustus, though he travelled
over a great part of Europe and Asia to collect materials
for his * Bibliotheca Historica,' is far from being reliable,
and I only mention his stories because they find a place in
most works on the subject with which we are concerned.
According to this writer, the Egyptians divided the body

20 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

into twenty-one and a half parts, and worked under rules
so rigid that the height of the statue once decided upon, the
stones from which it was to be constructed were distributed
to different workmen to be finally fitted together when all
had completed their tasks. In illustration of this he tells
a probably apocryphal story respecting the two sons of a
certain Phcecus, of Samos, Taleclos and Theodorus by
name, who, having studied art in Egypt, and employing the
canon of that country, constructed a statue of Apollo
Pythius in two halves. The height having been agreed
upon, one half of the figure was executed by one brother
in Samos, and the remainder by the other in Ephesus.
On being placed together, when completed, it was found
that they accurately fitted to one another. To understand
the Egyptian works, certain points require to be borne in
mind, the first of which is the conventionality by which
they were, to a certain extent, bound down. Thus, in their
sculptures in relief, the head was almost always repre-
sented in profile, but with a full-face eye, the bust was also
full-face, the trunk three-quarters, and the legs profile.
Again, the gods were represented larger than men, kings
than subjects, and the dead than the living. The same
conventionality of treatment was observed in the colours
with which their sculptures were overlaid. The flesh tints
of men were of a dark reddish-brown, and those of women
a pale yellow. This scheme of colour is, however, occa-
sionally departed from. Thus, at Sakharah, under the
fifteenth dynasty, and at Aboo Sumbel under the nine-
teenth, there are represented men with skins as yellow as
those of women, and in tombs at Thebes and Abydos, about
the time of Thothmes IV. at Horenheb, and also at Bayt-el-
Wely, flesh tints of rose-colour and crimson are met with.
Then, in the second place, it must be remembered that the
peculiar religious views of the Egyptians had an important
bearing upon their art. The ' ka,' the double, or spirit of
the body, was supposed to perish miserably if it had not the
dead body, in the shape of a mummy, or at least a counter-
feit presentment of the same, to attach itself to. Now, as

PART I. HISTORICAL. 21

the mummy might be stolen, there were provided for the
' ka ' in that case one or more figures of the deceased
person. These were not intended as memorials for the
children or friends to gaze upon, since they were shut up in
rooms to which no entrance was afforded. In figures con-
structed for this purpose, extreme accuracy of facial
resemblance was the only thing to be sought for, and we
find, therefore, that whilst the head and face are most
carefully represented, the remaining parts of the body were
less accurately rendered merely sketched in, if we may
use such a phrase in connection with sculpture. It is
obvious that figures executed under conditions such as
these would not require any carefully devised canon of
proportion for their construction. With respect to the
manner in which the mural sculptures were executed, an
interesting account is given by Jones in his handbook to
the Egyptian Court of the Crystal Palace. He says, ' A
\\;ill was first chiselled as smooth as possible, the imper-
fections of the stone were filled up with cement or plaster,
and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a
coloured wash. Lines were then ruled perpendicularly
and horizontally with red colour, forming squares all over
the wall corresponding with the proportions of the figure
to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the paintings and of
the hieroglyphics were then drawn upon the wall, with a
red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by
some inferior artist, from a document divided into similar
squares. Then came the chief artist, who went over every
figure and hieroglyphic with a black line and a firm and
steady hand, giving expression to each curve, deviating
here and confirming there, the former red line. The line
thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. In this
stage there are instances of a foot or head having been
completely sculptured, whilst the rest of the figure remains
in outline. The next process was to paint the figure in the
prescribed colours ; and in some cases the painted line
deviates from the sculptured line, showing that the painter
was the more important workman, and that even in this

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

process no possible improvement was, omitted. There are
other instances where a considerable deviation from the
position of an arm or leg has been made. After the
sculpture was finished and painted, the part was recarved,
and the defective portion filled in with plaster, which,
having since fallen off, furnishes us with this curious
evidence of their practice.'

Turning now to the canon adopted by the Egyptians,
Jomard states that they used one of seven and a half heads
as proved by measurements of a figure made by Delile.
He also states that they made the foot one-sixth of the
length of the body and the cubit one-fourth. These

proportions are not true to nature
as shown by the following table,
which he supplies :

Stature

Foot

Cubit

Egyptiao.
- 24

Natural.

- 26

- 4

- 7

Blanc considered that the Egyp-
tian canon was founded upon the
length of the middle finger, which
should be contained nineteen
times in the body. Topinard calls
this the canon of Lepsius, and
states that the head and neck con-
tain this measure three times, the
upper extremity eight times, the
inferior from the pubes, ten times,
thus giving the relation of the
upper to the lower extremities as
4 is to 5. The term ' canon of
Lepsius ' is due to the fact that in
the ' Selection of Funeral Monu-
ments ' published by that author,

FIG. 2. The Egyptian Canon,,, . L . J , . , ..

or Canon of Lepsius (Duval). there is a figure in which the body

is divided by horizontal lines into

nineteen parts (Fig. 2). Of this figure Duval says, ^A.s
several passages in different ancient authors seem to indicate

PART I. HISTORICAL. 23

that the Egyptian sculptors have taken the finger as the unit
of the system, Charles Blanc very ingeniously remarks this
fact, that in the figure in question, one of the horizontal lines,
the eighth, beginning at the soles of the feet, passes exactly
at the base of the middle finger in the right hand (closed, hold-
ing a key), while the seventh touches the extremity of the
middle finger of the extended left hand. It seems to him,
then, very probable that the distribution of these horizontal
lines indicates a system of measuring the figure, and that the
space between the seventh and the eighth lines measures
the length of the middle finger, which thus becomes the
standard of this system of proportion. According to the
Egyptian tule, the length of the middle finger will be
found nineteen times in that of the height ; it may be that
this rule was adopted by the Greek artists, and Charles
Blanc does not hesitate to think that Polycletus, who has
composed a " Treatise on Proportions," with a model in
marble known by the name of Doryphorus, used no other
system but the Egyptian ; there has always been found in
a number of antique figures this same proportion of nine-
teen times the middle finger to the height of the body, and
in the Achilles, for example, the iotul lu-ight does not
exceed by more than one-twentieth of an inch the length
of the middle finger multiplied by nineteen.' MM. Perrot
and Chipiez, whose position as authorities on Egyptian art
stands very high, are inclined to doubt the existence of any
fixed canon of stature in use amongst artists of this nation.
They point out that though the figure above alluded to is
contained in nineteen squares, others have been found in
which the height of the figure occupies sixteen, twenty-two
and a quarter, and twenty-three squares respectively.
They look upon these squares not as related to a canon,
but as being merely the method used to copy accurately
from another, and possibly smaller, representation in the
manner well known to artists, and alluded to in the
description of the procedure of the sculptors as given
above. There seems some possibility that the Greeks
received their knowledge of a canon of stature from the
Egyptians. Such a theory is supported by Blanc's state-

24 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

ment, by the stories of Diodorus Sicttlus, which probably
had at least some foundation, and receives some confirma-
tion from an incident related by Broca, the celebrated
French anthropologist. M. Fock, in 1866, gave an order
to Tramond, the well-known preparer of skeletons, to find
him one with certain proportions, which he indicated, and
which were those which he had obtained from the examina-
tion of the statue of the Apollo Belvedere. Tramond not
being able to find a skeleton satisfying these requirements,
particularly in so far as they concerned the fore-arm,
applied to Broca. After a search, he found a skeleton
which fulfilled the requirements. It was that of Abdallah,
a superb negro from the Soudan, which is still in existence
in the museum of the Society of Anthropology of Paris.
Broca drew from this the conclusion, that the statue of the
Apollo Belvedere was fashioned without doubt upon the
Egyptian canon, which had been drawn up from Nubian
negroes, who were used as models. Whether they obtained
their canon from Egypt or not, there can be no doubt that
rules of proportion were studied and employed by the
Greeks. Schadow says that a canon was probably used in
the workshops of the oldest Greek sculptors, and calls
attention to the fact that in the group of the JEginetans
in Munich, the proportions used for the wrestlers are the
same. The most celebrated canon of which we have any
knowledge was that of Polycletus, after whom Schadow's
work is named. This artist was a native of Argos and a
contemporary of Phidias, flourishing between the years
B.C. 452-412. He was a pupil of Ageladas, and designed
the temple and theatre of Epidaurus. He composed a
commentary upon the proportions of the human body, and
also constructed a figure in illustration of his views, the
Doryphorus or Lancebearer, which he called the ' Canon.'
This figure is mentioned by various old writers, Galen
twice alluding to it as follows : ' Carvers, painters, sculptors
and artists in general, strive to paint and represent the
most beautiful forms they can find, whether of human
beings or animals. Such a form is exemplified by the

PART I. HISTORICAL. 25

canon of Polycletus. This statue owed its name to the
fact that its parts are of perfect proportion and in harmony.'
And again : ' The beauty of the human body is shown in
the symmetry of the various parts, as clearly explained in
the canon of Polycletus ' (here the commentary is probably
alluded to). 'In these writings the master has described
his law of all the proportions of the body, and has illus-
trated this by means of a statue made in exact conformity
with his rules. The name of canon was given by him both
to his writings and to the statue.' Winckelmanns, in his
' History of Greek Art,' states that amongst the ancients
the foot was the standard of all large measurements, and
by its length sculptors determined the height of their
statues, giving to them, as Vitruvius states, six lengths of
the foot ; for the foot has a more determinate length than
the head or the face, from which modern sculptors and
painters generally deduce the proportions of their figures.
Hence Pythagoras calculated the height of Hercules from
the length of his foot, with which he measured the Olympic
st:i<liiim at Elis. As regards the number of heads in
height, the various artists seem to have at times adopted
different scales. Thus the Farnese Hercules and the
Gladiator measure eight heads, the Apollo and the Laocoon
seven and two-thirds, and the Antinous seven and a half.
The Venus of the Medici has a similar measurement. We
are ignorant of the exact rule which the Greek artists
made use of, but various attempts have been made to
arrive at it by measurements of various masterpieces. I
here reproduce some of the figures arrived at by Quetelet :

Stature 1,000

Height of the head 130

Neck, from the chin to the clavicles -
Trunk, from the clavicles to the pubis
Lower Limb, from the pubis to the ground
Lower Limb, from the perineum to the ground

:iu;
513
482

Upper Limb, from the acromion to the extremity of the middle

finger .... . 455

Length of the hand - .... 109

Length of the foot - 141)

A good idea of the variation in proportions may be

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

obtained from the following table, prepared by Professor
L anger, of Vienna, which gives the measurements of certain
parts of the body reduced to terms of the stature, which is
considered as consisting of 1,000 parts.

Measures reduced to 1.000 parts

Apollo

Venus

ot .Body stature. (so-called). | menos.

(Vatican).

(Medicean

Height of the head

127-3

119-0

117-5

127-5

Height of upper part of

body (above symphysis

pubis)

480-0

446-2

461-5

470-4

Height of lower part of

body (helow symphysis) -

520-0

553-8

538-5

529-6

Difference between two last

measurements -

40-0

107-6

77-0

59-2

Length of Thigh

220-4

264-8

233-5

235-0

Length of Leg

221-0

266-1

267-8

260-0

It will be noticed that in the first and last the head is
contained 7*8 times in the body, whilst in the second and
third it is contained about 8'5 times. The effect produced
by this difference of proportion, as well as by the other
variations in measurement, is well shown by Fig. 3, from
the same author, which gives linear schemes of the pro-
portions of the so-called Germanicus (A) and the Apoxyo-
raenos (B).

Winckelmanns states that the following rule of proportion
for the face is, in his opinion, the exact method observed by
the ancients. It was devised by Antonio Eaphael Mengs.
' Draw a vertical line and divide it into five equal parts,
the uppermost fifth is for the hair. Again divide the
remainder of the line into three equal parts. Draw a
horizontal line through the lower extremity of the first of
these three divisions, forming with the perpendicular line
a cross. The horizontal line must be as long as two of the
three parts into which the length of the face is divided.
Let curved lines be drawn from the extreme points of this
line to the upper extremity of the fifth part originally set
off; these form the smaller end of the oval of the face.
Now divide one of the three parts of the length of the face
into twelve equal portions. Let three of them, that is to
say, one-fourth of one of these thirds, or one-twelfth of the

PART

-HISTORICAL.

length of the face, be measured off on both sides of the
point of intersection of the horizontal and perpendicular
lines ; these two portions indicate the space between the
eyes. Let three other portions be measured off on both
outer extremities of the horizontal line. The space which
now remains included between the quarter at the outer
end of the horizontal line and the quarter at the point of

9 ^

FIG. 3. Linear scheme of the proportions of the so-called Germanicus
and of the Apoxyomenos (Langer).

intersection of the two lines is equal to two quarters, or six
of the twelve portions mentioned above, and gives the
length of an eye. One quarter is the width of the eye, and
also the distance from the tip of the nose to the opening of
the lip, and from this point to the curvature of the chin,
and thence to the tip of the chin. The breadth of the
nose to the wings of the nostrils contains just a quarter.
The length of the mouth requires two quarters; it is

28 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

therefore equal to the length of the ey&, or to the height of
the chin from its point to the line of junction of the lips.

One-half of the face measured from the roots of the hair
gives the length from the chin to the pit at the lower
extremity of the neck. The German editor of this work
notes that instead of ' and thence to the tip of the chin '
we should read ' from the depression to the point of the
chin is two portions.' He also points out that the length
of the mouth is half as long again as the eye.

^The best known Roman canon is that of Yitrjisiu&, who
flourished B.C. 46. According to this rule the head forms
the eighth part of the body ; the face, from the roots of the
hair to the chin, is equal to the length of the hand, and
forms the tenth part of the body. The foot is the seventh
part, and the fore-arm and hand taken together is the
fourth. Yitruvius is also the authority for the incorrect
statement that the umbilicus is the central point of the
body. He says, 'The umbilicus is naturally the centre
of the body, so that if a man lies down flat on his back
with his arms and legs stretched out, and if a circle be
described with the umbilicus as its centre, the line will
touch the points of the digits of both hands and feet.' He
is also the authority for the statement that the height of
the body is equal to the distance between the tips of the
fingers when the arms are stretched out as far as possible
from the sides.

