Protected areas of the world : a review of national systems

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Protected Areas Programme

Protected Areas of _
the World

A review of national systems

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DO NOT REMOVE

Compiled by The World Conservation Monitoring Centre

IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Caracas, Venezuela

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Protected Areas of the World

A review of national systems

Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical

IUCN —- THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION

IUCN — The World Conservation Union brings together States, government agencies and a diverse range of
non-governmental organisations in a unique world partnership: some 650 members in all, spread across 120 countries.

As aunion, IUCN exists to serve its members — to represent their views on the world stage and to provide them with
the concepts, strategies and technical support they need to achieve their goals. Through its six Commissions, IUCN
draws together over 5000 expert volunteers in project teams and action groups. A central secretariat coordinates the
IUCN Programme and leads initiatives on the conservation and sustainable use of the world’s biological diversity and
the management of habitats and natural resources, as well as providing a range of services. The Union has helped many
countries to prepare National Conservation Strategies, and demonstrates the application of its knowledge through the
field projects it supervises. Operations are increasingly decentralised and are carried forward by an expanding network
of regional and country offices, located principally in developing countries.

IUCN — The World Conservation Union seeks above all to work with its members to achieve development that is
sustainable and that provides a lasting improvement in the quality of life for people all over the world.

WCMC - THE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between the three partners who developed
the World Conservation Strategy and its successor Caring for the Earth: 'UCN — The World Conservation Union,
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme, and WWE — World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife
Fund). Its mission is to support conservation and sustainable development through the provision of information on the
world’s biological diversity.

WCMC has developed a global overview database that includes threatened plant and animal species, habitats of
conservation concer, critical sites, protected areas of the world, and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and
products. Drawing on this database, WCMC provides an information service to the conservation and development
communities, governments and United Nations agencies, scientific institutions, the business and commercial sector,
and the media. WCMC produces a wide variety of specialist outputs and reports based on analyses of its data.

Protected Areas of the World

A review of national systems

Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical

Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre
in collaboration with
The IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
for the

IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February 1992

with the support of

The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.

IUCN — The World Conservation Union
December 1992

Published by:

Prepared by:

Copyright:

Citation:

ISBN:
Printed by:

Cover photos:

Produced by:

Available from:

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK,
with the financial support of The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK

A contribution to GEMS — The Global Environment Monitoring System

(1992) International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised
without prior permission from the copyright holder.

Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written
permission of the copyright holder.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic
and Neotropical. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv + 460 pp.

2-8317-0093-0
Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd, UK

Lauca National Park, Chile: C. Sharpe; Cozumel Marine Reserve, Mexico: C. Fairhurst; Bryce
Canyon, Utah: WWF/P. Huber; Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica: WWF/A. Petretti

IUCN Publications Services Unit, Cambridge, UK, on desktop publishing equipment purchased
through a gift from Mrs Julia Ward

IUCN Publications Services Unit,
219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK

The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, WCMC or BP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or
area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Vetorgeioigel Seana ta cp GeO GOT One: OD CUCR OSC CRATES On ER mE ETC coo Sn tee a ere a REN Vii
THCrOOUGHONS tat gaa ee eee acted See oe carturieu sats a (ati Sie RAI eilavtatic way Greta amine eaaeuels viii
TOMES 5 o.6 pimmo Do ooo OOOO DODD OO oD OOO Duco OD OO OOOO DO obo bo 6 ix
Managing information on protected areasatWCMC ..... 2... 1. ee es xi
Country accents and guidelines to theircontents ... 2... 2... eee ee es xiii
IMapstandlleists\(explanalion|Oh) meee mer men mens clei) Ciel acme n- iin iene nie Xiv
Intermationally-designated|Sitesin raea- 1. iw-wl ue wee) Ay oy coterie ebsch hee lie lth eu cured es eevee) aout) XV
Wiestemy)Hemisphiere COnventtonimry ewer ver meme ievra teeter. sein os ioe teou fitch Me a mea a ees oe XX
NEARCTIC
AMAA er a aoe en URE ich. Pretich Pte tele Se OMSL 50 ar vomicv ine epastuentay rat cet mussyaslueg ramebrsirc oh rompoere mel tts 1
Greenland Denmark Seer cee es cen etre ane. ee ene eee hae ete er ot Seen Dee ey one memes 45
INTEXIG Oe Rie are oc een ere oe oreo Cnc te UG. cs, 1oycSp fey OE eae yas) isn fh) 2 gt) sh eee ys ure earlier 51
S pbierreiaa Miquelon] ntalCe seamen iia a mene i ne ciate ote 61
WnitedS tatesiofeAmenricaw yy sys ennai pesos aust Siva ee eects) iliac PE eas Eee earen 63
NEOTROPICAL - Central America
VC LIZE RY RB rene SET ee ee ees oes Seay oh eats, Meanat eee te ee wae eae ke ewe 119
WostalRicawe erase ee ee es ae eee nee eas ee ee EOS Stok ea Geis a eRe eee 127
UES al vats rece CO a etetcl fo eter cir Relbicl oie -te we retisi ce} fon ey seiiet uss tke “ol tot wriebse: tec wo hme iorpemonton 137
Guatemala tyes sextet eee heehee lie) Ba tel, ekusie thie Rad ate, SS ee 143
[SCovteltignict pepose vag hs Oe ry REE Nn SMe Dros oh Toit ea ik ebay eae eM SA Ast On Ea ac cs ofc Puta 153
INICAPAP UAW Me Ned eh rman mre ery esa ees hee tous cise tn ei cyst oo) or hcliec) oMegichiel eas Mete Me RM) fetta e 161
ANNAN AN oes ec a tee a gay Len Cog vies FSR ey isick spa, coca. Ie fies Loy. (oe fortis. 101 vestsou erm abhaibia? ceils? <a) «a RONG 167
NEOTROPICAL - South America
PAT OCR INAS cp trcurew cater aten suet uio shy lar eatne: [ete isecoviociss (ol (o\is.tejneNnysev ister Jap eurny ool wn Seaton, Seep eins: 175
LBYa)TKU ee eso o clet ort ooo Ot CUB Herecne curich chcent tt aie Mann Cant ree aCEceh onceor itaoticcta: aso. 187
yevatl ) Ay Oe PE or en een ona ee et eS ae ae ee rake ante (et 197
(inl Pgs actors’ Se Bkale eS ot Ee Deen cl UGC PERM ER One cr oaaie aera nis. Ceci Te ntore O1cro 219
(Gator ose ee, CER ee ne Ree ot een ene eee Sea Satoru crc ec Oru oo cco ol 231
FE. CUACGOT Mae ars Se arene En Pes ee grea Rta) ost sre eM Uistraedl Wile ool ara Ra Rae Monette ANE 247
rerichil Guiana Pranic ain vee meee tos oars) re ecto aig ct fein cl be Nay aynal VPs so) taker ona eaten aMeMATR MSI eRe 259
(GUETE oxo: en.ci ide dew Gutiadl Gite AiaKoneh OS RoECNC aCe CEE Dene. era a Oieinsn setwer} 6 (3: Sdusrs 265
PATAGUAYARCM ett C ee -tcten came, iors) cs Seite fo Felice pes css day co) tsPehion ob vey Lelrohicey scr a Joh rol Ve Rtopley we eneoMROM med catty 271
Peri ane Nee Baer ne Rap Wik a oe eae SEN Period kadar vaike Sel) eAS A EOR celal bis. Goer aR euros eee ae 277
SCL TRATTIC Ren ere eee ee reo haere eee opted Picrer a hee ras far "ot Fab etree cortebnatesbeain etteni/er ts: Lge 289
LUITERTAS? 256% semanluaka oAEseet, ONG) Coton dh. Ot cus Renn Roencns wpe omes vo UAV ETNch ne: Sp elinororo: neces 297
WMErCais iu 2 see es Sater ecm einen oee ee CNouciic ond @loucic omosorare 303
NEOTROPICAL - Caribbean
ATO ACINEINETIANIOS) aay er cliche eo ee hoerore te omen cies os: Sueieiis) Witsoe, Stites is) ‘olen Se) eee Gls NeoRammaie 317
JNA Siena Glos ao 6 Com ogg dono DoD Eo Como Gombo Gado ga nbs 319
/ SIREN SETI, Wa Seibeciee a go ideo Genco Gite a okcktecec soo Cato onbuoeS ACO. 7 chGig oO oeontecns 321

Bahai as om szvr yesh ney ee er eee ete eo eee Oe eee aie hee 327
Barbados cits Pus Bese a ete aowe leettlacs he rowsh etn te neten cima elo al emer itty eo etae arc ehral eMart nee 331
Bermudat=Wnited [Kingdom ire voy forrsinen te reues eo Rees, nema Tate eee Ree ere ae ae aoe sk ne 335
British) Virginjlslands=1Wnited Kangdom sey. ey sty cise) aces) nee ee ene eee 341
CaymaniIslands=\United)Kangdomi jc. werent cto eile enn oiney ei ieee 347
LCi |e! Uae AweE ans Tir oay Some ev octar! luni ec ne mma oe CC eOHn Hones eet, S aol o Oo od 351
JD To ite: tae reir nhe Terare Renee Her oe mreP rem GECMCCMen onc contort atin Coen ue tasnt cco. c 359
Dominican/Republic) 359654). beers hese ea Se Scent se ae ee ne te ae es eee ee 367
Grenada Fes B ees fs Hele es plored athe yo esas cquevas eauerd sy Se oieiue aca, oo Satee ces oie ce tee ok ce 373
Guadeloupe =France tes. Syyenaei ie veces ie ee ES <2) PASO i chk cp eae 379
16 E:T een ees tek aR Were PRE NAc) ome. reagan MEE Me cen SC Maine eee Tic i choles. 6 385
JAMAICA, evs ai tease das eds, os ay GAS eRe EE DEG ee SEES Se pags hele iss ee Oe Loe ee 391
Martinique'’="France? a) 2505 2c. .sy eat facta soehigrne) stk oN ie emai Uae IN WEBEL as caste cyte) ee 399
Montserrat United ‘Kingdom <lima oan 3 eens Sth Gece @uscaleSe sien susiasue en ce ee 405
Netherlands?Antillesi=Netherlandsigs-p-nieice ee eens ciel cite nce nee enone 407
Puerto Rico =i US Aes Peter Set cc CMMP ee omee enc, SES Ca Seem gj Seed ay cue: teem oe Seca renen eee te ane 411
StiKuttsiand!N€viSgaewere succes actrees, ne Gates cheewemsbis ee cht Siete: ciesistr e-criey ene oy St ea 417
SEWVANCENE sass tare eee ceed artes 2. Soe taee uate Gere enn Lente. * 2 Re anes a ae 421
SPIEUCIANS Ass eee rsy cies th es ae Oe meee rio. beers tk ete e oho Serene, el oiisne meen een Ree 427
slrinidad anid" Robagocccrcr ere atc: are ate ee ees Pee Se keto Leino aR Man ee creme 435
ijurks/and\ Caicos United Kingdom aan io ieee cie) ice nee ecn oe Cac ca teen eee 441
VarginiIslands =U SAWs ig. scslrcy coh nus wei eecece ove ite mo schemes Pivek amas seis weenie SHCLaee Sete hee ee 447
SOUTHERN OCEAN ISLANDS
South'Georgias ese ler = ta Say venga th egy ae eee eee, toa, a Re Soin bet eae 451
SouthSandwichidslands# 05-5512 Scenes ike ee eee airtel: ee eee 455
sristantda}Cunhatand(Goughylslandi-. 5 ere eae cua anne eee nee 457

Vi

FOREWORD

The inspirational and aesthetic values of fine examples of the beauty and bounty of nature lay behind the establishment
of many national parks and other types of protected areas. More recently there has been increasing recognition of the
range of the value of protected areas and of their contribution to meet the needs of society by conserving the world’s
natural and physical resources. These values range from protection of representative samples of natural regions and the
preservation of biological diversity, to the maintenance of environmental stability in surrounding country. Protected
areas can also facilitate complementary rural development and rational use of marginal lands, and provide opportunities
for research and monitoring, conservation education, and recreation and tourism.

Over the past thirty years, since the First World Conference on National Parks was held in Seattle, Washington (1962),
our view of the world, and our impact on the world, has changed significantly. Throughout this time, and despite the
mounting pressures of expanding human populations, the number of protected areas established has continued to rise.
Since the centennial of national parks was commemorated at the time of the Second World Conference on National
Parks at Yellowstone and Grand Teton, Wyoming in 1972, the "human" element of protected areas has come more and
more into focus. They are no longer seen as being "locked up" or "set apart". Rather, they are seen as being integral to
strategic approaches to resource management, a concept enshrined in the World Conservation Strategy (1980) based
on managing natural areas to support development in a sustainable way.

The fundamental contribution of protected areas to sustainable management was reaffirmed by participants at the World
Congress on National Parks held in Bali, Indonesia (1982), and for the last decade the Bali Action Plan has focused
attention on a range of actions necessary for promoting and supporting protected areas. These actions were further
focused in regional action plans subsequently developed by members of the IUCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas, covering the Afrotropical, Indomalayan, Neotropical and Oceanian regions.

More recently, two significant, and widely accepted documents have stressed the very vital roles that protected areas
play. The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development was published in 1987, and more recently
a new strategy Caring for the World was launched in 1991. This latter strategy, which has its roots in the World
Conservation Strategy, clearly identifies the functions and benefits of protected area systems, what they safeguard, and
why they are important for development opportunities.

Many countries have declared extensive systems of protected areas, and are continuing to develop and expand them.
The systems and the sites they contain vary considerably from one country to another, depending on national needs and
priorities, and on differences in legislative, institutional and financial support. Consequently, protected areas have been
established under many different national designations to provide for a spectrum of management objectives, ranging
from total protection to sustainable use: from strict nature reserves to lived-in landscapes.

IUCN — The World Conservation Union has been involved in protected areas issues for many years, and has published
a significant body of information on the subject. The [UCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas was
set up both to ensure that the appropriate expertise was available to advise the Union, and to bring together professionals
to share information and experience. IUCN and CNPPA have together had a very strong hand in developing the
programme for the IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas in Caracas, Venezuela (1992).

For more than 10 years, IUCN and CNPPA have worked closely with what is now the World Conservation Monitoring
Centre, to help in building an information resource on protected areas. The information is of value to the Commission
in developing its own programmes, in identifying priorities, and for a wide range of other purposes such as supporting
international initiatives in World Heritage, wetlands and biosphere reserves. It is also important to both IUCN and the
Commission that such information is made available to others, so that the roles and values of protected areas are more
widely recognised, appreciated and respected.

The four volume Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems is being published for the World Parks
Congress by WCMC and IUCN in cooperation with British Petroleum, and aims to provide a standard format "overview"
of the world’s protected area systems. While this product has gaps, and no doubt inaccuracies, it does illustrate very
clearly the range of protected areas activities around the world, and gives an indication of the protected areas estate
under the stewardship of our managers. This product, in combination with the protected areas reviews being prepared
for the Congress by the CNPPA Regional Vice-Chairs, will also provide a benchmark against which to measure our
achievements over the next decade.

P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas
Chair
TUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas

Vii

INTRODUCTION

Participants at the Third World National Parks Congress held in Bali, Indonesia, in 1982, clearly recognised that the
availability of comprehensive, good-quality information on the world’s protected areas was essential to a wide range
of international organisations, governments, protected area managers, voluntary bodies and individuals. Such
information is a prerequisite for assessing the coverage and status of protected areas from regional and global
perspectives, and is key to the development of regional and global priorities and strategies. Monitoring protected areas
is vital to ensure that those areas allocated to conserve the world’s natural resources meet the needs of society.

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is expanding its capabilities as an international centre for
information on the conservation of biological diversity. Working closely with the IUCN Commission on National Parks
and Protected Areas (CNPPA), WCMC continues to compile an extensive database on the world’s protected areas,
which is being used more and more frequently as a source of information.

One result of WCMC’s work as an information centre is the ability to draw material together into publications which
provide background information on protected areas and protected area systems. At the previous Congress in 1982, two
publications from the protected areas database were available, the 1982 UN List, and the IUCN Directory of Neotropical
Protected Areas. Since then, the Centre has collaborated with CNPPA and others on a wide range of publications,
including two subsequent UN Lists in 1985 and 1990, directories of protected areas for Africa, Oceania, South Asia,
and the mountains of central Asia, and various publications on eastem Europe. A full list of publications on protected
areas (including those published by others with information provided by WCMC) is available from the Centre.

The present work, Protected Areas of the world: A review of national systems, is the first attempt by WCMC to compile
a world-wide survey of protected area systems. The book is organised into national (or occasionally sub-national)
accounts, each comprising a description of the national protected areas system, accompanied by a summary list and
map of protected areas. The book is divided into four volumes, with volume one covering the Indomalayan, Oceanian,
Australian and Antarctic realms, volume two the Palaearctic realm, volume three the Afrotropical realm, and volume
four the Nearctic and Neotropical realms. The first three volumes were released at the [V World Congress on National
Parks and Protected Areas, held at Caracas during February 1992, whilst the fourth volume was presented as a draft.
This enabled WCMC staff, who attended the Congress, to obtain comments, corrections and additions from the
numerous experts from the Neotropic and Nearctic regions who were present in Caracas. This volume therefore,
drawing on this new source of information, completes the series.

Publication of such a book serves two purposes. First, it provided extensive background information on the protected
area systems of the world, relevant to several plenary sessions and workshops at the JV World Congress on National
Parks and Protected Areas. In particular, it was a contribution to the third plenary session The Contributions of
Protected Areas to Sustaining Society: A Global Review. Secondly, and perhaps more significantly, it is also part of
the process of information collection and verification. Feedback from protected areas professionals, and others familiar
with protected areas, is therefore both welcomed and encouraged, because only by a continual process of review and
update can we present a true picture.

Jeremy Harrison
World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Vili

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Preparation of a directory of this magnitude is only achieved through a tremendous amount of effort and cooperation.
Over the years, protected areas professionals throughout the world have reviewed or compiled material for us, or
provided new information. Quite simply, without their cooperation this book could not have been completed, and we
greatly appreciate their support.

This assistance has been facilitated in part by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, and the
support of the Commission and its past and present officers is gratefully acknowledged. In particular we would like to
thank the present chair P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas of New Zealand, and his predecessor Harold Eidsvik of Canada. Work has
also been supported by the staff of the IUCN Protected Areas Unit, and in particular James Thorsell and Jeffrey McNeely.

This particular publication is the product of two projects. The British Petroleum Company plc has provided support
for the preparation of part of the text and maps (for those areas not covered by the second mentioned project), and has
provided funds for both publishing and distributing the book. At the same time, the British Overseas Development
Administration has supported review of information on tropical and sub-tropical countries, as part of a project
contributing to the FAO Forest Resources Assessment 1990. Thanks are due to both organisations for their support.

A number of past and present staff of WCMC have been involved in preparing this directory, which includes material
published in several earlier directories. Compilation of country accounts has been the responsibility of:
Patricia Almada-Villela, Daphne Clark, Graham Drucker, Harriet Gillett, Donald Gordon, Sara Oldfield,
James Paine, Chris Sharpe and Mark Spalding. Assistance with the preparation of maps has been provided
by Ian Bares, Clare Billington, Simon Blythe and Gillian Bunting and Joel Smith. Secretarial support was provided
by Deborah Rothera.

Notwithstanding the significant contributions of the many individuals who have provided information to WCMC and
CNPPA, errors and omissions must remain the responsibility of the compilers.

This directory is not intended to be a final statement but a review of the world’s protected area systems. If WCMC is
to continue to carry out its mission, there is a continual need to maintain and'update this information as national protected
areas systems change and as more information becomes available. Therefore, with this directory goes a plea for
corrections, comments and additional material to help WCMC carry out its mission as effectively as possible. By the
same token, the information that WCMC collects and manages is available to others to support their work and
programmes.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, United Kingdom
Tel: (44) 223 277314

Fax: (44) 223 277136

Tix: 817036 SCMU G

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MANAGING INFORMATION ON PROTECTED AREAS
AT WCMC

Many individuals and organisations need basic
information on protected areas systems, lists of protected
areas with certain features, or analyses of protected areas
statistics, yet itis unlikely that they will have the time or
resources to collect, compile and analyse all of the
information for themselves. Such information also
needs to be kept up-to-date, as properties are added or
extended, and as legislation or administrative regimes
change. Users may also require details about the major
protected areas within national systems, such as physical
features, vegetation and fauna, or on other aspects such
as management status and constraints.

It is to meet these needs that the WCMC Protected Areas
Data Unit (PADU) was founded. This service enables
users to obtain quickly information on protected areas
from a single source, be it for purposes of analysis and
assessment, or as briefing material. It is not intended that
this service should by-pass any need for users to contact
or visit the relevant national authorities for such
information, but use of PADU’s resources enables users
to be well informed prior to making such approaches and
in a better position to ask the right questions when so
doing.

Institutional background

IUCN -The World Conservation Union has been closely
involved in protected areas issues for many years. As
early as 1960, it established a Commission on National
Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) to serve as the
"leading international, scientific and technical body
concerned with the selection, establishment and
management of national parks and other protected
areas". CNPPA has always emphasised the need for
information on which to base effective conservation
planning and management, and has been very active in
collecting and disseminating information on protected
areas.

As the world’s network of protected areas has expanded
and its management improved, information on national
protected areas systems and individual protected areas
has proliferated. This led CNPPA to set up PADU in
1981 to manage this increasing volume of information.
Establishment of this Unit was supported by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), as part of its
Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS).
Originally part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre, PADU is now a unit within the World
Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), restructured
in July 1988 and jointly managed by IUCN, the World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and UNEP.

xi

Objectives

WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information
on protected area systems of the world for use by its
partners (IUCN, WWE and UNEP) in the support and
development of their programmes, and by other
international bodies, governmental and
non-governmental organisations, scientists and the
general public. Such information covers the entire
spectrum of protected areas, from national parks and
sanctuaries established under protected areas legislation
or customary regimes to forest reserves created under
forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned
reserves in which nature is protected.

Specific objectives are to:

— maintain a comprehensive and up-to-date database
of the world’s protected areas;

— compile definitive, standard-format accounts
summarising national protected areas systems;

— hold maps of protected areas systems and digitise
them;

— compile definitive, standard-format accounts
covering individual protected areas, particularly the
major properties in tropical countries and those of
international importance;

— accumulate current and historical information on
protected areas; and

— provide support to regional and international
activities, programmes and conventions relating to
protected areas.

Information capture, management and compilation

Information is collected from official sources, namely
national agencies responsible for administering
protected areas, and other sources through a global
network of contacts ranging in profession from
policy-makers and administrators to land managers and
scientists. It is also obtained from published and
unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and
other relevant scientific and technical meetings provide
valuable opportunities for making new contacts and
collecting fresh information. This material in itself is a
major asset of the Centre.

Information, ranging from books, reports, management
plans, scientific papers, maps and correspondence, is
stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on
individual protected areas are extracted and, after
verification, entered in a protected areas database, which
currently holds some 32,000 records. This computerised
database can be used for generating lists of protected
areas meeting pre-defined criteria, together with
summary statistics, as well as performing more complex

Protected Areas of the World

tasks. In addition, maps of protected areas are being
digitised, using a Geographic Information System, in
order to generate computerised mapped output and to
allow other datasets, for example on habitats, to be
overlain for analysis.

The information is also used to produce accounts of
protected areas systems and individual protected areas.
These accounts are compiled according to standard
formats developed over the years by WCMC in
collaboration with CNPPA.

Dissemination of information

In keeping with its primary objective, WCMC aims to
make available good quality information on protected
areas to a wide range of users, including international
organisations, governments, protected area managers,
conservation organisations, commercial companies
involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and
the media and general public. Information may be
provided or consulted by arrangement.

Material may be prepared under contract: for example,
WCMC regularly provides UNEP with summary data
on protected areas for its biennial Environmental Data
Report. WCMC is experimenting with providing
outside users with direct access to its protected areas
database. Trials have been ongoing with the US
National Park Service since 1986 and it is hoped to be
able to extend this service to other users shortly.

Compiled information is periodically published in the
form of regional or thematic directories and lists.
Directories comprise sections on individual countries,
each with a protected areas system information sheet, a
list of protected areas and accompanying location map,
and a series of site information sheets covering at least
the more important properties. Prior to releasing or
publishing documents, draft material is circulated for
review by relevant government agencies and experts to
help ensure that compiled information is accurate and
comprehensive.

Major lists and directories published to date are as
follows:

— United Nations List of National Parks and Protected
Areas (1982, 1985, 1990)

— IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas
(1982)

— IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas
(1987)

— IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
(1990)

— Protected Areas in Eastern and Central Europe and
the USSR (1990)

— IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
(1991)

— Nature Reserves of the Himalaya and the Mountains
of Central Asia (1992)

xil

— Information System: Biosphere Reserves:
Compilation 4 (1986)

— Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990)

— Directory of Wetlands of International Importance
(1987, 1990)

— Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World
(1987)

In addition, numerous draft directories, reports, papers and
reviews have been produced. A list of these is available
from WCMC.

WCMC also disseminates information through the CVPPA
Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case of the latter,
WCMC has assumed responsibility for compiling
Clipboard in which world news on protected areas is
featured.

Special services

WCMC has a very close working relationship with
CNPPA. While the Commission provides expert advice
and support through its network of members, WCMC
supports many of the Commission’s activities through
provision of technical information. WCMC has a
particular responsibility for managing information on
natural properties designated under international
conventions and programmes, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention),
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and
the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. Thus,
WCWMC cooperates closely with the Division of Ecological
Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining information on biosphere
reserves and World Heritage sites accorded by the MAB
Secretariat and World Heritage Committee, respectively.
Likewise, it works closely with the Ramsar Bureau with
respect to managing information on Ramsar wetlands.

The rest of the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre

Information on protected areas is only one aspect of the
programme of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
which also covers information on plant and animal species
of conservation concern, important natural habitats and
sites of high biological diversity, wildlife utilisation, and
the international trade in wildlife.

To monitor the impact of man on nature is a major task.
This requires close collaboration between agencies, and
between agencies and individuals, and the development
and exchange of information. WCMC acts both as an
information centre, and as a facilitator of information
management and exchange. WCMC has now embarked
on an ambitious programme to promote improvements in
the availability of information, and to develop its database
capabilities and information services. Information on the
distribution and status of the world’s protected areas is an
essential component of this programme.

Information management

COUNTRY ACCOUNTS: GUIDELINES TO THEIR CONTENTS

In general, there is an account for each country, divided
up into a series of sections with standard headings. The
following notes summarise the type of information
included in each section where it is available. In certain
cases, accounts have been prepared for areas which are
parts of countries, usually where the area concerned is
geographically separate from the "parent" country.

Country

Full name of country or political unit, as used by the
United Nations (United Nations Terminology Bulletin on
Names of Countries and Adjectives of Nationality).

Area

Total according to the latest volume of the FAO
Production Yearbook prepared by the Statistics Division
of the Economic and Social Policy Department, FAO,
unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial
and marine components are distinguished, if appropriate.

Population

Total population and its mean annual rate of growth
according to the latest issue of World Population
Prospects, published by the United Nations Population
Division. Year of census or estimate is indicated in
parentheses. If another source has had to be used, it is
cited.

Economic indicators

Gross domestic product and gross national product per
capita in US dollars (or net material product in the case
of centrally planned economies), with year in
parentheses, according to the latest issue of National
Accounts Statistics: Analysis of Main Aggregates
(prepared by the United Nations Statistical Office) and
The World Bank Atlas.

Policy and legislation

Information on aspects of the constitution that are
relevant to nature conservation and protected areas.

Summary of national policies that relate to nature
conservation, particularly with respect to the protection
of ecosystems. This may include reference to policies
relating to environmental impact assessments, and
national/regional conservation strategies.

Brief chronological account of past and present national
legislation and traditions that relate to the establishment
of the protected areas system, with names (in English),
dates and numbers of acts, decrees and ordinances.
Legislation covering forestry and other resource sectors
is included, in so far as it provides for protected areas
establishment. Procedures for the notification and
declassification of protected areas are summarised.

xiii

Outline of legal provisions for administering protected
areas

National designations of protected areas are cited and
their range of provisions outlined. Their legal
definitions, together with the names of the authorities
legally responsible for their administration, are
summarised in an Annex (see below).

Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are
noted, with any identified deficiencies in prevailing
provisions highlighted.

International activities

Participation in international conventions and
programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar conventions,
MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme)
and regional conventions and agreements (such as the
African, ASEAN and Berne conventions, the FAO Latin
American/Caribbean Technical Cooperation Network,
South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme
and the South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme) relevant to habitat protection is
summarised.

Outline of any international, multilateral and bilateral
cooperative programmes or transfrontier cooperative
agreements relevant to protected areas, including
mention of any transfrontier protected areas.

Administration and management

All authorities responsible for the administration and
management of protected areas are named and
described, with a brief history of their establishment,
administrative organisation, staff structure, budget and
any training programmes. Authorities responsible for
different types of protected areas are clearly
distinguished.

Outline of the role of any advisory boards

Cooperative agreements between management
authorities and national or foreign universities and
institutes, with details of any research underway or
completed

Names and brief details of non-governmental
organisations concerned with protected areas.
Reference to any national directories of voluntary
conservation bodies is included.

Effectiveness of protected areas management is noted
where information has been provided. Attention is
drawn to any sites registered as threatened under the
World Heritage Convention, or by the IUCN
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.

Protected Areas of the World

Systems reviews

— Short account of physical features, biological
resources, and land use patterns (with percentages if
available), including the extent and integrity of major
ecosystems.

—Brief review of the development of nature conservation
programmes, so far as it relates to the establishment and
expansion of the national protected areas network.
Emphasis is given to any systems reviews or
comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with
details of major recommendations arising from such
studies.

— Threats to the protected areas system beyond the
control of the management agencies are outlined.

Other relevant information

— Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected
areas system, if applicable

— Other items, as appropriate

Addresses

— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and fax
numbers, and cable) of authorities responsible for
administering protected areas. Names are given in the
original language or transliterated, with English
translation in brackets as appropriate, and followed by
the title of the post of the chief executive.

— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and fax
numbers, and cable) of non-governmental organisations
actively involved in protected areas issues. Names are
given in the original language or transliterated, with
English translation in brackets as appropriate, and
followed by the title of the post of the chief executive,

References

— Key references (including all cited works) to the
protected areas system, in particular, and nature
conservation, in general, are listed.

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as
legislated, together with authorities responsible for
their administration. The annex includes the
following sections:

Title: Name and number of law in the original
language or transliterated, with the English
translation underneath, as appropriate.

Date: Day, month and year of enactment, followed by
dates of subsequent major amendments

Brief description: Summary of main provisions (often
this is stated at the beginning of the legislation)

Administrative authority: Name of authority
responsible for administering the law, given in the
original language or transliterated, with the English
translation undemeath as appropriate. This is followed
by the title of the post of the chief executive.

Designations: National designation of protected area in
the original language or transliterated, followed in
brackets by the English translation as appropriate. For
each designation this would be followed by: definition
of designation (if given in legislation), summary of
activities permitted or prohibited, outline of penalties for
offences, and, where relevant, reference to subsequent
legislation relating to the original law.

Source: This may be "original legislation", "translation
of original legislation" or a referenced secondary source.

MAPS and LISTS

The descriptive sections are followed by lists of
protected areas, and maps showing their location. In
most cases, the lists comprise all of those areas
qualifying for inclusion in IUCN management
categories I-VIII, which have an area of over 1,000
hectares. However, forest and hunting reserves
qualifying for IUCN Management Category VIII have
been omitted, largely because our information is not
comprehensive. Also, size restrictions have been
ignored for island nations. Note that in certain cases,
nationally designated areas (such as some national
parks) will not appear in the lists, as they do not meet the
criteria. World Heritage sites, biosphere reserves and
Ramsar sites are also listed.

xiv

Categories and management objectives of protected
areas

I Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to
protect nature and maintain natural processes in an
undisturbed state in order to have ecologically
representative examples of the natural environment
available for scientific study, environmental
monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of
genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary
State.

Il NationalPark: to protectnatural and scenic areas
of national or international significance for
scientific, educational and recreational use.

Ill Natural Monument/Natural Landmark: to
protect and preserve nationally significant natural
features because of their special interest or unique

characteristics.

IV Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary:

to assure the natural conditions necessary to protect
nationally significant species, groups of species,
biotic communities, or physical features of the
environment where these require specific human

manipulation for their perpetuation.

\V_ Protected Landscape or Seascape: to maintain
nationally significant natural landscapes which are
characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man
and land while providing opportunities for public
enjoyment through recreation and tourism within
the normal life style and economic activity of these
areas.

VI Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources
of the area for future use and prevent or contain

development activities that could affect the

Information management

resource pending the establishment of objectives
which are based upon appropriate knowledge and
planning.

VII Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve:
to allow the way of life of societies living in
harmony with the environment to continue
undisturbed by modern technology.

VIII Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed
Resource Area: to provide for the sustained
production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and
outdoor recreation, with the conservation of nature
primarily oriented to the support of economic
activities (although specific zones may also be
designed within these areas to achieve specific
conservation objectives).

Abridged from IUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for
protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds),
National parks, conservation, and development. The role of
protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53.

INTERNATIONALLY DESIGNATED SITES

In the field of nature conservation there are two
international conventions and one international
programme that include provision for designation of
internationally important sites in any region of the
world. These are the World Heritage Convention, the
Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention, and the Unesco Man
and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. While there is
a wide range of other international conventions and
programmes, these cover only regions, or small
groups of countries.

Both World Heritage sites and Ramsar sites must be
nominated by a State that is party to the relevant
convention. While there is an established review
procedure for World Heritage sites (and nomination is
no guarantee of listing), all nominated Ramsar sites
are placed on the List of Wetlands of International
Importance. Biosphere reserves are nominated by the
national MAB committee of the country concerned,
and are only designated following review and
acceptance by the MAB Bureau.

Each Contracting Party to the Ramsar (Wetlands)
Convention is obliged to nominate at least one wetland
of international importance. However, a country can
be party to the World Heritage Convention without
having a natural site inscribed on the List, and may
participate in the MAB programme without
designating a biosphere reserve.

XV

World Heritage Sites

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in Paris in
1972, and came into force in December 1975. The
Convention provides for the designation of areas of
"outstanding universal value" as World Heritage sites,
with the principal aim of fostering international
cooperation in safeguarding these important areas.
Sites, which must be nominated by the signatory nation
responsible, are evaluated for their World Heritage
quality before being inscribed by the iriternational World
Heritage Committee. Only natural sites, and those with
mixed natural and cultural aspects, are considered in this
publication.

Article 2 of the World Heritage Convention considers as
natural heritage: natural features consisting of physical
and biological formations or groups of such formations,
which are of outstanding universal value from the
aesthetic or scientific point of view; geological or
physiographical formations and precisely delineated
areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species
of animals and plants of outstanding universal value
from the point of view of science or conservation; and
natural sites or precisely delineated areas of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of science,
conservation or natural beauty. Criteria for inclusion in
the list are published by Unesco.

Protected Areas of the World

The following States Party to the Convention lie at least
partially within the regions covered by this volume:

Antigua and Barbuda

Argentina

Belize

Bolivia

Brazil

Canada

Chile

Colombia

Costa Rica

Cuba

Denmark
(Greenland)

Dominican Republic

Ecuador

El Salvador

France
(Guadeloupe)
(French Guiana)
(Martinique)
(St Pierre & Miquelon)

Guatemala

Guyana

Haiti

Honduras

Jamaica

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

St Kitts and Nevis

St Lucia

United Kingdom
(Anguilla)
(Bermuda)
(British Virgin Islands)
(Cayman Islands)
(Montserrat)
(Turks and Caicos)

United States of America
(Puerto Rico)
(Navassa Island)
(Virgin Islands)

Venezuela

The following natural World Heritage sites lie within the
regions covered by this volume:

Argentina
Iguazu National Park
Los Glaciares National Park

Brazil
Iguacu National Park

Canada
Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks
Dinosaur Provincial Park
Gros Morne National Park

XVI

Kluane-Wrangell/St Elias (with USA)
Nahanni National Park
Wood Buffalo National park

Costa Rica
Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves

Ecuador
Galapagos Islands
Sangay National Park

Guatemala
Tikal National Park

Honduras
Rio Platano

Mexico
Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve

Panama
Darien National Park
La Amistad International Park

Peru
Huascaran National Park
Manu National Park
Rio Abiseo National Park
Sanctuario Historico de Macchu Picchu

United States of America
Everglades National Park
Grand Canyon National Park
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
(Hawaii Volcanoes National Park)
Kluane-Wrangell/St Elias National Park (with
Canada)
Mammoth Cave National Park
Olympic National Park
Redwood National park
Yellowstone National Park
Yosemite National Park

Ramsar Sites

The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat was signed
in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, and also came into force in
December 1975. This Convention provides a
framework for international cooperation for the
conservation of wetland habitats. The Convention
places general obligations on contracting party states
relating to the conservation of wetlands throughout their
territory, with special obligations pertaining to those
wetlands which have been designated to the "List of
Wetlands of International Importance".

Each State Party is obliged to list at least one site.
Wetlands are defined by the convention as: areas of
marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas

of marine waters, the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres.

The following States Party to the Convention lie at least
partially within the regions covered by this volume:

Argentina

Bolivia

Canada

Chile

Costa Rica

Denmark
(Greenland)

Ecuador

France
(Guadeloupe)
(French Guiana)
(Martinique)
(St Pierre & Miquelon)

Guatemala

Mexico

Netherlands
(Aruba)
(Netherlands Antilles)

Panama

Peru

Suriname

United Kingdom
(Anguilla)
(Bermuda)
(British Virgin Islands)
(Cayman Islands)
(Montserrat)
(Turks and Caicos)

United States of America
(Puerto Rico)
(Navassa Island)
(Virgin Islands)

Uruguay

Venezuela

The following wetlands which lie within the region have
been included in the List of Wetlands of International
Importance:

Argentina
Laguna de Pozuelos
Laguna Blanca
Rio Pilcomayo

Bolivia
Laguna Colorada

Canada
Alaksen
Baie de I’Ile Verte
Beaverhill Lake
Cap Tourmente
Chignecto
Delta Marsh
Dewey Soper

XVii

Information management

Grand Codroy Estuary
Hay-Zama Lakes

Lac Saint-Frangois

Last Mountain Lake (northem part)
Long Point

Malpeque Bay

Mary’s Point

McConnell River

Musquodoboit Harbour Outer Estuary
Oak-Hammock Marsh

Old Crow Flats

Peace-Athabasca Delta

Point Pelee

Polar Bear Provincial Park

Polar Bear Pass

Queen Maud Gulf

Quill Lakes

Rasmussen Lowlands

Shepody Bay

Southern James Bay Sanctuaries
Southern Bight-Minas Basin

St Clair

Whooping Crane Summer Range

Chile
Carlos Anwandter Sanctuary

Costa Rica
Cafio Negro
Palo Verde

Denmark - Greenland
Agajarua-Sullorsuag
Eqalummiut Nunaat-Nassuttuup Nunaa
Hochstetter Forland
Ikkatoq
Kilen
Kitsissunnguit
Kuannersuit Kuussuat
Naternaq
Qinguata Marraa-Kuussuaq
Ydre Kitsissut

Ecuador
Machalilla
Manglares-Churute

Guatemala
Laguna del Tigre

Mexico
Ria Lagartos, Yucatan

Netherlands Antilles
De Slagbaai
Het Gotomeer
Het Lac
Het Pekelmeer
Het Spaans Lagoen
Klein Bonaire Island and adjacent sea

Protected Areas of the World

Panama
Golfo de Montijo

Peru
Reserva Nacional de Paracas
Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria
Santuario Nacional Lagunas de Mejia

Suriname
Coppename Rivermouth

United Kingdom
(Turks and Caicos)
North, Middle & East Caicos Islands

Uruguay
Bafiados del Este y Franja Costera

Venezuela
Cuare

Biosphere Reserves

The designation of biosphere reserves differs somewhat
from that of either of the previous designations in that it
is not made under a specific convention, but as part of an
international scientific programme, the Unesco Man and
the Biosphere Programme. The objectives of a network
of biosphere reserves, and the characteristics which
biosphere reserves might display, are identified in
various documents, including the Action Plan for
Biosphere Reserves (Unesco, 1984).

Biosphere reserves differ from World Heritage and
Ramsar sites in that they are designated not exclusively
for protection of unique areas or significant wetlands, but
for a range of objectives which include research,
monitoring, training and demonstration, as well as
conservation. In most cases the human component is
vital to the functioning of the biosphere reserve,
something which is not always true for either World
Heritage or Ramsar sites.

The following biosphere reserves are located within the
region:

Argentina
Parque Costero del Sur
Reserva de la Biosfera de Pozuelos
Reserva Ecologica de Nacufidn
Reserva de la Biosfera San Guillermo
Reserva Natural de Vida Silvestre Laguna Blanca

Bolivia
Estacién Biolégica Beni
Parque Nacional Pilén-Lajas
Reserva Nacional de Fauna Ulla Ulla

Brazil
Tijuca-Tingua-Orgaos
Vale do Ribeira-Serra do Graciosa

Canada
Long Point Biosphere Reserve
Mont St Hilaire
Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve
Réserve de la biosphére de Charlevoix
Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve
Waterton Lakes National Park

Chile
Parque Nacional Lauca
Parque Nacional Fray Jorge
Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael
Parque Nacional Torres del Paine
Parque Nacional Juan Femandez
Reserva de la Biosfera La Campana-Pefiuelas
Reserva de la Biosfera Araucarias

Colombia
Cinturé6n Andino Cluster Biosphere Reserve
El Tuparro Nature Reserve
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
(inc. Tayrona NP)

Costa Rica
Cordillera Volcanica Central
Reserva de la Biosfera de la Amistad

Cuba
Baconao
Cuchillas del Toa
Peninsula de Guanahacabibes
Sierra del Rosario

Denmark - Greenland
North-east Greenland National Park

Ecuador
Archipiélago de Colén (Galapagos)
Reserva de la Biosfera de Yasuni

Guatemala
Maya

Honduras
Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve

Mexico
Montes Azules
Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan
Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka’an
Reserva de Mapimi
Reserva de la Michilia
Reserva de la Biosfera "El Cielo"

Panama
Parque Nacional Fronterizo Darién

Peru
Reserva de Huascaran
Reserva del Manu
Reserva del Noroeste

United States of America
Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge
Beaver Creek Experimental Watershed
Big Bend National Park
Big Thicket National Preserve
California Coast Ranges Biosphere Reserve
Carolinian-South Atlantic Biopshere Reserve
Cascade Head Experimental Forest
Central California Coast Biosphere Reserve
Central Gulf Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve
Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER)
Champlain-Adirondak Biosphere Reserve
Channel Islands Biosphere Reserve
Coram Experimental Forest (incl. Coram NA)
Denali National Park and Biosphere Reserve
Desert Experimental Range
Everglades National Park
(incl. Ft. Jefferson NM)
Fraser Experimental Forest
Glacier Bay-Admiralty Is. Biosphere Reserve
Glacier National Park
Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve
H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest
(Hawaii Islands Biosphere Reserve)
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
Isle Royale National Park
Jomada Experimental Range
Konza Prairie Research Natural Area
Land between The Lakes
Mammoth Cave Area

xix

Information management

Mojave and Colorado Deserts Biosphere Reserve
New Jersey Pinelands Biosphere Reserve
Niwot Ridge Biosphere Reserve

Noatak National Arctic Range

Olympic National Park

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument

Rocky Mountain National Park

San Dimas Experimental Forest

San Joaquin Experimental Range

Scenic Research Area

Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks

South Atlantic Coastal Plain BR

Southern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve
Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest

The Virginia Coast Reserve

The University of Michigan Biological Station
Three Sisters Wilderness

Yellowstone National Park

Puerto Rico - USA
Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve
Luquillo Experimental Forest (Caribbean NF)

Uruguay
Bafiados del Este

Virgin Islands - USA
Virgin Islands National Park & Biosphere Reserve

Protected Areas of the World

WESTERN HEMISPHERE CONVENTION

Title: Convention On Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation in The Western
Hemisphere

Date: 12 October 1940

Brief description:

The governments of the American Republics wish to
protect and conserve in their natural habitat
representatives of all species of native flora and
fauna, including migratory birds, in sufficient
numbers and over areas extensive enough to prevent
them from becoming extinct through man’s
Protection will also be given to
outstanding scenery and specific regions or objects
of importance. To these means, the Convention
provides the following conservation measures which
the governments of the American Republic agree to

intervention.

put into effect.

Designations:

National park An areaset aside for the protection
and preservation of exceptional scenery, flora and
fauna of national significance for the benefit of the

general public.

Access by the general public is allowed under official
regulations and supervision as park is placed under
public control. Facilities will be provided for public

recreation and education

Park boundaries are not be altered. Commercial
exploitation of resources within the area is
prohibited. The hunting and capture of fauna and the
destruction and collection of flora are also
prohibited, except by officially authorised scientific
investigations or under the direction of the park

authorities.

Nationalreserve Anarea under government control,
established for the conservation and utilization of

natural resources

Plant and animal life will be protected as far as
possible while complying with the objectives of the

designation

Naturemonument Anarea, object or living species
of flora and fauna of aesthetic, historic or scientific
interest to be given total protection. The area or
objectis set aside, or the species named, as inviolable

The only activites permitted are government
inspections or scientific research by officially

authorized personnel.

XX

Strict wilderness reserve An area under public
control characterised by the presence of primitive
conditions of flora, fauna and habitation, where there
is no provision for the passage of motorised vehicles.
All commercial developments and exploitation are
prohibited.

Protection will remain inviolate as far as practicable.
The only activities permitted are government
inspections consistent with the purpose for which the
area was established or officially authorised
scientific investigations.

Migratory bird species _ Those species of birds in
which all or some of its members may cross the
boundaries between American countries at any
season. Some species are named as examples:
Charadriidae, Scolopacidae, Caprimulgidae,
Hirundindae

Suitable measures shall be taken to provide
protection for migratory birds

A list of plant and animal species in urgent need of
protection is provided in the Annex to the
Convention. Hunting, capture or collection of these
species shall be permitted only under official
authorisation and subject to strict regulation. The
contracting governments shall take suitable
measures to regulate the import and export of flora
and fauna.

The contracting governments will endeavour to
establish areas in their territories under the
designations described above, as soon as possible
following the signing of the Convention. If
establishment of such areas is not feasible
immediately areas, objects or species shall be
selected for later designation. The contracting
governments agree to cooperate among themselves
in promoting the objectives of the Convention and
will provide and receive assistance for scientific
research to increase the effectiveness of the
provisions of the Convention.

Establishment of protected areas shall be reported to
the Pan American Union which will notify the
contracting governments of any information from
national or international scientific or other sources,
relevant to the purposes of the Convention. The
Convention remains open for signature by other
American governments at any time.

Source: Lyster, S. (1985). International Wildlife
Law. Grotius Publications Ltd. 470 pp.

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CANADA

Area 9,916,140 sq. km

Population 26.5 million (1990) (Hunter, 1991)
Natural increase: 0.77% (1990)

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 16,200 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 15,080 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation Canada, with all its
dependencies, was formally ceded from Great Britain in
1763, although the various colonies were not united until
the Act of the Imperial Parliament, the British North
America Act, 1867. The Act provided that the
constitution of the Dominion of Canada should be
"similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom". In
November 1981, a provisional constitution was agreed
by the Canadian government (Constitutional Act, 1982)
toreplace the Actof 1867 and the proposals were enacted
by the United Kingdom Parliament as the Canada Act,
1982. This Act gave to Canada the power to amend its
own constitution, although executive authority
continues to be invested in the Sovereign. The
Constitutional Act, 1982 strengthened provincial
ownership of natural resources, and affirmed the existing
rights of native peoples. Legislative authority is vested
in the federal government and the ten provincial
governments, with many constitutional powers being
delegated to the provinces. More than 90% of Canada is
held as public lands (WWF, 1992).

Following subsequent revisions to the Constitution, a
subject of federal/provincial negotiations, it is likely that
provincial control over natural resources will increase,
and the recognised rights of native peoples will become
further entrenched (A. Hackman, C. Stewart and G.
Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Current proposals
recognise the inherent right to aboriginal
self-government as a kind of third order of government
in the country.

In Northern Canada (north of 60), land claim settlements
between the federal government and aboriginal peoples
are at various stages of completion. The 1984 Inuvialuit
Final Agreement covering the western Arctic, the 1991
Agreement-in-Principal to establish Nunavut, an Inuit
governed region for the whole of the Eastern Arctic, and
a 1990 agreement reached with the Council of Yukon
Indians (and subsequently ratified by the various groups
in 1991) are major developments in governance for the
Territories, traditionally administered by federal
authorities. Further, negotiations are still continuing
with, and among the Dene and Metis groups in the
Mackenzie Valley region. These agreements are
prerequisites for the mutual recognition and
management of protected areas in these Territories
(G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Further, initiatives such
as the Arctic Marine Conservation Strategy, the Inuit
Regional Conservation Strategy, and the Task Force on

Northern Conservation are aimed at improving arctic
conservation, and giving local communities a larger role
in making decisions regarding the use of land and
wildlife (Anon, 1990). Similar issues and probleins with
native land claims exist and are being addressed in most
of the western provinces (C. Stewart, pers. comm.,
1992).

The first national parks were established on federal
Crown land in the west, prior to the transfer of resources
in 1930 which gave the western provinces control of
Crown land. Thereafter, provincial protected areas were
also established. In the east, where provinces had control
of their natural resources, as set out in the British North
America Act, provincial parks were created, beginning
around the turn of the century, in addition to the early
establishment of national parks (Eidsvik, 1989; Kun,
1981). Today, the major protected area designations are
ecological reserve, national and provincial park,
managed wildlife area, cultural heritage site,
internationally designated area, and protected landscape.

Federal policy and legislation Canada has a Federal
Policy on Land Use, 1980 which is designed to guide
federal policies and programmes as they affect land use,
and to guide the management of federal lands.
Statements within the Policy support the setting aside of
protected areas and protection of significant values of
lands, including fragile and critical habitats and natural
heritage. Canada’s Federal Policy on Wetland
Conservation, 1991 promotes wetland conservation on
government lands using a number of strategies,
including the development of a system of protected
wetlands of national significance. Both of these federal
policies work primarily through existing programmes
and regulatory and decision-making mechanisms to
advance wise land use and wetland conservation within
the context of efficient delivery of federal services
(Government of Canada, 1991; E. Zurbrigg, pers.
comm., 1992).

In1986, the Minister of Environment approved Canada’s
first National Marine Parks Policy. The main goal of this
policy is to protectand conserve representative examples
of marine environments for the benefit, education and
enjoyment of present and future generations.

In 1990, the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) published
"A Wildlife Policy for Canada on behalf of the Wildlife
Ministers" Council of Canada. This national policy,
which emphasises ecosystems and biodiversity,
provides a framework for federal, provincial, territorial,
and non-governmental policies and programmes that
affect wildlife. Included in the policy is reference to
protection of habitats and ecosystems through
comprehensive systems of protected areas and other
supportive approaches. There also exists a 1990
Canadian Parks Service policy related to protected areas

Protected Areas of the World

and the built heritage. A proposed revision of this
document is currently in discussion form (C. Stewart,
pers. comm., 1992).

Relevant federal laws covering the whole of Canada
include the National Parks Act, 1930 (amended to 1988);
the Canada Wildlife Act, 1973; Fisheries Act;
Endangered Species Act, 1989; and the Migratory Birds
Convention Act, 1917 (amended to 1982)(see Annex).
A Wild Animal and Plant Protection Act is currently
(1992) before the federal parliament, and it has been
recommended that a "federal" Ecological Reserves Act
be passed. Currently, ecological reserves fall under
provincial acts.

The National Parks Act, as amended in 1974 and 1988,
provides for: the establishment of national parks and
national historic parks throughout Canada on Crown
land; the designation of ecological integrity as a prime
mandate; mandatory management plan reviews; and
increased protection for protected areas (see Annex)(C.
Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). When support for the
establishment of a new national park is demonstrated, a
federal-provincial agreement sets out the terms and
conditions for the transfer of land to the federal
government (Finkelstein, 1992; Kun, 1981). An
Order-in-Council reserves a park area, but the National
Parks Act must be amended to officially create a national
park. Where there are unresolved land claims, a national
park reserve may be established. In these areas, the
National Parks Act and Regulations apply, but
traditional hunting, fishing and trapping may continue,
and final boundaries remain open to negotiation.
Auyuittuq and Pacific Rim are two examples of national
park reserves in the country. The Canada Wildlife Act,
1973 provides for the establishment of national wildlife
areas through Order-in-Council (see Annex). The
Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1917 provides for the
designation of migratory bird sanctuaries. The federal
government does not always own such areas; they can
be designated by Order-in-Council on private lands with
the consent of the landowner (see Annex).

Marine protected areas may be established under the
National Parks Act, and under some provincial
ecological reserve and park acts. For example, marine
provincial parks may be created under the Parks Act of
British Columbia.

Traditionally, the federal government has been
responsible for the administration, management and
control of most land in the Yukon and Northwest
Territories, in a manner similar to that of the provinces.
The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development Actis the basis of jurisdiction and land use
control in both the Yukon and Northwest Territories
through the Territorial Lands Act. Under this Act, land
can be protected by simple withdrawal, although the Act
only applies to Lands under the control, managementand
administration of the Minister. Neither the Land Use
Regulations nor the Territorial Lands Act provides any

entrenchment for reserves or guidance to reserve
administrators (Taschereau, 1985).

Since the mid-1980s, major land claim settlements (and
proposed settlements), and an evolution towards local
government, have moved management of the territories
away from the federal government. For example, Yukon
now has a comprehensive territorial park proposal, based
on territorial, not federal legislation (C. Stewart, pers.
comm., 1992).

Provincial policy and legislation Most provinces
have policies in connection with wildlife conservation
and protected areas, and at least six provinces have
reworked their provincial park policies since the
mid-1980s (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). For
example, in 1988, Ontario announced its new parks
policy which has served to increase protection for
wilderness and nature reserve parks, and has allowed for
new parks to be added to the provincial system. This
policy has recently been complimented by the release in
1991 of a wildlife strategy for Ontario, the goal of which
is the provision of a diversity of healthy ecosystems and
associated wildlife populations and habitats that will
provide sustained social, cultural and economic benefits
for all people (Ontario Wildlife Working Group, 1991).
One of the tenets of this strategy is to ensure that Ontario
has a system of protected areas which adequately
represents ecosystems, landscapes and their associated
wildlife populations. British Columbia, meanwhile, has
entered into an agreement with Environment Canada to
produce a provincial State of the Environment report.
Further, the majority of provinces and territories have
either completed or are in the process of drafting
provincial conservation strategies (CSEB, 1987).

Wetlands are coming under increasing scrutiny in a
number of provinces. Most provinces have inventoried
and classified their remaining wetlands, and some have
formulated policies to protect the most valuable
examples. For example, Ontario adopted a wetlands
policy in June 1992 which directs municipalities and
planning authorities to identify and protect provincially
significant wetlands.

A review of provincial legislation is given by Taschereau
(1985). Further, key pieces of relevant protected areas
legislation in each of the provinces are outlined in the
Annex. Under these statutes, there are up to 75 legally
defined designations of protected area, their titles and
management varying from one province to the other,
each with assorted meanings in terms of legal
securement, function and management objectives
(Turner, et al., 1991). Even when the title is the same
between provinces, the definitions and management may
be completely contrasting, and range from strict nature
reserve, multiple-use management area to recreational
area and cultural site with no natural elements. Some
legally gazetted titles include provincial park,
wilderness area, provincial nature reserve, game bird
sanctuary, and ecological reserve (see Annex). In
addition, every province and territory in Canada has

historic or heritage sites which serve to protect not only
cultural but also significant expanses of natural heritage.
Each piece of legislation defines activities permitted in
each protected area type, identifies the responsible
managing authority, and sets out penalties associated
with offences.

Existing protected areas legislation is highly variable
from province to province. It varies in length from
Saskatchewan’s relatively simple two-page Act to
Establish Ecological Reserves to the more detailed
15-page Wilderness and Ecological Reserves Act of
Newfoundland. The legislation contrasts in dedication to
public use, from the Quebec Act, which specifically
excludes the public, to the Newfoundland Act, in which
natural areas are set aside "for the benefit, education and
enjoyment" of the public. Complementary to ecological
reserves and other forms of provincial protected areas
legislation are statutes for the protection of rare and
endangered species through the protection of their
habitats or natural ecosystems. For example, the Ontario
Endangered Species Act recognises this by providing
that: "no person shall wilfully destroy or interfere with
the habitat of any species of fauna or flora declared in
the regulations to be threatened with extinction"
(Taschereau, 1985).

Various legislative constraints have been identified by
Taschereau (1985). Most provinces lack any umbrella
legislation that would integrate the efforts of different
agencies involved in natural area protection. However,
exceptions are Alberta and Newfoundland, where the
statutes under which ecological reserves are established
also serve to designate other categories of protected
natural area such as wilderness reserve. Only two
provinces, Ontario and Prince Edward Island, are
without specific ecological reserves legislation,
although numerous nature reserve zones (ecological
reserve equivalent) are designated within Ontario
provincial parks. An ecological reserves act has,
however, been recently proposed for Ontario. Only four
provinces have passed wilderness legislation:
Newfoundland, Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia.
In some provinces, such as British Columbia, there is no
provision for the acquisition of private land for the
establishment of protected areas (Taschereau, 1985).
Federally, one deficiency of the National Parks Act is a
lack of provision for legislation on wilderness areas, and
park boundaries are rarely set in federal or provincial
legislation (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992).

Although complex, the labyrinth of jurisdictions
(federal, territorial, aboriginal) responsible for the North
is rapidly evolving. For example, the recent
Agreement-in-Principal for Nunavut, as well as the
Western Arctic (Innuvialuit) Claims Settlement Act,
1984 provides for many new agencies with considerable
authority over land and resource use (A. Hackman, pers.
comm., 1992).

International Activities | The Convention concerning
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural

Canada

Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was accepted on
23 July 1976, and six natural sites had been inscribed by
1991. Canada acceded to the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 15 January 1981: one
site was inscribed on ratification and a further 29 listed
by 1991. Six sites have been accepted as biosphere
reserves under the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) Programme.

The Boundary Waters Treaty was signed by the USA and
Canada in 1909, leading to the establishment of the
International Joint Commission, formed in 1912, to
report on pollution of boundary waters in the Great
Lakes. Despite such early initiatives, the Great Lakes
region has developed into one of the world’s great
industrial and population centres, with levels of toxic
chemical discharge reaching staggering proportions,
threatening 43 major protected areas including seven
national and provincial parks and one national marine
park. It has been estimated that even given the situation
of zero pollutant emissions into the Lakes, the time taken
to flush out all polluted water would be in the order of
500 years for Lake Superior alone (IUCN East European
Programme, 1989). Recent initiatives aimed at
addressing this situation include the bringing together of
at least 180 organisations in Canada and the USA to look
at the environmental problems of the Great Lakes. This
coalition, under an international umbrella body called
Great Lakes United, had a collective membership
exceeding half a million in 1989. One proposal which is
currently being considered is to use the protected areas
along the Great Lakes as reference areas or monitoring
sites for assessing the "ecosystem health” of the Lakes,
and using the biosphere reserve concept as a guide. Lake
Superior could be the starting point for such work, and
the establishment of a Great Lakes Heritage Data
Network (linking databases from the eight states and two
provinces bordering the Lakes) should enable the
determination of conservation priorities from a Great
Lakes-St Lawrence bioregional perspective, and allow
for the identification of sites which could serve as
monitors for ecosystem health (G. Francis, pers. comm.,
1992).

The Migratory Birds Convention between Canada and
the USA was signed in 1916. The North American
Waterfowl Management Plan, 1986 is a joint project
involving Canada, the USA and Mexico, approximately
200 conservation groups and many corporations in the
planning of programmes conserving waterfowl and
wetland habitats. In Canada, the goal is to secure and
improve the quality of 1.5 million ha of priority
waterfowl habitat. The Western Hemisphere Shorebird
Reserve Network is a cooperative programme of
government and private organisations recognising and
protecting essential staging areas for migratory
shorebirds. Two sites have been designated in Eastern
Canada, and have been twinned with sites in Suriname,
South America (Government of Canada, 1991; E.
Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton
National Park in Alberta, Canada, were combined in
1932 to form the first international peace park in the
world. Further opportunities for similar initiatives exist
between the Yukon and Alaska, British Columbia and
Alaska, and New Brunswick and Maine.

Administration and Management Currently, there
are over 120 different government and private
programmes involved in acquiring and managing lands
for conservation. Five bodies, including two agencies
from Environment Canada, and the provinces of Quebec,
Ontario and British Columbia, are responsible for about
80% of the total area protected. Combined, these
agencies do, however, control 73% of the land mass (C.
Stewart, pers. comm., 1992).

Federaladministrationandmanagement Acentral
administration for national parks was created in 1911,
thereby enabling Canada to become the first country in
the world to have a national parks service (Hummel,
1989). Today, responsibility for the National Parks Act
is vested in the federal Department of the Environment
(Environment Canada), and is undertaken by the
Canadian Parks Service (CPS), formerly Parks Canada
(and previously the National and Historic Parks Branch).
The CPS is headed by an Assistant Deputy Minister. The
Parks head office is responsible for policy direction and
new park establishment, while five regional offices
direct the planning and operations across the country.
The oldest of the world’s modern protected area
agencies, CPS is responsible for both the cultural and the
natural heritage of the nation at federal level. CPS has
3,500 staff and is responsible for 18,054,900ha, with
jurisdiction for 24.4% of all protected areas (R. Maslin,
pers. comm., 1992). CPS intends to undergo major
growth over the coming decade, as the systems plan is
developed and implemented (Taschereau, 1985; Waugh
and Perez Gil, 1992).

Responsibility for the Canada Wildlife Act and the
Migratory Birds Convention Act rests with the Canadian
Wildlife Service (CWS) of Environment Canada, which
has 323 staff nationally. Under these two acts,
respectively, the CWS establishes national wildlife areas
(of which there are 45 in Canada), and migratory bird
sanctuaries (total of 101). Overall, CWS has
responsibility for more than 11.4 million ha of protected
areas, which is 15.5% of the total protected area.

The CWS administers the implementation in Canada of
the North American Waterfowl Management Plan
(NAWMP) (see International Activities). The NAWMP
offers long-term protection to lands through acquisition
or lease. Significant contributions to the conservation of
wetlands/waterfowl habitat are being made through
habitat joint ventures, involving governments,
non-government organisations (NGOs), the private
sector and landowners.

As well as national wildlife areas, the CWS jointly
acquires and manages lands with the provinces, called

cooperative wildlife areas. Each wildlife area is managed
individually for the purpose of preserving or increasing
its value to wildlife. The CWS also promotes the
interests of wildlife habitat conservation by providing a
secretariat for the Canadian Council on Ecological
Areas, and is responsible for leading the
implementation of the Federal Policy on Wetlands
Conservation (E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). In
1991, the combined annual expenditure of CPS and
the CWS totalled US$ 282,992,000 (Waugh and Perez
Gil, 1992).

Other agencies concerned with protected areas include
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (DIAND), owning
439,093ha for strict nature conservation. It is the only
government department to have undertaken
comprehensive conservation planning in the northern
region. The Northern Land Use Planning Program was,
however, abolished in 1992 (A. Hackman, pers. comm.,
1992).

The Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) has the
primary mandate for marine mammals, and has
jurisdiction over their marine habitat. Further, the DFO
administers the Fisheries Act (Anon, 1990).
Responsibility for the Canadian Heritage Rivers System
(CHRS) lies with the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board,
based in the offices of the CPS.

A national database on protected areas was created
through the cooperation of several agencies, including
CPS, CWS, and the State of the Environment Reporting
Organization (SOER), all of Environment Canada, and
the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA)
(Rubec et al., 1990). The database, the National
Conservation Areas Data Base (NCADB), has also
received advice from WWF (Canada) and from many
provincial and territorial agencies. Information has been
amassed on 2,945 parks, ecological reserves, and other
categories of conserved or heritage areas, and is the most
comprehensive data set of protected areas in Canada
(valid to 1990). SOER is currently in the process of
working with other agencies to develop a
commonly-accepted database on protected areas, and
will include those sites managed by NGOs. NCADB will
be the nucleus of this system (Tumer, pers. comm.,
1991). Project WILD (Wilderness is the Last Dream) of
the Western Canada Wilderness Committee, is an
initiative to map all remaining wild areas, both nationally
and internationally (I. Parfitt, pers. comm., 1992).

The Federal Provincial/Territorial Parks Council
includes representation from each of the thirteen senior
governments in the country, and coordinates information
exchange activities between the national, provincial and
territorial park agencies. Further, a classification system
has been devised for the over 2,000 parks listed by the
Council. This classification system is separate from, but
overlaps considerably with the National Conservation
Areas Data Base (A.M. Turner, pers. comm., 1992).

The Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA) is
an incorporated, nonprofit, independent national forum
established in 1982 to encourage the selection,
protection and stewardship of a comprehensive system
of ecological areas. These areas are developed on the
basis of representation and integrity, and are managed
to the highest standard of ecological protection
(CCEA, 1992). The CCEA, whose collective goal is the
achievement of a nationwide network of ecological
areas, is currently exploring ways to assess the extent to
which the different ecoregions in Canada are represented
by existing protected areas, to provide guidelines for the
planning, management and research into ecological
reserves, is looking into issues associated with marine
protected areas, and recently completed a
comprehensive document, the National Registry of
Ecological Areas in Canada (Francis, 1991; Gray and
Rubec, 1989). The CCEA is the successor to the earlier
International Biological Programme (IBP-CT) in
Canada. It draws its membership from federal,
provincial and territorial governments, NGOs,
universities and private citizens.

Provincial administration and management
Administration and management of areas designated
under provincial legislation comes under the jurisdiction
of the provincial governments themselves. Currently, the
various provincial/territorial protected area
administrations comprise the following:

Alberta Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation,
Ministry of Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Natural and
Protected Areas Branch, Department of Forestry, Lands
and Wildlife, Ministry of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife;
Department of Culture and Multiculturalism;

British Columbia BC Parks, Ministry of Environment,
Lands and Parks (formally Environment and Parks);
Department of Forests, Ministry of Forests;

Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas Branch, Manitoba
Natural Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources;

New Brunswick Department of Recreation and
Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and
Energy;

Newfoundland and Labrador Parks Division,
Department of Tourism and Culture;

Northwest Territories Department of Economic
Development and Tourism, Ministry of Economic
Development and Tourism; Department of Renewable
Resources, Ministry of Renewable Resources;

Nova Scotia Parks and Recreation Division,
Department of Natural Resources (formerly Lands and
Forests), Ministry of Natural Resources; Department of
Education, Ministry of Education;

Ontario Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy
Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources;

Canada

Quebec Direction générale des parcs et des territoires
fauniques, Ministére Loisir, Chasse et Péche; Direction
générale de la conservation et du patrimoine écologique,
Ministére de l’Environnement;

Prince Edward Island Parks Division, Department of
Tourism, Parks and Recreation (formerly Transportation
and Public Works), Ministry of Tourism, Parks and
Recreation; Department of Conservation and Planning,
Ministry of Environment;

Saskatchewan Parks Branch, Department of Natural
Resources (formerly Parks, Recreation and Culture),
Ministry of Saskatchewan Natural Resources; and

Yukon Territories Parks and Outdoor Recreation
Branch, Department of Renewable Resources, Ministry
of Renewable Resources (A. Hackman, pers. comm.,
1992).

Further, nature reserves are managed by the Island
Nature Trust in cooperation with the provincial
government in Prince Edward Island (C.D.A. Rubec,
pers. comm., 1992; A.M. Turner, pers. comm., 1992).
Below the provincial level, the management of protected
areas becomes complex in a number of provinces. In
Ontario, for example, there are 38 Conservation
Authorities which own more than 155,000ha of land and
water, and administer a total of 303 conservation areas
(Taschereau, 1985). In addition, advisory/wildlife
committees have been provided for in most provincial
legislation throughout the country. These committees
make recommendations regarding the establishment of
protected areas in the respective provinces and
regulations for their management and use.

A breakdown of provincial ownership of protected areas
includes: Quebec which is responsible for 16.0 million
ha (21.7%); Ontario with 7.47 million ha (10.1%);
British Columbia, 5.81 million ha (8.0%); Manitoba,
4.6 million ha (6.2%); Saskatchewan, 0.97 million ha
(1.3%); Alberta, 0.80 million ha (1.1%);
Newfoundland, 0.51 million ha (%); New Brunswick,
0.34 million ha; Nova Scotia, 0.15 million ha; Prince
Edward Island, 0.027 million ha; Northwest
Territories, 3.1 million ha; and the Yukon, 0.90 million
ha (Turner, et al., 1991; C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992).
In some cases, these figures include protected areas
managed jointly by various governments, for example,
in both the Northwest Territories and the Yukon. Other
estimates of provincial ownership include: Ontario with
6.3 million ha (6% of total provincial area) contained
within 261 provincial parks; Prince Edward Island with
6,000ha; New Brunswick with .023 million ha; Quebec
with 0.5 million ha; British Columbia with 4.6 to
5.8 million ha; Alberta with around 0.7 million ha;
Saskatchewan with 1.4 to 2.8 million ha; Manitoba with
.06 to 6.6 million ha; and Nova Scotia with .005 to .16
million ha. These estimates vary depending on the
definition of a protected area (MNR, 1992b; C. Stewart,
pers. comm., 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Non-government involvement in protected areas is of
great significance. Currently, there are about 200
conservation groups, many of which are significant
protected area landowners (Finkelstein, 1992). In the
early 1990s, Ducks Unlimited (DU) was responsible for
3.9% of the total protected area coverage in Canada, with
an estimated 2.9 million ha. The Nature Conservancy of
Canada was responsible for 424 nature preserves
protecting over 32,400ha, Wildlife Habitat Canada for
over 15,000ha, the Nature Trust of British Columbia for
11,583ha, the Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation for
9,300 ha, the Manitoba Wildlife Federation for 8,000ha
and the Federation of Ontario Naturalists for 530ha
(Hilts, 1989; Turner, et al., 1991; D. Thompson, pers.
comm., 1992). Currently, data is being compiled for over
40 NGOs responsible for some 10,000 sites across the
country (A.M. Turner, pers. comm, 1992).

The Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC) is a private,
non-profit organisation established in 1961, which is
dedicated to preserving biological diversity through the
protection of wildlife habitat, natural communities and
ecosystems. The NCC has an independent board of
trustees drawn from conservation-minded business and
professional people and scientists, many of whom have
been associated with other conservation organisations. It
is funded by individuals, corporations, and foundation
donations, and is the only national organisation
dedicated to buying and preserving the best of Canada’s
natural land (NCC, 1991).

A long-term goal of the NCC has been to secure some
form of protection for current priority sites (some of
which may also have been identified during the
International Biological Programme (IBP)) representing
samples of significant ecosystems. Toward this end, the
Conservancy is providing funds and legal assistance to
help evaluate and purchase important sites identified on
private land. The NCC maintains a short list of priority
sites for each province, compiled in consultation with
ecological reserves and provincial parks staff,
academics, and others. Sites on Crown lands are not
included because governments alone can presumably
decide on their fate. Sites on the list are either entirely
privately owned (often by many individual owners), or
have a substantial component of private ownership. The
NCC can often move reasonably quickly to purchase
properties when they become available on the market
(G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Traditionally, the
Conservancy’s principal operating technique has been
direct or indirect outright land acquisition with
subsequent transfer of sites to public ownership for
maintenance and preservation as a part of Canada’s
natural heritage (in the form of nature preserves, parks,
conservation areas and ecological reserves). In recent
times, however, the Conservancy has itself acquired,
maintained and operated a number of specific sites, and
increasingly, land is being donated to the NCC (NCC,
1991; C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Conservation of
Canada’s great swamps is currently one of NCC’s top

priorities, and the organisation publishes the newsletter
The Ark twice yearly.

In 1988, the Nature Conservancy of Canada and The
Nature Conservancy (TNC US) formed a partnership for
the introduction of Conservation Data Centres in
Canada, using the software design and protocols for the
databases developed by TNC for each of the states in the
US (Taschereau, 1985; D. Thompson and G. Francis,
pers. comm., 1992). Conservation Data Centres have
now been established in Quebec, Saskatchewan and
British Columbia, while discussions are at the contract
stage in Ontario. These databases offer many
advantages, including data exchange capabilities, and
the provision of information on the status and
distribution of rare and endangered species, natural
communities, and other special ecological features.

Wildlife Habitat Canada plays a similar role to that of
the Nature Conservancy of Canada, although it
emphasises direct private-stewardship programmes
rather than acquisition projects (Hummel, 1989). These
programmes arrange some form of protective
conservation agreement with landowners, while leaving
the natural habitat itself in private ownership.

The Canadian Nature Federation (CNF) is a national,
non-profit organisation representing provincial
naturalists’ federations, local societies and individuals.
Evolving out of the Canadian Audubon Society in 1971,
it speaks for approximately 20,000 members through its
Ottawa office and executive representatives across the
country.

The Federation has long been concerned with the
establishment of national and provincial parks and
ecological reserves, and their long-term management. Its
national magazine, Nature Canada, has successfully
drawn national attention over the years to the need to
preserve such critical areas as South Moresby
Wilderness Archipelago, Grasslands National Park, the
muskoxen of Banks Island, and the north slope of the
Yukon, home to one of the world’s largest caribou herds.
Federation priorities for parks and protected areas are set
through its Environmental Advisory Committee. The
Federation is currently working to accelerate action by
the federal government to complete the national parks
system by the year 2000, and the national marine parks
system by 2010. CNF is also promoting government
action to expand its national wildlife areas and migratory
bird sanctuaries. Its particular focus is on the need to
establish new national parks in the Northwest
Territories, British Columbia and Quebec. It is also
involved in an international campaign to protect the
Tatshenshini-Alsek Rivers in north-western British
Columbia. The Federation is working to promote an
ecosystem management approach through revisions to
the government’s national parks policy, and in specific
parks such as Wood Buffalo, Pacific Rim, Fundy and
Pukaskwa (K. McNamee, pers. comm., 1992).

The Canadian Institute of Forestry has established a
Natural Areas Committee. In 1972, the Committee set
forth a policy for selection, protection and management
of natural areas. It recommended that representative
examples of significant forest types across the country
be protected in a network of reserves. These reserves
would serve for non-destructive observational research,
and would help to conserve the genetic stock of
commercially valuable forest trees and their related
vegetation and animals. The Committee serves only in
an advisory capacity, but has greatly assisted the
movement to establish ecological reserves. The
Committee maintains a registry of forested natural areas
which are legally protected and advocates the
development of a national system of reserves
(Taschereau, 1985).

The Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS),
formerly the National and Provincial Parks Association
of Canada (NPPAC), is a national, non-profit, 14,000
member/supporter organisation established in 1963. Its
purpose is the protection of natural ecosystems in parks,
wilderness and similar natural areas to preserve the full
diversity of habitats and their species. Through its nine
chapters across Canada, it promotes awareness of
ecological principles, and the inherent values of
wilderness through education, appreciation and
experience. Whether working cooperatively or
encouraging individual action, the Society envisages a
healthy ecosphere where people experience and respect
natural ecosystems. The Society publishes Borealis
(called Park News prior to 1988), a full colour quarterly
magazine that examines nature, environmental and
ecological issues in the Canadian context. The Society
regularly holds public meetings, and lectures, and it
publishes books. Members and trustees regularly attend
environmental hearings, meet with government and
elected officials and parks officials across Canada.
Currently, the Society is involved nationally in
promoting the Endangered Spaces Campaign that seeks
the protection of 12% of Canada to protect representative
ecosystems in every region. In recent years, the Society
has worked for and secured the creation of national parks
on South Moresby Island, in Northern Yukon, the
Grasslands, Bruce Peninsula and many other areas. A
new focus is the development of programmes that seek
cooperation in protecting core wilderness areas by
protecting or simply better managing lands surrounding
important sites such as the Waterton/Glacier International
Peace Parks in southern Alberta (D. Dodge, pers. comm.,
1992).

In 1989, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF-Canada)
launched the Endangered Spaces Campaign, ‘to
conserve Canada’s biological diversity by
protecting a representative sample of each of the
country’s 350 natural regions by the year 2000’, adding
up to at least 12% of Canada’s lands and waters
(WWF, 1991). It has targeted priority areas for the
establishment of additional protected areas. More than 250
groups are now cooperating in the Endangered Spaces

Canada

Campaign, and the Canadian Wilderness Charter
has been signed by more than 500,000 individuals
(WWF, 1992; A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992).
WWF-Canada is also involved in numerous regional
conservation programmes made up of many
sub-projects. Examples include the "Carolinian Canada
program” , initiated in 1984, which focuses on the
endangered flora and fauna of the most southerly areas
of Ontario, and consists of over 30 projects supervised
by a steering committee made up of representatives of
federal and provincial governments, foresters,
naturalists, academics and citizens groups. WWF-
Canada has also created the Prairie Conservation Action
Plan. One objective of this plan is to establish protected
areas that represent each of the four distinctive prairie
grassland ecosystems (WWF, 1989).

Ducks Unlimited (Canada) is a private, nonprofit
conservation organisation dedicated to perpetuating and
increasing North America’s waterfowl by preserving,
restoring and creating breeding habitats. Founded in
1938, it now has offices in eastern, western and central
Canada, and board members representing all regions. It
employs about 400 regular personnel and about 150
additional individuals during the summer, including
university students working on research projects. Ducks
Unlimited (Canada) is the single largest conservation
organisation in the country in terms of on-the-ground
habitat programmes, and over 60% of its members are
non-hunters dedicated to these programmes (C.D.A.
Rubec, pers. comm., 1992). Contributions come mainly
from the United States (C$ 24 million in 1981), but also
partly from Canada (about C$ 1 million was raised in
1981). During the past few years, Ducks Unlimited has
expanded its staff of biologists, and broadened its
mandate to include a larger concern for habitat
preservation rather than merely waterfowl production.