Having thus described so far as they are known the
canons adopted by ancient artists, we must now turn to the
consideration of those of more modern times. Amongst
the Italians, Giotto (1276-1336), is said to have written on
the subject, but I am not aware that any remains of his
writings are extant. Alberti (1398-1475) made a much
more successful attempt than any other early modern
to deal with the subject of proportion. In fact, Topinard
says of his work that it is an essay in rational anthro-
pometry, and a very remarkable attempt for the period.
Alberti took the foot as his unit, and states that it is
included six times in the body, in which he followed

PART I. HISTORICAL. 29

Yitruvius and, according to Winckelmanns, various of the
ancient sculptors. The foot he divided into ten parts, and
each of these again into ten minutes, each of which thus
formed the six-hundredth part of the body. Alberti's
figures were based upon a number of measurements of the
body relating to its height, transverse and antero-posterior
diameters, and reduced to averages. Leonardo da Viiu-i
(1445-1520), in his * Treatise on Painting,' often mentions
a standard of measurement, but uever seems^to-kav* been
satisfied with any. He took the face for his starting-point,
and says that in his first infancy man has the width of his
shoulders equal to the length of his face, and to that
portion of the arm which is between the shoulder and the
elbow when the arm is bent. It is also equal to the
distance between the middle finger of the hand and the
fold of the elbow, and to the interval between the bend of
the knee and that of the ankle. But when man has come
to his full stature all these measurements double in length,
except the face, which, as the whole head, undergoes little
change, and so the man who at adult stature is of a well-
proportioned figure should have ten faces' height, the size
of his shoulders should be two faces, ' and so all the parts
of which I have spoken are alike of two faces.' He also
says : ' Divide the head into twelve degrees, and each
degree into twelve minutes, and each minute into twelve
seconds, and so on until you have found a measure equal to
the smallest parts of your figure,' a statement upon which
possibly is based Rossi's surely sarcastic story that
Leonardo had divided the face into 248,882 parts.
Michael Angelo (1474-1568) left a sheet of proportions of
which a representation is given in Fig. 1. It represents a
man standing in three-quarter face, the head being in
profile. The right arm is only partly shown, and the right
leg and foot are incompletely represented. The skin is not
removed, but the muscles are clearly shown, and the position
of the left trochanter major is marked by a star. On the
right side of the figure is a divided scale for the whole body,
together with a special one for the arm. On the left side

30 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

is a smaller representation of the proportions of the human
body, which shows the bony skull, the cervical vertebrae, the
first rib, clavicle and upper part of the scapula. The
corresponding proportions of the outstretched arm to those
of the middle line of the body are shown by three quadrants.
From the vertex to the sole of the foot is described a semi-
circle whose diameter is formed by the length of the body.
Along the perpendicular line in the smaller figure are the
words : testa, collo, peto (petto), soto peto (sotto petto), col
corpo, natura, coscia, congiunta, gamba, congiata di piedi.
On the horizontal line, spala (spalla), congionta, oso (osso)
di sopra, congionto, oso di soto (osso di sotto), congionto,
oso (osso) de la rnano. Under the clavicle, ingumiatura
sopra il petto. But Michael Angelo has stated his opinion
that the artist must rely upon his own eye as the surest
guide to correct proportions. A curious statement made by
Lamozzo respecting Michael Angelo seems to have a
bearing upon his ideas as to proportion, but it is phrased
in as enigmatical a style as the directions of the alchemists,
and to me is at least as unintelligible. Lamozzo says :
'And because in this place there falleth out a certain
precept of Michael Angelo much for our purpose, I will not
conceale it, leaving the farther interpretation and under-
standing thereof to the judicious reader. It is reported,
then, that Michael Angelo upon a time gave this observation
to the painter Marcus de Sciena his scholler; that he
should alwaies make a figure pyramidall, serpent-like, and
multiplied by one, two and three. In which precept (in
mine opinion) the whole mysterie of the arte consisteth.'
(The quotation is as given by Hogarth.)

Amongst other Italians who wrote about the canon of
proportion may be mentioned Paggi (1554-1629), who in a
work entitled ' Acus Nautica,' which was published in 1601,
gave some tables of proportions from which it is believed
those subsequently issued by Testelin were copied.
Barbaro, in his ' Practica della Perspectiva,' gave a series of
proportions which he proposed as intermediate between
those of Diirer, which he considered to be too minute, and

PART I. HISTORICAL. 31

those of Vitruvius, which, on the other hand, he thought
too general. Barca of Milan (1620) issued a sheet con-
taining the proportions of Jupiter, Hercules, Minerva and
Venus.

The Germans, as might have been expected from a
nation always anxious to reduce all possible matters to
scientific rules, and filled with a genuine love of art, have
supplied various works on our subject. Of these, perhaps
the earliest, and certainly one of the most famous, is that
of Albrecht_Durer (1470-1528), who had a very high
opinion of the science of proportion, bestowed much thought
upon the subject, and eventually published a work concern-
ing it. His opinion of the potentialities of the subject
was, in fact, almost overstrained, if one may judge from his
statement that ' by means of outward proportion one can
indicate the natures of men which correspond to fire, air,
water, and earth, for the power of art is supreme.' His
first book was entitled, * Instruction in the Measurement,
with the Compass and Rule, of Lines, Surfaces and Solid
Bodies, drawn up by Albrecht Diirer, and printed for the
use of all lovers of art, with appropriate diagrams, in
1525.' This book contains a course of applied geometry in
connection with Euclid's elements; in fact, Diirer states from
the commencement of it that his book will be useless to
anyone who understands the geometry of * the very acute
Euclid, for it has been written only for the very young and
for those who have no one to instruct them accurately.'
This work was followed by his book on Proportion, which
was published with the following title : ' Herein are com-
prised four books on human proportions, composed and
printed by Albrecht Diirer, of Niirnberg, for the use of all
those who love this art, MDXXVIII.' In his system of
measurement of the human body he adopts two plans, for
in the first book he uses as a standard a fraction of the
entire height, whilst in the second his scale is composed of
six hundred parts, like that of Alberti, a proof, says
Thausing, that he had some acquaintance with the, at that
time unpublished, writings of the Florentine. In the third

32 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

book the varying proportions of the figures given in the first
two are changed according to definite rules, the scale being
increased and diminished in all kinds of different ways, but
always with a certain consistency. The fourth book
indicates 'where and how the figures are to bend.' It is, in
point of fact, ' an application of the science of geometrical
projection to the drawing of the human body expressed by
lines and plane surfaces, and represented under different
aspects and in different positions.' He declares in his
preface that he intends to write nothing about the inward
parts of the body, and at the beginning of the fourth book
says : ' But how to describe the limbs, and how wonderfully
they fit into each other, is known to those who occupy them-
selves with anatomy, and I leave it to them to speak of
these things.' He himself is content with briefly pointing
out the limits within which the body can be bent, and how
the joints become enlarged when they are stretched and in
action. In the first book he gives figures of bodies vary-
ing from six to nine, and even ten, heads in stature,
though the latter proportions are only treated as suppo-
sititious cases, and not as actually occurring conditions.
Thus he represents a pair of robust peasants, male and
female, in whom he makes the foot one-sixth, the head one-
seventh, and the hand one-tenth, of the entire stature.
He then gives another pair of figures, also male and
female, of a less robust and more slender form, in whom
the head is one-eighth, the hand one-tenth, and the foot,
in the male, one-sixth, and in the female one-seventh, of
the entire stature. ' The vertical and horizontal lines into
which he divides the head,' says Topinard, ' merit special
attention. He established his first horizontal line to orient
the head in profile, and drew it so as to pass by the lower
part of the lobule of the ear and the lower part of the
nose. Amongst the other lines are two called slanting
the one a tangent to the chin and to the two lips, the other
a tangent to the frontal eminences, to the glabella and to the
nose. At the point of meeting of this line with the
horizontal line above mentioned is an angle which the

PART I. HISTORICAL. 33

authors of the " Crania Ethnica " have described as a sort
of facial angle which preceded that of Camper. It is a
fact that on a figure of a negro given by Diirer, in which
the two lines are represented, the angle is more acute than
amongst Europeans, and the forehead therefore rendered
more retiring.' Very different opinions seem to have been
held respecting the value of Durer's work ; Michael Angelo
is said to have thought but little of it, whilst Hogarth, in
the book from which I have already quoted, says : * Albert
Diirer, who drew mathematically, never so much as
deviated into grace, which he must sometimes have done in
copying the life, if he had not been fettered with his own
impracticable rules of proportion.' On the other hand,
Francisco Pacheco, the master of the great Velasquez, in
his book on painting, recommends that the female figure
should be studied from Durer's drawings, instead of from
the living model. Passing to other Germans, Bergmuller,
who published in 1728 a book entitled ' Anthropometria,'
Lichtensteger and Zeising, all devised canons which were
more or less fantastic and artificial. The last-named
author published his ' Lebre von der Proportionen ' in
1854, the details of which rested upon the following pro-
position : Proportion is a fundamental necessity for beauty
of form ; if the division of a whole consisting of unequal
parts is to appear proportional, the relation of the unequal
parts to one another must be the same as the relation of
the parts to the whole ; that is, the smaller parts must be
related to the greater, as the greater to the whole. From
this rule he deduced his so-called ' Goldenen Schnitt ' as a
canon of ideal beauty in the division of all structures.
This section consisted in a line so divided that the smaller
part bore the same portion to the larger as that did to the
whole.

Schadow, who was sculptor at the court of the King of
Prussia, published in 1834 his work on proportions, en-
titled ' Polycletus,' a name which was that of one of the
earliest devisers of a canon, the author of the celebrated
4 Doryphorus.' Of Schadow so great an authority as

34 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

Quetelet had a high opinion within certain limitations. ' We
find him,' he says, ' an artist before all things : that which
unceasingly occupied him was grace, was the elegance of
forms, much more than the law of proportions and of
stature, and he is correct up to a certain point.' In his
system he describes the face as the portion between the
upper part of the orbit and the lower part of the chin, and
he states that this distance is in a full-grown man five
inches. He divides this space into six parts, the first
extending to midway between the orbit and the lower limit
of the nose, the second to the last-named point, the third
to the angle of the mouth, the fourth midway from this to
the chin, and the last to the point of the chin itself.
The foot of a man of five foot six inches in stature should
be ten inches this is the same length as the ulna, and both
are, therefore, double the length of the face according to his
definition of that region. In the female the face is four
and a half inches, and the foot nine ; whilst in the child
the head is six and a half inches, and the foot five and a
half. One of the most interesting attempts to solve the
question of proportions is that of Carus, the celebrated
Dresden physiologist, who published a work called * Die
Proportions-Lehre der Menschlichen Gestalt ' in 1854.
His views are well expressed in a letter to Quetelet, which
the latter quotes. He says : ' I have considered the pro-
portions of man as an object of morphology, and I have
tried to find in consequence physical laws to fix that which we
may call the canon, or, according to the expression of archi-
tects, when they are dealing with the column, the module,
of our organization.' Having then given an account of the
progress of his ideas, and having stated that the statuary
Rictochel had made a figure from his directions, he pro-
ceeds : ' It is twenty years and more since I repeated in
several places in my writings if anyone wishes to find the
true key to our proportion he must set out with the vertebral
column, which is, so to speak, the true organic ell divided
into twenty-four inches (free vertebrae). When the ovum
of a mammal is opened at the commencement of its

PART I. HISTORICAL. 35

formation there is found, as the first model of the future
animal, the germinal area grooved in the middle with a
line, which becomes the vertebral column at a later period.
This line elongates, and in time there may be observed, as
a model somewhat more complete of the future animal, a
division of this line by the rudiments of vertebrae. To
speak correctly, this form is then the first canon of all the
other organs of the future skeleton, for after the manner of
its production and development should be regulated all the
organism. There are extremely interesting relations when
the ratios of the length of the free vertebral column are
examined in the new-born child and in the adult. In the
first (i.e. at the end of fatal life) it is found that the length
of all the twenty-four free vertebrae from the atlas to the
last lumbar vertebra correspond in a normal infant pre-
cisely to one-third of the same column of free vertebrae,
consisting of twenty- four vertebrae, measured in the adult
at the end of the epoch of growth by a line from the spine
<>f the atlas to the spine of the last vertebra/

The modulus, therefore, which lie employed, and which
he considered to be both physiologically and philosophi-
cally justified, was one-third of the length of the human
spine. By applying this rule, then, it ought, in his opinion,
to be possible to draw the various parts of the body with
mathematical accuracy. 'His investigations,' says Sir
George Humphry, 'conducted with all the assiduity and
accuracy which characterize the German anatomists,
appeal* to justify the selection, for he found the various
parts of the frame to correspond in a remarkable manner
with this standard. Thus the length of the skull from the
forehead to the occiput equals one module. The height
from the vertex to the lower margin of the upper jaw is
the same. The circumference of the skull is three modules,
or the whole length of the spine. The length of the
breast-bone and of the shoulder-blade is in each case one
module. The width of the chest from the extremity of one
clavicle to that of the other is two modules. In the pelvis
each of the measurements from the highest point of the

36 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

ilium to the symphysis pubis, from the anterior superior
spine to the tuber ischii, and from one anterior inferior
spine to the other, corresponds with one module. The arm
and fore-arm give three modules and the hand one. The
thigh-bone gives two and a half, the tibia two, and the foot,
from the ankle to the tip of the toe, one. The height of
the body is nine and a half modules. The module measures
eighteen centimetres, or rather more than seven inches,
making the entire figure five feet six and a half inches, or
five feet seven inches. These,' he proceeds, ' are the ideal
proportions of the well-developed European, deduced from
the measurements of numerous skeletons. They represent
the mean between the male and the female, and are stated
by Carus to be generally true, though not applicable with
mathematical accuracy to any one person, slight devia-
tions from the |tandard being essential to the endless
varieties of individual form. The measurements which I
myself have made for the purpose of testing the value of
this means of determining the scale of proportions of the
figure, though in a general manner confirmative of the
results obtained by Carus, have proved that the exceptions
to the rules laid down by him are very numerous.' It has
been already mentioned that Carus caused to be constructed,
according to directions drawn up by himself, a statuette or
canonical figure, as he called it. Of this he says : ' No sex
has been assigned to this little statue, and it is easy to see
that, in order to form a living individuality, the modulus
or canon must always be made to vary slightly. For
instance, if I wished to depict a woman's body I should
give a little less breadth to the shoulders, and I should
make some members more voluminous ; while I should act
exactly the contrary in the case of a man. In the same
way the individualities might be varied : if I wished to re-
present a Cicero or a Leibnitz I should give to the head
more than a module in height and length, and less at the
extremities ; on the other hand, if I wished to represent
an athlete or a giant, I should add to the limbs, and should
take ten modules or more as the height of the whole body.