One of the most notable developments has been the
growth in public awareness of environmental issues,
including those of the North. Evidence of this can be seen
in the interest and involvement of people in the Polar
Bear Pass issue, and in the formation of public interest
groups such as the Canadian Arctic Resources
Committee (CARC). Organisations such as CARC not
only keep the public informed about northern
developments, but also keep the responsible government
officials alert.

Training in protected areas is generally available at
universities in field-oriented natural sciences relevant to
park management, if not in park management as a
separate discipline.

Management constraints are centred around pressures to
keep land open for alternate resource development,
actions which have damaged existing protected areas
and restricted and slowed further reserve and park
establishment. For example, of 1,349 provincial/
territorial parks only a small percentage are reserved,
with no logging, mining or hydro development
(WWF, 1992). Management of renewable resources has

Protected Areas of the World

been, and continues to be, the most controversial issue
in many areas, most notably in the west and north. To
assist management, there is a need for active long-range
management and monitoring programmes, greater
cooperation with agencies involved in land management
beyond protected area boundaries, and the establishment
of buffer zones between protected areas and adjacent
unprotected lands (Bonnicksen, 1988). Research into
natural ecosystems to assist protected areas management
is also a priority.

The small size of so many existing reserves is also an
area of concern (Taschereau, 1985). It has been
estimated that over 80% of the most highly protected
areas (IUCN categories I and II) are less than 1,000ha in
size, and that of the total of 2,827 protected areas in
TUCN categories I-V, about half are less than 100ha in
size (Turner, et al., 1991). About 61% (1,737) of
protected areas are strictly protected (IUCN
categories I and II) (Government of Canada, 1991).
Another constraint is lack of funds and a cutting back,
on the part of the Government, of support for regular
operations which could have implications for
implementation of Canada’s Green Plan.

Systems Reviews Canada is bounded to the south by
the USA, to the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska
(USA), to the east by the Labrador Sea and Atlantic
Ocean, to the northeast by Baffin Bay, to the northwest
by the Beaufort Sea, and to the north by the Arctic Ocean.
The climate ranges from polar conditions in the north to
cool temperate in ‘he south, but with considerable
variation between east and west coasts and the interior.
Mediterranean conditions are experienced on the east
coast of Vancouver Island.

The 39 natural regions (terrestrial) defined by the
Canadian Parks Service are broadly divided into:
Westem mountains; interior plains; Canadian shield;
Hudson Bay lowlands; St Lawrence lowlands;
Appalachians; Arctic lowlands; and High Arctic islands.
Vegetation ranges from: Arctic tundra, north of the tree
line; Alpine tundra on western mountains above the tree
line (900-2500m); coniferous forest, covering about
three-quarters of Canada, dominated by white spruce and
black spruce extending from Newfoundland to Alaska;
a complex assemblage of sub-Alpine, montane and
coastal coniferous forest in British Columbia; grassland
prairie of various types in a narrow band across central
and western Canada; between the prairie and coniferous
forest in the centre, a transition zone characterised by
trembling aspen; between the coniferous forest and the
tundra, transitional Taiga, characterised by open spruce
woodlands with lichen ground cover; and in eastern
Canada, around the Great Lakes region, mainly
deciduous forest predominated by maple, oaks and
conifers (Davis et al., 1986; Skoggan, 1978/ 1979).
Wetland ecosystems occupy about 14% of the country,
but are disappearing rapidly in a number of locations.
For example, it is estimated that more than 75% of the
original wetlands of southern Ontario have already been
lost (Government of Ontario, 1992).

There are about 3,269 native species of vascular plants
and about 884 introduced species. Pleistocene refugia
exist on northern Ellesmere Island, central and northern
Yukon, the mountains of Labrador and the Gaspé
Peninsula of Quebec, the eastern coastal plain, and the
Queen Charlotte Islands of British Columbia. The most
floristically diverse regions are southern British
Columbia and southwestern Ontario. A rare plants
project, conducted by Argus et al. (1990) from the
National Museum of Nature in Ottawa, has provided lists
and information on some 1,010 vascular plant taxa that
are considered to be nationally rare in Canada. The
project, which is nearing completion, provides
provincial lists of rare plants and is available to the
provincial Conservation Data Centres (Argus and Prior,
1990; G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992).

The first protected areas were based on recreational
areas, including Point Pleasant Park, Halifax in 1866,
Mount Royal Park, Montreal in 1872, and subsequently
High Park, Toronto in 1873, Banff National Park,
Alberta in 1885, and Stanley Park, Vancouver in 1888.
Early national parks in both eastern and western Canada
were established for a variety of reasons, including: their
establishment as wilderness areas remote from
population centres; to preserve outstanding scenic areas
for outdoor recreation and tourism; for preserving
outstanding geology, plant and animal populations; to
protect wildlife habitat for hunting purposes; to preserve
bison herds (western Canada); and, in the case of Banff
(Rocky Mountain National Park), to keep a hot spring in
public hands (Government of Canada, 1991). In
addition, the location of national parks was influenced
by economic conditions and political circumstances of
the time. In the early period, grazing, lumbering and
mining were allowed within national parks.

Within a decade of its establishment, Banff was enlarged
and three other national units added (Waugh and Perez
Gil, 1992). Between 1885 and 1929, 15 national parks
were established (Hummel, 1989). Ontario’s first
national park (Point Pelee, 1906) was established to
preserve duck habitat for hunters, and it was not until
1936 that the Maritimes’ first national park was created.
The first two national parks (La Maurice and Forillon)
in Quebec were established in 1970 from provincial
parks which had either been sold or leased to the
federal government (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992).

In 1923, the first opposition to industrial development in
parks took place, with the formation of the Canadian
National Parks Association to oppose a dam in Banff
National Park. The government approved the dam, and
reduced the size of the park to exclude the reservoir from
the park boundaries. In 1930, the government passed a
National Parks Act prohibiting certain activities within
national parks. Federal policy here diverged from that of
provincial parks which often tried to meet the needs of
both resource extraction and conservation (Environment
Canada, 1991; Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). By the
1960s, an organised set of principles was applied to park
management, and a sense of a parks system emerged. In

1967, the policy was to eliminate as quickly as possible
all exploitative human activities from new national
parks, a policy sometimes proven to be unworkable or
undesirable. By 1970, a total of 19 national parks had
been established, and with the publication of the
National Parks Systems Plan (1971), a long-term goal
for national parks began to develop (Finkelstein, 1992).
In the 1970s, public participation in planning was
introduced, the traditional rights of aboriginal groups
were recognised, and land was purchased directly for
new parks. Growth of the national park system continued
under the system plan of the 1980s, and innovative
arrangements continue, especially in the establishment
of parks under native land-claim agreements, and in the
planning for a system of marine protected areas.
Northern Yukon National Park (1984) represented the
first national park in Canada to be negotiated through a
native land claim settlement (Finkelstein, 1992).

In the Canadian north, reserves were established as early
as 1894 to protect game for native hunters, and by 1938,
1.35 million sq. km or over one-third of the Northwest
Territories had been reserved. From 1948, this was cut
back to the present coverage (Kovacs, 1985). Last
Mountain Lake (migratory bird sanctuary and national
wildlife area), Saskatchewan, was created in 1887 and is
North America’s oldest wildlife refuge, while the first
established provincial park was Algonquin (1893) in
Ontario. The WWF-Canada publication Endangered
spaces: The future for Canada’ s wilderness provides an
excellent overview of the development of
provincial/territorial protected area systems, and on
areas of current priority concern, worthy of protected
areas status (Hummel, 1989).

Overall, the growth of the protected areas system is such
that between 1900 and 1930 an average of 1.7 protected
areas were created per year, between 1930 and 1960,
13 sites were established per year, and since 1961, the
yearly average has been 77 sites. Quebec, Yukon and
Alberta all have 8% or more protected, while, in contrast,
Newfoundland/Labrador, and Saskatchewan each have
about 3% of their total respective areas protected
(Turner, et al., 1991).

As of 1991, there were a total of 2,945 conservation sites
(IUCN categories I-V) owned or managed by various
government levels, amounting to some 70.8 million ha,
representing 7.1% of the country’s area, or 12.5% of
the world’s protected areas. Added to this is another
3.2 million ha held by non-governmental
organisations and private groups, bringing the total
coverage to about 74 million ha or 7.4% of total area
(Turner, et al., 1991). About 4.6% of this is, however,
"highly" protected according to WWF’s standard
(WWF, 1992). In 1991, major federal contributions
included national parks and migratory bird sanctuaries
accounting for some 42% (by area) of government
managed sites. Provincial wildlife management areas
occupied almost 30% of all protected areas, and
provincial parks accounted for another 22%. There were
34 national parks covering 18,056,900ha, 101 migratory

Canada

bird sanctuaries covering 11,363,288ha, 45 national
wildlife areas covering 106,159ha, 185 wildlife
management areas covering 20,754,828ha, 56 wildlife
protection areas covering 3,429,828ha, and 62 national
capital commission areas totalling 52,165ha. In addition,
there were 1,588 provincial parks with a total of
12,373,860ha, 204 ecological reserves totalling
286,500ha, 38 wilderness areas totalling 640,493ha
and 10 nature trust areas totalling 698ha. Heritage areas of
parks, and historic areas of parks, totalled 18 at 775ha
and 55 at 15,479ha, respectively. In addition, there are
more than 7,800 cultural heritage sites in the country
(Carter, 1990).

Running between 1964 and 1974, the International
Biological Program (IBP) was established to help
countries promote long-term ecological research, and to
establish a set of relatively undisturbed protected areas
in which this kind of research could continue (Francis,
1991). Sponsored by the International Council of
Scientific Unions (ICSU), with its headquarters in Paris,
the IBP Canadian subcommittee (IBP-CT) identified and
documented about 1,300 ecological sites in the country.
The success of this subcommittee was due to the
combined energy and enthusiasm of the regional panels,
and, in some provinces, the provincial government’s
sympathetic reception of, and participation in the
programme. The entire nationwide programme,
however, was made possible by the federal government
which provided funds through the National Research
Council (Taschereau, 1985). Following the IBP-CT, and
subsequent activities of the Canadian Council on
Ecological Areas (CCEA), ecological reserves were, and
continue to be, established across the country, with
the objective of representing the major ecosystems.
To date, about 200 ecological reserves and a total of
600 ecological or equivalent reserves (e.g. nature
reserve zones in Ontario) have been created in Canada
(Taschereau, 1985; C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992).

The Canadian Heritage Rivers System (CHRS) is a
cooperative programme established in 1984 by the
federal government and the provinces. The objectives of
the CHRS are to give national recognition to important
rivers, and to ensure long-term management to conserve
their natural, historical and recreational values.
Although not afforded any special legal protection, many
heritage rivers are protected by provincial park status
(Government of Canada, 1991). The first river,
French, was designated in February 1986, and today
there are 25 heritage rivers in the system comprising
about 536,900ha (R. Maslin, pers. comm., 1992).

There are no fewer than eight private-stewardship
programmes in Canada, the objective being to arrange
some form of protective conservation agreement with
landowners while leaving natural habitat in private
ownership (Hilts, 1989). Examples include Manitoba’s
Habitat Enhancement Land-Use Program and Ontario’s
Nature Heritage Stewardship Program. Conservation
land trusts are relatively new, but there is rapidly

Protected Areas of the World

growing interest in them among conservation groups (G.
Francis, pers. comm., 1992).

The natural regions concept was first adopted in 1971 as
a basis for the systematic planning of national parks, and
was known as the National Parks System Plan. The
principle of this plan, now superseded by the
Environment Canada 1990 systems plan, was to protect
outstanding representative samples of each of Canada’s
natural landscapes (Finkelstein, 1992). Of 48 "natural
regions", the Canadian Parks Service defined 39 terrestrial
and 29 marine regions, and, following the Endangered
Spaces campaign of 1989, the goal is to represent at
least one national park in each region by the year
2000 (Government of Canada, 1991; Kun, 1981).
Currently, national parks are in 22 of 39 natural regions,
although there is either a national park or other protected
area type in 33 of the 39 natural regions (Government of
Canada, 1991). Only two marine regions currently have
federal parks within them, although others are soon to be
established. Gaps in the national parks system are
predominantly found in the Northwest Territories,
Quebec, British Columbia, Manitoba and Labrador
(Finkelstein, pers. comm., 1992). In order to complete
the national park network, it is anticipated that by the end
of 1993 potential park sites will have been selected in all
of the unrepresented natural regions.

The most recent ecological classification, the Ecological
Land Classification System, is based on identifying
ecoregions and other levels of generalisation in a natural
hierarchy: areas of the earth’s surface characterised by
distinctive ecological responses to climate,
physiography and hydrology as expressed by the
development of vegetation, soils and fauna.
Nationally, about 177 ecoregions have been
identified, and are divided into 15 less detailed
"ecozones", 45 "ecoprovinces” and 5,400 more detailed
"ecodistricts" (Rubec et al., 1992; Wiken, 1986).
Currently, 41 of the 177 ecoregions have more than
12% of their area protected, while 45 ecoregions have
no protected areas. Up to 28% of Canada’s ecoregions
have at least 8% of their area protected, and 44% have
less than 1% of their area protected (Turner, et al., 1991).
Using GIS technology, a model of ecological integrity
for each ecoregion has been developed, with ecoregions
being identified with the highest overall biodiversity
risk. Rubec et al. (1992) have identified 14 ecoregions
which are at greatest ecosystem risk to wildlife resource
biodiversity. Another 120 ecoregions have moderate risk
ratings, while 43 were identified as having low overall
risk. These ecoregions have been adopted for national
evaluation and generalised systems planning purposes
including by the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas
(CCEA) for a National Systems Plan, and most recently
by the State of Environment Reporting Service of
Environment Canada. Candidate sites with the highest
degree of risk are to receive the greatest attention.

Environment Canada has a National parks system plan,
a systems review process in place, a "Draft Action Plan
for Completing the National Parks System", and

10

anticipates completing the "National Marine Parks
System Plan" by 1993. Further, the Canadian
Environmental Advisory Council’s (CEAC) A protected
areas vision for Canada (1991) calls on Canadians to
identify and protect the complete range of representative
and unique natural areas, wilderness landscapes, wildlife
habitat, and the like, as a prerequisite to sustainable
development (CEAC, 1991; Provincial Parks and
Natural Heritage Policy Branch, 1992). As part of
CEAC’s vision, Canada has initiated a 10-year
programme to complete a network of national parks, and
a 20-year programme for marine protected areas. WWF-
Canada supports planning for an expanded protected
area system through its Endangered Spaces Program,
which facilitates public involvement in the
implementation of the Green Plan at all levels. The
Canadian Parks Services’ National parks system plan
(1990), and the government’s environmental policy are
described under the Green Plan.

The Green Plan (1990) calls for the government to: set
aside 12% of the country in protected areas; establish at
least five new national parks by 1996; negotiate
agreements for the remaining 13 parks required to
complete the terrestrial park system by 2000; establish
three new marine national parks by 1996 and an
additional three by 2000; officially designate 18 rivers
or sections of rivers to the Canadian Heritage Rivers
System; develop an enhanced resource management
programme for national parks involving applied studies
for ecological integrity and regional integration; work
with the provincial governments to establish a network
of forest ecological reserves to preserve in their natural
state the genetic stock of forest ecosystems; establish a
national wildlife habitat network, and act to protect and
conserve additional lands that are of prime importance
to the goal of preserving valuable wildlife habitat;
release in 1991 a discussion paper on a Canadian Oceans
Act, which will provide a legal basis for the designation
of marine protected areas; and work with the provinces
to develop a programme to transfer to farmers those
agricultural practices compatible with wildlife habitat
needs (Environment Canada, 1991). When completed,
the national park system will cover about 3% of the
country’s area. As of 1989, the national park system,
covering 182,000 sq. km, was considered to be about half
complete (Hummel, 1989). What is still lacking and
needed, however, is a comprehensive analysis of the
ecological health of Canada’s protected areas
(Government of Canada, 1991).

Currently, the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) is
proposing about 30 new migratory bird sanctuaries and
national wildlife areas in the Northwest Territories and
Yukon over the next six years, representing 3.7 million
ha or an additional 0.4% of land area that would come
under protected area status. Additional national wildlife
areas will be negotiated in Southern Canada; for
example, the Department of National Defence and
Environment Canada have signed an agreement that will
lead to formal designation of the Canadian Forces

Base Suffield as a National Wildlife Area by
Order-in-Council, thus protecting an area of undisturbed
natural prairie (E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). These
will complement national parks proposals for the 1990s.

Turner et al. (1991) have undertaken an initial analysis
of a systems approach to conservation. In the discussion
section, the analysis indicated that Canada still has some
way to go in achieving an ecologically representative
network of protected areas. Although 7.1% of land area
may have some degree of government protected status,
the ecological representation is widely disparate, as
nearly 60% of the total areas conserved (IUCN
categories I-V) are located in the Northwest Territories
and Quebec. Recognised gaps in protected areas
coverage include: Western mountains — Strait of
Georgia lowlands; Interior dry plateau; Northern interior
plateau and mountains; Interior plains — Manitoba
lowlands; Canadian Shield — Tundra hills; Central
tundra region; Northwestern boreal uplands; Laurentian
boreal highlands; East coast boreal region; Boreal lake
plateau; Whale river region; Northern Labrador
mountains; Ungava tundra plateau; Southampton plain;
Hudson Bay lowlands; Hudson-James lowlands; Arctic
lowlands — Western Arctic lowlands; Eastern Arctic
lowlands; High Arctic islands — Western High Arctic
region (Environment Canada, 1991). It has been
recognised that conservation efforts need to be focused
on a broader range of participants to achieve ecological
goals. For example, completion of the national parks
system will only increase the national protected areas
coverage by about 1.3%. Other agencies, therefore,
including provincial administrations, must play a
significant role to reach the national target of 12%.

At the provincial/territorial level, each and every
jurisdiction today has one or more protected areas
programme and agency, as well as a mandate to establish
new sites. Further, eleven of the thirteen jurisdictions
(one federal, 10 provincial, two territorial) are officially
committed to completing their representative protected
area systems by the year 2000, the Endangered Spaces
goal (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). For example, the
Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario, released a draft
"Natural heritage areas strategy for Ontario: Responding
to the endangered spaces challenge", as part of the
government’s commitment to completing the system of
provincial parks and natural heritage areas by the year
2000 (MINR, 1992b). When completed, another 12% of
Ontario’s lands and waters will be designated as parks
and protected areas.

Complementing this, system plans are in the process of
being formulated for each jurisdiction. As of 1989, eight
of twelve provinces and territories had park systems
plans, but a number of these had yet to be completed
(Hummel, 1989). For example, a systems plan for Nova
Scotia is due to be released in March 1993, and there has
been public discussion of systems plans in Saskatchewan
and British Columbia, respectively, that identify
candidate protected areas (CCEA, 1990). Further, the
British Columbian government is committed to

11

Canada

developing a Protected Areas Strategy (C. Stewart, pers.
comm., 1992). This Strategy is a single, integrated
process for coordinating all of the province’s protected
area programmes and objectives. A component of this
Strategy is "Parks and Wilderness for the 90s", which
sets out to inventory study areas and establishes a
timetable for evaluating sites for possible designation as
provincial parks or wilderness areas. In Prince Edward
Island, the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC),
comprising representatives from each of the natural
resource and land related branches of government and
the Island Nature Trust (an NGO), was established in
1990 under the auspices of the Natural Resources
Protection Act. This committee has prepared a
Significant Environmental Areas Plan (SEAP), which
was adopted by the government in 1991, and represents
a major and systematic expansion of the province’s
protected areas network, framed by a provincial
classification of habitat zones (A. Hackman, pers.
comm., 1992). To date, 25 sites have been completely
designated, most of which are owned either by
government or the Island Nature Trust. The work of this
committee is on-going in the designation of more sites,
in approving management plans, and in advising on
Canadian Heritage Rivers in the province (G.D. Murray,
pers. comm., 1992). In New Brunswick,
recommendations from the Premier’s Round Table on
Environment and Economy included the establishment
of a system of protected areas by 1995, which will
represent the important natural features of all the
province’s biogeographic regions (WWF, 1992).

Currently, all but two jurisdictions, New Brunswick and
the Northwest Territories, have developed natural region
classifications for their ecological area programmes
(CCEA, 1992). When all 13 jurisdictional classifications
are complete, WWF-Canada has estimated that there
will be about 340 natural regions (including both
terrestrial and marine) which will collectively define
Canada’s landscapes (Peterson and Peterson, 1991).
These classifications, although slightly different
(provincially/territorially-based) from the national
ecoregion classification and still evolving, are already
providing the basis for commitments to complete
representative protected area systems in Ontario,
Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Yukon, and by the federal
government (CCEA, 1992). Currently, 87 of Canada’s
340 natural regions are now represented by protected
areas (25%), 104 natural regions are partially
represented (30%), and 149 natural regions (45%) have
as yet not been represented (WWF, 1992). WWF (1992)
contains a summary for each of the 13 major jurisdictions
in the country, indicating new protected areas
established over the past year, progress on systems
planning, actions planned for the forthcoming year, and
an assessment, based on grades, of progress made in
protecting natural regions within the respective
jurisdictions.

Threats to protected areas and their surroundings are of
critical concern, with factors ranging from degradation

Protected Areas of the World

of resources, continued resource exploitation, poaching,
proposed hydroelectric developments, adverse visitor
impacts, urban and agricultural encroachment, alteration
of water flows or groundwater levels, lack of secure land
rights, introduction of exotic plant species, and air and
water pollution. Less than half of Canada’s protected
areas are free from industrial activity or motorised
interference. Several parks, particularly in southern
Ontario and the Maritimes, have suffered significant
species losses. Wood Buffalo is threatened by changing
water levels caused by dams, disease among the bison
herd, pollution from upstream pulp mills, and, until
recently, commercial timber harvesting in the park (B.
Amos, pers. comm., 1992; A. Hackman, pers. comm.,
1992; C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992). Little remains
of the Carolinian forest of southern Ontario, prairie
grasslands, or the virgin Acadian forests of the
Maritimes. Further, west coast rain forest is being
quickly lost to clearcut logging, estimates varying from
15-50 years before no large ecologically viable or
commercially valuable areas of forest are left (R. Maslin,
pers. comm., 1992). Kejimkujik is on the IUCN List of
Threatened Protected Areas because of the impacts of
acid rain (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992).

Other Relevant Information Tourism in national
parks is monitored within reporting units. In June 1992,
the national parks received 3.96 million person-entries,
national historic sites 1.30 million person-entries, and
historic canals 0.05 million (Environment Canada,
1992). Benefits produced in 1984/85 included an
estimate of attributable visitor expenditures of Cnd$ 308
million. A realistic figure for 1990 is about Cnd$ 600
million (Mosquin BioInformation Ltd. and P.G. Whiting
and Associates, 1992). Attendance figures and income
accrued from provincial protected areas is also
significant. In Ontario, for example, more than eight
million people visited the provincial parks in 1991,
contributing an estimated Cnd$ 655 million to the
provincial economy through the purchase of goods and
services (MNR, 1992a).

A breakdown of annual park budgets (in Cnd$ 000s) in
1992 for the 13 jurisdictions are as follows: Federal —
413,586; Northwest Territories - 2,749; Yukon — 2,824;
British Columbia — 35,456; Alberta — 30,185;
Saskatchewan — 12,419; Manitoba — 13,501; Ontario —
55,989; Quebec — 16,500; Nova Scotia — 5,138; New
Brunswick — 7,232; Prince Edward Island — 3,573;
Newfoundland — 4,798, giving a national total of
603,950 (WWE, 1992).

Addresses (Federal)

Canadian Parks Service (Director General),
Environment Canada, Jules-Leger Building,
OTTAWA, Ontario KIA 0H3 (Tel: 819 997 2800;
FAX: 819 997 2443; Tlx:053 3608 parcs)

Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (Secretariat), c/o
Canadian Wildlife Service, Place Vincent Massey
Bldg., 351 St Joseph Boulevard, HULL, Quebec
K1A 0H3 (Tel: 819 953 1444)

12

Canadian Wildlife Service (Director General),
Environment Canada, Place Vincent Massey Bldg.,
351 St. Joseph Boulevard, HULL, Quebec K1A 0H3
(Tel: 819 953 1444/1421; FAX: 819 953 6283)

State of the Environment Reporting, Environment
Canada, OTTAWA, Ontario K1A 0H3

Non Government Organisations (national)

Canadian Nature Federation, 453 Sussex Drive,
OTTAWA, Ontario KIN 6ZA (Tel: 613 238 6154;
FAX: 613 230 2054)

Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, Suite 1335, 160
Bloor Street East, TORONTO, Ontario M4W 1B9
(Tel: 416 972 0868)

Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1673 Carling Avenue,
OTTAWA, Ontario K2A 3Z1 (Tel: 613 725 2191)

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 1190 Waverley Street,
WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3T 2E2

Nature Conservancy of Canada, 110 Eglinton Ave. West,
TORONTO, Ontario M4R 1A3 (Tel: 416 469 1701;
FAX: 416 469 1493)

Western Canada Wilderness Committee (Project
WILD), 20 Water Street, Vancouver, BC, V6B 1A4
(Tel: 604 683 8220; FAX: 604 683 8229)

Wildlife Habitat Canada, Suite 301, 1704 Carling Avenue,
OTTAWA, Ontario K2A 1C7 (Tel: 613 722 2090)
World Wildlife Fund (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue
E., Suite 504, TORONTO, Ontario M4P 2Z7

(Tel: 416 489 8800; FAX: 416 489 3611)

Provincial

Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation
(Director), Ministry of Tourism, Parks and
Recreation, Standard Life Centre, 10405
Jasper Avenue, EDMONTON, Alberta T5J
3N4 (Tel: 403 427 6781; FAX: 403 427 5980)

Natural and Protected Areas Branch (Manager),
Department of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife, c/o
Ministry of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife, 408
Legislative Building, EDMONTON, Alberta
T5K 2B6 (Tel: 403 427 3674)

Alberta Wilderness Association, Box 6398, Station D,
CALGARY, Alberta T2P 2E1 (Tel: 403 283 2025)

BC Parks (Director), Ministry of Environment, Lands
and Parks, 2nd Floor, 800 Johnson Street,
VICTORIA, BC V8V 1X4 (Tel: 604 387 5002;
FAX: 604 387 5757)

Recreation Branch (Director), Department of
Forests, c/o Ministry of Forests, Rm 128,
Parliament Buildings, VICTORIA, BC, V8V
1X4 (604 387 6240)

Friends of Ecological Reserves, Box 1721, Station E,
VICTORIA, BC V8W 2Y1 (Tel: 604 731 6716)
Parks and Natural Areas Branch (Director), Manitoba
Natural Resources, 258 Portage Street, 4th Floor,
WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3C 1K2 (Tel: 204 945 4362)

Manitoba Naturalists Society, 302128 James Avenue,
WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3B ON8

Department of Recreation and Environment (Director),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy, PO Box
6000, FREDERICTON, New Brunswick E3B 5H1
(Tel: 506 453 2510)

Conservation Council of New Brunswick, 180 St John
Street, FREDERICTON, New Brunswick E3B 4A9
(Tel: 506 458 8747)

Parks Division (Director), Department of Tourism and
Culture, PO Box 8700, ST JOHN’S, Newfoundland
AIB 4J6 (Tel: 709 729 0657)

Protected Areas Association (of Newfoundland and
Labrador), PO Box 1027, Stn C, ST. JOHN’S,
Newfoundland A1C 5M5

Department of Economic Development and Tourism
(Deputy Minister), Government of the Northwest
Territories, PO Box 1320, YELLOWKNIFE,
Northwest Territories XIA 2L9 (Tel: 403 873 7962)

Department of Renewable Resources (Deputy Minister),
PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories
X1A 2L9 (Tel: 403 873 7128)

Parks and Recreation Division (Director), Department of
Natural Resources, R.R. No. 1 Belmont, Colchester
County, Nova Scotia BOM 1CO (Tel: 902 662 3030;
FAX: 902 662 2160)

Department of Education (Director), Ministry of
Education, PO Box 578, HALIFAX, Nova Scotia
B3J 2S9 (Tel: 902 424 7343)

Nova Scotia Museum (Curator of Special Places),
c/o Department of Education, PO Box 578,
HALIFAX, Nova Scotia B3J 2S9

Federation of Nova Scotia Naturalists, c/o 1747
Summer Street, HALIFAX, Nova Scotia B3H 3A6
(Tel: 902 466 7168)

Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch
(Director), Ministry of Natural Resources, Whitney
Block, Queens Park, 99 Wellesley Street West,
TORONTO, Ontario M7A 1W3 (Tel: 416 314 2301)

Federation of Ontario Naturalists, 385 Lesmill Rd., Don
Mills, Ontario M3B 2W8 (Tel: 416 444 8411)

Parks Division (Director), Department of Tourism,
Parks and Recreation, PO Box 2000,
CHARLOTTETOWN, Prince Edward Island C1A
TN8 (Tel: 902 368 5500/5511; FAX: 902 368 5737:
Tlx: 01444154)

Department of Conservation and Planning (Director),
Ministry of Environment, PO Box 2000,
CHARLOTTETOWN, Prince Edward Island C1A
TN8 (Tel: 902 368 5340)

Island Nature Trust, PO Box 265, CHARLOTTETOWN,
Prince Edward Island (Tel: 902 892 7513)

Direction générale des parcs et des térritoires fauniques
(Directeur de l’aménagement), Ministére Loisir,
Chasse et Péche, 150 Boulevard StCyrille est,
QUEBEC, Québec GIR 4Y1 (Tel: 418 643 6527)

Direction générale de la conservation et du
patrimoine écologique (Directeur),
Ministére de 1’Environnement, 3900 rue de
Marly, 6 étage, SAINTFOY, Québec G1X 4E4
(Tel: 418 643 8259)

13

Canada

Fondation pour la sauvegarde des espéces menacées
(FOSEM), 8191 Avenue du Zoo, CHARLESBOURG,
Quebec G1G 4G4 (Tel: 418 622 0313)

Union québécoise pour la conservation de la nature,
160 76th Street East, CHARLESBOURG, Quebec
G1W 2G5 (Tel: 418 628 9600)

Parks Branch (Director), Department of Natural
Resources, 3211 Albert Street, REGINA,
Saskatchewan S4S 5W6 (Tel: 306 787 2854)

Saskatchewan Natural History Society, PO Box 4348,
REGINA, Saskatchewan S4P 3W6

Parks and Outdoor Recreation Branch (Director),
Department of Renewable Resources, Yukon
Government Services, PO Box 2703,
WHITEHORSE, Yukon Territory YIA 2C6
(Tel: 403 667 5811/5802; FAX: 403 667 2958/
3518; Tlx: 0368466)

Yukon Conservation Society, Box 4163, WHITEHORSE,
Yukon Y1A 3T3 (Tel: 403 668 5678)

References

Anon (1990). Igalirtuug: A conservation proposal for
Bowhead whales at Isabella Bay, Baffin Island,
NWT. Prepared by the Community of Clyde River,
NWT. 19 pp.

Argus, G.W. and Prior, K.M. (1990). Rare vascular
plants in Canada: Our natural heritage.
(Unseen)

Beardmore, R.M. (1985). Atlantic Canada’s
Natural Heritage Areas. Canadian Government
Publishing Centre, Supply and Services, Ottawa.
94 pp.

Bonnicksen, T. (1988). Standards of naturalness:
the national parks management challenge.
Landscape Architecture 78(2):134.

Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists
(1987). Conservation Strategies in Canada.
Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists,
Toronto, Ontario. 106 pp. (Unseen)

Carter, M. (1990). The state of protection of cultural
resources in the environment. Prepared for
Environment Canada, Canadian Parks Service.
Unpublished. (Unseen)

CCEA (1990). Report of the biennium: 1988-1990.
Canadian Council on Ecological Areas, Ottawa,
Ontario. 11 pp.

CCEA (1992). Canadian Council on Ecological
Areas framework for developing a
nation-wide system of ecological areas: Part 1
—a strategy. CCEA, Ottawa, Ontario. Pp. 1-26.

CEAC (1991). A protected areas vision for
Canada. Canadian Environmental Advisory
Council, Ottawa, Ontario. 88 pp.

CSEB (1987). Conservation strategies in Canada.
CSEB Newsletter/Bulletin 44:2. Canadian
Society of Environmental Biologists, Toronto.
106 pp.

Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and
Zantovska, J. [UCN (1986). Plants in Danger: What do

Protected Areas of the World

we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. Pp. 58-61.

Department of Natural Resources (1985). A system plan
for Manitoba’ s provincial parks — Technical report.
Planning section, Parks Branch, Department of
Natural Resources, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 63 pp.

Eidsvik, H.E. (1989). Canada in a global contet.
In: Hummel, M. (Ed.), Endangered spaces: the
future for Canada’s wilderness. Key Porter Books,
Toronto.

Environment Canada (1986). National marine parks
policy, September 26. Parks Service. Queens Printer,
Ottawa. (Unseen)

Environment Canada (1990). National parks system
plan. Minister of Supply and Services, Ottawa,
Ontario. 110 pp.

Environment Canada (1991). State of the Parks Report
1990 (Canada’s Green Plan). 2 volumes. Canadian
Parks Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa.

Environment Canada (1992). Canadian Parks Service
monthly attendance — June 1992. Canadian Parks
Service, Ottawa. 20 pp.

Finkelstein, M. (1992). National park dreams.
In: Borealis 3(2)10: 32-42.

Fisheries and Ocean Canada (1987). Canadian Arctic
Marine Conservation Strategy. Supply and Services
Canada, Ottawa. (Unseen)

Francis, G. (1991). Joint session of the CCEA and the
FPPC "Fostering participatory stewardship"
— Panel presentation. Campbell River, British
Columbia, 13 September 1991. 6 pp.

Government of Canada (1991). The state of Canada’s
Environment. Chapter 7, Protected areas.

Government of Ontario (1992). Province to protect
Ontario’s wetlands under planning act. News release
communiqué — June 24, 1992. 2 pp.

Gray, P.A. and Rubec, C.D.A. (1989). National Registry
of Ecological Areas in Canada. Secretariat, Canada
Council on Ecological Areas, Ottawa, Ontario.

Griffiths-Muecke Associates (1982). Special places in
Nova Scotia: History and context. The Nova Scotia
Museum, Halifax. 45 pp.

Harris, B. (1988). Canada’s National Parks. Bramley
Books, Colour Library Books Ltd, Godalming,
England. 256 pp. (Unseen)

Hilts, S. (1989). Private stewardship. In: Hummel,
M. (Ed.), Endangered spaces, the future for
Canada's Wilderness. Key Porter Books Ltd.,
Toronto. Pp. 99-106.

Hummel, M. (Ed.) (1989). Endangered Spaces, the
future for Canada's Wilderness. Key Porter Books,
Toronto. 288 pp.

Hunter, B. (Ed.) (1991). The statesman’s yearbook —
128th edition: 19911992. The MacMillan Press Ltd.,
London. Pp. 271-335.

IAND (1972). National Parks System Planning Manual.
National and Historic Parks Branch. Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, Canada. 138 pp.
(Unseen)

IUCN East European Programme (1989). Public
Intervention in Pollution Aspects of Transboundary

14

watercourses and international lakes; European and
North American case studies. IUCN Background
Paper for Meeting on the Protection of the
Environment Conference on Security and
Cooperation in europe. IUCN East European
Programme, Cambridge, UK. 24 pp.

Kovacs, T. (1985). National Overview for Canada on
National Parks and Protected Areas in the Arctic.
In: Nelson, J.G. and Needham, R. (Eds), Arctic
Heritage: the proceedings of a Symposium.
Association of Canadian Universities for Northern
Studies, Ottawa. Pp. 530-536. (Unseen).

Kun, S. (1981). An Overview of Canada’s National
Parks. Paper presented to the 16th international
seminar on national parks and equivalent reserves.
Jasper National Park, 5 August. 17 pp.

Mosquin BioInformation Ltd. and P.G. Whiting and
Associates (1992). Canada country study of
biodiversity: Taxanomic and ecological census,
economic benefits, conservation costs and unmet
needs. Ottawa, Ontario. 250 pp.

MNR (1992a). Class environmental assessment for
provincial park management. Special report number
one: an invitation to participate. Ministry of Natural
Resources, Huntsville, Ontario. 17 pp.

MNR (1992b). A natural heritage areas strategy for
Ontario: Responding to the endangered spaces
challenge. Draft. Provincial Parks and Natural
Heritage Policy Branch, Ministry of Natural
Resources, Ontario. 29 pp.

Nature Conservancy of Canada (n.d.). Minister of
Environment’s Task Force on Park Establishment.
Parks 2000 — vision for the 21st Century. (Unseen)

NCC (1991). The Nature Conservancy of Canada:
1991 Annual report. The National Conservancy of
Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 17 pp.

Ontario Wildlife Working Group (1991). Looking
ahead: a wild life strategy for Ontario. Publications
Ontario, Toronto, Ontario. 172 pp.

Peterson, E.B. and Peterson, N.M. (1991). A first
approximation of principles and criteria to make
Canada’s protected area systems representative of
the nation’s ecological diversity. Prepared for the
Canadian Council on Ecological Areas as an
Occasional Paper. Western Ecological Services Ltd.,
Victoria, B.C. 47 pp.

Rubec, C.D.A., Turner, A., Chartrand, N., and Wiken,
E.B. (1990). Conserving Canadian Ecosystems: a
systems approach. Canadian Council on Ecological
Areas Occasional Paper 10: 52-75.

Rubec, C.D.A., Turner, A., and Wiken, E.B. (1992).
Integrated planning for protected areas and
biodiversity assessment in Canada. Proceedings of
the 3rd National Workshop of the Canadian Society
for Landscape Ecology and Management. June 1992.

Saskatchewan Parks, Recreation and Culture (n.d.).
Saskatchewan parks: The choice is yours!
Communications Branch, Regina, Saskatchewan.

Scoggan, H.J. (1978/1979). The Flora of Canada.
4 volumes. National Museum of Natural Sciences,
Ottawa.

Taschereau, P.M. (1985). The Status of Ecological
Reserves in Canada. Canadian Council on
Ecological Areas and the Institute for Resource and
Environmental Studies, Ottawa. 120 pp.

Thompson, D. (1987). The designation of wilderness in
British Columbia. Unpublished report. 16 pp.

Turner, A.M., Rubec, C.D.A. and Wiken, E.B. (1991).
Canadian Ecosystems: a systems approach to their
conservation. In: Proceedings, International
Conference on the Science and Management of
Protected Areas (SAMPA), May 14-19 ,1991,
Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia. (in press)

Waugh, J.D. and Perez Gil, R. (1992). North America
Regional Review. Paper presented to the ITV World
Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992.

Wiken, E.B. (Ed.) (1986). Ecozones of Canada.
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26 pp.

Canada

Wiken, E.B., Rubec, C.D.A., and Ironside, G.R. (1992).
Landscape ecoregions of Canada. National Atlas of
Canada map. Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa.
(Unseen)

WWE (1989). Prairie conservation action plan —
1989-1994. World Wildlife Fund-Canada, Toronto,
Ontario.

WWE (Canada) (1990). Endangered Spaces: progress
report No. 1. World Wildlife Fund—Canada, Toronto,
Ontario. 34 pp. (Unseen)

WWE (1991). World Wildlife Fund Canada: 1991
Annual report. World Wildlife Fund—Canada,
Toronto, Ontario. 31 pp.

WWF (1991). Endangered spaces: Progress report
no. 2. World Wildlife Fund—Canada, Toronto,
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WWE (1992). Endangered spaces: Progress report
no. 3. World Wildlife Fund-Canada, Toronto,
Ontario. 42 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: National Parks Act
Date: 1930; amended 1974 and 1988, with 1992
amendments to the schedules

Briefdescription: Provides for the establishment
of national parks throughout Canada. Amendments
to the National Parks Act in 1988 made ecological
integrity of parks the principal management
objective.

Administrative authorities: Canadian Parks
Service (Parks Canada), Environment Canada

Designations:

NationalPark Act to preserve for all times, areas
which contain significant geographical, geological,
biological, historic, or scenic features as a national
heritage. Areas also established to encourage public
understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of this
natural heritage so as to leave it unimpaired for future
generations. Representative samples of natural
landscapes, seascapes and ecosystems are acquired
and maintained through the National Parks Act.
National parks are established for: health through
outdoor recreation and relaxation; heritage
preservation through conservation of exceptional
natural landscapes and their wildlife; and economic
opportunity, through tourism, generating business
enterprises in travel and other visitor services, as well
as local employment in park management, amongst
others. 1988 amendments included increased

15

firearms control; strengthened authority of park
wardens; expanded protection clauses to cover soil,
waters, rocks, fossils, minerals and air quality, as
well as the flora and wild animals already protected
under the act; and provision for the setting and
amending of fees and charges for park use.
Motorised navigation and commercial fishing are
permitted in marine national parks. Industrial
activities are prohibited in national parks.

Source: Kun (1981); Waugh and Perez Gil (1992)

Title: Migratory Birds Convention Act

Date: 1917; August 1982

Brief description: This act provides for the
establishment of migratory bird sanctuaries
throughout Canada and for enacting regulations to
control and administer such sanctuaries in order to
protect the birds, their nests and eggs.

Administrative authorites: Canadian Wildlife

Service, Environment Canada
Designations:

Migratory Bird Sanctuary Areas for the special
protection of migratory birds and their habitat. The
federal government does not always own such areas;
they can be designated by order-in-council on private
lands with the consent of the landowner. Such areas
can be deregulated should consent be revoked on the

Title:

Protected Areas of the World

part of the landowner or if the area loses its value to
migratory birds. Regulations prohibit hunting of
migratory birds or the taking of their eggs or nests.
Activities such as clearcutting or mining are not
prohibited provided they do not interfere with the
"object species”.

Sources: Government of Canada (1991); C. Stewart,
pers. comm. (1992)

Canadian Wildlife Act

Date: 1973

Brief description: Provides for national wildlife
areas and sanctuaries throughout Canada

Administrative authorities: Canadian Wildlife
Service, Environment Canada

Designations:

National Wildlife Area Such areas are owned
and managed by the Canadian Wildlife Service on
behalf of the Canadian government, and all such
areas are on federal lands. Some areas may be left
unmanaged, although others may include various
activities including: the construction of new ponds to
create breeding sites for waterfowl; trees and shrubs
may be planted as cover for birds and deer, or the
natural plant cover may be altered in other ways to
increase the food and shelter for wildlife; grain may
be planted to draw migrating birds away from
farmers’ fields; haycutting and cattlegrazing may
form part of the management programme; and
hunting may be used to control populations. Such
areas are also utilised for passive recreation and
education, and many of them have interpretive
facilities for this purpose. Limited human
interference, including hunting and farming may be
permitted. Originally established for wildlife
conservation or interpretation in respect of migratory
birds. Today, their scope includes the habitat of all
wildlife.

Source: Mosquin Bio-Information Limited and
P.G. Whiting and Associates (1992)

PROVINCIAL LEGISLATION
ALBERTA

Titles: Wilderness Areas, Ecological
Reserves and Natural Areas Act (1980);
Willmore Wilderness Park Act (1959);
Wildlife Act (1980); Forest Act; Provincial
Parks Act; Historic Resources Act; Order in
Council

Administrative authorities: Department of
Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Natural and

16

Protected Areas Branch, Department of Forestry,
Lands and Wildlife; Department of Culture and
Multiculturalism

Designations:

Ecological Reserve Throughout the country,
such areas are set aside for scientific, educational and
conservation purposes. In Alberta, such an area is set
aside where it is a representative example of a natural
ecosystem, contains rare or endangered native plants
or animals, is suitable for scientific research of
natural ecosystems, serves as an example of a
man-modified ecosystem that is recovering, or
contains unique or rare examples of natural
biological or physical features. In most provinces,
existing leases for timber removal, mineral
extraction and the like are allowed to expire or are
cancelled forthwith, although in Alberta, oil and gas
leases may be exempted. The Alberta Act is unique
in that there is a special provision which allows for
power to control land uses and activities in buffer
zones surrounding or adjacent to reserves.

Prohibited activities include: the construction,
maintenance, or operation of any public work, road,
railway, landing strip, structure or installation; travel,
except on foot; the hunting or trapping of animals, or
fishing; littering; the collecting, destroying or
removing of any plant, animal, fossil, or other object
of geological, ethnological, historical or scientific
interest, lighting or maintaining an open fire; and the
pollution of any land, water, plant or animal life,
except with the consent of the Minister.

Controlled Buffer Zone The Lieutenant
Governor in council may designate any area of public
land adjoining a wilderness area or ecological area as
acontrolled buffer zone. No person shall cause, allow
or undertake any strip mining, quarrying, or any
major water resource projects.

Natural Area _ Established to protect sensitive or
scenic public land from disturbance, and to ensure
the availability of public land in a natural state for
use by the public for recreation, education or any
other purpose.

Wilderness Area
ecological reserves

Provisions generally as for

Provincial Park
Game Bird Sanctuary
Historic Site
Recreation Area

Sources: Original legislation; Griffiths-Muecke
Associates (1982); A. Landals, pers. comm. (1992)

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Titles: Parks Act; Environmental Land Use

Act; Ecological Reserve Act, 1971; Ministry of

Lands, Parks and Housing Act; Park
(Regional) Act (1979); Heritage Conservation
Act; Forests Act; Wildlife Act; Order in
Council

Administrative authorities: BC Parks, Ministry
of Environment, Lands and Parks; Department of
Forests; Nature Trust of British Columbia

Designations:
Wildlife Management Area

Wilderness Conservancy Roadless tracts in
which ecological communities are preserved intact.
No exploitation or development, except as may be
necessary to preserve natural processes, is
permissable.

Ecological Reserve Such areas are set aside for
research, education, and serve to protect areas of
genetic diversity. Casual, non-consumptive,
non-motorised use of most reserves by the public is
allowed without a permit, while uses which could
significantly alter the natural processes are
prohibited. Hunting and fishing are prohibited.

Provincial Park Free of all commercial resource
tenures.
Marine Provincial Park

Recreation Area __ Represent transitions to parks
where preexisting tenures are accommodated. In
both provincial parks and recreation areas, it is
possible to zone nature conservancies and
wilderness.

Wilderness Area Free of commercial forest
harvesting, but open to continuous mineral
evaluation and development.

Sources: Thompson, D. (1987); D. Thompson,
pers. comm. (1992)

MANITOBA

Titles: Ecological Reserves Act (1981);
Provincial Park Lands Act (1972); Crown
Lands Act; Wildlife Act (1980); Conservation
District Act (1976); Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Parks and Natural

Areas Branch, Manitoba Natural Resources

Designations:

PROVINCIAL PARK LAND Dedicated to the
people of Manitoba and visitors to Manitoba, and
may be used by them for healthful enjoyment, and

17

Canada

for the cultural, educational and social benefits that
may be derived therefrom. Developed for: the
conservation and management of flora and fauna
therein; for the preservation of specified areas and
objects therein that are of geological, cultural,
ecological or other scientific interest; to facilitate the
use and enjoyment of outdoor recreation therein.
Most of the major provincial parks accommodate

commercial harvesting activities, including trapping,
agriculture, logging, mining, and commercial
fishing.

Provincial Natural Park
Provincial Wilderness Park
Provincial Recreation Park
Provincial Recreational Trailway
Provincial Parkway

Provincial Recreational Waterway
Provincial Heritage Park

Special Use Park

Wayside Park

Marine Park

Wildlife ManagementArea Managed to conserve
habitats and maintain wildlife populations primarily
for harvest purposes.

Ecological Reserve Any area of Crown land in
the proyince may be established as an ecological
reserve. Scientific studies are encouraged but visits
without an authorised permit are prohibited.

Source: Department of Natural Resources (1985)
NEW BRUNSWICK

Titles: Parks Act, 1982; Ecological Reserves
Act, 1976; Fish and Wildlife Act, 1980; Crown
Lands and Forests Act, 1982; Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Department of
Recreation and Environment, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Energy

Designations:

PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are divided into

seven classes:

Rest Area Designated to meet the needs of the
travelling public.

Campground Park Designed to meet the needs of
resident and non-resident campers for overnight
camping.

BeachPark Created to meet the need for suitable
bathing and swimming areas.

Recreation Park Designed to provide a full range
of activities, including picnic grounds, campgrounds
and beaches in one park.

Protected Areas of the World

Wildlife Park Established primarily to provide a
public display of animals and birds native to the
province.

Resource Park A large, multiple-use park area,
the primary function of which is to provide a large
block of land for the enjoyment of outdoor recreation
in a natural environment.

Fishing is allowed on a controlled basis, hunting and
trapping are not permitted, and the harvesting of
natural resources is allowed under controlled
supervision.

Marine Park __ Designed to preserve the natural
environment of marine and shore fauna and flora.
Areas which will be reached primarily by boat and
are to have no road access.

Ecological Reserve May be established on
private or Crown land. Regulations require that a
management plan be prepared detailing the natural
and cultural resources of each reserve and outlining
the terms of use.

No person shall hunt, fish, trap, conduct forestry,
agriculture or mining operations, conduct
exploration or boring, prospecting, levelling, or
construction work; and in general, works of a nature
that may alter any part of the terrain or of the
vegetation, and any acts of a nature that may disturb
the fauna or flora, are forbidden.

Research or any other activity carried out requires a
permit.

Wildlife Management Area

Wildlife Refuge Tend to be small and are
intended to be used in the interest of public education.

Sources: Original legislation; Beardmore (1985)
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

Titles: Wilderness and Ecological Reserves
Act, 1980; Provincial Parks Act, 1970;
Wildlife Act Wildlife Reserve Regulations,
1963; Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Parks Division,
Department of Tourism and Culture

Designations:

Ecological Reserve _ Established to protect living
organisms in their natural habitats, and for the
benefit, education, and enjoyment of present and
future generations in the province. Road and facility
construction, hydro development, mining, forestry,
and motorised transport are prohibited. Hunting,
fishing, trapping, canoeing and camping are
permitted so long as they do not threaten the natural

18

resources. Some non-conforming uses may
continue as long as they do not threaten the integrity
of the reserve.

PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are divided into
three categories:

Camping Park Provides for a range of camping
experiences.

Day Use Park _ Designed solely for those wishing
to spend an enjoyable day in a natural setting.
Camping is not permitted.

Natural Scenic Attraction Areas with special
scenic qualities or natural significance. Picnicking is
allowed but camping is not.

Wilderness Reserve _ Established largely because
of their natural scenic beauty, and are intended to be
used for recreation. Hunting and fishing are
permitted.

Seabird Sanctuary

Source: Taschereau (1985)

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

Titles: Northwest Territories Wildlife
Act, 1978; Territorial Lands Act;
Territorial Parks Act, 1973; Land Use
Regulations; Territorial Wildlife and/or Park
Ordinances; Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Department of

Renewable Resources; Department of Economic
Development and Tourism

Designations:

Ecological Areas
CommunityPark
Game Preserve
Wildlife Sanctuary
Territorial Park

Source: Original legislation

Canada

NOVA SCOTIA ONTARIO

Titles: Provincial Parks Act, 1988; Beaches
Act, 1988; Wildlife Act, 1987; Conservation
Easements Act, 1992; Special Places
Protection Act, 1981; Museum Act

Titles: Ontario Provincial Parks Act, 1980;
Ontario Game and Fish Act, 1980; Wilderness
Areas Act, 1980; Conservation Land Act;
Conservation Authorities Act, 1980; Ontario
Heritage Act, 1980; Endangered Species Act,
1971; Public Lands Act; Planning Act; Order
in Council

Administrative authorities: Parks and
Recreation Division, Department of Natural

Resources; Department of Education (Nova Scotia
Museum)

Designations:

Ecological Site Can be designated on Crown land
or on private land with permission of the owner.
Consist of natural ecosystems, habitats of
endangered plant or animal species, or other areas
desirable for research and educational use. A
management plan must be formulated before it is
designated as a reserve.

Heritage Site May be designated on Crown or
private land and potential sites are protected while
being investigated. These are areas containing
archaeological, historical, or palaeotological objects
or remains.

Wildlife Management Area Private or public land
where flexible regulations apply to the management
and harvesting of wildlife. Established to protect
wildlife and waterfowl habitat and to provide
opportunities for natural history education and
outdoor recreation.

Game Sanctuary Established to allow the
increase of game species and provide a reserve of
game for surrounding forests. Hunting or disturbance
of wildlife is prohibited.

Nature Reserve

Protected Beach Allows for the protection of
sand dunes and a large variety of coast. Applies to all
*beaches’ below high tide, and to designated beaches
(including those on private land), with the
landowners permission.

Provincial Park Divided into the following
general classes for statistical purposes: camping,
picnic, beach, wildlife, and historic.

SpecialPlace The province is considering a parks
Classification system which will include the
following designations: wildland park, natural
heritage reserve, historic park, natural environment
parks, outdoor recreation park, wayside park,
wildlife park, and park reserve.

Sources:
comm. (1992)

Beardmore (1985); D. Smith, pers.

19

Administrative authorities: Provincial Parks
and Natural Heritage Policy Branch, Ministry of
Natural Resources; Federation of Ontario
Naturalists; Ontario Heritage League; Niagara
Escarpment Commission

Designations:

Ecological Area
Conservation Area
Wildlife Area
Game Preserve

PROVINCIAL PARK Areas which are set apart
to protect special natural and historical features.
They also provide outdoor recreation and education
opportunities. Divided into six classes: natural
environment, nature reserve, wilderness, historical,
waterway, and recreation. There are also six zones
within any particular class of park: nature reserve,
wilderness, natural environment, historical, access,
and development.

In all classes of park, mining activity, commercial
hydroelectric development and logging (except in
Algonquin) are prohibited. Eventually, commercial
trapping, commercial wildrice harvesting and most
commercial fishing will be eliminated. Hunting is not
permitted in wilderness and nature reserve parks and
zones.

Wilderness Park Substantial areas where the
forces of nature are permitted to function freely and
where visitors travel by non-mechanised means and
experience expansive solitude, challenge and
personal integration with nature.

Nature Reserve Areas selected to represent the
distinctive natural habitats and landforms of Ontario,
and are protected for educational purposes and as
gene pools for research to benefit present and future
generations. The closest equivalent to ecological
reserves found in other provinces.

Historic Park Areas selected to represent the
distinctive historical resources of the province in
open-space settings, and are protected for
interpretive, educational and research purposes.

Natural Environment Park Areas which
incorporate outstanding recreational landscapes with
representative natural features and historical

Protected Areas of the World

resources to provide high quality recreational and

educational experiences.

Waterway Park

educational experiences.

Recreation Park

numbers of people in attractive surroundings.
Sources: Taschereau (1985); MNR (1992a)
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Title: Recreational Development Act, 1974;
Natural Areas Protection Act, 1988; Planning
Act, 1969; Provincial Parks Act, 1956;
Fish and Game Protection Act, 1966; Order
in Council

Areas which incorporate
outstanding recreational water routes with
representative natural features and historical
resources to provide high quality recreational and

Areas which support a wide
variety of outdoor recreation opportunities for large

Administrative authorities: Parks Division,
Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation;
Department of Environment; Technical Advisory
Committee; Prince Edward Island Nature Trust

Designations:

Protected Area
Protected Beach
Ecological Reserve
Wetland Area

Wildlife Management Area Established to
provide protected feeding and resting areas for
waterfowl during migration. Also provide improved
hunting opportunities around such areas, and provide
opportunities for bird watchers, photographers and
naturalist to observe, photograph and study
waterfowl. Hunting, trapping or other disturbances
of wildlife are prohibited.

PROVINCIAL PARK Suchareas are divided into
five classes:

Nature Preserve Intended to protect and
perpetuate in an undisturbed state, individual
features of unique natural significance, possessing
natural conditions of scientific and/or educational
value. Plant and animal harvesting is not allowed
within parks of the province.

Nature Environment Park Natural lands set aside
to educate and acquaint the user with the aesthetics
and values of the natural landscape and to provide
associated compatible forms of recreation.

RecreationPark Established to provide areas that
are adaptable to heavy use and offer a wide range of
outdoor recreation opportunities.

20

Wayside/Beach Access Park Created to promote
a safe and pleasurable travel experience, and are set
aside at reasonable intervals for motorists to stop and
Test, or to provide access facilities for good beaches.

Historic Park __ Created to preserve, restore, and
interpret buildings, sites, objects and related lands of
historical, educational and cultural interest.

Sources: Beardmore (1985)
QUEBEC

Titles: Provincial Parks Act; Ecological
Reserves Act, 1974; Cultural Property Act;
Wildlife Conservation Act; Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Direction générale

des parcs et des térritoires fauniques, Ministére
Loisir, Chasse et Péche; Direction générale de la
conservation et du patrimoine écologique, Ministére
de l’Environnement

Designations:

Ecological Reserve Access requires written
authorisation from the Minister of the Environment
and is only given for scientific or educational
purposes.

PARK

Conservation Park _ Established to permanently
protect the representative areas of the province’s
natural regions, or of natural sites presenting
exceptional features, while rendering them
accessible to the public for the purposes of education
and cross-country recreation. Open to the public for
educational purposes, the recreational activities
offered within these areas require simple equipment
which is unlikely to affect the environment. In
conservation and recreation parks, hunting is
prohibited, whereas the carrying out of certain
traditional activities such as the production of maple
syrup is allowed under strict regulation. All forms of
prospecting, and any utilisation, harvesting, or
harnessing of resources related to logging, mining,
or the production of energy, and the laying of oil or
gas pipelines or powerlines are prohibited within
park boundaries.

Recreation Park _Intended to encourage outdoor
activities, while contributing to environmental
protection and education.

Source: Original legislation

SASKATCHEWAN

Titles: Parks Act, 1986; Ecological Reserves
Act, 1980; Saskatchewan Wildlife Act;
Critical Wildlife Habitat Protection Act, 1984;
Regional Parks Act, 1979; Heritage Property
Act, 1980; Order in Council

Administrative authorities: Parks Branch,
Department of Natural Resources; Saskatchewan
Wildlife Federation

Designations:

Ecological Reserve Provincially administered
Crown land which sustains or is associated with
unique or representative parts of the environment.

Wildlife Area
Protected Area
Park Land Reserve

Recreation Site

PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are classified

under four designations:

Natural Environment Park Includes a wide range
of natural and man-made attractions. Large areas,
representative of natural landscapes, providing high
quality outdoor recreation opportunities.

Recreation Park Smaller areas which provide
high quality recreation opportunities and facilities.
Development occurs near urban population centres
and travel routes.

Wilderness Park _ Large, pristine tracts of land
containing significant natural features and

21

Canada

opportunities for activities such as canoeing, hiking,
primitive camping and photography. Facility
development is limited to basic comforts to ensure
preservation of the environment.

Historic Park Such areas are set aside to
preserve, reconstruct and interpret the provinces
history for the public.

Regional Park A local, independent park
authority is responsible for development and
management of such areas, with maintenance and
capital grants provided by the province.

Source: Original legislation; Saskatchewan Parks,
Recreation and Culture (n.d.); K. Lozinsky, pers.
comm. (1992)

YUKON

Titles: Territorial Wildlife Act; Land Use
Regulations; Territorial Wildlife and/or Park
Ordinances; Territorial Park Act; Order in
Council

Administrative authorities: | Parks and Outdoor
Recreation Branch, Department of Renewable
Resources

Designations:
Ecological Reserve
Territorial Park
Game Preserve
Wildlife Sanctuary

Source: F. McRae, pers. comm. (1992)

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

Nore

NADNFW

16

17
18

19

20
21

22
23
24
25
26
27
28

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

(Environment Canada, 1990)
Federal Protected Areas

(National Map)

National/international designations
Name of area

Alberta

Migratory Bird Sanctuaries
Richardson Lake
Saskatoon Lake

National Parks
Banff

Elk Island
Jasper
Waterton Lakes
Wood Buffalo

British Columbia
Migratory Bird Sanctuary
Victoria Harbour

National Parks
Glacier

Kootenay

Mount Revelstoke
Pacific Rim*
South Moresby*
Yoho

National Wildlife Area
Columbia

Manitoba
National Park
Riding Mountain

New Brunswick
National Parks
Fundy
Kouchibouguac

National Wildlife Area
Tintamarre

Newfoundland
National Parks
Gros Morne
Terra Nova

Northwest Territories
Migratory Bird Sanctuaries
Akimiski Island

Anderson River Delta
Banks Island No.1

Banks Island No.2

Bylot Island

Cape Dorset

Dewey Soper-Res.

22

IUCN management
category

<

i — |

I

Area

(ha)

12,700
1,140

664,080
19,430
1,087,800
50,500
3,136,490

1,700

135,000
140,600
25,970
50,000
147,000
131,300

1,001

297,590

20,590
23,880

1,990

194,250
39,990

336,700
108,300
2,051,800
14,200
1,087,800
25,900
815,900

Year
notified

1953
1948

1885
1913
1907
1895
1922

1923

1886
1920
1914
1970
1988
1886

1978

1929

1948
1979

1978

1973
1957

1941
1961
1961
1961
1965
1958
1957

42

43

57

59

National/international designations
Name of area

East Bay

Harry Gibbons
Kendall Island
Mcconnell River
Queen Maude Gulf

National Parks
Auyuittuq*
Ellesmere Island
Nahanni*

Wood Buffalo

National Wildlife Area
Polar Bear Pass Reserve

Nova Scotia
Migratory Bird Sanctuary
Sable River

National Parks
Cape Breton Highlands
Kejimkujik

National Wildlife Area
Chignecto River

Wildlife Management Areas
Musquodoboit Harbour Outer
River Estuary

South Bight-Minas River Basin

Ontario

Migratory Bird Sanctuaries
Fielding

Hanna Bay

Moose River

Upper Canada

National Capital Commission Areas
Carlsbad Springs

Mer Bleue

The Greenbelt

National Parks
Bruce Peninsula
Georgian Bay Islands
Point Pelee
Pukaskwa

National Wildlife Area
Long Point

Prince Edward Island
National Park
Prince Edward Island

Quebec

Migratory Bird Sanctuaries
Baie Des Loups

Boatswain Bay

Ile A La Brume

IUCN management

23

category

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

II
II
II
II

II

IV
IV
IV

6,278,200

2,147,110
3,777,500

476,560
1,344,210

81,000

2,350

95,050
40,370

1,020

1,200
26,800

1,300
29,800
1,450
2,660

1,655
1,086
11,824

26,630
2,530
1,550

187,780

3,250

2,590

4,000
17,700
4,450

Canada

Year
notified

1959
1959
1961
1960
1961

1976
1982
1976
1922

1982

1977

1936
1974

1980

1987
1987

1952
1939
1958
1961

1987
1929
1918
1978

1980

1937

1925
1941
1925

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

61
62
63
64
65
66
67

68

69
70
71

72
73

74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81

82
83

84
85

86

87
88

National/international designations
Name of area

Tle Aux Basques

Ile Bonaventure And Perce Rock
Iles De La Paix

Iles Saint-marie

Nicolet

St. Augustin

Watshishou

National Capital Commission Area
Gatineau Park

National Parks

Forillon

La Maurice

Mingan Archipelago Reserve

National Wildlife Areas
Cap Tourmente R.
Lac St-Francois

Saskatchewan

Migratory Bird Sanctuaries
Basin And Middle Lake
Duncairn Reservoir

Last Mountain Lake (Reserve)
Lenore Lake

Murray Lake

Old Wives Lake

Opuntia Lake

Redberry Lake

National Parks
Grasslands*
Prince Albert

National Wildlife Areas
Prairie
Stalwart

Wildlife Management Area
Last Mountain Lake Coop

Yukon Territory
National Parks
Kluane*
Northern Yukon*

* indicates a National Park Reserve

24

IUCN management
category

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

Vill

II
II

Area

(ha)

1,000
1,340
1,100
4,500
2,850
55,300
11,200

34,400

24,040
54,390
15,070

2,230
1,335

8,702
1,550
4,740
8,830
1,170
26,060
1,400
6,400

90,650
387,460

2,933
1,460

15,602

2,201,500
1,016,840

Year
notified

1919
1972
1925

1925
1925

1974
1977
1984

1978
1978

1925
1948
1887
1925
1948
1925
1952
1925

1988
1927

1978
1978

1887

1976
1984

Map
ref.

ANDNAPWNK

Noe

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Provincial/Territorial Protected Areas and sites under multiple management agencies

(provincial/teritorial maps)

National/international designations

Name of area

Alberta

Ecological Reserves
Athabasca Dunes
Hand Hills
Kennedy Coulee
Kootenay Plains
Silver Valley

Upper Bob Creek
Wainwright Dunes

Game Bird Sanctuaries
Birch Lake

Lac La Biche

Many Island Lake
Ministik Lake
Miquelon Lake
Pakowki Lake
Richardson Lake
Sheep River

Wilderness Areas
Ghost River
Siffeur

White Goat

Provincial Parks or Areas
Bow Valley
Carson Pegasus
Crimson Lake
Cross Lake
Cypress Hills
Dillberry Lake
Dinosaur

Dry Island Buffalo Jump
Hilliard’s Bay
Kananaskis
Kootenay Plains
Lesser Slave Lake
Notikewin
Redwater

White Earth Valley
Whitney Lake
William A. Switzer
Willmore
Winagami

Young’s Point

British Columbia

Ecological Reserves

Black Tusk Nature Conservancy
Byers/Conroy/Harvey/Sinnett
Islands

Checleset Bay

25

IUCN management
category

ee

Area
(ha)

3,774
2,229
1,035
3,204
1,805
2,601
2,821

2,902
23,897
3,387
7,335
1,602
11,469
11,662
5,785

15,317
41,215
44,457

1,261
1,177
3,443
2,076
20,461
1,012
5,946
1,180
2,329
50,308
3,378
7,292
9,667
1,813
2,055
1,490
2,686
459,673
1,211
1,090

17,819

12,205
34,650

Canada

Year
notified

1987
1988
1987
1987
1987
1989
1988

1959
1982
1955
1955
1951
1957
1955
1970
1978
1977
1978
1966
1979
1971
1971
1982
1958

1956
1971

1974

1981
1981

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

National/international designations

Name of area

Dewdney And Glide Islands
East Redonda Island
Gingiet Creek

Gladys Lake

Goosegrass Creek

Ilgachuz Range

Kingfisher Creek

Mount Griffin

Narcosli Lake

Ningunsaw River

Purcell Wilderness Conservatory
Robson Bight

Sikanni Chief

VJ. Krajina

Provincial Parks or Areas
Akamina-Kishinena
Atlin

Atlin Cla

Babine Mountains
Birkenhead Lake
Bowron Lake
Boya Lake

Brooks Peninsula
Bugaboo Alpine
Cape Scott

Carp Lake

Cascade

Cathedral
Champion Lakes
Coquihalla Summit
Crooked River
Cypress

Darke Lake
Desolation Sound
Desolation Sound
E.C. Manning

East Sooke

Elk Falls

Elk Lakes

Elk Lakes

Eneas Lakes
Eskers

Fiordland
Garibaldi
Gitnadoix

Golden Ears
Gwillim Lake
Hakai

Hamber
International Ridge
Joffre Lakes
Kakwa

Kinaskan Lake
Kokanee Glacier Park
Kokanee Glacier
Kwadacha Wilderness
Lake Lovely Water

26

IUCN management
category

ee eee

Area
(ha)

3,845
6,212
2,873
48,560
2,185
2,914
1,441
1,376
1,098
2,047
131,523
1,248
2,401
9,834

10,915
38,445
232,695
32,400
3,642
123,117
4,597
28,780
24,912
15,054
19,344
16,680
33,272
1,425
5,750
1,016
2,489
1,470
2,550
5,706
71,400
1,422
1,087
11,620
5,625
1,036
1,603
91,000
195,083
58,000
55,594
9,199
122,998
24,518
1,905
1,460
127,690
1,800
25,832
25,900
167,540
1,300

Year
notified

1971
1971
1985
1975
1974
1975
1973
1972
1973
1975
1974
1982
1973
1973

1986
1973
1973
1984
1963
1961
1965
1986
1969
1973
1973
1987
1968
1955
1988
1963
1975
1943
1973
1973
1941
1970
1940
1986
1973
1968
1988
1987
1920
1986
1967
1971
1987
1941
1989
1988
1987
1988
1989
1922
1973
1988

Area

Canada

National/international designations

WnNnre

Monashee
Monkman

Mount Assiniboine
Mount Edziza
Mount Judge Howay
Mount Robson
Mount Seymour
Mount Terry Fox
Mt Edziza

Mt Judge Howay
Mt Seymour
Muncho Lake
Naikoon

Nancy Green
Okanagan Mountain
Sasquatch

Schoen Lake
Silver Star

Skagit Valley
Spatsizi Plateau
St. Mary’s Alpine
Stagleap

Stikine River
Stone Mountain
Strathcona
Strathcona
Tatlatui

Top Of The World
Tweedsmuir
Valhalla

Wells Gray

Wells Gray

White Pelican
Whiteswan Lake
Wokpash

Murtle Lake Wells

Manitoba
Ecological Reserves
Baralzon Lake
Long Point
Reindeer Island

Wildlife Management Areas

Alonsa
Assiniboine
Basket Lake
Broad Valley
Cape Churchill
Cape Tatnam
Catfish Creek
Cayer
Clematis

Dog Lake
Grahamdale
Gypsumville
Hilbre
Inwood

IUCN management

3 Name of area category

II
II
I
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II

(ha)

7,513
32,000
39,052

228,698

6,180

219,829

3,508

1,930
96,770

6,180

3,508
88,412
72,641

8,086
10,462

1,220

8,170

8,714
32,508

659,650
9,146
1,133

217,000

25,691
10,250

191,881

105,826
8,791

960,918

49,600
527,789
13,479

1,247

1,994
37,800

212,743

39,000
1,600
14,200

10,559
2,207
7,190
3,692

1,877,700
522,267
6,281
e522)
6,828

32,389
1,489
2,465
3,527
2,719

Year
notified

1962
1981
1922
1989
1967
1913
1989
1982
1989
1989
1989
1957
1973
1969
1973
1968
1977
1989
1973
1975
1973
1964
1987
1957
1987
1987
1973
1973
1987
1983
1939
1987
1971
1978
1986
1968

1990
1987
1976

1974
1984
1974
1969
1978
1973

1969
1972
1974
1969
1969
1969

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

18
19
20
21

Nore

CAIN NAMNPW

National/international designations

Name of area

Lake Francis
Langruth

Lauder Sandhills
Lee Lake

Little Birch
Lundar

Mantagao Lake
Marshy Point
Moose Creek
Narcisse

Oak Hammock Marsh
Pembina Valley
Peonan Point
Point River
Portage Sandhills
Proulx Lake
Proven Lake
Rembrandt
Sandridge
Saskeram
Sharpewood
Sleeve Lake
Souris River Bend
Steeprock

Tom Lamb
Washow Bay
Watson P. Davidson
Westlake
Whitewater Lake

Provincial Parks or Areas
Asessipi

Atikaki Wilderness
Birds Hill
Clearwater Lake
Duck Mountain
Elk Island

Grass River
Grindstone

Hecla

Nopiming

Paint Lake

Spruce Woods
Turtle Mountain
Whiteshell

New Brunswick

Wildlife Protection Areas
University of New Brunswick
Utopia Refuge

Wildlife Management Areas
Bantalor

Canaan River
Kedgwick
King’s Landing

28

IUCN management
category

Vil
Vill
Vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
vill
vill
Vil
Vill
vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vil
vill
Vill
vill
Vil
vill
Vill

II
IV
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II

IV
IV

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

Area
(ha)

6,416
1,781
3,011
6,966
22,802
1,101
50,339
1,490
78,917
13,781
3,488
1,910
2,339
3,370
1,328
3,302
1,908
1,360
1,879
96,648
2,266
14,964
2,073
1,890
217,960
1,392
5,827
5,739
8,977

2,460
466,841
3,521
59,570
127,400
1,000
228,960
25,841
86,309
143,740
22,660
24,860
18,910
273,400

1,518
3,109

15,287
11,142
18,177
22,543
82,914
53,238

Year
notified

1990
1965
1971
1969
1969
1969
1968
1984

1969
1974
1976
1969
1984
1984
1974
1984
1974
1969
1963
1969
1969
1968
1966
1965

1961
1984
1974

1964
1985
1964
1975
1962
1975
1963
1969
1969
1976
1969
1964
1962
1961

1949
1940

1930
1929
1934
1921
1923
1980

Canada

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
9 Lepreau River IV 24,356 1927
10 Plaster Rock-renous IV 84,175 1939
11 Tracadie River IV 3,915 1937
Provincial Parks or Areas
12 Mount Carleton II 17,427
13 Sugar Loaf II 1,150 1971
Newfoundland
Ecological Reserves
1 Cape St Mary’s I 1,260 1983
2 Funk Island I 1,860 1983
3 The Grass I 1,100 1987
4 Watt’s Point Ill 3,090 1986
Seabird Sanctuary
5 Baccalieu Island IV 1,210
Wilderness Reserves
6 Avalon II 107,000 1986
7 Bay Du Nord II 289,500 1989
8 Middle Ridge VI 81,600 1989
Provincial Parks or Areas
9 Barachois Pond II 3,497 1961
10 Butter Pot II 1,752 1964
11 Chance Cove II 2,068 1974
12 La Manche II ; 1,394 1966
13 Squires Memorial II 1,574 1959
14 Stag Lake II 1,278 1979
Northwest Territories
Wildlife Sanctuaries
1 Bowman Bay IV 107,900 1957
2 Thelon IV 2,396,000 1927
3 Twin Islands IV 142,500 1939
Game Preserve
4 Peel River Vill 442,700
Territorial Parks or Areas
5 Blackstone II 1,430 1982
6 Reid Lake II 1,085 1975
Nova Scotia
Game Sanctuaries
1 Chignieto IV 22,099 1937
2 Liscomb IV 45,327 1928
3 Waverley IV 5,698 1926
Wildlife Management Areas
4 Eastern Shore Islands IV 11,767 1976
5 Scatarie Island IV 1,555 1976
6 Tobeatic IV 49,213 1968
Provincial Park or Area
q Uniacke House Natural Setting Vi 4,938
Ontario
Nature Reservest
1 Agassiz Peatlands I 2,315 1985

29

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

NADU FWNY

National/international designations

Name of area

Black Duck River (Polar Bear PP)
Brent Crater (Algonquin PP)
Brule Harbour (Lake Superior PP)
Cape Chaillon (Lake Superior PP)
Centennial Lake

Coldspring Lake Watershed
(Algonquin PP)

Gina Lake (Obatanga PP)
Greenleaf Creek Watershed
(Algonquin PP)

Hailstorm Creek (Algonquin PP)
Johnston Herb/Pine Tree Pt

Knife Creek (Obatanga PP)
Lower Agawa River

(Lake Superior PP)

Lower Sand River

(Lake Superior PP)

Minnitaki Kames

Nadine Lake Hardwoods
(Algonquin PP)

Nr Zone (Wasaga Beach PP)
O’conner (Lake Superior PP)
Pantagruel Creek

Petawawa Rapids (Algonquin PP)
Pigeon River Clay Plain

Round Lake

Site 416 (Polar Bear PP)

Site 421 (Polar Bear PP)

Tarn Lake (Algonquin PP)
Treeby Lake (Lake Superior PP)
Trout Lake

Wachi Creek (Polar Bear PP)
Windigo Bay

Wood Creek (Polar Bear PP)

Wildlife Areas
Camden Lake
Hullett
Luther Marsh
Mountain
Point Petre

St. Edmunds

Wilderness Area
Cape Henrietta-Marie

Conservation Authority Areas
Authority Forest

Belwood Lake (43)
Conestogo Lake (40)

Depot Lakes (132)
Fanshawe (21)

Greenock Swamp

Guelph Lake (38)

Luther Marsh (44)
Wildwood (22)

Crown Game Preserves
Brigden

30

IUCN management Area
category (ha)
I 100,000

I 1,390

I 1,274

I 1,948

I 3,830

I 5,396

I 1,323

I 3,730

I 1,092

I 2,008

I 1,495

I 2,393

I 1,150
I 4,340

I 1,105

I 1,000

I 1,565

I 2,200

I 1,411

I 2,870

I 4,620

I 9,300

I 9,300

I 1,004

I 1,005

I 7,850

I 50,000

I 8,300

I 50,000
IV 1,052
IV 2,100
IV 5,666
IV 1,457
IV 1,276
IV 6,799
I 58,320
Vil 1,094
Vill 1,348
Vill 2,348
VII 1,000
VIII 1,200
Vil 7,300
Vill 1,607
Vil 4,800
Vill 1,255
IV 2,613

Year
notified

1970
1893
1950
1950
1989

1893
1967

1893
1893
1989
1967

1950

1950
1989

1893
1959
1950
1989
1893
1989
1989
1984
1984
1893
1950
1988
1984
1989
1984

1970

National/international designations

Name of area

Chapleau
Dumfries
Geikie Island
Himsworth
Nipissing
Shirley Bay
Yarmouth

Provincial Parks or Areas
Abitibi-de-Troyes
Algonquin
Aubrey Falls
Awenda

Bigwind Lake
Bon Echo

Butler Lake
Cabot Head
Carillon

Castle Creek

Chapleau-Nemegosenda River

Cranberry Lake
Esker Lakes
Fathom Five
Frontenac

Fushimi Lake
Greenwater

Grundy Lake
Halfway Lake
Ivanhoe Lake
Kabitotikwia River
Kashabowie
Kesagami

Kettle Lakes
Killarney

Killbear

La Cloche

Lady Evelyn Smoothwater
Lake Nipigon

Lake Of The Woods
Lake Superior
Larder River
Livingstone Point
Lola Lake

Mac Gregor Point
Makobe-Grays River
Matawin River Nature
Mattawa River
Michipicoten Island
Missinaibi
Mississagi Delta
Mississagi
Mississagi River
Murphy’s Point
Nagagami Lake
Nagagamisis

Neys

Obatanga

Ojibway

31

IUCN management
category

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

Area
(ha)

811,054

11,068
765,345
4,860
2,917
1,970
6,644
3,400
4,514
1,417
1,075
8,165
2,800
3,237
9,976
5,130
5,294
5,350
2,554
4,730
1,589
1,965
2,055
55,977
1,261
48,500
1,756
7,448
72,400
1,458
12,900
155,659
2,500
1,800
6,572
1,204
1,427
2,615
3,258
36,740
44,061
2,395
2,883
19,814
1,240
1,650
8,131
3,445
9,409
2,630

Canada

Year
notified

1985
1893
1985
1975
1985
1971
1985
1985
1966
1985
1973
1985
1957
1972
1974
1979
1957
1959
1980
1957
1985
1985
1983
1957
1964
1971
1985
1983
1960
1967
1950
1985
1985
1985
1975
1985
1985
1970
1985
1970
1985
1973
1974
1967
1985
1957
1965
1967
1963

Protected Areas of the World

Noe

National/international designations

Name of area

Opasquia Wilderness
Petroglyphs

Polar Bear

Quetico

Quetico Wilderness
Rene Brunelle
Restoule

Rondeau

Sable Islands
Samuel De Champlain
Sandbanks

Sandbar Lake
Sedgman Lake
Sibley

Silent Lake

Silver Falls

Slate Islands

South Bay

The Pinery

The Shoals
Wabakimi Wilderness
Wakami Lake
Wanapitei

Wasaga Beach

West Bay Nature Reserve

White Lake
Winisk River
Winnange Lake

Woodland Caribou Wilderness

Prince Edward Island

Wildlife Management Area
Malpeque Bay River Wetlands Area

Quebec

Ecological Reserves
Lac-Malakisis
Tantare

Wildlife Sanctuaries
Aiguebelle
Ashuapmushuan
Assinica

Baie Trinite
Baldwin

Cap-chat
Chics-chocs
Duchenier
Duchesnay

Duniere

Eastmain

Fort George

Fort Rupert
Frontenac

Ile D’ Anticosti

Iles Aux Grues, Dune,
L’oignon, P.Cochon
Intowin

32

IUCN management
category

IV

Area
(ha)

473,000
1,555
2,408,700
475,819
475,819
2,964
1,200
3,254
1,980
2,550
1,509
5,083
5,710
24,435
1,450
3,261
6,570
1,525
2,533
10,644
155,000
8,806
2,700
1,545
1,120
1,726
173,530
4,745
450,000

24,440

2,000
1,491

3,950
448,700
888,500

35,600
23,000
12,100
112,600
27,000
8,800
55,300
434,400
1,816,600
1,124,000
11,900
511,400

2,500
8,800

Year
notified

1983
1976
1970
1950
1950
1957
1963
1894
1985
1967
1970
1970
1985
1950
1977
1985
1985
1985
1957
1970
1983
1973
1985
1959
1985
1963
1969
1985
1983

1988

1978
1978

1945
1946
1961
1974
1974
1964
1949
1977
1972
1972
1976
1976
1976
1978
1974

1977
1976

COoynNAMPWNY

National/international designations

Name of area

Kipawa
La Verendrye

Lacs Albanel, Mistassini &

Waconichi
Laurentides
Mastigouche
Matane

Mistassini
Nemiscau
Nouveau Comptoir
Papineau Labelle
Parke

Petite Nation
Plaisance
Pointe-Taillon

Port Daniel
Portneuf

Post De La Baleine
Rimouski

Riviere Cascapedia
Riviere Matamec
Riviere Matane
Riviere Matapedia

Riviere Petite Cascapedia

Riviere Port Daniel
Rouge-Mattawin
Saint Maurice

Sept Iles-port Cartier
Waswanipi

Provincial Parks or Areas

Aiguebelle

Bic

Frontenac
Gaspesie

Grands Jardins
Jacques Cartier
Mount-Orford
Mount-Tremblant
Oka

Parc Mont Ste Anne
Paul Sauve
Pointe-Taillon
Saquenay
Yamaska

Saskatchewan
Protected Area
Wildcat Hill

Provincial Parks or Areas

Big Buffalo Beach
Bronson Forest
Buffalo Pound
Candle Lake
Clearwater River
Cypress Hills
Danielson

IUCN management
category

Vill
IV

IV
IV
IV
IV
Vil
Vil
Vil
IV
Vil
Vill
IV
Vill
IV
IV
Vill
IV
IV
Vil
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

Area
(ha)

463,600
1,361,000

1,640,000
796,100
161,900
128,400

1,787,000
233,800
752,100
166,700

12,000
25,000
2,700
7,500
6,400
77,400
535,400
79,700
2,000
103,600
1,400
1,000
1,700
3,600
163,500
78,200
642,300
847,000

24,170
3,320
15,200
80,200
31,000
67,060
5,837
124,000
2,370
6,600
1,900
9,220
28,360
1,289

16,997

3,650
12,938
1,927
1,274
224,035
18,410
2,914

Canada

Year
notified

1950
1939

1953
1895
1971
1962
1953
1976
1976
1971
1961
1934
1978
1965
1953
1968
1976
1958
1982
1970
1972
1974
1945
1948
1935
1963
1965
1976

1985
1984
1986
1981
1981
1981
1980
1981
1986
1968
1962
1985
1983
1985

1971

1974
1963
1986
1986
1931
1971

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area
9 Douglas
10 Duck Mountain
11 Good Spirit Lake
12 Green-water Lake
13 Jan Lake
14 Lac La Ronge
15 Meadow Lake
16 Moose Mountain
17 Nipawin
18 Saskatchewan Landing
19 Whiteswan Lake (Whelan Bay)
20 Woody River
Yukon Territory
Wildlife Sanctuaries
1 Kluane
2 Macarthur
Game Preserve
3 Peel River
Territorial Parks or Areas
4 Fishing Branch River
5 Herschel Island

+The "nature reserve" category in Ontario actually refers to "nature
reserve zones" which fall within the provincial parks. These are listed,
however, as they are equivalent to the "ecological reserves" of other
provinces in terms of protection afforded. The number and area of
protected areas for Ontario is, therefore, inflated due to inclusion of
this category.

Category headings are generic in some cases and may not be defined
in legislation (Annex).

The database list for Canada was supplied by Environment Canada,
dated September 1990. Upon receiving database lists from the various

34

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
IV 4,434 1973
IV 26,159 1931
IV 1,901 1931
IV 20,720 1932
II 1,854 1976
IV 344,470 1939
IV 156,967 1959
IV 40,060 1931
IV 53,613 1934
IV 5,597 1973
II 1,834
II 15,540
IV 422,200 1943
IV 169,600 1958
Vil 300,000
Vill 384,000 1978
IV 11,200 1989

provincial/territorial administrations, the database record will be
amended accordingly, and will be reflected in subsequent publications.

Map information (polygons and point sources) from the National Atlas
Information Service (1992) is to be regarded as preliminary only.
Locations and boundaries of protected areas are currently being
verified by the National Atlas Information Service. When completed,
a revised spatial dataset will replace the one used in this publication
for subsequent work by WCMC.

Canada

Projection Lambert Conic Conforma|

Federal Protected Areas - Canada

35

Protected Areas of the World

Provincial Protected Areas - British Columbia

36

Canada

Provincial Protected Areas - Alberta

Si/

Protected Areas of the World

Provincial Protected Areas - Saskatchewan

38

Canada

Provincial Protected Areas - Manitoba

39

Protected Areas of the World

183 #5

0131 9°33
61 eS

200

Provincial Protected Areas - Ontario

40

Canada

s Uy

Zi Oe

$

Provincial Protected Areas - Quebec

41

Protected Areas of the World

eS ISLAND
eg
\ \

Re 5 /) PRINCE EDuaRD

e 10
BRUNSWICK

)

Provincial Protected Areas - Maritime Provinces

42

Canada

eae
Soa

1
JAMES BAY

Territorial Protected Areas - Northwest & Yukon Territories

43

a a 7
italien

ii
a
‘ei

GREENLAND (DENMARK)

Area 2,175,600 sq. km

Population 55,558 (1990) (Hunter, 1991)

Natural increase: 1.3% per annum (1980) (estimate from
Anon., 1984a)

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation In 1979, Greenland acquired
home rule; full internal self-government was established
under the Greenland Home Rule Authorities (Gronlands
Hjemmestrye). Prior to this, the highest political
assembly was the Greenlandic Council, which had an
advisory capacity under the Danish authorities, except in
relation to hunting and fishing where the Council had
legislative powers which were applied to pass certain
hunting regulations (Meyer, 1987).

In 1962 the sub—Arctic valleys of south-west Greenland,
with their unique and fragile "woods", were declared
preserves by the Greenlandic Council (Meyer, 1987).

The Conservation (Nature and Ancient Relics) Act for
Greenland was enacted on 25 May 1974 (Act No. 266).
The chief purpose was "to safeguard and care for
Greenland’s natural scenic assets". It gave authority to
protect plant and animal species, and also areas of land
where preservation or scientific considerations merit
this. Protected areas are established through executive
orders within this Act. Thus, in 1974, the two major
protected areas were first established, under two separate
orders: Northeast Greenland National Park (the largest
national park in the world, some 972,000 sq. km) and
Melville Bay National Wildlife Reserve. These
executive orders were maintained by the Home Rule
Government in the Landsting Act No. 11 of
12 November 1980 on the preservation of natural
amenities. This Act was later amended in the Landsting
Act No. 15 of 9 November 1988, under which Northeast
Greenland National Park was expanded in size. Some
areas have been declared breeding reserves for birds,
where certain restrictions operate only during a defined
season (Anon., 1984b; Meyer, 1987). A ruling
concerning the preservation of in situ relics and
buildings, the Landsting Act No. 5, was passed by the
home rule government on 16 October 1980.

There is no right to private ownership of land. All land
uses requiring areas to be withdrawn from common
usage require permission; this is granted by municipal
authorities in built-up areas, and by home rule authorities
elsewhere. Local authorities are empowered to designate
their own protected areas, and to take their own
conservation measures (Helms, 1991).

45

International Activities Denmark acceded to the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)
on 2 September 1977; Greenland was added to this
Convention on 27 January 1988 and 11 sites covering
1,044,000ha have been listed, two of these within
NorthEast Greenland National Park. NorthEast
Greenland National Park was declared a biosphere
reserve in 1977. Unlike mainland Denmark, Greenland
is not covered by the World Heritage Convention. It is
no longer part of the European Community, and
therefore not covered by Community conservation
regulations, although there have been some moves to
rejoin for economic reasons.

Administration and Management Prior to 1980,
protected areas administration was under the jurisdiction
of the Danish authorities, but since this date it has been
under the autonomous home rule government.

The Office of the Environment is responsible for the park
system, and collaborates closely with the Danish
Ministry of the Environment. The Natural Resources
Office works on the Ramsar sites, amongst other things
(Helms, 1991). Administration of NorthEast Greenland
National Park is under the jurisdiction of the home rule
Premier, who is advised by a National Park Board
consisting of four members of the Greenland Assembly,
four scientists and a chairman (Meyer, 1987; Fredskild,
pers. comm., 1986). On the ground administration and
management is carried out by the Danish military
through their Sirius Sledge Patrol (Silis, 1990).

Systems Reviews — Greenland is the world’s largest
island (excluding continental islands). Most of its land
area is within the Arctic circle. Iceland lies some 300km
off the eastern coast; Canada lies to the west, separated
by the Davis Strait in the south and Baffin Bay further
north. Ellesmere Island (Canada) in the north is only
some SOkm from Greenland, separated by the Nares
Strait. Some 80% of total land area is covered by an
ice-cap 2,500km long, 1,000km wide and up to 3km
thick. An icefree zone of some 384,000 sq. km borders
the coast. This zone is generally quite narrow, but
broadens to 200 — 300km in some places, and is
intersected by deep fjords which connect the inland ice
with the sea. The country is also much influenced by sea
ice. Polar basin ice permanently blocks the north and
north-east coast, and pack ice often drifts down along the
east coast. In summer this pack ice drifts southwards
along the east coast, and passes around Kap Farvel and
northwards along the west coast (Anon., n.d.; Grimmett
and Jones, 1989).

The country is underlain by Precambrian bedrock, with
younger rock overlying it in places. It is largely
mountainous, but with some areas of more gentle relief
in the coastal zone. The climate is largely low- to

Protected Areas of the World

high-Arctic, although in the extreme south some
sheltered valleys may be considered subArctic. The
northern high-Arctic areas have very low precipitation
and short growing seasons; they are sparsely vegetated.
Much of the low-Arctic is covered by dwarf-shrub
heaths, dominated by 1m high Salix. In the sub-Arctic
valleys Betula woods are found reaching a height of
2-4m. It is largely in marshy areas, along streams and
around lakes that the vegetation is relatively luxuriant
(Grimmett and Jones, 1989). A total of 497 species of
vascular plants has been described, including 15
endemics (Bécher et al., 1978).

Fishing is the principal industry. Subsistence hunting is
also important. There is some sheep farming in South
Greenland, also reindeer farming and haymaking in
some areas. Mining for lead and zinc occurs, as well as
oil and mineral exploration. Tourism has also begun to
develop, although it is limited at present (Anon., 1983).

The protected areas system comprises Northeast
Greenland National Park, Melville Bay Nature Reserve,
several Ramsar protected areas along the west and east
coasts, which cover 10,500 sq. km, and a huge mosaic of
regulated coastal areas, each with its own rules
depending on the season and the animal species
occurring there (Helms, 1991).

Threats to wildlife, including that within some of the
protected areas, may arise from excessive hunting
(Grimmett and Jones, 1989). The expansion of
sheep-farming is also cause for some concern (Meyer,
1987). Most of Greenland’s Ramsar sites lie on the coast,
such that any marine oil spills are potential hazards to
the fragile ecological integrity and balance of these sites
(Ministry of the Environment, 1990). A research
programme has been carried out to establish the most
effective cultivation measures in southern regions, and
how to avoid erosion in these areas (Meyer, 1987). This
programme involved the laying out of protected areas as
"reference areas". It is suggested (Meyer, 1987) that the
research project should create a basis for decisions
regarding further regional preserves to safeguard natural
assets and recreational use.

Other Relevant Information Greenland has been a
Danish possession since 1380. It became an integral part
of the Danish kingdom on 5 June 1953. A referendum in
January 1979 led to home rule from 1 May 1979,
followed by full internal self government in January
1981 (Paxton, 1989).

Addresses

Gronlands Hjemmestyre (Greenland Home Rule
Authorities), Direktoratet for Boliger, Teknik og
Miljo, Dept. Fysisk Planlaegning and

46

Naturforvaltning, Postbos 1070, 3900 NUUK

(Tel: 299 23000; FAX: 299 24693)
Danish Polar Centre, Hausergade 3,

COPENHAGEN K, Denmark

1128

References

Helms, H.J. (1991). Nature Conservation in Greenland.
In: Andreasen, C., Angantyr, L.A., Bay, C.,
Boertmann, D., Born, E.W., Elling, H., Helms, H.J.,
Larsen, F., Olesen, C.R. and Siegstad, H.
Atuakkiorfik. Nature Conservation in Greenland
Research Nature and Wildlife Management. 132 pp.

Anon. (1983). Factsheet Denmark, Greenland. Royal
Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen,
Denmark. 12 pp.

Anon. (1984a). Greenland in Figures. The Ministry for
Greenland. 29 pp.

Anon. (1984b). Guidelines on Greenland Expeditions.
Ministry for Greenland and the Secretariat of the
Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland.
16 pp.

Anon. (n.d., post-1984). Greenland. Danish Tourist
Board in cooperation with the Greenland Home Rule
Authorities, Tursarliivik. 8 pp.

Bocher, T.W., Fredskild, B., Holmen, K. and Jacobsen,
K. (1978). Gronlands Flora. 3rd Edition, Haase,
Kobenhaven. 326 pp. (Translated from Danish 2nd
Edition by T.T. Elkington and M.C. Lewis)

Grimmett, R.F.A. and Jones, T.A. (1989). Jmportant
Bird Areas in Europe. ICBP, Cambridge, UK.
888 pp.

Helms, H.J. (1991). Nature Conservation in Greenland.
In: Andreasen, C., Angantyr, L.A., Bay, C.,
Boertmann, D., Born, E.W., Elling, H., Helms, HJ.,
Larsen, F., Olesen, C.R., and Siegstad, H.
Atuakkiorfik. Nature Conservation in Greenland
Research Nature and Wildlife Management. 132 pp.

Meyer, H. (1987). Protected areas and national parks
in Greenland. In: Nelson, J.G., Needham, R. and
Norton, L. (Eds), Arctic Heritage, Proceedings of
a Symposium, August 24 —28 1985. Association of
Canadian Universities for Northern Studies,
Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 567 — 575.

Ministry of the Environment (1990). Danish Report
1990 on the Ramsar Convention, Denmark and
Greenland. Ministry of the Environment, National
Forest and Nature Agency, Horsholm, Denmark.
Pp. 127 — 149.

Paxton, R. (Ed.) (1989). The Statesman’ s Yearbook. The
MacMillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke, UK.

Silis, I. (1990). The World’s Greatest National Park,
North and East Greenland. The Greenland Home
Rule Authorities, Department of Environment and
Wildlife, Nuuk.

Greenland (Denmark)

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible fortheiradministration

Title: No information Brief description: | General acts giving authority

to protect plant and animal species as well as areas

Date: 1962 of land. Sites are nominated individually by
executive orders within these acts.

Brief description: A declaration by the

Greenlandic Council for the protection of the Administrative authority: Greenland Home

"woods" in the subArctic valleys of southwest Rule Authorities

Greenland.

Administrative authority: No information Designations:

Designations: Not applicable

All dwellings and all cutting of trees are
prohibited; sheep are not allowed to graze in
these areas, and camping and hunting are
restricted.

Title: No information

Date: No information

Title: Conservation (Nature and Ancient
Reics) Act (Act No. 266) and Executive Orders
formed within the framework of this Act,
maintained by the Landsting Act No. 11 on the
preservation of natural amenities, amended in

Brief description: No information

Administrative authority: | No information

the Landsting Act No. 15. Designations:
Date: 25 May 1974 (Act No. 266); 12 November Breeding reserve for birds No trespassing or
1980 (Landsting Act No. 11); 9 November 1988 traffic is allowed within 500m between 1 June and
(Landsting Act No. 15) 31 August.

47

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Park

1 Greenland II 97,200,000 1974
Nature Reserve

2 Melville Bay I 1,050,000 1977
Biosphere Reserve
Northeast Greenland National Park IX 70,000,000 1977
Ramsar Wetlands
Agajarua-Sullorsuag R 30,000 1988
Eqalummiut Nunaat-Nassuttuup Nunaa R 500,000 1988
Heden R 125,000 1988
Hochstetter Forland R 140,000 1988
Ikkatoq R 35,000 1988
Kilen R 30,000 1988
Kitsissunnguit R 16,000 1988
Kuannersuit Kuussuat R 4,500 1988
Naternaq R 150,000 1988
Qinguata Marraa-Kuussuaq R 6,000 1988
Ydre Kitsissut R 8,000 1988

48

Greenland (Denmark)

a
75° 70° 65° 60° 55° 50° 45° 40°

a Ff 20 rise m0?

AW WS CH,

aS
aN
= 70? 68° 60° 55° 50 é

UNITED MEXICAN STATES (MEXICO)

Area 1,958,201 sq. km

Population 81,140,922 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.01% (1990)

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,686 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,990 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Mexico is a representative,
democratic and federal republic, comprising 31 states
and one federal district. Each state is autonomous in all
internal affairs (Hunter, 1991).

In practice, nature conservation began during the
Prehispanic era (before 1521). The most notable
example is the Maya civilisation, which based its
development on a balanced agricultural-forestry system,
which involved the strict protection of numerous areas,
and provided "rest" periods for exploited areas
(Gdémez-Pompa, 1987; G6mez-Pompa and Kaus, 1990).
This early commitment to resource protection was also
shown by Nezahualc6yotl, who planted forested areas in
Chapultepec, Molino de las Flores, El Contador and
others, and the botanical gardens and zoological parks
established by the Emperor Moctezuma II in the 16th
century (SEDUE, n.d.a; Vargas, 1984).

The Spanish conquest of Mexico destroyed or modified
patterns of traditional resource use. Rapid demographic
growth and intensive exploitation of many natural
resources left only inaccessible areas, or those remaining
under indigenous control, in their natural state
(Alcérreca et al., 1988).

Prior to the first Forestry Law of 1926, the declaration
of national parks or reserves was carried out by virtue of
presidential decrees for individual areas. By this means,
the first protected area was created in 1876, the first
forest reserve (reserva forestal) in 1898 and the first
national park in 1917 (SEDUE, n.d.b). The first legal
definition of a protected natural area appeared in the
Forestry Law (1926), although this definition was rather
ambiguous as it allowed the establishment of both forest
and tourist areas.

A great increase in the number of protected areas was
brought about by President Lazaro Cardenas
(1934-1940): under his presidency, 40 national parks and
seven reserves (58% of the present day system) were
created, and major improvements were made in
administration (Alcérreca et al., 1988; SEDUE, n.d.b;
Vargas, 1984). The 1942 Forestry Law made more
detailed provisions for the protection of national parks
and their resources (Vargas, 1984). In addition, the
Regulation of National and International Parks
(Reglamento de Parques Nacionales e Internacionales)
was approved in the same year (SEDUE, n.d.a.), and

51

provided the clearest concept on national parks so far
(Vargas, 1984).

In 1944, further regulations to the 1942 Forestry Law
were published, providing some measures for wildlife
protection. The 1948 Forestry Law provided some
control of forest exploitation. The Regulations of the
1948 Forestry Law were published in 1950. The Forestry
Law and its Regulations also provided for the
establishment of forestry protected zones. The Federal
Hunting Law (Ley Federal de Caza), 1952 made
provisions for the establishment of wild faunal refuges
(Vargas, 1984). Between 1950-1980, a policy of creating
"vedas forestales” (hunting reserves) was carried out.
These were declared over large areas of the country,
but the scheme was a failure and caused serious
over-exploitation of resources and corruption
(Vargas, 1990; E.J. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992).

The current Forestry Law was promulgated in 1960, and
it provided for the establishment of national parks for
public use within suitable forested areas by the Federal
Executive (SEDUE, n.d.a). In 1973, the National
Commission of Works in Natural Parks (Comisién
Nacional de Obras en Parques Naturales) (CONOPAN)
was created within the erstwhile Ministry of Public
Works (Secretaria de Obras Publicas). CONOPAN
promoted the unlegislated concept of "natural parks”
(parques naturales) which caused increased confusion
within the existing system (SEDUE, n.d.a). In 1976
CONOPAN was dissolved. Protected areas thrived again
under the presidency of José Lopez Portillo
(1976-1982): nine new national parks and 20 new
reserves (reservas) were declared and administrative
changes were made (SEDUE, n.d.b). In 1977 the first
two national biosphere reserves, Michilia and Mapimi,
were created (Alcérreca et al., 1988), and a third,
Montes Azules, was declared the following year
(SEDUE, n.d.b).

The Ministry (Secretariat) for Urban Development and
Ecology (Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia)
(SEDUE) was created in 1982. Within the SEDUE, the
Sub-secretariat for Ecology (Subsecretaria de Ecologia)
was created in 1983, and it established the national
system of natural protected areas (sistema nacional de
areas naturales protegidas) (SINAP) in 1986 as part of
the National Programme for Ecology. The SINAP is an
instrument to ensure the preservation, rational use and
value of the natural and cultural resources, determining
their management and priorities (SEDUE, n.d.a).

Prior to the 1980s, national biosphere reserves were
established by virtue of individual presidential decrees
(Vargas, 1984). In addition, the Fisheries Ministry has
established aquatic faunal refuges by virtue of the
Fisheries Legislation, 1972 and 1986. Similarly, there
are a few protected areas that have been established by

Protected Areas of the World

virtue of other laws, i.e. the Federal Hunting Law, the
Fisheries Legislation, state decrees and other
government agencies (Vargas, 1984). Experimental
forestry plots (campos experimentales forestales)
(CEFs) and experimental biological stations (estaciones
experimentales de biologia) (EEBs), administered by the
SARH (Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos
Hidraulicos) and the UNAM (Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de México), respectively, appeared around
1961. Although these two types of experimental areas
were set up mainly for research, they provided some
degree of protection (Vargas, 1984).

The current law governing protected areas is the 1988
General Law for Ecological Equilibrium and
Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio
Ecolégico y la Proteccién al Ambiente) was finally
promulgated in 1988 (see Annex). This regulates natural
protected areas, makes legal provisions for SINAP,
defining categories used and making provisions for wild
and aquatic flora and fauna (SEDUE, 1989). It also
provides for the decentralisation of environmental
management to the federal agencies and municipalities,
and includes an ecology code and guidelines for
environmental impact assessment (FAO, n.d.). Another
positive step appears to be the publication of the General
Law for Ecolegical Equilibrium by 19 states (SEDUE,
n.d.a).

Early legislation problems included limitations on the
area of jurisdiction (Vargas, 1984). In addition, the
concept of ’natural park’, introduced by CONOPAN in
1973, caused considerable confusion, as these were
established within legally existing areas such as the
national parks of El Chico, Iztaccihuatl-Popocatépetl,
Cumbres de Ajusco, Lagunas de Montebello, Nevado de
Toluca, and others (SEDUE, n.d.a).

In the past, the protected areas system has been unable
to protect adequately the natural richness of the
country due to lack of legislation and resources for
management (Vargas, 1984; Alcérreca et al., 1988;
WCMC, 1988). This has been compounded by the fact
that many of the existing decrees have not been
carried out (SEDUE, n.d.a). Ambiguity over
management arises because areas designated as
national parks often remain in private ownership
(Halffter, 1992; Jardel et al., 1992; G. Aguirre, pers.
comm., 1992).

In 1992, the President reformed Mexico’s Constitution
and introduced important changes into the structure of
federal government. The full extent of these changes is
not yet known (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992).

International Activities Mexico signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Westem Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified
it subsequently. Mexico became a signatory to the

52

Convention concerning the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention) in 1984 and the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) in
1986. Mexico participates in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme and has six internationally
recognised biosphere reserves. It is also a signatory to
the Convention on the Protection and Development of
the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region
(Cartagena Convention) (IUCN, 1985). Mexico signed
this Convention and the related Protocol concerning the
Cooperation in Combatting Oils Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region on 24 March 1983. It ratified both
these agreements on 9 April 1985. The second Protocol
concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife
(SPAW) was signed in June 1991.

Mexico, through SEDUE, participates in the FAO Latin
American Network Programme (Red Latinoamericana
de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras
Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres).

Administration and Management _—_ Up until 1976,
protected area management was the responsibility of
various bodies within the forestry sector. In 1901, the
Central Board for Forests and Woods (Junta Central de
Bosques y Arbolados) was created througha Presidential
Decree as the first body responsible for protected areas
(Vargas, 1984). Until 1910, natural areas were the
responsibility of the Central Board of Forest and Woods;
from 1910 to 1912 they were covered by the Forest
Department (Departamento de Bosques) (SEDUE,
n.d.a). From 1914 to 1920 they were the responsibility
of the Department of Forests, Hunting and Fishing
(Departamento de Bosques, Caza y Pesca), and from
1932 to 1934 this responsibility was placed on the
General Directorate of Forestry, Hunting and Fishing
(Direcci6n General Forestal y de Caza y Pesca) (Vargas,
pers. comm., 1992). Between 1934 and 1939, with the
creation of a large number of new protected areas,
special institutes were created for the administration of
these areas. The first was the Forests and National Parks
Office (Oficina de Bosques y Parques Nacionales) as
part of the Autonomous Department of Forestry
(Departamento Auténomo Forestal). The Office was
then raised to the status of a department, the Department
of National and International Parks (Departamento de
Parques Nacionales e Internacionales), within the
Direccién General Forestal y de Caza, a part of the
Secretariat for Agriculture and Public Works (Secretaria
de Agricultura y Fomento) (SAF). Between 1940 and
1951, the Department of Reserves and National Parks
(Departamento de Reservas y Parques Nacionales) dealt
with protected areas within the General Directorate of
Forestry and Hunting of the SAF. There were a great
number of changes between 1951 and 1972 and the
responsibility for protected areas was shifted between
numerous government departments. The short-lived
National Commission of Works in Natural Parks
(Comisién Nacional de Obras en Parques Naturales)
(CONOPAN) was created in 1973, but dissolved three

years later due to its incompatibility with existing
administrative bodies.

From 1976 to 1982, five government agencies were
responsible for protected area management: the Ministry
of Agriculture and Water Resources (Secretaria de
Recursos Hidrdulicos), the Ministry of Human
Settlements and Public Works (Secretaria de
Asentamientos Humanos y Obras Publicas), the
Government of the Federal District (Gobernacién del
Distrito Federal), the Ministry of Tourism (Secretaria de
Turismo) and the Ministry of Fisheries (Secretaria de
Pesca) (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992).

The Ministry for Urban Development and Ecology
(Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia) (SEDUE)
was created in 1982. Within SEDUE, the Subsecretariat
of Ecology was responsible for protected areas through
the General Directorate for Ecological Conservation of
Natural Resources (Direccién General de Conservacién
Ecoldgica de los Recursos Naturales) (DGCERN),
created in 1985. DGCERN was formed by the
amalgamation of the former General Directorate of
Reserves and Ecological Protected Areas (Direccién
General de Parques, Reservas y Areas Ecoldgicas
Protegidas) (DGPRAEP) was established and the
General Directorate for Wild Flora and Fauna (Direccién
General de Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (Alcérreca et al.,
1988). The administration of protected areas was the
responsibility of SEDUE, although this responsibility
could also be delegated to states and municipalities by
SEDUE (SEDUE, n.d.a). Management may also be
contracted to NGOs in certain cases (L. Gonzalez, pers.
comm., 1992).

In May 1992, SEDUE was dissolved and its functions
taken over by the new Ministry for Social Development
(SEDESOL) (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992). Further
information is not currently available.

Systems Reviews Mexicois the third largest country
in Latin America after Brazil and Argentina. It is
bounded in the north by the USA, west and south by the
Pacific Ocean, south-east by Guatemala, Belize and the
Caribbean Sea, and north-east by the Gulf of Mexico. It
is mainly mountainous, with less than 35% of its surface
area below 500m, and more than half above 1,000m
(WCMC, 1988). Volcanic activity is considerable and
has formed much of the topography.

The Sierra Madre Occidental is the main mountain chain
(1,400km) running parallel to the Pacific coast. The
Sierra Madre Oriental (600km) runs north-west to
south-east down the Atlantic coast. Between these two
cordilleras is the Altiplanicie Mexicana, a plateau at an
altitude of 3,000m. The Baja California mountain system
is continuous with the Sierra Nevada in N. California;
being almost completely surrounded by sea, its
biological characteristics, like those of the Yucatan
Peninsula, resemble those of an island. The 950km Eje
Neovolcanico runs east to west and includes Mexico’s
highest peak, Pico de Orizaba (5,675m). South of this is

53

United Mexican States (Mexico)

the 1,100km Sierra Madre del Sur. The south-east
mountain system runs from Chiapas, and is contiguous
with the Central American mountain chain
(Rzedowski, 1978; G. Aguirre, pers. comm., 1992).

The coastline extends for nearly 10,000km, 6,760km on
the Pacific and 2,900km on the Atlantic. There are an
important number of islands on both the Pacific and the
Atlantic sides of the country, as well as varied and
important marine and coastal habitats such as coral
reefs, mangroves and estuaries. The Usumacinta Delta
(11,000 sq. km) on the Atlantic coast is considered one
of the most important wetlands in North America
(Duever and Sprunt, 1978). There are two main river
basins, the Gulf and the Pacific, with some enclosed
basins in the interior of the country.

Mexico ranks fourth in the world after Indonesia, Brazil
and Colombia in terms of biodiversity (Toledo, 1988). It
is also among the top ten countries in the world for the
number of restricted-range bird species and endemic bird
areas it supports (ICBP, 1992). It has the highest
diversity of reptiles in the world, the second greatest
mammal diversity and holds 8.7% of the worlds
amphibian species, 11% of reptile, bird and mammal
species and 14% of fish species. Furthermore, 32% of
Mexico’s terrestrial vertebrates and 40-50% of her plant
species are endemic (Alcérreca et al., 1988;
Flores-Villela and Gerez, 1988). This biological richness
results from great habitat variation and diverse
ecological regions, complex topography, climate,
geology and geographical location. Ecosystems range
from deserts to rain forests and mangrove swamps. In
addition, Mexico, like Indonesia, bridges two major
biogeographic realms, the Nearctic and the Neotropical,
which provide exchanges between elements of northern
temperate and tropical origins (Rzedowski, 1978).
Reviews of Mexico’s terrestrial biodiversity have been
undertaken by Toledo (1988), Flores-Villela and Gerez
(1988) and WCMC (1988).

Mexico has tropical and subtropical zones, which,
together with the complexity of its terrain, result in a
great variety of climates. The Atlantic region is wetter
than the north-west. Alpine climate is found in
mountains higher than 4,000m.

Vegetation can be divided into three approximately
equal areas: the tropical/subtropical, temperate and
semi-arid/arid. The tropical/subtropical region includes
tropical rain forests originally covering 6% of the
country, but half of which has been destroyed. The
vegetation of the temperate region occupies the main
cordilleras and about 15% of the country; the principal
forest consists of a wide diversity of pines Pinus spp. and
oaks Quercus spp.; 80% of plants found in the pine
forests are endemic (Rzedowski, 1978). In addition,
pine forests supply 80% of national timber production
(E. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992). In the higher parts of the
cordilleras, to 3,300m, forests of silver fir Abies spp.
occur. The semi-arid/arid zone is found mainly in the
north and centre (Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts and

Protected Areas of the World

central altiplano) and includes mostly open shrubland
(matorral), cacti and xerophytic monocotyledons
(Davis et al., 1986).

Until recently, the majority of existing protected areas
have represented temperate ecosystems. The SINAP
intended to include areas representative of all the
ecosystems found in the country (SEDUE, n.d.a).
However, at present national biosphere reserves are the
only protected areas to have been selected using
biological criteria; they are also the only ones which
fulfil the minimum management requirements for
conservation (E. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992). In terms of
biological diversity, ecological value and vulnerability,
conservation priorities are: montane broad-leaved forest,
mangroves and coastal wetlands, moist tropical forest,
dry tropical forest and arid zones (E. Jardel, pers.comm.,
1992).

There appear to be discrepancics in the definitions and
number of established protected areas. According to
Vargas (1984 and pers. comm., 1992), at present there
are 15 legally defined categories. Flores Villela and
Geréz (1988) also reported the same number, although
the categories differ, while Alcérreca et al. (1988)
suggest that the number is as high as 26. The
SINAP’s current categories only include nine
definitions (SEDUE, n.d.a.). By 1969 there was a
total of 40 protected areas covering 795,760ha, of
which 34 were national parks (649,778ha) and six were
special biosphere reserves (145,982ha) (SEDUE, n.d.a).
However, Vargas (1984 and pers. comm., 1992) reports
46 national parks only for the same period. By 1992 the
total number of protected areas administered by SEDUE
had increased to 68 (SEDUE, n.d.a). Although 20% of
national territory is protected, these protected areas have
not functioned in practice (Jardel, 1990). In view of this,
biosphere reserves are the ideal type of protected area as
they adapt well to socioeconomic conditions (Halffter,
1984; 1991; Jardel et al., 1992).

Some of the problems facing protected areas include:
lack of clear objectives, scientific research and
management plans, appropriate legal support, and
management resources; irregularities in land tenure and
pressure form settlements in and around protected areas;
and lack of public awareness (Alcérreca et al., 1988;
SEDUE, n.d.a). By the early 1980s, property rights had
been left undefined in 60% of national parks (Vargas,
1984). The majority of protected areas have been
established on communal land or ejidales. This has led
to conflicts between nature conservation and local
utilisation (Jardel, 1990). The legal situation is further
complicated when the limits of protected areas are
confused or erroneous, as is frequently the case in
existing decrees (Alcérreca et al., 1988). The following
are the principal threats: deforestation, poaching,
rubbish dumping, plant poaching, mineral exploitation,
Over-grazing and erosion. Activities, like the expansion
of agriculture have resulted in loss of soil, exhaustion of
watercourses and pollution (Alcérreca er al., 1988;
SEDUE, n.d.a). More detailed analyses of the problems

54

relating to protected areas are made by Vargas (1984)
and Alcérreca et al. (1988). For example, in 1970 it was
reported that 69.1% of the national parks had human
settlements, containing 73,715 people (Vargas, 1984).
Thirty-three parks were overgrazed by livestock,
hunting occurred in 31 parks, and deforestation and/or
tree-cutting occurred in 30 (Vargas, 1984).

Addresses

Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE),
Subsecretaria de Ecologia (Directora General),
Direccidén General de Conservacién Ecolégica de los
Recursos Naturales, Rio Elba No. 20, 10 Piso,
Colonia Cuauhtémoc, Delegacién Cuauhtémoc
06500, MEXICO DF (Tel/FAX: 525 553 9462)

Centro de Ecologia, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de
México (UNAM), Aptdo. Postal 70-275, MEXICO
04510, D.F.

Amigos de Sian Ka’an, Apartado 770, 77500 Canciin,
QUINTANA ROO

Fundacion Chiapaneca Miguel Alvarez del Toro para la
Proteccion de la Naturaleza (FUNDAMAT), A.C.
Apartado Postal No. 970, Tuxtla Gutiérrez,
CHIAPAS CP 29000

Laboratorio Natural Las Joyas de la Sierra de
Manantlan, Universidad de Guadalajara,
Aptdo Postal 1-3933, 44100 GUADALAJARA
(Tel. 268655) Mariposa Monarca, Avenida
Constituyentes 345-806, Colonia Daniel Garza, 1 183 0
MEXICO, DF (Tel: 525 515 9910)

PRONATURA, A.C., Apartado Postal 14, 53160
NAUCALPAN , Estado de México (Tel: 525 545 1776)

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Anaya, A., De la Maza, J., Consejo, J.J., Garcia, J.M.
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Beltran, E. (1973). Los Parques Nacionales y la Semana
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United Mexican States (Mexico)

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(Unseen)

Vargas, F. (1984). Parques nacionales de México y
reservas equivalentes. Instituto de Investigaciones
Econémicas, UNAM. 266 pp.

Vargas, F. (1990). Las dreas naturales "protegidas" en
México; una utopia, basada en simulaciones, mitos,
demagogia y autoritarismo. II International
Symposium on Protected Areas in Mexico. Centro de
Ecologia UNAM. 22-26 October 1990.

WCMC (1988). Mexico —Conservation of biological
diversity. World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge, UK. 19 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Ley General del Equilibrio Ecoldégico y
la Protecci6n al Ambiente (General Law for
Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental

Protection)
Date: 1 March 1988

Brief description:

The backbone of ecological

regulation in the country and is an integrated
approach to the ecology issue and the commitment

to tackle the related problems through the combin
efforts of the state and society. The first sev
categories are federal while the remaining two are
local interest.

Administrative authority:
Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE)

Designations:

Reserva de la Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve)

ed
en
of

Secretaria de

Area no less than 10,000ha containing relevant
biogeographic representative areas at the national
level, of one or more ecosystems not significantly
altered by human action, with at least a pristine area
inhabited by endemic, threatened or endangered

species.

Reserva Especial de la Bidsfera (Special Biosphere

Reserve)

Representative area of one or more

ecosystems not significantly altered by man,
inhabited by endemic, threatened or endangered
species. Their smaller size and ecosystems are the

main differences with the above.

Parque Nacional (National Park)

Biogeographic representative area at a national level
of one or more ecosystems which are significant as a
result of their scenic beauty, their scientific,

educational, recreational or historic value, their
nationally important flora and fauna and their

suitability for tourist development.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)

Area with one or more natural elements of national
importance, consisting of natural places and objects
that due to their unique or exceptional character,
aesthetic interest, historic and scientific value are

incorporated into a system of absolute protection.

Parque Marino Nacional (Marine National Park)
Marine areas, beaches and federal maritime-

terrestrial neighbouring areas, dedicated to t

he

preservation of the aquatic ecosystems and elements,
ecological research and the rational use of their
resources under specific norms of ecological

protection.

56

Title:
International Parks (Reglamento de Parques
Nacionales e Internacionales)

Area de Proteccién de Recursos Naturales (Natural
Resource Protection Area) Areas destined to
preserve and restore forested areas and to the
conservation of the soil and water. The following
areas are further found within this category: (a) forest
reserve, (b) national forest reserve, (c) protective
forest area, (d) area of forest restoration and
propagation and (e) protection area for rivers,
springs, deposits and in general, sources for urban
water replenishment.

Area de Proteccién de Flora y Fauna Silvestre y
Acudatica (Wild and Aquatic Flora and Fauna
Protection Area) Areas containing critical
habitats for the existence, transformation and
development of species of wild and aquatic flora and
fauna.

Parque Urbano (Urban Park) Areas for public
use with natural, artificial ecosystems or nature
elements dedicated to protect a healthy environment
for recreation of the population and for the protection
of artistic and historical values and natural beauty of
regional or local significance.

Zona Sujeta a Conservacion Ecoldgica (Ecological
Conservation Zone) Areas with one or more
ecosystems in good conservation state, destined to
preserve natural elements indispensable for
ecological equilibrium and general welfare. Urban
parks and areas subject to ecological conservation
are the responsibility of state governments and
municipalities.

Source: SEDUE (1989)

Regulation of National and

Date: Promulgated 15 April 1942; published
29 May 1942

Brief description: Provides the clearest national
parks concept in the Mexican park legislation

Administrative authority: Federal
government

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) Areas

destined to ensure the protection of natural scenic
beauties and flora and fauna of national importance,
which the public may better enjoy by being placed
under official surveillance.

Source: Original legislation

United Mexican States (Mexico)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Benito Juarez II 2,737 1937
2 Bosencheve II 15,000 1940
3 Cafién del Rio Blanco II 55,900 1938
4 Cajfién del Sumidero II 21,789 1980
5 Cascada de Bassaseachic II 6,263 1981
6 Cerro de la Estrella II 1,100 1938
if Cofre de Perote II 11,700 1937
8 Constituci6n de 1857 II 5,009 1962
9 Cumbres de Majalca II 4,772 1939
10 Cumbres de Monterrey II 246,500 1939
11 El Chico II 2,739 1982
12 EI Cimatario II 2,447 1982
13 El Gogorr6on II 25,000 1936
14 El Potosi II 2,000 1936
15 EI Tepozteco II 24,000 1937
16 El Veladero II 3,159 1980
17 Grutas de Cacahuamilpa Ill 1,600 1936
18 Insurgente Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon II 4,324 1939
19 Insurgente Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla II 1,760 1936
20 Isla Isabela II 194 1980
21 Iztaccihuatl-Popocatépetl II 25,679 1935
22 La Malinche II 45,711 1938
23 Lagunas de Chacahua II 5 14,187 1937
24 Lagunas de Montebello II 6,022 1959
25 Lagunas de Zempoala II 4,669 1936
26 Los Marmoles II 23,150 1936
27 Nevado de Colima II 22,200 1936
28 Nevado de Toluca II 51,000 1936
29 Palenque Vv 1,772 1981
30 Pico de Orizaba II 19,750 1937
31 Pico de Tancitaro II 29,316 1940
32 Sierra de San Pedro Mantir II 63,000 1947
33 Zoquiapan y Anexas II 19,418 1937

Biosphere Reserves (National)

34 Calakmul Vv 723,185 1989

35 El Pinacate Vv 480,956

36 El Triunfo I 119,177 1972

37 El Vizcaino Vv 2,546,790 1988

38 Mapimi Vv 103,000 1977

39 Michilia V 42,000 1977

40 Montes Azules II 331,200 1978

41 Sian Ka’an II 528,147 1986

42 Sierra de Manantlan Vv BEES 1987
Marine Reserve

43 La Blanquilla IV 66,868 1975
Faunal Reserve

44 Isla Cedros I 1,000 1978
Cetacean Sanctuary

45 Isla de Guerrero Negro I 40,000 1979

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

Nationall/international designations IUCN management
Name of area category
Refuges

La Mojonera IV
La Primavera IV
Sierra de Alvarez IV
Sierra del Pinacate IV
Valle de los Cirios IV
Natural Monument

Cerro de la Silla I
Natural and Typical Biotope

La Encrucijada IV
Special Biosphere Reserves

Cascadas de Agua Azul III
El Ocote IV
Isla Contoy I
Isla Guadalupe I
Isla Tiburon VII
Islas del Golfo de California I
Mariposa Monarca I
Ria Celestuin IV
Ria Lagartos IV
Sierra de Santa Martha VII
Volcan de San Martin Vil
Park

Omiltemi II
Forest Reserves

Bavispe VIII
Campo Verde VIII
Centenario VIII
El Gavilan VIII
Mesa del Pitorreal Vil
Papigochic Vill
Porcidn Boscosa de San Luis Potosi VIII
San José de los Molinos VIII
Sierra de Juarez VIII
Sierra de Los Ajos, Buenos Aires y Purica Vill
Sierra de Pedro Martir Vill
Sierras de Hansen y San Pedro Martir, y Mesa Pinal VIII
Tequixquipan Vill
Terenos de Puebla y México Vill
Tutuaca Vill
Protection Area for Wild Flora and Fauna

Corredor Biolégico Chichinautzin IV
Biosphere Reserves

El Cielo IX
Montes Azules IX
Reserva de Mapimi IX
Reserva de la Michilia IX
Sian Ka’an IX
Sierra de Manantlan IX

58

Area
(ha)

9,201
30,500
16,900
28,660

3,500,000

6,045

30,000

2,580
48,140
176
25,000
120,800
150,000
16,100
59,130
47,840
20,000
1,500

3,600

198,164
78,792
3,000
9,682
4,900
172,480
29,885
2,995
140,000
21,494
74,000
1,249,000
32,000
18,215
364,952

37,302

144,530
331,200
103,000

42,000
523,147
139,577

Year
notified

1981
1980
1981
1979
1980

1991

1972

1980
1982
1961
1922
1963
1978
1980
1979
1979
1980
1979

1939
1938
1949
1923
1923
1939
1923
1942
1951
1936
1951
1923
1935
1926
1937

1988

1986
1979
1977
1977
1986
1988

United Mexican States (Mexico)

Map National/international designations ‘ IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Ramsar Wetlands
Ria Lagartos, Yucatan R 47,480 1986
World Heritage Site
Sian Ka’an Xx 528,000 1987

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Mexico

60

ST PIERRE AND MIQUELON (FRANCE)

Area 242 sq. km (SaintPierre group: 26 sq. km;
MiquelonLanglade group: 216 sq. km)

Population 6,392 (1990)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation The eight islands of
the St Pierre and Miquelon archipelago were first
settled from France in the 17th century they were ceded
by Britain to France in 1776. They remained French
territory from 1816 to 1976 and an overseas department
until 1985. In June 1985 they were reformed as a
collectivité territoriale, with intermediate status
between overseas department and overseas territory
(Hunter, 1991).

As a dependency, the islands adhere to the policy and
legislation of France (Frean, 1991; Hunter, 1991), and
are administered by a General Council, which is
represented in the National Assembly in Paris. The
French government is represented on the islands by a
Commissioner.

The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, superseding
that of 1946, came into force on 4 October 1958. It has
92 articles and gave rise to the current conservation
legislation. The general framework for establishing
protected areas in France and its dependencies is
provided by the Law Relating to the Creation of National
Parks No. 60.708 of 22 July 1960 and the Nature
Conservation Act No. 76 629 of 10 July 1976, which
includes provision for the general framework for
defining, designating and establishing nature reserves
(réserves naturelles). No information is available
concerning protected areas in St Pierre and Miquelon.

International Activities No international sites
have been designated in the islands, although France
itself is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention) (1 October 1986) and the
Convention conceming the World Natural and Cultural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention) (27 June 1975),
and is also a participant in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme.

France has not signed a number of important regional
treaties in North America, most notably the Migratory
Birds Convention which was signed between Canada
and the USA in 1917 and the North American Waterfowl
Management Plan (NAWMP): a joint project involving
Mexico, the USA and Canada.

Administration and Management As a collectivité
territoriale, authority is vested in the Commissioner. The

61

ordinary budget for 1989 was balanced at FF 87.4
million.

Administrative responsibility for nature conservation
throughout France lies with the Ministry of the
Environment (Ministére de 1’Environnement), which
was established in 1971. Bodies involved in the central
organisation within France include the Agency for the
Quality of Life (Délégation 4 la qualité de la vie), the
Directorate for Water and the Prevention of Pollution
Risks (Direction de l’eau et de la prévention des
pollutions et des risques), the Directorate for Nature
Conservation (Direction de la protection de la nature),
and the High Committee for the Environment (Haut
Comité de 1’Environnement). There are several
semi-autonomous bodies which fall under the
supervision of the Ministry of the Environment; these
include the National Hunting Office (Office national de
la chasse), the Higher Council for Fishing (Conseil
supérieur de la péche), the National Parks and the
Coastal and Lakeshore Conservancy (Conservatoire de
lV’espace littoral et des rivages lacustres) (CERL).

The Higher Council for Fishing has had some
involvement in negotiations with the government of
Canada and the province of Newfoundland over fishing
rights for the islands (Frean, 1991).

Systems Reviews The eight islands of the
Archipelago lie in the northwest Atlantic, some 20km off
the south coast of Newfoundland, west of the Burin
Peninsula. Much of the area of the islands is rocky, while
ponds, swamps and marshes cover over half of the total
area. Most of the land area is treeless; however, some of
the valleys are wooded. Agriculture is not a major feature
of the landscape, although some vegetables and livestock
are kept for local consumption (Davis et al., 1986;
Hunter, 1991).

There are 391 native species and 96 introduced species
of vascular plants (Davis et al., 1986).

Fisheries provide the economical mainstay of the
islands, although fish stocks are now severely depleted
due to overfishing (Horsfield, 1990). The islanders claim
a 200mile fishing zone to the south and east of the
islands. This fishing zone is the source of a major dispute
with the Canadians, who blame the islanders for
overfishing in the area (Frean, 1991; Hunter, 1991).

Other Relevant Information For further
information relating to national French policy,
administration and management, see the relevant
section in Volume 2. In 1989 there were 14,100
visitors to the islands.

Protected Areas of the World

Addresses

Commissioner, Collectivité Territoriale, St Pierre,
Saint Pierre et Miquelon, France

References
Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon,
CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska,

J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we know? IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

62

De La Rue, E.A. (1963). SaintPierre et Miquelon. Paris.

Frean, A. (1991). Battle rages over the islands of fog.
The European. Weekend 2628 July. P. 11.

Horsfield, M. (1990). Gee whiz! It’s France’s North
American foothold. The European. Weekend
November 911. Pp. 2223.

Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman’s Yearbook. 128th
edition. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London and
Basingstoke, UK. Pp. 483521.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Area 9,372,614 sq. km

Population 249,224,000 (1989)
Natural increase: 0.72% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$19,049 per capita (1989)
GNP: US$21,100 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation The Declaration of
Independence of the American colonies from Great
Britain was adopted by Congress on 4 July 1776 and the
Treaty of Peace ratified on 14 January 1784. The
Constitution dates from 17 September 1787, and by this
the national government is divided into executive,
legislative and judicial coordinated branches. Under
Article 1 Section 1 all legislative powers are vested in
the Congress of the United States (US). The US is a
federal nation, comprising 48 coterminous states, as well
as the disjunct states of Alaska and Hawaii. Each of these
50 states has its own Constitution and legislation.
Overseas, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, American
Samoa, Guam and the Virgin Islands each has a local
legislature, the acts of which may be modified or
annulled by Congress. For detailed information
concerning Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands see
the relevant sections in this volume. For information
relating to Hawaii, American Samoa and Guam see the
relevant sections of Volume 1.

In North America the protected area systems are large
and complex. Policy and legislation for the conservation
of protected areas is found at both state and federal level,
whilst, within states, a number of sites have been
protected at the local and regional levels. This report
deals largely with protected areas declared under federal
legislation and administered by federal agencies.

When first colonised by Europeans, North America was
very much a wilderness, with a vast and largely
undisturbed wealth of natural resources. The native
Americans had a great respect for the natural
environment, on which their livelihood, religion and
culture were almost wholly dependent. For generations
sacred areas had been respected by the tribes, entry
forbidden, or such activities as hunting and fishing
restricted, and in a number of locations this philosophy
continues to the present day (Gattuso, 1991).

The evolution of the modern concept of protected area
is generally regarded as having started in the State of
Georgia which boasted a reserve for public use as early
as 1825. However, there is some evidence which traces
the history of parks to a state reservation in
Massachusetts in 1641. Parks conservation began in
earnest, however, on 30 June 1864, when President
Abraham Lincoln signed a law granting the Yosemite
Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias to
California to be held for "public use, resort, and

63

recreation...inalienable for all time.” A short time after
this, on 1 March 1872 Yellowstone was declared as a
"national park", widely accepted as the first national park
in the world. The Antiquities Act, 1906 granted the
President the power unilaterally to declare sites of
historic or scientific value as monuments. The Act
favoured cultural and historical preservation, but
President Theodore Roosevelt interpreted the criteria of
scientific value broadly, and invoked his new executive
powers widely to create national monuments in areas of
value for nature conservation.

Federal Policy and Legislation

Legislation governing protected areas is largely covered
under single organic acts or series of laws enacted by
Congress giving protected area jurisdiction to specific
agencies. These organic acts impose on the agencies
certain duties or areas of responsibility for a whole range
of laws pertaining to protected areas. These areas of
responsibility have been grouped into systems such as
the National Park System with a number of different park
designations. The main systems listed here include the
National Park System, National Wilderness Preservation
System, National Forest System, National Wild and
Scenic Rivers System, National Marine Sanctuary
Code/Natignal Estuarine Research Reserves System and
the National Wildlife Refuge System (see below and
Annex).

Individual federal laws are contained in a series of
volumes (Statutes at Large) in the order in which they
were passed, and subsequently codified and put into the
United States Code (USC). The President may also
delegate specific duties to specific departments and
agencies by Executive Order. Regulations for the
differing categories of protected area are drafted in the
relevant department or agency and put before the public
in open hearings and published both in the draft and final
form in the Federal Register. Final regulations are, like
individual pieces of legislation which are passed by
Congress, codified, appearing in the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) (see Annex).

National Park System National parks and other
categories of lands within this system are established by
individual acts of Congress (prior to 1980, national
monuments could also be established by the President on
federal lands by proclamation under the Antiquities Act,
1906). The National Park Service was established by the
Act of 1916, Title 16 of the USC, Chapter 1 (16 USC 1).
It contains the authorising legislation, or "organic act"
for the National Park Service. This law stipulates that
"the Service...shall promote and regulate the use of the
federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and
reservations hereinafter specified..." The National Park
Service has responsibility for three broad types of areas,
natural, historical and recreational, represented by some

Protected Areas of the World

16 categories of nomenclature under the National Park
System. These include: national park, national
monument, national reserve, national preserve, national
recreation area, national historic site, national historic
park, national battlefield, national seashore, national
lakeshore, national scenic trail, national river, as well as
national wild and scenic river (see Annex). Detailed
definitions for these different categories are not provided
under general legislation, and restrictions and
regulations vary considerably between sites of the same
category.

National Wilderness Preservation System This is
based on the Wilderness Act (Wilderness Act, 1964,
PL 88-577, 16 USC 1131-1136) and dates from 3
September 1964. The Act establishes criteria for the
management of areas of land as "wilderness" and the
processes under which many areas have been added to
the system, areas are added only by individual acts of
Congress (see Annex). Four federal agencies (US
National Park Service, US Forest Service, US Fish and
Wildlife Service and US Bureau of Land Management)
are authorised and mandated to manage wilderness. A
large proportion of the designated areas lie within other
categories of protected land administered by the federal
agencies, and, where this is the case, the additional
categorisation as wilderness will generally increase the
degree of protection.

National Forest System This is based on the Forest
Reserves Act, often referred to as the Creative Act, 1891
(USC Title 16, Chapter 2 (16 USC 2); the Organic
Administration Act, 1897 (16 USC 475); and the Weeks
Law and Resources Planning Act. The Resources
Planning Act, 1974 incorporated the term national forest
system into the statutes. Under the System the US Forest
Service has responsibility for national forests, national
grasslands and land utilisation projects. Within national
forests are a number of administrative designations:
forests are classed into general or special interest areas,
the latter listed as scenic areas, palaeontological areas,
geological areas, botanical areas and zoological areas
(see Annex).

The resources of these lands are managed according to
the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act, 1960 and the
National Forest Management Act, 1976. The former
established the policy that national forests be established
and administered for "outdoor recreation, range, timber,
watershed and wildlife and fish purposes", while the
latter required the development and implementation of
integrated plans for the management of forest and
rangeland ecosystems. Under these Land and Resource
Management Plans management direction is provided
for the entire National Forest System: lands may be
protected from or managed for various uses and at
varying levels of intensity, and, in this way, a form of
de facto protection status is provided for large areas. Two
further administrative designations on Forest Service
land are game refuges and game preserves, of which
there are 21 sites, mostly in the eastern US, which

provide an additional degree of habitat protection within
parts of some national forests (McCloskey, 1992).

In addition to its own legal and administrative categories,
the Forest Service manages lands in the following
categories: wilderness area, national recreation area,
research natural area, national wild and scenic river, and
national monument. In terms of degree of protection and
area covered, the wilderness areas on USFS land are
undoubtedly the most important form of protected area
for conservation purposes. The Forest Service maintains
probably the largest network of research natural areas of
any federal agency. It also administers a number of large
natural monuments, notably Misty Fjords and Admiralty
Island in Alaska, and Mount St Helens in Washington.

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System This is
based on the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (USC, Title 16,
Chapter 28) of 2 October 1968. The system was
authorised by Congress in 1968, declaring certain
selected rivers of the nation as national wild and scenic
rivers. They are designated as wild river areas, scenic
river areas or recreational river areas, and include both
federal and state land. The Law states that the system
shall comprise rivers that are designated by Act of
Congress or designated by a legislature of the state(s)
through which they flow (see Annex).

National Estuarine Research Reserves System and
National Marine Sanctuaries Congress has
authorised the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) to maintain two types of
protected areas: national marine sanctuaries and national
estuarine research reserves. The National Marine
Sanctuary Programme was authorised by the
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act, 1972 (PL 92-532), as amended, 16 USC 1431 et
seq. Programme regulations for the national marine
sanctuary programme are found at 15 CFR 922. National
Marine sanctuaries are established in the ocean and
coastal environment for resource protection and
management of compatible uses. The National Estuarine
Research Reserve System was authorised by section 315
of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL
92-583), as amended, 16 USC 1451 et seq. Programme
regulations for the national estuarine research reserve
system are found at 15 CFR 921. National estuarine
research reserves are established primarily as "natural
laboratory" areas for estuarine research (see Annex).

National Wildlife Refuge System The Organic Act
relating to national wildlife refuges is the National
Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 1966,
which expresses policy and provides guidelines for
operating the system. The most important category in
this system is the national wildlife refuge, although
waterfowl production areas and coordination areas also
form part of the system. The Refuge Recreation Act,
1962 authorises the purchase of adjacent lands to serve
as recreational areas and as buffer areas to the refuges
(funds for the purchase of such lands under the Land and
Water Conservation Fund Act, 1965). The Wilderness

Act, 1964 and the Endangered Species Act, 1973
(revised 1982, supplemented in the International
Environmental Protection Act, 1983) have some bearing
on the system. The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act,
1934 (amended 1958) authorises federal water resource
agencies to acquire lands in connection with water
resource projects specifically for the conservation of
wildlife. In 1903, Pelican Island, Florida, was protected
asa wildlife refuge under an executive order. Subsequent
growth in numbers of wildlife refuges created under
executive order resulted in the need for a management
authority.

Policy and direction for the Refuge System are identified
in the USFWS’s refuge manual. This gives four broad
goals for the management of the System: to preserve,
restore and enhance populations of species that are
becoming endangered; to perpetuate the migratory bird
resource; to preserve a natural biodiversity on refuge
lands; and to provide for an understanding and
appreciation of ecology and man’s role in the
environment and provide for recreation where this is
compatible with the primary purposes of the specific
refuge. Management plans have been, or will be
developed for each refuge

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Lands

The Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1976
(PL 94-579; 43 USC 170) is the equivalent of an organic act
which contains the authorising legislation for the BLM and
the declaration of congressional policy with respect to public
lands administered by the BLM. The Act specifies that the
public lands be managed in a manner that: will protect the
quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological,
environmental, air and atmospheric, water resource, and
archaeological values; where appropriate, the BLM will
preserve and protect certain public lands in their natural
condition; management will provide food and habitat for fish
and wildlife and domestic animals; will also provide for
outdoor recreation and human occupancy and use; and that
regulations and plans for the protection of public land areas
of critical environmental concem be promptly developed.
The Act also states that: public lands should generally be
retained in Federal ownership; goals and objectives be
established by law as guidelines for public land use planning;
and management should be on the basis of multiple use and
sustained yield, unless otherwise specified by law.

Several different categories of protected areas are operative
on public lands administered by the BLM. The first type of
designations are administrative designations, such as:
scenic areas, areas of environmental concem, trails, natural
areas, research natural areas, special recreation
Management areas, by-ways, significant caves and others.
Such administrative designations are made by the general
authority of the Secretary of the Interior in administering
the public lands, or by the BLM under the resource
management planning process (eg. areas of critical
environmental concem) using the authority contained in
Section 202 of the Federal Land Policy and Management
Act. The other categories of protected area are those
founded in legislation and enacted as public land laws

65

United States of America

on a generic basis such as wilderness areas under the
authority of the Wilderness Act, scenic and recreation
rivers under the authority of the Wild and Scenic Rivers
Act, or by special laws on an ad hoc basis for a specific
area, such as national recreation areas, national
conservation areas, national historic trails, national
scenic trails, national outstanding natural areas and
others.

Department of Defense Lands The Organic Act
relating to Department of Defense (DoD) land, federal
statutes (Title 16, USC) authorises the Secretary of
Defense "to carry out a programme of planning for, and
the development, maintenance, and coordination of
wildlife, fish and game conservation and rehabilitation
in military reservations". There are a number of other
laws which also relate specifically to conservation on
military lands, for example Public Laws 86-797, 90-465,
93-452 and 96-561. Several sections of the US Code
(Title 10) provide for conservation on military land.
Finally, worth mentioning, is the Department of Defense
Directive Number 4700.4, the Natural Resources
Management Program (Keystone Center, 1991).

Also of relevance at the federal level is the system of
national natural landmarks which are designated on any
areas of land outside the national park system. This is an
administrative rather than a legal designation,
participation in the scheme by private landowners is
entirely voluntary (see Annex). Another non-legislated
category is that of research natural area, designated by
any one of eight federal agencies on federal land. Their
objective is to preserve a representative array of natural
and mostly undisturbed natural ecosystems, and to use
these for education and research into these areas. Most
of these sites lie within existing protected areas (see
Annex).

The Endangered Species Act, 1973 has some relation to
the protection of land. This Act lists some 600 species (a
further 3,000 species are considered as candidates for
listing). Among the measures listed for the protection of
these species is the designation of critical habitat for
listed species and that this habitat should also receive
protection. Current controversies concerning the fate of
the northern spotted owl and its equally threatened
habitat of oldgrowth temperate forest of the Pacific
north-west coast of North America are clearly putting the
habitat protection clauses of this Act to the test, and it
remains to be seen how much of its fast-disappearing
critical habitat receives protection in the near future.

There is also a considerable body of legislation which
relates to the protection of wetland areas within the US,
this includes: the Clean Water Act, 1977; Executive
Order 11990 Protection of Wetlands, 1977; the Food
Security Act, 1985 (Swampbuster and other provisions);
Emergency Wetland Act, 1986; Tax Reform Act, 1986;
and Water Resources Development Act, 1986. Although
these do not actually provide a legal category of
protection, or provide clearly delineated boundaries, it is

Protected Areas of the World

estimated that the total area of wetlands protected under
such legislation may be in excess of 40 million ha.

The 1965 Land and Water Conservation Fund Act
established the Land and Water Conservation Fund
which is largely supplied from tax revenues. Money
from the fund is used for protection purposes, with
approximately half going to federal agencies, and half to
individual states. The federal money is used largely for
land acquisition purposes for the establishment or
expansion of protected areas, and some of the state
money is also used for this purpose, although much of
the remainder is granted more broadly to a range of
outdoor recreation activities.

State Policy and Legislation

Each of the 50 states within the United States has its own
state park system, with at least one protected area
management agency (Myers and Green, 1989). The state
of New York created Niagara Falls Reservation in 1883,
and Adirondak Park two years later. By 1907, the state
of Wisconsin had developed a park system plan. It is
beyond the scope of this publication to describe in detail
the situation of each and every one of the 50 states (for
greater detail see TNC, 1976). The establishment and
expansion of the conservation units in Alaska is
governed by the Alaska National Interests Lands
Conservation Act, 1980, which provided for the
additional preservation of some 42 million ha within this
state. All of these areas fall within federal protected area
systems.

International Activities The United States participates
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, with
47 sites having been recognised as part of the
international biosphere reserve network. The Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was ratified on 18
December 1986, and ten sites have been listed. The United
States ratified the Convention Conceming the Protection of
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) on 7 December 1973. Ten natural sites have
been inscribed on the World Heritage List, including a
joint nomination with Canada.

The United States ratified both the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
and the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating
Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 31 October
1984. The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected
Areas and Wildlife has also been signed. The United
States is party to the South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme, and the 1986 Convention for
the Protection of the Natural Resources and
Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP
Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986), but
not yet ratified. The Migratory Birds Convention was
signed between Canada and the USA in 1917. The North
American Waterfowl Management Plan is a joint project
involving Canada and Mexico, 27 US states,

approximately 200 conservation groups and many
corporations, in the planning of programmes conserving
waterfowl and wetland habitats. A similar programme is
in development for international cooperation in the
protection of neotropical migrants.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US National
Park Service maintain cooperative agreements with
protected area agencies throughout the world for
technical assistance in support of protected area
management.

There are a number of transboundary protected areas.
Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton
National Park in Alberta, Canada were combined in 1932
to form the first international peace park in the world.
Others include the Wrangell-St Elias national park
(USA) and Kluane national park (Canada); Arctic
national wildlife refuge (USA) and Northern Yukon
national park (Canada); Boundary Waters Canoe Area
national forest wilderness (USA) and Quetico
Wilderness provincial park (Canada); Pasayten national
forest wilderness (USA) and the complex of Cathedral,
Cascade and Manning provincial parks (Canada). A
management agreement is currently being discussed
concerning the establishment of a 2 million ha border
park between the USA and Mexico along the Rio Grande
which would incorporate Big Bend national park in the
USA.

Administration and Management There are five
principal federal authorities, and at least four others with
minor roles; the overall expenditure of federal agencies
on protected areas in 1991 alone was US$ 1,962,704,000
(Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992).

Federal Land

National Park Service (NPS), US Department of the
Interior was established in 1916 with two main aims:
to conserve the scenery and natural and historic objects
and wildlife within the areas under its jurisdiction; and
to provide for public access and enjoyment of these
areas. The efforts to balance these two missions have
shaped the development of this agency, making it unique
among the federal natural resource management
agencies. The NPS administers over 360 units, covering
over 32 million ha, including sites of both natural and
cultural significance, visited by over 360 million people
each year. Under the Director of the NPS are associate
directors responsible for: Natural Resources (includes
the NPS science programme); Cultural Resources
(includes the NPS history and archaeology
programmes); Operations (includes visitor services,
Tanger activities, and interpretation); Budget and
Administration; Planning and Development (includes
the Denver Service Center); and Management Systems.
Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has
designated some US$ 992.4 million for the operation of
the national park system, with a further US$ 118.9
million to be derived from the Land and Water
Conservation Fund to be granted for land acquisition and

state assistance, and with a further US$ 231.8 million for
construction, improvements, repair or replacement of
physical facilities. The National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation has recently recommended a restructuring of
the NPS budgets. One of the main aims of this is to shift
the emphasis away from development within parks,
notably the large sums directed to accommodating
visitor needs and services, towards an increase in
funding for natural resource management under four
headings: protection, mitigation, inventory and
monitoring, and research (NFWF, 1992). NPS has over
13,000 full time employees, and nearly double this
number, with part time employees and volunteers,
during peak visitation periods.

As part ofits science programme, the NPS maintains ties
to research and academic institutions through a network
of Cooperative Park Study Units at major universities.
Authority for most national monuments administered by
the Forest Service was transferred to the NPS in 1933,
and responsibility for national battlefields was
transferred from the Department of the Army soon after.
Other federal agencies, including the Forest Service and
the Bureau of Land Management, continue to maintain
significant holdings in national monuments and
recreation areas.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) of the US
Department of the Interior: Federal involvement in the
conservation of fish and wildlife began with the
establishment of the Bureau of Fisheries in 1871 in the
Department of Commerce. The Bureau of Biological
Inventory was established in 1885 in the Department of
Agriculture. In 1939 both of these agencies were
transferred to the Department of the Interior, where they
were later consolidated into the USFWS. The central aim
of the Service is to conserve, protect and enhance fish
and wildlife populations and their habitats — it has
principal authority and responsibility for migratory
birds, threatened and endangered species and lands
under Service control. In terms of protected areas the
USFWS has responsibility for the National Wildlife
Refuge System. The Service employs around 7,000
people, with a headquarters in Washington, and eight
regional offices. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal
year 1993 has designated some US$ 535.1 million for
resource management (as a guide, in 1990 somewhat less
than one third of this figure went to "refuge operations
and maintenance"). A further US$ 76.2 million has been
designated for land acquisition to be derived from the
Land and Water Conservation Fund in 1993, and a
further US$ 82.1 million for construction of buildings
and other facilities. The most important protected areas
under USFWS jurisdiction include national wildlife
refuges, waterfowl production areas, and coordination
areas. The Service also manages wildlife research
centres, fish hatcheries and fish research stations. There
are a number of federal acts which give the USFWS an
important role in projects and activities concerning fish
and wildlife resources on non-USFWS lands. Through
these, for example, the Service plays an important role

67

United States of America

in the protection and restoration of wetland habitats. It is
also able to influence the land management strategies of
other federal agencies, such as the Department of
Defense. The Service began work in 1990 onacombined
plan and environmental impact statement for
management of the system through the year 2003, the
100th anniversary of the establishment of the first
national wildlife refuge on Pelican Island, Florida.

The US Forest Service (USFS), US Department of
Agriculture was established in 1905 and has often been
faced with the balancing the conflicting demands of
production and protection in the forest resources under
its authority — the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act and
the National Forest Management Act have helped to
refine this balance to some degree. Appropriations
legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some
US$ 1,318.5 million for the management, protection,
improvement, and utilisation of the national forest
system, with a number of large additional funds covering
fire protection, firefighting, construction, research and
land acquisition. In this latter fund, US$ 62.9 million
have been designated for land acquisition, to be derived
from the Land and Water Conservation Fund in 1993.

Of the 77.4 million ha managed in the National Forest
System, some 24 million ha are considered as potentially
suitable for timber production, although a proportion of
these will remain protected from timber production. The
USFS maintains a network of forest research
laboratories, through which it cooperates with academic
and research institutions.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), US Department of Commerce was established
in 1970 with a broad range of aims from managing
marine resources, to mapping, to meteorology, to
oceanographic and atmospheric research. NOAA’s
programmes are grouped into six areas: the National
Ocean Service which manages ocean and coastal
resources, National Marine Fisheries Service, Oceanic
and Atmospheric Research, National Weather Service,
National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information
Service, and Program Support. Appropriations
legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some
US$ 1,539 million for the operations, research and
facilities for this entire organisation. Only a very small
proportion of this, however will in any way be related to
protected areas (see below). Through the Sanctuary
Programme, NOAA is empowered to enforce protected
area regulations, and to manage protected areas in two
distinct programmes covering national estuarine
research reserves and national marine sanctuaries.
NOAA works cooperatively with state agencies and with
research institutions in the management of the national
estuarine research reserve system. NOAA’s mandate to
manage marine protected areas has no parallel in the
federal system; because it does not manage titled land,
but an intensively-used public resource, NOAA is thus
required to develop collaborative mechanisms with
numerous bodies. The annual budget for managing the
national marine sanctuary programme is less than US$

Protected Areas of the World

10 million annually. The federal share of the budget for
the administration of national estuarine research reserves
is US$ 3.2 million annually (NOAA, pers comm, 1992).

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), US
Department of the Interior was established in 1946
through the consolidation of the General Land Office
and the Grazing Service. It is responsible for over 100
million ha of federal land, as well as many millions of
hectares of subsurface, reserved mineral rights. Under
the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1976, the
BLM was required to review and inventory its roadless
lands of 5,000 acres (2,025ha) or more, as well as
roadless islands, in the contiguous 48 states. The aim of
this exercise was to report to the President, with a
recommendation as to the suitability of each such area
or island for preservation as a wilderness area. Certain
areas identified as natural or primitive areas prior to 1975
were also to be reported to the President. Public lands
administered by the BLM in Alaska were exempt from
the FLPMA wilderness review, and may be studied for
wilderness as part of the regular land and resource use
planning process used by the BLM, as provided for by
the provisions of the Alaska National Interest Lands
Conservation Act, 1980, as amended. Appropriations
legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some
US$ 544.9 million for the management of lands and
resources.

BLM’s protected areas are typically "islands within the
lands" administered for multiple uses, including forestry,
mining, and grazing. BLM has developed proficiency in
community outreach that can be applied in participation
in the planning and management of its protected areas.
Its managers are responsible not only for the protected
areas, but for the managed areas that constitute potential
buffers. BLM’s routine interactions with the public in
these more intensively-used areas provide a basis for
cooperation in management of the protected areas as
well.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), US Department
of the Interior, authorised under Title 25 of the US
Code, does not have a specific mandate for protected
areas, but under general provisions for welfare of Indian
citizens of the US, can administer reservation lands for
nature conservation. BIA provides technical assistance
to tribes, with a general mandate for multiple uses, and
assists, upon application of a tribe, in protected area
management. Management authority is reserved by the
tribe. Navaho Park is an example of management by a
tribe of tribal lands for nature conservation.

The Bureau of Reclamation, US Department of the
Interior, and the Tennessee Valley Authority are not
specifically authorised to manage protected areas, but do
maintain protected lands under executive orders to
maintain watersheds and water resources. These sites are
frequently developed and managed as recreation areas
similar to those of other federal agencies.

68

The four services of the Department of Defense manage
approximately 10 million ha between them. Although
not responsible directly for conservation issues, the DoD
clearly has an enormous wealth of natural resources on
its lands. It does maintain some programmes dealing
with monitoring, research, protection and restoration,
often in coordination with federal, state and local
agencies, whilst in December 1988 it entered into a
cooperative agreement with The Nature Conservancy.
Funding for the majority of this environmental work
comes from the DoD Natural Resources Reserves
Account, and from similar accounts in the individual
services this money is largely generated from the sale of
hunting and fishing licences, timber, and rents paid for
agriculture and grazing leases. Money generated in this
way amounts to approximately US$ 30 million per year.
The DoD employs over 300 professional resource
managers, and a number of military personnel who are
assigned natural resource functions.

Another important and extremely influential body is the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which was
established in 1971 as an independent agency of the
government. Discussions are underway concerning the
raising of the rank of this organisation to that of a
department (Department of Environmental Protection).
Although not specifically responsible for any categories
of protected area, the EPA has considerable powers in
the field of pollution control, waste dumping and water
control in federal and other lands, which can lead directly
to the protection of resources. This is particularly true in
relation to wetlands. The principal authorities relating to
wetlands in the US are the US Army Corps of Engineers,
the EPA and the USFWS. Permits are required for most
activities relating to wetland use, even on private land
these are granted by the Corps, with input from the EPA
and the USFWS, and this form of strict control provides
some form of protection for all major wetlands.

Management constraints in the protected areas systems
of North America vary greatly, however the USNPS has
been singled out here for a more detailed appraisal, to
provide a single, but wide-ranging example. According
to the National Parks and Conservation Association
(NPCA), industrialisation and urbanisation are "making
islands of ...national parks...impairing natural processes
in the larger ecosystems upon which the parks depend".
In the USNPS, federal budgets have failed to keep pace
with inflation; combined with a doubling in size of the
national parks system over the past 20 years, this has
reduced the relative managerial capacity of the NPS to
effectively manage properties under its jurisdiction by as
much as 20%. Pay has not kept pace with the cost of
living for park rangers. Experienced rangers are leaving;
low pay, a stressful work environment, and a restricted
career path are drawing top talent away from parks.
Overall, the backlog of repair, maintenance,
preservation, and public health and safety projects in
national parks exceeds US$ 2 billion. There is a US$ 500
million backlog just for essential monitoring and
resource management projects that must be addressed

immediately in parks. According to the NPCA,
development of credible fundraising mechanisms for
parks worth US$ 250 million is needed to supplement
the US$ 1.2 billion appropriated annually (Waugh and
Perez Gil, 1992). An assessment of the threats reported
by units of the NPS was undertaken in 1988 (USNPS,
1988): some twenty-one major issues stemming from the
threats were identified. Representative of the threats
facing the protected area estate as a whole, these include:
overpopulation of species; impacts to, or loss of, plant
and animal species; degradation of resources due to
non-native plants and animals; disruptions due to past
land practices; disruption of natural fire regimes;
degradation of water quality; alteration of water flows or
groundwater levels; lack of secure water rights; loss of
visibility and biological diversity and damage due to air
pollution; and lack of basic data about sites.

State Land

Every state has its own state park system, with at least
one protected area management agency, and often more,
as the fragmentation at the federal level is characteristic
of the state activities too (Myers and Green, 1989). All
50 states also have coordinated programmes to protect
flora, fauna and their habitats through establishment of
parks and other protected areas; the first such programme
began in 1951 although there is considerable variation
from one state to the next. Many state agencies have
cooperative agreements with such agencies as the BLM
and the USFS.