PART I. HISTORICAL. o7

By this means one could even succeed in depicting every
sort of expression by an algebraical formula, where one
would have the same elements, but increased or diminished
in their value.' Mr. Roberts' criticism of the foregoing
facts and figures is of so much interest that I shall here
quote it. ' Thus,' he says, * it appears that Professor Cams
uses his " canon " either as a kind of artist's lay-figure,
which he dresses out according to his fancy, or as a
skeleton, which he clothes with flesh according to his
anatomical and physiological knowledge knowledge, it
must be remembered, which must be first obtained from
actual observation and measurement of the living model.
The canon may, indeed, be theoretically correct, but it can
be of little practical use for scientific purposes. The
greater breadth of shoulders required to convert the statue
into the figure of a man must first be determined by actual
measurement, as must also the greater breadth of pelvis to
convert it into the form of a woman, before we can be
satisfied that it represents the natural human form. The
difficulty would be still greater if it were attempted to re-
present any decided deviation from the typical form. In
the case of a giant, for instance, it is not sufficient to add
half a module in equal proportions to the nine and a half
modules representing the stature of an ordinary man in
order to produce the giant ; for actual observation and
measurement show that the size of the head and trunk of
giants differs little from those of men of ordinary stature,
and that the excess of height of the former is chiefly due
to an unusual development of the lower extremities rela-
tively to the rest of the body. Professor Carus' canon,
moreover, renders no assistance to the study of the pro-
gressive development of the body, as we know that the
different parts of the body develop at various rates. * Thus,
in the young child the middle point is near the navel, but
in the adult man it is below the pubis.'

Liharzik of Vienna proceeded by the method of averages,
his figures being drawn from measurements of three
hundred persons, and his researches extending over 'seven

38 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

years. " He makes the following statements : The distance
above the pubis is to that below as 81 is to 94. The length
of the forearm and the hand taken together is to that of
the arm as 91 is to 63. The height of the head and neck
taken together is to that of the body as 33 is to 175. The
length of the foot is equal to that of the forearm. The
length of the hand is equal to that of the clavicle, and
both are equal to six-sevenths of the forearm or to two-
thirds of the humerus. The distance from the centre of
the trunk to the extremity of the middle finger is equal to
one half the stature.

Amongst the French the older writers on the subject of
proportion may be briefly dismissed, though those of a
later period will require a longer consideration. Cousin
(1502-1590) is the author of a system in which the limbs
are enclosed in squares, and the head and neck and the
torso in quadrilaterals. Certain of his figures will be
referred to hereafter. Poussin (1594-1665) dealt particu-
larly with Leonardo da Vinci's ideas. Testelin (1616) was
the author of a work entitled ' Conferences de 1' Academic
avec les Sentiments des plus habiles Peintures.' His pro-
portions are supposed by Schadow to have been copied
from the ' Acus Nautica ' of Paggi. Pader (164$), in
his ' Traite de la Proportion Naturelle et Artificielle des
Choses,' gave exact copies of Diirer's figures, although he
only mentioned that artist in his preface. Bardon of
Marseilles gave similar tables to those of Testelin, and
Horace Yernet, with others, also wrote on the subject of
proportion. Gerdy, in his ' Anatomic des Formes Exte-
rieures du Corps Humain,' published in Paris in 1829, set
himself the task of finding simple proportions for the
human body. He divided the head into four equal parts,
and made it the eighth part of the body. The trunk con-
tained three heads, the first from the chin to the nipple,
the second from the nipple to the umbilicus, and the third
from the umbilicus to the pubis. The lower extremity con-
tained four heads, two from the pubis to the spine of the
tibia below the knee, and two more from this point to the

PART I. HISTORICAL. 39

ground. The upper extremity contained three and a
quarter heads, one from the shoulder to the front of the
elbow, a second from thence to the wrist, and the third
from this point to the extremity of the middle finger.

Of this system Quetelet says : ' The relations expressed
by the table are extremely simple ; but in order to obtain
this simplicity it has been necessary to make great sacrifices
of truth.' According to Topinanl, the canon most in use
in French studios is that of Cousin, somewhat modified by
Blanc. In this canon the whole body is divided into thirty
parts, four of which, equivalent to the seventh and a half
part of the body, are allotted to the head, nine to the trunk
from the supra-sternal notch to the genitalia, two to the
neck, and the remaining fifteen to the lower extremity, of
which fifteen, six are allotted to the thigh from the genitalia
J>o above the knee. Topinard gives the following table as
the canon of the studios, the total stature equalling 100.

[Vertex to roots of hair - - - 1 nose,
-a _ . 1 Roots of the hair to root of the nose 1

} Root of the nose to its base - 1 .

(Base of the nose to the chin - - 1
NECK Chin to supra-sternal notch 4 bead 2

f Supra-sternal notch to edge
Tunvic of Pctoral - - - 1 face :i

] Pectoral to umbilicus - - 1 ,. B .
(Umbilicj^to root of penis - 1 3
[Penis to above the knee - U head 6

INFERIOR JKnee I 2

EXTREM IT vj Below the knee to the instep U G
(Instep to the ground - - $ 2

102-5
/Shoulder to upper part of

La" -'i - ? 2 ?nw*

S5SiJ- : : -" : : "k

Shoulder to elbow - -It head 5
(Cousin). Elbow to npper part of

wrist - - - - 1 4
\Hand and wrist - - - 1 4
Span of arms is equal to the stature.
Maximum breadth of the shoulders is equal to the

stature (Blanc).

VARIOUS

Maximum breadth of the hips is equal to 1 the stature

(Blanc).

Clavicle to pubis or trunk \
Ilium to patella or thigh 'are equal (Cordier).
.Patella to ground or leg J

40 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

In examining this table it should b& remembered that, in
Blanc's canon, the nose is the 30th part of the body, and
is therefore to the stature as 3*33 is to 100. In that of
Cousin, the nose is the 32nd part, or 3*124. The head, in
that of Gerdy, is 12*5 parts of the 100 comprised in the
stature. I shall have occasion further to quote from the
great French anthropologist Topinard when dealing with
the differences of stature in different races, and with other
points at a later period ; but this will, perhaps, be the best
place to quote his remarks upon the standard European
canon, which, on account of their importance, I shall give
in extenso. He points out, in the first place, that in order
to arrive at really accurate results it would be necessary to
obtain thoroughly accurate measurements of at least one
hundred absolutely typical Europeans, measurements of
which, at the time of writing his book, he was not
possessed. ' However,' he says, ' as it is urgent that we
should possess a standard of comparison to which a
traveller can refer his measurements, so that he may be
understood when he says that in a certain population the
upper or lower extremities are long or short, and since,
naturally, the European nations are those on which such a
canon should be based, I have set aside my scruples and
devised a canon relating to the adult male of our countries of
about 1*65 m. in stature. In order to do this I have put
together all the partial results on which I believe that I can
rely, have taken into account my own measurements, and
have adopted the most justifiable compromise amongst
them all. The canon of proportion for the anthropologist,
I need scarcely say, is the vertical figure of a man divided
into one hundred parts, in which are represented the
segments of the body, each with the number of parts which
enter into its composition in the vertical as well as in the
transverse directions so far, at least, as possible. I have
not considered it necessary,' he proceeds, ' to endeavour to
obtain an approximation nearer than that of 0'5, although
two-tenths added or subtracted from any part of the body
have often a great importance in the differentiation of races

FIG. 4.- Scheme of proportions of Pan! Topinard. The human body
divided in the vertical direction into one hundred equal parts.

42 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

from this aspect, and in the determination of the influences
of environment and of education on the proportions. The
following table gives the elements which have served for the
construction of the figure :

Mean canon of the European male. Stature = 100.
Head, vertex to chin - - - 13-3^
Neck, chin to supra-sternal notch - 4*2 (_ 100
Trunk, notch to 'seat - - - 35'0 j
Inferior extremity, seat to ground - 47 'oJ
Q, TArm, acromion to olecranon - - 19'5 ^

EXTREMITY I Fore - arm > olecranon to styloid process 14*0* - 45'0

[Handf 11-5 J

/Thigh, seat to centre of knee - - 20'0)
INFERIOR ' Leg, knee to malleolus - - - 23'0[ ,-K
EXTREMITY 1 Malleolus to ground - - - - 4-51

IFoot 15-0/

Height of umbilicus - 60'0

pubis - ... 50-5

Span of arms 104'4

Maximum width of shoulders - - 23'0

pelvis - - 16*9

hips - - - 18-8

' It will now be interesting to compare the canon which
has just been given with that already stated as the canon
of the studios. The chief differences are as follow 7 :
The head, higher than that of Cousin and Gerdy, is practi-
cally the same as that of Blanc ; that is to say, it is
contained seven and a half times in the stature. The neck,
which all artists find too long in the canon of Blanc, is
nearly that of Cousin. The inferior extremity in its entire
length, estimated by the height of the pubis to permit of
comparison, is notably too long in the system of Blanc. It
is, on the contrary, too short in the two canons of Cousin
and Gerdy ; the divisions are bad in the system of the
latter. The span of the arms used by artists is absolutely
false, for it is equal to the height only once in every ten
cases. The shoulders and the hips are too large, and the
umbilicus is too high. The height of the pubis can only

* The line of separation between the arm and fore-arm is here
taken at the superior part of the olecranon.

f * This proportion, being the total of the three segments of the
limb, is less when the member is measured in a straight line from the
acromiou to the extremity of the middle finger. I have considered,
however, that this difference might be neglected.'

PART I. HISTORICAL. 43

be measured approximately, but it has an exceptional
importance, because it is in its neighbourhood that the
centre of the body in the vertical direction is to be found.
M. Sappey, whose measurements relate especially to this
point, places it 13 mm. below the pubis, at the root of
the penis. This agrees very well with my conclusions, but
not with the canon of Blanc, which places it lower still.'

Before leaving for the present the observations of
Topinard, to which I shall have again to recur, it should
be remembered that his conclusions are of the greatest
weight, being based upon accurate measurements and
comparisons. They will be used as a touchstone by which
the various canons may be judged at a later part of this
work.

In Spain, Philip Borgogna is the author of a system
which estimates the stature of the adult male as being
equivalent to nine and one-third times the height of the
face. Juan de Arphe y Yillufane, who, like Borgogna,
studied at Toledo, published in Seville, in 1585, a work
en titled ' Varia Commensuracion para la Escultura y Arqui-
tectura,' in four books, of which the second dealt with
human proportions. According to Choulant, this book
contains a large number of plates, some of which ^ivu
figures of the whole body, and others separate portions
thereof, with scales of measurement, from which we gather
that the author had seen Diirer's figures of proportions.
The representations are, however, more true to nature,
more living and more spirited. Two male and two female
figures are represented, in each of which the stature is
made equal to the length of the faces. Chrisostomo
Martinez (1650-1691 or 4) was the author of a work in
which appeared the plate represented in Fig. 5. According
to Quetelet, he made the stature contain eight heads. It
may be noted of this last writer, that his figures of skeletons
were regarded by the great anatomist Winslow as models of
what such drawings should be.

In Holland, S. van Hoogstraeten, born at Dordrecht in
1627, published at Rotterdam in 1678 his * Polymnia,' in

44 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

which he gave three plates illustrative 'Of the proportions of
man. In the first plate he represents two men, one being
fifteen, the other sixteen, palms in height ; and as his head

FIG. 5. Plate by Chrisostomo Martinez (Choulant).

contained two palms, it follows that these two figures were
respectively of seven and a half and eight heads in height.
In his second plate he represents a female figure divided
into fifteen parts : seven of these are from the ground to the

PART I. HISTORICAL. 45

genitalia, and seven from this point to the line of the eyes,
by which method of division the legs are made shorter than
the upper part of the body. The arms and hands of both
his male and female figures are made too short.