The situation described above for the national parks
system is regarded as being much worse in state parks,
many of which have been forced to close their gates to
users as a result of budgetary shortfalls in 1990-91
(Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992).

Private Land

A number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
are responsible for the acquisition and management of
protected areas. With a number of these, purchased land
is later sold to federal or state protected area authorities,
who frequently are unable to buy land at short notice.
Many of these NGOs are extremely powerful
economically, and also have an influential role
politically. Amongst these, The Nature Conservancy
(TNC) is pre-eminent. Since its founding in 1951, TNC
has conserved over 2 million ha, much of which has been
passed to federal or state agencies. TNC has created a
50-state natural heritage network that sets protection
priorities for itself, and which is also used by most states
and a growing number of federal agencies. The projected
income in 1991 was US$ 122.8 million. TNC has
launched a Last Great Places initiative, aimed at
protecting 75 large, landscape level, ecological systems
and plans to invest US$ 1 billion from public and private
sources (including grants from the federal Land and
Water Conservation Fund) in this enterprise over the
next five years. Also of great importance is the Trust for

69

United States of America

Public Land which, after TNC, is largest and most active
land acquiring agency in the country.

Of the other larger citizen groups involved with
protected areas ownership or administration, the
National Audubon Society, owns or leases a number of
sanctuaries. The Society of American Foresters has
designated over 500 natural areas. There are several
other programmes in private land conservation, notably
the Conservation Fund, the Land Trust Alliance, Ducks
Unlimited and Trout Unlimited. The Land Trust Alliance
represents local land trusts across the continent which
together manage a very large area this land is either held
outright, or under easements, where the landowner
voluntarily, or for payment, surrenders rights to certain
types of development and use. Public-private
partnerships have been central to the history of
conservation in the USA, suchas the Boone and Crockett
Club and the Sierra Club. The National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation, a non-profit organisation established by
Congress in 1984 to foster cooperation, uses funds
appropriated by Congress as seed money for
partnerships in challenge grants to be matched by
private-sector institutions. The foundation has supported
more than 120 projects, and spent US$ 31.5 million on
habitat protection and restoration in cooperation with the
USFWS and other organisations. The National Parks
Foundation is a similar body, established by the US
government.

Systems Reviews The US is among the largest
countries in the world. Including the disjunct states of
Alaska and Hawaii, it covers a vast range of latitude,
from the Arctic Circle in northern Alaska to the tropics
in southern Hawaii, and over 120 of longitude, from the
east coast of Maine to the westernmost of the Aleutian
Islands and also the westernmost of the Hawaiian
Islands.

The east coast of the 48 coterminous states runs along
the Atlantic Ocean from Maine to Florida and then runs
west along the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico until
the border with Mexico at the Rio Grande. America’s
largest river, the Mississippi, also flows into the Gulf.
Moving west from the Atlantic coast, the Appalachian
mountains run from Georgia in the south to the states of
new England in the north reaching 2,037m. North-west
of these, along the Canadian border, lie the Great Lakes:
Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior, and, to the
south of these, the Mississippi Basin. West again lie the
Great Plains of the mid-west which stretch to the base of
the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies are a huge band of
geologically recent mountains, which run north-south
along the entire length of the continent, and stretch up to
1,500km east-west from the Great Plains to the Pacific
coast there are a number of peaks in these ranges that
rise above 4,000m.

Alaska, the largest state, lies some 900km north-west of
Washington, separated by the western seaboard of
British Columbia in Canada. Alaska has a long border
with Canada, with an even longer coastline, facing the

Protected Areas of the World

Arctic Ocean to the north, the Chukchi Sea and Bering
Sea to the west, and the Pacific to the south. Much of the
state is mountainous, dominated by the Brooks Range to
the north and the Alaska Range to the south, which
includes Mount McKinley, the highest peak in the US,
reaching 6,194m.

The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of volcanic islands
lying in the North Pacific, and stretching some 2,300km
from Hawaii in the southeast, to Kure Atoll in the
northwest. For reasons of their geographic location, the
Hawaiian Islands have been included in a separate
account, in Volume 1 of this work.

The following is a simplified summary of the major
vegetation types. Tundra of low scrub dominated by
willows and birches is found in Alaska, with plant cover
decreasing northwards. Large areas of coniferous forest,
mainly pine, spruce and fir, are found in Alaska, in a belt
stretching over much of Canada and down the Pacific
coast to central California. Montane coniferous forest is
found in the Rockies, the Appalachians and on other
mountain ranges; in eastern North America, the original
vegetation cover was deciduous forest of many different
associations that variously included bald cypress,
hemlock, hickory, maple and oak, but is now extensively
cleared. In the centre, from the Rockies east to Indiana,
and from Canada south to Mexico, the former massive
grassland (prairie) has largely been cleared for
agriculture, and now survives only in relicts. In the west,
from Washington south to Mexico, deserts, including the
Great Basin, Mojave and Sonoran, are found. On coastal
California, the chapparal, a high, dense scrub, is found.
Subtropical vegetation, including mangrove, is found in
Florida. Anderson (1977) gives an indication of the area
covered by each type. Klopatek et al. (1979) present a
map showing loss in natural vegetation, based on
Kuchler’s 1964 map of potential natural vegetation.
Twenty-three of Kuchler’s 106 predominant vegetation
types have lost more than 50% of their potential area,
including the Florida Everglades, California steppe,
southern floodplain forest, bluestem prairie and
beech-maple forest (Davis et al., 1986).

A preliminary assessment of the status of major
terrestrial ecosystems on federal and Indian lands in the
United States has been prepared by Crumpacker et al.
(n.d.). This used 135 potential natural vegetation types
of Kuchler. Their results indicate that at least 33 types
are inadequately represented, and 9 of these have no
representation, whilst 11 others have relatively little
representation as they are either naturally rare or have
been largely converted to non-natural uses.

All of the federal agencies mentioned undertake some
regular form of inventorying and monitoring of the land
resources under their control. The NPS has no centrally
coordinated systems review procedure. Most of the lands
under its jurisdiction, however, have some inventory
and/or ongoing monitoring programs, arranged on a
site-by-site basis. The BLM conducts inventories of
soils, vegetation and wildlife — to date soil surveys have

70

been completed for a large proportion of BLM lands, but
only 15% (outside Alaska) has received the mandatory
minimum vegetation survey, and less than 5% has been
surveyed under the standard wildlife inventory system.
The USFWS carries out inventory, monitoring and
research activities which provide information for the
management of refuge lands; it also carries out other
surveys relating to migratory and breeding birds,
selected populations of fish stocks, the effects of
pesticides and toxic chemicals in the environment and
waterfowl and wetlands surveys which form part of the
National Wetlands Inventory. The Forest Service has a
comprehensive system of inventorying, mapping and
monitoring of its lands, with a large amount of this
information stored on a highly developed computer
network. Inventories have been compiled for a large
proportion of DoD lands, often undertaken in
conjunction with local authorities or educational
establishments, or with local or national NGOs
(Keystone Center, 1991).

The number of land management agencies complicates
systematic approaches to protected area conservation.
As a result, there is no comprehensive system plan for
the United States. The government in general lacks
action plans for the completion of protected area systems
at the federal level, with the exception of the NOAA,
which is authorised by legislation to develop a
programme for marine reserves. The 500 or more
national natural landmarks designated since 1962 by the
Secretary of the Interior, on advice from the USNPS, are
listed in the National Registry of Natural Landmarks
which is published regularly. In order to augment
government efforts, NGOs such as the National Parks
and Conservation Association have produced their own
action plan which covers the National Parks System.
Other bodies advocating programmes for protected areas
agencies include the Sierra Club, the Wilderness Society
(wilderness issues, especially with the Forest Service),
Defenders of Wildlife (formed an alliance with the Fish
and Wildlife Service) and the American Rivers (National
Wild and Scenic Rivers System). The Natural Heritage
System organised by TNC, together with the initiatives
of other citizens groups, provides a foundation for a
scientifically-based interagency planning programme.

The North American Waterfowl Management Plan
(NAWMP) isa joint project involving Mexico, USA and
Canada, 27 states and approximately 200 conservation
groups and many private corporations, in planning
programmes to conserve waterfowl and wetland
habitats.

The establishment of Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa
Grove of Giant Sequoias in 1864 was the first instance
of the nation setting aside a natural area through
legislation to be protected explicitly for public use. The
federal government ceded Yosemite to a state
government for management as a public park during a
period when there was no precedent for federal
management of parks. Even as President Abraham
Lincoln signed the act transferring Yosemite to a state

government, the United States was in the grips of a civil
war over the issue of state sovereignty. Had the territory
of Yellowstone fallen under the jurisdiction of a state
rather than an unincorporated territory in 1872,
Yellowstone would have been handed over to the state
authorities, just as Yosemite had been 18 years before.
The establishment of Yellowstone as a national park
under the jurisdiction of federal rather than state
authorities was an historic precedent. It provided the first
instance of the exercise of federal power, an ascendant
force in American public life, for the sequestration of
land for conservation. Yellowstone represents the
transition of the US from a federation of sovereign states
to a nation united in which all parties participate in a
common vision of the future. An upwelling of support
for parks followed the Yellowstone experiment, and
Congress authorised additional parks in 1890 (Sequoia,
General Grant, later incorporated into Kings Canyon,
and Yosemite); in 1899 (Mount Rainier); and 1902
(Crater Lake).

The basis for the current National Wilderness
Preservation System began with an administrative
designation established by the USFS, that of wilderness
and wild areas. The first such area to be designated was
Gila Wilderness in New Mexico in 1924. All of the
former USFS wilderness and wild areas became part of
the National Wilderness Preservation System in 1964.

Approximately 2.6 million sq. km, or nearly 30% of the
US land area, is owned by the federal government, with
the great majority lying in the western half of the country
and in Alaska. The remainder of the land lies within state,
local or private ownership, and hence can only be added
to the federal protected areas network through purchase,
lease, exchange or other agreement by federal agencies.
By 1893, the government had reserved 5.25 million ha
of forest, and, by 1910, the system of national forests rose
to 60 million ha. In 1916 there were 35 national parks
and monuments. By 1992 the National Park System
included 360 units covering nearly 32.5 million ha; the
National Forest System, included over 77 million ha
including 154 national forests, 19 national grasslands
and 17 land utilisation projects; the National Wildlife
Refuge System included 492 national wildlife refuges
covering some 35.75 million ha administered by the
FWS; National Marine Sanctuaries and the National
Estuarine Reserves System, administered by NOAA
included 8 national marine sanctuaries covering some
3.1 million ha, and 21 national estuarine research
reserves; Bureau of Land Management had
responsibility for over 28 research natural areas on
23,000ha, 40 other natural areas including outstanding
natural areas and primitive areas on 328,000ha.
The national wilderness preservation system consists of
492 wilderness areas covering 37.3 million ha (well over
half of this lies in Alaska). A large proportion of these
areas are further protected under the other protection
systems listed above (Hendee et al., 1990). More than
one-third of the Wilderness System (13.1 million ha) is
managed by the USFS, including nearly 80% of the

71

United States of America

wilderness area outside Alaska (CRS, 1989). Of the
Federal lands administered by the BLM, approximately
10,754 ,000ha were designated as wilderness study areas
for possible wilderness designation. Of these lands, the
BLM recommended, and the Secretary of the Interior
concurred, that 3,950,000ha were suitable for
designation as wilderness. By 1992, some 652,000ha had
been legally designated as wilderness under the National
Wilderness Preservation System, comprising 66 units in
nine different states.

The National Association of State Park Directors
(NASPD) annually publishes data relating to state park
systems: in June 1990 there were 2,040 state parks
covering 2.98 million ha. These state agencies
frequently manage other areas - NASPD (1991) lists
over 80 categories, covering forests, natural areas,
recreation areas, historic sites, water use areas,
environmental education areas and state trails. The
total for all these categories (including state parks) is
4,022 sites covering over 4.5 million ha. This is not a
comprehensive figure for all state protected areas
however, given that it only covers sites managed by one
agency, and in many states there are likely to be others,
for example dealing specifically with forestry, or with
fish and wildlife, which are not included.

Private protected areas include over 1,300 preserves
covering 650,000ha administered by The Nature
Conservancy (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992), the National
Audubon Society owns or leases over 100 sanctuaries,
covering over 60,000 ha (NAS, 1991); the Society of
American Foresters has designated over 500 natural
areas which overlap with the Research Natural Areas
network established under the federal government;
Ducks Unlimited administers 161,780ha of wetlands;
the local land trusts across the continent represented in
the Land Trust Alliance administer a total of 828,630ha
(McCloskey, 1992); Operation Stronghold is an alliance
of 800-900 private landholders who have undertaken
conservation measures on private land estimated to
cover 2-2.5 million ha (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992).

In a recent analysis McCloskey (1992) estimates that
some 11% of the total area of the US is protected in areas
managed in categories equivalent to IUCN categories
I-V, with the federal government protecting 9.2% of the
territory, and non-federal agencies the remaining 1.8%.
Of the non-federal agencies the most important are the
state government agencies, although the figure also
includes a number of local government protected areas,
tribal lands and private protected areas. This analysis
estimates that more than 8 million ha of federal lands are
awaiting permanent legal designation mostly land that
is already being administered as wilderness by the Forest
Service or the BLM. Actually data for the percentage
cover, and for the total area covered, by the federal
protected estate are to some degree misleading, as they
are skewed by the very high proportion of protected land
in the western states and Alaska, and by the vast area of
protected land in Alaska.

Protected Areas of the World

Waugh and Perez Gil (1992) list the priorities for action
in the North American region, most of which could be
applied equally to the US. These include: enhancing the
capacity to manage protected areas; strengthening the
constituency of protected areas; assessing and
demonstrating benefits; extending coverage; developing
the capacity to protect marine and coastal areas; putting
all protected areas on a sound financial footing;
strengthening protected areas through development
planning; restoring the quality of degraded parks and
applying the lessons of science and management.

The General Authorities Act, 1976 directed that the
Department of the Interior investigate, study, and
continually monitor the welfare of areas whose resources
"exhibit qualities of national significance” that have
potential for inclusion in the National Park System. The
Secretary of the Interior was directed to transmit a listing
each year of not less than 12 areas for consideration of
inclusion in the system. In 1981, Congress retracted the
funding to undertake these studies and expansion of the
system in favour of additional funding to improve
management of existing areas.

The USFWS and the University of Idaho are undertaking
an analysis of gaps in protected area coverage of
biological resources, on a state-by-state basis.
Completion of this process is expected to take five to ten
years.

Other Relevant Information Recreation and tourism
is a major element of the protected areas philosophy.
Visits to parks increased from six million in 1942 to
33 million in 1950, and 72 million in 1960. In 1990 more
than 250 million visitors came to national parks, whereas
State parks hosted 723 million visitors (NASPD, 1991;
Waugh and Perez and Gil, 1992). Huge numbers of
visitors in many parks are causing problems of erosion,
waste and pollution and general overcrowding and
disturbance.

Addresses

US National Park Service (Director), US
Department of Interior, Washington, DC 20240
(Tel: 1 202 208 1100)

US Fish and Wildlife Service (Director), US
Department of Interior, Washington, DC
20240(Tel: 1 202 208 1100)

Bureau of Land Management (Director), US
Department of Interior, Washington, DC
20240-9998(Tel: 1 202 208 3100)

Land Resources Office, US Department of the Interior
Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC 20240
(Tel: 1 202 208 4004)

Office of Resource Management (Director), Bureau of
Reclamation, US Department of the Interior
Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80224
(Tel: 1 303 236 2389)

Forest Service (Chief Forester), US Department
of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20240
Tel: 1 202 447 6661)

72

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(Assistant Administrator for Ocean Services and
Coastal Zone Management), US Department
of Commerce, Washington DC 20230
(Tel: 1 202 377 4699)

Department of Defense (Deputy Assistant Secretary for
Environment), OASD(PandL)E, The Pentagon,
Room 3D-833m, Washington DC 20301-8000
(Tel: 1 703 695 7820)

Tennessee Valley Authority (Senior Vice-President),
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660 (Tel: 1 205 386 2601)

Select References

Anderson, J.R. (1977). Land use cover and land cover
changes a framework for monitoring. J. Res. U.S.
Geological Survey 5(2): 143-153.

Crumpacker, D.W., Hodge, S.W., Friedley, D. and
Gregg, W.P. (n.d.). A preliminary assessment of the
status of major terrestrial ecosystems on federal and
Indian lands in the United States. Manuscript. 33 pp.

Dahl, T-E. and Johnson, C.E. (1991). Status and Trends
of Wetlands in the Coterminous United States,
Mid-1970s to Mid-1980s. US Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,
D.C. 28pp.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and
Zantovska, J. IUCN (1986). Plants in Danger: What
do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. Pp. 381-396.

Gattuso, J. (1991). Native America. Insight Guides. Apa
Publications (HK) Ltd. 389 pp.

Gorte, R.W. (1989). Wilderness: overview and statistics.
Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC.
US Government Printing Office. CRS report for
Congress 89-460 ENR, August 4.

Hamilton, B. (1989). Unfinished business. Sierra
September/October. Pp. 48-51, 106-108. Sierra
Club, San Francisco.

Hartzog, G.B. (1972a). Part one of the National Park
System plan: history. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Washington, DC. 164 pp.

Hartzog, G.B. (1972b). Part two of the National Park
System plan: natural history. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Washington, DC. 140 pp.

Hendee, J.C., Stankey, G.H. and Lucas, R.C. (1990).
Wilderness Management. Second Edition, revised.
North American Press, Golden, Colorado. 546pp.

Keystone Center (1991). Final Consensus Report of the
Keystone Policy Dialogue on Biological Diversity on
Federal Lands. The Keystone Center, Keystone,
Colorado. 98pp.

Klopatek, J.M., Olson, R.J., Emerson, C.J. and Jones,
J.L. (1979). Land use conflicts with natural
vegetation in the United States. Environmental
Conservation 6(3): 191-199.

McCloskey, M. (1992). Protected areas in the United
States: What is the US record? In press. 19pp.

Myers, P. and Green, S.N. (1989). State Park in a New
Era. The Conservation Foundation, Washington.

NFWF (1992). National Park Service. In: FY 1993
Fisheries and Wildlife Assessment. National Fish and
Wildlife Foundation. Pp. 1-42.

NAS (1991). Wildlife Sanctuaries. National Audubon
Society Sanctuary Department, Sharon, Connecticut.
42 pp.

NASPD (1991). Annual Information Exchange, April,
1991. National Association of State Park Directors.
19 pp.

TNC (1975). Preserving our natural heritage. Volume 1.
Federal activities. The Nature Conservancy,
Washington, DC, published in cooperation with the
U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Washington DC.
323 pp.

TNC (1976). Preserving our natural heritage. Volume 2.
State activities. The Nature Conservancy,
Washington, DC, published in cooperation with the

United States of America

U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Washington DC.
671 pp.

USFS (1977).A Directory of Research Natural Areas on
Federal Lands of the United States of America.
Federal Committee on Ecological Reserves, Forest
Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pp. 5-8.

USNPS (1988). Natural Resources Assessment and
Action Program Report. US Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Office of Natural
Resources, Washington DC.

Waugh, J.D. and Perez Gil, R. (1992). North America
Regional Review. Paper presented to the IVth World
Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas
Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992

Wilderness Society (1989). Wilderness America: a
vision for the future of the nation’s wildlands. The
Wilderness Society, Washington DC.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: National Park Service Act, United States
Code: Title 16, Chapter 1 (16 USC 1): the
National Park System; related acts include
Cooperation Agreement Act (16 USC 17)

Date: 25 August 1916 (National Park Service Act);
1946 (Cooperation Agreement Act); 1964 (Land and
Water Conservation Fund Act)

Brief description: Contains the authorising
legislation, or "Organic Act" for the National Park
Service. This law stipulates that "the Service...shall
promote and regulate the use of the Federal areas
known as national parks, monuments, and
reservations. It provides for the establishment of
national parks networks with over 11 categories
throughout the USA.

The Act of 25 August 1916 (39 Stat. 535) provides
for the creation of the US National Parks Service. It
has the authority to identify areas within the national
parks system which are established by individual acts
of Congress.

The Cooperation Agreement Act, 1946 permits large
natural areas of land to come into the park system
without specific acts of Congress. Eight units of the
park system entered through the 1946 Act.

Administrative authorities: National Park
Service (NPS) of the US Department of the Interior

Designations:

Three broad categories are placed within the
National Park System: natural, recreational and

73

historic. All sites are established by Acts of
Congress. The National Parks System as a whole
holds two, occasionally contradictory, missions: to
provide for public access and enjoyment of natural
and historic areas, and to conserve their scenery and
natural resources. Within each park, regardless of
management category, all lands are classified into a
land-use system with flexible zoning and sub-zoning.
They are divided into natural zones, historic zones,
development zones and special use zones. The
Natural zone may be sub-divided into
wilderness/wilderness study subzone; environmental
protection subzone; outstanding natural feature
subzone; and natural environment subzone.

Exact definitions vary within the different categories
of protected area in the System, and there may well
be similarities and overlaps between the different
categories. The designations under the system
include the following:

Naturalsites These include: national park, national
monument, national reserve, and national preserve.

Recreation sites These include: national recreation
area, national seashore, national lakeshore, national
scenic trail, national river, and national wild and
scenic river.

Historic sites These include: national historic site,
national historic park, national battlefield.

Source: US Department of the Interior (1992); TNC
(1975)

Protected Areas of the World

Title:An Act to establish a National
Wilderness Preservation System for the
permanent good of the whole people, and for
other purposes. Short title: the " Wilderness
Act". PL 88-577, 16 USC 1131-1136.

Date: 3 September 1964

Brief description: Federal agencies are authorised
and mandated to manage areas of land as wilderness
under the Wilderness Act, 1972. Under this Act of
Congress, the statute states that the National
Wilderness Preservation System was established
with major objectives "to secure for the American
people of present and future generations the benefits
of an enduring resource of wilderness".

The system consists of federally-owned lands
designated by Congress as Wilderness areas. All lie
within the National Parks System, the National
Forest System, the National Wildlife Refuge System,
and public lands administered by the Bureau of Land
Management. The Wilderness Act does not apply to
public or Federal Lands administered by
Departments or Agencies other than these.

Administrative authorities: | US National Park
Service, US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife
Service, US Bureau of Land Management

Designations:

Wilderness area To "be administered for the use
and enjoyment of the American people in such
manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use
and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for
the protection of these areas, the preservation of their
wilderness character, and for the gathering and
dissemination of information regarding their use and
enjoyment as wilderness."

Wilderness as "in contrast with those areas where
man and his own works dominate the landscape, is
hereby recognised as an area where the earth and its
community of life are untrammelled by man, where
man himself is a visitor who does not remain."

An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in
this chapter an area of undeveloped federal land
retaining its primeval character and influence,
without permanent improvements or human
habitation, which is protected and managed so as to
preserve its natural conditions and which:

— generally appears to have been affected primarily
by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s
work substantially unnoticeable;

— has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a
primitive and unconfined type of recreation;

74

— covers at least 5,000 acres (2023.4ha) of land or is
of sufficient size as to make practicable its
preservation and use in an unimpaired condition;

— may also contain ecological, geological, or other
features of scientific, educational, scenic, or

historical value."

Source: US Department of Interior (1992), TNC
(1975)

Title: Forest Reserves Act, often referred to as
the Creative Act, 1891, United States Code:
Title 16. Chapter 2 (16 USC 2); Organic
Administration Act (16 USC 475); Weeks
Law; Resources Planning Act: National Forest
System; National Forest Management Act

Date: | May 1891 (Forest Reserve Act/Creative
Act); 4 June 1897 (Organic Administration Act);
1905 (US Forest Service establishment); 1911
(Weeks Law); Resources Planning Act, 1974;
National Forest Management Act, 1976.

Brief description: In 1891 Congress passed the
Forest Reserve Act (Creative Act), giving the
President authority to withdraw portions of the public
domain and designate them as forest reservations.
A system of administration of the reserves was set
forth in the Organic Administration Act, 1897. The
US Forest Service (USFS) was established in
1905. Authority for the USFS is contained in
Chapter 2 of Title 16, US Codes, that grants the
Secretary of Agriculture authority to administer
the nation’s forest reserves.

The Resources Planning Act, 1974 incorporated the
term "National Forest System" into the statutes.
Under the System the USFS has responsibility for
national forests, national grasslands and land
utilisation projects. The resources of these lands are
managed according to the Multiple Use-Sustained
Yield Act, 1960. The rules which require the
integration of land and resource planning can be
found in 36 CFR Part 219, the implementing
regulations for the National Forest Management Act.

Administrative authorities: US Forest Service
of the US Department of Agriculture

Designations:

NATIONAL FOREST _ The laws contained in
Chapter 2 specify that each Forest Service unit
develop an integrated management plan. Chapter 36
of the same Code requires the USFS to develop
guidelines for multiple-use management of reserves
under its authority that "require the identification of
the suitability of lands for resource management;
provide for obtaining inventory data on the various
renewable resources, and soil and water, including
pertinent maps, graphic material, and explanatory

aids; and provide for methods to identify special
conditions or situations involving hazards to the
various resources and their relationship to
alternative activities."

The law makes provision for land management
plans that: "ensure consideration of the economic
and environmental aspects of various systems of
renewable resource management, including the
related systems of silviculture and protection of
forest resources, to provide for outdoor recreation
(including wilderness), range, timber, watershed,
wildlife, and fish; provide for diversity of plant and
animal communities based on the suitability and
capability of the specific land area in order to meet
overall multiple-use objectives, and within the
multiple-use objectives of a land management plan
adopted pursuant to this section, provide, where
appropriate, to the degree practicable, for steps to be
taken to preserve the diversity of tree species similar
to that existing in the region controlled by the plan;
(and) ensure research and evaluation (based on
continuous monitoring and assessment in the field)
of the effects of each management system to the end
that it will not produce substantial and permanent
impairment of the productivity of the land.”

Under the Organic Administration Act (36 CFR 294)
areas worthy of special classification within the
National Forest, are classed as special interest areas,
and listed as the following:

Scenic area place of outstanding beauty which
requires special management to preserve its
qualities;

Palaeontological area containing relict
palaeontological specimens of fauna and flora;

Geological area _ unit of land with outstanding
formations or unique geological features of the
earth’s development, including caves and fossils;

Botanical area contains specimens or group
exhibits of plants, plant groups and plant
communities which are significant for a variety of
reasons;

Zoological area _ contains authentic, significant
and interesting evidence of American natural
heritage.

Source:
TNC (1975)

US Department of Agriculture (1992)

Title: Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, National
Wild and Scenic Rivers System, United States
Code, Title 16. Chapter 28

Date: 2 October 1968

75

United States of America

Brief description: The National Wild and
Scenic Rivers System was authorised by Congress
in 1968. This statute, found in Title 16, US Code,
Chapter 28 declares as national policy "that certain
selected rivers of the Nation which, with their
immediate environments, possess outstandingly
remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and
wildlife, historic, cultural, or cther similar values,
shall be preserved in free-flowing condition, and
that they and their immediate environments shall
be protected for the benefit and enjoyment of
present and future generations. The Congress
declares that the established national policy of dam
and other construction at appropriate sections of
the rivers of the United States needs to be
complemented by a policy that would preserve
other selected rivers or sections thereof in their
free-flowing condition to protect the water quality
of such rivers and to fulfil other vital national
conservation purposes."
Administrative authorities: Relevant federal
authorities

Designations:

NATIONAL WILD AND SCENIC RIVER The
system shall comprise rivers that are designated by
Act of Congress or designated by a legislature of the
state(s) through which they flow. Every wild scenic
or recreational river in its free-flowing condition, or
upon restoration to this condition, shall be considered
eligible for inclusion in the national wild and scenic
rivers system and if included, shall be classified,
designated, and administered as one of the following:

Wild river area those rivers or sections of rivers
that are free of impoundments and generally
inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds or
shorelines essentially primitive and waters
unpolluted. These represent vestiges of primitive
America.

Scenicriverarea those rivers or sections of rivers
that are free of impoundments, with shorelines and
watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines
largely undeveloped, but accessible in places by
roads.

Recreational riverarea those rivers or sections of
rivers that are readily accessible by road or railroad,
that may have some development along their
shorelines, and that may have undergone some
impoundment or diversion in the past.

Source: TNC (1975)

Protected Areas of the World

Title: National Marine Sanctuary Program:
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972 (PL 92-532), as amended, 16 USC
1431 et seq. (authorization); 15 CFR 922
(program regulations). National estuarine
research reserve system: Section 315 of the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL
92-583), as amended, 16 USC 1451 et seq.
(authorization); 15 CFR 921 (program
regulations).

Date: 1972

Brief description: Congress authorises the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) to establish and maintain two types of
protected areas: national marine sanctuary and
national estuarine research reserve.

The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act authorises the Secretary of Commerce to
designate ocean waters as marine sanctuaries.

Administrative authorities: National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Designations:

National marine sanctuary Acknowledging that
the US has directed most protected area efforts
towards the terrestrial estate, the statutes reflected in
this code affirm that "certain areas of the marine
environment” possess qualities of "conservation,
recreational, ecological, historical, research,
educational, or aesthetic qualities which give them
special national significance." The Code
characterizes this programme as serving "to enhance
public awareness, understanding, appreciation, and

wise use of the marine environment."

National Estuarine Research Reserves System
Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter
IX, provides regulations for the National Estuarine
Reserve Research System. The mission of the
National Estuarine Reserve Research System,
according to the Regulations, "is the establishment
through Federal-State
cooperation, of a national system of estuarine
research reserves representative of the various

and management,

regions and estuarine types in the United States."
Estuarine research reserve

education, and interpretation and:

— to ensure a stable environment for research through

long-term protection of estuarine reserve resources;

— address coastal management issues identified as
significant through coordinated estuarine research

within the System;

established to
provide opportunities for long-term research,

76

— enhance public awareness and understanding of
the estuarine environment and provide suitable
opportunities for public education and interpretation;

— promote federal, state, public and private use of
one or more reserves within the System when such
entities conduct estuarine research; and

— conduct and coordinate estuarine research within
the System, gathering and making available
information necessary for improved understanding
and management of estuarine areas."

— Under the provisions of the Act an area may be
designated as an estuarine reserve only if the area is a

representative estuarine ecosystem that is suitable for
long-term research.

Source: NOAA (1992) TNC (1975)

Title: National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act: National Wildlife Refuge
System. Incorporates the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act (16 USC 703-711); Migratory Bird
Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act, 1934;
Migratory Bird Convention Act, 1929; Land
and Water Conservation Fund Act,
Wilderness Act, 1964; Endangered Species
Act, 1973 (revised 1982, supplemented in the
International Environmental Protection Act,
1983); Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act,
1934 (amended 1958); Fish and Wildlife
Improvement Act, 1978

Date: 1966 (National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act)

Brief description: Expresses policy and provides

guidelines for operating the system. The Refuge
Recreation Act, 1962 authorises the purchase of
adjacent lands to serve as recreational areas and as
buffer areas to the refuges (funds for the purchase of
such lands under the Land and Water Conservation
Fund Act, 1965). The Wilderness Act, 1964 and the
Endangered Species Act, 1973 have some bearing on
the system. The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act,
1934 (amended 1958) authorizes Federal water
resource agencies to acquire lands in connection with
water resource projects specifically for the
conservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife,
and requires consultation with the FWS and the
wildlife agency of the state concerned.

Administrative authorities: Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS), US Department of the Interior

Designations:

Within the Refuge System are a series of the
following different categories as defined in the Code
of Federal Regulations (Title 50, Chapter 1, Section
25): Migratory Bird (Waterfowl) Areas; Migratory

Bird (General) Areas; Big Game Areas, National
Game Ranges; National Wildlife Ranges and
Waterfowl Production Areas.

National wildlife refuge maintained for the
primary purpose of developing a national
programme of wildlife and ecological conservation
and rehabilitation. These refuges are established for
the restoration, preservation, development and
management of wildlife and wildlands habitat; for
the protection and preservation of endangered or
threatened species and their habitat; and for the
management of wildlife and wildlands to obtain the
maximum benefits from these resources.

Supplementary designations may be applied to parts
of, or entire, refuges. These include wilderness areas,
research natural areas, wild and scenic rivers, natural
landmarks, international shorebird reserves.

The FWS also has obligations for wildlife
management areas or coordination areas under
cooperative agreements with federal, state, local and
private agencies and organisations.

Source: TNC (1975)

Title: Department of Defense, United States
Code, Title 16

Date: 1966

Brief description: | The organic act relating to
Department of Defense (DoD) land. Federal statutes
(Title 16, US Code) authorise the Secretary of
Defense "to carry out a programme of planning for,
and the development, maintenance, and coordination
of wildlife, fish and game conservation and
rehabilitation in each military reservation in
accordance with a cooperative plan mutually agreed
upon by the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of
the Interior, and the appropriate State agency
designated by the state in which the reservation is
located.”

Administrative authorities:
Defense

Department of

Designations:

Military reservation Cooperative plans under
this authority are intended to include "fish and
wildlife habitat improvements or
modifications...range rehabilitation where necessary
for support of wildlife,...control of off-road vehicle
traffic, and...specific habitat improvement projects
and related activities and adequate protection for
species of fish, wildlife, and plants considered
threatened or endangered." Cooperative plans are to
be "reviewed as to operation and effect by the parties
thereto on a regular basis, but not less often than
every 5 years, . . . shall, if a multi-use natural
resources management plan is applicable to the

77

United States of America

military reservation, be treated as the exclusive
component of that management plan with respect to
wildlife, fish, and game conservation and
rehabilitation."

The statute continues, "the Secretary of each military
department shall manage the natural resources of
each military reservation with the United States that
is under the jurisdiction of the Secretary ... so as to
provide for sustained multipurpose uses of those
resources; and to provide the public access that is
necessary or appropriate for those uses; to the extent
that those uses and that access are not inconsistent
with military mission of the reservation."

Source: TNC (1976)

Title: The National Natural Landmarks
Program

Date: 1963

Brief description: An administrative rather
than a legal designation, national natural landmarks
are designated on any areas of land outside the
national park system. Participation in the scheme by
private landowners is entirely voluntary. Guidelines
concerning the objectives of this designation are
given in the Federal Register Volume 40, No.87,
5 May, 1975, p.19504.

Administrative authorities: National Parks
Service, US Department of the Interior

Designations:

National natural landmark Sites must lie
outside land already administered by the National
Park Service. They are designated if they are of
national significance in illustrating the diversity of
the country’s natural history. Sites are entered on the
National Registry of Natural Landmarks this is
voluntary and does not change ownership. Inclusion
"is intended to: 1) encourage the preservation of sites
illustrating the geological and ecological character of
the US; 2) enhance the educational and scientific
value of sites thus preserved; 3) strengthen cultural
appreciation of natural history; and 4) foster a wider
interestand concern in the Nation’s natural heritage".

Source: TNC (1976)

Title: The Research Natural Areas Program

Date: No information

Brief description: An administrative rather than a
legal designation, research natural areas are
designated by any one of eight cooperating federal
agencies with the aim of preserving a representative
array of all significant natural ecosystems and
providing for their research

Protected Areas of the World

Administrative authorities: Forest Service in the
US Department of Agriculture; Bureau of Indian
Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and
Wildlife Service and National Parks Service in the
US Department of the Interior; Department of
Defense; Energy Research and Development
Administration; Tenessee Valley Authority

Designations:

Research naturalarea to preserve an array of all
significant natural ecosystems and their inherent
processes as baseline areas, and to obtain from them,
through research and education, information

78

concerning the natural systems, their components
and comparisons with representative manipulated
systems. Restrictions and regulations vary depending
on the administrative agency and the specific site, but
generally sites are areas of minimal human
intervention and activities such as logging, grazing
burning or restocking are prohibited. Hunting,
fishing and trapping, as well as camping, swimming
and hiking are generally not encouraged. Research is
encouraged, although generally it must be
non-destructive in character.

Source: USFS (1977)

United States of America

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Alabama
National Wildlife Refuges
1 Bon Secour (FWS)* IV 1,819
2 Choctaw (FWS) IV 1,708
3 Eufaula (FWS) IV SL 2ilil
4 Wheeler (FWS) IV 13,839
National Estuarine Research Reserve
5 Weeks Bay (NOAA)* IV 1,483 1986
Parkway
6 Natchez Trace (NPS)* Vv 18,300 1938
Wildernesses**
7 Cheaha (FS)* I 3,031 1983
8 Sipsey (FS) II 10,484 1975
Alaska
National Parks
9 Denali (NPS) II 1,911,495 1917
10 Gates of the Arctic (NPS) II 2,939,689 1980
11 Glacier Bay (NPS) II 1,304,550 1925
12 Katmai (NPS) II 1,504,774 1980
13 Kenai Fjords (NPS) II 271,255 1980
14 Kobuk Valley (NPS) II 708,502 1978
15 Lake Clark (NPS) IT a’ 1,068,805 1978
16 Wrangell-St Elias (NPS) II 3,382,014 1978
National Preserves
17 Aniakchak (NPS) II 188,427 1978
18 Bering Land Bridge (NPS) II 1,125,124 1980
19 Denali (NPS) II 529,800 1980
20 Gates of the Arctic (NPS) II 383,246 1980
21 Glacier Bay (NPS) II 23,385 1978
22 Katmai (NPS) II 151,096 1980
23 Lake Clark (NPS) II 568,546 1980
24 Noatak (NPS) II 2,655,870 1978
25 Wrangell-St. Elias (NPS) II 1,962,115 1980
26 Yukon Charley Rivers (NPS) Il 915,000 1978
National Wildlife Refuges
27 Alaska Maritime (FWS) IV 1,440,597 1980
28 Alaska Peninsula (FWS) IV 1,417,500 1980
29 Arctic (FWS) IV 7,714,940 1980
30 Becharof (FWS) IV 486,000 1978
31 Innoko (FWS) IV 1,559,250 1980
32 Izembek (FWS) IV 129,961 1960
33 Kanuti (FWS) IV 579,150 1980
34 Kenai (FWS) IV 797,850 1980
35 Kenai National Moose Range (FWS) IV 698,920
36 Kodiak (FWS) IV 755,325
37 Koyukuk (FWS) IV 1,437,750 1980
38 Nowitna (FWS) IV 631,800 1980
39 Selawik (FWS) IV 870,750 1980
40 Tetlin (FWS) IV 283,500 1980
41 Togiak (FWS) IV 1,662,525 1980
42 Yukon Delta (FWS) IV 7,947,905 1980

79

Protected Areas of the World

Map Nationall/international designations

ref. Name of area

43 Yukon Flats (FWS)
National Monuments

44 Admiralty Island (FS)

45 Aniakchak (NPS)

46 Cape Krusenstern (NPS)

47 Misty Fjords (FS)
Wildernesses

48 Chuck River (FS)

49 Coronation Island (FS)

50 Endicott River (FS)

51 Karta River (FS)

52 Kootznoowoo (FS)

53 Kuiu (FS)

54 Maurelle Islands (FS)

55 Misty Fjords (FS)

56 Petersburg Creek-Duncan Salt Chuck (FS)

57 Pleasant/Lemusurier/Inian Islands (FS)

58 Russell Fjord (FS)

59 South Baranof (FS)

60 South Etolin (FS)

61 South Prince of Wales (FS)

62 Stikine-LeConte (FS)

63 Tebenkof Bay (FS)

64 Tracy Arm-Fords Terror (FS)

65 Warren Island (FS)

66 West Chichagof-Yakobi (FS)
Arizona
National Parks

67 Grand Canyon (NPS)

68 Petrified Forest (NPS)
National Wildlife Refuges

69 Buenos Aires (FWS)

70 Cabeza Prieta (FWS)

71 Cibola (FWS)

72 Havasu (FWS)

73 Imperial (FWS)

74 Kofa (FWS)
National Memorial

715 Coronado (NPS)
National Monuments

76 Canyon de Chelly (NPS)

TI Chiricahua (NPS)

78 Organ Pipe Cactus (NPS)

79 Saguaro (NPS)

80 Sunset Crater (NPS)

81 Wupatki (NPS)
Wildernesses

82 Apache Creek (FS)

83 Bear Wallow (FS)

84 Castle Creek (FS)

85 Cedar Bench (FS)

86 Chiricahua (FS)

IUCN management

80

category

Ee

ii

ARBRE ES

———— a

Area

(ha)

3,495,150

387,530

55,514
267,206
928,491

29,341
7,783
39,954
15,640
386,732
24,514
1,998
866,939
18,930
9,364
141,115
129,325
33,849
36,825
181,640
27,049
264,333
4,525
107,140

493,441
37,880

45,126
348,042
1,277
3,138
7,206
267,102

1,145

33,536
4,853
133,925
33,836
1,230
14,267

2,193
4,484
10,534
6,050
35,491

Year
notified

1980

1980
1978
1978
1980

1990
1980
1980
1990
1980
1990
1980
1980
1980
1990
1980
1980
1990
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980

1919
1962

1941
1941
1939

1952

1931
1924
1937
1933
1930
1924

1984
1984
1984
1984
1964

134
135
136

139
140
141
142
143

National/international designations
Name of area

Escudilla (FS)

Fossil Springs (FS)

Four Peaks (FS)

Galiuro (FS)

Granite Mountain (FS)
Hellsgate (FS)

Juniper Mesa (FS)

Kachina Peaks (FS)

Kanab Creek (FS)

Kendrick Mountain (FS)
Mazatzal (FS)

Miller Peak (FS)

Mount Baldy (FS)

Mount Wrightson (FS)
Munds Mountain (FS)
Pajarita (FS)

Pine Mountain (FS)

Pusch Ridge (FS)

Red Rock-Secret Mountain (FS)
Rincon Mountain (FS)
Saddle Mountain (FS)
Salome (FS)

Salt River Canyon (FS)
Santa Teresa (FS)

Sierra Ancha (FS)
Strawberry Crater (FS)
Superstition (FS)

Sycamore Canyon (FS)
West Clear Creek (FS)

Wet Beaver (FS)
Woodchute (FS)

Aravaipa Canyon (BLM)*
Arrastra Mountain (BLM)
Aubrey Peak (BLM)
Beaver Dam Mountains (BLM)
Big Horn Mountains (BLM)
Cottonwood Point (BLM)
Coyote Mountains (BLM)
Dos Cabezas (BLM)
Eagletail Mountains (BLM)
East Cactus Plain (BLM)
Fishhooks (BLM)

Gibraltar Mountain (BLM)
Grand Wash Cliffs (BLM)
Harcuvar Mountains (BLM)
Harquahala Mountains (BLM)
Hassayampa River Canyon (BLM)
Hells Canyon (BLM)
Hummingbird Springs (BLM)
Kanab Creek (BLM)

Mount Logan (BLM)
Mount Nutt (BLM)

Mount Tipton (BLM)
Mount Trumbull (BLM)
Mount Wilson (BLM)
Muggins Mountains (BLM)
Needle’s Eye (BLM)

IUCN management

81

category

United States of America

Area Year
(ha) notified

2,104 1984
8,963 1984
24,716 1984
30,885 1964
3,966 1984
15,151 1984
3,076 1984
7,534 1984
25,803 1984
2,635 1984
102,139 1964
8,171 1984
2,865 1970
10,222 1984
9,879 1984
3,003 1984
8,118 1972
23,040 1978
19,099 1984
15,617 1984
16,406 1984
7,499 1984
12,991 1984
10,838 1984
8,438 1964
4,348 1984
64,652 1964
22,637 1972
6,167 1984
2,491 1984
2,266 1984
7,972 1984
$2,528 1990
6,232 1990
6,070 1984
8,498 1990
2,776 1984
2,064 1990
4,735 1990
40,712 1990
5,921 1990
4,249 1990
7,604 1990
14,986 1984
10,137 1990
9,259 1990
4,978 1990
4,290 1990
12,626 1990
2,711 1984
5,929 1984
11,194 1990
13,258 1990
3,189 1984
9,672 1990
3,092 1990
3,545 1990

Protected Areas of the World

Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
144 New Water Mountains (BLM) II 9,955 1990
145 North Maricopa Mountains (BLM) II 25,576 1990
146 North Santa Teresa (BLM) II 2,347 1990
147 Paiute (BLM) II 35,572 1984
148 Paria Canyon- Vermilion Cliffs (BLM) Il 36,179 1984
149 Peloncillo Mountains (BLM) II 7,867 1990
150 Rawhide Mountains (BLM) II 15,568 1990
151 Redfield Canyon (BLM) II 4,019 1990
152 Sierra Estrella (BLM) II 5,827 1990
153 Signal Mountain (BLM) II 5,403 1990
154 South Maricopa Mountains (BLM) Il 24,322 1990
155 Swansea (BLM) II 6,637 1990
156 Table Top (BLM) II 13,921 1990
157 Tres Alamos (BLM) II 3,359 1990
158 Trigo Mountains (BLM) II 12,262 1990
159 Upper Burro Creek (BLM) II 11,105 1990
160 Wabayuma Peak (BLM) II 16,187 1990
161 Warm Springs (BLM) II 45,487 1990
162 White Canyon (BLM) II 2,343 1990
163 Woolsey Peak (BLM) II 25,900 1990
National Recreation Areas
164 Glen Canyon (NPS) Vv 483,404 1972
165 Lake Mead (NPS) IV 1,000 1964
Arkansas
National Park
166 Hot Springs (NPS) II 2,330 1921
National River
167 Buffalo NaRiv (NPS) WY 38,100 1972
National Wildlife Refuges
168 Big Lake (FWS) IV 4,466
169 Cache River (FWS) IV 1,898
170 Felsenthal (FWS) IV 26,285 1975
171 Holla Bend (FWS) IV 2,274 1957
172 Overflow (FWS) IV 2,875
173 Wapanocca (FWS) IV 2,219 1961
174 White River (FWS) IV 45,746
National Military Park
175 Pea Ridge (NPS) Vv 1,729 1961
Wildernesses
176 Black Fork Mountain (FS) II 3,066 1984
177 Caney Creek (FS) II 5,852 1975
178 Dry Creek (FS) II 2,554 1984
179 East Fork (FS) II 4,361 1984
180 Flatside (FS) II 4,089 1984
181 Hurricane Creek (FS) II 6,093 1984
182 Leatherwood (FS) II 6,772 1984
183 Poteau Mountain (FS) II 4,405 1984
184 Richland Creek (FS) II 4,782 1984
185 Upper Buffalo (FS) II 4,445 1975
California
National Parks
186 Channel Islands (NPS) II 100,987 1980

82

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
187 Kings Canyon (NPS) II 187,069 1940
188 Lassen Volcanic (NPS) II 43,293 1916
189 Redwood (NPS) II 42,400 1968
190 Sequoia (NPS) II 163,115 1890
191 Yosemite (NPS) II 308,273 1890
National Wildlife Refuges
192 Butte Sink (FWS) IV 3,275
193 Clear Lake (FWS) IV 13,543
194 Coachella Valley (FWS) IV 1,049
195 Colusa (FWS) IV 1,636
196 Delevan (FWS) IV 2,282
197 Grasslands (FWS) IV 10,669
198 Imperial # (FWS) IV 3,223
199 Kern (FWS) IV 4,297
200 Kesterson (FWS) IV 2,388
201 Lower Klamath (FWS) IV 19,027
202 Merced (FWS) IV 1,038
203 Modoc (FWS) IV 1,038
204 Pixley (FWS) IV 2,426
205 Sacramento (FWS) IV 4,367 1937
206 Salton Sea (FWS) IV 15,219
207 San Francisco Bay (FWS) IV 6,978 1972
208 San Luis (FWS) IV 3,009
209 San Pablo Bay (FWS) IV 4,737
210 Sutter (FWS) IV 1,049 1945
211 Tule Lake (FWS) IV 15,646 1928
212 Willow Creek-Lurline (FWS) iv 1,586
National Marine Sanctuaries
213 Bitter Creek (NOAA) IV 5,482 1973
214 Channel Islands (NOAA) Vv 405,506 1980
215 Cordell Bank (NOAA) V 128,777 1989
216 Gulf of the Farallones (NOAA) Vv 307,044 1981
National Monuments
217 Death Valley (NPS) Il 837,388 1933
218 Joshua Tree (NPS) I 226,781 1936
219 Lava Beds (NPS) Il 18,856 1925
220 Pinnacles (NPS) Ill 6,587 1908
National Seashore
221 Point Reyes NS (NPS) Vv 28,733 1972
Wildernesses
222 Agua Tibia (FS) II 6,448 1975
223 Ansel Adams (FS) II 93,182 1964
224 Bucks Lake (FS) II 8,498 1984
225 Caribou (FS) II 8,315 1964
226 Carson-Iceberg (FS) II 64,195 1984
227 Castle Crags (FS) II 3,491 1984
228 Chanchelulla (FS) II 3,318 1984
229 Cucamonga (FS) II 5,172 1984
230 Desolation (FS) II 25,688 1969
231 Dick Smith (FS) II 27,438 1984
232 Dinkey Lakes (FS) II 12,141 1984
233 Dome Land (FS) II 37,952 1964
234 Emigrant (FS) II 45,437 1975
235 Golden Trout (FS) I 122,827 1978

83

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

236
237
238

279
280
281
282
283

National/international designations
Name of area

Granite Chief (FS)
Hauser (FS)

Hoover (FS)

Ishi (FS)

Jennie Lakes (FS)

John Muir (FS)

Kaiser (FS)

Machesna Mountain (FS)
Marble Mountain (FS)
Mokelumne (FS)
Monarch (FS)

Mount Shasta (FS)
North Fork (FS)

Pine Creek (FS)

Red Buttes (FS)
Russian (FS)

San Gabriel (FS)

San Gorgonio (FS)

San Jacinto (FS)

San Mateo Canyon (FS)
San Rafael (FS)

Santa Lucia (FS)

Santa Rosa (FS)

Sheep Mountain (FS)
Siskiyou (FS)

Snow Mountain (FS)
South Sierra (FS)

South Warner (FS)
Thousand Lakes (FS)
Trinity Alps (FS)
Ventana (FS)

Yolla Bolly-Middle Eel (FS)
Trinity Alps (BLM)
Yolla Bolly-Middle Eel (BLM)

National Recreation Areas

Golden Gate (NPS)

Santa Monica Mountains (NPS)
Whiskeytown Shasta Trinity (NPS)

Colorado

National Parks

Mesa Verde (NPS)
Rocky Mountain (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Alamosa (FWS)

Arapaho (FWS)

Browns Park (FWS)
Monte Vista (FWS)

National Monuments

Black Canyon of the Gunnison (NPS)
Colorado (NPS)

Dinosaur (NPS)

Florissant Fossil Beds (NPS)

Great Sand Dunes (NPS)

IUCN management

84

category

—— a

a

<<<

Area

(ha)

7,708
3,054
19,668
16,632
4,164
234,849
9,186
7,997
97,831
40,032
18,169
13,697
3,237
5,455
6,536
4,856
14,616
22,955
13,050
15,574
61,100
7,559
5,579
16,950
61,788
14,718
33,218
28,577
6,611
201,591
66,441
59,366
1,871
2,891

29,611
60,729
17,213

20,830
107,519

4,523
7,393
5,449
5,746

5,682
8,274
82,655
1,698
14,596

Year
notified

1984
1984
1964
1984
1984
1964
1976
1984
1964
1964
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1968
1964
1964
1984
1968
1978
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1964
1964
1984
1969
1964
1984
1984

1972
1978
1965

1906
1915

1962
1967

1933
1911
1915
1969
1932

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Wildernesses
284 Big Blue (FS) II 39,847 1980
285 Cache La Poudre (FS) II 3,739 1980
286 Collegiate Peaks (FS) II 67,468 1980
287 Comanche Peak (FS) II 27,029 1980
288 Eagles Nest (FS) II 53,955 1976
289 Flat Tops (FS) II 95,116 1975
290 Holy Cross (FS) II 49,529 1980
291 Hunter Fryingpan (FS) II 30,108 1978
292 Indian Peaks (FS) II 28,479 1978
293 La Garita (FS) II 42,082 1964
294 Lizard Head (FS) II 16,669 1980

295 Lost Creek (FS) II 42,529 1980

296 Maroon Bells-Snowmass (FS) II 73,233 1980
297 Mount Evans (FS) II 30,109 1980
58 Mount Massive (FS) II 11,323 1980
259 Mount Sneffels (FS) II 6,679 1980
300 Mount Zirkel (FS) II 56,583 1964
301 Neota (FS) II 4,016 1980
302 Never Summer (FS) II 5,567 1980
303 Raggeds (FS) II 24,087 1980
304 Rawah (FS) II 29,570 1964
305 South San Juan (FS) II 51,675 1980
306 Weminuche (FS) II 185,996 1975
307 West Elk (FS) II 71,295 1964
National Recreation Area
308 Curecanti (NPS) Vv 16,985 1965
Delaware
National Wildlife Refuges
309 Bombay Hook (FWS) IV 6,124
310 Prime Hook (FWS) IV 3,929
Florida
National Parks
311 Biscayne (NPS) II 41,967 1980
312 Everglades (NPS) II 592,920 1947
National Preserve
313 Big Cypress (NPS) II 21,198 1974
National Wildlife Refuges
314 Arthur R. Mitchell Loxahatchee (FWS) IV 58,994 1951
315 Chassahowitzka (FWS) IV 12,317
316 Crocodile Lake (FWS) IV 1,619
317 Great White Heron (FWS) IV 2,996
318 J.N. "Ding" Darling (FWS) IV 2,037 1945
319 Lake Woodruff (FWS) IV 7,494 1964
320 Lower Suwannee (FWS) IV 15,856
321 Merritt Island (FWS) IV 56,356
322 National Key Deer (FWS) IV 3,068
323 Okefenokee (Florida) (FWS) IV 1,490 1937
324 Pelican Island (FWS) IV 1,780
325 St. Johns (FWS) IV 2,533
326 St. Mark’s (FWS) IV 26,399 1931
327 St. Vincent (FWS) IV 31,650 1968

85

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

328
329

330

331

332
333

334
335
336
337
338
339
340

341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356
357
358
359
360
361

National/international designations
Name of area

National Marine Sanctuaries
Key Largo Coral Reef (NOAA)
Looe Key (NOAA)

National Estuarine Research Reserve
Rookery Bay (NOAA)

National Monument
Fort Jefferson (NPS)

National Seashores
Canaveral NS (NPS)
Gulf Islands (Florida) NS (NPS)

Wildernesses

Alexander Springs (FS)

Big Gum Swamp (FS)
Billies Bay (FS)

Bradwell Bay (FS)

Juniper Prairie (FS)

Little Lake George (FS)

Mud Swamp/New River (FS)

Georgia

National Wildlife Refuges
Banks Lake (FWS)
Blackbeard Island (FWS)
Eufaula (FWS)

Harris Neck (FWS)
Okefenokee (FWS)
Piedmont (FWS)
Savannah (FWS)
Wassaw Island (FWS)
Wolf Island (FWS)

National Marine Sanctuary
Gray’s Reef (NOAA)

National Military Park
Chickamauga and Chattanooga (NPS)

National Battlefield Park
Kennesaw Mountain (NPS)

National Estuarine Research Reserve
Sapelo Island (NOAA)

National Monument
Fort Pulaski (NPS)

National Seashore
Cumberland Island NS (NPS)

Wildernesses

Blood Mountain (FS)
Brasstown (FS)
Cohutta (FS)

Mark Trail (FS)
Raven Cliffs (FS)
Rich Mountain (FS)

IUCN management

86

category

Il

IV

Area

(ha)

32,388
1,554

8,585

19,083

23,321
57,084

3,116
5,504
1,263
9,956
5,366
1,012
3,157

1,639
2,275
1,309
1,119
158,518
14,044
4,586
4,078
2,076

5,441

3,278

1,488

2,892

2,229

14,924

3,157
5,000
14,264
6,831
3,465
3,840

Year
notified

1975
1981

1991

1935

1975
1971

1984
1984
1984
1975
1984
1984
1984

1940
1962
1939
1927

1968
1930

1981

1890

1917

1976

1924

1972

1991
1986
1975
1991
1986
1986

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified

362 Southern Nantahala (FS) II 5,034 1984

363 Tray Mountain (FS) II 3,926 1986
Hawaii

For a list of sites, a map, and detailed information concerning this state, see Volume I

Idaho
National Scenic River
364 Salmon River (FS) Vv 12,943 1968
National Wildlife Refuges
365 Bear Lake (FWS) IV 7,269 1968
366 Camas (FWS) IV 4,284
367 Deer Flat (FWS) IV 4,562
368 Grays Lake (FWS) IV 6,652 1965
369 Kootenai (FWS) IV 1,123
370 Minidoka (FWS) IV 8,386
National Monument
371 Craters of the Moon (NPS) Il 21,669 1924
Wildernesses
372 Gospel Hump (FS) II 83,270 1978
373 Hells Canyon (FS) II 33,917 1975
374 Sawtooth (FS) II 87,853 1972
375 Selway-Bitterroot (FS) Il 440,711 1964
376 Frank Church-River of No Return (FS) Il 957,224 1980
National Historic Park ’
377 Nez Perce (NPS) Vv 1,212 1965
Illinois
National Wildlife Refuges
378 Chautauqua (FWS) IV 2,510
379 Crab Orchard (FWS) IV 17,682
380 Mark Twain (FWS) IV 6,714 1958
381 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 8,148
Wildernesses

382 Bald Knob (FS) II 2,373 1990
383 Bay Creek (FS) Il 1,160 1990
384 Burden Falls (FS) Il 1,486 1990
385 Clear Springs (FS) Il 1,914 1990
386 Garden of the Gods (FS) Il 1,323 1990
Il

387 Lusk Creek (FS) 1,807 1990
Indiana
National Wildlife Refuge

388 Muscatatuck (FWS) IV 3,128
National Lakeshore

389 Indiana Dunes (NPS) Vv 5,073 1966
Wilderness

390 Charles C. Deam (FS) II 5,235 1982
Iowa
National Wildlife Refuges

391 De Soto (FWS) IV 1,417

392 Mark Twain (FWS) IV 4,241

393 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 12,278

87

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified

394 Union Slough (FWS) IV 1,152 1938

395 Upper Mississippi (FWS) IV 8,230 1924
Kansas
National Wildlife Refuges

396 Flint Hills (FWS) IV 7,478 1966

397 Kirwin (FWS) IV 4,365

398 Quivira (FWS) IV 8,837
Kentucky
National Park

399 Mammoth Cave (NPS) Il 20,541 1934
Wildernesses

400 Beaver Creek (FS) II 1,925 1975

401 Clifty (FS) II 5,029 1985
National Historic Park

402 Cumberland Gap (NPS). Vv 8,150 1940
Louisiana
National Wildlife Refuges

403 Atchafalaya (FWS) IV 6,178

404 Bogue Chitto (FWS) IV 8,324

405 Breton (FWS) IV 3,664 1904

406 Catahoula (FWS) IV 2,150

407 D’Arbonne (FWS) IV 7,055

408 Delta (FWS) IV 19,763 1935

409 Lacassine (FWS) IV 13,213

410 Sabine (FWS) IV 56,472

411 Tensas River (FWS) IV 22,259

412 Upper Ouachita (FWS) IV 8,460 1978
Wilderness

413 Kisatchie Hills (FS) II 3,521 1980
National Historic Park

414 Jean Lafitte (NPS) Vv 3,480 1978
Maine
National Park

415 Acadia (NPS) II 15,590 1919
National Wildlife Refuges

416 Moosehorm (FWS) IV 9,211 1937

417 Petit Manan (FWS) IV 1,350

418 Rachel Carson (FWS) IV 1,280
Wilderness

419 Caribou-Speckled Mountain (FS) II 4,856 1990
Maryland
National Wildlife Refuges

420 Blackwater (FWS) IV 6,353

421 Martin (FWS) IV 1,791

422 Patuxent (FWS) IV 1,896

National Estuarine Research Reserve
423 Chesapeake Bay (NOAA) IV 2,374 1981

88

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Seashore

424 Assateague Island NS (NPS) V 16,038 1965
Parks

425 Catoctin Mountain (NPS) Vv 2,334 1936

426 Piscataway (NPS) Vv 1,701 1961
National Historic Park

427 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (NPS) Vv 50,161 1971
Massachusetts
National Wildlife Refuges

428 Great Meadows (FWS) IV 1,168 1944

429 Monomoy (FWS) IV 1,094

430 Parker River (FWS) IV 1,888
National Estuarine Research Reserve

431 Waquoint Bay (NOAA) IV 1,077 1988
National Seashore

432 Cape Cod (NPS) Vv 18,018 1961
Michigan
National Park

433 Isle Royale (NPS) II 215,740 1940
National Wildlife Refuges

434 Kirtlands Warbler (FWS) IV 2,127

435 Seney (FWS) IV ; 38,659

436 Shiawassee (FWS) IV 3,639 1953
National Lakeshores

437 Pictured Rocks (NPS) V 28,661 1966

438 Sleeping Bear Dunes (NPS) V 28,775 1970
Wildernesses

439 Big Island Lake (FS) II 2,363 1987

440 Delirium (FS) II 4,804 1987

441 Horseshoe Bay (FS) II 1,534 1987

442 Mackinac (FS) II 4,949 1987

443 McCormick (FS) II 6,819 1987

444 Nordhouse Dunes (FS) II 1,396 1987

445 Rock River Canyon (FS) II 1,878 1987

446 Sturgeon River Gorge (FS) II 5,868 1987

447 Sylvania (FS) II 7,417 1987
Minnesota
National Park

448 Voyageurs (NPS) II 87,772 1971
National Wildlife Refuges

449 Agassiz (FWS) IV 24,726 1937

450 Big Stone (FWS) IV 4,371

451 Mid-Continent WMP (FWS) IV 1,999

452 Minnesota Valley (FWS) IV 2,973

453 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 6,246

454 Rice Lake (FWS) IV 6,629

455 Sherbume (FWS) IV 11,981 1965

456 Tamarac (FWS) IV 14,252 1938

457 Upper Mississippi (FWS) IV 7,189

89

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref, Name of area category (ha) notified
Wilderness
458 Boundary Waters Canoe Area (FS) II 323,457 1964
Mississippi
National Wildlife Refuges
459 Bogue Chitto (FWS) IV 2,648
460 Hillside (FWS) IV 6,239 1975
461 Mississippi Sandhill Crane (FWS) IV 7,692 1974
462 Morgan Brake (FWS) IV 1,324
463 Noxubee (FWS) IV 18,786 1940
464 Panther Swamp (FWS) IV 10,993
465 Yazoo (FWS) IV 5,051
Wilderness
466 Black Creek (FS) II 2,028 1984
Missouri
National Scenic River
467 Ozark NScRv (NPS) Vv 32,209 1972
National Wildlife Refuges
468 Clarence Cannon (FWS) IV 1,513 1964
469 Mingo (FWS) IV 8,779
470 Squaw Creek (FWS) IV 2,802
471 Swan Lake (FWS) IV 4,321 1937
Wildernesses
472 Bell Mountain (FS) II 3,633 1980
473 Devils Backbone (FS) II 2,669 1980
474 Hercules Glades (FS) II 4,983 1976
475 Irish (FS) II 6,522 1984
476 Paddy Creek (FS) II 2,841 1983
477 Piney Creek (FS) II 3,273 1980
478 Rockpile Mountain (FS) II 1,655 1980
Montana
National Park
479 Glacier (NPS) II 410,058 1910
National Wildlife Refuges
480 Benton Lake (FWS) IV 5,015
481 Bowdoin (FWS) IV 5,094
482 Charles M. Russell (FWS) IV 364,808 1936
483 Creedman Coulee (FWS) IV 1,105
484 Halfbreed Lake (FWS) IV 1,748
485 Lake Mason (FWS) IV 6,773
486 Lake Thibadeau (FWS) IV 1,567
487 Lee Metcalf (FWS) IV 1,131 1964
488 Medicine Lake (FWS) IV 9,243
489 National Bison Range (FWS) IV 7,509
490 Pablo (FWS) IV 1,030
491 Red Rock Lakes (FWS) IV 14,050
492 UI Bend (FWS) IV 22,700
493 War Horse (FWS) IV 1,293
Wildernesses
494 Absaroka-Beartooth (FS) II 372,445 1978
495 Anaconda-Pintler (FS) II 63,890 1964
496 Bob Marshall (FS) II 408,474 1964
497 Cabinet Mountains (FS) II 38,151 1964

90

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
498 Gates of the Mountains (FS) II 11,559 1964
499 Great Bear (FS) II 116,024 1978
500 Lee Metcalf (FS) II 100,744 1983
501 Mission Mountains (FS) II 29,897 1975
502 Rattlesnake (FS) II 13,292 1980
503 Scapegoat (FS) II 96,840 1972
504 Selway-Bitterroot (FS) II 101,756 1964
505 Welcome Creek (FS) II 11,386 1978
506 Lee Metcalf (BLM) II 2,428 1983
National Recreation Area
507 Bighorn Canyon (NPS) V 48,644 1966
Nebraska
National Wildlife Refuges
508 Crescent Lake (FWS) IV 18,556
509 De Soto (FWS) IV 1,751
510 Fort Niobrara (FWS) IV 7,563 1912
511 North Platte (FWS) IV 2,044
512 Valentine (FWS) IV 27,174 1935
National Monuments
513 Agate Fossil Beds (NPS) Il 1,236 1965
514 Lehman Caves (NPS) III 3,098 1922
515 Scotts Bluff (NPS) Vv 1,209 1919
Wilderness F
516 Soldier Creek (FS) II 3,154 1986
Nevada
National Park
517 Great Basin (NPS) II 31,080 1986
National Wildlife Refuges
518 Ash Meadows (FWS) IV 5,174
519 Desert (FWS) IV 643,471
520 Fallon (FWS) IV 7,250
521 Paharanagat (FWS) IV 2,179
522 Ruby Lake (FWS) IV 15,230
523 Sheldon (FWS) IV 231,037 1931
524 Stillwater (FWS) IV 9,802
Wildernesses
525 Alta Toquima (FS) II 15,378 1989
526 Arc Dome (FS) II 46,539 1989
527 Boundary Peak (FS) II 4,047 1989
528 Currant Mountain (FS) II 14,569 1989
529 East Humboldt (FS) II 14,933 1989
530 Grant Range (FS) II 20,234 1989
531 Jarbidge (FS) II 45,797 1964
532 Mount Charleston (FS) II 17,402 1989
533 Mount Moriah (FS) II 33,184 1989
534 Mount Rose (FS) II 11,331 1989
535 Quinn Canyon (FS) II 10,927 1989
536 Ruby Mountains (FS) II 36,422 1989
537 Santa Rosa - Paradise Peak (FS) II 12,545 1989
538 Table Mountain (FS) II 39,659 1989
539 Mount Moriah (BLM) II 2,604 1989

91

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

540

549

550

551
552
553
554
555
556
557

558
559
560
902

561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576

National/international designations

Name of area

National Recreation Area
Lake Mead (NPS)

New Hampshire

National Estuarine Research Reserve

Great Bay (NOAA)

Wildernesses
Great Gulf (FS)
Pemigewasset (FS)

Presidential Range-Dry River (FS)

Sandwich Range (FS)

New Jersey
National Reserve
Pinelands NaR (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Edwin B. Forsythe (FWS)
Great Swamp (FWS)

National Recreation Area
Delaware Water Gap (NPS)

New Mexico
National Park
Carlsbad Caverns (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Bitter Lake (FWS)
Bosque del Apache (FWS)
Grulla (FWS)

Las Vegas (FWS)
Maxwell (FWS)

San Andres (FWS)
Sevilleta (FWS)

National Monuments
Bandelier (NPS)
Chaco Canyon (NPS)
White Sands (NPS)
El Malpais (NPS)

Wildernesses

Aldo Leopold (FS)
Apache Kid (FS)

Blue Range (FS)
Capitan Mountains (FS)
Chama River Canyon (FS)
Cruces Basin (FS)
Dome (FS)

Gila (FS)

Latir Peak (FS)
Manzano Mountain (FS)
Pecos (FS)

San Pedro Parkss (FS)
Sandia Mountain (FS)
Wheeler Peak (FS)
White Mountain (FS)
Withington (FS)

92

IUCN management
category

IV
IV

Area

(ha)

606,123

3,002

2,247
18,211
11,080
10,117

438,210

14,017
2,809

28,340

18,921

9,457
23,162
1,309
3,499
1,498
23,172
92,394

14,904

8,708
58,614
46,170

81,753
18,060
11,859
14,026
20,356
7,284
2,104
225,764
8,094
14,923
90,380
16,646
15,328
7,957
19,509
7,689

Year
notified

1964

1989

1964
1984
1975
1984

1978

1964

1965

1930

1939
1969

1973

1916
1907
1933
1987

1980
1980
1980
1980
1978
1980
1980
1964
1980
1978
1964
1964
1978
1964
1964
1980

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
577 Bisti (BLM) II 1,597 1984
578 Cebolla (BLM) II 25,414 1987
579 De-na-zin (BLM) II 9,087 1984
580 West Malpais (BLM) II 16,066 1987
National Historic Park
581 Chaco Culture (NPS) V 13,760 1907
New York
National Wildlife Refuges
582 Iroquois (FWS) IV 4,381 1958
583 Montezuma (FWS) IV 2,605
584 Oyster Bay (FWS) IV 1,298
National Estuarine Research Reserve
585 Hudson River (NOAA) IV 2,023 1982
National Seashore
586 Fire Island NS (NPS) Vv 7,834 1964
National Historic Park
587 Saratoga (NPS) Vv 2,222 1938

North Carolina
National Wildlife Refuges

588 Alligator River (FWS) IV 56,297
589 Cedar Island (FWS) IV 5,073
590 Great Dismal Swamp # (FWS) IV 9,945
591 Mackay Island (FWS) IV : 2,526
592 Mattamuskeet (FWS) IV 20,323
593 Pea Island (FWS) IV 2,376
594 Pee Dee (FWS) IV 3,418
595 Pungo (FWS) IV 5,002
596 Swanquarter (FWS) IV 6,335
National Estuarine Research Reserve
597 North Carolina (NOAA) IV 4,743 1982
National Seashores
598 Cape Hatteras NS (NPS) Vv 12,270 1937
599 Cape Lookout National Seashore (NPS) Vv 11,493 1966
Wildernesses
600 Birkhead Mountains (FS) II 1,938 1984
601 Catfish Lake South (FS) II 3,076 1984
602 Ellicott Rock (FS) II 1,590 1975
603 Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (FS) II 5,314 1975
604 Linville Gorge (FS) II 4,441 1964
605 Middle Prong (FS) II 3,197 1984
606 Pocosin (FS) II 4,452 1984
607 Sheep Ridge (FS) II 3,861 1984
608 Shining Rock (FS) II 7,466 1964
609 Southern Nantahala (FS) II 4,895 1984
North Dakota
National Park
610 Theodore Roosevelt (NPS) II 28,150 1978
National Wildlife Refuges
611 Ardoch (FWS) IV 1,092
612 Arrowwood (FWS) IV 6,453 1935

93

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630

631

632

633
634
635
636
637
638

639
640

641

642

Nationall/international designations

Name of area

Audubon (FWS)
Chase Lake (FWS)
Dakota Lake (FWS)
Des Lacs (FWS)

J. Clark Salyer (FWS)
Lake Alice (FWS)
Lake George (FWS)
Lake Ilo (FWS)
Lake Nettie (FWS)
Lake Zahl (FWS)
Long Lake (FWS)
Lostwood (FWS)
Rock Lake (FWS)
Silver Lake (FWS)
Slade (FWS)
Tewaukon (FWS)
Upper Souris (FWS)
Willow Lake (FWS)

Ohio
National Wildlife Refuge
Ottawa (FWS)

National Recreation Area
Cuyahoga Valley (NPS)

Oklahoma

National Wildlife Refuges
Optima (FWS)

Salt Plains (FWS)
Sequoyah (FWS)
Tishomingo (FWS)
Washita (FWS)

Wichita Mountains (FWS)

Wildernesses
Blackfork Mountain (FS)
Upper Kiamichi (FS)

National Recreation Area
Arbuckle (NPS)

Oregon
National Park
Crater Lake (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Ankeny (FWS)

Baskett Slough (FWS)
Bear Valley (FWS)

Cold Springs (FWS)
Hart Mountain (FWS)
Klamath Forest (FWS)
Lewis and Clark (FWS)
Lower Klamath # (FWS)
Malheur (FWS)
Umatilla (FWS)

Upper Klamath (FWS)
William L. Finley (FWS)

94

IUCN management
category

II

Year
notified

1956
1908

1932

1941
1935

1975

1930
1971
1943

1988

1988

1965

1902

1965
1965

1909

1969
1928

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified

National Estuarine Research Reserve

655 South Slough (NOAA) IV 2,502 1974
National Monument
656 John Day Fossil Beds (NPS) Ill 5,671 1974
Wildernesses
657 Badger Creek (FS) II 9,712 1984
658 Black Canyon (FS) II 5,423 1984
659 Boulder Creek (FS) II 7,730 1984
660 Bridge Creek (FS) II 2,185 1984
661 Bull of the Woods (FS) II 14,124 1984
662 Columbia (FS) II 15,783 1984
663 Cummins Creek (FS) II 3,712 1984
664 Diamond Peak (FS) II 21,928 1964
665 Drift Creek (FS) II 2,346 1984
666 Eagle Cap (FS) II 145,065 1964
667 Gearhart Mountain (FS) II 9,231 1964
668 Grassy Knob (FS) II 6,961 1984
669 Hells Canyon (FS) II 52,648 1975
670 Kalmiopsis (FS) II 72,722 1964
671 Menagerie (FS) II 1,942 1984
672 Middle Santiam (FS) II 3,035 1984
673 Mill Creek (FS) II 7,042 1984
674 Monument Rock (FS) II 7,952 1984
675 Mount Hood (FS) II 18,826 1964
676 Mount Jefferson (FS) II 5 43,305 1968
677 Mount Thielsen (FS) II 22,298 1984
678 Mount Washington (FS) II 21,342 1964
679 Mountain Lakes (FS) II 9,337 1964
680 North Fork John Day (FS) II 49,110 1984
681 North Fork Umatilla (FS) II 8,270 1984
682 Red Buttes (FS) II 1,518 1984
683 Rock Creek (FS) II 3,024 1984
684 Rogue-Umpqua Divide (FS) II 13,436 1984
685 Salmon-Huckleberry (FS) II 18,033 1984
686 Sky Lakes (FS) II 47,065 1984
687 Strawberry Mountain (FS) II 27,802 1964
688 Three Sisters (FS) II 115,418 1964
689 Waldo Lake (FS) II 15,864 1984
690 Wenaha-Tucannon (FS) II 26,861 1978
691 Wild Rogue (FS) II 10,383 1978
692 Table Rock (BLM) II 2,327 1984
693 Wild Rogue (BLM) II 3,630 1978
Pennsylvania
National Scenic River
694 Middle Delaware NScRv (NPS) V 1,113 1978
National Wildlife Refuge
695 Erie (FWS) IV 3,238
National Estuarine Research Reserve
696 Narragonsett Bay (NOAA) IV 1,286 1980
Wilderness
697 Hickory Creek (FS) II 3,468 1984
National Historic Park

95

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

698

National/international designations

Name of area

Gettysburg (NPS)

National Recreation Area
Delaware Water Gap (NPS)

South Carolina
National Wildlife Refuges
Cape Romain (FWS)
Carolina Sandhills (FWS)
Pinckney Island (FWS)
Santee (FWS)

Savannah # (FWS)
Waubay (FWS)

National Monument
Congaree Swamp (NPS)

Wildernesses

Ellicott Rock (FS)

Little Wambaw Swamp (FS)
Wambaw Swamp (FS)

South Dakota
National Parks
Badlands (NPS)
Wind Cave (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
La Creek (FWS)

Pocasse (FWS)

Sand Lake (FWS)

Wilderness
Black Elk (FS)

Tennessee
National Park
Great Smoky Mountains (NPS)

National Scenic River
Obed (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Chickasaw (FWS)

Cross Creeks (FWS)
Hatchie (FWS)

Lower Hatchie (FWS)
Tennessee (FWS)

Wildernesses

Bald River Gorge (FS)
Big Frog (FS)

Big Laurel Branch (FS)
Citico Creek (FS)

Gee Creek (FS)

Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (FS)
Little Frog Mountain (FS)
Pond Mountain (FS)
Sampson Mountain (FS)
Unaka Mountain (FS)

IUCN management
category

Vv

Vv

22a

Area

(ha)

1,377

11,478

13,861
18,319
1,641
17,673
5,785
1,047

6,125

1,137
2,086
1,929

98,463
11,223

6,650
1,047
8,039

3,976

209,160

2,125

6,266
3,589
5,285
1,678
20,800

1,506
3,232
2,530
6,566
1,009
1,551
1,896
2,681
3,367
1,902

Year
notified

1895

1965

1932

1975
1941

1976

1975
1980
1980

1978
1903

1935

1980

1934

1976

1965

1984
1984
1986
1984
1975
1975
1986
1986
1986
1986

Map
ref.

733
734

735,

736

737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750

751

752
753
754
755
756

757
758
759

760
761
762
763
764

765
766
767

768
769

National/international designations

Name of area

Texas

National Parks

Big Bend (NPS)

Guadalupe Mountains (NPS)

National Preserve
Big Thicket (NPS)

National Scenic River
Rio Grande (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Anahuac (FWS)

Aransas (FWS)

Attwater’s Prairie Chicken (FWS)
Big Boggy (FWS)

Brazoria (FWS)

Buffalo Lake (FWS)

Hagerman (FWS)

Laguna Atascosa (FWS)

Lower Rio Grande Valley (FWS)
McFaddin (FWS)

Moody (FWS)

Muleshoe (FWS)

San Bernard (FWS)

Texas Point (FWS)

National Seashore
Padre Island NS (NPS)

Wildernesses

Big Slough (FS)
Indian Mounds (FS)
Little Lake Creek (FS)
Turkey Hill (FS)
Upland Island (FS)

National Recreation Areas
Amistad (NPS)

Sanford (NPS)

Shadow Mountain (NPS)

Utah

National Parks
Arches (NPS)

Bryce Canyon (NPS)
Canyonlands (NPS)
Capitol Reef (NPS)
Zion (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Bear River (FWS)

Fish Springs (FWS)
Ouray (FWS)

National Monuments
Cedar Breaks (NPS)
Natural Bridges (NPS)

97

IUCN management
category

II
Il

<<<

United States of America

Area Year
(ha) notified
286,572 1944
31,364 1972
34,712 1974
3,885 1978
9,897 1963
42,407 1937
3,234 1972
1,770
4,941
3,104
4,585 1945
18,301
10,662
17,397
1,424
2,352
9,904 1967
3,626
54,196 1968
1,450 1984
4,418 1984
1,542 1984
2,139 1984
5,027 1984
26,260 1965
16,603 1965
7,369 1952
29,260 1971
14,405 1924
136,542 1964
97,870 1971
59,308 1909
26,337
5,758 1959
4,651
2,469 1933
3,040 1908

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
7719
780
781
782
783
784

785

786

787
788
789
790
791
792

793

794
795
796
797
798

799

800
801

802

803
804
805
806
807
808

National/international designations
Name of area

Wildernesses

Ashdown Gorge (FS)
Box-Death Hollow (FS)

Dark Canyon (FS)

Deseret Peak (FS)

High Uintas (FS)

Lone Peak (FS)

Mount Naomi (FS)

Mount Nebo (FS)

Mount Olympus (FS)

Mount Timpanogos (FS)

Pine Valley Mountain (FS)
Twin Peaks (FS)

Wellsville Mountain (FS)
Beaver Dam Mountains (BLM)
Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs (BLM)

National Recreation Area
Glen Canyon (NPS)

Vermont

National Wildlife Refuge
Missisquoi (FWS)
Wildernesses

Big Branch (FS)
Breadloaf (FS)

Bristol Cliffs (FS)
George D. Aiken (FS)
Lyle Brook (FS)

Peru Peak (FS)

Virginia
National Park
Shenandoah (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Back Bay (FWS)
Chincoteague (FWS)

Great Dismal Swamp (FWS)
Plum Tree Island (FWS)
Wallops Island (FWS)

National Memorial

IUCN management
category

II

Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania Co. Battle (NPS) Vv

National Battlefield
Manassas (NPS)
Petersburg (NPS)

Park
Prince William Forest (NPS)

Wildernesses

Barbours (FS)
Beartown (FS)

James River Face (FS)
Kimberling Creek (FS)
Lewis Fork (FS)

Little Dry Run (FS)

<<

II

98

Area

(ha)

2,833
10,421
18,211
10,320

184,823
12,176
17,948
11,331

6,475

4,350
20,234

4,587

9,652

1,469

9,308

580,558

2,365

DeT9,
8,693
1,513
2,048
6,274
2,800

84,921

1,859
3,853
33,154
1,327
1,366

1,483

1,101
1,103

7,048

2,266
2,446
3,677
2,258
2,348
1,376

Year
notified

1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1978
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984

1927

1984
1984
1975
1984
1975
1984

1926

1938

1973

1940
1926

1936

1988
1984
1975
1984
1984
1984

United States of America

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
809 Little Wilson Creek (FS) II 1,560 1984
810 Mountain Lake (FS) II 3,340 1984
811 Peters Mountain (FS) II 1,346 1984
812 Ramseys Draft (FS) II 2,722 1984
813 Rich Hole (FS) II 2,610 1988
814 Rough Mountain (FS) II 3,764 1988
815 Saint Marys (FS) II 4,083 1984
816 Shavers Run (FS) II 1,459 1988
National Historic Park
817 Colonial (NPS) \Y/ 3,810 1930
Washington
National Parks
818 Mount Rainier (NPS) II 95,268 1899
819 North Cascades (NPS) II 204,284 1968
820 Olympic (NPS) II 371,225 1938
National Wildlife Refuges
821 Columbia (FWS) IV 11,985 1944
822 Conboy Lake (FWS) IV 2,290 1965
823 Little Pend Oreille (FWS) IV 16,200
824 McNary (FWS) IV 1,470 1955
825 Nisqually (FWS) IV 1,145
826 Ridgefield (FWS) IV 1,874
827 Saddle Mountain (FWS) IV 12,478 1971
828 Turnbull (FWS) IV , 6,304 1937
829 Umatilla (FWS) IV 5,672
830 Willapa (FWS) IV 5,830
National Monument
903 Mount St Helens (FS) Ill 44,550 1982
Estuarine Sanctuary
831 Padilla Bay (NOAA) IV 12,570 1980
Wildernesses
832 Alpine Lakes (FS) II 146,748 1976
833 Boulder River (FS) II 19,698 1984
834 Buckhorn (FS) II 17,911 1984
835 Clearwater (FS) II 5,908 1984
836 Colonel Bob (FS) II 4,840 1984
837 Glacier Peak (FS) II 231,618 1964
838 Glacier View (FS) II 1,264 1984
839 Goat Rocks (FS) II 42,347 1964
840 Henry M. Jackson (FS) II 41,550 1984
841 Indian Heaven (FS) II 8,482 1984
842 Lake Chelan-Sawtooth (FS) II 61,284 1984
843 Mount Adams (FS) II 18,869 1964
844 Mount Baker (FS) II 47,562 1984
845 Mount Skokomish (FS) II 5,267 1984
846 Noisy-Diobsud (FS) II 5,719 1984
847 Norse Peak (FS) II 20,778 1984
848 Pasayten (FS) II 214,497 1968
849 Salmo-Priest (FS) II 16,728 1984
850 Tatoosh (FS) II 6,374 1984
851 The Brothers (FS) II 6,751 1984
852 Trapper Creek (FS) II 2,416 1984
853 Wenaha-Tucannon (FS) II 44,940 1978

99

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

854
855

856
857
858

National/international designations
Name of area

William O. Douglas (FS)
Juniper Dunes (BLM)

National Recreation Areas
Coulee Dam (NPS)

Lake Chelan (NPS)

Ross Lake (NPS)

West Virginia
National River
New River Gorge (NPS)

Wildernesses
Cranberry (FS)

Dolly Sods (FS)
Laurel Fork North (FS)
Laurel Fork South (FS)
Mountain Lake (FS)
Otter Creek (FS)

Wisconsin
National Scientific Reserve
Ice Age (NPS)

National Scenic Rivers
Lower St. Croix (NPS)
St. Croix (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
Horicon (FWS)

Mississippi River Caue (FWS)
Necedah (FWS)

Trempealeau (FWS)

Upper Mississippi (FWS)

National Lakeshore
Apostle Island (NPS)

Wildernesses
Blackjack Springs (FS)
Headwaters (FS)
Porcupine Lake (FS)
Rainbow Lake (FS)
Whisker Lake (FS)

Wyoming
National Parks
Grand Teton (NPS)
Yellowstone (NPS)

National Wildlife Refuges
National Elk (FWS)
Pathfinder (FWS)
Seedskadee (FWS)

National Monuments
Devil’s Tower (NPS)
Fossil Butte (NPS)

Parkway
John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial (NPS)

IUCN management

100

category

II
II

Vv
Vv
Vv

—i——

Ill

Area

(ha)

68,104
2,792

40,424
25,044
47,582

25,101

14,514
4,134
2,450
2,427
1,012
8,094

13,153

3,512
25,373

8,495
16,338
17,681

225
19,425

17,084

2,382
7,328
1,720
2,664
2,972

124,140
899,139

9,989
6,807
6,011

1,346
3,280

9,672

Year
notified

1984
1984

1946
1968
1968

1978

1983
1975
1983
1983
1988
1975

1964

1972
1969

1941

1970

1978
1984
1984
1975
1978

1929
1872

1965

1906
1972

1977

National/international designations
Name of area

Wildernesses
Bridger (FS)

Cloud Peak (FS)
Encampment River (FS)
Fitzpatrick (FS)
Gros Ventre (FS)
Huston Parks (FS)
Jedediah Smith (FS)
North Absaroka (FS)
Platte River (FS)
Popo Agie (FS)
Savage Run (FS)
Teton (FS)
Washakie (FS)
Winegar Hole (FS)

Biosphere Reserves

Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge
Beaver Creek Experimental Watershed
Big Bend National Park

Big Thicket National Preserve

California Coast Ranges
Carolinian-South Atlantic

Cascade Head Experimental Forest
Scenic Research Area

Central Gulf Coastal Plain

Central California Coast

Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER)
Champlain-Adirondak

Channel Islands

Coram Experimental Forest (incl. Coram NA)
Denali National Park and

Desert Experimental Range

Everglades National Park (incl. Ft. Jefferson NM)
Fraser Experimental Forest

Glacier National Park

Glacier Bay-Admiralty Is.

HJ. Andrews Experimental Forest
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

Isle Royale National Park

Jornada Experimental Range

Konza Prairie Research Natural Area
Land between The Lakes

Mammoth Cave Area

Mojave and Colorado Deserts

New Jersey Pinelands

Niwot Ridge

Noatak National Arctic Range

Olympic National Park

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument
Rocky Mountain National Park

San Dimas Experimental Forest

San Joaquin Experimental Range
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks
South Atlantic Coastal Plain BR

Southern Appalachian

101

IUCN management
category

United States of America

Area

(ha)

173,241
76,502
4,097
80,341
116,145
12,379
49,959
141,838
9,206
41,225
6,046
236,838
285,011
4,336

1,100,943
111,300
283,247

34,217
62,098
125,545

7,051
72,964
404,863
6,210
3,990,000
479,652
3,019
2,441,295
22,513
585,867
9,328
410,202
1,515,015
6,100
3,076
215,740
78,297
3,487
1,560,000
83,337
1,297,264
445,300
1,200
3,035,200
363,379
133,278
106,710
6,947
1,832
343,000
6,125
215,596

Year
notified

1964
1984
1984
1976
1984
1984
1984
1964
1984
1984
1978
1964
1964
1984

1976
1978
1976
1981
1983
1986

1976
1983
1988
1976
1989
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1986
1976
1976
1980
1976
1979
1991
1990
1984
1988
1979
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1983
1988

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest Ix 607 1976
The University of Michigan Biological Station Ix 4,048 1979
The Virginia Coast Reserve IX 13,511 1979
Three Sisters Wilderness IX 80,900 1976
Virgin Islands National Park Ix 6,127 1976
Yellowstone National Park Ix 898,349 1976
Ramsar Wetlands
Ash Meadows R 9,509 1986
Cache-Lower White Rivers R 145,690 1989
Catahoula Lake R 12,150 1990
Chesapeake Bay R 45,000 1987
Cheyenne Bottoms R 8,036 1988
Edwin B Forsythe NWR R 13,080 1986
Everglades R 566,143 1987
Horicon Marsh R 12,911 1990
Izembek R 168,422 1986
Okefenokee R 159,889 1986
World Heritage sites
Everglades National Park 4 585,867 1979
Grand Canyon National Park >. 4 493,270 1979
Great Smoky Mountains National Park ».4 209,000 1983
Mammoth Cave National Park X 21,191 1981
Olympic National Park ».4 362,848 1981
Redwood National Park xX 42,400 1980
Yellowstone National Park X 898,349 1978
Yosemite National Park > 4 308,283 1984

* Abbreviations following the site name give the name of the management agency responsible for the site, which are
as follows:

FWS US Fish and Wildlife Service

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NPS National Park Service

FS US Forest Service

BLM Bureau of Land Management
** Wilderness areas have only been listed here when they do not overlap with other categories of protected area
included in this list. There are a large number of other wilderness areas which lie within national parks, national
monuments, national wildlife reguges and other categories.

102

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Alaska

103

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming

104

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
California, Nevada

105

ies — of 4

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA

Arizona, New Mexico

06

1

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA

Colorado, Utah

07

1

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota

108

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas

109

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee

110

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Florida

111

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Michigan, Wisconsin
112

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio

113

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia

114

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania

115

Protected Areas of the World

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Connecticut, Massachussets, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont

116

United States of America

Federally Protected Areas of the USA
Maine

117

Wire Re wala teal), ; ° Wiseeees a |
—_ 2 a iy 7 * a .
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: gm er ee

oo ad er

BELIZE

Area 22,965 sq. km

Population 191,000 (1991)
Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 1,304 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,720 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation _ Belize, formerly known as
British Honduras, obtained independence from Britain
in 1981, although it has been self-governing since 1964
(Van Rest, 1986).

Belize participates in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan
(TFAP) of the FAO, an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. A country Action
Plan was drawn up in 1989 with support from a number
of international aid agencies. Much of the plan is devoted
to economic development and maximising resource
utilisation in a sustainable manner, through legislative
changes, institutional strengthening and changes in
management techniques. On conservation, the plan
proposes several measures to counter the current
deterioration of forests, including the establishment of
an Office of Conservation within the Forest Department.
This has now been established (S. Matola, pers. comm.,
1992; O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992). Production of
resource inventories is recommended so that gaps in the
existing protected areas network can be highlighted
(OFI, 1989). The UK Overseas Development Agency
has taken over conservation aspects of the Action Plana
forest planning and management project was established
in May 1992 to run for five years (S. Zisman, pers.
comm., 1992).

The first piece of legislation concerning forest resource
regulation and protection was the Forest Ordinance,
1927, revised in 1958. This provides for the
establishment and management of forest reserves within
which timber extraction is strictly regulated (Hartshorn
and Green, 1985; US-AID, 1988). Forest reserves are
established under individual decrees, and controlled
timber extraction is permitted within them.
Approximately 22% of the land in forest reserves is
recognised unofficially as protection forest, which
cannot be utilised except for selective fellings of minor
importance.

The Crown Land Ordinance, 1924, revised in 1958,
enabled the relevant Minister to categorise sites on an
ad hoc basis, leading to the designation of a number of
sites, sometimes known as crown reserves. These
included a number of bird sanctuaries (see Annex) which
have not been renotified under the more recent
legislation (Zisman, 1989). The first crown reserve,
Half—Moon Cay, was established in 1928.

119

The principal protected area legislation currently in
effect is the National Parks System Act No. 5, 1981,
which provides for the declaration by the government of
national parks and other protected areas to be
administered by the Chief Forest Officer. However, no
regulations have been drawn up for the implementation
of this legislation (US-AID, 1988). Definitions are given
for four categories of protected area (see Annex) that are
to be established by the Minister. The process whereby
areas are delimited and developed as a protected area are
given. Licences for construction and other activities
within the area may be issued only by the Minister.

The final piece of legislation relating directly to
protected areas is the Fisheries Ordinance, 1977, which
enables the designation of marine nature reserves (see
Annex). Further reference to these is covered under the
Fisheries Amendment Act, 1983 (Zisman, 1989).

The Wildlife Protection Act No. 4, 1981 provides for the
conservation, restoration, development and regulation of
wildlife resources. Hunting regulations are detailed, and
the Forest Department is authorised to ensure
compliance with the regulations. Under this Act, all wild
animals are protected from unregulated capture, while
some 30 mammal species and all but six bird species are
completely, protected. A seven-year moratorium on
harvesting wildlife for commercial purposes was due to
expire in 1988. It has been extended, however, and
is due to expire in December 1992 (US-AID, 1988;
D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991).

International Activities Belize is a member of the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM). It is a member of
the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a
regional, non-governmental, non-profit organisation
dedicated to promoting policies and practices which
contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of
natural and cultural resources, and to the Central
American Commission on Development and the
Environment (CCAD).

Belize ratified the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 6 November 1990, but
no natural sites have been inscribed to date. Belize is not
party to the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention), nor does it participate in the Unesco Man
and the Biosphere Programme, although it is currently
considering the advantages of joining these, as well as
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention).

A proposed agreement between Belize and Mexico has
been drawn up concerning the protection of the

Protected Areas of the World

environment in the border areas between the two
countries (D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991). Efforts are
also underway to establish an international protected
area around Gran Petén between Mexico, Guatemala and
Belize. Also known as the Azul Triangle, this is a vast
and mostly uninhabited region, with numerous Mayan
ruins. On the Belize side, some 85,000ha have already
been established for conservation, and limited
sustainable exploitation in the Rio Bravo Conservation
Areas managed by the Programme for Belize. A further
proposed international initiative concerns the
Chiquibul/Mayan Mountain project between Guatemala
and Belize.

Administration and Management The Forest
Department within the Ministry of Natural Resources
(formerly in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries) is nominally responsible for all protected
areas in the country. In reality, the main burden of
conservation work has been undertaken by
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), notably the
Belize Audubon Society (BAS), and also the Programme
for Belize, a consortium of conservation organisations
(US-AID, 1988). BAS has been given authority to
manage the government reserves established between
1981 and 1990, in the absence of an appropriate
government authority. The only categories not managed
by BAS are forest reserves and the single marine nature
reserve. BAS also has an important role in promoting
environmental awareness, and identifying and
promoting new sites for nature reserves. The Programme
for Belize owns and manages over 85,000ha for
conservation purposes. Another NGO, Coral Cay
Conservation, has worked closely with the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries in surveying the coastline,
including existing and proposed protected areas, and
drafting up management plans (PFB, 1992).

The Forest Department is responsible for managing all
forest reserves in the country. Around 62% of forested
land is owned by the public sector, just under half of
which comes under designation as 15 forest reserves
(US-AID, 1988). This Department comprises a Chief
Officer, three forest officers, three foresters, two
conservation officers, 11 rangers, 20 forest guards and
support staff. However, training facilities are lacking for
staff, and none has received training in wildlife or parks
management. Lack of adequate equipment and funding
also restricts the effectiveness of the department
(US-AID, 1988).

Responsibility for the administration of marine
resources, including marine nature reserves, rests with
the Fisheries Administrator in the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries (Zisman, 1989).

The government’s decision to hand over policy and
management responsibilities concerned with the
protected areas sector is widely felt to be unacceptable.
It is felt that a systematic approach to the conservation
of the country’s biodiversity is required, to ensure that
all ecosystems are properly represented in the protected

120

areas system, while an administrative and managerial
body within the public sector may be essential if external
assistance in planning, research, training and
managementis to be effective. A Conservation Advisory
Board was established in February 1989 to advise the
Forest Department on matters relating to conservation
and the Environment, but has no statutory powers, and
is ineffective. Proposals put forward by the World
Wildlife Fund-US for the establishment of a
Conservation Division, or an Office of Conservation,
within the Forest Department, were incorporated in the
Forest Department Annual Report and in the Belize
Tropical Forest Action Plan, and a Conservation
Division has now been established, to manage some or
all of the protected areas (S. Matola, pers. comm., 1992;
O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992). WWF-US also proposed
that some form of systems review should be undertaken,
to identify areas of critical importance for inclusion in
an expanded protected areas network (OFI, 1989;
WWFE-US, 1989; D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991).

In 1992, the government of Belize approved in principle
a Belize Revenue Generation Strategy for Protected
Areas (O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992).

Systems Reviews _ Belize is the second smallest and
the least populated country in Central America. It lies in
the northern portion of the Mesoamerican land bridge,
and shares its borders to the north with Mexico, and to
the west and south with Guatemala. To the east there is
a long coastline on the Caribbean Sea, with numerous
offshore islands and coral cays. Many of these lie in a
chain some 15-40km offshore, along the second largest
barrier reef in the world, which is almost continuous for
some 257km. The country can be subdivided into the
level and low-lying northern half, which continues to the
south along a coastal strip, and the Maya Mountains in
the south central area of the country. The low-lying
areas, which are continuous with the Mexican Yucatan
Platform, are dominated by limestone topography, while
the mountain range, which rises to 1,120m, is largely
composed of metamorphosed sediments, with granitic
intrusions. The country lies within the subtropics, and
has a history of devastating effects of cyclones
(Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1988).

Following the Holdridge (1967) classification system,
and the work of Hartshorn ef al. (1984), six life
(ecological) zones have been described in Belize:
subtropical moist forest, subtropical lower montane
moist forest, subtropical lower montane wet forest,
subtropical wet forest, tropical moist — transition to
subtropical, and tropical wet — transition to subtropical.
Mangroves are a major feature of the coastal and marine
ecosystems (Hartshorn et al., 1984; OFI, 1989). Coral
reefs are highly developed and contain a typical
Caribbean fauna (IUCN, 1988). The most recent
estimates of forest cover suggest that closed
broad-leaved forest covers some 74% of the land area,
and open pine forest a further 5% (P. Simonetti, pers.
comm., 1992).

More than 1,000 years ago the Maya civilisation was
widespread, and extensive areas of the country were
farmed. The decline of this civilisation led to the
abandonment of many of these farms, and permitted
forest regeneration. In most cases, this regeneration has
reached the stage where it is widely regarded as climax
vegetation (US-AID, 1988).

Although Belize is not noted among the Central
American countries as having particularly high
biodiversity, itis nonetheless very diverse, especially for
its size, with approximately 4,000 species of flowering
plants. The flora in the north is closely allied to that of
the Yucatan Peninsula, which is thought to comprise up
to 17% endemics. Another feature which raises the status
of Belize as a country of considerable conservation
importance is the fact that much of the habitat is
undisturbed, and relatively unthreatened at present.
Hence, populations are more stable here than in many
other countries (Hartshorn et al., 1984; WWF-US,
1989).

Belize is unique in tropical America in that the country’s
geopolitical identity is related directly to its forest
resources. Settlement of the region in the mid-17th
century was for cutting logwood, and for nearly three
centuries the local economy depended on exported logs
and imported food. By 1984 only 2% of land area was
used for agriculture, of a maximum of 16% which is
considered suitable for mechanised agriculture without
large financial and technical investments (Hartshorn
et al., 1984).

The protected area system has its origins in a series of
crown reserves, focusing on major sea-bird rookeries,
and 15 forest reserves, established for timber
exploitation rather than wildlife exploitation. The first
crown reserve, Half-Moon Caye, was established in
1928. In 1977, seven tiny mangrove cays were
established as crown reserves to protect rookeries, with
administration entrusted to BAS. One of BAS’s first
projects was to raise funds to purchase the remaining
privately-owned land on Half-Moon Caye, an important
breeding ground for red-footed booby Sula sula. Half-
Moon Caye Natural Monument was established in 1982.
Similar initiatives by BAS have resulted in the creation
of other protected areas, such as Crooked Tree Wildlife
Sanctuary in 1984. The collective efforts of BAS, the
Belize Centre for Environmental Studies, Programme
for Belize, Belize Zoo and the government have
consolidated the conservation system (Simons, 1988;
S. Matola, pers. comm., 1992). Since 1981, five national
parks have been established. By 1991 there were some
20 legally declared conservation areas, which covered
some 10% of the total area (US-AID, 1988).

BAS has identified a further 15 sites for potential
protection, including designating the barrier reef,
associated cays and lagoons as a World Heritage site
(Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1998).

121

Belize

The governmentis the largest land-owner in the country,
and as such it has a strong influence on conservation.
Some 21,323 sq. km, or 93% of the total national
territory, is classified by the governmentas "forest land",
over 60% of which is state-owned. Actually, this figure
does not give an accurate reflection of current land use,
as it contains a considerable area of open grassland and
small farms which were not included in calculations.
Within the state-owned forestry system there are 15
legally notified forest reserves that cover 6,368 sq. km,
or 28% of total area. The majority of the land in these
forest reserves is broad-leaved forest, although there is
also some open woodland and pine. Approximately 22%
of the land in these reserves is recognised unofficially as
protection forest, a further 33% has been described as
inaccessible. Despite this, however, a number of these
reserves have lost forest to illegal agriculture, and at least
one has been degazetted. None of the existing forest
reserves has a formal management plan, and it is unclear
to what extent they will contribute to conservation in the
long-term (Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1988).

Tourism is growing exceptionally fast, and tourism in
protected areas doubled between 1987 and 1989. Unless
properly managed this could seriously threaten sites.
However, tourism also presents a great potential source
of revenue for a sector that is particularly short of
funding. There is currently no legal mechanism to
guarantee the capture of revenue from protected areas,
although a WWF-US/Government of Belize project is
looking into this (WWF-US, 1989).

Several innovative conservation projects have been
implemented. For instance, in 1985, following a survey
of the black howler monkey range, the 777ha
Community Baboon Sanctuary was established,
involving more than 60 private land-owners who have
pledged to leave parts of their land undisturbed. Tourism
has been especially encouraged in the area to provide
jobs for local people (Simons, 1988). There are two other
large private nature reserves: Shipstern Nature Reserve
and Rio Bravo Conservation Area (Zisman, 1989).

Hartshorn et al.’s 1984 comprehensive review includes
a chapter on natural resources and another on
institutional and legal aspects of enviromental issues.
The chapter on natural resources comprises sections on
forests, including forest reserves, and wildlands
conservation including the status of conservation units.

Addresses

Commissioner of Lands and Survey, Ministry of Natural
Resources, Belmopan

Chief Forest Officer, Department of Forestry, Ministry
of Natural Resources, Belmopan (Tel: 8 22711;
FAX: 8 22333)

Fisheries Administrator, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, PO Box 148, Belize City

Belize Audubon Society, 29 Regent Street, PO Box
1001, Belize City (Tel: 2 77369; FAX: 2 78562)

Protected Areas of the World

Coral Cay Conservation, The Sutton Business Centre,
Restmor Way, Wallington, Surrey SM6 7AH, UK
(Tel: 081 669 0011; FAX: 081 773 0406)

Programme for Belize, PO Box 749, Belize City

References

Hartshorn, G.S., Nicolait, L., Hartshorn, L., Bevier, G.,
Brightman, R., Cal, J., Cawich, A., Davidson, W..,
DuBois, R., Dyer, C., Gibson, J., Hawley, W.,
Leonard, J., Nicolait, R., Weyer, D., White, H., and
Wright, C. (1984). Belize Country Environmental
Profile. A Field Study. US-AID Contract No.
505-0000-C-00-3001-00. 151 pp. Hartshorn, G.S.
and Green, G.C. (1985). Belize. Wildlands
conservation in North-Central America. September.
6 pp.

IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World, Volume 1:
Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. TUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 373 pp.

122

OFI (1989). Belize Tropical Forestry Action Plan.
Report by Oxford Forestry Institute. Unpublished.
Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford, UK. 273 pp.

PFB (1992). Programme for Belize. Newsletter 6.
Programme for Belize, Suffolk, UK.

Simons, P. (1988). Belize at the crossroads. New
Scientist, 29 October: 61-65.

US-AID (1988). Tropical forests/biodiversity. Annex to
US-AID/Belize FY 89-90 Action Plan, March. 26 pp.

Van Rest, J. (1986). Partners in development: Belize.
Horizons. Spring. Pp. 13-17.

WWFE-US (1989). The establishment of the conservation
division and expansion of a protected areas system
in Belize. Unpublished report submitted to the
Biodiversity Support Program. Pp. ?

Zisman, S.(1989). The Directory of Protected Areas and
Sites of Nature Conservation Interest in Belize.
Occasional Publications No. 10, Department of
Geography, University of Edinburgh, UK. 110pp.

ANNEX

Belize

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title:: Crown Land Ordinance
(Section 6, Chapter 110)

Date: 1924, revised 1958

Brief description: Chapter 110 provides the
Minister with the power to establish sites, sometimes
known as crown reserves, on an ad hoc basis. A
number of these remain today as bird sanctuaries

Administrative authority: Belize Audubon
Society

Designations:

Bird sanctuary No information is available
concerning regulations, although Zisman (1989)
states they may be considered as IUCN Management
Category IV. All sites are small (between 0.4 and
21ha).

Title: Fisheries Ordinance and Fisheries
Amendment Act

Date: 1977, Amendment 1983

Brief description: Section 9 (A) enables the
designation of marine nature reserves

Administrative authority: Fisheries Unit,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries

Designations:

Marine nature reserve The hunting, killing or
taking of certain species of marine mammals and
crocodiles is prohibited. Only one site has been
designated. This site was declared to prevent
overfishing, and to protect the coral resources largely
because of their value to tourism, fishing and as a
genetic resource. The existing site has been zoned,
with Zone (A) being closed to fishing and coral
collecting, and two further zones where regulations
are less strict.

Title: The National Parks System Act No. 5

Date: 25 November 1981

Brief description: | Provides for the creation of
national parks and other protected areas, which
collectively comprise the National Parks System.
Definitions for the different management categories
to be employed, and prohibited activities common to
all of them, are given.

123

Administrative authority: Chief Forest Officer,
Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture

Designations:

National park An area set aside for the
protection and preservation of examples of natural or
scenic value, considered to be of national
significance, for the benefit and enjoyment of the
public.

Entry is permitted only for scientific research,
recreational or educational purposes, with prior
authorisation from the Minster of Natural Resources.

Nature reserve An area set aside for the
protection of biological communities or species, to
allow the continuation of natural processes in an
undisturbed state, and to ensure that ecologically
representative examples of the natural environment
are available for purposes of scientific research,
education and the maintenance of genetic resources.

Entry is prohibited unless under the authority of the
Ministry, and following regulations given in the
legislation.

Wildlife sanctuary An area set aside for the
protection of nationally significant species, or groups
of species, biotic communities or physical features
that require human manipulation for their continuing
survival. Hunting or capture of wildlife, and the
destruction of bird or reptile nests or eggs, are
prohibited.

Natural monument An area set aside for the
protection of nationally significant features of
special interest or unique characteristics for the
purpose of education, research and public
enjoyment. Disruption of features of the national
monument is prohibited, but the monument may be
used for educational, interpretational and research
purposes.

Activities prohibited in all four categories include:
Hunting or capturing wildlife species, fishing,
destroying or collecting floral specimens, and the
construction of structures for permanent or
temporary residence or other purposes.

The Minister may issue permits to appropriate
organisations, scientists or suitably qualified
professionals for the collection of specimens, at his
discretion.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

WbY

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations

Name of area

National Parks
Chiquibul
Nature Reserves
Bladen Branch
Rio Grande
Society Hall

Wildlife Sanctuaries
Cockscomb Basin
Crooked Tree

Marine Nature Reserve
Hol Chan

National Monument
Half Moon Caye

Forest Reserves
Chiquibul
Columbia River
Commerce Bight
Deep River
Freshwater Creek
Grants’ Work A
Machaca
Manatee Lagoons
Mango Creek
Maya Mountains
Mountain Pine Ridge
Sibun

Silk Grass

Sittee River
Swasey-Bladen

Archaeological Reserve
Caracol

IUCN management
category

124

Vill

Area
(ha)

107,607

39,256
2,340
2,729

102,400
1,470

411

3,925

184,955
44,789
1,200
31,647
29,593
3,439
2,300
3,300
23,224
52,124
51,282
42,966
2,641
37,938
6,200

20,000

Year
notified

1991

1990
1968
1986

1986
1984

1987

1982

1991
1954
1989
1991
1960
1986
1954

1987
1984
1920
1987
1920
1977
1958

= pce

=e co |
88.5° cae

+ 18.5° 2

‘ 18° 4

-17.5° ml

SS

Protected Areas of Belize

125

Belize

ated ne oe as pain woe Se
cbs i ee P a
: SUMMARY 03° PUTEETER ARES
1 — - “sn ee es -_ et cata ——— as
ble S| RE eat ae eke eee TNA ee
Ay wt ere Thee oe ee

‘Tee

COSTA RICA

Area 50,900 sq. km

Population 3,015,000 (1990)
Natural increase 2.25% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 1,780 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Information on natural
resource protection given in the Political Constitution of
the Republic of Costa Rica (Constituci6n Politica de la
Republica) is currently not available. Two major
strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of
natural resources have been adopted (Bradley et al.,
1990).

Costa Rica participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry
Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. In 1989, the
government formulated its Forestry Action Plan (Plan de
Accion Forestal para Costa Rica), to interpret the global
designs of TFAP to suit national interests (Bradley et al.,
1990; MIRENEM, 1990). The Forestry Action Plan
reviews the current situation of the forest sector, and
proposes measures to make forest conservation more
effective. These include increasing coordination
between the numerous institutes involved in forest
management; supporting the establishment of a
coordinated national system of protected areas; and
increasing scientific knowledge of forest resources,
necessary to implement sustainable use programmes
(MIRENEM, 1990).

The Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development
(Estrategia de Conservacién para el Desarrollo
Sostenible) (ECODES), completed in 1989 under the
direction of the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy
and Mines (Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y
Minas) (MIRENEM), marks a significant advance in
governmental policies for natural resource protection
(Quesada, 1990). The strategy provides acomprehensive
review of the current situation of natural resource
management, and establishes national guidelines for
sustainable development: preserving genetic diversity;
maintaining essential ecosystems; and ensuring
sustainable natural resource use. In 1987, an Executive
Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva) was established within
MIRENEM to supervise the formulation of ECODES,
which took several years, and to execute its
implementation (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990).

Natural resource regulation dates back to 1853 when
hunting was prohibited close to human settlement (SPN,
1979). Law No. 13 of 10 January 1939 makes reference
to national forests (bosques nacionales), and prohibits
the enclosure of uncultivated land, and the destruction

127

or cultivation of mountain habitats. Areas of land 200m
wide along the length of coasts, and 500m wide on either
side of rivers are declared protected for forest
conservation purposes (SPN, 1979).

The term national park (parque nacional) first appeared
in legislation in Law No. 197 (1945), which prohibited
forest exploitation for 200m on either side of the
Panamerican Highway, and declared part of the
remaining construction area as a national park. However,
Owing to economic problems, this law was never put into
effect, and the first strictly protected natural area was not
established until 1963 (SPN, 1979; Ugalde, 1992).

The promulgation of the Forestry Law (Ley Forestal)
No. 4465 (1969) was a significant step for the effective
establishment and management of protected areas
(Ugalde, 1992). Under this law, the General Forestry
Directorate (Direccién General Forestal) (DGF) was
created within the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
(Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG), to be
responsible for various categories of protected area.
Definitions of these categories are to be given in the
individual legislation providing for the creation of the
each area. National parks and reserves are to be created
by executive decree and, once established, their
boundaries can be altered only by a Congressional Law
(Ley de Congreso). Provision is made for the
expropriation of privately-owned land for the creation of
strictly protected areas where necessary, and penalties
for infringements are given.

In order to implement the provisions of the 1969 Forestry
Law with respect to protected areas, the DGF established
within itself the Department of National Parks
(Departamento de Parques Nacionales). In 1977, Law
No. 6084 officially raised the status of this department
to that of a separate general directorate within the MAG,
known as the National Parks Service (Servicio de
Parques Nacionales) (SPN) (SPN, 1979; Ugalde, 1992).

Wildlife resources are considered under the provisions
of Law No. 6919 Wildlife Conservation Law (Ley de
Conservaci6n de Fauna Silvestre), 1984, which state the
regulations governing hunting and fishing. It is the
responsibility of the Wildlife Department
(Departamento de Vida Silvestre) (DVS), under
MIRENEM, to ensure compliance with the legislation.
The Regulations to the Wildlife Conservation Law,
Decree No. 15403, 1984 provide further details of
wildlife protection, and list prohibited activities and
penalties. Provision is made for the creation of the
Coordinating Committee for Wildlife Conservation
(Comité Coordinador de Conservacién de Fauna
Silvestre), comprising representatives from the various
agricultural and environmental institutes including the
National Parks Service, to supervise and assess activities
relating to wildlife conservation.

Protected Areas of the World

In 1986, MIRENEM was established under Law No.
7152, specifically responsible for formulating national
policies for natural resource protection and use. Both the
DGF and the SPN became part of this new ministry upon
its creation, and the Wildlife Department became the
Wildlife Directorate, independent of the DGF (Ugalde,
1992).

In 1990, the Reformation of the Forestry Law (Reforma
de la Ley Forestal) No. 7174 replaced the 1969 Forestry
Law and its subsequent modifications. The
responsibilities and structure of the DGF are detailed,
and provision is made for the creation of the National
Forestry Council (Consejo Forestal Nacional) to assess
the activities of MIRENEM with respect to the
protection, exploitation and administration of forest
resources. Definitions are given for five categories of
protected area (see Annex). Establishment requirements
include a preliminary inventory, stated objectives and a
management plan for each area, to be formulated by the
DGF or the SPN.

There is no single piece of legislation uniting protected
areas by stating national conservation objectives, and
providing a legislative framework fora coherent national
system (MIRENEM, 1990).

In 1991, MIRENEM submitted a project for a new law
to the Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa), as
part of the ongoing process of consolidating protected
areas into a coordinated national system (MIRENEM,
1991a; Ugalde, 1992). The Project for a Law of the
National System of Conservation Areas (Proyecto de
una Ley del Sistema Nacional de Areas de
Conservaci6n) does not replace current legislation on
protected area management, but is intended to
implement a new management system for protected
areas which will unify the national system to a greater
degree, and in which local and private participation will
be encouraged (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992).

International Activities Costa Rica signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencion
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 with
subsequent ratification.

Costa Rica ratified both the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 23 August 1977, with
one natural site inscribed in 1983, and the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar

Convention) on 27 March 1992 and two sites have been
listed. Costa Rica participates in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme and two biosphere reserves were
approved in 1982 and 1988.

In 1982 Costa Rica signed the Basic Convention for
Creation of the Park (Convenio Basico de Creacién

128

del Parque), a binational agreement with Panama for the
creation, joint planning and administration of the La
Amistad transfrontier park. Costa Rica and Nicaragua
are also cooperating closely on the development of the
binational protected areas system along the border
between the two countries through the SIAPAZ project.
A binational commission (comisién binacional) was
established in October 1990, and Costa Rica and
Nicaragua signed a cooperative agreement on 15
December 1990 for collaboration with frontier protected
areas (4reas protegidas fronterizas).

Costa Rica, through the National Park Service
participates in the FAO Latin American Network
programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas,
Flora y Fauna Silvestres). This programme aims to
coordinate the activities of participating countries, to
assist in the implementation and functioning of a
coherent and effective national system of protected areas
in each country (FAO, n.d.).

Administration and Management _‘The structure of
protected areas and forestry administration has existed
in its present form since the creation of MIRENEM, in
1986. By establishing a ministry specifically responsible
for natural resources and the environment, such issues
are afforded a relatively high status within government
(Quesada, 1990).

MIRENEM incorporates those organisations that
administer natural resources and protected areas: the
General Forestry Directorate (DGF) and the National
Parks Service (SPN), both formerly part of the Ministry
of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) (MAG); and
the Wildlife Directorate (Direccién de Vida Silvestre)
(DVS), formerly a department within the DGF
(MIRENEM, 1991b; Ugalde, 1992). The
Responsibilities for protected area management are
assigned to the DGF or the SPN according to
management category; the DVS is responsible for
wildlife, and does not administer protected areas
(A.F. Ugalde, pers. comm., 1992).

The DGF, established in 1969, has a broad range of
responsibilities for forest resource administration,
including the management of forest reserves (reservas
forestales), protective zones (zonas protectoras) and
faunal refuges (Bradley et al., 1990; A.F. Ugalde pers.
comm., 1992). The principal aim of the areas managed
by the DGF is the sustainable production of natural
resources. Land within these areas may be
privatelyowned, and the state is not obliged to acquire
territory for the establishment of these categories
(Ugalde, 1992).

The SPN, established as a separate directorate in 1977,
manages national parks (parques nacionales), biological
reserves (reservas bioldégicas) and national monuments
(monumentos nacionales). It has the principal
responsibility for formulating and implementing
protected area management policies under the

supervision of MIRENEM (Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde,
1992). The principal objective of the areas administrated
by the SPN is the conservation of national biodiversity
and for this reason, land under these categories must be
acquired by the state (Ugalde, 1992). In total, there are
approximately 600 personnel working in protected area
management (Ugalde, 1992).

There are numerous other organisations and institutions
involved, directly or indirectly, in the protection and
utilisation of forest resources. The DGF and the SPN are
the two principal institutions responsible for
coordinating and directing forest related activities
(MIRENEM, 1990).

The National Forestry Council, created in 1990, is
responsible for assessing the activities of forest resource
use and protection activities of MIRENEM. It comprises
the minister and viceminister of MIRENEM, the
Director General of the DGF; the Minister of National
Planning and Economic Policy (Ministro de
Planificacién Nacional y Politica Econémica); and
presidents or representatives from several governmental
and private institutions concerned with agrarian and
environmental affairs.

The National Commission of Indigenous Affairs
(Comisién Nacional Asuntos Indigenas) (CONAI) is
responsible for a number of indigenous reserves
(reservas indigenas) which play an important role in
the conservation of forests and natural resources
(Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1991a). Although
CONAI does not directly define management policies
for these reserves, it coordinates management
activities with the various indigenous development
associations and local groups (Bradley et al., 1990).

There are seven privately-owned protected areas that
cover 24,357ha, and constitute an important addition to
the protected area network (MIRENEM, 1991b). These
may be owned by universities, private individuals or
institutions such as the Tropical Science Centre (Centro
de Ciencias Topicales) (CCT), which manages
Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, and the Organization
for Tropical Studies (OTS), which manages La Selva
Biological Research Station (Bradley et al., 1990).

A number of other NGOs are working in conservation
issues. Among the oldest and most active in protected
area support are the National Parks Foundation
(Fundacién de Parques Nacionales) (FPN), the
Neotropical Foundation (Fundacién Neotrépica) and the
National Biodiversity Institute (Instituto Nacional de
Biodiversidad) (INBio) (Bradley et al., 1990). The main
objectives of FPN include promoting environmental
education and working towards the establishment of an
effective legal framework for environmental protection
(Alfaro, pers. comm., 1986). The FPN is responsible for
administering funds generated by debtfornature swaps in
Costa Rica (Bradley et al., 1990). In 1983, the FPN
together with The Nature Conservancy, developed the
Natural Heritage Programme (Programma de

129

Costa Rica

Patrimonio Natural) to carry out biological inventories
on endangered species and natural habitats in the country
and to maintain a data base of information on the current
situation of protected areas (Alfaro, pers. comm., 1986).
The Fundacién Neotrépica, is also involved in the
Natural Heritage Programme, besides playing a broader
role in education about protected areas. INBio,
established in 1988, promotes environmental education
and training of field personnel to work in protected areas
(Bradley et al., 1990). It also manages conservation
databases.

Funding for protected areas is through state budgets, and
funds generated by NGOs and foreign governments.
Financial support from the government was greatest
during the 1970s, but funds were reduced during the
1980s (Ugalde, 1992). In 1987 a debtfornature swap was
established, by which the protected area system received
significant financial support in the form of a bilateral
government cooperation, and from international NGOs
(Ugalde, 1992). Between 1987 and 1990 the state funds
assigned to the SPN and the DGF, were US$ 27 million,
with a further US$ 19 million from private foundations
(Ugalde, 1992).

Problems in protected area management arise from a
lack of coordination between the responsible institutes,
and the lack of participation of local communities,
combined with the absence of a clear legislative
framework for implementing conservation objectives
(MIRENEM, 1990). The existence of two principal
administrative entities in charge of protected areas has
resulted in an unnecessary duplication of effort (Ugalde,
1992). Also, a lack of funding results in inadequate
staffing levels and inadequate training of personnel
(MIRENEM, 1990).

There are noticeable differences in the effectiveness
of protected area management under the various
administrative authorities. Only national parks and
biological reserves may be considered adequately
protected and receiving effective management
(Ugalde, 1992).

The new law proposed by MIRENEM in 1991 provides
for the reorganisation of protected area administration.
The SPN would be changed to the National Service for
Conservation Areas (Servicio Nacional de Areas de
Conservacién) and vested with the responsibility for the
management, planning and development of the new
national system of protected areas (MIRENEM, 1991a;
Ugalde, 1992). Management agreements may be
established with NGOs. Local participation would be
encouraged through the creation the advisory National
Council on Conservation Areas (Consejo Nacional de
Areas de Conservacién) and numerous Regional
Councils (Consejos Regionales), which incorporate
local people and enable group decisions to be taken
(MIRENEM, 1991a). Significant developments in
tourism in protected areas have also taken place
(Ugalde, 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Systems Reviews Costa Rica lies between two
oceans, with a mountainous topography shaped by
volcanic activity and an altitudinal range from sea level
to 3,819m (MIRENEM, 1990). The entire country is
tropical with an mean annual rainfall of 3300 mm
(Bradley et al., 1990). The interrelationship of
geographical, physical and climatic features within a
relatively small area has given rise to a large variety of
environments and habitats. Studies indicate that over
half a million species, equivalent to around 7% of the
world’s biodiversity, are found in the country (Bradley
et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Following the Holdridge
(1967) classification system, 12 Life Zones and eight
transitional zones have been identified. Two Life Zones,
tropical moist forest and tropical wet forest cover almost
50% of the country (Bradley et al., 1990; CCT, 1982;
Ugalde, 1992).

There are great differences between the two coastlines.
The Pacific coastline extends for 1,328 km, is
characterised by a mixture of beaches, rocks, headlands,
and peninsulas, and has extensive tracts of mangrove
forest along the rivers and estuaries running into the
Pacific Ocean. This coast is physically more diverse than
the 212km of Caribbean coastline which consists mainly
of deltas, canals, alluvial plains and freshwater swamps
fronted by long barrier beaches (Bradley et al., 1990;
Quesada, 1990).

Three mountain ranges mun northwest to southeast across
the country. The Cordillera de Guanacaste in the
northwest comprises five volcanic massifs reaching an
altitude of 2,020m. The lowlands extending from the
foothills of this range to the Caribbean coast cover
around 20% of the total land area of the country (Bradley
et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Just below the Cordillera
de Guanacaste lies the Central Cordillera, reaching
altitudes of 3,432m, and, south of this range, the
Cordillera de Talamanca extends almost to the
Caribbean coast. Between the Cordillera Central and the
Cordillera de Talamanca lies the Central Valley, the
most densely populated region in the country. Around
52% of the population lives in the valley, an area that
accounts for only 3.83% of the total national territory,
and in which are situated the national capital and three
provincial capitals (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada,
1990).

The economy is based on agriculture. Indiscriminate
deforestation for agriculture and timber production has
left many areas in a fragile situation, particularly the
heads of water basins and water sources (MIRENEM,
1990; Bradley et al., 1990). Between 1950 and 1987,
forest coverage was reduced from 53% to 29%, much of
which now lies within the network of protected areas.
However, forest resources in Costa Rica are severely
threatened by overexploitation, and in 1987 the
government declared a moratorium on industrial forest

activities in order to allow forest recuperation
(MIRENEM, 1990).

130

The first effectively managed protected area was
established in 1963 (Ugalde, 1992). Since then, the
development of a protected area system has been
relatively rapid, and Costa Rica has the second greatest
proportion of territory under protection in Latin
America. By January 1992, the National System of
Protected Wildlands (Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres
Protegidas), under the administration of MIRENEM,
comprised 70 areas covering 1 million ha, equal to 21% of
the total national territory (Ugalde, 1992).

Around 11% of the total national territory is under
absolute protection with management categories that
prohibit the extraction of natural resources. Forest
reserves and protective zones account for the remaining
10.2% (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Indigenous
reserves cover 6.6% of the country area, giving a total of
28% of the total land area under protection (MIRENEM,
1991b). Protected areas incorporate 19 of the 20 Life
Zones identified in the country (MIRENEM, 1991b;
Ugalde, 1992). Estimates of the proportion of forested
land within the protected area system vary from 65%
(MIRENEM, 1990) to 86% (Ugalde, 1992).

The effectiveness of protected areas is limited by the
lack of strategic planning, and the extent of
privately-owned land (MIRENEM, 1990). Land
tenure has become an increasingly serious problem in
the past few decades. National parks continue to contain
private property within their boundaries (MIRENEM,
1991a; Ugalde, 1992). Since the mid-1960s a
combination of population growth and private land
ownership has exacerbated land shortage, and
agricultural expansion and migration into protected
areas has had a severe impact (Bradley et al., 1990;
MIRENEM, 1991a). This migration process is
encouraged indirectly by the Agrarian Development
Institute (Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario) (IDA), which
recognises squatters’ rights, and provides for
compensation for eviction (Bradley et al., 1990).

The majority of protected areas are not of sufficient
size to fulfil their conservation objectives, and they
are all inadequately developed, from basic protection
activities to facilities for personnel and visitors
(MIRENEM, 1990; Ugalde, 1992). Protected areas are
assigned a low level of national importance. Natural
resources are not considered part of the national
capital, and are not included in economic analyses,
resulting in a lack of information about their economic
potential and the extent of deterioration they have
suffered so far (Ugalde, 1992). As the areas are not
utilised to their full economic potential, there is a
significant lack of benefits for local populations and
conflicts often arise (Ugalde, 1992). As a combined
result of these factors, protected areas have become
biogeographically isolated (MIRENEM, 1990;
Ugalde, 1992).

In an attempt to halt this isolation process, and to better
coordinate conservation activities, MIRENEM has
proposed a restructuring of the entire protected area

system: the National System of Conservation Areas
(Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacién) (SINAC)
(MIRENEM, 1991a). This involves regrouping
protected areas into conservation areas (areas de
conservacién) as the basic management unit, which will
integrate local communities to a greater extent (Bradley
et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). A conservation area consists
of a grouping of protected wildlands, contiguous or close
to each other, which are divided for managerial purposes
into zones according to their ecological characteristics
and the presence of neighbouring communities (Bradley
et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). The areas have one or more
Strictly protected core zone owned by the state,
surrounded by zones that allow sustainable development
and use of natural resources, under private ownership,
and is similar to the concept of the biosphere reserve
(Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992).

So far, eight conservation areas have been identified,
each comprising a collection of national parks, other
protected areas, forest reserves, and in some cases
indigenous reserves. A further four satellite areas, that
owing to their geographic isolation cannot form part of
a conservation area, are also to be included in SINAC
(Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1991a). The system
is to be implemented and administered by the National
Service for Conservation Areas, currently the SPN, with
the collaboration of NGOs and local communities
(MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). SINAC was created
by four governmental institutions involved in protected
area management (the DGF, SPN, DVS, and CONAN),
and is more a result of independent work by the these
institutions and conservationists than of formal longterm
planning (MIRENEM, 1991a).

The consolidation of the system into conservation areas
will require the creation of corridors and protection of
additional small areas not included in the system at
present. However, around 7% of the land included in
SINAC is still privatelyowned and must be purchased
(MIRENEM, 1991b). Consolidation is intended to take
place during the five years after the 1991 proposal for
the new law. Details on the degree of implementation are
not available.

Addresses

Servicio de Parques Nacionales, (SPN), Ministerio de
Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM),
Aptdo 101041000, SANJOSE (Tel: 335673/336213;
FAX: 338840)

Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio), Aptdo
3100, Santo Domingo de HEREDIA (Tel: 364269;
FAX: 362816)

Centro de Ciencias Tropicales (CCT), Aptdo 83870,
1000 SAN JOSE (Tel: 252649; FAX: 534963).

Fundaci6én de Parques Nacionales (FPN), Programa de
Patrimonio Natural de Costa Rica (PPN), Aptdo
10094, SAN JOSE (Tel: 229260; FAX: 236963)

Fundacién Neotrépica, Programa de Patrimonio Natural
(PPN), Aptdo 2361002, SAN JOSE

131

Costa Rica

Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), Aptdo 6762050,
SAN PEDRO (Tel. 406696; FAX: 406783).

References

Boza, M.A. (1978). Los Parques Nacionales de Costa
Rica. Incafo, Madrid. 224 pp.

Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). The National
Parks of Costa Rica. Incafo, Madrid.

Bradley, T., McCaffrey, D., Rodriguez, F., Losilla, M.
(1990). Costa Rica natural resource policy
inventory. USAID/ROCAP RENARM project,
Volume II, The Inventory, October 1990, Technical
Report No. 112. Agricultural Policy Analysis
Project, Phase II (APAP II), under contract to the
Agency for International Development (AID),
Maryland, USA. 151 pp.

CCT (1982). Areas potenciales para unidades de
conservacion de recursos naturales en Costa Rica.
Informe preparado para el Ministerio de la
Presidencia por el Centro Cientifico Tropical (CCT),
San José. 306 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas,
flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la
FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile. 8 pp.

FPN (1985). Areas de Manejo en Costa Rica. Programa
patrimonio natural de Costa Rica. Fundacién de
Parques Nacionales.

Herrera, J.C.G. (1984). Planificacién estratégica del
Subsistema de Parques Nacionales y Reservas
equivalentes de Costa Rica, y una metodologta para
redefinicién de limites de dreas protegidas. Magister
Scientiae. Centro Agronémico Tropical de Investigacion
y Ensefianza (CATIE), Turrialba.

Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology; revised
edition. Tropical Science Centre, San José. 206 pp.
(Unseen)

MIRENEM (1990). Plan de acciénforestal para Costa Rica;
documento base. Ministerio de Recursos Naturales,
Energia y Minas (MIRENEM), con la colaboracién del
gobierno del Reino de los Paises Bajos, San José. 84 pp.

MIRENEM (1991a). Consolidation of the national system of
conservation areas. Ministry of Natural Resources,
Energy and Mines (MIRENEM), Republic of Costa
Rica. A proposal submitted by the Costa Rican
government to the World Bank’s consultative group,
Paris, France, 1991.71 pp.

MIRENEM (1991b). National Study of Biodiversity; costs,
benefits and needs for financing the conservation of
biological diversity in Costa Rica. Executive Summary.
Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines
(MIRENEM), Government of Costa Rica, January
1991). 21 pp.

Quesada, C.A. (1990). Estrategia de conservacién para el
desarrollo sostenible de Costa Rica. Ministerio de
Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM).
San José. 162 pp.

Rodriguez, J.M. (1983). Costa Rica. Informe de la Mesa
redonda sobre Parques Nacionales, otras 4reas

Protected Areas of the World

protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. FAO, Santiago
de Chile, 8-10 Junio 1983. Pp. 21-25.

SPN (1979). Breve resefia hist6rica sobre la
conservacion y el programa de parques nacionales en
Costa Rica. Servicio de Parques Nacionales (SPN),
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia. 12 pp.

Thelen, K.D. and Dalfelt, A. (1975) Systems and
Policies for Wildland Management and Policies and

132

Regulations for National Parks Management - Costa
Rica. Report presented to the Ministerio de
Planeacién Nacional de Costa Rica.
Ugalde, A. (1992). Draft country report on Costa Rica. 4 pp.
USAID (1982). Costa Rica; Country Environmental
Profile. Field Study. Tropical Science Centre,
San José.

Title (English title):
Forestal (Reform of the Forestry Law),
No. 7174

ANNEX

Costa Rica

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Reforma a la Ley

Date: 28 June 1990

Brief description: Replaces the Forestry Law
(Ley Forestal) No. 4465 of 1969 and its subsequent
modifications. Gives details of the structure, function
and objective of the General Forestry Directorate
(Direccién General Forestal) and provides for the
creation of the National Forestry Council (Conesjo
Forestal Nacional) as a high level organization to
assess the activities of the Ministry of Natural
Resources, Energy and Mines (Ministerio de
Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas) (MIRENEM)
with respect to the protection and utilization of forest
resources. The national forest estate is defined and
regulations for forest resource use given. Definitions
for five management categories of protected area and
the prerequisites for their establishment are also
given. These areas form part of the national forest
estate.

Administrative authority: The Direccién
General Forestal (General Forestry Directorate)
(DGF) is responsible for managing forest reserves;
protective zones and wildlife refuges. The National
Parks Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales)
(SPN) is responsible for managing national parks and
biological reserves. Both institutes are within the
Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines
(Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas)
(MIRENEM).

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area
containing one or more ecosystems that have not
been transformed by human activity, or to a minimal
extent, in which floral or faunal species,
geomorphological formations, and habitats are of
special scientific or recreational interest, or which
contain landscape of outstanding national scenic
beauty.

The area is set aside for the protection and
conservation of natural beauty, flora and fauna of

133

national importance with the aim of allowing public
assess and enjoyment under supervision and subject
to regulation.

It is the responsibility of the highest authority in the
country to take adequate measures to remove and
prevent, as soon as possible, exploitation or
occupation within the entire area to affect the
protection of the species or structures for which the
area was established.

Exploitation of natural resources is prohibited.

Reserva Bioldégica (Biological Reserve) An area
comprising forest and forested land whose principle
use is the conservation, study and research of wildlife
and the habitats in which it lives.

Exploitation of natural resources is prohibited.

Zona Protectora (Protective Zone) An area
comprised of forest and land suitable for forests, in
which the principle objective is the protection of soil,
the regulation of water resources and the
conservation of the environment and water basins.

Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only
with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject
to regulations given in the legislation.

Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) An area
comprising forest whose primary function is the
production of timber, and by those forested lands
which are naturally particularly suitable for these
aims.

Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only
with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject
to regulations given in the legislation.

Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre (National
Wildlife Refuge) An area comprising forest and
land whose primary function is the protection,
conservation, augmentation and management of
floral and faunal species.

Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only
with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject
to regulations given in the legislation.

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

OMANDMNHPWNK

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations

Name of area

National Parks
Arenal

Ballena

Barra Honda
Braulio Carrillo
Cahuita

Chirripé
Corcovado
Guanacaste

Isla del Coco

La Amistad (Talamanca)
Palo Verde
Rincén de la Vieja
Santa Rosa
Tortuguero
Volcan Irazi
Volcan Pods

Biological Reserves
Cabo Blanco

Carara

Hitoy-Cerere

Isla del Cafio

Islas Guayabo y Negritos
Lomas Barbudal

Faunal Refuges

Barra del Colorado
Cafio Negro

Gandoca y Manzanillo
Golfito

Isla Bolanos

Tapanti

Protection Zones

Acuiferos de Gudcimo y Pocosi

Arenal

Caraigres

Cerros de Escaziti
Cerros de Turrubares
Cerros de la Carpintera
Cuencas del Rio Tuis
El Rodeo

Juan Castro Blanco

La Cangreja

La Selva

Las Tablas

Miravelles

Rio Grande

Rio Pacuare

Rio Sombrero - Rio Navarro
Rio Tivives

San Ram6én

Tenorio

Tortuguero

IUCN management
category

134

ih ——— sn

Area
(ha)

2,000
4,200
2,295
44,099
1,067
50,150
54,568
32,512
2,400
193,929
13,228
14,083
37,217
18,946
2,309
15,600

1,172
4,700
9,154
200
143
2,279

Year
notified

1991
1990
1974
1978
1970
1975
1975
1991
1978
1982
1982
1973
1971
1975
1955
1971

1963
1978
1978
1978
1973
1986

1985
1983
1985
1985
1981
1982

1987
1991
1976
1976
1983
1976
1986
1976
1968
1984
1982
1981
1991
1976
1991
1984
1986
1991
1991
1990

National/international designations
Name of area

Forest Reserves

Cordillera Volcdnica Central
Golfo Dulce

Grecia

Los Santos

Manglares

Rio Macho

Volcan Arenal

Anthropological Reserves
Abrojos

Alto Chirripé

Alto Pacuare
Awari

Bajo Chirripé
Barbilla

Boruca
Boruca-Terraba
Cabagra

China Kicha
Chirrip6

Cocles

Conte Burica
Corina

Coto Brus
Guatuso

La Estrella
Matambi

Nimari Bukiri

Osa

Rey Curré

Salitre

Sibuju Norte
Talamanca - Bribri
Talamanca - Cabécar
Talamanca

Tayni

Telire

Térraba

Ujarras Salitre-Cabagra
Ujarraz

Zapaton

Biosphere Reserves
Reserva de la Bidsfera de la Amistad
Cordillera Volcanica Central

Ramsar Wetlands
Cafio Negro
Palo Verde

World Heritage Sites
Cordillera de TalamancaLa Amistad

IUCN management

135

category

ik

Area
(ha)

61,542
67,287

2,000
62,000
35,000
69,604

5,256

1,480
71,973
1,336
1,332
18,783
2,077
12,470
31,983
27,860
2,459
75,824
3,538
11,910
1,555
7,500
2,743
13,616
1,710
7,439
1,700
10,620
11,700
2,195
43,690
22,729
62,253
13,616
16,260
9,350
56,561
19,040
2,855

584,592
144,363

19,800
9,969

Costa Rica

Year
notified

1975
1978
1973
1975
1977
1964
1969

1978
1976

1976
1982
1956
1957
1956

1976
1977

1976
1976

1976

1985
1985
1956

1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1956
1957
1956
1981

1982
1988

1992
1992

1977

Protected Areas of the World

\\,
“Age «
CCS
ogw SS

Protected Areas of Costa Rica

136

EL SALVADOR

Area 20,935 sq. km

Population 5,252,000 (1990)
Natural increase 2.47% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 1,070 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation There are currently no
official national policies regarding the utilisation and
protection of natural resources and the environment in
El Salvador. A national forestry plan and a conservation
policy are required (Nijiez et al., 1990).

The main legislation concerning forest resources is the
1973 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal), Decree No. 268,
although this is now outdated in many respects (Nuijfiez
etal., 1990). The object of the Forestry Law is to regulate
the conservation, rational use and management of forest
resources on a sustainable basis to ensure the
continuation of forest industries. Reforestation, the
control of erosion and the establishment of national
forests and parks are all in the national interest. Provision
is made for the creation of the Forestry and Wildlife
Service (Servicio Forestal y de Fauna), known simply as
the Forestry Service (Servicio Forestal), within the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG), to be responsible for
all forest resources and implementation of forestry
legislation.

The Forestry Law also provides for the creation of
various categories of protected areas: protective zone
(zona protectora), forest reserve (reserva forestal),
national park (parque nacional) and equivalent reserves
(reserva equivalente), which may be established by
decree. Private land may be expropriated for the creation
of protected areas where necessary. These areas are to
be administered by the Forestry Service, and the
exploitation of forest resources within them is strictly
regulated. However, detailed definitions of the different
categories and details of the regulations governing their
management are not given and no regulation to the
Forestry Law has been formulated (Nujfiez et al., 1990).

Ministerial Decree No. 236 of April 1981 raised the
status of the National Parks and Wildlife Section
(Seccién de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) from
a department within the Forestry Service to that of a
service itself, creating the first institute specifically
responsible for protected area management. All
mandates included in the Forestry Law regarding
national parks and wildlife management are transferred
to the National Parks and Wildlife Service (Servicio de
Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre).

Although the 1981 Basic Land Reform Law (Ley Basica
de Reforma Agraria) does make provision for the

137

protection of natural areas (Serrano, 1992), there is no
comprehensive law providing regulations for the
establishment and management of national parks and
equivalent reserves. Such a law was drafted in 1980 but
has never reached the appropriate authority, and there
are no current high level governmental proposals to
revise legislation (Alvarez, 1992; Nifiez et al., 1990).
Protected areas are created by individual decrees.
However, only two natural areas currently have specific
legislation providing for their declaration as national
parks: Decree 53 (1987) established Montecristo
National Park, a cloud forest along the joint border with
Honduras and Guatemala; and Decree 20 (1989)
established El Imposible National Park near the Pacific
coast in western El Salvador.

There are five other protected natural areas which,
although lacking specific individual decrees, have been
acquired by the government through agrarian reform,
and their ownership has been transferred to the Natural
Resources Centre (Centro de Recursos Naturales)
(CENREN) which is the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia)
(MAG) unit within which is found the National Parks
and Wildlife Service. In addition, approximately 40
small areas totalling 13,000ha were reserved in the name
of CENREN:as part of the land reform process which
began in 1980, but lack both individual decrees and
formal transfer of land ownership to CENREN.

International Activities El Salvador signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified
it later. It participates actively in the Central American
Commission on Environment and Development
(Comisié6n Centroamericana del Ambiente y
Desarrollo).

El Salvador has not ratified the Convention Conceming
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention) nor the
Convention on Wetlands of Intemational Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention),
neither does it participate in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme, although several areas have been
proposed (Benitez et al., 1992). El Salvador participates
in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan, but no funds
for work are yet available (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm.,
1992).

El Salvador, through the National Parks and Wildlife
Service, participates in the FAO Latin American
Network (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica
en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y
Fauna Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate

Protected Areas of the World

the activities of participating countries, to assist in the
implementation and functioning of a coherent and
effective national system of protected areas in each
country (FAO, n.d.).

It is hoped that projects can soon get underway for joint
management initiatives between El Salvador, Honduras
and Nicaragua for the shared mangrove estuaries and
coastal zone of the Gulf of Fonseca (J. Barborak pers.
comm., 1992). In 1987 the governments of El Salvador,
Honduras and Guatemala signed an agreement to create
a trinational cloud forest biosphere reserve El Trifinio or
Brotherhood Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Bidsfera
La Fraternidad) in the mountainous region where the
three nations meet. Formal efforts are also under way to
elaborate a cooperative management plan for the
reserve, which would include Montecristo National
Park, and to obtain official recognition as an
international biosphere reserve (Mardones, 1988;
Ugalde and Godoy, 1992).

El Salvador has received very limited international
financial and technical assistance for its conservation
programmes during the past decade. The major
Salvadorian Environment Programme (Programa del
Medio Ambiente Salvadorefio) (PROMESA), which is
to be carried out by US-AID and includes support for
coastal parks and reserves, is currently in the design
phase (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992). An increase in
international aid is expected to come from the current
biosphere reserves and trinational park projects (Benitez
et al., 1992). The Nature Conservancy has included
El Imposible National Park in their "Parks in Peril
Program", and will start work on this national park with
Eco Activo 20-30 in the near future. The consortium
Paseo Pantera (Wildlife Conservation International and
Caribbean Conservation Corporation) is working with
Eco Activo 20-30 and AMAR on a proposal for work in
El Imposible National Park and Barra de Santiago
Wildlife Refuge and the areas in between for submission
to US-AID (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992).

Administration and Management The first
protected area was established for recreational purposes
on privately-owned land that was donated to the
Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (Instituto Salvadorefio
de Turismo) (STU). Therefore, the ISTU was the first
institute with managerial responsibilities of this nature
(Alvarez, 1992; Nifiez et al., 1990).

Following the 1973 legislation, natural resources were
the responsibility of the Forestry Service under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG). In 1974
a unit was created within the Forestry Service to manage
protected areas, which became known as the National
Parks and Wildlife Unit (Unidad de Parques Nacionales
y Vida Silvestre) (Alvarez, 1992). The new unit
conducted inventories, identified areas throughout the
country for protection and undertook various activities
regarding wildlife management. It comprised two
sections: National Parks and Equivalent Reserves (Secci6n
de Parques Nacionales y Reservas Equivalentes), and

138

Wildlife (Seccién de Vida Silvestre). In 1981, the status
of the unit was formally raised to that of a service
(Alvarez, 1992).

Protected areas are the responsibility of the National
Parks and Wildlife Service (Servicio de Parques
Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) (SPNVS), which is itself
directly dependent on the Natural Resource Centre
(Centro de Recursos Naturales) (CENREN) within the
MAG. It comprises two specific departments: the
Natural Areas Department (Departamento de Areas
Naturales) in charge of managing natural ecosystems;
and the Wildlife Department (Departamento de Vida
Silvestre), responsible for a wide variety of activities
including the study, protection and management of all
native faunal species (Alvarez, 1992; Nuifiez er al.,
1990).

Towards the end of the 1970s, the SPNVS was managing
five areas but its activities were severely limited by the
inability to buy additional iand for restoration and
protection. The agrarian reform of 1981-1982 significantly
changed this situation by expropriating over half of the
potential protection forest in El Salvador in the first
phase of the reformation. This increased both the size of
the areas under protection and the effectiveness of their
administration (Alvarez, 1992; Niifiez et al., 1990). Five
other protected natural areas, although lacking specific
individual decrees, have been acquired by the
government through agrarian reform, and their
ownership has been transferred to CENREN (Benitez et
al., 1992). A large number of other small areas were
identified at the same time for protection but there are no
plans or budgets available for their management
(Alvarez, 1992).

In addition to the area managed by the SPNVS, the
Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (ISTU) manages two
small reserves, Deininger National Park and Cerro Verde
National Park (Benitez et al., 1992). Non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) may also play an important part
in protected area management. There are over 20
conservation-directed NGOs. Several are involved in
promoting the creation and management of a number of
small parks, and in developing environmental education
and buffer zone management around existing protected
areas (Benitez et al., 1992). In 1991, an agreement was
signed between the MAG and an NGO, the Active 20-30
Salvadorean Ecological Foundation (Fundacién
Ecolégica Salvadorefia Activo 20-30), known as Eco
Activo 20-30 or FESA, for the cooperative management
of El Imposible National Park (Alvarez, 1992; Benitez
et al., 1992). Eco Activo 20-30 is concentrating on
raising money to purchase land for the consolidation of
this national park. The Foundation was created in 1990
and is the only NGO involved in protected area
management (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992). The
SPNVS continues to manage and administer the park,
but it receives support from Eco Activo 20-30. This is
the first agreement of its kind between a governmental
authority and an NGO (Alvarez, 1992). Another NGO,

Friends of Trees (Amigos del Arbol) (AMAR), assists in
protection of Barra de Santiago Wildlife Refuge.

Problems in protected area management stem from the
lack of appropriate legislation, which impedes the
implementation of an effective administrative
infrastructure (Alvarez, 1992; Niifiez et al., 1990).
Official regulations are not specified for the
management of national parks and equivalent reserves,
and there are no definitions or regulations stated in the
legislation to provide specific management guidelines
(Niifiez et al., 1990). The effectiveness of the SPNVS
has also been impeded by the division of the country into
four administrative regions by CENREN (Alvarez, 1992;
Niifiez et al., 1990). Following this regionalisation, funding
for the SPNVS at the operational level such as wardens,
was reduced. The SPNVS also lost direct authority over
field personnel which become dependent on the
Tespective regional divisions of CENREN (Alvarez,
1992; Nufiez et al., 1990). This has made it increasingly
difficult for the government to administer
widely-dispersed, small areas, and the return of
centralised administrative authority to the SPNVS has
been suggested (Nuifiez et al., 1990).

Systems Reviews El Salvador is the smallest mainland
nation in the Western Hemisphere (Benitez et al., 1992).
The high population density (300 people per sq. km) has
resulted in an advanced state of deforestation, and
reforestation projects are very limited. Less than 12% of
the country is forested, and only 3% remains in its natural
State (Benitez et al., 1992; Nufiez et al., 1990; SPNVS,
1987). Excessive exploitation of natural resources has
taken place since the colonial era, and, as aresult, around
80% of the natural vegetation has been destroyed, and
around 77% of the country has been seriously affected
by soil erosion (Anon., n.d.; SPNVS, 1987).

Very little research has been carried out on biodiversity,
and there are no inventories of national wildlife or plant
species (Nufiez et al., 1990). Owing to its small size and
more limited altitudinal and climatic variability than
neighbouring nations, and the fact that it only adjoins one
ocean, El Salvador has the lowest biodiversity in the
Central American region (Benitez et al., 1992). Altitudes
do not exceed 2,730m, and the most distinctive
topographic characteristic of the country is the rugged
and broken landscape resulting from volcanic activities
(Anon., n.d.). A thin coastal plain, interrupted by
mountains and deep fissures, runs parallel to the Pacific
Ocean. The volcanic soils of the coastal plain are rich,
and commercial agriculture is extensive in the region.

In contrast, the soils of the coastal mountains just inland
from the plain are poor, and this region has suffered
severe erosion and environmental degradation. The
northern region of the country, where the highest
mountains are located on the border with Honduras, is
also characterised by extensive deforestation and soil
erosion (Anon., n.d.). Following the Holdridge (1977)
classification system of natural habitats, six life zones
are found within the country.

139

El Salvador

The conservation of natural areas began with the
donation to the Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (ISTU)
in 1972 of 704ha of privately-owned land covered with
secondary forest, (Alvarez, 1992). Although the primary
objective of the area was recreational, the written
agreement with ISTU specified that the natural
conditions of the area were not to be altered. Towards
the end of the 1970s, five protected areas were under the
administration of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock.

International tourism has been quite limited for the past
decade due to civil strife. Owing to its degraded habitats
and small size, it is the Central American nation least
likely to become a major international ecotourism
destination in coming years (Benitez et al., 1992).

Lack of public awareness is a considerable problem for
conservation. Hunting and fishing are not regulated, as
a result of the lack of national policy and legislation
(Nufiez et al., 1990). Owing to the small size of
remaining natural habitats and the severe pressure on
them by neighbouring communities, many native plant
and animal species have become extinct over the past
few decades. Particularly noticeable is the disappearance
of species that require large areas of pristine habitat, or
are susceptible to intense hunting pressure, such as
jaguar, harpy eagle, and scarlet macaw (Benitez et al.,
1992).

The establishment of protected areas is not taking place
fast enough to offset the continuous destruction of the
natural environment. The main limiting factors are the
lack of financial resources and governmental support.
The majority of the areas identified for conservation
purposes are without any form of protection, and only
four have park wardens (Niufiez et al., 1990). Of 47
properties expropriated for nature conservation during
the 1981 agrarian reform, only one is being administered
by SPNVS; the rest are affected by agriculture, hunting,
firewood gathering and construction of houses (Serrano,
1992). None has facilities for recreation or tourism,
which limits the number of visitors and hence public
awareness.

Classification of natural areas is vague, and the scarcity
of studies on biogeographic regions in the country or
species present inhibits the identification of priority
areas for protection (Niifiez et al., 1990). Because of
widespread civil strife during the past decade, combined
with the small size and relative lack of international
importance of most of its protected areas, El Salvador
has received very little international financial and
technical assistance for its conservation programmes.
Much of the international support which has arrived in
recent years has been diverted to the war rather than to
more profitable activities (Serrano, 1992). A minimum
of 14,000ha still needs to be bought for administration
by SPNVS (at a total cost of some US$ 10.5 million) in
order to produce a representative system of national
parks (Serrano, 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Fortunately, IUCN and WWE have maintained support
and, with their assistance, CENREN has been planning
a coordinated national wildlands system since 1988
which will soon be completed (Benitez et al., 1992). A
major new programme for conservation activities
including park management is now being planned by
US-AID which includes support for coastal parks and
reserves. Support from the European Community is
hoped for through the trinational Trifinio project, and
from several donors through the Central American
Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Gulf of Fonseca
mangrove project (Benitez et al., 1992).

Addresses

Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Silvestre, (Director), Canton El Matasano,
Soyapango, Apartado 2268, SAN SALVADOR
(Tel: 270484/770622; FAX: 770490)

Amigos del Arbol (Amar), Calle Los Granados #9,
Colonia Las Mercedes, SAN SALVADOR
Fundacién Ecoldégica Salvadorefia Activo 20-30
(Eco-Activo 20-30), 79 Avenida Norte No. 509,
Colonia Escal6n, SAN SALVADOR (Tel: 23-8947

FAX: 233620)

References

Alvarez, J.M. (1992). Apoyo privado al Servicio de
Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre: el Caso del
Parque Nacional El Imposible. Paper presented at
IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela,
10-20 February 1992. 13 pp.

Anon. (n.d.). Perfil ambiental de El Salvador.
US-AID/EMTESCA. 266 pp.

Benitez, M. et al. (1987). La conservaci6n de las dreas
naturales y culturales de El Salvador. Informe ala
II Conferencia Centroamericana de Conservaci6on
de Recursos Naturales y Culturales, Guatemala.
San Salvador. 66 pp. (Unseen)

Benitez, M., Hasbun, C.R., Barborak, J. (1992).
El Salvador — Draft country report. 3 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas,
flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO

140

para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
8 pp.

Holdridge, L.R. (1977). Mapa ecolégico de El Salvador.
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Direccién
General de Recursos Renovables y Programas de las
Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo/ FAO, San
Salvador. 98 pp. (Unseen)

Mardones, C. (1988). Trifinio: un desafio de la
conservacion para tres paises. Flora y fauna y dreas
silvestres 3(7). Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
Pp. 18-22.

Niifiez, R.D., Serrano, F., Martinez, A.C., Guerra, H.
(1990). El Salvador Natural Resource Policy
Inventory. USAID/IROCAP RENARM Project.
Technical report No. 113, prepared for the US
Agency for Intemational Development, El Salvador.
Pp. 76-98.

Serrano, F. (1992). Los parques nacionales y la reforma
agraria en El Salvador. Paper presented at IV World
Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 1992.

SPNVS (1991). Anteproyecto de Ley de Proteccién y
Manejo de Vida Silvestre. Documento interno.
Servicio Nacional de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Silvestre (SPN). 17 pp. (Unseen).

SPNVS (1990). Marco metodolégico y conceptual para
la evaluacién de las Greas del sistema nacional de
Greas naturales protegidas de El Salvador. Servicio
de Parques Nacionales y Visa Silvestre (SPN), San
Salvador. 87 pp. (Unseen)

SPNVS (1987). Elaboracién del plan y estrategia del
sistema nacional de dreas silvestres protegidas de El
Salvador. Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Silvestre, Centro de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio
de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Soyapango. 74 pp.

SPNVS (1984). Anteproyecto de Ley de Parques
Nacionales y Reservas Equivalentes. Documento
interno. Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Silvestre (SPN). 12 pp. (Unseen).

Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional Review:
Central America. Regional reviews. IV World Parks
Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February
1992. Pp. 13.3-13.27.

ANNEX

El Salvador

Definitions of protected area designations as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title : Ley Forestal (Forestry Law),
Decree No. 268

Date: 1973

Brief description: States the regulations
governing forest use to ensure the conservation,
improvement and development of forest resources in
a sustainable manner. Provides for the establishment,
by decree, of various categories of protected areas,
but does not give detailed definitions of these nor
regulations governing their management.

Administrative authority: The Servicio
Forestal (Forestry Service) within the Ministry of
Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura)

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area of
forested land that, owing to its location, natural
scenic beauty, flora and fauna of national
importance, or other circumstances, merits
protection as a national park.

It is in the public interest to protect such areas as
national parks. Public access is permitted under
authorised official supervision.

Within the area, forest resources may be exploited
only by the Forestry Service.

Reserva Equivalente (Equivalent Reserve) An
area of forested land protected for scientific and
recreational purposes, in the public interest

Public access is permitted under authorised official
supervision.

Within the area, forest resources may be exploited
only by the Forestry Service.