In Belgium, Johan de Laet, of Antwerp, published an
edition of Vitruvius, in the appendix of which he quotes
Pomponius' canon, as given in his work on sculpture, as
being nine faces. Geerardt de Lairesse (1640-1711) makes
the following statements : * The eyes are at such a distance
apart that a third can be placed between the two. The
nose is one-third of the length of the face. The mouth is
as large as an eye. The ears are at the level of the eyes
above and of the nose below, however long or short it may
be.' Van Bree of Antwerp published in 1821 his * Leyons
du Pessin,' in which he uses the head as a modulus,
dividing it into four parts. This writer, who was the first
professor in the Academy at Antwerp, gives in his books a
number of measurements from ancient statues, which are,
however, according to Quetelet, of doubtful accuracy. The
most useful work which has appeared in Belgium, an epoch-
making book, is that of the last-named author ' Anthropo-
iih trie ou mesure des differentes Facultes de 1'Homme.' In
this work Quetelet commenced by giving a sketch of the
labours of former writers in the same field, to which I have
to express my indebtedness for many of the facts which I
have laid before you. Having thus cleared the ground, he
proceeds to give the result of his own observations as to the
proportions of the adult male and female body, the laws of
growth, the influence of locality, food, profession, and other
factors of the environment upon the stature and propor-
tions. As I shall have to mention many of his observations
at a later stage, I shall not in this chiefly historical
portion delay longer over his writings. I have now to
pass to the English writers on the subject of proportion,
to whom Quetelet pays the high compliment of saying that
' amongst the different schools which have occupied them-
selves with the proportions and symmetry of man, there is,
perhaps, none which has considered this important subject

46 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

from a. higher and juster standpoint than that of England.'
In the first rank he mentions Sir Joshua Eeynolds, some of
whose observations I have already quoted. Flaxman, in
his lectures on Sculpture, has dealt with the same question.
John Chamberlain published in 1796 a book in reversed
writing, in which he reproduced Leonardo da Vinci's
designs. The late John Marshall, who filled the Chair of
Anatomy in the Eoyal Academy, published a work on the
Proportions of the Human Body, of which it will be neces-
sary to give a more detailed account. He divided the axial
portion of the body into four principal parts, to each of
which again he assigned nine units. Thus the head, neck
and trunk, are divided into thirty-six portions. The four
portions are thus allotted ; the first is the head, which he
thus takes as his standard, though dividing it into nine,
and not, as many earlier writers had done, into four parts.
The second is from the chin to near the lower end of the
sternum, a little below the nipples. The third extends
from this point to the highest part of the crest of the
ilium, and the fourth is placed one unit and a half below
the tuberosity of the ischium, that is to say, half a unit
below the gluteal fold. I cannot give all his figures, which
can be easily consulted by those desirous of pursuing the
subject further, but some few are of such importance as to
require mention now, whilst I shall return later to the
consideration of others. The upper extremity, according
to his system, contains twenty-nine and a half units, and
the lower forty-one. The entire stature contains sixty-
seven units. Now, as the mean height of the inhabitants
of the British Isles is 67*3 inches, it follows that his unit
is, in the case of the average man, very nearly equal to
one inch. Again, if the number of units be reduced to
heads, it will be found that the entire stature includes
seven heads and four units, or very nearly seven and a
half heads, which, from all accurate observations, we may
regard as the correct estimate, the classical canon of eight
heads to the body making the head too small. In another
place he mentions that the supra-sternal notch is equal to

PART I. HISTORICAL. 47

one unit. His comparison of the stature of the female
with that of the male is also of much interest. The axial
portion of the female he also divides into four parts, each
containing nine units, but in this case the units are pro-
portionately smaller than those of the male, being in the
proportion of '988 inches to 1 inch. The four divisions in
the female are, first the head, second from the chin to the
lower part of the sternum just below the nipples, the third
to the upper part of the pelvis, and the fourth to half a
unit below the tuberosity of the ischium. The gluteal fold
being one and a half units below this, it follows that the
female axis is one and a half units longer than four heads.
Thus the trunk of the female is proportionately longer
than that of the male. The stature of the female is sixty-
seven and a half units, or exactly seven and a half heads,
and thus the head in the female is slightly smaller pro-
portionately than that of the male. The lengthened
proportions of the female torso are due to three facts.
First there is a proportional or actual elongation of the
spine, and especially of its lower portion, the lower limit of
the third of Marshall's divisions reaching in the female to
the upper part of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and in the male
to the lower part of the same vertebra ; secondly, there is a
greater arching of the lumbar column, making the anterior
wall more convex supero-inferiorly ; and, thirdly, there is
the greater obliquity of the pelvis, which also causes a
lowering of the hips. Before leaving the English writers,
I should not omit to mention Mr. Roberts' book, ' A Manual
of Anthropometry,' published in 1878, which, though not
primarily intended for artists, contains many useful figures
and observations to which I shall have shortly to recur.

In concluding this historical part, it may be convenient
to tabulate the names of the authors who have dealt
with the subject of the Proportions of the Human Body.
I also add the names of several works in which the
student who is desirous of pursuing his studies in the
history of the subject further will find more full in-
formation.

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

{ 1 j

ENGLAND.

s
1 a
II 5|

BELGIUM AND
HOLLAND.

| j. 1

4 Mil

i Is! 1 il

-S.M-C x-ss J u ~ o

IS! l|i *I i li

w > tfpsoo o S s s

3 ? ^* - *0

w a - Is ="-

- 4 6 - f ff 13

1 |l 1 11 iflsHlili

< J > Q < 03u wO

S |S5 S

a I| 1^

1 HloJ ll|11| 1

.3 jjjlj lwjlll IJ

Topinard

ITALY.

! ll|5!Ailfii. 1

lalil .*i^ll8|'3<ja | a

3llll ri f|ifil|4i* I :

t^P^OOJCHC^&^iJCO * O

o oooc c o o o oooo o a o o jjo

PART I. HISTORICAL. 49

Boole* dealing with the History of the Subject.

Schadow, J. 6., Polyclet oder von den maassen des menschen, nach
dem geschlechte und alter mit angabe der wirklicben
naturgrosse, u.s.w. Folio and 4to. Berlin, 1834.
(German and French.)

Quetelet, L. A. J., Antbropometrie ou mesure des differentes Faculte*
de 1'Homme, 8vo., Bruxelles, 1870.

Topinard, P., Elements d'Anthropologie Generale, 8vo., Paris, 1885.

Choulant, L., Gescbicbte und Bibliographic der Anatomischen Abbil-
dungen, u.s.w., Leipzig, 18.VJ.

Roberts, C., A Manual of Anthropometry. London, 1878.

PART II. CRITICAL.

IN the foregoing pages I have endeavoured, though neces-
sarily briefly, to lay before you an account of the labours of
the numerous workers in the field of proportion. It re-
mains for me to point out, so far as they are known, what
exactly are the proportions of the human body, and how
and under what circumstances they undergo modification.

Before doing so, however, it may be well to call atten-
tion to two points which strike one forcibly in reviewing
the history of the subject. The first is, that the credit
of commencing, and for many years carrying on this study,
is due to artists, and not to men of science. Long before
Anthropometry as a branch of Anthropology had taken its
place as an object of scientific study, artists in many
countries had devoted their time and attention to endea-
vouring to ascertain and lay down for their own guidance,
and for that of their pupils, a law of proportion for the
human body. But when the scientific study of the
measurements of the human body was commenced, an
important difference between the methods which were then
adopted and those of the preceding workers at once became
apparent, and this is the second point upon which I wish
to dwell. What the artist observers, very naturally, had
chiefly striven after, was grace and elegance; what the
scientific observer sought was absolute accuracy. The
artist had in some cases, as in that of Sir Joshua Reynolds,
contented himself with giving a poetic, or perhaps it would
be more accurate to say a purely aesthetic explanation of
the proportions of the body, or in other cases he was led

PART II. CRITICAL. ">1

away by his artistic feelings into giving rules for the
construction of impossible or non-existent forms. And in
this they were followed by some of the writers representing
the science of their day. I have a curious book by William
Salmon, the author of an English edition of ' Diemerbrock's
Anatomy,' himself a professor of physic, which is entitled
1 Polygraphice, or the Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching,
Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring,
Dyeing, Beautifying and Perfuming.' It also contains
incongruously enough * The one hundred and twelve
Chymical Arcanums of Petrus Johannes Faber, a most
learned and eminent Physician, translated out of Latin
into English, and an Abstract of Choice Chymical Prepara-
tions, fitted for Vulgar Use, for curing most Diseases
incident to Humane Bodies.' It was evidently a popular
lxx)k, and one of which the author was proud, for the copy
in my possession is stated to be 'The fifth Edition; En-
larged with above a thousand considerable Additions;
Adorned with XXV. Copper Sculptures; the like never yet
\t;mt.' In his fourteenth chapter, Salmon gives an
account of human proportions, to which he adds directions
how to make a ' side way head,' and how to describe the
1 fore-right face.' He commences by stating that the
length of an upright body is equal to eight times the
length of the face or head, thus falling into the error of
the ancient writers. But he afterwards proceeds to give
instructions for the proportion of a man of ten faces, the
face being the same as what we now call the head, since
the first of his ten equal divisions begins at the top of the
head and reaches to the root of the chin. He also gives
the proportions of a man of eight faces, of a young man
of nine faces, and finally the proportion of a body of seven
heads, which last I shall quote, since I think it affords a key
to the idea which permeated this custom of drawing figures
of different proportions. He says, ' The length from the
crown of the head to the sole of the foot is seven times the
length of the head ; this is a large head, and all the
members and limbs are answerable to it viz., strong,

52 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

sturdy, and raised. Yet the ancient Grecians painted only
the goddess Yesta with this proportion, it being grave and
matron-like. But you may give it to any other goddess
which has any kind of grave or solid resemblance, as also
to the more staid and ancient sort of women, to Sibylls,
Prophetesses and such like, whom to draw with a slender
and delicate proportion would be a great oversight as also
to draw a prophet with the proportions of a young man.'
Here we see the conventionalism which was, I think, in
some measure accountable for these unnatural canons of
stature, the same conventionalism which rendered it
necessary for certain characters to be played on the stage in
certain conventional dresses, regardless of whether such
dresses were correct or not. From this spirit of con-
ventionalism, art has been by degrees emancipated, and as
this has taken place, there has sprung up a greater desire
for accuracy of details anatomical or otherwise.

I shall now proceed to examine in order the proportions
of each part of the body, giving in connection with
each what appears to me to be the best established opinion.
I shall also mention the differences existing between the
two sexes, and between various races, leaving the question
of the changes due to growth and age to be dealt with in a
subsequent section. In this part I shall take the measure-
ments of Topinard as my standard of comparison, since
they appear to me to be the most careful and complete.

Head. The head was by the ancients generally con-
sidered to be contained eight times in the body, though this
proportion is one which, as we have already had occasion to
note, is frequently departed from. I give here a few figures,
with the authority for each, and others appear in the more
elaborate table of Topinard :

Statue. Heads. A uthority.

Pythian Apollo 8 Humphry.

Farnese Hercules 8 - Quetelet.

Laocoon - 7| - - Duval.

Antinous - 7i Ibid.

Gladiator ... - 8" - - Ibid.

Moreover, more modern artists have varied the canon con-

PART II. CRITICAL. 53

siderably ; thus, in some of Michael Angelo's figures the size
is equal to nine, or even to twelve heads, in order to com-
municate more grace to a stooping attitude (Humphry).
Roberts errs in making it the seventh part of the whole
height, though he also says that the proportion may vary
between six and eight, and in the case of giants, nine
times ; while in dwarfs it may form a fourth part of the
height.

Quetelet makes the male head 7*4, or very nearly seven
and a half times included in the stature.

Topinard gives the following table showing the proportion
of the head to the body, as expressed by various artists.
The second column shows what this amounts to in
numerical terms of the stature, the latter being taken
as 100.

Canon. 1 1 <ul$ t Stature = ] CO

Hindoo .... 6* 14*6

Egyptian (two statues) - 7J
Greek (mean of 11 statues varying from

7 to 8tt 7.

Roman (Vitruvius) - 8 12'5

Italian (Alberti) - - 7! i:.J

Prussian (Schadow) . 7j 186

French (Cousin) ... - 8* 1-'

(Gerdy) - - 8 12-f>

Having thus laid down the figures employed by various
artists, and after tabulating a number of figures ascer-
tained by anthropologists, he makes the following remarks
upon the two sets : The canon of Vitruvius adopted by
Gerdy and Cousin exists only in the imagination of the
authors ; the Greek canon is that of Europeans with small
heads, and more particularly, perhaps, of those of Mediter-
ranean races ; the Hindoo canon, which relates to the
yellow Dravidian races, is approximately correct ; and,
finally, the canon of Schadow, which was formed from
fair races of tall stature with long and narrow faces, is
also approximately correct. The European races have
shorter heads, although amongst these are met with
higher types, such as the Belgians. The yellow races
have very notably higher heads. The negroes of Africa

54 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

are in this respect nearer the first,' and the negroes of
Oceania are nearer the second. Using the language of
artists, and speaking of the large average, it may be said
that the stature of Europeans is equal to seven and a half
heads, that of negroes to seven, and that of typical yellow
races to six and a half. This figure Topinard has expressed
in his own canon, which I gave at a former period; he
there makes the head 13*3 of the stature, an amount
which is contained a trifle more (*25) than seven and a
half times in the one hundred parts allotted to the stature.
This also coincides with the canon of Marshall, in which
the head is nine parts of a stature of sixty-seven, giving
seven heads and four units, or very nearly seven and a half
heads for the stature.