Zona Protectora (Protective Zone) Anextension
of forested land which is protected for its importance
in maintaining and regulating water resources, to
improve the living conditions of the local populations
in the area and for other suitable reasons such as the
presence of rivers, streams or lakes

Natural resources may be exploited in the zone,
within the regulations established in the respective
legislation providing for the creation of the area.
Specific characteristics of the area must also be taken
into account.

Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) A forested
area maintained in its complete state for future
exploitation

The area may be mountainous, of low productivity
owing to infertile or rocky soil, or an area where the
protection of forest cover is considered essential for
the following reasons: production of forest products;
regulation of water resources; development of
projects and works involving water resources; for the
protection of agricultural land to prevent soil erosion;
and for general use

The area may comprise state-owned or privately-owned
land.

The Ministry of Agriculture may at any time, declare
permanent forest reserves for the supply of forest
products required by the government, for works or
public services.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map
ref.

WNe

uns

National/international designations
Name of area

National Parks
Cerro Verde
El Imposible
Montecristo

Wildlife Refuges
Barra de Santiago
El Jocotal

IUCN Management Area Year
Category (ha) notified

IV 6,500 1981

II 5,600 1983

IV 3,893 1979

IV 2,200 1983

IV 1,200 1978

141

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of El Salvador

142

GUATEMALA

Area 108,889 sq. km

Population 9,197,000 (1990)
Natural increase 2.88% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 910 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation A commitment to
preserve the environment is made in the Political
Constitution of Guatemala (Constitucién Politica de
Guatemala) which declares it in the national interest to
conserve, protect and improve the natural heritage of the
country. For this purpose, the state shall establish
inalienable protected areas. The conservation of forest
resources and reforestation activities are of national
priority (Detlefsen et al., 1991).

Guatemala participates in the Tropical Forestry Action
Plan (TFAP) of the FAO, an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. In 1991,
Guatemala formulated its Forestry Action Plan (Plan de
Accion Forestal para Guatemala) (PAFG), to interpret
the global designs of TFAP to suit specific national
interests (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Ministerio de
Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacion, pers. comm.,
1991). The Office for Formulation of the Forestry Action
Plan for Guatemala (Oficina de Formulacién del PAFG)
was established for this reason and has drawn up the
basic document which includes several
recommendations and details of projects to increase the
effectiveness of the forestry sector in Guatemala
(Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacién,
pers. comm., 1991). The PAFG stresses the importance
of protecting forest resources and includes the
conservation of forest ecosystems, reduction of
deforestation and promotion of reforestation activities
among its objectives. However, national policies on
forest conservation, management and recuperation have
been unclear and inconsistent (Detlefsen et al., 1991).

The first natural resource legislation was the 1921
Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) (Detlefsen et al., 1991).
Provision for establishing protected areas was first made
in the Forestry Law of 1945, but the first protected areas,
designated as national parks, were not actually created
until 1955 (Nations et al., 1988).

Several modifications to the forestry legislation were
passed subsequently, but all previous acts are replaced
by the 1989 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) Decree
No. 7089, currently in effect. This law was passed in
response to the increasing degradation of forests, and
States the importance of protecting and renovating forest
resources while improving their administration and
utilisation. Under provision of the 1989 Forestry Law,

143

a new forestry institute, the General Forestry Directorate
(Direcci6n General de Bosques) (DIGEBOS) was
created, replacing former forestry authorities.
DIGEBOS is responsible for managing and
administering forest resources in compliance with
national conservation objectives. All extraction
concessions must gain the approval of the conservation
authorities before they may be issued by DIGEBOS.
However, DIGEBOS often grants concessions without
consulting conservation authorities such as CONAP
(J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992) (see Adminstration and
Management). The 1989 Forestry Law prohibits the
destruction of rare or protected tree species, and the
extraction of forest resources from within protected
areas, except where specifically authorised, and
penalties are given. Resource guards (guardarecursos)
ensure compliance with forestry regulations.
Regulations to the 1989 Forestry Law were passed in
1990, but further details are not available.

In the past, policies on the trade and development of
wildlife resources have not been conducive to their
protection (Detlefsen et al., 1991). However, a major
step in wildlife protection was taken in 1989 with the
Forestry Law and new protected area legislation (see
below). Both these laws comprise a significant policy
of regulation of forest and wildlife resources
(Detlefsen et al., 1991).

The first organisation specifically responsible for
environmental issues, the National Environment
Commission (Comisién Nacional del Medio
Ambiente) (CONAMA), was created under provision
of Decree No. 6886 Law for the Protection and
Improvement of the Environment (Ley de Proteccién y
Mejoramiento del Medio Ambiente), 1986. The law
attempts to reduce pollution, and restrictions are placed
on the construction of buildings for industrial or other
purposes. Provision is made for the establishment of
conservation units and the government is to create an
unified national system of protected areas.
Environmental impact studies for industrial projects
become obligatory, though these are rarely carried out in
practice (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992). CONAMA is
responsible for assessing and coordinating
environmental activities throughout the country.

A significant step towards increasing the number and
effectiveness of conservation units was the passing of
Decree No. 4-89, the Law of Protected Areas (Ley de
Areas Protegidas), in 1989. Under provision of this
decree, an extensive national system of conservation
units in the country was created, the Guatemalan System
of Protected Areas (Sistema Guatemalteco de Areas
Protegidas) (SIGAP). All existing areas previously
managed as protected areas but lacking legal notification
were legalised and incorporated into SIGAP, together
with those areas already legally established. A total of

Protected Areas of the World

44 new sites was declared under special protection
(proteccién especial), to be designated appropriate
management categories upon their delimitation, and
incorporated into SIGAP. However, by 1992, none of
these 44 sites had been legally declared or incorporated
into SIGAP, and none managed. The Law of
Protected Areas names six different management
categories together with objectives and selection
criteria (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992).

Also declared protected are: 3km of both oceans
measured out from the high tide line; 200m around all
lake shores; 100m on each side of navigable rivers; and
50m on each side of water sources and springs. Protected
areas under private ownership are officially recognised,
provided that the area is managed according to the terms
and regulations of the law. Regulations are given for
natural resource use within protected areas. Prohibited
activities include hunting, and collecting or destroying
specimens of fauna or flora. However, both Law
No. 6886 and Law No. 4-89 lack regulations which
would allow for fines for breaches of the law (J.C.
Godoy, pers. comm., 1992).

The Law of Protected Areas also makes provision for the
creation of the National Council for Protected Areas
(Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP) as a
means of increasing the efficiency of protected area
management. CONAP is responsible for formulating
and implementing a national conservation strategy, and
has the ultimate responsibility for the direction and
management of SIGAP. Protected areas may be
managed by a number of different institutions but their
activities are assessed and coordinated by CONAP. An
Executive Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva) executes the
policies and objectives of CONAP.

The Regulation to the Protected Area Law (Reglamento
de la Ley de Areas Protegidas), Governmental Accord
No. 75990 (1990), provides definitions for the terms
used in the Law of Protected Areas, and details the
processes involved in the selection, establishment
and declaration of protected areas. Definitions for
the 15 managementcategories to be employed in SIGAP
are given (see Annex). Inventories are to be conducted
for those areas previously established by law, and
management plans are obligatory for all areas.

Two laws in 1990 provided for the creation of the largest
protected areas to date in Guatemala: Decree No. 590
which declared a significant portion of the forest in the
Department of Petén as a biosphere reserve; and Decree
No. 4990 declaring a second new biosphere reserve in
the eastern lowlands (Godoy and Castro, 1990).
Implementation of the two major environmental laws in
effect today, the 1989 Forestry Law and the 1989 Law
of Protected Areas, is hindered by the lack of human and
financial resources (Detlefsen et al., 1991). In order to
achieve their stated objectives, strengthening of the
institutions involved, and increased coordination
between the public and private sectors, is required.
Strategies need to be formulated to develop educational

144

programmes and involve local communities in forest
conservation and management to a greater degree
(Detlefsen et al., 1991).

International Activities Guatemala signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation
in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la
Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas
Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western
Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified it later.
Guatemala ratified both the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 16
January 1979 with one natural site inscribed to date, and
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)
on 26 June 1990 with one site listed. Guatemala
participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme with one biosphere reserve internationally
recognised in 1990.

Guatemala participates in the Latin American Network
of Technical Cooperation in National Parks, Other
Protected Areas, Flora and Wildlife (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres) of the FAO. This programme aims to
coordinate the activities of participating countries to
assist in the implementation and functioning of a
coherent and effective national system of protected areas
in each country (FAO, n.d.).

In 1987 the governments of Guatemala, Honduras and
El Salvador signed an agreement to create a trinational
cloud forest biosphere reserve El Trifinio or
Brotherhood Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Bidsfera
La Fraternidad) in the mountainous region where the
three nations meet. Efforts are now underway to
elaborate a cooperative management plan for the reserve
that will integrate the local populations of all three
nations, and to obtain official recognition as an
international biosphere reserve (Mardones, 1988;
Ugalde and Godoy, 1992). Projects have also been
proposed for a binational protected area Chiquibul/Maya
Mountain between Guatemala and Belize, and a network
of protected areas in the Gran Petén region involving
cooperation between Guatemala, Mexico and Belize
(Ugalde and Godoy, 1992).

Administration and Management There are
currently around 60 institutions whose activities are
directly or indirectly related to protected areas and
wildlife. Of these, 29 are state or independently owned,
and the rest are national and international
non-governmental conservation organisations
(Detlefsen et al., 1991).

The National Environment Commission (CONAMA)
was created in 1986 as a dependency of the President,
and is responsible for assessing and coordinating all
activities related to the protection and improvement of
the environment. CONAMA has been instrumental in

creating an Environmental Commission (Comisién del
Medio Ambiente) within the National Congress to assess
environmental issues at a high level within the
government (Nations et al., 1988).

The first institute specifically vested with responsibility
for protected areas is the National Council for Protected
Areas (CONAP). Established in 1989, the aim of
CONAPis tocreate a high level governmental institution
with sufficient autonomy that it may be entirely
dedicated to the administration of the national system of
protected areas (Godoy, 1990). CONAP is directly
dependent on the President of the Republic (Presidencia
de la Republica) and it sits on the Coordinating Council
of CONAMA (Consejo Coordinador). Protected areas
may be managed directly by CONAP or by other
organisations or individuals through a legal agreement
with CONAP and under its supervision. CONAP
coordinates the activities of the various institutions in
order to comply with national conservation objectives.
Vigilance within protected areas and the enforcement of
regulations is the responsibility of CONAP and the
resource guards (Guardarecursos), and authorisation for
activities permitted within protected areas must be
issued by CONAP.

CONAP comprises representatives from the different
institutions with protected area management
responsibilities: CONAMA; the Forest Directorate
(Direccién de Bosques); the Guatemalan Tourism
Institute (Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo)
(INGUAT)); the Institute of Anthropology and History
(Instituto de Antropologia y Historia) (IDAEH); the
National Agrarian Transformation Institute (Instituto
Nacional de Transformacién Agraria); the Centre for
Conservation Studies (Centro de Estudios
Conservacionistas) (CECON); the Association of
Municipalities (Asociacién de Municipalidades); the
National Council for Urban and Rural Development
(Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo Urbano y Rural); three
delegates from non-governmental conservation
organisations and one representative from the Committee
of Agricultural Associations (Comité de Asociaciones
Agricolas), a total of 14 individuals (Detlefsen et al.,
1991; Godoy, 1990).

The policies of CONAP are implemented by an
Executive Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva), which
comprises departments of research, studies and
planning; execution, development and control; and
administration. An Executive Secretary (Secretario
Ejecutivo) assigned by the President of the Council is
responsible for directing the activities of the Executive
Secretariat.

Forests are presently the responsibility of the General
Directorate of Forests and Wildlife (Direccién General
de Bosques y Vida Silvestres) (DIGEBOS), created in
1989 and replacing the former National Forestry
Institute (Instituto Nacional Forestal) (INAFOR).
DIGEBOS is part of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Food (Ministerio de Agricultura,

145

Guatemala

Ganaderia y Alimentacién) (MAGA). At the local level,
it is represented in eight administrative regions of the
country, but its financial management is centralised and
the distribution of funds often does not reflect the true
requirements of the regions (Detlefsen et al., 1991).
Around 1,915 personnel are employed by DIGEBOS, of
which 1,550 are unqualified manual labourers. Forest
and conservation authorities work closely together.
Concessions for forest extraction issued by DIGEBOS
must first be approved by CONAP and CONAMA.
Forests within protected areas are not the direct
responsibility of DIGEBOS but are managed by, or
under the supervision of, CONAP (Detlefsen, et al.,
1991).

Because of inadequate government support for protected
areas, a large number of non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) are involved in protected area
administration. The Defenders of Nature Foundation
(Fundacion Defensores de la Naturaleza) manages Sierra
de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, and the Interamerican
Foundation for Tropical Investigation (Fundacién
Interamericana de Investigacidn Tropical)(FIIT)
manages another area. The Ecodevelopment and
Conservation Foundation (Fundacion para el
Ecodesarrollo y la Conservacién) (FUNDAECO) and
the Mario Dary Rivera Foundation (Fundacién Mario
Dary Rivera) are each carrying out sustainable
development projects in one protected area. Other NGOs
working with rural communities in and around protected
areas are: Friends of the Forest (Asociacién Amigos del
Bosque), Guatemalan Natural History Society (Asociacién
Guatemalteca de Historia Natural), Environment Defence
Association (Asociacién Prodefensa del Medio Ambiente),
Association for Research and Social Studies (Asociacién
de Investigacién y Estudios Sociales) (Asi Es), and the
Centre for Conservation Studies (Centro de Estudios
Conservacionistas) (CECON).

Since the creation of CONAP, significant improvements
in protecied area management have been initiated, but
these are still not sufficient to bring about the effective
planning and administration of the areas. One limiting
factor is the lack of human resources to implement the
conservation legislation, and the lack of adequate
training and qualification for such personnel. Only 68
personnel are employed directly in the management of
protected areas. Only six areas have management plans,
and more than 80% have still not resolved problems
concerning land ownership; although most legally
declared protected areas are stateowned, many lack
official boundaries. There is little or no infrastructure
and many areas are isolated within their regions. An
analysis of the 54 areas declared legally protected
reveals critical problems in their administration and
financing, and a lack of managerial capacity to put
protection measures into effect (Detlefsen et al., 1991).

Additionally, there is a serious lack of communication
between CONAP and DIGEBOS. DIGEBOS often
grants licences for timber extraction within the 44 areas
under special protection by Law No. 489 without

Protected Areas of the World

consulting CONAP. This makes the creation of new
protected areas and the formulation of a national
strategy for the conservation of forest resources
difficult (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992).

Systems Review The topographical variation within
Guatemala, and its geographical location as a bridge
between two continents with coastlines on two oceans,
gives rise to one of the richest biodiversities in Latin
America (Nations et al., 1988). Guatemala has an
altitudinal range from sea level to 4,000m and, following
the Holdridge life zone classification system, 14 life
zones occur in the country (Detlefsen et al., 1991; URL
y ICATA, 1984). Two distinct biogeographic realms are
identified: the lowlands of the Petén and Caribbean
region are Neotropical, while the interior highlands and
high Pacific mountains are classically Nearctic. This
combination gives rise to a high degree of biodiversity,
with representative wildlife and flora from each realm,
and of endemism (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Nations et al.,
1988).

Guatemala may be divided roughly into four main
regions according to physical biogeographic
characteristics: the Pacific coastal plain; the Pacific
mountain chain; the Interior Highlands; and the Petén
and Caribbean lowlands (Nations, ef al., 1988). The
Pacific coastal plain was entirely forested, until the
1940s, but the region has undergone great environmental
transformation into pastures and swamps as a result of
agricultural development. Cattle ranching is
concentrated on the fertile, volcanic soils of this region
(Nations and Komer, 1984). Mangrove forests found
along the coast have been seriously degraded by
intensive shrimp production, salt extraction and
fuelwood production (Nations, et al., 1988).

The Pacific mountain chain consists of a chain of
33 volcanoes running parallel to the Pacific Ocean.
Forests are found at the base of the mountains, giving
way to cloud forest higher up. These highland montane
forests have around 70% endemism amongst animal
species, but, as a result of colonisation, wood timber
extraction and agriculture, they represent some of the
most endangered ecosystems in the country (Nations
et al., 1988). The interior highlands reach altitudes of
4,000m, and are quite heavily populated. This region has
also suffered environmental degradation from
agricultural practices.

The Petén and Caribbean lowlands in the northeast are
the most sparsely populated region, in the country. The
Department of Petén contains the largest tracts of
undisturbed tropical forest, and one of the largest
remaining in Central America (Nations et al., 1988).
However, the Department of Petén is threatened by the
imminent construction of a road connecting the region
with the capital city, and providing access to
neighbouring Belize through the forested lowlands of
Petén. This will also open the area up to oil exploration
(Anon., 1991). The total forest cover is around 40% of

146

total land area, and protection forests account for 13%
of this coverage (Detlefsen et al., 1991).

Unequal exploitation of natural resources has been a
feature of the nation’s history. Much land was converted
into banana plantations around the turn of the century to
satisfy foreign markets. As a result of land reformations,
there is a severe shortage of land available for the
Guatemalan peasantry, giving rise to overpopulation
in many areas and colonisation into previously
undisturbed rain forest regions. In recent years the
government, through the National Institute of
Agrarian Transformation (Instituto Nacional de
Transformacién Agraria) (INTA), has embarked on a
largescale colonisation programme which relocated
around 60,000 people to the northern forest region, with
a further 100,000 proposed (Colchester, 1991).
Migration to forest areas often results in inappropriate
land use and degradation of forest ecosystems (Detlefsen
et al., 1991).

The first protected areas were established in 1955 with
the declaration of 10 national parks (Godoy and Castro,
1990; Nations et al., 1988). Between 1955 and 1988, a
total of 52 conservation areas were declared, but the
majority of these areas did not meet international criteria
for protected areas and were ineffectual (Godoy and
Castro, 1990; Nations et al., 1988). Several management
categories were employed in this first step towards
creating a system of protected areas, such as wild reserve
(reserva silvestre), multiple use reserve (reserva de uso
multiple) and national monument (monumento
nacional).

The unification of protected areas into a national system
took place in 1989 as a result of the Law of Protected
Areas (Godoy, 1990). The Guatemalan System of
Protected Areas (SIGAP) was created as a union of all
protected areas throughout the country, whether
previously established by law or not. SIGAP
incorporates six reserves administered by CECON that
had been without legal support, declaring them legally
established, and has raised the status of 26 small areas
managed by various other institutes to a higher level of
legal protection. Finally, 44 new sites were declared
areas of special protection (4reas de proteccién especial)
to be studied and legally declared under the appropriate
management categories at a later date (Godoy, 1990). At
the same time, the National Council of Protected Areas
(Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP) was
established to coordinate protected area management.

With the creation of SIGAP, protected area coverage
increased from less than 0.01% to around 2.22% of total
land area. With the incorporation of the new areas,
coverage will reach between 8 and 14%, and encompass
nine of the 14 Holdridge life zones (Detlefsen et al.,
1991; Godoy, 1990). Around 44.4% of the protected
areas in SIGAP are located in the Department of Petén
(Detlefsen et al., 1991). The national system employs
15 different management categories, grouped into six
types based on the common characteristics (Godoy and

Castro, 1990). The oldest management category in use
is cultural monument (monumento cultural), and over
half of the present protected areas are classified as
such. However, as the primary objective of this
category is the protection of national archaeological
remains, the flora and fauna in the majority of areas
has suffered severe degradation (Detlefsen et al.,
1991).

A regional network of protected areas has been
proposed for the Department of Petén, the Integrated
System of Protected Areas in Petén (Sistema
Integrado de Areas Protegidas de El Petén) (SIAP). At
the time of development of the national system, Petén
was recognised as being of high priority for
conservation efforts owing to its important forest
ecosystems and the increasing rate of their destruction
(Godoy and Castro, 1990). SIAP will comprise three
national parks; five forest reserves; six wildlife
refuges; four archaeological monuments; two
biotopes; four natural monuments; one biological
reserve; one experimental station; and one biosphere
reserve, and management objectives are given for
each area. These areas have been proposed in an order
of priority for development and instigation of
protection measures. Implementation of the system
will be the responsibility of the institutions that
comprise CONAP, together with the municipalities of
the region. SIAP aims to encourage a decentralisation
of CONAP to improve the coordination of protected
area administration at the regional level (Godoy and
Castro, 1990). The extent of implementation of this
proposed system is not known.

Despite significant improvements in protected area
coverage and coordination, as a result of the creation
of SIGAP and CONAP, the effective conservation of
ecosystems, with the exception of a few areas, has not
been achieved. SIGAP is characterised by a lack of
human and financial resources which impede the
achievement of protection objectives, a situation that
has worsened in recent years (Detlefsen et al., 1991).
Many areas have been legally declared protected but
no funds have been assigned to them in order to
implement this protection.

One of the major threats to protected areas is the
exploitation of floral and faunal resources by
neighbouring local communities. Many of the areas do
not have physically defined limits, and are not
protected from uncontrolled exploitation, primarily
hunting and timber extraction. Around 35% of
protected areas have human settlements within their
boundaries, and more than 80% do not have buffer
zones and are surrounded by agricultural
communities. The administration and planning of
protected areas needs to be strengthened to integrate
conservation and tourism practices to a greater extent,
to allow local populations to benefit from the
existence of such areas (Detlefsen et al., 1991).

147

Guatemala

Addresses

Direccién General de Bosques (DIGEBOS), Ministerio
de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacién (MAGA),
Ta Avda 680 Zona 13, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA
(Tel: 2 720509/735213; FAX: 2 735214)

Consejo Nacional de Areas Protedigas
(CONAP), Presidencia de la Reptiblica, 7a
Av, 400, Zona 1, CUUDAD DE GUATEMALA
(Tel: 2 21816/532477; FAX: 2 535109)

Asociacién Amigos del Bosque, 9a Calle 223, Zona 1,
CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel. 2 83486;
FAX: 513478)

Asociacién de Investigacién y Estudios Sociales
(ASIES), 10 Calle 760, Zona 9, CIUDAD DE
GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 347178/9; FAX: 2 314950)

Asociaci6n Pro Defensa del Medio Ambiente
(APRODEMA), 20 Calle 1952, Zona 10,
CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 682000;
FAX: 2 372084)

Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON),
Ave. Reforma 063, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE
GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 310904; FAX: 2 347664)

Fundacion Defensores de la Naturaleza, 7a. Ave.
1301, Zona 9, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA
(Tel: 2 325064; FAX: 2 322671)

Fundacién Mario Dary, Ave. Reforma 063, Zona 10,
CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 310904;
FAX: 2 347664)

FUNDAECO, 14 Calle B 1424, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE
GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 337527/8; FAX: 2 682454)

References

Anon. (1991). Carretera a Petén sera una realidad.
Prensa Libre. Guatemala, September 13, 1991.

Colchester, M. (1991). Guatemala: the clamour for land
and the fate of the forests. The Ecologist 21(4):
177185.

Detlefsen, G., Castafieda, L.A., Oliva, E. (Eds) (1991).
Plan de accién forestal para Guatemala (PAFG).
Oficina del Plan de Accién Forestal para Guatemala,
Guatemala. 227 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras dreas protegidas,
flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO
para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
8 pp.

Godoy, J.C. (1990). El sistema de d4reas protegidas de
Guatemala: el pequefio que se agiganta. Flora, Fauna y
Areas Silvestres 4(12). Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 1316.

Godoy, J.C. and Castro, F. (1990). Plan del sistema de areas
protegidas de El Petén, Guatemala, SIAP. Proyecto de
conservacion para el desarrollo sostenido en América
Central, Centro Agronémico Tropical de Investigacion y
Ensefianza (CATIE) y el Union Mundial para la
Naturaleza (UICN), Turrialba, Costa Rica. 105 pp.

Hartshorn, G.S. and Green, G.C. (1985). Wildlands
conservation in Northern Central America
Guatemala. 8 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology; revised
edition. Tropical Science Centre, San José, Costa
Rica. 206 pp. (Unseen)

Mardones, C. (1988). Trifinio: un desafio de la
conservaci6n para tres paises. Flora y fauna y
Greas silvestres 3(7). Oficina Regional de la FAO
para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
Pp. 1822.

Nations, J.D. and Komer, D.I. (1984). Conservation in
Guatemala: Final report. Presented to the World
Wildlife Fund, US, Washington DC. Centre for
Human Ecology, Austin, Texas, USA, February
1984. 170 pp.

Nations, J.D., Houseal, B., Ponciano, I., Billy, S.,Godoy,
J.C., Castro, F., Miller, G., Rose, D., Rey, M.,
Azurdia, C. (1988). Biodiversity in Guatemala:
biological diversity and tropical forests assessment.
Center for International Development and

Environment, World Resources Institute,
Washington D.C., USA, December 1988. 110 pp.

Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional Review:
Centroamerica. Regional reviews, IUCN, IV World
Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 1021 February 1992.
Pp. 13.113.26.

URL y ICATA (1984). Perfil ambiental de la Republica
de Guatemala, tomo IT. Universidad Rafael Landivar
y el Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Tecnologia
Agricola (ICATA), URL/AIDGuatemala/ROCAP,
Ciudad de Guatemala. 249 pp.

Zepeda, E.G. (1986). Situacién actual de las dreas
silvestres protegidas de Guatemala. Instituto
Nacional Forestal (INAFOR), Departamento de
Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Guatemala.

18 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title (English title): Reglamento de la Ley de
Areas Protegidas (Regulation to the Protected
Areas Law), Acuerdo Gubernativo No. 75990

Date: 22 August 1990

Brief description: Provides further details
governing the establishment and functioning of the
Guatemalan System of Protected Areas (Sistema
Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas) (SIGAP) and the
National Council for Protected Areas (Consejo
Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP), both of
which are created under provision of the Protected
Areas Law (Ley de Areas Protegidas), Decree No.
489 of 7 February 1989. Definitions are given for the
management categories to employed in SIGAP.

Administrative authority: The protected areas
that form SIGAP may be managed by a number of
different institutions or private individuals, but the
ultimate responsibility for supervising, directing and
coordinating the national system lies with the
National Council for Protected Areas, (Consejo
Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP).

Designations :

Protected areas management categories conform to
six major groups:

Parque Nacional (National Park); Reserva
Biolégica(BiologicalReserve) Area of relatively
large extension essentially unaltered by human
activities, that contains ecosystems, populations or
samples of flora or fauna species of scientific

148

importance and/or national or international interest,
whose ecological processes have been allowed to
continue with the minimum interference. The area is
to be managed for the protection, conservation and
maintenance of natural biological processes and
biodiversity in an unaltered state, so as to be available
for scientific research, environmental monitoring,
education and limited ecological tourism activities.
Visitors will have access to certain parts of the area
under special conditions, for education, cultural and
recreation purposes. Prohibited activities include the
extraction of timber, hunting and mineral exploration
and exploitation. Collecting or destroying floral or
faunal specimens is also prohibited unless for
scientific research purposes and with prior
authorisation from the respective administration
authority and approved by CONAP. No new human
habitation is allowed except where necessary for
administrative purposes. Where habitation already
occurs, methods to integrate these populations with
the objectives of the area are sought. If this is not
possible, relocation of the communities to other
suitable areas is to take place.

Biotopo Protegido (Protected Biotope);
Monumento Natural (Natural Monument);
Monumento Cultural (Cultural Monument);
Parque Histérico (Historical Park) Area that
generally contains one or more example of
outstanding natural beauty, archaeological or
historical remains, or other natural examples of
national or international importance. The ecosystems
may not necessarily be in an intact state, and the size
of the area depends on the example or specimen that

is to be protected. The area is to be managed for
conservation purposes and its ecosystems
maintained to as near a natural state as possible.
Limited recreation, tourism, education and scientific
research activities are permitted.

Area de Uso Miiltiple (Multiple Use Area);
Manantial (Spring); Reserva Forestal (Forest
Reserve); Refugio de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife
Refuge) Relatively large area, generally covered
by forest. May contain zones appropriate for the
sustainable production of timber, water, floral and
wildlife resources without adversely affecting the
ecosystems of the area. The area may have been
altered by human intervention, but still retains a large
portion of its natural habitat. The area may be under
public or private ownership. Management
objectives are to ensure the sustainable use of water,
forest, plant, wildlife, or marine resources.
Conservation may be oriented primarily to support
economic activities with zones of strict conservation
within the area, or it may be a primary objective in
itself. The importance of economic and social
objectives must always be maintained, and
environmental education and ecological recreation is
stressed. Planning and management of the area must
ensure that all exploitation is carried out in a
sustainable manner to maintain the continuing
productivity of the area. Where insufficient
management plans exist, to ensure sustainability
exploitation of any sort is prohibited except for the
traditional exploitation by local indigenous
communities until such a plan is implemented.

Area Recreativa Natural (Natural Recreation
Area); Parque Regional (Regional Park); Rutas y
Vias Escénicas (Scenic Paths and Roads)

Area where conservation activities are required to
protect natural communities or wild species, but the
emphasis is on educational and recreational

149

Guatemala

functions. Generally, the area contains scenic
qualities and some attraction for the general public,
and is easily accessible. Minimum alteration or
modification of the natural habitat is permitted. The
area may be under private or public ownership.
Regional parks are usually under municipal
ownership. Management objectives are aimed at
recreation and education.

Reserva Natural Privada (Private Natural Reserve)
Area that is owned by a private individual or
organisation, whose owners have voluntarily
dedicated the area to conservation purposes. The area
is legally established and is recognised by the state.
Management objectives are to ensure the
continuance of natural conditions required to protect
significant species or groups of species, ecosystems,
or cultural or environmental examples on the private
property. In very exceptional cases, the production
of renewable natural resources may occur, but it is of
secondary importance to the management objectives.
The size of the area depends on the proposal by the
owner who maintains his rights to the area and is
responsible for its management.

Reserva de la Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve)

Area of global importance with respect to its natural
and cultural resources. All the areas in this category
must be previously approved by the Unesco Man and
the Biosphere committee. The principal
management objective of this area is to allow various
land uses and sustainable natural resource use with
emphasis on traditional activities, as well as effect
strict conservation in the nuclear core of the area.
Scientific research is permitted. The areas provide
important sites for environmental monitoring and
facilities for environmental education, training and
controlled tourism. Criteria for selection, and zoning
within the area are as given by the Unesco

programme.

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Atitlan Vill 54,773 1955
2 Bahia de Santo Tomas Vv 1,000 1956
3 El Rosario Vil 1,031 1980
4 El Tigre II 350,000 1990
5 Lacand6én II 200,000 1990
6 Laguna Lachua II 10,000 1978
7 Mirador/Dos Lagunos/Rio Azul II 147,000 1990
8 Rio Dulce Vill 7,200 1955
9 Santa Rosalia Vill 1,000 1956
10 Sipacate-Naranjo IV 2,000 1969
11 Tikal II 57,400 1957
12 Trifinio II 4,000 1987
13 Volcan de Pacaya Il 2,000 1963
Biotopes
14 Chocén-Machacas IV 6,265 1981
15 Mario Dary Rivera (Quetzal) IV iil72 1976
16 Monterrico vill 2,800 1977
17 San Miguel - El Zotz IV 42,000 1989
18 Biotopo Universitario para la
Conservaci6én del Quetzal IV 1,153 1977
Forest Reserves
19 Area de Uso Multiple R.B.M. Vill 650,000 1990
20 Area de Uso Multiple R.S.M. Vill 34,000 1990
21 Franja Transversal del Norte Vill 1,200 1981
22 Rio Chixoy Vill 28,000 1980
23 Rio Salama Vill 63,124 1956
Cultural Monuments
24 Aguateca Til 1,709 1987
25 Ceibal Il 2,100 1984
26 Dos Pilas Il 3,166 1987
27 Machaquilla III 2,000 1974
Biosphere Reserve
28 Sierra de las Minas (Zona Nicleo) I 105,700 1990
Biosphere Reserve
Maya IX 1,000,000 1990
Ramsar Wetland
Laguna del Tigre R 48,372 1990
World Heritage Site

Parque Nacional Tikal Xx 57,400 1979

150

Guatemala

Protected Areas of Guatemala

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-

HONDURAS

Area 112,088 sq. km

Population 5,138,000 (1990)
Natural increase 3% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP:
GNP: US$ 900 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation The 1982 constitution
declares all natural resources to be state property, and the
rational use of such resources to be in the national
interest. The National Development Plan (Plan Nacional
de Desarrollo) includes amongst its objectives the
rational use of natural resources in order to ensure their
continuity. The state is obliged to conserve the
environment, is responsible for imposing regulations on
natural resource use, and is empowered to create
protected areas.

The Advanced Council of Economic Planning (Consejo
Superior de Planificacié6n Econémica (CONSUPLANE)
has produced the National Conservation Strategy which
states thata National System of Protected Areas (Sistema
Nacional de Areas Protegidas) must be established
(Campanella et al., 1982; Barborak et al. 1984).

Current forest policy dates back to 1986 and was
formulated in accordance with the National
Development Plan. Its aim is to ensure the continuity of
forest resources through rational exploitation,
conservation, and improvement of forest resources by
means of current forestry legislation and the application
of social integration projects by the national forestry
administration.

There is no systematic organisation of environmental
legislation. Provisions for environmental protection and
natural resources occur in a number of different
legislative acts, such as the Water Law (Ley de Aguas)
(1927) which regulates the use of public water resources;
the current Fishing Law (Ley de Pesca), Decree No. 154
(1959) which protects marine wildlife and ecosystems;
and the Mining Code (Cédigo de Mineria) Decree No.
143 (1968) which merely mentions hunting or reserved
zones (zonas vedadas o reservadas) to protect forest,
archaeological or zoological heritage.

The first regulations for the establishment of protected
areas are given in the Forestry Law (Ley Forestal)
Decree 85 (1971), which declares the Secretariat of
Natural Resources (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales)
responsible for the development of national parks and
equivalent reserves, and establishes a methodology for
their selection and development. However, detailed
definitions of the different management categories are
not given. Forest exploitation and commercialisation are
to be rationalised, and multiple-use forest reserves
incorporating recreational activities and environmental

153

protection are encouraged. Forested areas within the
national forest estate are classified according to use, and
all forested land for 250m on either side of any water
source and for 150m around lakes and on either side of
rivers and streams is protected.

Decree-Law No. 103 (1974) provided for the
establishment of the Honduran Forest Development
Corporation (Corporacién Hondurefia de Desarrollo
Forestal) (COHDEFOR), and the nationalisation of the
forest industry and all trees with economic value. The
objectives of COHDEFOR include ensuring rational use
of forest resources and integrating forestry practices into
the national economy. One of the principal projects of
COHDEFOR, the Social Forestry System (Sistema
Social Forestal), is described.

Decree No. 123 (1974) provided for the creation of the
General Directorate for Forest Resources and Wildlife
(Direccién General de Recursos Forestales y Vida
Silvestre) (RENARE) within the Secretariat of Natural
Resources (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales), to be
vested with forest protection and conservation
responsibilities, including the management of national
parks and other protected areas. However, owing to the
lack of political support, RENARE never undertook
these functions effectively, and natural resource
protection has remained the responsibility of
COHDEFOR (Yates, 1987). The exact distribution of
responsibilities for protected areas and natural resources
is ambiguous. Decree No. 74-91 (1991) dissolves
RENARE and transfers its responsibility for protected
areas to the Department of Natural Areas and Fauna
(Departamento de Areas Silvestres y Fauna) within
COHDEFOR (J. Trinidad, pers. comm., 1992). Details
of this recent decree are not currently available.

Protected area establishment and forest resource
regulation are governed by the General Forestry
Regulation, Resolution No. 634 (Reglamento General
Forestal, Acuerdo No. 634) of 9 April 1984, which
details the principles of the 1971 Forestry Law and of
Decree No. 103 providing for the creation of
COHDEFOR. The national forest estate is defined, and
details of the forest classification system of the 1971
forestry law are given (see Annex). National forested
areas are divided into protected forest zones (zonas
protegidas forestales) for protection purposes; zones of
forestry interest (zonas de interés forestal) for productive
purposes; and non-classified forest areas (areas
forestales no-clasificadas). Provision is made for the
creation of national parks, natural monuments and other
protected areas (collectively known as protected forest
zones), and the processes for their selection and
establishment are set out. Private land may be
expropriated for their establishment.

Protected Areas of the World

In 1987, the Cloud Forest Law (Ley de Bosques
Nublados) Decree No. 87-87 was passed. This law
declares the protection of cloud forest ecosystems to
be in the national interest, and provides for the
creation of 11 national parks, eight wildlife
refuges and 18 biological reserves in cloud forest
areas. All these areas are to be administered by the
Ministry of Natural Resources through RENARE, in
coordination with various other institutions and local
authorities. Around each area a permanent protected
zone (zona protegida a perpetuidad) is established,
within which no agricultural activities are permitted,
buffer zones, in which regulated activities are permitted.
However, Decree No. 87-87 is incomplete as no details
of the above management categories are given in the law
and no regulations relating to it have been passed.

Problems arise from a marked lack of environmental
legislation and inconsistency among the existing
legislative acts applying to natural resources (Yates,
1987). There is no legislation that would allow for the
formulation of an environmental planning system; for
delimiting the responsibilities of the various
governmental and non-governmental institutions
involved in natural resource management; and for
establishing a national system of protected areas with
coordinated management. Although the Forestry Law
provides for the creation of various categories of
protected areas, the definitions are unclear and do not
bear relation to internationally accepted definitions
(Yates, 1987). There is no legislation providing for
wildlife management.

In all the areas of natural resource management except
forestry new laws have been proposed. Two projects to
revise environmental legislation were proposed and
discussed in 1985 in collaboration with the FAO. The
Project for the Law for the Protection of the Environment
and Natural Resources (Anteproyecto de Ley de
Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y de los Recursos
Naturales) was formulated to coordinate all provisions
relating to the environment into one legal instrument.
The Project for the General Fishing Law (Proyecto de
Ley General de Pesca) is intended to revise the 1959
fishing legislation, and contains provisions for protected
marine zones (Rendén, 1986). However, of these
proposed laws, only that for the creation of the
Department of Natural Areas and Fauna has come into
effect yet.

International Activities Honduras is one of the
few countries in the Americas that has not signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention). Honduras ratified
the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) on 8 June 1979 with one natural site
inscribed to date, and it participates in the Unesco Man

154

and the Biosphere Programme with one reserve accepted
in 1980.

Honduras, through the National Secretariat for Natural
Resources (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales),
participates in the Latin American Network of Technical
Cooperation in National Parks, Other Protected Areas,
Flora and Wildlife Programme of the FAO (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate the
activities of participating countries, to assist in the
implementation and functioning of a coherent and
effective national system of protected areas in each
country (FAO, n.d.). Honduras participates in the FAO
Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).

In 1987 the governments of Honduras, Guatemala and
El Salvador signed an agreement to create the
trinational cloud forest biosphere reserve El Trifinio
or La Fraternidad in the mountainous region where the
three nations meet. Efforts are now being made to
elaborate a cooperative management plan for the reserve
that will integrate the local populations of all three
nations, and to obtain official recognition as an
international biosphere reserve (Mardones, 1988;
Ugalde and Godoy, 1992).

The Honduran and Nicaraguan governments have
initiated projects for a joint management agreement for
a large tract of land along this border. A similar
agreement has been proposed between Honduras,
Nicaragua and El Salvador for the shared mangrove
estuaries and coastal zone of the Gulf of Fonseca
(J. Barborak, pers. comm., 1992; Ugalde and Godoy,
1992).

Administrationand Management Current legislation
states that the Secretariat of Natural Resources
(Secretaria de Recursos Naturales) is responsible for
natural resources. The control and exploitation of forest
resources and the administration of natural areas are the
responsibility of COHDEFOR, a semi-autonomous
institute responsible for implementing national forest
policies in coordination with national development plans
(J. Trinidad, pers. comm., 1992). In practice, natural
resources have been managed by the various
governmental sectors with interest in a particular
resource, and responsibility is divided accordingly.

RENARE was intended to manage activities relating to
the protection and conservation of fish, wildlife and the
environment, including protected areas. However,
owing to the lack of political support or interest,
RENARE never undertook any of these functions.
Although many laws providing for the creation of
individual protected areas cite RENARE as the institute
responsible for implementing the legislation and
managing the area, in effect this was not carried out
(Yates, 1987). This has resulted in the various
institutions previously in charge of natural resources
continuing their activities with little or no coordination

between them. Now that COHDEFOR takes sole
responsibility for protected areas, the situation may
improve (J. Trinidad, pers. comm., 1992).

Since 1991, COHDEFOR has been responsible for
formulating and implementing national policies and
laws regarding the protection, conservation and
management of wildlands and wildlife; promoting and
coordinating scientific research activities; encouraging
the participation of urban and rural populations in
conservation activities; and developing a National
System of Protected Wildlands (Sistema Nacional de
Areas Silvestres Protegidas) (Mufioz, 1991; J. Trinidad,
pers. comm., 1992).

In 1991, the first restructuring of COHDEFOR took
place with the creation of the Protected Areas Section
(Secci6n de Areas Protegidas) and the Wildlife Section
(Seccién de Vida Silvestre) within the Department of
Natural Areas and Fauna. As part of a plan to develop
projects to strengthen current protection measures, seven
priority protected areas were identified for immediate
support, in five different forestry regions (Mufioz, 1991).

At the national level, COHDEFOR comprises nine
forestry regions (regiones forestales) throughout the
country (Anon., 1988). As part of its forest conservation
programme COHDEFOR, has implemented the Social
Forestry System, as detailed in the 1984 General
Forestry Regulations, by which local rural populations
are directly responsible for many aspects of forest
management. The object of the Social Forestry System
is to increase the effectiveness of forest protection,
generate employment and improve the standard of living
within local rural populations around forested regions.
COHDEFOR formulates action plans and strategies in
conjunction with the local cooperatives, and lends
assistance as necessary. Local groups participate in the
activities of the State Forestry Guard (Guardia Forestal
Estatal) which is responsible for vigilance and regulation
enforcement in forested areas.

The Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History
(Instituto Hondurefio de Antropologia e Historia)
(IHAH) manages the Ruinas de Copan Natural
Monument (Barborak et al., 1984), and the Universidad
Nacional Auténoma de Honduras manages Cuero y
Salado Wildlife Reserve (M. Durén, pers. comm., 1992).

There are a number of non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) working in conservation. One of the most active,
longest established and influential is the Honduran
Ecology Association (Asociacién Hondurefia de
Ecologia) (AHE) which supports and promotes the
establishment and maintenance of protected areas
through publications and public awareness campaigns
(Cruz, 1986). Since 1985, the AHE has been directly
involved with managing El Tigre National Park in
coordination with park personnel (AHE, 1987). The
AHE formulated the proposal to protect cloud
forest regions, and it was through the work of this NGO
that 37 cloud forest areas were declared as national

155

Honduras

parks, wildlife reserves and biological reserves under the
1987 legislation. The Cuero y Salado Foundation
(Fundacién Cuero y Salado) runs research and
conservation projects in the Cuero y Salado Wildlife
Refuge.

Problems in natural resource administration arise from
the lack of public awareness of conservation
organisations and the lack of training and motivation.
There is a considerable amount of ambiguity regarding
the distribution of responsibilities, and a marked lack of
collaboration between the respective institutions
involved in natural resource management, precluding
effective protected area management (Yates, 1987).

Systems Reviews Honduras is the second largest
country in Central America and the most mountainous,
with over 75% of the land having a gradient greater than
20% (Campanella et al., 1982). The only flat areas are
the narrow coastal plains along the Caribbean Sea and
the Gulf of Fonseca in the Pacific Ocean, and a few
interior valleys (AHE, 1987; Campanella et al., 1982).
The country is divided naturally into four geographically
distinct regions: the highlands; interior valleys; lowlands
of the Caribbean; and the lowlands of the Pacific
(Campanella et al., 1982).

The Caribbean lowlands account for around 16.4% of
total land area and, together with the valleys connecting
the Caribbean coastal plains, they constitute the most
fertile soils’ in Honduras (Campanella er al., 1982);
banana and palm cultivation is extensive. The most
eastern part of the region, and extending down into
Nicaragua, is collectively known as La Mosquitia or the
Moskito Coast. It is characterised by natural pine forest
plains interspersed with tropical forests, and has the
richest biodiversity and the lowest population density in
the country with a long history of indigenous
civilization (Campanella et al, 1982; Herlihy and
Herlihy, n.d.). Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve was
established in 1980 in this region to protect both natural
resources and local populations of Miskito, Pech and
Garifuna indians. However, colonisation into the area
has become an increasing threat to the integrity of the
natural ecosystems and the indigenous communities
(Herlihy and Herlihy, n.d.).

The highlands of the interior account for 81.7% of total
land area. The dominant vegetation is pine forest which
makes the soil acid and unsuitable for agriculture. Since
colonial times, cattle ranching has been the primary
economic activity in the region (Campanella et al, 1982).
The soils of the interior valleys are more fertile, and
intensive cultivation of vegetables and sugar occurs.

The Pacific lowlands along the Gulf of Fonseca are
bordered by mangrove forests and narrow coastal plains.
Cattle ranching, cotton, sugar and vegetable production
are extensive in this region (Campanella et al., 1982).
Around 60% of the total population of Honduras lives in
tural regions and 40% in urban areas (Anon., 1988).

Protected Areas of the World

The marine influence, the mountainous topography and
the various soil types have given rise to a great variety
of ecosystems. Using the Holdridge (1967) classification
system, eight different life zones are found in the
country. The humid and very humid life zones of the
Caribbean slopes cover over 75% of total area
(Campanella et al., 1982).

The development of protected areas has been a slow
process (Cruz, 1986). A significant advance was made
with the passing of the 1987 legislation and subsequent
protection of a number of cloud forest areas. However,
the lack of national environmental policy and planning,
and the absence of coherent legislation providing for
standardisation of protected area management has
precluded the creation of a coordinated national
protected area system (Yates, 1987).

The estimated total coverage of protected areas is around
3 million ha, or 27% of country area (COHDEFOR,
n.d.). A more accurate and widely-accepted figure for
percentage coverage is 22.6% (COHDEFOR, n.d.;
S. Midente, pers. comm., 1992). No systematic review
of the current situation of protected areas is currently
available.

The protected area categories employed are not clearly
defined in the legislation, which causes some confusion
over protection and management of the areas. For
example, forest reserves (reservas forestales) may also
be referred to as protected forest zones (zonas forestales
protegidas), reserved forest zones (zonas forestales
reservadas), and protected and reserved zones (zonas
protegidas y reservadas). Without a precise definition in
the legislation creating protected areas, different uses of
the same category result from total protection in one area
to temporary protection for future exploitation in an
another (Cruz, 1986; Yates, 1987).

Protected area management is further hindered by the
lack of adequate administrative legislation providing for
the effective functioning of governmental organisations.
There is a great need for new legislation to clarify the
situation, and to assign responsibilities to specific
institutions (Yates, 1987). However, COHDEFOR is
now beginning to operate under modem legislation and
this situation may be improving (see Policy and
Legislation).

Addresses

Corporacién Hondurefia de Desarrollo Forestal
(COHDEFOR), Aptdo 1378, TEGUCIGALPA
(Tel/FAX: 222614)

Departamento de Vida Silvestre y Recursos
Ambientales (RENARE), Ministerio de Recursos
Naturales Renovables, Blvd. Miraflores, Aptdo
309, TEGUCIGALPA (Tel: 327828/384237;
FAX: 324054; Tlx: 8071 Serena)

Asociacién Hondurefia de Ecologia (AHE), Apdo
T-250, Toncontin, TEGUCIGALPA

156

Fundacién Cuero y Salado, Apdo 122, La Ceiba,
ATLANTIDA (Tel: 43 0329)

References

AHE (1987). Ecologfa. Boletin informativo de la
Asociacién Hondurefia de Ecologia (AHE),
Tegucigalpa. 14 pp.

Anon. (1988). Mesa redonda; participacién
internacional en el desarrollo forestal de Honduras.
Republica de Honduras. 206 pp.

Barborak, J., Morales, L., and MacFarland, C. (1984).
Plan de Manejo y Desarrollo del Monumento
Nacional Ruinas de Copdén. 1\HAH/CATIE,
Turrialba, Costa Rica. 156 pp.

Campanella, P., Dickinson, J., DuBois, R., Dulin, P.,
Glick, D., Merkel, A., Pool, D., Rios, R., Skillman, D.,
Talbot, J. (1982). Honduras. Perfil ambiental del pats:
un estudio de campo. Resumen ejecutivo. US-AID.201

pp.

COHDEFOR (n.d.). Areas protegidas de Honduras.
Departamento de Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre,
orporaci6n Hondurefia de Desarrollo Forestal
(COHDEFOR). 12 pp.

Cruz, G.A. (1986). Guia de los parques nacionales,
refugios de vida silvestre, reservas biolégicas y
monumentos naturales de Honduras. Asociacién
Hondurefia de Ecologia, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
49 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién técnica
en parques nacionales, otras dreas protegidas, flora y
fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

Herlihy, P.H. and Herlihy, L.H. (n.d.). Herencia de nuestro
pasado: Reserva de la Bidsfera del Rfo Pldétano. WCI,
WWF, ROCAP, CCC, COHDEFOR/AID. 26 pp.

Holdridge, LR. (1967). Life zone ecology; Revised edition.
Tropical Science Centre, San José, Costa Rica. 206 pp.
(Unseen)

Mardones, C. (1988). Trifinio: un desafio de la
conservaci6n para tres paises. Flora y fauna y dreas
ilvestres 3(7). Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 18-22.

Mufioz, E. (1991). Perfil general del departamento de d4reas
protegidas y vida silvestre. 8 pp.

Rendon, J. (1986). Legislacién de pesca y legislacién del
medio ambiente y vida silvestre, informe técnico
TCP/HON/4509 (A). Organizacién de las Naciones
Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentacién, Roma.
32 pp.

Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional Review:
Central America. IUCN Regional reviews.
IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected
Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February 1992.
Pp. 13.3-13.27.

Yates, E. (1987). Perspectiva del derecho de recursos
naturales en Honduras. Tegucigalpa. 27 pp.

ANNEX

Honduras

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title : Reglamento General Forestal (General
Forestry Regulation), Resolution No. 634

Date: 17 July 1984

Brief description: Develops the principles of the
1971 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) and the 1974 Law
for the Honduran Forestry Development Corporation
(Ley de la Corporacién Hondurefia de Desarrollo
Forestal) (COHDEFOR). The structure and function
of COHDEFOR is given. The national forestry estate
is classified according to use, and regulations are
detailed. Provision is made for the creation of
national parks and other protected areas as part of the
national forest estate, and definitions are given.

Administrative authority: COHDEFOR is
responsible for implementing provisions of the
legislation including the administration and
management of protected areas.

Designations:

CLASSIFIED FOREST AREA
(AREA FORESTAL CLASIFICADA)

Protected Forest Zone (Zona Forestal Protegida)
Anarea of public or private forest declared to be of great
importance for the conservation of the natural habitats,
water or soils. - The following areas are particularly to
beconsidered for designation as protective forestzones:
mountains and springs; water sources; water basins;
areas around lakes and water resources, permanent and
temporary water courses; forested areas that merit
classification as national parks or other protected
spaces. The following protected areas are considered
to be protected forest zones:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area of
exceptional natural beauty, forest cover or natural
ecosystems particularly primitive ecosystems,
unaltered by human activity, to be protected for

157

its floral or faunal species richness. - Access to
the area and exploitation of natural resources are
strictly regulated.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)
Those natural formations, accidents or elements
such as outstanding trees, caves or waterfalls, that
are located in forested areas whose natural
characteristics merit it special protection.-

Sitio Natural de Interés Nacional (Natural Site
of National Interest) A natural area with
defined limits that, although it does not meet the
necessary conditions to be declared a national
park, it merits protection to ensure that it remains
in its natural state.

In all protected forest zones including national parks
and natural protected spaces, no activities are
permitted that would alter the vegetation, wildlife,
scenery or soil, or decrease water resources unless
specified in the management plans approved by the
state forest administration. In national parks and
natural protected spaces recreational activities are
permitted only with prior authorisation from
COHDEFOR. Construction of buildings for touristic
purposes is permitted only on cooperative agreement
between COHDEFOR and the Honduran Tourism
Institute (Instituto Hondurefio de Turismo).
Scientific investigation is the only other activity
permitted within the areas.

Zone of Forestry Interest (Zona de Interés Forestal)
An area of public or private forest classified
according to its relevant economic interest
particularly for extraction activities.

NON-CLASSIFIED FOREST AREA

(AREA FORESTAL NO CLASIFICADA) A
private or publicly owned forested area not included
in either of the above categories, the function of
which has not yet been determined.

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

OOIAINAMPWNK

Summary of Protected Areas of Honduras

National/international designations

Name of area

National Parks
Agalta

Azul Meambar
Celaque

Cerro Azul

Islas de la Bahia

La Tigra

Montafia de Comayagua
Montafia de Cusuco
Montafia de Yoro
Pico Bonito

Pico Pijol

Santa Barbara
Trifinio

Biological Reserves
El Chiflador

El Chile

E] Pital
Guajiquiro
Guisayote
Lancetilla
Misaco
Montecillos
Opalaca

Volcan Pacayita
Yerba Buena
Yuscaran

Wildlife Refuges
Corralitos

E] Armado

Erapuca

La Muralla

Mixcure

Montafia Verde
Montafia de Puca

Rios de Cuero y Salado
Texiguat

Protected Area

Jardin Botanico de Lancetilla

Forest Reserves
Agalteca

El Cajén
Guanaja

Golfo de Fonseca
Olancho

Sierra de Omoa

Multiple Use Reserves
Cerro Guanacaure
Lago de Yojoa

IUCN management
category

158

II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

IV

II
Vill
Vill
Vill
vill
Vill

Vill
Vill

Area
(ha)

62,400
20,000
27,000
15,000
29,416
7,550
18,000
18,000
15,000
112,500
11,400
13,000
5,400

1,000
12,000
3,800
7,000
7,000
1,681
4,600
12,500
14,500
9,700
3,600
2,300

5,500
3,500
5,600
6,093
8,000
8,300
4,900
8,500
10,000

1,253

100,000
33,696
5,400
50,000
1,000,000
8,315

1,000
34,628

Year
notified

1987
1987
1987
1987

1980
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987

1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987

1987
1987
1987
1987
1987

1987
1987
1987
1987
1987

1987

1988
1987

1978

1966
1969

1958
1966

1971

Honduras

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Biosphere Reserve
Reserva de la Bidsfera Rio Platano IX 500,000 1980
World Heritage Site
Reserva de la Biésfera Rio Platano X 500,000 1982

159

Protected Areas of the World

\S Sey
o98
!

160

Protected Areas of Honduras

NICARAGUA

Area 139,000 sq. km

Population 3,871,000 (1990)
Natural increase 3.19% (1990)

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 800 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation Prior to the 1979 revolution,
Nicaragua had no national conservation objectives or
policies, nor any institutional framework to implement
or support environmental protection (Anon., 1989;
Hartshorn and Green, 1985). Only since 1990, with the
end of the war, have protected areas been properly
planned and supported by adequate administration and
infrastructure (Nietschmann, 1990).

Nicaragua participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry
Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. Further details on
the extent of implementation of the TFAP in Nicaragua
are required.

Until recently, natural resource legislation was
orientated towards exploitation, with little or no
provision made for conservation. For example, the Law
of Conservation, Protection and Development of the
Nation’s Forest Resources (Ley de Conservacion,
Proteccién y Desarrollo de las Riquezas Forestales del
Pais), Decree No. 1381, 1967 deals almost exclusively
with timber extraction and the granting of concessions.
The first protected area, a wildlife refuge, was
established by decree in 1958, and the first national park
was legally established in 1971. However, with no
national policy to support their protection, these areas
were largely ineffectual (Anon., 1989).

Following the 1979 revolution, a new policy of natural
resource management was implemented with the Law of
Creation of the Nicaraguan Institute of Natural
Resources and the Environment (Ley de Creacidn del
Instituto Nicaragiiense de Rescursos Naturales y del
Ambiente) (IRENA) of 24 August 1979. This law
provided for the creation of the first institute specifically
responsible for managing natural resources, and vested
it with the responsibility of formulating a national
environmental policy to ensure their protection and
rational use. The institute is also responsible for
recommending new environmental legislation. Natural
resources are declared part of the state heritage, available
to all Nicaraguans, to allow the development of the
country and to improve the quality of life (Anon., 1989).

Also in 1979, the Law for the Establishment of the
National Parks Service (Ley de Creacién del Servicio de
Parques Nacionales), Decree No. 340 of 25 October

161

provided for the creation of the National Parks Service
(Servicio de Parques Nacionales) (SPN) within IRENA.
The SPN is specifically responsible for the establishment
and management of protected areas.

These principles of natural resource protection were
incorporated into the new political constitution
(constituci6n politica) approved in June 1987, the first
constitution in the history of the country to include
provisions for the rational use and protection of the
environment. The state, through the relevant institutions,
is responsible for the execution of national conservation
objectives (Anon., 1989).

In 1983, a number of legislative acts provided for the
creation of a total of 17 protected areas in the Pacific
region: Decree No. 1194 of 3 February provided for the
establishment of a national park (parque nacional);
Decree No. 1294 of 12 August provided for a wildlife
refuge (refugio de vida silvestre); and Decree No. 1320
of 19 September 1983 declared a further 14 areas
protected under the transitional category of nature
reserves (reservas naturales) (Anon., 1989).

Decree No. 527 of 23 April 1990 formalised the creation
of a network of protected areas in the south-eastern
region on the border with Costa Rica. These comprise
the Nicaraguan component of the International System
of Protected Areas for Peace (Sistema Internacional de
Areas Protegidas para la Paz) known as SI-A-PAZ, first
proposed in 1974 (Castiglione, 1990).

Three decrees passed in 1991 provided for the protection
of further areas of natural habitat. Decree No. 42-91
declared protected remnant montane ecosystems in the
central part of the country, pine forests of the Caribbean
coast and volcanic craters of the Pacific slope mountains,
including the Pacific estuaries declared as natural
reserves under the 1983 Decree (Cedefio et al., 1992).
IRENA is empowered to define the limits and assign a
management category for each area, and to provide
detailed regulations for natural resource protection once
the area is established. Decree No. 43-91 provided for
the creation of a biological reserve in the north-east along
the Honduran border to protect islands, reefs, sea turtles,
coastal wetlands and the indigenous Miskito
community, traditional inhabitants of the region. Decree
No. 44-91 declared a substantial area in the north of the
country protected as a national natural resource reserve
(reserva nacional de recursos naturales), along the Coco
River which separates Nicaragua and Honduras. This is
the second largest reserve in Nicaragua and includes a
wide range of habitats varying from lowland rain forest
to cloud forest (Cedefio et al., 1992). IRENA is
responsible for managing the reserve, and establishing
regulations for natural resource use. Prohibited activities
include commercial exploitation of forest resources;

Protected Areas of the World

destruction of flora and fauna; and disorganised
colonisation that threatens indigenous communities.

There is no single, unifying law that gives definitions of
the management categories of protected areas used in
Nicaragua. Regulations and prohibitions pertaining to
each area are given in the individual legislation
providing for the creation of the area. During
preparations for the creation of protected areas in the
Caribbean region, it was noted that the existing
management categories needed modification to suit
specific conditions (Anon., 1989). Only three categories
were available for use, two permanent (national park and
wildlife refuge) and one transitional (natural reserve).

Most protected areas have been established in "holding
categories", such as resource reserve (reserva de
recursos) and natural reserve (reserva natural) (Cedefio
et al., 1992). Detailed planning exercises for each of
these areas, such as the one already under way for
Miskito Cays Wildlife Refuge, will eventually define
core conservation areas, multiple use zones and
anthropological reserves (Cedefio et al., 1992).

Since 1990, IRENA has produced a national plan for
strengthening and consolidating Nicaragua’s protected
area system (Nietschmann, 1990). Details are not
available.

International Activities Nicaragua signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencion
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified
it in 1946. It actively participates in the Central
American Commission on Environment and
Development (Comisi6n Centroamericana de Ambiente
y Desarrollo) (CCAD).

Nicaragua accepted the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 17 December 1979, but
no natural sites have been inscribed to date. Nicaragua
is not party to the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), neither does it participate
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme.

Through cooperative agreements, Nicaragua and Costa
Rica are working closely on the development of the
binational protected areas system along the
Nicaragua-Costa Rica border through the SI-A-PAZ
project. A binational commission (comisi6n binacional)
was established in October 1990, and an agreement
signed by Nicaragua and Costa Rica on 15 December
1990 for collaboration with frontier protected areas
(Areas protegidas fronterizas). It is hoped that similar
projects can soon get underway with the Honduran
government for lands along the joint border with that
country, and with both Honduras and El Salvador for the

162

shared mangrove estuaries and coastal zone of the Gulf
of Fonseca (Cedefio et al., 1992; Castiglione, 1990).

During the past decade, Nicaragua was subjected to an
economic blockade, and international assistance for
conservation activities was extremely limited. However,
in the past two years this situation has improved, and
major new projects are foreseen with assistance from
groups including IUCN, WWF, Cultural Survival,
Wildlife Conservation International, Caribbean
Conservation Corporation, the MacArthur Foundation;
and bilateral donors, including the Nordic countries, the
US, and Germany, and others (Cedefio et al., 1992;
B. Nietscmann, pers. comm., 1992).

Administration and Management In the absence
of a ministry or agency responsible for natural resources
and the environment prior to 1979, the Central Bank
(Banco Central) was assigned responsibility for the two
national parks and one natural reserve created during the
Somoza regime (Anon., 1989; Hartshorn and Green,
1985).

The Nicaraguan Institute of Natural Resources and the
Environment (IRENA), established in 1979, was the first
institute specifically responsible for managing natural
resources. IRENA was created to formulate and
implement a national conservation policy, to ensure the
protection and sustainable exploitation of national
natural resources (Anon., 1989). In practice, IRENA has
broad responsibilities for natural resource management,
including administration of protected natural areas
(Cedefio et al., 1992). By the end of the 1980s, IRENA
had suffered an 85% cut in staff, and was demoted to a
sub-unit under the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian
Reform (Ministerio de Agricultura y Reforma Agraria);
few of its conservation programmes remained. Even
after the war, despite good management, progress has
been slow due to lack of foreign government support
(Nietschmann, 1990).

Within IRENA, the National Parks Service (Servicio de
Parques Nacionales) (SPN) was created by decree in
1979 as the technical division of the national park system
(Cedefio et al., 1992). The SPN is responsible for
conducting studies to select areas requiring protection,
and for the implementation of IRENA’s policies with
respect to the development and administration of
protected areas for scientific, educational, recreational
and touristic purposes (Anon., 1989; Comisién
IRENA-CORFOP, n.d.).

Following the regionalisation policy initiated after 1979,
protected area administration at the local level is the
responsibility of regional delegations of IRENA.
IRENA’s management policy is to include the
participation of local populations to achieve
conservation objectives (Anon., 1989). For example,
Miskito Cays Biological Reserve will be managed
cooperatively by IRENA, the regional autonomous
government for north-west Nicaragua and the Miskito
indigenous communities. An inter-institutional

commission was established recently to coordinate its
planning and management. An indigenous,
non-governmental environmental organisation,
Mikupia, has been set up by the Miskitos to take direct
responsibility for and benefit from reserve management
(Cedefio et al., 1992). Management involves the
participation of 15,000 Miskito people in 23 coastal
communities (Nietschmann, 1991).

The NGO conservation movement is arguably still the
weakest in Central America, but with recent changes in
government it will no doubt become increasingly
important. However, with the exception of Mikupia,
NGOs are not involved directly in protected area
management (Cedefio et al., 1992). The Nicaraguan
Association of Biologists and Ecologists (Asociacién de
Bidlogos y Ecélogos Nicaragiiense) (ABEN) is
dedicated to promoting the protection of natural
resources and the environment, and has gained political
influence. ABEN monitors national environmental
activities and represents the nation’s concerns
internationally (Karliner and Faber, 1986). The
Environmental Network for Nicaragua (ENN),
established in 1988, isan NGO working from outside the
country to gain support for the government’s activities,
in environmental protection.

IRENA maintains a limited institutional presence in
seven areas of the protected area system. Protection
efforts are concentrated in these areas, and personnel
numbers range from one to 20, with basic equipment and
infrastructure in a few of the areas. On-site
administration staff and facilities are only in place at two
areas (Cedefio et al., 1992).

The problems facing protected area management include
not only the lack of public awareness and political
support and the over exploitation of natural resources,
but specific problems arose as a result of the long
guerrilla war. Certain regions of the country were
inaccessible until recently, and the entire nation was
isolated in the international sphere, preventing potential
financial and technical support for environmental issues
(Anon., 1989).

Systems Reviews Nicaragua is the largest Central
American country, and, after Belize, the nation with the
lowest population density (Cedefio et al., 1992). The
longest river, the two largest freshwater lakes and the
richest volcanic soils in Central America are found here.
The lowland tropical rain forests in the south-eastern
comer of the country, and similar forests across the
border in north-eastern Costa Rica, comprise the largest
and wettest lowland rain forest remaining around the
entire Caribbean rim, and the largest area of tropical rain
forest north of Amazonia (Nietschmann, 1990).
Likewise, the coastal lagoons, pine savannas, and
wetlands of the north-east, together with similar areas
across the border in Honduras, are the largest and best
preserved examples of such ecosystems in the region
(Cedefio et al., 1992; Karliner, 1987). Nicaragua has the
widest continental shelf and stretch of coral reefs in the

163

Nicaragua

Caribbean, and the most extensive seagrass pastures in
the Western Hemisphere (Nietschmann, 1990).

The country comprises three distinct biogeographic
regions: Pacific, Central and Caribbean (Anon., 1989).
The Pacific region is the most densely populated area of
the country, and the major economic and productive
activities take place here, including intensive agriculture
and cattle ranching. It has the most severely degraded
ecosystems and presents the most environmental
problems (Anon., 1989). The remaining natural areas,
for the most part small remnant dry forests on the higher
slopes of volcanoes, and coastal mangroves, are
fragmented, and degraded. Only the mangrove estuaries
of Estero Real in the Gulf of Fonseca are largely intact
(Cedefio et al., 1992).

The Central region is mountainous, but does not exhibit
great altitudinal range. The largest tract of undisturbed
tropical humid forest in Central America is located in the
Caribbean region, the eastern third of the country
(Anon., 1989; Cedefio et al., 1992). This sparsely
populated area is the traditional homeland of the Miskito
indigenous people.

In spite of its distinction of being the largest Central
American nation, Nicaragua has somewhat lower total
biological diversity than neighbouring countries in the
region. This is due primarily to its lower altitudinal
diversity and absence of isolated high mountain ranges.
For the same reasons, endemism rates are also lower
(Cedefio et al., 1992). However, this may also be due to
the relative paucity of scientific research in Nicaragua
(B. Nietschmann, pers. comm., 1992).

Nicaragua’s environment has a history of exploitation
and destruction. In the early 20th century, US timber,
banana and mining companies began to exploit the
nation’s natural resources indiscriminately (Karliner and
Faber, 1986). During the 43 years of the Somoza
family’s rule, environmental degradation increased
severely. During the 1950s and 1960s, the area of land
planted with cotton increased four-fold, and pesticide
contamination was serious. In the 1960s and 1970s the
spread of cattle ranching gave rise to one of the world’s
highest rates of deforestation. Trade in endangered
species was rife (Nietschmann, 1990). As a result of
these changes, displaced peasants migrated to the rain
forest regions (Karliner, 1987). Around 30% of the
country’s tropical rain forests were destroyed during the
1970s alone (Karliner and Faber, 1986). In this context,
the war may have relieved pressure on natural resources:
tight firearms control reduced hunting, cattle were
slaughtered and sold, timber could not be moved,
production from ecologically damaging gold mines
suffered, and exploitative foreign projects were
abandoned or shelved (Nietschmann, 1990). In fact, as
fighting subsided, the Caribbean region began to be
heavily exploited by foreign fishing boats. Only since
1990 has the government been seriously dedicated to the
conservation of natural resources: IRENA has been
restructured and is under new direction, but lack of

Protected Areas of the World

international government funds makes progress slow
(Nietschmann, 1990).

The first natural protected area was a wildlife refuge,
established in 1956, and the first national park was
declared in 1971. However, both areas were protected
only in name, and no research or management activities
were implemented (Anon., 1989; Cedefio et al., 1992).
Shortly before the revolution, the National Registrar
(Catastro Nacional) initiated studies to identify and
select potential areas for protection throughout
Nicaragua, which resulted in the creation of a second
national park in 1979.

IRENA began the development of a network of protected
areas across the country called the National System of
Protected Wildlands (Sistema Nacional de Areas
Silvestres Protegidas) (SINASIP). This included a
nationwide study to identify priority areas; define a
system of management categories including those of
transitory nature; and collect information to allow for
new protected area legislation to be formulated. By
1983, the preliminary identification study was
completed, and 35 areas had been selected for protection,
covering 13.28% of total land area (Anon., 1989). The
proposed national system was divided into three
sub-systems, according to the three distinct
biogeographic regions in the country, and the Pacific
region was identified as being of the highest priority
(Anon., 1989).

In 1983, the Pacific sub-system of SINASIP was
initiated by the declaration of 17 protected areas,
covering 1.1% of national territory and including a
previously established national park. By 1987, of the
17 areas described, three were designated permanent
management categories and were actively managed, and
14 were protected under the transitory category of
natural reserve (reserva natural) and awaiting
management plans (Anon., 1989).

Nicaragua, through IRENA, participates in the FAO
Latin American Network Programme (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate the
activities of participating countries, to assist in the
implementation and functioning of a coherent and
effective national system of protected areas in each
country (FAO, n.d.).

In 1991 two major new reserves were created: a
biological reserve (reserva biolégica) to protect islands,
reefs, sea turtles and coastal wetlands and the Miskito
Indian culture in the north-east along the Honduran
border; a resource reserve (reserva de recursos), the
second largest single reserve in Nicaragua along the
Coco River, which separates Nicaragua and Honduras,
to protect a wide range of habitats ranging from lowland
rain forest to cloud forest. Also in the same year, a decree
provided initial protection as resource reserves to
remnant montane ecosystems of the central part of the

164

country, pine forests of the Pacific coast and volcanic
craters of the Pacific slope (Cedefio et al., 1992).

The past decade of civil war severely limited tourism in
Nicaragua. With the end of the war, a major boom is now
expected. However, only one park currently has minimal
tourism infrastructure (Cedefio et al., 1992).

Major threats to the protected area system include lack
of on-site protection and management in most areas; the
growing colonisation threat, particularly to wildlands in
the eastern half of the country, by former Sandinista
soldiers and Contra guerillas who are now living in large
numbers in forested lands; fires and overuse of mangrove
forests along the dry and highly deforested Pacific slope;
and uncontrolled logging and poaching in eastern parks
and reserves (Cedefio et al., 1992).

Addresses

Instituto de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA)
(Minister-Director), Apartado 5123, MANAGUA
(Tel: 505 2 31273/31848; FAX: 505 2 31274/
670998)

Mikupia (Director), Apartado 5123, MANAGUA
(Tel: 505 2 31273/31848; FAX: 505 2 31274/
670998)

Fundacién Nicaragiiense para la Conservacién y el
Desarrollo (Executive Director), Aptdo 1009,
MANAGUA (Tel/FAX: 505 2 74563)

Environmental Network for Nicaragua, NSC, 23 Bevenden
Street, LONDON N1 6BH

References

Alpizar, P. (1990). Unsialapaz y al proyecto SI-A-PAZ.
Recursos suplemento especial: SI-A-PAZ. TUCN.
16 pp.

Anon. (1984). Plan de desarrollo forestal de la
Republica de Nicaragua. Anexo II: Recursos
forestales existentes y su desarrollo potencial para
la produccién de madera. IRENA/Corporacién
ForestaldeIPueblo (CORFOP)/Interforestas/Swedforest
Consultind AB, Stockholm. 110 pp.

Anon. (1989). El sistema de dreas silvestres protegidas
de Nicaragua articulo basado en el documento
resultante del Taller Nacional sobre Conservacién
del Patrimonio Natural y Cultural realizado en
Managua, en octubre de 1987. Oficina Regional de
la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile. Flora, Fauna y Areas Silvestres 9: 14-17.

Castiglione, J. (1990). SI-A-PAZ en 1990, Recursos
suplemento especial: SI-A-PAZ. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. 16 pp.

Cedefio, V., Cedefio, J., Barborak, J. (1992). Draft
country report on Nicaragua. 4 pp.

Comisién IRENA-CORFOP. (n.d.). Patrimonio forestal:
analisis critico de la situacién actual y
recomendaciones. Comisi6én Instituto Nicaragiiense
de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente-Corporacion
Forestal del Pueblo sobre bases para una politica y
legislacién forestal.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas,
flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO
para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile. 8 pp.

Hartshorn, G.S. and Green, G.C. (1985). Wildlands
conservation in northern Central America:
Nicaragua.Tropical Science Center, San José/
CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. 5 pp.

Karliner, J.N. (1987). Make parks, not war. Amicus.
Fall: 8-13.

Nicaragua

Karliner, J. N. and Faber, D. (1986). Nicaragua: an
environmental perspective. Green paper #1. The
environmental project on Central America
(EPOCA), San Francisco, USA. 8 pp.

Nietschmann, B. (1990). Conservation by Conflict in
Nicaragua. Natural History 11/90: 4249.

Nietschmann, B. (1991). Miskito Coast Protected Area.
National Geographic Research and Exploration.
7(2): 232-237.

Saravia, D. (1990) Recursos suplemento especial:
SI-A-PAZ. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 16 pp.

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area
National Parks
1 Archipiélago Zapatera
Saslaya
3 Volcan Masaya
Biological Reserves
4 Cayos Miskitos
5 Rio Indio Maiz
Wildlife Refuges
6 La Flor
iT Los Guatusos
8 Rio Escalante-Chococente
Wildland Areas
9 Macizos de Pefias Blancas
10 Pinares de Dipilto
National Natural Resource Reserve
11 Bosawas
National Natural Reserve
12 Alamikamba
13 Archipiélago de Solentiname
14 Castillo de la Inmaculada
15 Cerro Bana Cruz
16 Cordillera Maribios
17 Estero Real
18 Isla Juan Venado
19 Isla de Ometepe
20 Laguna Mecatepe
21 Laguna de Apoyo
22 Laguna de Tisma
23 Makantaka
24 Padre Ramos
25 Peninsula Chiltepe
26 Volcan Concepcién
27 Volcan Cosiguina
28 Volcan Maderas
29 Volcan Mombacho
30 Volcan Momotombe y Momotombito
31 Yucul

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
II 10,000 1983
II 11,800 1971
II 5,500 1978
IV 502,654 1991
I 295,000 1990
VI 1,500 1983
IV 10,000 1990
IV 4,800 1983
VI 7,000 1976
VI 1,500 1983
Vill 800,000 1991
IV 2,100 1991
IV 8,500 1990
IV 1,500 1990
IV 19,700 1991
VI 34,460 1983
IV 38,725 1976
IV 4,500
IV 3,700
Ill 1,050
IV 2,100
IV 7,000 1983
IV 2,000 1991
IV 4,826 1990
VI 1,800 1983
Vill 2,200
IV 12,420 1976
IV 4,000 1983
VI 2,847 1983
VI 8,500 1983
VI 4,826 1990

165

Protected Areas of the World

gh ye

Protected Areas of Nicaragua

166

Panama

PANAMA

Area 75,517 sq. km

Population 2,400,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.90% (1990)

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,337 (1987)
GNP: US$ 2,239 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation No national conservation policy
has been officially adopted in Panama to date. However,
the National Plan for Environmental Protection and
Rehabilitation 1989-2000 (Plan Nacional para
Proteccién y Rehabilitacién Ambiental) includes
measures to integrate environmental issues into national
development (Illueca, 1988).

Panama participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action
Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising
the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic
and social development while maintaining conservation
principles. The Forestry Action Plan for Panama (Plan
de Accién Forestal de Panama) was developed in 1990
to interpret the global designs of TFAP to suit specific
national needs, and is an integral component of the
National Plan for Environmental Protection and
Rehabilitation 1989-2000 (Illueca, 1988). Objectives of
the action plan include revising current environmental
legislation; coordinating the activities of all
organisations involved in forest resource protection; and
promoting training programmes for the forest service to
increase the effectiveness of protection. Several projects
are proposed, including recommendations to reinforce
forest and protected area management. Details of the
extent of implementation of the projects are not known.

The General Forestry Law No. 39, 1966 establishes all
forest land as the property of the state, and declares the
conservation, improvement and rational use of forest
resources to be in the national interest. Three classes of
forest reserves are identified: production forest (bosque
de produccién), protection forest (bosque de proteccidn)
and special forest (bosque especial). The latter category
includes national parks, reserves and other protected
area, as the definition provides for the declaration of
special forest reserves for scientific, educational,
historic, touristic, recreational or other reasons (Annex).
Private land may be expropriated for protected areas.

National parks, reserves and other categories of
protected area are declared and modified by means of
separate legal instruments which establish management
objectives for the area and provide general regulations
governing its use. Most protected areas have been
created by executive decree, although a few were created
by congressional law and two wildlife refuges were
created by municipal ordinances. All but two areas, El
Copé National Park and Chepigana Forest Reserve, have

167

clear limits defined in the legislation providing for their
creation.

Law No. 12, 1973 created the first institute specifically
responsible for natural resources in Panama, the National
Directorate of Renewable Natural Resources (Direccidn
Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables)
(RENARE), and established its general functions
regarding wildlands conservation. Law No. 21, 1986
converted RENARE into the current National Institute
of Natural Renewable Resources (Instituto Nacional de
Recursos Naturales Renovables) (INRENARE).

There is no legislation unifying protected areas, although
plans for a national system have been proposed.
INRENARE is currently drafting comprehensive new
protected areas legislation which would standardise the
management of all protected areas as part of an
integrated system.