We may, I think, conclude that in representing the
average European male this figure may be accepted as
accurate. When the number of heads is decreased an
appearance of heaviness and dwarfishness is imparted to
the figure. . When it is increased slightly it may give an
appearance of greater gracefulness to the person, yet still
without sacrifice of truth ; but when it is carried to eight
heads the boundary is passed. A good idea of the effect
produced by altering the number of heads in the stature of
a figure will be gained by examining the linear scheme of
the Germanicus and Apoxyornenos (Fig. 3, p. 27), the former
containing rather more than seven and a half heads, and
the latter nearly eight and a half. Camper has given an
example of the difference produced by adopting these two
standards, by comparing the pictures of Watteau with
those of Eubens. The figures of the former, having eight
heads instead of seven, are more graceful than those of the
latter, notwithstanding the wonderful power of execution
and colouring exhibited by that great master. It should
also be remembered that some of the great artists and
this specially applies to the sculptors varied the propor-
tions, and even totally falsified them, because of the
peculiar circumstances under which their work was to be
viewed. Thus, as I have already mentioned, Michael

PART II. CRITICAL. 5-5

Angelo made some of his stooping figures as much as
twelve heads ; and, as Topinard points out, if the head
was to be seen from below and in perspective, being placed
in an elevated situation, it was increased in size, and the
body was made to contain it no more than six times.
With regard to differences in proportion between the male
and female head, there is some variety of opinion.
Quetelet says that the male head is contained 7*4 times
in the stature, and the female 7*2, thus the head in
woman is somewhat longer proportionately than in man.
Topinard also says that in general the head is higher in
women than in men, and that this is probably the case in
all races. On the contrary, Marshall makes his female
figure contain exactly seven and a half heads, and his
male seven and four-ninths, the former thus having pro-
portionately a smaller head. The following relations
between the different parts of the face are given by
Quetelet, who says : * \V may remark an admirable
harmony which exists between the principal parts of the
human physiognomy. Each of its essential parts has an
extremely simple relation with the neighbouring portion,
and this harmony is so striking that it cannot escape the
most superficial observation, even without the aid of
measurements. Thus, artists have well recognised that
in a regularly proportioned body the size of the eye is
equal to the distance between the two eyes; it is also
equal to the length of the nose. This proportion is so
simple, and at the same time so constant, that it enters
into the first notions of design. It has, perhaps, been less
remarked that the ear, an organ apparently of little im-
portance and of irregular form, remains at all ages exactly
equal to the size of the two eyes. The measurement must
be taken in the direction of the greatest size of the ear.
This rule is subject to so few variations that in my tables
the greatest differences in the averages do not amount to
more than a millimetre; this regularity is still more
remarkable since the ear is of all the organs of sense that
which attracts usuallv the least attention. The size of the

56 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

ear is- also half the distance from 'its opening to the
summit of the head. A relationship not less curious is
that which exists between the size of the eye and that of
the mouth, the values being in the ratio of two to three.
This relation is absolute at the period of puberty ; the
mouth is smaller in infancy on account of the fatness of
the cheeks ; it becomes a little larger at a more advanced
age. These relationships can be pushed still further, and
it will then be found that the eye is contained five times
in that diameter of the head which is taken through the
temples, and seven times in the antero-posterior diameter.'
Neck. When we come to consider the measurements of
the remaining portions of the axial part of the body, we
are met with the difficulty that different observers have
not always taken the same points for their observations,
which makes any comparison of them exceedingly difficult.
This is especially the case in connection with the measure-
ments of the trunk proper, as we shall shortly have occa-
sion to notice ; but it is not less true of the neck. According
to Quetelet, this is defined as being the area included
between two parallel lines drawn, the one below the chin,
the other above the point of junction of the clavicles. This
is a trifle higher than the measurements which are taken,
as in Topinard's work, to the suprasternal fossa, but so little
so as to be negligable in the case of artists. Marshall makes
the length of the neck in the male three units, or one-
third of a head ; and in the female three and a half units,
or a little longer, the difference in proportional length
being explained by him by the fact that in the female the
sternum is placed at a lower level, the clavicles being thus
also depressed internally, and the upper ribs have a greater
obliquity. If we compare these measurements with Topi-
nard's standard, which for the neck is 4'2 parts of one
hundred, we find that, calculated in the same manner,
Marshall's figure would amount to 4*4 for the male, or a
little longer than that of the French author. Blanc, on the
contrary, makes it one nose or one-fourth head in length,
which is too short. The transverse measurement of the

PART II. CRITICAL. 57

neck in the male is four and a half units, or exactly one
half head; in the female it is four units. The antero-
posterior measurements in the two sexes are five units and
four and a half units respectively ; thus the female neck is
proportionately more slender than that of the male.

Tmnk. There are three methods of considering the
trunk as an object of measurement. The first of these is
to take the measurements of the spinal column from the
first dorsal vertebra to the termination. The second,
which is strictly anatomical, is to disregard the clavicles
and other portions of the shoulder-girdle above as belong-
ing properly to the upper extremity, and to confine the
measurements to the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic
cavities. The third, which is certainly the most useful
from an artistic point of view, is to include the portion
omitted in the second, and to measure the trunk as it
appears to exist in the nude figure clothed with its skin and
muscles. This is the system adopted by the French Society
of Anthropologists, whose directions state that measure-
ments are to be taken from the suprasternal notch to the
seat, that is, to that portion of the body which rests upon
the ground, or upon a chair, in the sitting posture. Topi-
nard's conclusions drawn from measurements made in
various ways are as follows: The relation of the trunk,
considered as the vertebral column, varies within narrow
limits, as Carus, who on this account took it as his
standard of comparison, had already pointed out. At the
same time differences do exist ; thus, the Esquimaux and
the Tasmanians, so far as the measured cases go, have a
trunk shorter than the average ; the Samoyedes, the Indo-
Chinese, the Polynesians, and the South Americans, all
yellow races, have one which is longer. The mean of 108
Europeans examined being 88*8, we may say, in order to
assist the memory, that the average of humanity is 88*88,
or one-third of the stature. The character seems to vary
somewhat in different races ; but amongst Europeans the
female has proportionately a longer trunk. Finally sum-
ming up all the evidence which lie has been able to obtain

58 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

from various sources, he concludes that' in whatever manner
measurements be taken, provided that similar observations
be compared with one another, the trunk will be found to
be longer in the yellow races, shorter in those of the negro
type, and of intermediate length in white races, though
exceptional cases are met with in each which are contrary
to the rule. The female has a longer trunk, at least
amongst European nations; and in individuals of lofty
stature the trunk is longer. Turning now to Marshall's
directions, it will be found that he agrees with Topinard in
making the female trunk longer, and this for reasons
which I have already detailed. His measurements are
taken to a point one and a half units below the tuberosity
of the ischium, which is the bony point on which the body
rests in the sitting posture, and we must, therefore, sub-
tract this figure from the twenty-seven units which he
allows for the trunk and neck. We have seen that he
allows three of these for the neck, thus four and a half
must be deducted in all. If we reduce the figure of twenty-
two and a half units thus obtained to the same terms as
those employed by Topinard, we find that it comes out as
33*5, which is very nearly the figure given by the French
author.

The intrinsic measurements of the trunk have also been
dealt with by Marshall, and the following are his principal
results. In the transverse direction the measurement from
one deltoidf prominence to the other that is, the extreme
breadth of the shoulders in the nude subject is in the
male two heads ; that is exactly one-half of the length of
the axis, that from one acromion process to the other, or
the maximum breadth of the skeletal shoulders, being one
unit less. In the female the deltoid measurement is seven-
teen units, or one unit less than two heads, and thus it is
proportionately shorter than in the female. The distance
between the nipples is one head in the male, one unit less
or eight units in the female. The normal waist in both
sexes is ten units, being thus one sixty-seventh of the
stature more than a head. The width of the brim of the

PART II. CRITICAL. 59

pelvis is eleven units, and the measurement across the
trochanters the same in the male, whilst in the female
these two figures are twelve and a half and fourteen and a
half units respectively. The following tahle gives three of
the more important antero-posterior measurements in the
male and female respectively :

Mult. Female.

Level of nipples ... ID' )

Waint - - 8" B > units.

Gloteal prominence 9 lOi )

From these measurements it will be obvious that iu the
male the transverse and antero-posterior diameters are
greater above that is, in the region of the shoulders
than below, in the region of the hips ; whilst in the female,
though the superior are also greater, the difference is not
so marked as in the male. On this important point Duval
has the following remarks, which I think worthy of quota-
tion. Comparing the diameter of the hips with that of the
shoulders, he says : ' What strikes us most in this com-
parison, at the first glance at a series of skeletons, is tin-
great projection which the hips form in the female. In
order to express this, various formula have been proposed.
They consist in considering the trunk as a figure more or
less regularly oval, of which one extremity corresponds to
the shoulders, the other to the hips, and in determining,
according to the sex, which diameter exceeds the other.
The ancients did not hesitate to express this formula in the
following manner : In the male and in the female the
trunk represents an ovoid that is to say, an oval similar
to that of a figure of an egg, having a greater and a lesser
extremity ; but in the male this has its greater extremity
superior, while in the female the greater is inferior. There-
fore in the female the diameter of the hips exceeds that of
the shoulders, while in the male it is the diameter of the
shoulders which exceeds that of the hips. This formula,
as regards the female, is evidently exaggerated, as we see
in a moment by comparing the actual figures. It seems,
in fact, to Savage and Malgaigne, to be exaggerated, and

60 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

in their works on anatomy they propose substituting the
following formula : Allowing that the trunk of the male is
an ovoid, with the greater extremity superior, the trunk of
the female forms an ellipse that is to say, a figure in
which both extremities are of the same dimensions ; there-
fore in the male the diameter of the shoulders exceeds that
of the hips, and in the female the diameter of the hips
does not exceed that of the shoulders, but is only just
equal to it. Now, this last formula also exaggerates the
real proportions of the hips in the female. The correct
formula is as follows : In the male, as well as in the female,
the trunk represents an ovoid with the greater extremity
superior; but while in man the difference between the
greater extremity and the lesser is very considerable, in
the female this difference is very slight. We shall see by
figures that in the female the diameter of the hips, though
always less, differs very little from that of the shoulders.
In the male the distance from the head of one burner us
to the corresponding part on the opposite side (inter-
humeral diameter) is on the average 15 J inches, and the
measure taken from one great trochanter to the other
(inter-trochanteric diameter) is 12 J inches ; therefore there
is between the two diameters a difference of about one-fifth.
In the female the inter-humeral diameter is on the average
14 inches, the inter-trochanteric diameter is 12J inches ;
therefore there is between the two diameters a difference
of only one- twelfth. These figures also serve to demon-
strate that the diameter of the shoulders is much greater
in the male than in the female (15 to 14), and that in-
versely the diameter of the hips is much greater in the
female than in the male (12 to 12|) ; so that if a man
and a woman of average stature are supposed to throw
their shadow on the same portion of a screen, the shadow
of the shoulders of the male would cover a much larger
surface than the shadow of the shoulders of the female ;
and, on the contrary, the shadow of the hips of the woman
would exceed the shadow of the hips of the man, but only
to a very small extent.

PART II. CRITICAL. 61

' By the diameter of the hips we have in the preceding
considerations understood the inter-trochanteric diameter.
There is, however, a method of considering the subject
which justifies to a certain extent the formulae adopted by
the authors previously mentioned. It consists in com-
paring on the skeleton in both sexes the diameter of the
pelvis (the femora being removed) with the diameter of the
shoulders (the humeri being removed). Then the shoulders
are represented by the inter-acroniial ilitum-tcr, and the hips
by the intcr-ilim- (from one iliac crest to the other). Under
these circumstances the exact measurements show that in
the male the inter-acromial diameter is twelve and three-
quarter inches and the inter-iliac eleven inches; there-
fore, as in the preceding, the trunk, deprived of its
members, still represents an ovoid, with its greater ex-
tremity superior. But we see that in the female, the
inter-acromial diameter being eleven and a half inches,
the inter-iliac increases to twelve inches, and therefore that
here the trunk, deprived of its members, represents an
ellipse or an ovoid, with its greater extremity inferior, the
superior extremity differing very little in size from the
inferior. But this mode of mensuration does not express
the subject as it exists ; for the artist does not consider the
trunk as otherwise than complete that is to say, provided
with its superior and inferior members and it is necessary
to take into account the part which they take in the
diameters of the trunk by the presence of their extremities
(the head of the humerus and the great trochanter). We
have thought fit, however, to show here this mode of men-
suration, for it explains clearly the greater diameter of the
pelvis in the female compared with that of the male. If
we arrange in a table the figures given in the preceding for
the inter-humeral, inter-trochanteric, inter-acromial, and
inter-iliac diameters in the male and in the female, or if,
better still, we represent those figures by proportionate
lines intended to express, on the profile of a man and that
of a woman, the proportionate value of the diameters of the
pelvis and the hips, and if we cause vertical lines to pass

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

through the extremities of the inter-Iliac and inter-tro-
chanteric diameters, we obtain two figures which express
in a striking manner all that has been pointed out (Figs.
6 and 7). We see, in fact, that in the male subject
(Fig. 6) the vertical lines (y, y) passing through the ex-
tremities of the inter-trochanteric (d, d) and the inter-iliac
(c, c) diameters, both fall within the extremity of the inter-
humeral diameter (68), and also the inter-acromial (a, a).
On the contrary, in the female (Fig. 7) we find that these
same vertical lines both fall within the extremities of the

FIGS. 6 AND 7. Diagrams comparing the diameters of the hips with
the diameters of the shoulders in the male (Fig. 6) and in the
female (Fig. 7).

inter-humeral diameter, but on the outer side of the inter-
acromial.'

The following table will supply accurate information on
this point, and show the exact relations of the parts in the
two sexes :

Relation of the maximum size of the hips to that of the shoulders = 100

100 male Parisians - 83'0

30 female Parisians - - - - 91 "8

30 male Belgians - - - - 82 '5

30 female Belgians - 94'5

Before leaving the subject of the trunk, there are certain
points of some interest to artists which may well be dis-
posed of in this connection, and the first of these is the

PART II. CRITICAL. >:>

position of the umbilicus. According to Vitruvius, as we
have already seen, this was placed at the central point of
the body, so that if a man were laid on his back with the
arms and legs extended a circle might be described around
them, having the umbilicus as its centre. This statement
is incorrect, save for one period, and that an early one of
life that is, at two years of age. The central point of the
body is, according to Roberts, at the time of birth, when
the child is about the sixth of the height it will ultimately
attain to, a little above the umbilicus ; at two years it is at
the umbilicus ; at three years, when the child has attained
half its total height, the central point is on a line with the
upper borders of the iliac bones ; at ten years of age, wlu-n
the child has attained three-quarters of its total height,
the central point is on a line with the trochanters ; at
thirteen years it is at the pubes, and in the adult man it is
nearly half an inch lower. In the adult woman the central
point is a little above the pubes. Topinard gives the fol-
lowing table, which shows the position of the umbilicus
according to various artists and anthropologists. The
stature is considered as 100, and the figures show the pro-
portion of that amount between the ground and the
umbilicus :

Greek sculptors .... 60*7
Albert! - - 600

Schadow ... . 60*9

Gerdy - - - t,

10 Belgians, 2f> years old (Quetelet) - fiO'4
100 Parisians (A. Bertillon) - - 68 9

The position of the centre of gravity also differs slightly
in the two sexes. The line of gravity passes through the
occipital condyles, the middle of the sacrum, the head of
the femur, the patella, and the arch of the foot ; it is thus
a little in front of the knee, and a great deal in front of
the ankle. The centre of gravity in the male is three and
a half units above the upper border of the acetabulum
that is to say, thirty-nine and a half units above the
ground. In the female the centre of gravity is four units
above the upper border of the acetabulum.

64 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

Uppw Extremity. There are several methods of arriving
at the measurements of the upper extremity, which may
be divided into direct and indirect. The former are three
in number. The first is to measure from the acromion to
the extremity of the middle finger, the arm being extended,

FIG. 8. The human figure described within a circle.

by which means, however, the length arrived at is some-
what too short, since the head of the humerus, which lies
in the axilla, is not fully taken into account. The second
is to add together the measurements of the various
segments of which the extremity is composed. This also
gives a somewhat false figure, since the limb in a natural
condition is not extended in a perfectly straight line, the
arm and forearm meeting at an obtuse angle at the elbow.

PART II. CRITICAL. 65

The third is to measure from the acromion to the extremity
of the middle finger when the arm is lying by the side of
the body. The two indirect methods are, firstly, to
ascertain the distance between the extremity of the middle
finger and the superior border of the patella when the arms
are lying straight by the side, as in the military position
known as ' attention.' The second method is to measure
the full span of the two arms when fully extended from
the shoulders a method to which I shall have shortly to
return.

The length of the whole upper extremity in the male is,
according to Marshall, twenty-nine and a half units, and in
the female twenty-nine. The following table will show the
division of these figures between the different segments of
the limb :

,,tle.

Horaerus - IS units IL' A units

Radiua - '.' .. '.'

Hand - - J^.. 71 ..

J'.'A 29

Reducing the figure in the male to terms of the stature,
the latter being considered as 100, so as to compare the
result with that given by Topinard, we find that the pro-
portion is forty-four, whilst that of the French author is
forty-five. The differences in the points of measurement
adopted by the two authors may account for this dis-
crepancy, which is in any case not very large. With
regard to the relation of the limb to other parts of the body,
it may first be mentioned that, according to Marshall, the
top of the shoulder-joint is thirteen units below the vertex.
It must not, however, be forgotten that this is a figure
which may vary within certain limits in persons of the
same stature and possessing limbs of the same length,
according to whether they are square-shouldered or round-
shouldered, to use the common phrases. The position of
the middle finger, with regard to the trunk, in the position
of ' attention ' is also one of importance. In the European
of average height it corresponds usually to the middle of

66 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

the thigh ; in subjects of short stature the extremity of the
hand descends a little lower than the middle, and in very
tall men it is a little higher. In the yellow and black races
the extremity of the middle finger descends considerably
lower than the middle of the thigh. It is interesting to
note that in the highest apes the position of the same point
gradually descends still farther. Thus in the chimpanzee
it is placed below the knee ; in the gorilla it corresponds to
the middle of the leg ; whilst, finally, in the orang-utang and
in the gibbon it nearly reaches to the ankle. The facts
respecting the position of the middle finger in different
races are also brought out by the following table, which
give the distance between its point and the centre of the
patella in figures relative to the stature ( = 100) :

1,061 sailors (white) - 8'73

10,875 American soldiers - - 7*49

517 Iroquois Indians - - 5'36

2,020 negroes 4'37

Turning now to the intrinsic measurements of the upper
limb, we may first consider the relation between the arm
and the forearm, a subject which has received considerable
attention, what is known as the antibrachial index being
founded on the measurements of the two parts when com-
pared with one another. In the first place, in the adult
condition, the forearm, of the negro is much longer in com-
parison with the arm than that of the European. The
measurements, for example, of five Congo negroes gave an
average of 93*4, the arm being considered as 100, whilst the
measurements of thirty Germans gave 83 '5 to 100 as the
proportion between the same two parts. Amongst white
and yellow races, however, there is no special rule to
differentiate one from another by the comparison of the
segments of the limb. The relation of the hand to the
body stature is a matter of considerable interest to artists,
since it has been taken as the canon by several writers.
Respecting the racial variations of this part, Topinard says
that, speaking generally, Europeans have the smallest
hands, with the exceptions of the true gipsies (Tziganes),

PART JL CRITICAL.

who have still smaller. The largest hands are met with
amongst the yellow races, whilst the negroes hold a middle
place in this respect. The following table will give an idea
of the manner in which the hand has been used as a canon,
the figures being the number of times which it was included
in the stature :

Greek artists (Topinard)

Vitruvias -

Diirer

Cousin -

Duval

Roberts -

Quetelet -

Marshall -

Topinard -

10-9

10-0

9-3

ion
9-0

,.-.)

8-69

From this table it will be noticed that artists in general,
and those of antiquity in particular, have made the hand
too small in proportion to the stature. It should, however,
be mentioned that Duval says that his figure is subject to
great variations. Taking all the figures into consideration,
we may say that the hand is contained nine times in the
stature of the average European.

The full span of the arms when extended at right angles
from the trunk is another measurement which has attracted
the attention of artists; it is the ////;// o//v/v/">'<' of the
French. We have already noticed Yitruvius's statement
that the span was equal to the stature, and that this is
accepted as accurate in the canon of the French studios as
given by Topinard. Duval says respecting this matter:
' The relation of the span of the upper limbs to the height
has been expressed long since by the fonnula known as the
square figure of the ancients. If we cause two horizontal
lines to pass, one at a tangent to the soles of the feet, the
other at a tangent to the summit of the head, and two
vertical lines at right angles to the extremities of the two
arms extended horizontally, these four lines form by their
junction a perfect square; in other words, the man having
the arms horizontal is enclosed within a square. This
shows that the span of the arms is equal to the height.
This statement is correct for a man of the Caucasian race

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

of the middle height ; but it is not so for the yellow and
black races, in whom the span of the arm is greater than
the height. If from man we pass on to the superior
monkeys called anthropoid (chimpanzee, gorilla, etc.), we
find that the span of the arms in these becomes more and
more extended as compared with the height until it be-
comes almost double. Thus, in the gorilla, the height
being 5 feet 7i inches, the span becomes 8 feet 9J inches ;
and in the chimpanzee, to a height of 5 feet 5J inches, the

FIG. 1>. The human figure iosoribed within a square.

corresponding span is 6 feet 6 inches.' The statement,
however, that the span equals the stature is not absolutely
correct, for the relation between the two, though very
variable, is in favour of the span as compared with the
height.

Roberts states that the theory which holds that the span
is equal to the height is true only within certain limits,
namely, from the time of birth to that of puberty, a state-

PART II. CRITICAL. 69

inent which is true of both sexes. After puberty more
decided changes in the proportions take place, the hori-
zontal bein^ greater than the perpendicular measurement,
especially in men, whose chest and shoulders have a
greater development in breadth than women. The ratio of
height to the measurement of the extended arms is in the
adult man as 1 to 1*045, and in women as 1 to 1*015. Duval
notes certain relationships between parts of the upper
extremity, which may conveniently be given here in the
form of a table :

The length of the hand, less the third phalanx of the middle finger, is
equal to :

the clavicle,

the vertebral border of the scapula,

the manubrinm and gladiolus sterni, taken together,

the distance between the scapulae when the bauds are hanging

by the sides,

half the length of the humerus,
two-thirds of tbe length of the forearm.

1 5 lit, as he remarks, these proportions are so variable
1 1 nit they cannot be insisted upon.

Ln-> r 1: ' itr> mitt/. The difficulties of measuring this
li in I) are even greater than those attaching to the upper,
since the head of the femur is buried in the acetabulum
;uul covered over by amass of muscles, which render its
identification extremely difficult. The following table
shows the proportions of the various parts according to
Marshall :

Mnlr. I-' mule.

Femur- - - - 18 units 18 unite

Tibia - - 14 14

Foot, from lower border of tibia

to end of second toe - 9 H

41 40

From this it appears that the lower extremity in the
female is proportionately one unit smaller than in the
male, and that this difference is found altogether in the
foot.

Another useful series of figures, readily to be remem-

70 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

bered also, are those relating to the* position of different
joints from the vertex, which are :

Male. Female.

Shoulder - - 1 head 4 units 1 head 4?; units

Hip - - - 3 4 3 5~

Knee- - - 5 4 3 5

Sole of foot - - 7 4 ,, 7 4

The following antero-posterior measurements are also
worthy of notice :

Male. Female.

Knee - - ... 41 units 5 units

Calf - - 5- 4J

Foot - 10J 9J

From the difference in the points from which measure-
ments are taken it is difficult to compare Topinard's
measurements with these, save in the case of the foot.
According to the latter author, this forms 15 parts, the
stature being represented as 100. Marshall's proportion,
reduced to the same terms for the male, comes to 15*6, for
the female to 14*17, and the average between the two to
almost 15. The difference between the figures may, of
course, be racial.

The measurement of the foot, like that of the hand, is
of peculiar interest to artists, since it has also been used
as a canon of stature. The following table shows the
number of times which the foot is included in the stature
according to various authorities :

Greeks G'44

Vitruvius ----- 5*9

Alberti - - 6'5

Diirer - 6'0

Schadow - 6-6

Quetelet (male) - - - 6'75

(female) - - 6'25

Duval 633

Marshall - 6'38

Topinard - 6'6

The remarks of some of the authors on this point are of
interest. Roberts says that at all ages of life and in both
sexes it forms from the 0' 15 to 0*16 of the total height of
the individual ; it is, however, comparatively a little longer

PART II. CRITICAL. 71

at the period of adolescence, but rather shorter in children
and adults. Taking the length of the foot for unity, the total
height of man would he six and three-fourths, and of women
six and one-fourth. It is generally helieved that the length of
the foot is equal to the height of the head ; but this is
only true of the age of ten years ; before that period the
head is longer, and after it shorter, than the foot. Duval
notes the interesting point that the length of the foot
being considered as six and one-third times contained in the
stature, as he believes to be correct, if one-third of the
foot be taken as a canon, it will be found to be contained
nineteen times in the stature. But the number nineteen
is the same as that which, according to Blanc, in the
Egyptian canon expresses the proportion which the middle
finger bears to the height.

Quetelet, from whom the remarks quoted above by
Koberts are taken, also says: 'It is in drawing the foot
that mistakes are most frequently maU- : in fact, it is so
customary to make it too small that the proportion is
falsified in all designs where the artist has preferred to
please the public rather than to express the truth. Often,
in fact, in fashion plates the foot is not represented one-
half its correct size. We may say that there is scarcely
any human measurement which is more frequently altered ;
there is a species of foolishness which prevents nature from
producing the exact size of this member, and substitutes
for it another, which at the same time destroys the
harmony of the body and the firmness of its support. The
Chinese have even carried these exaggerated tastes to such
a pitch that their most distinguished women blush if they
know how \o walk. It appears that this faculty should
only belong to servants.' The same author mentions that,
speaking generally and starting from the age of puberty,
the height of the head forms a proportional arithmetical
nu an between the length of the hand and that of the foot.
Examining this by Topinard's figures, which give for the
foot 15*0, for the head 13*3, and for the hand 11*5 respec-
tively, we find that the statement is approximately correct.

72 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

Quetelet also notes that, according -."to a well-established
belief, the length of the foot is equal to the circumference
of the fist, so that we often see drapers wrap the foot of a
stocking round the fist in order to avoid the trouble of
direct measurement of the hand. This belief, he thinks, is
fairly established by his tables, although Eoberts does not
consider that there is much foundation for it.

Duval endeavours to establish some easy relations be-
tween the parts of the lower limb, and says that here, as in
the case of the hand, we cannot make the foot a common
measure for the interior extremity. It is easy, he says, to
perceive upon the skeleton that the distance from the
superior extremity of the head of the femur to the inferior
border of the internal condyle is equal to two feet ; but
this has no practical value ; it cannot be used on the living
body, as it is difficult to recognise the level of the superior
part of the femur. If, instead of the head of this bone, we
take the superior border of the great trochanter (a part
easily felt beneath the skin), we find that the length from
that point to the inferior border of the external condyle
scarcely ever measures two lengths of the foot ; in fact, the
great trochanter is upon a considerably lower level than
the head of the femur. The leg, including the thickness of
the foot, does not contain the length of the foot an even
number of times; in fact, the distance from the inferior
border of the internal condyle of the femur to the ground
(or the sole of the foot) is not equal to twice the length of
the foot ; but it is interesting to observe in general that
the length of the leg, plus the thickness of the foot, is equal
to the distance from the great trochanter to the inferior
border of the external condyle ; therefore, the middle of
the lower limb (starting from the great trochanter) corre-
sponds exactly to the line of the knee. When we com-
pare the length of the foot with the leg, beginning from
below upwards, we find a regular proportion and one
of practical interest, viz., that from the ground to the
middle of the patella usually measures twice the length of
the foot.

PART II. CRITICAL. 73

I have now concluded that portion of my lectures which
deals with the proportions of the adult human body, and
before passing to the final section, in which I shall give
some notes as to the growth of the body and its con-
stituent parts, I think it well to make one remark. I have
throughout that portion of my remarks which I am now
concluding contrasted Marshall's canon of proportion with
the careful figures given by Topinard, and the reader can
scarcely have failed to notice that the two correspond in a
very remarkable and uniform manner. Now, Marshall's
rule was devised for artists ; it was intended to meet their
requirements, and, so far as I am aware, though here I
speak under correction, it is well fitted to do so. It is
s;iti.-f;ictory to find that his conclusions are so well
grounded and so corroborated by the scientific figures, so
that in using his rule, use is made of one which is
scientifically accurate, as well as artistically useful. I have
now to turn to the consideration of the method of increase
of the human body and of its various parts, a portion of my
subject which I tru^t will not be without usefulness and
interest.

It will be noticed that the proportions of the infant when
first it makes its appearance in the world are very different
from those \\hich it has when it arrives at the period of
adult existence, and that between these two epochs the
proportions are constantly altering, one part of the body
chiefly increasing at one time and a second at another.
It will also be noticed that the proportion in two sexes,
which, as we have seen, are in many instances different in
the adult, for some time remain the same during childhood,
and that on arriving at a certain age they commence to
take on their adult characters and to differentiate from one
another.

The facts stated in this section are chiefly from the
works of Roberts and Quetelet ; having made which
acknowledgment, I need not refer more particularly to
the author of any individual statement.

As regards height, at the time of birth there is but little

74 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

difference between the stature of tKe male and female
infant, the average for the former being 19*34 inches, and
for the latter 18*98 inches. Thus, the actual longitudinal
proportions almost coincide, whilst the relative ones abso-
lutely do so. Between the fourth and the ninth years the
relations remain much the same, but towards the thirteenth
year the female gets in front of the male, and is larger and
heavier. After this period the growth of the male becomes
more -rapid ; he soon passes the female, and eventually
the adult differences between the sexes are established.
The difference between the sexes in respect to height are
due to several causes. In the first place, as noticed
above, the female is a little smaller at birth. In the
second place, after the thirteenth or fourteenth year
the growth of the female is considerably feebler than that
of the male, and finally the growth of the former is
concluded about two years before that of the latter. The
last of these causes is the most potent in determining
the difference in stature, for the initial difference is
abolished, or indeed reversed, at the thirteenth year ; but
at the period when growth is terminated there is an
average advantage in stature of males over females of four
inches.