International Activities Panama signed the Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (Convencion sobre la Proteccién
de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas
Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western
Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified it later.

Panama ratified the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 3 March 1978 and two
sites are listed; and ratified the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 26 November 1990
with one site listed; and participates in the Unesco Man
and Biosphere programme with one site declared as a
biosphere reserve. Through the Panama Tropical
Forestry Action Plan, new projects are being designed
with the Spanish International Cooperation Agency, the
World Bank, and other donors.

Panama, through INRENARE, participates in the FAO
Latin American Network programme (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate the
activities of participating countries, to assist in the
implementation and functioning of a coherent and
effective national system of protected areas in each
country (FAO, n.d.).

On a regional level, Panama is actively involved in the
Central American Commission on Environment and
Development (Comisién Centroamericana de Ambiente
y Desarrollo) (CCAD). Many projects in protected areas
are supported by international agencies: Unesco in the
case of World Heritage sites and biosphere reserves,
IUCN and Paseo Pantera in Bocas del Toro, WWF in La
Amistad, Bastimentos, and Darién, and TNC and
US-AID on a national level. In 1982 Panama signed the

Protected Areas of the World

Basic Convention for Creation of the Park (Convenio
Basico de Creacién del Parque), a binational agreement
with Costa Rica for the creation, joint planning and
administration of the transboundary park La Amistad.
Assistance for this project comes from the Organisation
of American States (OAS) and Conservation
International (CI). CATIE and FAO have provided
considerable technical assistance and training
opportunities.

Administration and Management The first
governmental national parks department was established
in 1968, primarily to administer Altos de Campana
National Park. Under current legislation, all natural
resources are the responsibility of INRENARE, whose
objectives include formulating and implementing
national environmental and forestry policies.

Administrative responsibilities are divided between the
respective directorates within INRENARE. Forest
resources, particularly extractive and commercial
activities, are managed by the National Directorate for
Forest Development (Direccién Nacional de Desarrollo
Forestal) which replaces the former Forestry Service.
National parks, other protected areas and wildlife
resources are managed by the National Directorate of
Protected Areas and Wildlife (Direccién Nacional de
Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre). Despite this broad
mandate, the institution has a relatively small staff,
including guards in the field who undergo a two-month
training course but generally lack equipment, transport
and funding (Candanedo and Barborak, 1992).

Based on their management objectives and legal
framework, several protected areas are managed with the
collaboration of other organisations. This occurs in the
case of Portobelo National Park, in collaboration with
the Panamanian Institute of Tourism (Instituto
Panamefio de Turismo) (IPAT), and Barro Colorado
National Monument in collaboration with the
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. The Water and
Electricity Institute (Instituto de Recursos Hidrolégicos
y Electrificacién) (IRHE) provides support for
management of La Fortuna Reserve. Barro Colorado has
been the site of continuous and intensive ecological
research since the early 1900s (Leigh et al., 1983), and
is one of the best studied natural areas in the tropics.

The National Indigenous Institute for Social
Anthropology (Instituto Indigena Nacional de
Antropologia Social), created in 1958, divided
indigenous populations for administrative purposes into
areas known as comarcas. The Kuna and Embera
peoples have authority for managing their own largely
forested comarcas, or indigenous reserves, in
coordination with government authorities. However,
these two are the only comarcas that have been
established legally, and many are without defined limits
(Candanedo and Barborak, 1992). The Kuna
communities of San Blas Comarca have designated
60,000ha of their 320,000ha indigenous reserve as a
specially protected area, even though this reserve has no

168

specific legislative designation, and are also proposing
the whole area as a biosphere reserve. The Kuna have a
well-trained team of wildland rangers and professionals
and have benefited from considerable international
technical and financial assistance (Archibold, 1990,
1991; Houseal and Archibold, 1988). In 1983 the Study
Project for the Management of Kuna Wildlands
(Proyecto de Estudio para el Manejo de Areas Silvestres
de Kuna Yala) (PEMASKY) was established to support
the Kuna in managing their reserve. They now advise
other Indian groups in Panama and other Neotropical
nations on improving land management by indigenous
peoples. Unfortunately, their success has not been
matched by that of the other major indigenous groups of
Panama, the Embera-Wounan and Guaymi, which
nevertheless still maintain control over important
predominantly forested areas of the country (Candanedo
and Barborak, 1992).

Several national non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) are quite active in supporting protection and
management of protected wildlands. These include the
National Association for the Conservation of Nature
(Asociacién Nacional para la Conservacién de la
Naturaleza) (ANCON), which helps to raise funds for
park and buffer-zone management, and is home to the
national conservation data centre (CDC), and the
National Parks and Environment Foundation (Fundaci6n
PA.NA.M.A.) which consists of 24 NGOs whose aim is
to assist in the development of a protected area system.
The University of Panama also assists INRENARE,
particularly regarding research in protected areas.

The highest priority of government and NGO agencies
involved in protected areas is to improve the
management and protection of existing parks and
reserves. However, some additional protected areas have
been proposed. These include an indigenous territory for
the Guaymi Indians in western Panama, several island
parks and reserves (Las Perlas, Isla Coiba), and areserve
in the Serrania de Maje mountains of eastern Panama.
Another priority is to establish definite boundaries for El
Copé National Park, the limits of which are defined in
the decree creating this potentially large area.

Systems Reviews Owing to its tropical setting,
location on the Central American land bridge, and
altitudinal and climatic variability, Panama has very high
biological diversity for its size. Some 218 species of
mammals, 929 of birds, 226 of reptiles, and 170 of
amphibians are found in the country, together with
diverse coastal and marine ecosystems, including the
largest mangrove estuaries in Central America along the
Pacific coast, and important reef complexes along the
Caribbean coast. It is home to an estimated 8,000-9,000
vascular plants, including 1,226 endemic taxa (Davis
etal., 1986). Endemism is highest in the highlands along
the Costa Rican and Colombian borders; for this same
reason, most endemic species are shared with these
neighbours.

Topographically, Panama comprises four regions:
western Panama, dominated by the Cordillera de
Talamanca extending down from Costa Rica in a
southeasterly direction; central lowlands bisected by the
Canal; the eastern region characterised by a series of
coastal ranges; and the narrow Caribbean lowlands on
the Caribbean coast (Hartshorn, 1981). Following the
Holdridge (1967) ecological classification system, 12
life zones are found in Panama. More than 75% of the
country is located in just three zones: tropical moist,
including extensive areas of tropical moist forest along
the Caribbean coast and in the eastern Darién region;
premontane wet; and rain forest (Hartshorn, 1981).
Other important forest types include tropical dry forest
along the Pacific coast, small areas of montane wet forest
and subalpine paramo along the higher ridges near the
Costa Rican border, and lower montane wet forests in
much of the western highlands.

With a population density of 31.2 persons per sq. km,
and a growth rate of just 2.1% annually, Panama is less
densely populated and has a lower population growth
rate than neighbouring countries. However, destructive
landuse practices, particularly extensive grazing on
marginal lands, have led to large losses of forest cover
(Heckadon and McKay, 1982), amounting to
approximately 1% of remaining forest cover annually.
Natural forests now cover around 3.2 million ha or under
half of the total national territory, of which 1.2 million
ha are production forest and 2 million ha protection and
conservation forest, including national parks and
reserves (INRENARE, 1990b). The three categories of
forest reserves (Annex) are collectively managed as the
National Forest Management System (Sistema de
Manejo de Bosques Nacionales) (INRENARE, 1990a,
1990b).

Barro Colorado Island has functioned as a biological
reserve since 1923 and is thus the oldest continuously
managed and protected wildland in the Central
American region. It was established as a natural
monument by the 1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaty on the
Panama Canal.

Efforts to plan and create a national protected areas
system date back to the 1960s. By the late 1970s,
substantive plans and proposals were made for priority
parks and reserves and the protected areas system with
the assistance of IUCN, FAO and CATIE (IUCN, 1976;
see IUCN (1982) for information on a number of specific
early management plans; Dalfelt and Morales, 1978).
Most protected areas have been established since the
beginning of the 1980s, and most have at least annual
operational plans. A national protected areas system plan
was produced in the mid-1980s with assistance from
US-AID (Houseal, 1985). At present, protected areas
collectively comprise the System of National Parks and
other Protected Wildlands (Sistema de Parques
Nacionales y otras Areas Silvestres Protegidas)
(SPNASP), but there is no law which unifies them as
such (INRENARE, 1990a). INRENARE is currently

169

Panama

drafting the relevant legislation to provide for a
comprehensive system.

Nearly 20% of the territory is included in SPNASP,
excluding indigenous reserves (Palacios, pers. comm.,
1992). Strictly protected national parks, wildlife refuges
and natural monuments cover just over 1 million ha, or
13.4% of the country. Forest reserves, recreational parks
and protection forests, all less strictly protected, cover
332,000 ha or 4.25% of the country. SPNASP covers a
considerable percentage of the remaining natural areas
of the country (Candanedo and Barborak, 1992;
Palacios, pers. comm., 1992). In addition, a water
production reserve is managed for forest protection but
is not part of SPNASP.

Major threats confront most protected areas, including
insufficient budgets and personnel; illegal activities such
as poaching, illegal timber harvest, and fire in drier areas;
shipment of narcotics; looting of archaeological sites;
and encroachment by landless farmers. Exploration for
oil has taken place ina number of areas and poses a threat
to certain protected areas. A large oil exploration project
planned by Texaco for the Bocas del Toro region was
recently cancelled, but the possibility of activities being
transferred to the Darién region remains (Santos, 1991).

Protected areas in general are also insufficiently used for
educational programmes and research, and the potential
economic benefits of ecotourism for the national
economy and:local communities around parks has yet to
be realised. To provide a firm longterm financial basis
for protecting and managing the nation’s protected areas,
an international debtswap is currently being negotiated
with US-AID and The Nature Conservancy to help set
up a permanent endowment fund to be managed by anew
foundation (Fundacién Natura) recently established for
that specific purpose.

Tourism in protected areas is still quite limited, as are
park visitor facilities, even though some protected areas
near Panama City, such as Altos de Campana National
Park, Soberania National Park, and Barro Colorado
Island National Monument, are very accessible.
However, as part of the general boom in naturebased
tourism occurring throughout the Central American
region, visitation is expected to increase substantially in
the near future. As part of anew US-AIDfunded national
conservation project, major investments in basic
infrastructure are planned for the protected areas system
over the next decade (Candanedo and Barborak, 1992).

Addresses

Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables
(INRENARE), Apartado 2016, Paraiso, ANCON (Tel:
507 32 4518; FAX: 507 32 4975)

Instituto Panamefio de Turismo, Apartado 4421,
PANAMA 5 (Tel: 507 26 7000; FAX: 507 26 3483)
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, PO Box
2072, BALBOA (Tel: 507 27 6022; FAX: 507 62
5942)

Protected Areas of the World

Asociacién Nacional para la Conservacién de la
Naturaleza (ANCON), Apartado 1387, PANAMA 1
(Tel: 64 8100; FAX: 64 1836)

Fundacién PA.NA.M.A., Apdo 66623, El Dorado,
PANAMA

PEMASKY (Kuna wildlands management project),
Apartado 2012, Paraiso, ANCON (Tel: 507 82 3226;
FAX: 507 28 0516)

References

Alvarado, R. (1989). Procedimiento para la creacién y
manejo inicial de parques nacionales: dos estudios de
caso en Panama. M.S. Thesis, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa
Rica.

Archibold, G. (1990). Pemasky en Kuna Yala. In:
Heckadon, S. et al., Hacia una Centroamérica Verde.
Editorial DEI, San Jose, Costa Rica. Pp. 37-52.

Archibold, G. (1991). Conservacién y comunidades
indigenas en Panamé. Panama: PEMASKY.

Candanedo, I., and Barborak, J.R. (1992). DRAFT country
report for Panama. 7 pp.

Chang, R., R.A. (1987). Panama y sus parques: el canal y
algo mas hacia el tercer milenio. RENARE presentation
to the first international meeting “Los Parques
Nacionales Hacia el Tercer Milenio". Caracas.

Dalfelt, A. and Morales, R. (1978). Plan maestro, parque
nacional Darién. CATIE: Turrialba, Costa Rica.
213 pp.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and
Zantovska, J.(1986), Plants in danger what do we
know?. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge.
461 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas,
flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO
para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
8 pp.

FAO (1966). Food and Agricultural Legislation, Vol XV
No.4., chapter XII/I. Pp. 1-15

Hartshorn, G.S. (1981). Forests and forestry in Panama.
Institute of Current World Affairs. 16 pp.

Hartshorn, G.S. (1983). Wildlands conservation in Central
America. In: Sutton, S.L. et al., (Eds), Tropical
Rainforest: ecology and management. Spec. pub. 2,
British Ecological Society. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, UK.

Heckadon, S. and McKay, A. (1982). Colonizacién y
Destruccién de Bosques en Panamd. Asociacién
Panamefia de Antropologia. Panama. 174 pp.

Herlihy, P.H. (1989). Panama’s quiet revolution: comarca
homelands and Indian rights. Cultural Survival
Quarterly 13(3): 17-24.

Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology; revised
edition. Tropical Science Centre, San José, Costa
Rica. 206 pp. (Unseen)

Houseal, B.L. (1985). Plan estratégico para el sistema de
parques nacionales y reservas equivalentes de
Panamd4. RENARE/US-AID.

170

Houseal, B.L. and Archibold, G. (1988). Kuna
wildlands: traditional conservation. [UCN
Bulletin 18(10-12): 8-10.

Illueca, J.E. (1988). Report on behalf of the
Government of the Republic of Panama to the
7th meeting of Tropical Forest Action Plan
(TFAP) forestry advisors. Tokyo, Japan,
9-11 November 1988. 13 pp.

INGTG (1988). Atlas nacional de la Republica de
Panamé. Instituto Nacional Geografico Tommy
Guardia (INGTG). 222 pp. (Unseen)

INRENARE (1990a). Plan de acci6én forestal de
Panama. Instituto Nacional de Recursos
Naturales Renovables, Panama City. 106 pp.

INRENARE (1990b). La cobertura boscosa de
Panama. Trabajo realizado conjuntamente por:
Direccién Nacional de Desarrollo Forestal del
INRENARE y la Direcci6én de Planificacién.
8 pp.

IUCN (1976). Actas de la reunién centroamericana
sobre manejo de recursos naturales y culturales.
IUCN Publications New Series 36.

IUCN (1982). Directory of neotropical protected
areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 436 pp.

LaBastille, A. (1976). An ecological survey of the
proposed Volcdn Bari National Park, Panama.
IUCN Occasional Paper 6: 177.

Leigh, E.G. Jr., Rand, A.S. and Windsor, D.M.
(Eds)(1983). The Ecology of a neotropical
forest: seasonal rhythms and longer term
fluctuations. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington DC.

MacFarland, C. and Zadroga, F. (n.d.). Plan de manejo
y desarrollo del Parque Nacional Volcan Bari,
Panama. CATIE, Turriala, Costa Rica.

Morales, R. and Cifuentes, M. (Eds) (1989).
Sistema regional de Areas silvestres protegidas
en América Central: plan de accién 1989-2000.
CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.

Morales, R., Barborak, J.R. and MacFarland, C.
(1984). Planning and managing a
multicomponent, multicategory international
biosphere reserve: the case of the
La Amistad/Talamanca Range/Bocas del Toro
Wildlands Complex of Costa Rica and Panama.
In: Conservation, Science, and Society. Natural
Resources Research XXI, Vol. 2. Unesco, Paris.

Nyrop, R. (Ed.) (1980). Panama: a country study.
American University, Washington, DC.

OAS (1978). Proyecto de desarrollo integrado de la
regiOn oriental de Panama-Darién. Organisation
of American States, Washington DC.

Ogle, R.A. and Jones, H.R. (1973). Inventariacién
y demonstraciones forestales, Panamd, parques
nacionales: un plan de desarrollo. FO: SF/PAN
6 Informe técnico 10. FAO/PNUD, Panama.

Santos, E. (1991). Texaco se retira de exploracién
petrolera en Bocas del Toro. La Prensa, Panama,
sdbado 14 de diciembre.

Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional
review: Central America. Regional reviews,

IUCN, IVth World Congress on National Parks and
Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, 1021 February

1992. Pp. 13.313.27.

Vallester, P.E. (1981). Panama. Informe de la mesa
redonda sobre parques nacionales, otras dreas

ANNEX

Panama

protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Santiago, Chile,
8-10 June.

Wong, M. and Ventocilla, J. (1986). A day on Barro

Colorado Island. Smithsonian Tropical Research
Institute: Panama.

Definitions of protected area designations,as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title : DecretoLey No. 39 Ley General
Forestal (DecreeLaw No. 19 General Forestry

Law)

Date: 29 September 1966

Brief description:

Declares it in the national

interest to protect, conserve, renew and rationally
utilise forest resources in the country. General forest
regulations are stated. Provision is made for the
classification of forest into three categories of forest
Teserve, details of which are given.

Administrative authority:

The Servicio

Forestal (Forestry Service) within the Ministerio de
Agriculture, Comercio y Industria (Ministry of
Agriculture, Commerce and Industry) is assigned
responsibility for the administration of this
Decree-Law.

Designations :

Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve):

Bosque

Productivo (Production Forest) A forested area
declared suitable for the production of forest
products. The main objective of the area is the
generation of an annual or periodic income by the
exploitation of its forest resources.

Exploitation within the area is permitted only with
prior approval of the Forest Service.

Bosque Protectivo (Protection Forest) A forested
area which, by virtue of its situation or other specific
characteristics, is important for regulating water
systems; protecting soils, crops, roads, agncultural
developments, river banks, streams and other water
resources; preventing soil erosion and landslides;
protecting and providing habitat for species of flora
and fauna which are declared important.

Protection forests may only be worked for
improvement purposes.

Bosque Especial (Special Forest) All those
forested areas maintained for scientific, educational,
historic, touristic or recreational purposes. Land must
be state owned and may be purchased for the
establishment of such an area.

This category includes public parks and woods,
national parks, biological reserves, recreational
areas, trees lining roads and associated stands and
coppices.

All exploitation is prohibited within special forest
areas, except for specific cases in the public interest
for which they were created.

Source: FAO (1966)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Altos de Campana II 4,816 1977
2 Cerro Hoya II 325551, 1984
3 Chagres II 129,000 1984
4 Coiba II 270,000 1991
5 Darién II 579,000 1980
6 La Amistad II 207,000 1988

171

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified

7 Portobelo II 34,846 1976

8 Sarigua I 8,000 1984

9 Soberania II 22,104 1980

10 Volcan Bari II 14,000 1976
National Marine Park

11 Isla Bastimentos II 13,226 1988
Scientific Reserve

12 Isla Maje I 1,433 1977
Wildlife Refuges

13 Ciénega del Mangle IV 716 1980

14 Islas Taboga y Uraba IV 258 1984

15 Pefién de la Onda IV 2,000 1984
Natural Monument

16 Barro Colorado Il 15,400 1977
Natural Park

17 Metropolitano Vv 265 1985
Forest Reserves

18 Canglén Vill 31,650 1984

19 Chepigana vill 146,000 1960

20 La Tronosa Vill 22,000 1977

21 La Yeguada Vill 3,000 1960

22) Montuoso Vil 10,000 1978
Protection Forests

23 Alto de Darién Vil 211,000 1972

24 Palo Seco Vill 244,000 1983
Indigenous Reserves

25 Comarca Kuna Yala (San Blas) Vil 320,000 1938

26 Embere-Wounan (Ember-Orua) vil 432,600 1983
Water Production Reserve

27 La Fortuna Vil 15,000 1976
Recreation Area

28 Lago Gatin Vv 348 1985
Golfo de Montijo 80,765 1990
Biosphere
Parque Nacional Fronterizo Darién Ix 597,000 1983
Ramsar Wetland
Golfo de Montijo R 80,765 1990
World Heritage Sites
Parque Nacional Darién Ix 579,000 1981
Parque Internacional La Amistad xX 207,000 1990

172

Protected Areas of Panama

173

THE REPUBLIC OF ARGENTINA

Area 2,766,890 sq. km
Population 32,322,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.17% per annum

Economic indicators
GDP: US$ 2,647 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 2,160 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Politically, Argentina is a
federation. There are 23 provinces, one federal district
(Buenos Aires), and the national territories of Antarctica
and the South Atlantic Islands. Under provisions of the
1922 Constitution, the creation and management of
protected areas pertain to both national and provincial
governments. No national conservation objectives have
been stated in their entirety, although the large number
of legal acts relating to conservation collectively
comprise what may be considered a national objective
(Anon., 1990; Merino, 1987).

The first national protected areas legislation was the
1934 Law of National Parks (Ley de Parques
Nacionales) No. 12.103, which provided for the creation
of the National Parks Service (Direccidn de Parques
Nacionales). A revision of the 1934 Law in 1970,
National Parks Law No. 18.594, modified and
standardised protected area designations. Power of
administration and enforcement were vested in the
National Park Service, an autonomous body under the
Secretariat of State for Agriculture, Livestock and
Fisheries (Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura,
Ganaderia y Pesca). Provision was made for the creation
of a national administrator to direct and supervise the
National Park Service. The law also enables the
establishment of a local advisory committee for each
national park and a warden service with police force
Status.

The National Parks Law currently ineffectis No. 22.351,
1980 which is a modification of the previous two laws.
It provides for the creation of an autonomous
organisation, the National Parks Administration
(Administraci6n de Parques Nacionales) (APN), to be
responsible for managing protected areas on federal
territory. The APN is empowered to expropriate private
land where required to establish a protected area. Three
categories of protected area are defined in the 1980 law;
national park (parque nacional), natural monument
(monumento natural) and national reserve (reserva
nacional). Economic activities other than tourism are
prohibited in the first two categories; commercial,
industrial and other exploitative activities are permitted
in national reserves (C. Daniele and C.E. Natenzon, pers.
comm., 1992; Fourcade and Uribelarrea, 1992) (see
Annex). Protected areas on federal territory collectively
form the system of national parks, national reserves and
natural monuments (sistema de parques nacionales,
reservas nacionales y monumentos naturales) and are

175

owned by federal government (Giudice, 1988). In 1991,
Decree No 2419/91 transferred the APN from the
Secretariat of State for Agriculture, Livestock and
Fisheries to the Secretariat for Natural Resources and
Human Environment (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales
y Ambiente Humano) (F. Erize, pers. comm., 1992;
C. Daniele and C.E. Natenzon, pers. comm., 1992).

Provincial legislation makes provision for the
establishment of protected areas at local level, and varies
from simply declaring the creation of a specific site, to
listing objectives, prohibitions, and administrative
details (APN, 1991; Merino, 1987). Human settlement
and cattle exploitation are generally prohibited.
Provincial legislation may also make provision for
protected areas under private or university tenure, which
are formed by agreement with the appropriate
administrative organisation. A protected area must be
transferred from provincial to national ownership by
provincial law in order to be included in the national
system. The area is then designated a management
category — either national park, national reserve or
natural monument — following the 1980 National Parks
Law (F. Erize, pers. comm., 1992).

Forest resource use and protection is founded on the
1948 Defence of Forest Heritage (Defensa de la Riqueza
Forestal) Law No. 13.273. Protection and permanent
forests are defined (see Annex). Forested land within
national parks or other protected areas is subject to the
regulations given in the 1948 Law. Several
modifications to this law, mainly with respect to articles
regulating forest exploitation, have been made
(see Annex).

The fragmentary nature of conservation policy and
legislation precludes a uniform strategy to be applied by
all the appropriate administrative organisations (Anon.,
1990; Merino, 1987). Because of the very limited
participation that the present National Parks Law affords
the provinces, and because cf the overabundance of
national security provisions it contains, there have been
several attempts to revise it since 1984, but none of these
has proceeded beyond draft form (F. Erize, pers. comm.,
1992). The current proposal for revision, written by
APN, is part of a major effort to unify protected areas
into a national system (APN, 1991). The draft states
national conservation objectives and provides a legal
framework for a coherent system, consolidating both
national and provincial protected areas. Additional
management categories and standardised designations
are proposed (APN, 1991). The draft also proposes the
establishment of a Federal Council of Natural Protected
Areas (Consejo Federal de Areas Naturales Protegidas),
comprising representatives from each province, as the
highest authority for implementation of the law
(APN, 1991). It must be stressed that, while
much agreement has been reached informally

Protected Areas of the World

between all parties involved, this project is in draft form
only, and as such may be subject to major changes before
being finally approved (F. Erize, pers. comm., 1992). By
April 1992, it had still not passed through
congress (C. Daniele and C.E. Natenzon, pers.
comm., 1992)

International Activities Argentina signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, which has
since been ratified. In 1976, Argentina and Bolivia
signed the Agreement on the Protection of Flora and
Fauna and the Formation of Frontier Parks (Acuerdo
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora y Fauna y la Formacién
de Parques Fronterizos). The Convention for the
Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio
para la Conservacion y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed
by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru in 1979,
and later ratified under Argentinian legislation.

Argentina is party to the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) to which it acceded on 23
August 1978, with two sites inscribed. Argentina also
participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme, having five sites approved as biosphere
reserves. Argentina ratified the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 5 May 1992 and has
three sites inscribed.

In 1991, The Nature Conservancy (USA) bought more
than US$ 500,000 of Argentine foreign debt to be used
to fund conservation efforts in the Patagonian Andes.

Administration and Management A large number of
institutions are responsible for protected area
management, and the situation is complex (APN, 1991;
Merino, 1987). Generally, protected areas may be under
either national legislature and administered by federal
government, or under provincial legislature and
administered according to tenure. A significant step in
unifying administration and management of federal
protected areas was the creation of the National Parks
Service in 1934. The organisation was vested with the
responsibility to regulate resource use in protected areas
on federal territory.

The National Parks Service became the National Parks
Administration (APN) under the 1980 National Parks
Law, and it continues to manage federally owned areas.
At the same time, the provinces developed their own
policies, created protected areas and assigned
administrative responsibilities to various organisations
(Anon., 1990; Giudice, 1988). The APN is an
autonomous government agency under the Secretariat
for Natural Resources and Human Environment
(Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente Humano).
The APN has a directorate comprising a president, a

176

vice-president and four members (APN, 1991; Boyle and
Boyle, 1986), and managerial power such as formulating
and implementing management plans, research and
conservation activities (FAO, 1983). In 1991, the APN
was in the process of changing the structure of its
directorate to include representatives from provincial
governments (APN, 1991). The APN employs 260 park
guards (guardaparques), of which 180 are involved in
vigilance and control of protected areas (C. Daniele and
C.E. Natenzon, pers. comm., 1992).

The APN is responsible for national parks, national
reserves, national natural monuments. All national parks
have areas within them that are managed as strict natural
reserves, and many national parks include a national
natural reserve as part of their total area. Although these
natural reserves are delimited, they are managed together
with the park as one entity (APN, 1991).

Forest reserves, designated as multiple use reserves, are
declared by national decree or law but are managed by
the National Forestry Institute (Instituto Forestal
Nacional) (IFONA). Forests that occur within a national
park or other protected area are managed by the
respective administration, according to the tenure of the
protected area.

Most administrative responsibilities are determined by
provincial laws. In some provinces, institutions have
been established specifically to manage protected areas,
while in others, more general institutions are given
responsibility. These organisations are responsible for
research activities, development and regulation
enforcement (APN, 1991; Merino, 1987).

Protected areas situated on land that is owned by a
municipality are declared by municipal order and are
managed either by provincial administrations or by the
municipality itself. Protected areas on land owned by
universities are declared and managed in agreement with
the respective provincial administrative body.
Privately-owned protected areas may be managed
independently or by provincial administration.
Independent administration is often undertaken by
non-governmental organisations, which either buy the
land themselves, or work in conjunction with private
landowners (APN, 1991).

In recent years, the human pressure on Argentina’s
natural resources has increased dramatically because of
the country’s severe economic crisis, and it is often
difficult to maintain strict protected areas. Thus,
biosphere reserves constitute an important alternative.
Of Argentina’s five biosphere reserves, two are managed
by state Subsecretariats, one by a municipality, and two
by independent institutes; this gives rise to a
heterogeneous system of logistics and management.
Unfortunately, poor regional development throughout
Argentina has retarded the integration of biosphere
reserves into territorial planning (Daniele et al., n.d.)

There are many non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) dedicated to conservation and sustainable
development. One of the largest, the Argentinian
Wildlife Foundation (Fundacién Vida Silvestre
Argentina) (FVSA), is the most active in assisting
private land owners to establish and manage protected
areas (APN, 1991). The FVSA obtains provincial legal
declarations, formulates management plans, and visits
the area periodically (FVSA, n.d.). By 1991, the FVSA
managed the majority of privately-owned protected
areas (APN, 1991). Other NGOs include the River Plate
Omithological Association (Asociacién Ornitoldgica
del Plata), Friends of the Earth Foundation (Fundacién
Amigos de la Tierra), and the Argentinian Museum of
Natural Sciences (Museo Argentino de Ciencias
Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia").

There has been little or no coordination between the APN
and the provinces with respect to protected areas
management (Boyle and Boyle, 1986). Great differences
in management between the provinces have arisen, with
inconsistent designations and differences in the number
of personnel employed (APN, 1991; Giudice, 1988;
Merino, 1987). In many cases, insufficient resources are
available for effective natural resource regulation, and
information on the efficiency of provincial management
is not readily available (APN, 1991).

Projects to formulate a new National Parks Law and
create a National System of Natural Protected Areas
(Sistema Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas) are
being put forward. These strive to coordinate policies
and management and stimulate cooperation between the
provincially managed protected area systems and the
federally managed, or national, system. A Federal
Council (Consejo Federal), comprising representatives
from all the provinces and the federal government would
assess the activities of the different management
authorities and propose policies to them (see Systems
Reviews) (APN, 1991; Giudice, 1988; F. Erize, pers.
comm., 1992).

To increase administrative efficiency, a wider range of
Management categories would be introduced, varying
from multiple use to strict protection, and protected areas
sub-divided into different managerial zones.
Management plans would be mandatory for each area
(APN, 1991; Giudice, 1988). By 1992, four management
plans had been written (Fourcade and Uribelarrea,
1992).

Systems Reviews Four main geographical regions are
distinguished: mountain, sub-mountain, grassland and
steppe. The Andean mountains extend almost the entire
length of the country along the western border, and
encompass a variety of associated ecosystems from
Andean desert in the north and west, to forest and
Patagonian steppe in the south (Luna, 1977). Altitudes
range to 6,960m. In the south, the Andes are much lower
in elevation with many glacial lakes (Luna, 1977). The
sub-Andean region is extensively irrigated for
agricultural production.

177

The Republic of Argentina

Grassland extends east of the Andes over a large part of
the country, and may be distinguished into two different
types: Chaco and pampas grassland (Paxton, 1989). The
Chaco is a humid and swampy region with annual
precipitation between 400mm and 1000mm, extending
from Bolivia and Paraguay into northern Argentina. The
vegetation is sub-tropical, and cotton farming is the
major agricultural activity. Pampas grassland,
characterised by deep, fertile soil and a mild climate,
extends in a wide belt from the Chaco in the north to
southern Buenos Aires Province and covers most of San
Luis and La Pampa provinces. Together witha large tract
of savanna grassland, known as the Pampeana Steppe in
Buenos Aires province, this comprises the flattest and
most densely populated region in the country.
Agriculture is extensive; the main industries are located
in this region and 60% of the population lives here (APN,
1991; Paxton, 1989). This region has suffered the
greatest degree of human alteration in the country, and
only those parts not suitable for agriculture remain in
their natural state (APN, 1991).

The Patagonian Steppe, a low, cold and arid plateau
characterised by strong wind, extends from Neuquen
Province to Tierra del Fuego, covering the majority of
the southern part of the country. It is bordered to the east
by the Atlantic Ocean and to the west by the Andean
mountains. The ecosystems found here are very fragile
and soil erosion occurs in areas of extensive pastoral
agriculture (APN, 1991).

Sub-tropical forests are found in two regions. The
Tucumano-Boliviana forest, an extension of Bolivian
forest, covers part of Salta, Jujuy and Tucuman
provinces in the north, and the Mision forest (Selva
Misionera), an extension of the southern Brazilian forest,
covers most of Misiones Province in the north-east
(Correa Luna, 1977). Agricultural activities have
affected 41% of the Mision forest, 23% remains in its
natural state and 36% is secondary growth. Subantarctic,
or Andinopatagonian forest stretches in a narrow belt
(50km at its widest) from Neuquen Province to Tierra
del Fuego, and may be considered as two distinct regions
divided by the 47 southern latitude. North of this is the
Valdivian District, and south, the Magellan forest,
characterised by strong winds and extreme cold (APN,
1991). A detailed, modern work, classifying Argentine
vegetation into 20 categories, has been produced
(Natenzon, 1988).

The creation of protected areas dates back to 1903 when
privately-owned land was donated to the government, to
be maintained in its natural state in the area that is now
Nahuel Huapi National Park. Likewise, land in Misiones
Province has been regulated as a natural reserve since
1909, in the area that now forms Iguazu National Park
(APN, 1991). Neither of these areas was legally
protected, and the first national park provided for by
legislation was created in 1922. Prohibited activities
included felling trees, killing wildlife and altering
watercourses. The first provincial protected area was
established in 1936.

Protected Areas of the World

By 1991, a total of 12,135,900ha was protected,
corresponding to around 4.35% of total land area and
comprising 190 individual sites. There are 24
conservation units under national administration,
covering 25,817 sq. km, and one under the
administration of Buenos Aires city, all declared by
federal legislation. The nationally administered system
represents 0.9% of the country (Fourcade and
Uribelarrea, 1992). The remaining 165, covering 95,542
sq. km, are under provincial legislation, the majority of
which are administered by provincial organisations
alone, but eight are managed by municipalities, 23 by
individuals, and four by universities, often in
conjunction with provincial institutions (APN, 1991;
Erize, n.d.).

The present system of protected areas does not reflect the
diversity present in Argentina, with many ecosystems
poorly represented or not included at all (APN, 1991).
Of the 25-30 different ecosystems found in Argentina,
only 12 are represented in the national system (Fourcade
and Uribelarrea, 1992). Sub-tropical forest and the
Chaco region are significantly under represented, and
pampas grassland, where human impact has been
greatest, is virtually unprotected. The regions with the
highest coverage of protected areas are high Andean
steppe and Subantarctic Forest, including lakes and
glaciers (APN, 1991; F. Erize, pers. comm., 1992).

Protected areas are very heterogeneous in terms of
legislation, ownership, administration and management.
In some cases, there is little more than a decree creating
the protected area, without defining boundaries or
objectives. This results in confusion and inconsistencies
over the designation of management categories (APN,
1991). Federal protected areas collectively comprise the
system of national parks, national reserves and natural
monuments administered by the APN. Provincial
protected areas must first be ceded to federal ownership
before they can be included in the system (Giudice,
1988).

The main problems facing protected areas differ between
north and south. In the north, hunting and timber
extraction are the main threats, whereas excessive
tourism and "exploitation of forest resources" are
problems in the south. Grazing is a problem throughout.
Of twenty units of the national system seven are
managed inadequately (Fourcade and Uribelarrea,
1992).

Following the creation of the FAO Latin American
Network (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica
en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y
Fauna Silvestres) in 1983, all participating countries
were encouraged to form national networks to
consolidate protected area management. The aim of a
national system is to organise conservation units within
national territory so thatnational conservation objectives
may be attained (APN, 1991). The National Network of
Technical Cooperation in Protected Areas in Argentina
(Red Nacional de Cooperacién Técnica en Areas

178

Naturales Protegidas) was created in 1986 to instigate
the process of creating a national system (APN, 1991; Di
Pace, 1989). It comprises representatives from all
organisations that administer protected areas, both
national and provincial. The Provisional Board of
Directors (Comisi6n Directiva Provisoria) is made up of
representatives from the APN, the National Commission
of Environmental Politics (Comisiédn Nacional de
Politica Ambiental) (CONAPA), and from 18 of the 23
provinces. Workshops are held at leastonce a year (APN,
1991).

The proposal for a national system of protected areas was
put forward by the National Network in 1990. All
conservation units, under their respective administrative
organisations and legislation, are to be united in this
system by the National Network. Increased cooperation
between the APN and provincial organizations is
encouraged. Proposed national conservation objectives
are stated and include maintaining natural biological
process and protecting representatives of national
ecosystems. The national system of protected areas
would comprise two sub-systems; the national
sub-system managed by the APN, IFONA, and Buenos
Aires city, and the provincial sub-system managed by all
other provincial and private institutions. The network
encourages provincial governments to unify their
protected areas into coherent sub-systems (APN, 1991).

The first stage in unifying protected areas into a national
system is to standardise designations. In 1989, the
network adopted a classification system for protected
areas in Argentina along the lines of the IUCN system
of management categories (see Annex). Existing
protected areas throughout the country were reviewed
and reclassified as necessary, although this procedure is
not yet complete (APN, 1991).

Argentina is undergoing a process of increasing
federalisation and the provinces are asserting their power
to administer natural resources in their territory. This
accentuates the need for a national strategy for resource
protection (Anon., 1990). The implementation of the
proposed national system of natural protected areas
would be a significant step towards effective protection
of natural resources in Argentina (APN, 1991).

Addresses

Administraci6n de Parques Nacionales (APN)
(Presidente), Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y
Ambiete Humano, Avda Santa Fe 690, 1059
BUENOS AIRES (Tel: 1 311 6633; Tix: 21535
dgaag ar)

Comité Nacional MAB Argentina, Secretaria de
Vivienda y Ordenamiento Ambiental, Defensa 120,
1002 BUENOS AIRES (Tel: 1 331 0680)

Asociacion Ornitoldgica del Plata, 25 de Mayo 749, 2
piso 6, 1002 BUENOS AIRES (Tel: 1 312 8958)

Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA), Avenida
Leandro N., Alem 968, planta baja, 1001 BUENOS
AIRES (Tel: 1 311 1973/1942)

Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Angel Gallardo
470, 1405 BUENOS AIRES (Tel: 1 982 0306)

References

Anon. (1990). Bases del sistema nacional de dreas
protegidas para la conservaci6n del patrimonio
natural de la Argentina. FAO/UNDP Project
ARG/85/012. 55 pp.

APN (1991). El sistema nacional de dreas naturales
protegidas de la Republica Argentina. Diagonéstico
de su desarrollo institutional y patrimonio natural.
Administraci6n de Parques Nacionales, Buenos
Aires. 127 pp.

Boyle, S.C. and Boyle, T.P. (1986). Parks and reserves
of Argentina. Unpublished.

Di Pace, MJ. (1989). Algunos aspectos significativos
ligados a la investigacién en las 4reas naturales
protegidas de Argentina. Taller internacional sobre
investigaci6n en 4reas silvestres protegidas, Islas
Galapagos, Ecuador. 5 pp.

Daniele, C., Gémez, I., and Zas, M. (n.d.). Diagnéstico
comparativo de las reservas de bidsfera de la
Reptiblica Argentina. Secretaria Permanente del
Comité MAB Argentino, Direccién Nacional de
Ordenamiento Ambiental. SVOA. Unpublished.
15 pp.

Echechuri, H.A. (1985). Consolidacién del manejo de
las Areas protegidas en la Argentina: "Misién de
apoyo para el desarrollo del proyecto". IUCN/WWF.
Buenos Aires.

179

The Republic of Argentina

Erize, F. (n.d.). La experiencia argentina en manejo
privado de areas naturales protegidas. Unpublished.
6 pp.

FAO (1983). Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques
nacionales, otras Greas protegidas, flora y fauna
silvestres. Santiago de Chile, 8-10 junio 1983.
Pp. 12-15.

Fourcade de Ruiz, M.T. and Uribelarrea, D.S. de (1992).
Sistema de 4reas protegidas en Argentina.
In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds) {Espacios sin
Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del
Sur. International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources and Editorial Nueva
Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 12-17.

FVSA (n.d.). Creacién de refugios privados de vida
silvestre. Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina. 5 pp.

Guidice, L.A. (1988). Planificacién del sistema de
parques nacionales. Administracién de Parques
Nacionales/FAO/UNDP, Buenos Aires. 18 pp.

Merino, S. (1987). Inventario de dreas naturales
protegidas de la Argentina. Unpublished. 600 pp.

Natenzon, C.E. (1988). Marco biogeogrdfico nacional.
Administracién de Parques Nacionales, Buenos
Aires. (Unseen)

Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1989). The Statesman’s Yearbook
1989-90. The Macmillan Press Ltd., London and
Basingstoke, UK. 1691 pp.

SNPN (1974). La conservacién de la naturaleza:
parques nacionales argentinos. Servicio Nacional de
Parques Nacionales, Buenos Aires. 165 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities
responsible for their administration

Title: Ley de Parques y Reservas Nacionales y
Monumentos Naturales (Law of National
Parks and Reserves and Natural Monuments),
National Law No. 22.351

Date: 12 December 1980

Brief description: To provide for the creation
of protected areas on land owned by the Republic,
giving three designations. Protection of natural
resources is in accordance with national security
requirements.

Administrative authority: Administracién de
Parques Nacionales (National Parks Administration),
within the Ministerio de Economia (Ministry of
Economy)

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) Natural area
that has not been altered in any way except to fulfil
essential tourist and National Security requirements.
Protection is inviolable, exploitation of floral and
faunal resources, except in relation to tourism, is
prohibited.

Reserva Nacional (National Reserve)
Conservation area established either as a protection
zone adjacent to a national park, or as an independent
protected area when the designation of national park
is not appropriate.

Human settlement and development must be
compatible with specified conservation objectives
and priorities.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)
Inviolable area allocated for protection of any plant
or animal species or communities, or natural
formations of scientific, scenic or historic interest.
The only activities permitted are authorised scientific
research and those relating to tourism.

Source: Original legislation

Management categories adopted within the
National System of Protected Areas in 1989
(APN, 1991)

Reserva Cientifica/Reserva Natural Estricta
(Scientific Reserve/Strict Natural Reserve)

Natural area with exceptional ecosystems or
communities of floral or faunal species, the
protection of which is of scientific and national

180

interest. The ecosystems or organisms may be
particularly fragile and do not demonstrate any
human interference.

Protection is inviolable. The only activities permitted
are research for scientific and educational purposes.

Parque Nacional (National Park) Natural
area showing little or no human interference, which
is representative of a particular national
biogeographic region or of particular scenic or
scientific interest. Two different administrative
zones are distinguished within a national park:

Zona Intangible (Intangible Zone)
Inviolable protection given to an area containing
floral or faunal species of scientific interest. All
activities that would cause disturbance to the
ecosystem are prohibited.

Zona Restringida (Restricted Zone)
Tourism and minimum alteration for effective
management are allowed in the area but human
settlement, hunting, fishing, and industrial
exploitation are all prohibited.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)

Area that contains natural formations, habitats or
plant or animal species of national or provincial
importance. Protection is inviolable and public
access restricted.

Reserva Natural Manejada/Santuario de Fauna y
Flora (Natural Managed Reserve/Floral and
Faunal Sanctuary) Area where the protection
of a specific habitat is essential for maintaining the
existence of wild species of national or provincial
importance.

Size is unimportant as long as the criteria for
protection are met.

Activities that are compatible with protection
objectives are allowed, subject to regulation, as long
as they do not endanger the protected species or
habitats.

Paisaje Protegido (Protected Landscape)
Diverse category of areas protected to maintain
natural or cultural characteristics. Areas that come
under this designation may be distinguished as two
types:

Natural or modified areas (but not urban centres)
that have been intensively exploited by man for

recreation and tourism and have attractive scenic
characteristics.

Landscapes that exhibit cultural modifications
owing to human inhabitance over a long period
of time.

Reserva Natural-Cultural (Natural-Cultural
Reserve) Natural area inhabited by indigenous
communities interested in preserving their cultural
integrity. In these areas, people are directly
dependent on the land to provide their livelihood.
May be of anthropological interest.

The administrative organisations responsible for
these areas must reach an agreement with the
community in question, to protect and develop
indigenous culture.

Management plans are to be drawn up, that promote
the participation of the communities themselves.

Reserva de Uso Miiltiple (Multiple-Use Reserve)
Area with certain degree of transformation from its
natural state, where production activities are
practised in a sustainable manner. The administrative
organisations impose prohibitions and regulations to
ensure exploitation is sustainable.

Different functional zones may be distinguished
within the area. Zones set aside for the exploitation
of wildlife or plant species are maintained more or
less in their natural condition, whereas zones set
aside for human settlement allow the introduction of
exotic floral or faunal species for economic purpose.

Area may be extensive. Management plans are
obligatory, to be drawn up by the administrative
organisation for each area.

This category may include severely degraded areas
where protection and regulation is required to restore
them to a stable state.

Source: APN, 1991 NB Only categories "parque
nacional", "reserva natural", and "monumento
natural" are used within the federal system; the rest
apply to the provincial system (F. Erize, pers. comm.,
1992). It is unclear whether these categories have yet
been legally approved.

181

The Republic of Argentina

Title: Defensa de la Riqueza Forestal (Defence
of Forest Heritage) Law No. 13.273

Date: 30 September 1948, Amendments in 1963,
1972, 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1979

Brief description: Declares it in the public
interest to protect and improve natural forested areas,
whether on federal, provincial or private land. The
provinces receive federal support to comply with this
law.

Administrative authority: Administraci6n
Nacional de Bosques (National Forestry
Administration), within the Ministerio de
Agricultura (Ministry of Agriculture). The provinces
are obliged to create their own corresponding
administrative organisations. Privately-owned land
is under the respective provincial administration.

Designations:

Bosque Protector (Protection Forest) A
forested area that is important as a watershed, refuge
for protected species, or for soil stabilisation.

Bosque Permanente (Permanent Forest) Areas
that are to remain forested because they form part of
national or provincial park or reserve, or because
they include protected species.

For beth protection and permanent forest,
commercial exploitation is prohibited. Only
improvement activities are allowed.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Modification of Law No. 13.273

Date: 30 August 1973

Brief description: A modification of the 1948
Defence of Forest Heritage Law, providing for the
creation of an autonomous, federal organisation
responsible for forestry administration. The new
institute replaces the former National Administration
of Forests.

Administrative authority: Instituto Forestal
Nacional (National Forestry Institute), within the
Ministerio de Economia (Ministry of Economy)

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Bariti II 72,439 1974
D Calilegua II 76,000 1980
3 Chaco II 15,000 1954
4 El Palmar II 8,500 1966
5) El Rey II 44,162 1948
6 Iguazti II 49,395 1934
7 Lago Puelo II 14,220 1971
8 Laguna Blanca II 8,213 1940
9 Lanin II 200,870 1937
10 Lihué Calel II 9,900 1977
11 Los Alerces II 186,730 1937
12 Los Arrayanes II 1,000 1974
13 Los Glaciares II 450,000 1937
14 Nahuel Huapi II 475,781 1934
15 Perito Moreno II 85,100 1937
16 Rio Pilcomayo II 47,000 1951
17 Tierra del Fuego II 63,000 1960
Scientific Reserves
18 Bahia San Blas I 7,386 1987
19 Bahia de Samborombén I 9,380 1982
20 Copo I 114,250 1968
21 El Payén I 192,996 1982
22 Fuerte Esperanza I 11,619
23 Isla Botija I 730 1958
24 Laguna de Llancanelo I 40,000 1980
25 Los Andes I 1,440,000 1980
26 Nacufidn I 12,880 1961
Di Punta Ledn I 1,000 1985
National Scientific Reserve
28 Otamendi I 2,632 1990
Natural Reserves
29 Acambuco IV 8,266 1979
30 Agua Dulce IV 10,000 1970
31 Auca Mahuida IV 1,000 1990
32 Batea Mahuida IV 1,286 1968
33 Cabo Virgenes IV 1,230 1986
34 Cabo dos Bahias IV 1,183 1973
35 Chacharrameni IV 2,500 1974
36 Chancani IV 4,920 1986
37 Chajiy IV 2,039 1986
38 Complejo Islote Lobos IV 800 1977
39 Dunas del Atlantico Sur IV 3,000 1989
40 EI Rico IV 2,600 1968
41 Guasamayo IV 9,000 1963
42 Ibera IV 1,200,000 1982
43 Ichigualasto IV 62,916 1971
44 Isla Embudo, Bermeja y Trinidad IV 14,000 1991
45 Isla Martin Garcia IV 180 1969
46 La Azotea IV 2,458 1990
47 La Humada IV 5,000 1974
48 La Loca IV 2,169 1968
49 La Reforma IV 5,000 1974

182

The Republic of Argentina

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
50 Laguna Brava IV 405,000 1980
51 Laguna Hu VI 1,800 1970
52 Laguna la Felipa IV 1,307 1986
53 Lagunas del Epulafquen IV 7,450 1973
54 Lihue Calel IV 2,600 1974
55 Limay Mahuida IV 5,000 1974
56 Los Cabrera IV 17,500 1979
Sif] Los Palmares IV 6,000 1979
58 Monte de las Barrancas IV 7,656 1988
59 Olaroz-Cauchari IV 180,000 1981
60 Parque Luro IV 7,608 1975
61 Peninsula San Julian IV 10,400 1986
62 Pichi Mahuida IV 4,119 1974
63 Pilaga IV 1,250 1971
64 Potrero de Yala IV 3,000
65 Punta Delgada IV 2,829 1969
66 Punta Loma IV 1,707 1967
67 Quebracho de la Legua IV 2,242 1979
68 Ria de Puerto Deseado IV 10,000 1977
69 Rincén de Ajo IV 2,311 1988
70 Salitral Levalle IV 9,501 1974
71 San Guillermo IV 860,000 1972
72 Santa Ana IV 18,500 1951
73 Talampaya IV 215,000 1975
74 Telteca IV 20,400 1986
75 Umgua-I IV 84,000 1988
716 Valle Fértil Vie: 800,000 1971
Natural Parks
77 Bajfiados del Rio Dulce y Laguna de Mar Vv 50,000 1966
78 Cerro Colorado V 3,000 1974
79 Parque Costero del Sur Vv 74,000
Protected Landscapes
80 La Florida Vv 98,592 1936
81 Laguna de los Pozuelos Vv 364,000 1980
82 Parque La Quebrada Vv 4,200 1987
83 Parque Pereyra Iraola V 10,248 1949
84 Pozuelos O Carahuasi Vv 20,000 1980
Resource Reserves
85 Domuyo VI 3,620 1989
86 Isla Curuzi Chali VI 16,000 1968
87 Isla del Pillo VI 100,000 1968
88 Laguna del Pescado VI 20,200 1968
89 Salto Grande VI 860,000 1968
Provincial Parks
90 Aconcagua II 70,000 1983
91 Copahue II 28,300 1962
92 El Tromen II 24,000 1971
93 Pampa del Indio II 8,633 1957
94 Parque Ernesto Torquinst W 6,097 1958
95 Sierra de La Ventana II 6,718 1958
96 Volcan Tupungato II 110,000 1985
Private Reserves
97 Aguaray-Mi IV 4,050 1988
98 Bouvier I 5,000 1990

183

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

National/international designations IUCN management
Name of area category
Campos del Tuy I
Canadon del Duraznillo IV
Dicky IV
El Bagual I
El Cachape IV
El Destino IV
Lago Esperanza IV
Las Dos Hermanas IV
Saltino IV
San Juan de Periahu IV
Multiple Use Reserves

Caleta de los Loros Vill
Cinco Chanares Vil
General Manuel Belgrano Vil
General Obligado Vill
Guarani Vil
Laguna Blanca Vil
Loma del Medio y Rio Azul Vil
Meseta de Somuncura Vil
Peninsula de Valdés Vill
Presidente de la Plaza Vill
San Pedro Reserva Forestal Vil
Teuquito Vil
Trevelin Vol
National Natural Monuments

Bosques Petrificades Ill
Laguna de los Pozuelos Ill
National Natural Reserves

Formosa IV
Iguazu IV
Lago Puelo IV
Laguna Blanca IV
Lanin IV
Los Alerces IV
Los Glaciares IV
Nahuel Huapi IV
Perito Francisco P. Moreno IV
University Reserves

La Reforma I
Sierra de San Javier II
Biosphere Reserves

Parque Costero del Sur IX
Pozuelos IX
Reserva Ecélogica de Nacufian Ix
Reserva Natural de Vida Silvestre Laguna Blanca IX
San Guillermo Ix
Ramsar Wetlands

Laguna de Pozuelos R

184

Area
(ha)

3,500
1,740
1,900
6,000
1,750
1,500
15,000
1,055
2,000
14,199

3,000
40,000
1,505
3,447
17,000
770,000
2,435
1,600,000
360,000
2,250
9,500
14,960
3,030

10,000
16,000

10,000
6,105
9,480
3,038
178,130
76,270
150,000
282,219

29,900

9,500
14,174

30,000
405,000
11,900
981,620
981,460

16,224

Year
notified

1978
1990
1991
1986
1990

1991
1989
1990
1989

1984
1981
1948
1948
1977
1979
1948
1986
1983
1935
1977
1987
1944

1954
1979

1968
1934
1971
1940
1937
1937
1937
1934
1937

1973
1973

1984
1990
1986
1982
1980

1992

The Republic of Argentina

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Laguna Blanca R 11,250 1992
Rio Pilcomayo R 55,000 1992
World Heritage Sites
Parque Nacional Iguazii X 55,000 1984
Parque Los Glaciares x 600,000 1981

185

Protected Areas of the World

15
+ 48°132

200 400 600 800km
i a |

56°
|

Protected Areas of Argentina

186

BOLIVIA

Area _ 1,098,580 sq. km

Population 7,314,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.28% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 588 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 620 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Following independence
in 1832, the newly-formed government implemented the
first legal measures for natural resource protection.
However, no coherent national conservation strategy
had been elaborated by 1991 (Marconi and Morales,
1991). Bolivian legislation describes 100 legal measures
concerning environmental protection. Although these
may contain adequate policies on the importance of
conservation, sustainable resource use and preservation
of natural resources, their dispersed and inconsistent
nature reduces their objectives to an incoherent form.
Many were passed without considering previous acts,
and, as a result, confusion and contradictions in the
legislation are common (Marconi and Morales, 1991;
Sandoval et al., 1989).

Bolivia participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action
Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising
the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic
and social development while maintaining conservation
principles. A national action plan, in accordance with
TFAP objectives, was drawn up in 1989 (Sandoval et al.,
1989). Information on the extent of implementation of
this plan is currently not available.

The first legislative act specifically concerning the
protection of natural resources was the 1953 Decree Law
No. 3612, Law of the Republic (Ley de la Republica).
Under this Law, provision is made for the creation of an
institute responsible for establishing national forest
reserves and classifying them as protection (protector),
permanent (permanente), experimental (experimental),
exploitation (de explotacién), or special (especial)
forests, according to their respective ecosystems and
national economic need (Marconi, 1989). Through
various changes, this institute became the present Forest
Development Centre (Centro de Desarrollo Forestal)
(CDF). Supreme Decree No. 9013 (1969) provided for
the creation of the Forest Guard (Guardia Forestal), a
body vested with regulation enforcementresponsibilities
within forest reserves, national parks and other protected
areas.

Two laws form the current legal basis for the protected
areas system, one governing forests and the other
national parks and similar areas. Forests are currently
protected under the 1974 National General Forest Law
(Ley General Forestal de la Nacién), Decree No. 11686,
which covers production, exploitation and conservation,
and defines four categories of reserve. Regulations and

187

definitions are given for forest reserves (see Annex). The
creation of protected areas is referred to in a general
sense, declaring water sources, soils, wildlife and human
settlements as priority areas. The CDF is cited as the
institute responsible for forest protection, and the Forest
Guard is now a department within it (Marconi, 1989).
The Law also states that the CDF will create reserves for
the survival of forest-dwelling indigenous peoples
(Marconi and Donoso, 1992). Regulation of the 1974
Forest Law in 1977 (Reglamento de la Ley General
Forestal de la Nacién) strengthens forestry
administration, tightens exploitation controls, and states
that the Forest Guard has the function of a forest police
force. Management plans are made obligatory (CDF,
1987; Marconi, 1989).

Protected areas are covered by the 1975 Wildlife,
National Parks, Hunting and Fishing Law (Ley de Vida
Silvestre, Parques Nacionales, Caza y Pesca), Decree
Law No. 12301. Five categories are defined (see Annex),
and administrative responsibilities assigned. Reference
is made to a future regulation to this Law, which would
give further details of protected area management and
resource control, but no such regulation has yet been
made (Hanagarth and Arce, 1986; Marconi, 1989). The
1975 Law is very confused, vague and contradictory.
Designations given are not clearly defined, and neither
prohibitions nor prerequisites for classification are
detailed (Hanagarth and Arce, 1986; Marconi, 1989). No
distinction is made in the legislation, between a national
park and a wildlife reserve and there is no designation of
higher importance that may be used for particularly
fragile ecosystems or species, such as strict natural
reserve or scientific reserve (Sandoval et al., 1989).

Supreme decrees providing for the creation of individual
protected areas may give further details of their
objectives and management, but these often do not
coincide with the 1975 Law. For example, reserves are
referred to as "natural wildlife reserves" (reservas
naturales de vida silvestre) or "national wildlife
reserves" (reservas nacionales de vida silvestre), neither
of which is defined in the 1975 Law (Hanagarth and
Arce, 1986). In practice, 11 protected area designations
are used (Marconi, 1989); those not defined in the
legislation are fiscal reserve (reserva fiscal) and
biological station (estacién bioldégica).

Without detailed description of protected area
management, the 1975 Law is ineffective in controlling
natural resource use. Many areas require reclassification
under a new system that would supersede the current
legislation (CDF, 1987; Marconi et al., 1988). An
evaluation of the legal system was undertaken by the
Bolivian Conservation Data Centre (CDC-Bolivia),
which includes an analysis of the legal protection
afforded to each current category of protected area
(Marconi, 1989). This states that no clear definitions of

Protected Areas of the World

management categories exist in Bolivian legislation,
inhibiting the establishment of a coherent system of
protected areas. In many cases, there is a difference
between the legal designation assigned to an area, and
the category by which it is effectively managed
(Marconi, 1989).

In 1986, a proposal was made to coordinate all previous
environment and natural resource legislation into a
coherent Environment Law (Ley del Medio Ambiente).
A new Project for the General Environment Law
(Proyecto de Ley General del Medio Ambiente) was
formulated in 1991, and by the end of the same year, the
law was passing through National Congress (Congreso
Nacional). It proposes to unify all existing protected
areas in the country into the National System of
Protected Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas)
(SNAP), under the administration of the proposed
Environment Secretariat. However, standard definitions
of management categories to be included in the system
are not given, but are to be stated in the legislation
providing for the creation of each protected area
(M.R. Marconi, pers. comm., 1991; Pinaya, pers.
comm., 1991).

International Activities Bolivia signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Wester Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940. In 1976,
Bolivia and Argentina signed the Agreement on the
Protection of Flora and Fauna and the Formation of
Frontier Parks (Acuerdo sobre la Proteccién de Flora y
Fauna y la Formacién de Parques Fronterizos). Bolivia
is one of the eight countries with territory in the Amazon
region that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty
(Tratado de Cooperacién Amaz6nica) on 3 July 1978, an
agreement to regulate natural resource conservation and
management over the region. The Convention for the
Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio
para la Conservacién y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed
by Chile, Peru, Argentina, Ecuador and Bolivia in 1979,
and ratified under Bolivian legislation in 1980.

An agreement between the government and
Conservation International, the US-based non-
governmental organisation (NGO), was signed in 1987,
to provide financial and technical support for
conservation and sustainable resource management with
emphasis on protected areas. Following this agreement,
Conservation International bought part of the country’s
external debt in exchange for the creation of a protection
and management fund for Beni Biological Station and
Biosphere Reserve.

Bolivia ratified the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 4 October 1976, but no
natural sites have been nominated. Bolivia ratified the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)

188

on 27 June 1990, and one wetland site has been listed.
Bolivia also participates in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme, and has three biosphere reserves.

Administration and Management All natural
resources are the responsibility of the Forest Development
Centre (CDF), an autonomous organisation within the
Ministry of Rural and Agrarian Affairs (Ministerio de
Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios) (MACA).
Responsibilities of the CDF include formulating and
implementing national forestry and conservation
policies. Within the CDF, the Forest Department
(Departamento de Bosques) is responsible for managing
forest reserves, and the Wildlife, National Parks,
Hunting and Fishing Department (Departamento de
Vida Silvestre, Parques Nacionales, Caza y Pesca)
(DVSPN) manages other protected areas and wildlife
(Marconi, 1989).

In the first few years of its functioning, the CDF
comprised a general directorate at the highest level,
below which was a subdirectorate with four departments,
including the DVSPN. The CDF has its own legal
department to formulate resource legislation. However,
since the mid 1980s, the lack of economic resources and
competent personnel has greatly reduced its capabilities
(Sandoval et al., 1989). At the local level, regional
directorates (direcciones regionales) of the CDF operate
in nine departments in the country. In total, the CDF
employs 313 personnel, including 94 professional and
technical staff, and 76 park or forest guards (Sandoval
et al., 1989).

In some cases, legislation providing for the creation of a
protected area makes no reference to any organisation
responsible for its administration, or cites another
institute apart from the CDF (Marconi, 1989). Protected
areas may be located on land that belongs to the state;
jointly to the state and a community; or to private
individuals or companies. Depending on land tenure,
administration of protected areas may be the sole
responsibility of the CDF, or of another institution in
conjunction with the CDF, or a delegated NGO, or
independent institute (Marconi, 1989; Marconi and
Donoso, 1992).

A number of NGOs are involved in conservation
activities, such as The Nature Pro-Defence Association
(Asociacié6n Pro-Defensa de la Naturaleza)
(PRODENA), founded in 1979. PRODENA works in
coordination with the MACA and the CDF to provide
technical assistance for Amboré National Park, and
has a number of other on-going projects (Hardy, 1986).
A support group, the Bolivian Wildlife Society, has
been set up, with offices in both the USA and the UK, to
promote the activities of PRODENA. In 1985, the
Environment Defence League (Liga de Defensa del
Medio Ambiente) (LIDEMA) was created to coordinate
NGO activities. It links 11 different ecological groups
(Marconi, 1988).

The CDC-Bolivia was established in 1986 to collect and
analyse information on protected areas and the
environment and provide this information to the
government and relevant national and international
organisations (Sandoval et al., 1989).

The CDF is very inefficient due to lack of human and
economic resources, and lack of coordination with other
government agencies. For example, the National
Colonisation Institute (Instituto Nacional de
Colonizacién) has settled people in protected areas
(Marconi and Morales, 1991). Reorganisation of the
CDF has resulted in financial and operational disorder
and overall lack of coordination between the regional
offices and central government (Marconi et al., 1988;
Sandoval et al., 1989). The majority of protected areas
do not have any administration (Marconi et al., 1988).

A revision of natural resource management is being
undertaken as part of the Project for the General
Environment Law which proposes the creation of a
Environment Secretariat (SENMA). Responsibilities
of the SENMA are to include managing protected
areas in the form of a coordinated national system and
therefore unifying administration into one
organisation (M.R. Marconi, pers. comm., 1991). At the
local level, Departmental Environment Secretariats
(Secretarias Departamentales del Medio Ambiente) will
be responsible for natural resources and protected areas
in each department. Departmental Environment
Councils (Consejos Departamentales del Medio
Ambiente) (CODEMA) are to be established, to
formulate local conservation policies and assess the
activities of the Departmental Secretariats (M.R.
Marconi, pers. comm., 1991).

Systems Reviews Bolivia encompasses tropical,
subtropical and temperate regions, resulting in a number
of different ecosystems anda high degree of biodiversity
(Arce, 1988; Sandoval et al., 1989). The country may be
crudely divided into two distinct biogeographical
regions: the Andean region, with altitudes between 500m
and 7,000m; and the Amazon-Chaco (Amazénica-
Chaquefia) lowland region, with altitudes below 500m
(Arce, 1988).

The Andes mountains extend in two ranges along the
south-western part of the country, the Western and
Eastern Cordillera. Between them lies the Altiplano
Intercordillerano, a large, high altitude plain, with puna
(alpine) vegetation. The Altiplano is characterised by
extreme cold and lack of rain. Human habitation in the
mountain regions is very difficult (Sandoval et al.,
1989).

The Amazon-Chaco region comprises humid, lowland
forest of the Beni region in the north, and the swampy
savanna and dry plains of the Chaco extending to the
south. Semi-humid, Tucumano-Boliviana forest is found
on the border with Argentina (Arce, 1988). The Brazilian
Shield, flat, swampy plains including part of the
Pantanal, extend east into Brazil. Between the mountains

189

Bolivia

and the lowlands is the Humid Mountain Forest region,
an important watershed, comprising the sub-Andean
belt, the yungas and the humid, fertile valleys (Arce,
1988).

A total of 55.8 million ha of land is forested, accounting
for 51.4 % of total land area. Of this, 44.1 million ha are
lowland forest and the remaining 11.7 million ha are
Andean slope forest (Sandoval et al., 1989; Pinaya,
pers. comm., 1991). Around half of the forested areas,
22.5 million ha, is under concession to commercial
foresters (Marconi and Morales, 1991; Sanz, 1988).
Forest exploitation is particularly threatening to lowland
forest (Arce, 1988; Marconi and Morales, 1991). Under
forestry legislation, concessions are restricted to
designated production forests, but as these only account
for 6.4 million ha, most of the concessions are located in
unclassified forests (Marconi and Morales, 1991).

Some 78% of the population is concentrated in only 40%
of the territory in the High Andes (Sandoval et al., 1989).
Serious degradation of ecosystems has resulted from
over-exploitation in this region. Mining activities
threaten watersheds and river basins (Arce, 1988).
Agricultural activities involve 70% of the population,
and result in deforestation and overworking of the soil in
populated regions (Sandoval et al., 1989).

The first national park was created in 1939, but legal
protection of natural resources began in 1953. This
marked the creation of an organisation within the
Ministry of Agriculture specifically for natural resource
administration (Marconi, 1989; Sandoval et al., 1989).
In 1991, the CDC listed 42 protected areas; 30 parks,
reserves, refuges or sanctuaries, 1 biological station, and
11 forest reserves (M.R. Marconi, pers. comm., 1991).
However, estimates of the number of protected areas
vary from 12, covering almost 4 million ha, to 45,
covering 15 million ha (Marconi and Morales, 1991).
There is no official list of protected areas owing to the
lack of clear definitions (Marconi, 1989; M.R. Marconi
pers. comm., 1990).

The present system of protected areas may be considered
to comprise two parts; forest reserves, and protected
areas as defined under the 1975 Wildlife and National
Parks Law. There is little information regarding private
reserves, and no clear relationship exists between
independent administrative organisations and the CDF
(Marconi, 1989). The majority of protected areas are
located in the Beni plains and the High Andes. Therefore,
many representative examples of Bolivian ecosystems
are not protected (Marconi, 1988). Important ecosystems
lacking in protected area coverage are: valleys and
semi-arid mountains; semi-arid puna lower south of the
Chaco; semi-arid, lowland and mountainous forest
(Sandoval et al., 1989).

The 1974 General Forest Law makes provision for the
CDF to set aside indigenous territories (territorios
indigenas) to protect forest-dwelling indigenous
peoples; by the end of 1990, four indigenous areas

Protected Areas of the World

covering more than 2 million ha had been declared, two
overlapping with existing protected areas (Marconi and
Donoso, 1992; H. Eilers, pers. comm., 1992).

There is little or no communication between the
administrative organisations responsible for protected
areas. New areas have been created with little
consideration of existing conservation units, and hardly
anything is known about their biogeographical
characteristics. All protected areas show signs of human
interference (Marconi, 1988; Marconi and Donoso,
1992; Pinaya, pers. comm., 1991). Very few
conservation units are managed in accordance with the
decrees declaring their creation (CDF, 1987). Marconi
and Donoso (1992) have assessed the management of
36 of Bolivia’s protected areas: 12 totally lack
administration, 10 are still in the planning stage, and just
three are adequately or well managed. The government
is also planning exploitative activities in 12 protected
areas (Marconi and Morales, 1991).

Bolivia is working towards the implementation of a
national system of protected areas, and participates in the
FAO Latin American Network programme (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres) through the CDF (Marconi, 1988;
Ormazabal, 1988). A review of protected areas by
Marconi (1988) cites the need for coherent legislation
giving details of national conservation objectives, in
order to implement a national system.

Addresses

Jefatura Nacional de Vida Silvestre, Parques Nacionales,
Caza y Pesca (DVSPN), Centro de Desarrollo
Forestal, Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y
Agropecuarios, Avda Camacho 1471, 6to piso,
Casilla 8928, LA PAZ (Tel: 376304 FAX: 377380)

Secretaria Nacional del Medio Ambiente (proposed),
Edificio Batall6n Colorados, Piso 3, LA PAZ
(Tel: 361 6474; FAX: 399304)

Centro de Datos Para la Conservacién de Bolivia
(CDC-Bolivia), Cota cota — Calle 26 y Av. Mufioz
Reyes s/n, Casilla 11250, LA PAZ (Tel/FAX:
797399)

Centro Regional de Conservacién de la Naturaleza
"Noel Kempff Mercado" (CERCONA), Casilla 881,
SANTA CRUZ

Estacion Bioldgica del Beni, Av. 16 de Julio 1732, LA
PAZ (Tel: 379651)

Parque Nacional Amboro, Casilla 4064, SANTA CRUZ
(FAX: 0932 2007)

Pro-Defensa de la Naturaleza Asociacién Boliviana
(PRODENA), Avda Camacho esq. Loayza BBA,
Piso 12, Casilla 989, LA PAZ (Tel: 361180/361181;
Tlx: 2328 BV)

The Bolivian Wildlife Society (PRODENA BOLIVIA),
PO Box 6, ABERGA VENNY, Gwent NP7 8AY, UK
(Tel: 060 085 388); 130 Coconut Row, Palm Beach,
FL 33480, USA

190

References

Arce, J.P. (1988). La problematica de la diversidad
bioldgica en Bolivia. In: Arce, J.P., Beck, S.,
Ergueta, P., Estenssoro, S., Flores, E., Garcia, E.,
Goitia, L., Marconi, M. and Salinas, E. (1988).
Diagnostico de la diversidad biolégica de Bolivia.
AID, Washington DC, USA. Pp. 1-55.

Arce, J.P., Beck, S., Ergueta, P., Estenssoro, S.,
Flores, E, Garcia, E., Goitia, L., Marconi, M. and
Salinas, E. (1988). Diagnéstico de la diversidad
biolégica de Bolivia. AID, Washington DC, USA.
141 pp.

Brockmann, C.E. (Ed.) (1986). Perfil ambiental de
Bolivia. Instituto internacional para el desarrollo
y medio ambiente, Washington, DC, USA/ Agencia
de los Estados Unidos para el desarrollo
internacional, La Paz. 171 pp.

Cardozo, A. (1987). Areas protegidas de Bolivia. Flora,
fauna y dreas silvestres 5: 8-13. Oficina Regional de
la FAO para America Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile.

CDF (1987). Lineamientos y proyecciones para una
nueva politica forestal en Bolivia. Centro
de desarrollo forestal, Ministerio de asuntos
campesinos y agropecuarios, La Paz. 41 pp.

FAO (1.d.). Food and agricultural legislation. Jungius, H.
and Pujol, R. (1970). Bolivia national parks and
reserves. Unesco, Paris, France.

Hanagarth, W. and Arce, J.P. (1986). La situacién de los
parques nacionales y reservas de vida silvestre en el
departamento de La Paz, en el marco de una
Planificaciédn Regional. Revista del Instituto de
Ecolégica, UMSA. Ecologia en Bolivia 9: 1-67.

Hardy, R. (1986). Bolivian Wildlife Society - US/UK
(Prodena Bolivia). News sheet 5: 7.

Marconi, M. (1988). Las areas protegidas de Bolivia.
In: Arce, J.P., Beck, S., Ergueta, P., Estenssoro, S.,
Flores, E., Garcia, E., Goitia, L., Marconi, M. and
Salinas, E. (1988). Diagnéstico de la diversidad
biolégica de Bolivia. AID, Washington DC, USA.
Pp. 78-88.

Marconi, M. (1989). Base legal del sistema de dreas
protegidas de Bolivia, evaluacidn general. Centro de
Datos para la Conservaci6n, CDC-Bolivia, La Paz.
40 pp.

Marconi, M. and Morales, I. (1991). Cited in
IUCN/ITTO Conserving biological diversity in
managed tropical forests. Proceedings of a workshop
held at the IUCN General Assembly, Perth,
Australia, 30 November-1 December 1990. Latin
American Draft Report. 84 pp.

Marconi, M. and Donoso, S. (1992). Bolivia: Habitantes
en las areas protegidas. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T.
(Eds) ¢Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques
Nacionales de América del Sur. TUCN and Editorial
Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 53-79.

Marconi, M., Arce, J.P., Ergueta, P. and Salinas, E.
(1988). Marco institucional y operativo. In: Arce,
J.P., Beck, S., Ergueta, P., Estenssoro, S., Flores, E.,
Garcia, E., Goitia, L., Marconi, M. and Salinas, E.

(1988). Diagndstico de la diversidad bioldgica de
Bolivia. AID, Washington DC, USA. Pp. 93-118.

Ormazadbal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres
protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del
taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas
Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986.
Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres,
4reas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el
Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina
y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 205 pp.

Bolivia

Sandoval, G.J., Reyes, J.M. and Soria, J.L. (1989). Plan
de accion para el desarrollo forestal 1990-1995.
Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios,
Subsecretaria de recursos naturales renovables y
medio ambiente, La Paz. 98 pp.

Sanz, J.A.O. (1988). Parques nacionales de Bolivia.
Informe de la Sociedad Boliviana de Ecologia
(Sobe). San José, Costa Rica. 32 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Ley General Forestal de la Nacion
(National General Forest Law), Decree
No. 11686

Date: 13 August 1974

Brief description: | Regulates the exploitation of
forest resources and makes provision for the creation
of forest reserves for the protection and conservation
of forest resources. Forests and forested land is
owned by the state.

Administrativeauthority: | Centro de Desarrollo
Forestal (CDF), (Forest Development Centre),
within the Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y
Agropecuarios, (MACA), (Ministry of Rural and
Agricultural Affairs)

Designations:

Bosque Permanente de Produccién (Permanent
Production Forest) __ Forest which is exploited in
a sustainable manner, for economic purpose. May be
nationally or privately owned.

Bosque Permanente de Proteccién (Permanent
Protection Forest) Forest which is important
for the protection of other resources in the
environment, such as a watershed or wildlife habitat.

Reserva Forestal de Inmovilizacién (Closed Forest
Reserve) Those forests that are placed under
government protection, prohibiting exploitation of
their resources until a suitable designation is assigned
to them by an act of legislation, such as national park,
forest reserve or private property.

Bosque Especial (Special Forest) Forests
which, owing to their special characteristics, require
special classification and management. They may be
for mixed use, such as arable forest or grazing forest,
or for harvesting forest products without felling.

191

Harvesting of forest products is covered by the
regulations under this law.

Bosque de Uso Multiple (Multiple-Use Forest)
Forests which are suitable to function as production,
protection, recreation and wildlife conservation as a
combination.

Bosque no Clasificado (Unclassified Forest)

Two types of forest are not covered by the above
classifications, and no specific functions are assigned
to them: +

Bosque Fiscal de la Nacién en Terrenos Baldios
(National Fiscal Forest on Unfarmed Land)

Bosque no Clasificado (Unclassified
Forest) under private ownership

Source: FAO (n.d.)

Title: Ley de Vida Silvestre, Parques
Nacionales, Caza y Pesca (Wildlife, National
Parks, Hunting and Fishing Law), Decree Law
No. 12301

Date: 24 March 1975

Brief description: Provides for the establishment
of protected areas and the rules governing the
protection and exploitation of faunal resources, and
declares it the responsibility of the supreme
government to protect natural resources and the
environment. It was first proposed in article 123
of the 1974 National General Forest Law to
complement forest protection.

Administrative authority: Departamento de
Vida Silvestre, Parques Nacionales, Caza y Pesca
(DVSPN), (Department of Wildlife, National Parks,
Hunting and Fishing), part of the Centro de
Desarrollo Forestal (CDF), (Forest Development
Centre), which is itself within the Ministerio de

Protected Areas of the World

Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios (MACA),
(Ministry of Rural and Agricultural Affairs)

Designations:

Parque Nacional y Reserva de Vida Silvestre
(National Park and Wildlife Reserve) An area
set aside for scientific research, protection and
management of a wild faunal population, to assure
the conservation and continuing production of the

species.

Planning for a national park or reserve will be
subjected to a special regulation.

A national park or wildlife reserve is declared by
Executive Power.

Refugio de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge)
Considered important for the protection,
conservation and propagation of wild animals,
particularly those species in danger of extinction.

192

Santuario de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife Sanctuary)
That is the natural habitat for an endemic or
endangered species, or where the concentration of
particular species is, or could be, an important tourist
attraction.

A wildlife refuge or sanctuary is declared by the
Ministry of Rural and Agricultural Affairs.

In the four categories defined above it is prohibited
to alter the boundaries or undertake any activities
within the area that are contrary to the protection
objectives of its designation, specifically hunting.

Coto de Caza (Hunting Reserve) Specifically suited
for developing wildlife management programmes
and hunting.