Taking the head, this portion of the body is contained
three times in the axis at the time of birth, a proportion
which is maintained until the fourth year ; at the ninth
year the axis is three and a quarter times as long as the
head, at the fifteenth three and three-quarters, and at the
twenty-fifth four times. In relation to the stature, the
head is at birth contained four times in the body-length.
But we have already seen that in the adult it is contained
seven and a half times, from which facts it follows that the
head grows only half as rapidly (nearly) as the remainder
of the body. As a matter of fact, it doubles its height
between the time of birth and that of adult life. This
increase is, however, not evenly distributed over the whole
head, since the lower part grows more than the upper.
This is shown by the fact that the lower part of the nose,

PART II. CRITICAL.

which in the adult divides the face into two equal parts, is
in the infant placed much nearer to the chin.

The neck, which is short at birth, apparently becomes
shorter during the first few years of life ; this apparent
decrease in size is due to the accumulation of fat at the
chin of the infant.

The torso triples in length and in width. The relations
of its antero-posterior diameters in the infant and in the

FH;. 10. A comparative representation of the infantile and adult
figures, both being shown as of the same height. The relation
between the various parts of the body and of the limbs is shown by
the dotted lines. Convergence of the line towards the side of the
adult shows proportional diminution of size, and divergence increase,
or, in other words, less or greater increase of size during the time of
growth (Langer).

adult are as 1 to 2*86 ; thus, increase in this direction is
not as great as in the other two. Quetelet has shown by
the employment of two triangles that the increase in size of
the torso, like that of the head, is not the same in all its

< ') THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

parts. If we construct a triangle having its base situated
at a line drawn between the two nipples and its apex at
the suprasternal notch, it will be found that the two sides are
less in then- respective measurements than the base. After
the first year this difference is twenty-one millimetres, and
this difference is maintained almost exactly throughout the
period of development ; thus, the growth of this portion is
proportionately even. The proportions between the base in
the infant and the adult are as 1 is to 2'81, and those of the
sides at the same epochs as 1 to 3 '41. The height of the

FIG. 11. Tiiangles showing growth of thorax and upper part of
abdomen (Quetelet).

triangle in the infant is to that of the adult as 1 to 3*78,
so that, as we have seen that the whole torso triples during
growth, the increase of this part is more rapid than that of
the whole. If now the length from the base of this triangle
to the umbilicus be taken, and the differences between the
child and the adult represented proportionately, it will be
found that they are as 1 to 2*42, or less than the general
growth of the torso. From these figures we may conclude
that the portion between the nipples and the upper part of
the thorax grows more rapidly than that between the first-

PART II. CRITICAL. 77

named points and the umbilicus. I am now assuming that
Quetelet's figures are correct on this point, and should
mention that he expressly states that they apply only
to the male sex, since this part of the body is subjected
to so much artificial treatment in the female that it is
not possible to come to accurate conclusions respecting it.

The upper extremity, with the hand included, is three
and a half times longer in the adult than in the infant.
The hand, however, grows more slowly than the remaining
parts, doubling between the fifth and seventh years, and
tripling between this date and the termination of develop-
ment. If the arm be considered without the hand, it
doubles between four and five, triples between thirteen and
fourteen, and is four times the infant size at the termina-
tion of growth. The forearm grows more than the arm
proportionately, the proportion between the former in the
child and adult being as 1 to 4*26, and of the latter as
1 to 8'78. The circumferences at the biceps and elbow
iiK n list two and three-quarter times nearly.

The lower extremities, measured from the fork to the sole
of the foot, double their length before the third year ; at
t \\rlve years they are four times, and at twenty years five
times, their original length. These are Quetelet's figures.
According to Marshall, the whole lower extremity increases
four and a half times during the process of development.
The various segments do not increase at the same rate, for
the thigh grows more rapidly than the leg, and the leg than
the foot. Thus there is this difference between the growth
of the upper and the lower extremities : that the greatest
amount of growth in the former takes place in the middle
segment, whilst in the latter it is in the segment which is
nearest to the trunk. It will also be remarked that the
lower extremity increases proportionately to a greater
extent than either the stature, the torso, or the upper
extremity. Turning now more particularly to the growth
of the various segments of the lower limb, the thigh in the
adult is 7*31 times the length of the same part in the
child. Thus the increase in this part is far in excess of

78 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

that of any other part of the body. The leg, measured from
the lower edge of the patella, increases four and a half
times, the height of the foot three and a quarter times, and
its length three and a half times.

As I have had occasion at an earlier part of this lecture
to call your attention to the differences between the pro-
portions of the arm and the forearm in the -European and
the negro, I think that the following remarks on that
subject in connection with the rate of increase with which
I have just been dealing may not be without interest to you.
' With regard to the proportions of the different segments
of the extremities,' says Humphry, 'in the earliest periods
the arm and thigh are respectively shorter than the forearm
and leg, and the latter are respectively shorter than the
hand and foot. During development and growth these
proportions gradually become reversed ; but the final re-
lations between the several segments are not established
until after puberty. At birth the arm, leg, and foot are of
about equal length, and the hand is a little longer than the
forearm. These facts are interesting as showing clearly
that in its earlier conditions the most perfect human form
presents more numerous approximations to the type of the
negro, and likewise to that of the quadrumanous animal,
than at subsequent periods. They show, also, that it is
during the work of development and growth that the lower
extremities attain their greater relative dimensions, and
that the proximal segments of both upper and lower ex-
tremities come to bear that large proportion to their distal
parts whereby the European type is characterized. Thus
the difference in type between the negro and the European
is reduced to a mere matter of growth, and it is shown
that, so far as the extremities are concerned, a transient
condition of the one corresponds with a permanent condition
of the other. The same remark applies also to the dimen-
sions of the trunk. Till the period of puberty the European
and the negro more nearly correspond. It is not till after
that period that the greater proportionate breadth of chest
and pelvis is attained in the former.'

PART II. CRITICAL. 79

I must iii conclusion say a very ft-\v words as to the
influence of occupation upon the proportions of man.
This, however, is a matter upon which much further work
will be necessary before it is possible to draw any con-
i -fusions of real value. Everyone is aware that occupation,
or at least certain occupations, produce a very marked
effect upon the person and the physiognomy, but exactly
in what this difference anatomically consists is not al\\ays
so easy to say. The same remarks may be made respect-
ing the influence of the general environment upon the
stature a subject on which Quetelet, from observations
made upon dwellers in the cities and country parts of
Belgium, remarks that the average stature in the towns is
very much the same as that of the country people, though
tht former have a slight advantage in point of height.
Speaking on this point, Topinard says: 'Have moun-
taineers longer or shorter legs? Both opinions have been
maintained, but theoretically. Do some professions lengthen
the parts employed and atrophy those disused? Every-
body says so, but there are no direct proofs/ The most
important document which was at Topinanl > disposal
in this matter is a comparison between soldiers, sailors,
and students in America, which I give in a tabular
form :

10,- !,',; 1 291

soldiers. sailors. students.

Vertex to seventh cervical vertebra 14-1 U-s-j

Seventh cerv. vert, to perineum .7 JJ 3834

Perineum to knee - - - - 1 is.V.)

Perineum to ground - - 2771 28'iHi 28'25

Acromion to elbow - - - * >_;, 20-14

Elbow to end of middle finger - -J:J -Hi 2328 82*47

Each of these figures is referable to the stature, which is
considered as 100. From the table it follows that the
sailors have, in relation to the soldiers, a shorter trunk,
longer portions of the lower extremity, a shorter arm, and
a slightly larger forearm. Amongst the students, in com-
parison with the soldiers, the trunk, the leg, and the

80 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODF.

forearm are a little shorter. What can be deduced from
these facts ? Is it the influence of occupation which ought
to be invoked ? In the case of the sailors, undoubtedly so.
But amongst the students there is another factor to be
considered, that of age, for their average age was only
about twenty years, that of the soldiers being thirty-five;

INDEX

ArHll.LKS, thr. !

;. t.tn-, th-, l ; l
Ages, proportion of sizes of sexes at

different, 73
AllHjrti, 28

AntiWai-hial inoVx, the, 66
AntinmiM, thr I-
AiH)ll.i, tli.-, -J,
Apoxyoiuenon, tli-

:>tii>n,' middle finger in position

of, 66

Harbaro, 30

Barca, 31

Bardon, 38

Belgian writers, 45

Burgmuller, 33

Blanc, 39

Borgogna, Philip, 43

Bre"e, van, 45

Broca on the Greek canon, 24

Camper, 33, 54
Canon of Alberti, 53

Carua, 34

Egyptians, 22, 53

French studios, 39, 53

Greeks, 24, 53

Hindoos, 19, 53
i-, 9.2

Polycletua, 24

I'omponius, 45

Salmon, 51

Schaduw, 53

Canonical figure of Car us, 36
CaruH, 34

Central point of body, 63
Choulant, 43, 49
Cordier, 39
Cousin, 38

Diodorus Siculus, 19
Doryphorus of Polycletus, the, 24
Durer, 31
Dutch writer*, 43

Duval on the foot, 71

,, hips and shoulders, 59

,, relation of the parts of

the upper and lower
extremities, 69, 7-J
span of the arms, 67

Egyptian canon, the, 22

,, conventionality, 20

methods, 19

religious views, 20
Ell, organic, of Cams, 34
English writers, 45

Flax man, 46

11 relation to the stature, the, 70
French canon, the, 39, 53
French writers, 38

Galen, 24

German writers, 31
Germanicns, the, 26
Gerdy, 38
Giotto, 28

Gladiator, the, 25, 52
Goldenen Schnitt, der, 33
Grande Envergure, la, 67
Greek canon, the, 24

Hand in relation to the stature, the, 67
Head, growth of the, 74

,, proportions of the, 52
Herculed, the Farnese, 25, 52

t, proportion of, in two sexes at
different ages, 74
Hips compared with shoulders, the,

59
Hogarth, 16

on DUrer, 33
Hoogstraeten, van, 43
Humphry on Cams, 35

,, the arm and forearm, 78

Indian canon, 19
Italian writers, 28

INDEX.

Jones, 21 -
'Ka,'the, 20

Laet, J. de, 45

Lairesse, G. de, 45

Larnozzo on Michael Angelo, 30

Langer on the Greek canon, 26

,, infant and adult propor-
tions, 75

Laocoon, the, 25, 52
Leonardo da Vinci, 29
Lepsius, the canon of, 22
Lichtensteger, 33
Liharzik, 37
Lower extremity, 69

growth of, 77

Malgaigne, 59
Marshall, 46

compared with Topinard, 73
Martinez, C., 43
Mengs on the Greek canon of the

face, 26
Michael Angelo, 29, 55

Neck, growth of, 75
proportions of, 56

Occupation, influence of, 79

Pacheco, Francisco, 33

Pader, 38

Paggi, 30

Perrot and Chipiez on the canon of

Lepsius, 23

Phcecus,- story respecting his sons, 20
Polycletus, canon of, 24
Poussin, 38
Proportions at different ages, 74

Quetelet, 45, 49

,, on the face, 55
foot, 71
,, ,, Greek canon, 25

Raphael, 1

Reynolds, Sir J., 17, 46

Richtochel, 34

Roberts, 47, 49

,, on the central point of body,

,, ,, Cams' Canon, 37
,, ,, the span of the arms, 69

Rossi on L. da Vinci, 29

Rubens, 54

Salmon, 51

Sappey, 43

Savage, 59

Schadow, 33, 49

Shoulders compared with hips, 59

Silpa Sastra, 19

Span of arms, 67

Spanish writers, 43

Table of writers, 48
Testelin, 38
Topinard, 40, 49

,, and Marshall compared, 73
Trunk, growth of the, 75
,, proportions of the, 57

Umbilicus, position of the, 63
Upper extremity, growth of the, 77
, , proportions of the, 65

Venus, Medicean, 25, 26

,, of Milo, 15
Vernet, H., 38
Villafane, 43
Vinci, L. da, 29
Vitruvius, canon of, 28

,, on the centre of the body, 63

Watteau, 54

Winckelmanns on the Greek canon

25
Writers, table of, 48

Zeising, 33

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PACK

AIJF.RCROM15IK (J.) On Tetany in Young Children 15

ADAMS (W.) Deformities (in (lant's Surgery) 33

ALLAN (F. J.) Aids to Sanitary Science ..' 31

ALLAN (J. H.) Tables of Doses 25

ALLEN (Alfred) Microscopical Science -V

\LLI.\tiHAM (II. W.)Colotomy ... .... J

IJAKF.K (Benson) How to Feed an Infant ... 28

r-ANHAM -Veterinary Posological Tables 39

I \\N A T\ \i: <A.) Aids to Pathology ... 29

BARTON JJ. K.) The Diag frphflii 34

BEACH (Fletcher) Psychological Medicine 31

i:i:K\ AKI) (Claude) and HL'ETTK'S Text-book of Operative Surgery 33

11LA< K < \. Atlas of the Male (>; aeration IO

BiACKLEY (C. H.) Hay 1 auses and Treatment 22

BODDV (K. M.) History of Salt 32

Hydropathy 23

BORTH\VI( K (T.) The Demography of South Australia 23

i;i >\YI>!< II MrO Confidential Chats with .Motlh . 16
!'.< )\YLi;> ( R. I..) On Stertor and A|x>ple.\y

l;> >\ D (Stanley) Movable Atlas of the Foot, its Bones and Muscles n

I'.KAND A. T.) Pocket Case lkx.' f . 10

15KANDT Tr.-.ument ..f Tterine Disease 22

i;K< M'MAkD il.) Practical Cuidefor the Young Mother . 14

U ROW N (dcorgc) The Student^ Case-book .. 28

Aids to Anatomy 14

Aids to Surgery 36

r,U)\VNi: Lenunc] Ihe Throat and Nose, and their Diseases

Movable Atlases of the Throat and Ear 10

15RO\\ Influence on Weather

I : I' K K I i -Tropical Diseases of the I Ion* ... 27 I

i;rk\l>S (A. (i.) The Specific Action of Drugs 39

n'sGout 22

'AMKRON (Chas.) Microbes in Fermentation, Putrefaction, and Disease ... 13

- The Cholera Microbe and How to Meet It 15

CAM I:K< >N (Sir C. A.) History of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland 23

< AMl'i;i.I,L(C. M.Jan.l HARK1F.S (A.) Lupus, a Clinical Study 32

Skin Diseases of Infancy ami Early Life 32

( AM LIE (J as.) Atlas of the Hand 10

Text-book of Naked-Eye Anatomy 9

CARTER (R. Brudenell) Training of the Mind.. 27

CASSELLS (J. Patterson) Deaf-mutism and the Education of the Deaf-mute 17

(HARCOT (J. M.) Hright's Disease of the Kidne, 24

CHRISTY (T.) Dictionary of Materia Medica 25

CLARKE (Percy) Medical Laws 26

CLARKE (E. H.) The Building of a Brain 13

COCKLE (John) Contributions to Cardiac Pathology 22

Insufficiency of the Aortic Valves 22

COFFIN (R. I. Maitland) Obstetrics 28

COOMBE (Russell) Epitome of B. P 20

COOPER (R. T.) On Vascular Deafness is

COSGRAVE (C. M.) Botany, Glossary of 15

2 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books.

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PAGE

COTTERELL (Ed.) The Pocket Gray, or Anatomist's Vade Mecum 9

COURTENAY (E.) Practice of Veterinary Medicine 39

COZZOLINO (V.) The Hygiene of the Ear 19

CROOKE (G. F.) The Pathology of Tuberculosis 16

CRUISE (F. R.) Hydropathy 23

CULLIMORE (D. H.) Consumption as a Contagious Disease 16

The Book of Climates 16

DARLING (W. ) Anatomography, or Graphic Anatomy 9

The Essentials of Anatomy 9

DAWSON (W. E.) Guide to the Examinations of the Apothecaries' Society 19

DAY (W. H.) Irritable Brain in Children 13

DENNIS ( Hy. T- ) Second-Grade Perspective Drawing 1 1

DENNIS (Hy. '].) Third-Grade Perspective Drawing 12

DOLAN (T. M.) Whooping Cough, its Pathology and Treatment 35

DOWSE (T. Stretch) Apoplexy n

Syphilis of the Brain and Spinal Cord 13

Skin Diseases from Nervous Affections 32

The Brain and the Nerves and Influenza 13

DRAGENDORFF (Prof. G.) Plant Analysis 15

DRYSD ALE (C. R. ) Nature and Treatment of Syphilis 34

DRYSDALE (John) The Protoplasmic Theory of Life 34

Germ Theories of Infectious Diseases 12

DUDGEON (R. E.) The Sphygmograph 31

DUFFEY (G. F.) Note-taking 14

DUTTON (T.) Sea Sickness 32

EBSTEIN (Prof.) The Treatment of Gout 22

ERSKINE (T.) Hygiene of the Ear 18

EVANS (C.'W. De Lacy) How to Prolong Life? 18

Consumption: its Causes, Treatment, etc 16

E W ART (W.) Cardiac Outlines 14

How to Feel the Pulse 31

Symptoms and Physical Signs 14

FAU (J.) Artistic Anatomy of the Human Body II

Anatomy of the External Form of Man n

FIELD (G. P.) Diseases of the Ear 18

FINNY (F. M.) Clinical Fever Chart 21

FITZGERALD (H. P.) Dictionary of British Plants and Flowers 13

FLAXMAN (J.) Elementary Anatomical Studies for Artists 11

FLEMING (G.) Text-book of Veterinary Obstetrics 39

Neumann's Parasites of Domestic Animals 39

Text-book of Veterinary Surgery 40

Actinomykosis 40

Roaring in Horses 40

Practical Horse-Shoeing 40

Animal Plagues, their History, Nature and Treatment 40

Contagious Diseases of Animals 40

Tuberculosis 40

Human and Animal Variolae 40

Heredity and Contagion in the Propagation of Tuberculosis 40

FORD Ophthalmic Notes 20

FOTHERGILL (J. Milner) Chronic Bronchitis 13

Aids to Diagnosis (Semeiological) 18

Aids to Rational Therapeutics 38

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FOTHKKGILL (J. Milner) The Physiological Factor in Diagnosis 17

- The Physiologist in the Household 30

Diseases of Sedentary and Advanced Life 28

Vaso- Renal Changes 24

1 < )\ '.sthetics: Ancient and Modern <>

FUCHS I )r. ) The Causes and Prevention of Blindness

i.ANT (F. J.j Text-hook of the Science and Practice of Surgery 33

Diseases of the Bladder, Prostate Gland, and I'rethra 13

Examinations by the Conjoint Board 19

Student*' Surgery 33

GARMANY (J. J.) Surgery on the Cadaver

! . . \\ m. I >crmtc Memoranda

G.) Aseptic and Antiseptic Surgerv

GIRAUD-1 I. ri.N -Anomalies of \ .. 20
GLASGOW-PATTESON (R.) Skin and Hair.

GOODALL 1 M roscopical Examination of Brain, Spinal Cord and Nerve- 22

G< >KDON (Chas. A.) Our Trip to Burmah 14

Life on the Gold Coast 8

Lessons in Military Hygiene and Surgery ... -.23
A Manual of Sanitation . 23

Rabies and Hydrophobia 23

Reports of the Medical Officers of Chi; i ;
<.<>kl>0\ (T. Hurdi actical Chemistry ... .... 36

a Services Under the Crour.

Medieal Hi-tory of African Campaign- .. S

Memory . . 27

Detection of Colour Blindness 20

GRE1 '(J.) Laws Affecting Medic. .26

GR1 IN WOOD (Major) Aids to Zoology

5SWELL ! I -uid A. C,.) Manual of Equine Medicine and other works 40

IIJ.I. (II. Leicester) Student's Hand-book of ChemisT i;

GRIFFITHS (A. &) Ificro-OanhM 12

GRIFFITHS ,\V. 11., Te\t-l)ook of Materia Medica and Pharmacy 25

Notes for Pharmacopcrial Preparation 30

Posological Table- 31

, r HIM Alfred S.) Aids to Gymvcology 37

GUBB A t.Kll I I 11I>. MatCffe Molica and Pharmacy 25

GUBLER (Professor) The Principles and Methyls of Theratx:utics 34

lULLKMAKlMK. II. II.) Kndemic H.ematuria . 20

HAIG-BKOWN -Tonsillitis 35

HALTON (R. J.) Short Lectures on Sanitary Subjects 24

HAKRIS (\ incent) Manual for the Physiological Labtiratory 30

HARRIS (\ '. I).) Kuhne's Guide to the Demonstration of Bacteria 12

HARRIES and CAMPBELL (CM.) Lupus: a Clinical Study 32

HARTMANN (Prof.) On Deaf-mutism, Translation by Dr. Cassells 17

IIAVNES (Stanley) Healthy Homes 23

HA/AUl)(\V. P.) Diseases of Live Stock 41

II Ml BERG (Jacob) Atlas of Cutaneous Nerve Supply 27

HEMMING (W. D.) Aids to Examinations 36

Aids to Forensic Medicine 36

Otorrhcea 18

HEPPEI Analytical Conic Sections 21

HERSCHELL(Geo.) Indigestion 21

4 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

HAG F.

HEWITT (Frederic) Anesthetics 9

HILL (J. W.) Principles and Practice of Bovine Medicine 40

Management and Diseases of the Dog 40

HIME (T. W.) Cholera: Ho\v to Prevent and Resist It 15

The Practical Guide to the Public Health Acts 31

HOGG (Jabez) The Cure of Cataract 20

The Impairment of Vision from Shock 20

Parasitic or Germ Theory of Disease 12

HOPGOOD (T. F.) Notes on Surgical Treatment 34

HORNER (Professor) On Spectacles 20

HOWAT (G. R.) How to Prevent and Treat Consumption 16

HUNTER (Ch.) Manual for Dental Laboratory 17

HUSBAND (H. Aubrey) Handbook of Forensic Medicine 21

Aids to the Analysis of P\>od and Drugs 36

Handbook of the Practice of Medicine 26

Student's Pocket Prescriber 31

Urine 35

IIUTCHIXSON (Jonathan) Aids to Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery 37

TNCE (T.) Latin Grammar of Pharmacy ^o

INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL CONGRESS 24

JAMES (Brindley) Replies to Questions in Therapeutics 38

JAMES (M. P.) Laryngoscopy and Rhinoscopy in Throat Diseases 35

Therapeutics of the Respiratory Passages 34

Vichy and its Therapeutical Resources 35

JENNINGS (C. E.) On Transfusion of the Blood and Saline Fluids 35

Cancer and its Complications 14

JENNINGS (Oscar) On the Cure of the Morphia Habi' 27

JESSETT (F. B.) Surgical Diseases of Stomach and Intestines 8

Cancer of the Mouth and Tongue 14

JONES (H. Macnaughton) The Diseases of Women 22

Subjective Noises in the Head and Ears 18

Hints for Mid wives 28

and STEWART Handbook of Diseases of the Ear and Naso-

Pharynx 19

JONES (H.) Guide to Sanitary Science Exams 31

TONES (T. Wharton) Blood in Inflammation 24

JUKES-BROWNE (A. J. ) Paleontology (in Penning's Field Geology) 21

KEETLEY (C.R. B.) Guide to the Medical Profession 26

Surgery of Knee Joint 33

KENNEDY (Hy.) An Essay on Fatty Heart 23

KUHNE Demonstration of Bacteria 12

LAMBERT (J.) The Germ Theory of Disease 40

LEASK'(J. G.) Questions at Medical Science Examinations 20

LED WICH (J. ) Anatomy of Inguinal and Femoral Regions 9

LEONARD (H.) The Pocket Anatomist 9

Bandaging 13

Hair 22

and CHRISTY Dictionary of Materia Medica 25

LE SUEUR Analytical Geometry, Straight Line and Circle 21

LETHEBY(Hy.) The Sewage Question 32

LIAUTARD (A.) Animal Castration 40

Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 5

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LI A UTARD (A.) Lameness of Horses 40

Diseases of Live Stock 40

LITIIGOW (R. A. Douglas) From Generation to Generation 23

LOWNE(B. T.) Aids to Physiology 37

l.l'XN (C.)The Philosophy of Voice

Artistic Voice in Speech and Song 35

LUPTON (J. I.) The Horse 40

MACDOUGALL (A. M.) The Maybrick Case ji

MACKENZIE (Sir M.) Diseases of the Throat (in Gant's Surgery) 33

MADIW'K (Distin) Stricture of the Urethra 32

MAC.NK (Dr.) How to Preserve the Sight 20

MARTIN (J. W.&L) Ambulance Work 8

Nursing (Questions and Answers) 28

M A SSI . (I. N.) Text-book of Naked-Eye Anatomy ... 9
M' AKDLK (J. S.) Notes on Materia Medica. ... .26

M< l;KI UK Anatomical Outlines of the Horse 41

M LACHLAN (John) Anatomy of Surgery ... 33

Ml ARs (\V. 1'.) Schematic Anatomy 9

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16 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

= ?

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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 19

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Baillikre, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 21

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Hay Fever : its Causes, Treatment, and Effective Prevention ; Ex-
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Heart. Contributions to Cardiac Pathology. By the same Author.
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Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 23

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24 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

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International Medical Congress. The Commemorative Portrait-
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 25

Materia Medica. A Dictionary of MaU-ria Medica and Thera-
peutics. A Resume of the Action and Doses of all Officinal and
Non-officinal Drugs now in Common Use. By C. HENRI LEONARD,
M. A, M.D., and THOS. CHRISTY, F.L.S., F.C.S. Price 6s. 1892.

This volume has been in preparation for the past tour years. The drugs of as late intro-
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Materia Medica. Comprising the Drugs contained in tin- Schedule
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26 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

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Bailltere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 27

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28 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 29

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30 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books.

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Physiological Laboratory. Manual for the Physiological Labora-
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 31

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Psychological Medicine in John Hunter's Time and the Progress
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edition, enlarged. [In the J

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Pulse. How to feel the Pulse and what to Feel in it. Practical
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32 Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

- .,

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Stomach. The Surgical Diseases and Injuries of the Stomach and
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Stricture. Stricture of the Urethra : its Diagnosis and Treatment.
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 33

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Surgery. Operative Surgery on the Cadaver. By JASPER J.
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Surgery. The Surgery of the Knee-Joint, and the Responsibility
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Surgical Pathology. Handbook of Surgical Pathology. By
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Surgical Anatomy. (See Surgery.)

34 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books.

Surgical Treatment Notes on Surgical Treatment and Minor
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Syphilis. Tables for the Diagnosis and treatment of Syphilis. By
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Syphilis. The Xature and Treatment of Syphilis, and the other so-
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Temperature Charts for Recording the Range of Temperature,
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Theories of Life. The Protoplasmic Theory of Life. By JOHN
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Therapeutics. The Therapeutics of the Respiratory Passages. By
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Therapeutics. Aids to Rational Therapeutics, for the guidance of
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Throat. Movable Atlas of the Throat, and the Mechanism of Voice,
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Throat. Diseases of the Throat and Nose. A Practical Guide to
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Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 35

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Throat. Laryngoscopy and Rhinoscopy : in the Diagnosis and
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Throat. Tonsillitis in Adolescents. By C. HAKJ-BROWN, M.D.
( '..M., Medical Officer to the Charterhouse. Price 3s.

Transfusion. On Transfusion of Blood and Saline Fluids. By

C, EGUERTOB JENNINGS, F.R.C.S. Third edition, with Preface

by SIR Si-KM -1:1: WF.LLS, Bart. Price 4s. ;d.

Tuberculosis. (See Consumption.)

Urinary Diseases. Diseases of the Bladder, Prostate Gland, and
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