Source: Original legislation

Bolivia

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Amboré II 180,000 1973
2 Carrasco Ichilo II 1,300,000 1988
5 Isiboro Sécure II 1,100,000 1965
4 Llica II 97,500 1991
5 Noel Kempff Mercado II 914,000 1979
6 Sajama Il 29,940 1939
7 Santa Cruz la Vieja II 17,080 1989
8 Torotoro Vv 16,576 1989
9 Tunari Vil 6,000 1962
10 Tuni Condoriri VOl 14,800 1942
Biological Station
11 Beni I 135,000 1982
National Reserves
12 Cordillera de Sama IV 108,500 1991
13 Eduardo Avaroa IV 714,000 1973
14 Incacasani Altamachi IV 23,000 1991
15 Lagunas del Beni y Pando IV 275,000 1961
16 Manuripi Heath IV 1,884,000 1973
17 Noel Kempff Mercado IV 21,900 1988
18 Rios Blanco y Negro IV 1,400,000 1990
19 Tariquia IV 246,870 1989
20 Ulla Ulla IV i 250,000 1972
Wildlife Refuges
21 El Dorado IV 180,000 1988
22 Estancias Elsner Espiritu IV 70,000 1978
23 Estancias Elsner San Rafael IV 20,000 1978
24 Huancaroma IV 11,000 1975
Reserves
25 Altamachi Vicufia IV 100,000 1977
26 Huancaroma Vicufia IV 140,429 1975
Sanctuary ‘
27 Cavernas El Repechén IV 1,500 1986
Forest Reserves
28 Baja Paragua Vill 3,388,200 1988
29 Chimanes Vill 804,000 1986
30 El Chore Vil 800,000 1966
31 Guaravos Vil 1,400,000 1969
32 Quinera del Aten Vil 20,000 1977
Protection Forest Reserves
33 Bella Vista Vill 90,000 1964
34 Eva Eva - Mosetenes Vill 225,000 1990
35 Sajta Ichilo Vil 350,000 1988
Regional Park
36 El Pirai Vil 250,000 1984
37 Lomas Arena Vv 13,300 1989
38 Yacuma Vill 130,000 1987

193

Protected Areas of the World

National/international designations
Name of area

Closed Forest Reserves
Chiquitania

Convendo

Iténez

Rio Boppi

Rio Grande Masicuri

Biosphere Reserves

Estacion Bioldgica Beni

Parque Nacional Pil6n-Lajas
Reserva Nacional de Fauna Ulla Ulla

Ramsar Wetland
Laguna Colorada

IUCN management

194

category

VI
VI
VI
VI
VI

Ix
IX

Area
(ha)

5,774,000
249,195
1,500,000
128,000
242,000

135,000
100,000
200,000

5,240

Year
notified

1977
1984
1988
1979
1979

1986
1977
1977

1990

Bolivia

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ef ARM ee

Protected Areas of Bolivia

195

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL

Area 8,511,996 sq. km

Population 155,562,917 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.87% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,306 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 2,540 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation The present government
structure consists of 26 states and one federal district. Each
state has its own administrative, legislative and judicial
authorities, its own constitution and laws, which must,
however, agree with the constitutional principles of the
Union (Hunter, 1991). Protected area legislation is
summarised in the Environment Chapter (Capitulo do Meio
Ambiente) of the 1988 Brazilian Constitution (Constituicao
Brasileira) (Dias et al., 1991; IBAMA, 1991), the eighth
since independence from the Portuguese in 1822 (Hunter,
1991). An important aspect of this chapter is the recognition
of a new right of the people to enjoy an ecologically
balanced environment, which is considered the common
property of the population (IBAMA, in Dias et al., 1991).
It is the duty of the government and the community to
safeguard and preserve the environment in the interests of
present and future generations. A national conservation
strategy has not been prepared, and Brazil does not
participate in the FAO Tropical Forest Action Plan.

Principles for nature conservation were first established by
virtue of the Royal Charter of 1797, which provided
measures for forest protection as well as severe penalties
for burning or destroying forests (Anon., n.d.). Later, José
Bonifacio, the Father of Independence, published an article,
"Vision of the Great Motherland" (Visdo da Grande Patria),
in which he suggested the creation of a government
portfolio to protect the forests that were being progressively
destroyed by serious environmental and climatic
modifications (Anon., n.d.). The first national parks (Itaiaia
and Serra dos Orgdos) were not established until the
following century (1937 and 1939, respectively). The first
modem legal measures relating to protected areas were
taken in the 1930s: amongst important developments were
the promulgation of the First Forestry Code (Primeiro
Cédigo Florestal) Decree No. 23.793 (1934), the Hunting
and Fisheries Code (Codigo de Caca e Pesca) and the Water
Code (Cédigo de Aguas) (Dias et al., 1991). They were later
replaced by the New Forestry Code (Novo Cédigo
Florestal) Law No. 4.771 (1965) and the 1967 Faunal
Protection Law (Lei de Protecdo a Fauna) Law No. 5.197
which are still in force (see Annex).

The New Forestry Code made provision for the creation of
parks (parques), biological reserves (reservas bioldégicas)
and forests (florestas), each at national, state and municipal
levels (see Annex). Decree No. 97.635 (1989) regulates
Article 27 of the 1965 Forestry Code, and makes provision
for the prevention and fighting of forest fires. The 1967
Faunal Protection Law makes provision for the protection

197

of fauna, and the creation of biological reserves and
hunting parks (parques de caca) (Anon., n.d.; IBAMA,
1991). Although biological reserves were briefly defined
by this Law, the regulations which define and
characterise them have still to be established (BAMA,
1991; Rylands, 1990). Law No. 6.902 (1981) provides
for the creation of ecological stations (estac4o ecoldégica)
and environmental protected areas (4rea de protec4o
ambiental) (APA), both categories to be administered by
SEMA (created in 1974 to design and implement
Brazil’s environment policy) (see Annex) (Dias et al.,
1991; IBAMA, 1991; Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992).

The basis for modern environmental protection is
established by the National Environment Policy (Politica
Nacional do Meio Ambiente) which was established by
virtue of Law No. 6.938 (1981). This Policy makes
provision for the creation of the National Environment
System (Sistema Nacional do Meio Ambiente)
(SISNAMA), constitutes the National Environment
Council (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente)
(CONAMA), and institutes the National Directory of
Environmental Institutions (Cadastro Nacional das
Instituigoes que Atuam na Area do Meio Ambiente), an
official register (BAMA, 1990a, 1990b). CONAMA’s
role is to advise the President on environmental policy, and
to produce guidelines for environmental management and
sustainable development. Laws Nos 6.902 and 6.938 are
further regulated by Decree No. 99.274 (1990) (BAMA,
1991). Decree No. 89.336 (1984) recognises as ecological
reserves (reservas ecolégicas) those areas established by
the public sector as well as those established by Law No.
6.938, 1981 (see Annex) (Anon., n.d.). Decree No. 84.017
(1979) approves the Regulation for Brazilian National
Parks (Regulamento dos Parques Nacionais Brasileiros)
and defines them more clearly. Resolugao CONAMA No.
11 (1988), provides resolutions for the use of forests
affected by fires; the use of burnt wood, which can only be
used in and around the conservation area, and educational
programmes on the control and prevention of fires in
natural areas (IBAMA, 1991). Areas of relevant ecological
interest (area de relevante interesse ecolégico) are
established by virtue of Decree No. 88.351/83 (1983) and
are further recognised by Decree No. 89.336 (1984).
Private flora and fauna reserves (reservas particulares de
flora e fauna) can be registered on the basis of Portaria No.
217/88 (1988) (Anon., n.d.). Resolugo CONAMA No. 13
(1990) details the protection of ecosystems in existing
conservation units. Scientific research in conservation units
is strictly regulated through Portaria No. 174/81P (1981)
(IBAMA, 1991).

Law No. 7735 (1989) led to the creation of the Brasilian Institute
for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources
(Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis) BAMA). IBAMA’s objectives are to carry out
national environment policy, and to conserve and control the use
of the renewable natural resources (Dias et al., 1991).

Protected Areas of the World

pressure from rubbertappers led to the passing of Law
No. 7.804 to provide for the creation of extractive
reserves (reservas extrativistas).

The protection of the historical and cultural heritage, and
of outstanding landscapes, is by virtue of Law Decree
No. 25 of 30 (1937). The protection of archaeological
and prehistoric monuments was further advanced by
Law No. 3.924 (1961) (see Annex). Provisions for the
establishment of special areas and sites of touristic
interest (Areas especiais/locais de interesse turistico)
were made by virtue of Law No. 6.513 (1977). This Law
is further regulated through Decree No. 86.176 (1981)
(Anon., n.d.). Decree No. 99.556 (1990) makes
provisions for the protection of natural caves (cavernas)
(Anon., n.d.). Private natural heritage reserves (reserva
particular do patrimonio natural) are established by
virtue of Decree No. 98.914 (1990). The Constitution of
1988 makes provision for the establishment of
anthropological reserves (reserva antropolégica)
through several of its Articles (see Annex) (Anon., n.d.).

Although Brazil does not have specific legislation for a
protected area system, it has begun work to establish one.
A Conservation Units Plan was prepared by the IBDF,
Phase I in 1979 and Phase II in 1982. This plan proposed
new protected areas, several of which have now been
declared. New management categories, linking local,
Tregional and national protected area designations more
closely with those used by IUCN, have been put forward.

A proposal for a National System of Conservation Units
has been developed by FUNATURA and IBAMA and
approved by CONAMA,; it still awaits the approval of
the National Congress and publication in law. The
System consists of three groups of units as follows:

Group I. Integral Protection Units Their resources can
only be "indirectly" used, and ecosystems must remain
in their natural state with only a minimum of disturbance.
Management categories are: biological reserve,
ecological station, national park, natural monument and
wildlife refuge.

Group II. Provisional Management Units Total
protection of natural resources. "Indirect use" of
resources is compatible, and native communities are
allowed to use resources directly on a sustainable basis.
The only category is natural resource reserve.

Group III. Sustainable Use Units This comprises
faunal reserve, environmental protection area (APA),
national forest, and extraction reserve (Schenkel and
Kaniak, 1992).

International Activities Brazil signed the Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (Western Hemisphere
Convention) in 1940, and ratified it subsequently. Brazil
is developing joint programmes with other Latin
American countries through the Amazonian Treaty
which it signed in 1978. Member countries of this Treaty
integrate the subnetwork

198

of planning and management of protected areas in the
Amazon Region. Within this Treaty, Brazil supports the
importance of preserving continuous areas in the
Amazon region which will transcend geopolitical
boundaries (Dias et al., 1991).

Brazil participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme and two biosphere reserves were recognised
in 1991. In 1977, Brazil ratified the International
Convention on Civil Responsibility for damages caused
by oil pollution. In 1977, it ratified the Convention
concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) and one site was inscribed
in 1986. However, it has not yet ratified the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) (Diegues,
1990).

Brazil participates in the FAO Latin American Network
programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Tecnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas,
Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (FAO, n.d.; Ormazabal, 1988).
An extensive technical cooperation programme for the
environment is being carried out with Germany, Canada,
USA and UK (B. Griesinger, pers. comm., 1992).

Administration and Management Shortcomings in
protected area administration were largely resolved with
the creation of IBAMA in 1989. Prior to this, particularly
between 1981-1989, problems arose because
conservation units were administered at national level by
two different bodies under separate ministries. The
Institute of Forestry Development (Departamento de
Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal)
(IBDF) was created under the Ministry of Agriculture in
1967. It was responsible for national parks, biological
reserves and national forests. In 1973, the Special
Environmental Secretariat (Secretaria Especial do Meio
Ambiente) (SEMA) was created within the Ministry of
the Interior (MINTER), to manage ecological stations,
ecological reserves and environmental protection areas
(APAs) (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). Additionally,
SEMA prepared an incoherent programme of
establishing a network of ecological stations to represent
all major ecosystems (Nogueira-Neto and Carvalho,
1979; Rylands, 1990).

The Directorate of National Historic and Artistic
Heritage (Diretoria do Patrimonio Hist6rico e Artistico
Nacional) within the Ministry for National Historic and
Artistic Heritage (SPHAN) maintains a register of
archaeological monuments (Anon., n.d.).

Currently, the main organisation responsible for the
formulation and coordination of national environmental
policies is the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria
do Meio Ambiente) (SEMAM), created by virtue of Law
No. 99.244 (1991). In 1989, the IBDF and SEMA were
merged together with other superintendencies to form
the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural
Renewable Resources (BAMA) under the Ministry of
the Environment (Rylands, 1990). Within IBAMA, two

directorates deal with protected areas: the Directorate of
Renewable Natural Resources (Directoria dos Recursos
Naturais Renovavais) and the Directorate of Ecosystems
(Directoria de Ecosistemas) (Schenkel and Kaniak,
1992).

IBAMA has initiated a programme of consolidation of
its conservation units through the national Programme
for the Environment (PNMA) with financial
resources in the order of US$ 117 million for its first
phase (B. Griesinger, pers. comm., 1992).

Numerous government and nongovernment
organisations (NGOs) are concerned with the
environment, working at local, regional or national level.
These are listed in the national register (cadastre)
produced by IBAMA. Some NGOs working national
level are Fundagdo ProNatureza (FUNATURA), the
Brazilian Foundation for Nature Conservation
(Fundag4o Brasileira para a Conservacgao da Natureza)
(FBCN), and Fundagao SOS Mata Atlantica.
FUNATURA has established a network of private
wildlife refuges which are of considerable importance
and are better protected than government areas
(Mittermeier, 1988b).

Problems with protected areas have been apparent from
colonial times, when the Portuguese showed little regard
for the native wildlife while exploiting natural resources,
and ignored existing regulations (Anon., n.d.).
Currently, the main problems related to conservation
units are insufficient and irregular funding, and lack of
personnel and infrastructure. A large proportion of the
conservation units have not been implemented or do not
have the minimum infrastructure to function adequately.
Parks which are affected include Pico da Neblina and
S4o Joaquim which, despite being established in 1979
and 1961, respectively, do not have any infrastructure
(Dias et al., 1991). Only 10% of national protected areas
have a management plan (Dourojeanni, 1988). None
of the ecological stations has a management plan
(Rylands, 1990).

IBAMA employs 548 people to administer and manage
158,000 sq. km of protected areas (one person to
29,000ha) (Dias et al., 1991). Unfortunately, at present
only three people in the current system are trained to a
degree level adequate to conduct basic activities in the
conservation units, leaving them vulnerable to invasion,
poaching, deforestation, illegal agricultural and
livestock exploitation, pollution of watercourses and
soils, disorganised tourism, mining and fires. Only 20%
of the territory included in the protected areas has some
form of management (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). This
is an extremely serious problem especially for protected
areas in the Amazon or other distant and inhospitable
parts of the country (Dias et al., 1991).

Systems Reviews Brazil is the fifth largest country
in the world, with a 7,500km long coastline (4°25’N —
33°45’S). It is bounded by the Atlantic on the east, and,
on its northern, western and southern borders, by all

199

Federal Republic of Brazil

South American countries except Chile and Ecuador
(Hunter, 1991). It is mainly located in the tropics and has
three main geographical zones: the Amazon basin
(c. 3,500 000 sq. km); the plains ("chapadas"), and two
mountains chains: the Guyanas and the Atlantic massif.
Because of the large variety of its habitats, it harbours
potentially one of the greatest biological diversities in
the world (Dias et al., 1991).

The large area of inland water (55,457 sq. km) (Hunter,
1991) results in a wide diversity of wetlands of
ecological and socioeconomic importance, amongst
them the Pantanal, the Amazon floodplain (varzeas) and
innumerable important coastal ecosystems (Diegues,
1990). Mangroves are particularly important, as Brazil
has the largest areas of mangrove in the world. In
addition, there are thousands of square kilometres of
artificial wetlands such as dams and reservoirs (Diegues,
1990). However, they are still under serious threat
(Diegues, 1990).

The Amazon has extensive alluvial plains created by
meandering rivers, raised plateaux worked by erosion,
low cliffs and rivers with black, clear and white waters.
Approximately 30% of the world’s tropical forests occur
in Brazil. Representative ecosystems include the
Amazon forest, the Atlantic forest, Caatinga ecosystems
(dwarf vegetation and cacti), closed ecosystems,
Araucaria forests, swamps, southern washes,
mangroves, coastal shrubs ("restingas") and palm tree
zones (Dias et al., 1991). The Amazon forest occupies
40% of total land area, representing around 2.7 million
sq. km. (Dias et al., 1991).

The "chapadas" are residuals of an ancient crystalline
massif which gradually ascend from west to east toreach
altitudes over 1,000m in some areas of Goids and Mato
Grosso. The highest mountain is Roraima (2,875m), part
of the Guyanas range. The Atlantic mountain ranges
form an abrupt maritime relief, and comprise various
systems: Serra Geral, Serra do Mar (Pico Bandeira,
2,790m), Serra de Mantiqueira (Pico da Itatiaia,
2,787m), Serra do Espinhaco and Chapada Diamamtina.

According to the definition given by the FAO Latin
American Network Programme, Brazil is in the process
of developing a coherent national system. The first
management plan for federal conservation units was
produced in 1979, based on IUCN methodology.
Currently, only 16 of the 34 existing national parks and
five of the 22 biological reserves have management
plans, and the majority of these require updating. There
are no such plans for any of the ecological stations (Dias
et al., 1991).

The current protected area system is made up of several
superimposed subsystems (at local, state and national
levels). All systems lack human and financial resources,
and face severe threats; particularly from agriculture.
Notall Brazilian ecosystems are adequately represented.
Omissions include: caatinga (arboreal, sertao, seridé and
cariri), cerrados, veredas, pantanal, Araucaria forest,

Protected Areas of the World

northeast Atlantic forest, savannas, Amazon forest and
caves (Dias et al., 1991; Dourojeanni, 1988; Schenkel
and Kaniak, 1992).

The public sector has expressed an interest in financing
the system of conservation units. In addition, the
governments of Japan and Germany have expressed
interest in funding activities related to protected area
establishment and management (Dias ef al., 1991).

Addresses

Divisdo de Gerenciamento de Unidades de Conservag4o
(DIGER/DEUC) (Chefe), IBAMA, Sain Av. L4
Norte Ed. Sede, 70.910 BRASILIA, Brasilia DF
(Tel: 61 223 7879/321 2324; T1x: 614304)

Instituto de Meio Ambiente (IMAC), Rua Rui Barbosa
No. 450, Centro CEP 69.900, Rio Branco, ACRE
(Tel: 68 224 5497)

Conselho Estadual de Protegio Ambiental (CEPRAM),
Rua Dr. Cincinato Pinto No. 503, Centro, CEP
57.000, MACEIO, Alagoas (Tel: 82 221 1427/221
4188/223 3856)

Coordenadoria Estadual do Meio Ambiente
(CEMA/AP), Av. Mendonga Furtado No. 900, CEP
68.000, MACAPA, Amapa (Tel: 96 222 4669)

Instituto de Desenvolvimento dos Recursos Naturais e
Protegéo Ambiental do Estado do Amazonas (IMA),
Rua Recife No. 3280, Flores, CEP 69.000,
MANAUS, Amazonas (Tel: 92 236 2574/236 2064)

Conselho Estadual de Protegio Ambiental (CEPRAM),
Rua Rio Sao Francisco No. 01, Mont Serrat, CEP
40.425, Salvador, BAHIA (Tel: 071 312 3365/312
7191)

Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (COEMA), Rua
Barao de Aratanha No. 1319, Fatima, CEP 60.000,
FORTELEZA, Ceara (Tel: 85 231 8118/231 5945)

Secretaria de Meio Ambiente, Ciéncia e Tecnologia do
Governo do Distrito Federal (SEMATEC), Edificio
Sede da Shis, Q.6, 6 Andar, Setor Comercial Sul,
CEP 70.300, BRASILIA DF (Tel: 61 255 8314/321
8448 R. 176/229)

Instituto de Ecologia e Meio Ambiente, Edificio Sede da
Shis Q.6, 6 Andar, Setor Comercial Sul, CEP 70.300,
BRASILIA DF (Tel: 61 225 8314/321 8448
R. 176/229)

Instituto de Terras Cartografia e Florestas (ITCF), Av.
Princesa Isabel No. 599, Centro, CEP 29.010,
VITORIA, Espirito Santo (Tel: 27 222 6766)

Fundacgdo Estadual do Meio Ambiente de Goias
(FEMAGO), Décima Primeira Avenida No. 1272,
Setor Universitario, GOIAS (Tel: 62 261 2780/261
6292)

Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (CEMEMA), Praca
Teixeira Mendes No. 01, Sao Francisco, CEP 65.000,
SAO LUIS, Maranhao (Tel: 98 235 1511/235 1575/235
1543)

Secretaria Estadual do Meio Ambiente (SEMA), Edificio
da Saude, Centro Politico Administrativo, CEP 78.000,
CUIABA, Mato Grosso (Tel: 65 313 3184/313 352/2
3109)

200

Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do Estado do Mato
Grosso do Sul, Av. Calégeras No. 616, CEP
79.005, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, CX
Postal 856 (Tel: 67 383 3161/383 3831/383
3014/382 0681)

Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF), Rua Paracatu
No. 304, CEP 30.180, BELO HORIZONTE,
Minas Gerais (Tel: 31 295 4266)

Conselho Estadual de Saide Saneamento e Meio
Ambiente, Rua Presidente Pernambuco No. 489,
CEP 66.000, BELEM, Para (Tel: 91 224 4011)

Departamento de Meio Ambiente (DMA), Rua
Presidente Pernambuco No. 489, CEP 66.000,
BELEM, Para (Tel: 91 243 1697)

Superintendéncia de Desenvolvimento do Meio
Ambiente (SUDEMA), Av. Monsenhor Walfredo
Leal No. 181, Tambid, CEP 58.000, JOAO PESSOA,
Paraiba (Tel: 83 222 1647/222 4663/222 3149)

Instituto de Terras, Cartografia e Florestas
(ETCF/SEAB), Rua Desembargador Motta
No. 3384, CEP 80.410, CURITIBA, Parana
(Tel: 41 234 1611)

Secretaria de Planejamento do Estado de Pernambuco,
Av. Marques de Olinda, CEP 50.000, RECIFE,
Pernambuco (Tel: 81 224 4509/224 7061)

Secretaria Estadual do Meio Ambiente, Ciéncia e
Tecnologia e Desenvolvimento Urbano, Rua 24 de
Janeiro No. 330, Sul, CEP 64.000, TERESINA, Piaui
(Tel: 86 222 8000/222 8019)

Fundacdo Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF/RJ), Av.
Treze de Maio No. 33, 15 Andar, Centro, CEP
20.031, RIO DEJANEIRO RJ (Tel: 21 240 7655/282
1252)

Conselho Estadual de Ciéncia, Tecnologia e Meio
Ambiente (CECTEMA), Centro Administrativo do
Estado, Lagoa Nova, Bloco, Seplan, BR 101, CEP
59.059, NATAL, Rio Grande do Norte (Tel: 84 231
6946/231 6082 R. 10/21)

Departamento de Meio Ambiente (DMA), Av. A.J.
Renner No. 10, Navegantes CEP 90.250, PORTO
ALEGRE, Rio Grande do Sul (Tel: 512 42 0224/43
5799)

Departamento de Recursos Naturais Renovaveis, Centro
Administrativo do Estado, 20 Andar, Av. Borges de
Medeiros No. 1501, CEP 90.068, PORTO ALEGRE,
Rio Grande do Sul (Tel: 512 26 3298)

Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF/RO), Av. Getulio
Vargas No. 1693, Centro, CEP 78.900, PORTO
VELHO, Rondonia (Tel: 69 221 4229/221 4321)

Secretaria de Agricultura de Roraima, Rua General Penha
Brasil No. 1123, Sao Francisco, CEP 69.300, BOA
VISTA, Roraima (Tel: 95 224 7841/224 0990)

Conselho Estadual de Tecnologia e Meio Ambiente, Av.
Osmar Cunha No. 25, CEP 88.000, FLORIANOPOLIS,
Santa Catarina (Tel: 482 23 6813)

Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (CONSEMA),
Rua Tabapua No. 81, 14 Andar, CEP 04.533, SAO
PAULO SP (Tel: 11 883 3482/883 0766 R. 201/204)

Conselho Estadual de Meio Ambiente, Praca Fausto
Cardoso S/N, Ed. Walter Franco, 6 Andar, CEP 49.000,
ARACAJU, Sergipe (Tel: 79 224 7959)

Funda¢do Natureza do Tocantins (NATURANTINS),
Rua Hosana Gongalves Cavalcante No. 322, CEP
77.570, MIRACEMA DO TOCANTINS, Tocantins
(Tel: 62 866 1482)

Fundac4o Biodiversitas (Director), Rua Maria Vaz de melo
71, B. Dona Clara, CEP 31.250, BELO HORIZONTE,
MG (Tel: 031 4432119; Fax: 031 4417037)

Fundagao Brasileira para a Conservagao da Natureza,
Rue Miranda Valverde 103, RIO DE JANEIRO, Rio
de Janeiro 22.281

Fundagao ProNatureza (FUNATURA) (President), C.P.
020186, 70.001 BRASILIA DF

References

Anon. (n.d.). Unidades de Conservacao no Brasil. 57 pp.
(part of a larger unseen document)

Dias, I.F.O., Goncalves, A.R., Borges, M. and Meneses,
E.O. (1991). Sistema de unidades de conservacdo
federais do Brasil. [BAMADIRECDEUC. 11 pp.

Diegues, A.C.S. (1990). Programa de pesquisa e
conservacdo de areas umidas no Brasil. Inventario
de Areas Umidas do Brasil. Versaio Preliminar.
Universidade de S40 Paulo/[UCN/Ford Foundation,
Sao Paulo. 450 pp.

Dourojeanni, M. (1988). Brazil National Environment
Project. Conservation Unit component. Draft.

FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién
técnica en parques nacionales, otras Areas
protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina
regional de la FAO para América Latina y el
Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman’s YearBook.
Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of
theWorld. 19911992. The MacMillan Press, London.

IBAMA (1990a). Cadastro nacional das instituigoes
que atuam na area do meio ambiente. IBAMA,
MINTER. 4a. Edigdo. Volume 1. 50 pp.

IBAMA (1990b). Cadastro nacional das instituicgoes
que atuam na area do meio ambiente (Instituicoes
nao governamentais). IBAMA, SEMAM, SINIMA.
4a Edicdo. Volume 2. 115 pp.

IBAMA (1991). Volume Legislacdo ambiental
referente a parques nacionais, reservas biolégicas e

Federal Republic of Brazil

estaciones ecolédgicas. DIGER/DEUC/DIREC.
4a. Edicdo. IBAMA, MINTER, Brasilia.

TUCN (1990). 1990 United Nations list of national parks
and protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 275 pp.

Jorge Padua, M.T. and Magnanini, A. (1972). Parques
Nacionais do Brasil. Caracteristicas Gerais, Situacao
Atual, Aspectos da Fauna. M.A. Instituto Brasileiro
de Desenvolvimento Florestal. 32 pp.

Jorge Padua, M.T. and Rocha Porto, E.L. (1979). Plano
do sistema de unidades de conservacao do Brasil.
M.A. Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento
Florestal, Fundacdo Brasileira para Conservacao da
Natureza, Brasilia. 105 pp.

Mittermeier, R. (1988b). Biological diversity in Brazil.
5 pp. (Unpublished)

NogueiraNeto, P. and Carvalho, J.C. (1979). A
programme of ecological stations for Brazil.
Environmental Conservation 6(2): 95-104. (Unseen)

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Proyecto
FAO/PNUMA sobre Manejo de Areas Silvestres,
Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre en América Latina
y El Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y El Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 205 pp.

Rylands, A.B. (1990). Evaluation of the current
Status of federal conservation areas in the
tropical rain forest of the Brazilian Amazon.
Volume 1. Review of Conservation Units
System. WWF Project No. 6083, Washington,
DC. 156 pp.

Schenkel, C.S. and Kaniak, V.C. (1992). Sistemas de
unidades de conservacion. In: Amend, S. and
Amend, T. ;Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques
nacionales de América del Sur. YUCN/Editorial
Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp 107-113.

Strang, H.E., Sobrinho, J. de P.L. and Tosetti, L.D.
(1982).Parques estaduais do Brazil, sua
characterizagdo e esséncias nativas mais
importantes. Fundacdo Brasileira para a
Consérvacdo da Natureza, Rio de Janeiro. Congresso
Nacional sobre Esséncias Nativas. Campos de Jordaio
(SP), 12— 18 September 1982. 143 pp.

201

Title:

Title:

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities
responsible for their administration

Decree Law No. 25

Date: 30 November 1937

Brief description: Organises the protection of the
historical and artistic national heritage.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do
Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis
(Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural
Renewable Resources) within the Ministry of the
Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente)

Designations:

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) Sites
or landscapes which should be conserved and protect
because of their notable natural or manmade features.

Source:Anon. (n.d.)

Title: Law No. 3.924

Date: 26 June 1961

Brief description: Makes provision for
archaeological and prehistoric monuments

Administrative authority: Secretaria do
Patrimonio Histérico e Artistico Nacional

Designations:

Monumento Arqueolégico ou PreHistérico
(Archaeological or PreHistoric Monument

No authorisation will be given for research or
production of calcareous shells with the
characteristics of an archaeological or prehistoric
monument without prior knowledge of the
Directorate of Historic and Artistic National
Heritage office.

Source: Anon. (n.d.)

Forestry Code, Law No. 4.771

Date: 15 September 1965

Brief description: | Provides protection to all
existing forests and other forms of vegetation.
Makes provisions for the creation of national parks,
ecological reserves and forests.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment
and Natural Renewable Resources) within the
Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio
Ambiente)

202

Title:
protection of fauna and other provisions)

Designations:

Parque Nacional, Estadual e Municipal and
Reserva Bioldgica (National, State and Municipal
Parkand Biological Reserve) Set aside to protect
areas with exceptional natural attributes, conciliating
the overall protection of the flora and fauna with use
for educational, recreational and scientific purposes

Foresta Nacional, Estadual e Municipal (National,
State and Municipal Forest) Set aside for
economical, technical or social purposes, even in
areas that are not covered by forest but are intended
for use as forest

Article 16 limits the use of privately-owned forests
and sets a minimum limit of 20% to 50% of the area
in each property with localised tree cover to be
respected. This extensive Article distinctly limits the
use of the properties for each region of the country.

Prohibited activities in these conservation units
include destroying or damaging the forest or other
forms of vegetation; cutting trees without adequate
permits; entering the area with arms or any other
prohibited substance or instrument; lighting fires
without proper care; making, selling, transporting or
releasing balloons which may cause fires; preventing
or hindering natural regeneration; receiving or
transporting timber or timber products without
licence; failing to return expired licences to the
authorities; releasing animals or failing to take
necessary precautions to prevent domestic animals
from entering the forests; extracting stones, sand,
lime or any type of mineral.

Source: Original legislation

Law No. 5197 (Dispositions on the

Date: 3 January 1967

Brief description: Provisions for the protection
of fauna and the establishment of biological reserves
and hunting parks. It revokes DecreeLaw No. 5894
of 20 October 1943.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment
and Natural Renewable Resources) within the
Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio
Ambiente)

Title:

Title:
Brazilian National Parks)

Designations:

Reserva Biolégica Nacional, Estadual e Municipal
(National, State and Municipal Reserve) Areas
where activities relating to the use, persecution,
hunting, harvest (gathering), or introduction of
specimens of wild and domestic fauna and flora, as
well as any modifications of the environment are
prohibited, with the exception of scientific activities
dully authorised by the authorities.

Parque de Caca Federal, Estadual e Municipal
(Federal, State and Municipal Hunting Park)
Areas partially or totally open to the public where
hunting is allowed either on a temporary or
permanent basis with recreational, educational and
touristic purposes.

Source:Original legislation

Law No. 6.513
Date: 20 December 1977

Brief description: Makes provisions for the
establishment of special areas and sites of touristic
interest.

Administrative authority;EMBRATUR
Designations:

Area Special de Interesse Turistico e Local de
Interesse Turistico (Special Area of Touristic
Interest and Site of Touristic Interest) Set aside
due to their cultural and natural value, they are
protected by specific legislation especially regarding
historic, artistic, archaeological or prehistoric wealth

Continuous spaces which include territorial waters
and which should be preserved and valued in the
cultural and natural sense, destined for tourist
development plans and projects. Their development
will depend on the areas not being subjected to
special protection regulations and their respective
entorno of environmental protection.

Source: Anon. (n.d.)

Decree No. 84.017 (Regulation for

Date: 21 September 1979

Brief description: Provides definitions of
national parks at the three levels (federal, state and
municipal)

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the
Environment and Natural Renewable Resources)

203

Title:

Federal Republic of Brazil

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) Extensive
and defined geographical areas with exceptional
natural attributes, permanently protected.

Destined for scientific, cultural, educational and
recreational purposes and are created and
administered by the federal government. Constitute
the wealth of the Union destined for the use of the
people and should be preserved and maintained
untouched by the authorities.

Main objective is the preservation of the ecosystems
from any modification.

Source: Anon. (n.d.)

Law No. 6.902

Date: 27 April 1981
Brief description: Allows for the creation of
ecological stations, environmental protected areas
and other provisions.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment
and Natural Renewable Resources) within the
Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio
Ambiente)

Designations:

Estacao Ecolégica (Ecological Station)

Areas representative of ecosystems destined for
basic and applied ecological research, the protection
of the natural environment and the development of
conservation education. Afford protection to 90% of
the area, the rest may be modified for research
purposes. They can be established by federal, state
and municipal dependencies.

Area de Protecaéo Ambiental (Environmental
Protection Area) Areasset aside by the Executive
Power for the protection of the environment to ensure
the welfare of the human population and to conserve
or improve the local ecological situation.

The following activities are prohibited: the
establishment or functioning of potentially polluting
industries capable of affecting water streams; the
alteration of the soil through canalisation; activities
capable of causing soil erosion or water basin
siltation; and activities which threaten rare species
within the protected area with extinction.

Source: Original legislation

Title:

Title:

Protected Areas of the World

Decree No. 89.336
Date: 31 January 1984

Brief description:
ecological reserves

Makes further provision for

Administrative authority:Instituto Brasileiro do
Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis
IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and
Natural Renewable Resources)

Designations:

Reserva Ecoldégica (Ecological Reserve) Those
areas for permanent preservation mentioned in
Article 18 of Law No. 6.938 of 1981, as well as those
established by the Public (Executive) Power.
Exceptions to this include those areas established as
ecological stations by virtue of Laws No. 6.938 and
6.902 of 1981. These areas may be public or private
according to the status of their land tenure.

Source: Anon. (n.d.)

Decree No. 98.914

Date: 31 January 1990
Brief description: Makes provision for the
establishment of natural heritage private reserves.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovdveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the
Environment and Natural Renewable Resources)

Designations:

Reserva Particular do Patrimonio Natural (Natural
Heritage Private Reserve) Area set aside
permanently by its owner in which natural primitive
or semi primitive, recovered conditions will be
identified or whose characteristics justify recovery
action due to their landscape aspects or for the
preservation of the biological cycle of the native
species of fauna or flora.

Article 4 of this Decree states that these areas will be
recognised as such in the public interest through the
President of IBAMA. They will be exempt of rural
tax.

Source: Anon. (n.d.)

204

Title:

Decree No. 99.274

Date: 6 June 1990

Brief description: § Regulates Law No. 6.902 of
27 April 1981 and Law No. 6.938 of 31 August 1981
by governing the processes of establishment and
management of ecological stations. It further
determines that any activity which may affect the
biota within a distance of 10km from any ecological
station will depend on provisions supplied by
CONAMA.

Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro
do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renovaveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the
Environment and Natural Renewable Resources)

Designations:

Estacao Ecolégica (Ecological Station) Created
by virtue of Public Executive decrees, through
proposals of the Secretary of the Environment. The
act should define its geographical limits, its
denominations and entities responsible for their
administration and management and zoning.

Any activity carried out within 10km of the
surrounding area that could affect the biota of the
conservation unit will be subject to regulations by
CONAMA.

Area de Protegao Ambiental (Environmental
Protection Area) At the federal level it is the
responsibility of the Secretary of the Environment in
accordance with IBAMA to propose the
establishment of such areas to the President of the
Republic. The decree should mention its
denomination, geographical limits, main objectives
and any prohibitions or restrictions in the use of its
environmental resources.

The supervisory entity should direct and assist
owners so that the legislation objectives are
followed.

Any action or omission that result in noncompliance
of regulations will be regarded as an offence.
Amongst others, this includes actions that cause
decline in water or environmental quality, any type
of pollution which affect cultivated or wild plants,
carry out activities which may potentially degrade
the environment without appropriate licence, injury,
killing or capture of rare species in the conservation
unit.

Source: Original legislation

Federal Republic of Brazil

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
a re hd
National Parks
1 Amazonia (Para-Amazonas States) II 994,000 1974
D Aparados da Serra (R Grande Sul-Sta Catarina) II 10,250 1959
3 Araguaia II $62,312 1959
4 Brasilia II 28,000 1961
5 Cabo Orange II 619,000 1980
6 Caparao (Espirito Santo - Minas Gerais) II 26,000 1961
q Chapada Diamantina II 152,000 1985
8 Chapada dos Guimaraes II 33,000 1989
9 Chapada dos Veadeiros II 60,000 1961
10 Emas (Gioas - Mato Grosso) II 131,868 1961
11 Grande Sertao Veredas (Bahia and Minas Gerais) II 84,000 1989
12 Iguacu II 170,000 1939
13 Itatiaia (Rio de Janeiro-Minas Gerais) II 30,000 1937
14 Jau II 2,272,000 1980
15 Lagoa do Peixe II 34,357 1986
16 Lencois Maranhenses II 155,000 1981
17 Marinho Fernando de Noronha II 11,270 1988
18 Marinho dos Abrolhos II 91,300 1983
19 Monte Pascoal II 22,500 1961
20 Monte Roraima II 116,000 1989
21 Pacaas Novos II 764,801 1979
22 Pantanal Matogrossense II 135,000 1981
23 Pico da Neblina II 2,200,000 1979
24 Sao Joaquim II 49,300 1961
DS Serra da Bocaina (Sao Paulo - Rio de Janeiro) II 100,000 1971
26 Serra da Canastra II 71,525 1972
27 Serra da Capivara II 97,933 1979
28 Serra do Cipo II 33,800 1984
29 Serra do Divisor II 605,000 1989
30 Serra dos Orgaos II 11,000 1939
31 Sete Cidades II 6,221 1961
32 Superagui II 21,000 1989
33 Tijuca II 3,200 1961
34 Xingu II 2,200,000 1961
Ecological Reserves
35 Jutai-Solimoes I 284,285 1983
36 Raso da Catarina I 200,000 1983
Ecological Stations
37 Aguas Emendades IV 9,768 1968
38 Anavilhanas IV 335,000 1981
39 Ilha Maraca-Jipioca IV 72,000 1981
40 Ilha do Mel IV 2,240 1982
41 Jari (Amapa and Para States) IV 227,126 1982
42 Juami-Japura IV 745,850 1985
43 Jureia-Itatins IV 80,000 1987
44 Mamiraua IV 1,124,000 1990
45 Piria-Gurupi (Maranhao and Para) I 341,650 1988
46 Rio Acre IV 77,500 1981
47 Serido IV 1,116 1982
48 Serra das Araras IV 115,000 1982
49 Taiama IV 12,000 1981

205

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
Biological Reserves

50 Abufari I 288,000 1982
51 Atol das Rocas (R. Grande do N and Maranhao) I 36,249 1979
52 Guaribas I 4,321 1990
53 Lago Piratuba I 357,000 1980
54 Pedra Talhada (Alagoas - Pernambuco) I 4,469 1989
55 Rio Trombetas I 385,000 1979
56 Tapirape I 103,000 1989
57 Uatuma I 560,000 1990

Federal Biological Reserves

58 Augusto Ruschi (Nova Lombardia) I 4,000 1982
59 Caracara I 61,126 1971
60 Corrego Grande I 1,504 1989
61 Corrego do Veado I 2,392 1982
62 Marinha do Arvoredo I 17,600 1990
63 Poco das Antas I 5,000 1974
64 Santa Isabel I 2,766 1988
65 Serra Negra I 1,100 1982
66 Sooretama I 24,000 1982
67 Tingua I 26,000 1989
68 Una I 11,400 1980
Federal Ecological Stations
69 Aiuaba IV 11,525 1981
70 Babitonga IV 7,833 1987
71 Caracarai IV 394,560 1982
72 Carijos IV 11,295 1987
73 Coco-Javaes IV 37,000 1981
74 Cunia IV 104,000 1982
75 Foz do Sao Francisco/Praia do Peba IV 5,322 1981
76 Guaraquecaba IV 13,638 1982
77 Ique IV 200,000 1981
78 Itabaiana IV 1,100 1987
79 Jureia IV 24,065 1986
80 Maraca IV 101,312 1981
81 Niquia IV 286,600 1985
82 Pirai IV 4,000 1982
83 Pirapitinga IV 1,090 1987
84 Taim IV 33,995 1986
85 Tamoios IV 4,070 1990
86 Tupinambas IV 4,628 1987
87 Unucui-Una IV 135,000 1981
Federal Environment Protection Areas
88 Cairucu Vv 33,800 1983
89 Cananeia - Iguape e Peruibe Vv 202,832 1984
90 Carstre do Lagoa Santa Vv 35,600 1990
91 Fernando de Noronha- Vv 1,692 1986
92 Guapi-Mirim V 14,340 1984
93 Guaraquecaba Vv 291,500 1985
94 Morro da Pedreira Vv 66,200 1990
95 Petropolis V 44,000 1982
96 Serra da Mantiqueira (M Gerais-S Paulo-R Jan) Vv 402,517 1985
97 Serra da Tabatinga (Maranhao - Tocantins) Vv 61,000 1990
Faunal Reserve
98 Secundario Perimetro de Sao Roque VI 23,900 1978

206

National/international designations
Name of area

Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest
Manguezais da Foz do Rio Mamanguape
State Forest Parks

Espigao Alto

Nonoai

Rondinha

Environmental Protection Areas
Abaete

Algodoal

Bacia do Descoberto (D Federal - Goias)
Bacia do Rio Sao Bartolomeu
Bacias do Gama e Cabeca do Veado
Cachoeira Andorinhas

Cafuringa

Caverna do Moroaga

Cavernas do Peruacu

Floresta do Jacaranda

Gruta dos Brejoes/Vereda do Romao Gramacho
Igarape Gelado

Jericoacoara

Lago Ayapua

Mangaratiba

Marituba do Peixe

Parintins Nhamunda

Piacabucu

Santa Rita

Serra de Baturite

National Forests
Amapa
Amazonas
Araripe

Bom Futuro
Capao Bonito
Caxiuana
Chapeco

Cubate

Cuiari

Ibirama

Icana
Icana-Aiari

Irati

Jamari

Macaua

Mapia
Mapia-Inauini
Pari Cachoeira I
Pari Cachoeira II
Passo Fundo
Pira/Auara
Purus

Rio Preto
Roraima

Sao Francisco de Paula
Saraca Taquera
Tapajos
Tapirape-A quiri

207

IUCN management
category

<<<<<<<<<4<<<<<<<<< <<

<<<
FES

vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vil
Vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
vil
Vil
Vill
Vill
vill
Vill
Vil
Vil
Vil
Vil
Vill
Vill

Federal Republic of Brazil

Area
(ha)

412,000
1,573,100
38,262
250,000
4,347
200,000
1,686
416,532
107,516
57,058
200,561
491,400
3,495
215,000
173,475
311,000
311,000
18,000
654,000
1,260
631,436

Year

1985

1949
1949
1982

1987
1990
1983
1983
1986
1989
1988
1990
1989
1983
1985
1989
1983
1990
1987
1988
1990
1983
1984
1990

1989
1989
1946
1988
1968
1961
1968
1990
1990
1988
1990
1990
1968
1984
1988
1989
1989
1989
1989
1947
1990
1988
1990
1989
1947
1989
1974
1989

Protected Areas of the World

i ee EEE EE EEE a En

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
151 Taracua I Vill 647,744 1990
152 Taracua II Vil 559,504 1990
153 Tefe Vill 1,020,000 1989
154 Tres Barras Vill 4,458 1968
155 Urucu Vill 66,496 1990
156 Xie Vill 407,935 1990
Forest Reserves
157 Gorotire VI 1,843,000 1961
158 Jaru VI 1,085,000 1961
159 Juruena VI 1,800,000 1961
160 Mundurucania VI 1,377,000 1961
161 Parima VI 1,756,000 1961
162 Pedras negras VI 1,171,000 1961
163 Rio Negro VI 3,790,000 1961
164 Tumucumaque VI 1,793,000 1961
Indigenous Reserves
165 Amanayes Vil 261,000
166 Apiaca-Kayabi vil 111,410
167 Areoes vol 218,515
168 Irantxe vil 46,790
169 Jarina vil 268,813
170 Marechal Rondon vil 98,500
171 Merure vil 82,301
172 Nambiquara vil 1,011,961
173 Parabubure vil 224,447
174 Pareci Vil 563,586
175 Pimental Barbosa vil 328,966
176 Sao Marcos vil 188,478
177 Xerente vil 167,542
Indigenous Areas
178 Alto Purus vil 265,000 1987
179 Alto Rio Guama Vil 278,000 1990
180 Alto Tarauaca vil 23,840 1987
181 Alto Turiacu vil 530,524
182 Anambe vil 7,912 1988
183 Ananas vil 1,769
184 Andira Marau vil 465,868
185 Aningal, Mpio Alto Alegre vil 7,627
186 Anta vil 2,250
187 Apinayes Vil 141,904
188 Apiterewa vil 981,722 1988
189 Araca Vil 50,018
190 Arara I vil 247,010 1990
191 Arara II vil 46,232
192 Arara vil 1,060,400
193 Arara do Igarape Humaita vil 27,700 1987
194 Arariboia vil 413,288
195 Arawete vil 985,000 1987
196 Aripuana (Mato Grosso and Rondonia) Vil 753,400
197 Awa vil 232,000
198 Bacaja VI 192,126 1979
199 Bacurizinho vil 82,432
200 Bakairi vil 61,405
201 Barata Livramento vil 18,830
202 Bau Menkranotire Vi 1,850,000 1986

208

National/international designations
Name of area

Bom Jesus

Boqueirao

Cabeceira do Rio Acre
Cachoeira Seca/Iriri
Cajueiro

Campinas
Cana-Brava
Canauamim

Capoto

Caru

Catete

Cubate
Cuminapanema
Curua

Deni

Escondido

Est. Rondon
Estivadinho

Estrela da Paz

Evare 1

Evare 2

Figueira

Figueiras

Funil

Galibi

Gaviao

Geraldo e Toco-Preto
Governador

Guapenu

Iauarete

Ibirama

Icana-Ajari
Icana-Xie

Igarape Lages
Igarape Preto

Igarape Ribeirao

Ilha Jacare Xipaca
Ipixuna

Jaboti

Jacamim

Jaminawa Arara
Jaminawa do Igarape Preto
Japuira

Jaquiri
Jarina/Margem Direita
Jarudore

Jatuarana

Jumina

Kampa do Rio Amonea
Kampa do Rio Envira
Kanamari

Kanela

Karaja Santana do Araguaia
Kararao

Karipuna

Karitiana
Katukina/Kaxinawa

IUCN management
category

209

Federal Republic of Brazil

Area
(ha)

1,313
13,950
18,870

760,479

4,304

28,862

131,868
6,324
186,000
172,667
439,151
1,023,000
2,059,700
13,000
998,400
275,100

2,400

1,970
16,300

596,000
165,000
25,973
10,000
16,000

6,689

7,980
16,588
41,644

2,450

990,000
14,156
896,000
480,000
107,321
79,500
47,863
2,044
179,640
8,000
107,000
28,280
23,117
148,450
1,830
139,000

4,706

5,251
24,000
91,200

238,400
607,563
125,212
1,126,000
224,000
195,000
89,682
17,750

Year

1988
1989

1985

1987

1987
1988

1987

1977
1986

1987

1987

1988

1984

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
260 Kaxarari (also Rondonia) VI 127,540
261 Kaxinawa do Igarape do Caucho vil 9,540 1986
262 Kaxinawa do Nova Olinda vil 32,150 1986
263 Kaxinawa do Rio Breu Vil 23,840 1987
264 Kaxinawa do Rio Humaita vil 127,383 1984
265 Kaxinawa do Rio Jordao vil 92,000 1984
266 Kayabi Vil 117,246 1982
267 Kayapo vil 3,204,000 1985
268 Koatinema vil 288,600 1988
269 Kraolandia Vil 302,533
270 Krikati VI 85,500
271 Kulina do Igarape do Pau vil 14,400 1987
272 Kulina do Medio Jurua vil 770,300
273 Kulina do Rio Envira vil 48,400 1986
274 Lago Aiapoa vil 25,500
275 Lago Beruri vil 4,600
276 Lagoa Comprida vil 13,198
277 Lamerao vil 49,500
278 Lauro Sodre vil 9,600
279 Macarrao VII 25,312
280 Mae Maria vil 62,488 1981
281 Malacacheta vil 16,150
282 Mamoadate VI 313,646 1985
283 Mangueira Vil 4,064
284 Manoa/Pium vil 43,337
285 Mariene vil 10,793
286 Mekrangnoti vil 4,913,000 1990
287 Menku vil 47,094
288 Mequens vil 105,250
289 Miratu vil 28,800
290 Mundurucu Vil 1,965,000 1978
291 Murutinga VII 1,210
292 Nhamunda Mapuera (part) vil 845,400
293 Nhamunda Mapuera vil 1,022,400
294 Nove de Janeiro vil 234,400
295 Nokini vil 30,900 1986
296 Ouro vil 13,573
297 Paquicamba vil 4,351 1990
298 Paracana vil 351,697 1985
299 Paracuhuba Vil 1,040
300 Pari-Cachoeira VI 1,152,000
301 Paru d’Este Vil 1,182,800
302 Perigara vil 10,740
303 Piraha Vil 389,000
304 Pirineus de Souza vil 28,212
305 Pium vil 3,180
306 Ponta de Serra Vil 15,597
307 Porquinhos VI 79,520
308 Poyanawa vil 19,987 1986
309 Raimundao vil 4,300
310 Raposa/Serra do Sol vil 1,401,320
311 Recanto da Saudade vil 13,750
312 Rikbaktsa vil 79,935
313 Rio Bia Vil 1,180,200
314 Rio Branco VI 236,137
315 Rio Formoso Vil 19,700
316 Rio Gregorio vil 92,859 1983

210

Federal Republic of Brazil

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
317 Rio Guapore vil 128,196
318 Rio Negro Ocaia vil 104,063
319 Rio Paru do Leste vil 1,182,800
320 Rio Pindare vil 15,002
321 Rodeador vil 2,319
322 Roosevelt (part with MT) Mpio Pimenta Bueno vil 233,055
323 Roosevelt vil 233,055
324 S. Ines vil 29,698
325 S. Leopoldo vil 55,000
326 Sagarana vil 8,400
327 Sai-Cinza vil 125,552 1988
328 Saluma vil 533,940
329 Sangradoura/Volta Grande Vil 11,660
330 Sangradouro vil 88,620
331 Santana vil 35,471
332 Sao Domingos vil 5,474
333 Sao Marcos vil 653,949
334 Sarare vil 67,420
335 Serra Morena vil 148,300
336 Serra da Moca VI 11,626
337 Sete de Setembre (Rondonia and Mato Grosso) Vi 247,870
338 Sororo vil 26,258 1977
339 Sucuba Vil 5,983
340 Tabalascada vil 7,000
341 Tadarimana vil 9,785
342 Tapirape/Karaja Vil 66,166
343 Taracua-Uaupes v0, 1,666,000
344 Tembe vil 1,075 1989
345 Tenharim/Transamazonia vil 488,550
346 Terese Cristina vil 25,694
347 Terra Vermelha vil 8,750
348 Ticuna Feijoal vil 1,320
349 Ticuna Porto Espiritual vil 3,550
350 Ticuna de Santo Antonio vil 1,450
351 Tirecatinga vil 130,575
352 Tora VII 24,600
353 Tracaja vil 1,550
354 Trincheira Vil 1,550
355 Trincheira/Bacaja vil 1,438,856 1989
356 Trocara vil 21,722 1982
357 Truaru vil 6,640
358 Tubarao Latunde vil 116,000
359 Tuere Vil 640,000
360 Uaca, 1 and 2 VII 434,660
361 Uai-Uai vil 330,000
362 Uaimiri Atroari vil 2,585,911
363 Uati-Parana vil 102,187
364 Umariacu Vil 1,600
365 Umutina Vil 28,120
366 Uneiuxi vil 405,000
367 Uru-Eu-Uau-Uau vil 1,832,300
368 Urucu-Jurua vil 12,697
369 Utiariti vil 412,304
370 Vale do Guapore Vil 242,593
371 Vale do Javari vil 8,338,000
372 Vui-Uata-In vil 125,000
373 Waiapi vil 543,000

211

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

374
375
376
377

National/international designations
Name of area

Waimiri-Atroari
Xambioa

Zoro

Zuruaha

Indigenous Parks

Araguaia

Aripuana

Tumucumaque

Xingu

Yanomami (Amazonas and Roraima)

State Parks

Alto Ribeira
Bacanga
Brigadeiro
Campos do Jordao
Carlos Botelho
Caxambu

Delta do Jacui
Desengano
Ibitipoca

Ilha Anchieta

Ilha Bela

Ilha Grande

Ilha do Cardoso
TItacolomi
Jacupiranga

Jaiba

Mananciais da Serra
Mirador

Morro do Chapeu
Morro do Diabo
Pedra Branca

Rio Doce

Serra Caldas Novas
Serra Furada
Serra do Mar
Serra do Tabuleiro
Sumidouro
Tainhas

Terra Ronca
Turvo
Vascununca

Vila Velha

State Biological Reserves
Aguai

Araras

Canela Preta
Guapore

Jaru

Mata Acaua
Parauna

Praia do Sul
Rio Ouro Preto
Sassafraz
Serra Geral

IUCN management

212

category

vil
vil
vil
vil

vil
Vil
vil
vil
vil

Ln len Nil een eee Bilan Bl coon Bee lee le Bae

Area
(ha)

2,440,000
3,265
431,700
233,900

1,395,000
1,258,323
2,700,000
2,642,008
7,751,945

37,712
3,075
32,500
8,286
37,797
1,040
4,322
22,500
1,488
828
27,025
15,000
22,500
7,542
150,000
6,358
2,249
385,000
6,000
34,441
12,500
35,973
12,315
1,329
314,800
87,405
1,300
4,924
14,493
17,491
1,484
3,245

7,672
2,068
1,844
600,000
268,150
5,000
3,490
3,600
46,438
5,416
1,700

Year

1968

1958
1980
1988
1941
1982
1979
1976
1983
1973
1977
1958
1978
1962
1967
1969
1973

1980
1973
1986
1974
1944
1970
1980
1969
1975
1980
1975

1965
1970
1953

1983
1972
1980
1982
1979
1974
1979
1981
1990
1977
1982

Federal Republic of Brazil

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
426 Tracadal I 22,540 1990

State Ecological Stations

427 Angatuba IV 1,394 1985
428 Bracinho IV 4,606 1984
429 Caetetus IV 2,188 1987
430 Chauas IV 2,700 1987
431 Itirapina IV 2,300 1984
432 Jatai IV 4,532 1982
433 Paraiso IV 4,920 1987
434 Santa Barbara IV 2,712 1984
435 Xitue IV 3,095 1987

State Environment Protection Areas

436 Bacia dos Rios Piracicaba e Juqueri - Mirim VY 390,000 1987
437 Cabreuva Vv 26,100 1984
438 Cajamar Vv 13,400 1987
439 Campos do Jordao Vv 26,900 1984
440 Corumbatai-Botucatu-Tejupa Vv 641,000 1984
441 Ibitinga Vv 64,900 1987
442 Ilha Comprida Vv 19,375 1987
443 Jundiai Vv 43,200 1984
444 Serra das Mangabeiras Vv 96,743 1983
445 Serra do Mar Vv 548,100 1984
446 Silveiras Vv 42,700 1984
447 Tiete Vv 45,100 1983
448 Varzea do Alto Tiete Vv 8,500 1987
State Forest
449 Antimari Vil 66,168
Extractive Reserves

450 Alto Jurua Vill 506,186 1990
451 Antimari Vill 260,277 1988
452 Cachoeira Vill 24,099 1987
453 Cajari-2 Vill 82,000

454 Cajari-3 Vill 104,000

455 Cautario, Mpio Costa Marques Vil 230,000

456 Chico Mendes Vill 970,570 1990
457 Iratapuru Vil 70,000

458 Jaciparana and Mutumparana Vill 240,000

459 Macaua Vill 103,106 1978
460 Maraca-1 Vill 75,000 1988
461 Maraca-2 Vill 22,500 1988
462 Maraca-3 Vill 226,500 1988
463 Matauau Vil 68,000

464 Ouro Preto Vill 170,000

465 Pacaas Novos vill 180,000

466 Porto Dias Vill 22,145 1987
467 Remanso Vill 43,502 1987
468 Rio Cajari Vill 481,650 1990
469 Rio Ouro Preto Vill 204,583 1990
470 Rio Pedras Negras Vil 180,000

471 Riozinho Vil 35,896 1988
472 Santa Quiteria Vill 43,248 1980
473 Terrua Vill 139,295 1989

213

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha)
Biosphere Reserves
TijucaTinguaOrgaos IX 67,600 1991
Vale do RibeiraSerra do Graciosa IX 1,794,500 1991
World Heritage Site
Iguacu National Park X 170,000 1986

214

Federal Republic of Brazil

Protected Areas of Brazil
North-West Brazil

215

Protected Areas of the World

B
FUN
AUN ny
ESA

x Le, 5

& cs 5

2 8,
Che ha
°n~ 85 ep

” 6 5 8
) a a

Protected Areas of Brazil
North-East Brazil

216

Federal Republic of Brazil

3 3)
re
5 (SN 4
ng eee

200 400 600km
a

45°
1

Protected Areas of Brazil
Southern Brazil

217

a4

thie RRS |

CHILE

Area 756,943 sq. km

Population 13,173,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.55 % per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,511 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,770 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Article 19 of the 1980
Political Constitution of Chile (Constitucién Politica de
la Republica de Chile) states that all inhabitants are
assured the right to live in an environment free of
contamination, and that the state is responsible for nature
protection. However, little importance is afforded to
protected areas as part of a national development
strategy, and a comprehensive strategy for protected
areas is lacking (Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992).
Although there is abundant legislation (over 20 legal
texts) referring to national parks, it is disperse,
ambiguous and contradictory (Gutiérrez, 1992), and
there is no consolidated law to cover national protected
areas (Araya and Cunazza, 1992).

The first legislation to make provision for protected areas
was the 1925 Forests Law (Ley de Bosques), Decree
Law No. 656, which authorises the creation of national
parks and forest reserves. This was amended by the 1931
Forests Law, Supreme Decree No. 4363, which provides
for the expropriation of private land for protected areas,
and the establishment of national tourist parks and forest
reserves to conserve national natural beauty and certain
tree species. Land set aside for protection cannot be used
for any other purpose. The Agriculture and Livestock
Service (Servicio Agricola y Ganadero) (SAG) is
assigned responsibility for management of protected
areas.

Decree Law No. 1939 (1977) on the Acquisition,
Administration and Disposition of State or Fiscal
Property (Adquisicién, Administracién y Disposicién
sobre los Bienes del Estado o Fiscales) replaces Decree
Law No. 701 (1974) of the same name, and makes
provisions for managing state property including parks
and reserves. Trees may only be felled with prior
authorisation from the National Forestry Corporation
(Corporacién Nacional Forestal) (CONAF). CONAF is
an autonomous state corporation, under the Ministry of
Agriculture, responsible for forests and protected areas.

CONAF manages the National System of Wild Protected
Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas
del Estado) (SNASPE). Definitions are given for the
protected area categories of national park, natural
monument, national reserve and wilderness reserve, and
provisions made for reclassifying protected areas
accordingly. Forest reserves are now known as national
reserves (CONAF, 1989). No wilderness reserves have
been declared. CONAF is obliged to develop a

219

management plan for each protected area in the
SNASPE.

In 1988, Law No. 18768 formally transfers
administrative responsibilities for national parks and
forest reserves from the SAG to CONAF. In practice,
transfer had already taken place several years earlier
following an agreement between the two institutions
(CONAF, 1989).

Improvements in legislation for protected areas and
natural resource management took place in 1984 with the
promulgation of two new laws: Law Nos. 18348 and
18362 (CONAF, 1989). However, for administrative
and financial reasons they have not come into effect yet
(Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992). Law No. 18348
provides for the creation of the National Corporation for
Forests and the Protection of Natural Renewable
Resources (Corporacién Nacional Forestal y de
Protecciédn de Recursos Naturales Renovables) (also
known as CONAF), as an autonomous state institution.
This new institution would be part of the Ministry of
Agriculture, controlled financially by the General
Auditor of the Republic (Controlaria General de la
Republica). Some of the conservation, protection and
natural resource regulation activities that were
previously assigned to the SAG would be transferred to
the new CONAF, including forest exploitation and
regulation enforcement. Professionals from appropriate
fields can be deployed to assist in research projects. The
new Corporation that would be formed under this
legislation takes over all responsibilities and property
from the former National Forestry Corporation. From 1980
onwards, CONAF advocated a single law, No. 18362, to
consolidate all aspects of protected area legislation. This
law, promulgated in 1984, but not yet in effect, provides
for the creation of a new, coherent National System of
Wild Protected Areas (SNASPE). The five conservation
objectives of the SNASPE are given as: maintaining
areas unique in character or representative of national
ecological diversity for continuity of natural processes
and public education; maintaining natural resources and
ensuring their sustainable use; maintaining the
productive capacity of soils and hydrological systems;
and preserving natural scenic beauty and cultural
heritage. Protected area designations are given (see
Annex).

International Activities Chile signed Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (Convencion sobre la Proteccién
de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas
Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western
Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified it in 1967.
However, national legislation transgresses the Western
Hemisphere Convention, particularly in the case of
mineral resource exploitation within protected areas
(Gutiérrez, 1992; Astorga, n.d.). Chile ratified the

Protected Areas of the World

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) on 16 January 1980 (through Decree No. 3056
of 1979), but no natural sites have been inscribed. Chile
ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) on 27 July 1981 (through Decree Law
No. 3485 of 1980 and Supreme Decree No. 771 of 1981)
and one wetland has been listed. Chile also participates in
the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, and has
seven biosphere reserves. In 1979, the Convention for
the Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio
para la Conservacién y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed
by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru, and was
ratified in Chilean legislation in 1981.

The United Nations Development Programme and the
FAO carried out a study on protected areas in arid and
semi-arid zones, with a view to improving their
management and identifying further areas for protection,
between 1986 and 1988. Among the recommendations
made was the inclusion into SNASPE of several areas in
the northern regions.

Support for conservation projects and training park
guards is received from several international
organisations including WWF, WCI-NYZS, the World
Monument Fund, the FAO, United Nations Environment
Programme and Unesco (CONAF 1989).

Administration and Management Legal
responsibility for protected areas is assigned to the
Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura),
which delegates all aspects of administration and
management to the National Forestry Corporation
(CONAF).

Financial and policy-making responsibilities are divided
within the central administration of CONAF. The
Executive Director (Director Ejecutivo) is responsible
for the internal administration of CONAF, and all
financial matters. The Executive Council (Consejo
Directivo), comprising the Minister of Agriculture, the
Executive Director of CONAF, the Executive Director
of SAG, the Vice-president of the Institute for
Agricultural Development (Instituto de Desarrollo
Agropecuario) and the Director of the Office of
Agricultural Planning (Oficina de Planificacién
Agricola), develops conservation policies and
implements projects which are annually reviewed and
modified where necessary.

CONAF comprises four departments: Wild Heritage
(Patrimonio Silvestre) responsible for protected areas
management, Forest Control, Fire Control and Fire
Management (Ramirez, pers. comm., 1991). CONAF
has offices in each of the country’s 13 regions. Seven
professionals are employed in central administration and
27 regionally, including forestry engineers, biologists
and agricultural technicians. Regional offices are
responsible for protected areas management. By 1989
there were 350 park guards distributed among 59 of the

220

75 protected areas in the SNASPE, and seven national
training courses had taken place. A further 160 technicians
and administrative personnel are employed (CONAF 1989).
CONAF is also responsible for wildlife management
within the SNASPE. By 1989, 17 projects had been
undertaken to study wildlife and implement management
plans for certain species such as the vicufia and chinchilla
(CONAF 1989).

CONAF’s administrative faculties are not sufficient for
it to adequately carry out its duties. Infringement of
protected areas by private timber and mineral companies
isa major problem (Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992).
This is due to lack of resources, and also because of
CONAF’’s status as an autonomous state corporation. Its
powers are further limited by the fact that infringements
are not defined in the legislation (Gutiérrez, 1992). By
1989, 14 of the country’s protected areas were occupied
(Cunazza, 1989). On a general level, national and
regional policies do not put sufficient importance on
either conservation or sustainable development: areas
designated for protection are often also designated for
other incompatible uses by other government
institutions (Stutzin et al., 1991; Araya and Cunazza,
1992; E. Astorga, M. Stutzin and H. Verscheure, pers.
comm., 1992).

Recently, CONAF has turned to industry as a source of
additional financial support for its work.
Non-governmental conservation organisations (NGOs)
also fund specific aspects of CONAF’s work, such as
environmental education and research (Stutzin et al.,
1991).

In the northern region of Chile an NGO, the Flora and
Fauna Defense Committee (Comité Nacional Pro
Defensa de la Flora y la Fauna) (CODEFF), supports
protected areas, and works towards increasing
environmental protection and preventing pollution
(Guerra, pers. comm., 1991). It has sections in seven
cities, and manages a private reserve in the south of
Chile. The Austral Ecological Defence Initiative
(Iniciativa de Defensa Ecolégica Austral) (IDEA) works
on issues related to protected areas in the south of Chile.
The National Network for Ecological Action (Red
Nacional de Accién Ecolégica) (RENACE) links NGOs
throughout the country via a monthly news bulletin,
Ecoprensa.

Systems Reviews Chile extends 4,200km from 17S to
56S, with an altitude range from sea level to 7,000m, and
includes oceanic islands. A number of distinct
ecosystems are found, with a high degree of biodiversity
(Mark, 1984; Ormazdbal, 1986a). To obtain a better
understanding of the country’s vegetation formations
and ecosystems, and to assess the degree of protection
afforded by the SNASPE, CONAF initiated the Basic
System of Classifying Chilean Native Vegetation
(Sistema BA4sico de Clasificacién de la Vegetacién
Nativa Chilena) in 1985 (Ormazdbal, 1986b). The
System identifies 8 ecological regions, 17

sub-regions and 83 different vegetation formations
(Ormazabal, 1986a, 1986b).

The two main mountain ranges are the Cordillera de los
Andes, extending the length of the country, and the
Cordillera de la Costa along the northern coast. Chilean
territory includes Easter Island, Sala y Gomez Island,
and the Juan Fernandez Islands. Tropical coastal desert
and high desert grassland (puna), located in the far north,
include the Atacama desert where average rainfall is less
than 1mm per year.

Predominantly scrubland vegetation lies to the south,
where annual precipitation varies from 100mm in
northern areas to 1000mm further south. This is the most
productive agricultural land in the country and includes
the capital metropolitan area. Two-thirds (66%) of the
population lives in this region, which occupies only
10% of the total national territory, a situation that has
resulted in extreme environmental degradation
(Weber, 1983).

A 300km-long stretch of Araucaria forest intervenes
between the scrubland and the Valdivian mixed
temperate rain forest, which is characterised by the
presence of bamboo in the understorey. True Chilean
Nothofagus beech forests extend 2,000km to the south,
and Patagonian steppe with tussock grassland and
shrub vegetation extends down to the Magellan Straits
(Mark, 1984). Cattle ranching is concentrated in this
region.

The first national park was declared in 1926, with the
objective of protecting natural beauty and resources and
allowing for tourism, without endangering the
livelihoods of the local inhabitants (Contreras et al.,
1979; Ormaz4bal, 1986b). A further 12 parks were
established between 1935 and 1945 with the objective of
protecting particular tree species. Between 1958 and
1979, 36 more protected areas were established. During
the 1970s, management plans were compiled, describing
the infrastructure, research and educational projects
required (Contreras et al., 1979). By 1990, there were
30 national parks, 36 national reserves, and 10 natural
monuments, totalling 13,600,000ha or around 18% of
total land area (Poblete, pers. comm., 1990).

The principal fault with the protected areas system is the
considerable difference in coverage between different
regions of the country, with some ecosystems absent
from SNASPE altogether (Ormazabal, 1986a, 1986b).
The majority of the area under protection, 82%, is
located in Aysen and Magallanes regions at the southern
tip of the country. Both these regions have nearly 50%
of their territory within the SNASPE. Less than 1% of
Antofagasta is protected, despite being of similar size to
both of the southern regions. The desert, Patagonian
steppe, Matorrales and sclerophyll wood regions are also
considered to be inadequately protected (Ormazabal,
1986b). Of Chile’s 17 ecological sub-regions, eight are
well or adequately represented within the SNASPE, five
are poorly represented, and four are not represented at

221

Chile

all (Valencia et al., 1987). Studies carried out as part of
the native vegetation classification project found that
approximately 30 of the 83 different vegetation
formations described are not represented in any
protected area (Valencia et al., 1987; Ramirez, pers.
comm., 1991). Lack of protection is most pronounced in
the Central Zone, and the northern regions, Antofagasta
and Atacama (Ormazabal, 1986b).

National parks have not always been created in
accordance with stated national objectives. Some were
declared in order to stop agricultural colonisation or for
political reasons, such as improving the country’s
international image (Contreras et al., 1979). Therefore,
several national parks do not fulfil the appropriate legal
designation (Anon., 1983; Ormazabal, 1986b). In 1972,
five national parks were established under provisions of
Law No. 17699, but with no specified boundaries,
management plans, or consideration of the fact that most
of the land was privately owned (Anon., 1983).

Chile participates in the FAO Latin American
Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de
Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras
Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through
CONAF. According to the definition provided by the
network, Chile has developed a comprehensive national
system (Ormazébal, 1988; FAO, n.d.).

Owing to the country’s geographical diversity and the
great differences between each protected area, there is
no single solution to the problems of SNASPE
(Ormazabal, 1986b). Special priority is given to
incorporating under-represented ecosystems into
SNASPE. This includes the Central Zone where
degradation is most accelerated (CONAF, 1989;
Ormazabal, 1986b). Incorporating more aquatic
ecosystems into SNASPE, increasing staff salaries and
providing more training opportunities are amongst the
current aims of CONAF (CONAF, 1989).

Addresses

Departamento de Patrimonio Silvestre, Corporacién
Nacional Forestal y de Recursos Naturales
Renovables (CONAF), Av. Bulnes 259, Oficina 604,
SANTIAGO (Tel: 2 699 6677/1257; FAX: 2 715881;
Tix: 240001 CONAF CL)

Comité Nacional Pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora
(CODEFF), Santa Filomena 185, Casilla 3675,
SANTIAGO (Tel: 377290\7771607; FAX: 2 377290)

Comité Nacional Pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora
(CODEFF), Universidad de Antofagasta, Av.
Universidad de Chile S/N, Casilla 170,
ANTOFAGASTA (Tel: 242160 ext. 226; FAX: 247786;
Tix: 325054 UANTOF CK)

Iniciativa de Defensa Ecolégica Austral (IDEA), José
Nogueira 1161, Casilla 527, PUNTA ARENAS
(FAX: 61 247839)

Red Nacional de Accién Ecolégica (RENACE), Casa de
la Paz, Antonia Lope de Bello 024, SANTIAGO
(Tel: 2 374280)

Protected Areas of the World

References

Anon. (1983). Las Araucarias de Ralco-Lepoi. Chile
Forestal. May. Pp. 20-22.

Araya, P. and Cunazza, C. (1992). Habitantes de los
parques nacionales de Chile: caracteristicas y
problemas. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds),
~Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de
América del Sur. YUCN and Editorial Nueva
Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 139-158.

Astorga, E. (n.d.). Régimen juridico sobre 4reas
silvestres protegidas. 2 pp. (Unpublished)

Brooks, H. (1987). Chile: a country profile. Prepared for
the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance,
Agency for International Development, Department
of State, Washington D.C., USA. 99 pp.

CONAF (1983). Representacién de las provincias
biogeograficas por las reservas de la bidsfera en
Chile. Accién presente y futura de la Corporacién
Forestal Nacional. Boletin Técnico No. 10. Corporacién
Nacional Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago.
23 pp.

CONAF (1985). Parque nacional Torres del Paine.
Nandu 7(18). Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Punta
Arenas. 24 pp.

CONAF (1989). La proteccién del patrimonio
ecolégico. Corporacién Nacional Forestal,
Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 75 pp.

Contreras, M., L de la Maza, C., Merino, R.,
Morales, A., Barros, P. and Weintraub, A. (1979).
Evaluaci6n econémica de parques nacionales: el
sistema de parques nacionales en Chile, Resumen de
metodologtas. Investigacién y desarrollo forestal.
CONAF/FAO, Santiago de Chile. 74 pp.

Cunazza, C. (1989). Predios privados y ocupantes
del Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres
Protegidas del Estado: diagnéstico y alternativas
de solucién. In: Actas Reunién Nacional del
Programa de Patrimonio Silvestre. CONAF.
(Unseen)

FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas
Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago. 8 pp.

FAO (1983). Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques
Nacionales, otras 4reas protegidas, flora y fauna
silvestres. Santiago de Chile 8-10 June. FAO
Regional Office for Latin America and the
Caribbean, Santiago. Pp. 26-30.

FAO (1990). Investigacién y desarrollo de dreas
silvestres en zonas dridas y semidaridas: resultados y

222

recomendaciones del proyecto. United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization and United Nations
Development Programme, Rome, 1990. 27 pp.

Gutiérrez, D. (1992). Legislacién chilena sobre parques
nacionales: uso de los recursos naturales. In Amend, S.
and Amend, T. (Eds), ;Espacios sin Habitantes?
Parques Nacionales de América del Sur. TUCN and
Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 159-172.

Mark, A.F. (1984). Impressions of the national parks
system in Chile. Forest and Bird 15(2): 33-37.

Ormazabal, C. (1986a). El sistema nacional de 4reas
silvestres de Chile. Flora Fauna y Areas Silvestres
1: 10-15

Ormazabal, C. (1986b). Preservacién de recursos
fitogenéticos in situ a través de parques nacionales y
otras areas protegidas. Importancia, avances,
limitaciones y proyecci6n futura. Boletin Técnico
No 16. Gerencia Técnica, Corporacién Nacional
Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 32 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto
FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres,
areas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina
y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23.

Ormazabal, C. (1990). The conservation of biological
diversity in Chile. Second draft. School of Forestry
and Environmental Studies, Yale University. 60 pp.

Ormazabal, C. and Saavedra Perez, M.E. (1985).
Representacién ecolégica del sistema nacional de
dreas silvestres protegidas del estado en relaciona la
clasificacién de Udvardy. Departamento Areas
Silvestres Protegidas, CONAF, Santiago, Chile. 23 pp.

Stutzin, M., Verscheure, H., and Astorga, E. (1991). El
Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del
Estado de Chile (SNASPE): carencias y
potencialidades. CODEFF, Santiago. 11 pp.

Valencia et al. (1987) Sistema de dreas de conservacién
en Chile. Proposiciones para un esquema ecoldégico
integral. Ambiente y Desarrollo. Vol. Ill. N. 1 and 2.
Pp. 139-159. (Unseen).

Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A.,
Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for
South American National Parks. National Park
Service, US Department of the Interior, Washington,
DC. 123 pp.

ANNEX

Chile

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: | Act No. 18362 crea un Sistema
Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del
Estado (to create a National System of State
Protected Wildland Areas)

Date: 8 November 1984 (but not in force)

Brief description: Unifies all previous
protected area legislation by redefining designations
and stating conservation objectives.

Administrative authority: Ministerio de
Agricultura (Ministry of Agriculture), acting through
the Corporacién Nacional Forestal y de Proteccién
de Recursos Naturales Renovables (National
Corporation of Forests and the Protection of
Renewable Natural Resources) (CONAF)

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area,
usually of considerable size, where ecosystems are
found that are unique or representative of the natural
ecological diversity of the country, and have not been
spoilt by human interference. Research, educational
and leisure activities are the only permitted uses.

223

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)

An area, usually of no great extent, where native
species of flora or fauna are found, or geological sites
of educational, cultural, scientific or scenic
importance.

Reserva de Regidn Virgen (Wilderness Reserve)
Any area where primitive natural conditions of
wildlife, fauna, or human habitation exist, with no
roads for motorised traffic and where all commercial
exploitation is prohibited. These areas will remain
untouched as far as possible, except for authorised
scientific research and inspection by the Corporation.
For all the above designations, hunting, killing or
chasing wildlife specimens, destroying vegetation
and nest sites and removing floral or fauna specimens
are prohibited.

National Reserve Any area where resource
conservation is required and special care exercised in
their use. Flora and fauna may be used according to
sound principles of sustainability.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

OOAIDMNPWNe

RO RS
SOmMAINAMNEWNK ©

No
_

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations

Name of area

National Parks
Alberto de Agostini
Alerce Andino

Archipiélago de Juan Fernandez

Bernardo O’ Higgins
Bosque Fray Jorge
Cabo de Hornos
Chiloé

Conguillio

El Morado
Hornopirén
Huerquehue

Isla Guamblin

Isla Magdalena

La Campana

Laguna San Rafael
Laguna del Laja

Las Palmas de Cocalan
Lauca

Nahuelbuta

Pali-Aike

Pan de Azticar
Puyehue

Queulat

Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
Rio Simpson
Tolhuaca

Torres del Paine
Vicente Pérez Rosales
Villarrica

Volcan Isluga

National Reserves
Alacalufes

Alto Bio-Bio
Cerro Castillo
China Muerta
Coihaique

Isla Mocha
Katalalixar

La Chimba
Lago Carlota
Lago Cochrane
Lago General Carrera
Lago Jeinimeni
Lago Las Torres
Lago Palena
Lago Pefiuelas
Lago Rosselot
Laguna Parrillar
Las Chinchillas
Las Guaitecas
Las Vicufias
Llanquihue

Los Flamencos

IUCN management
category

224

Area
(ha)

1,460,000
39,255
9,109
3,525,901
9,959
63,093
43,057
60,832
3,000
48,232
12,500
10,625
157,640
8,000
1,742,000
11,600
3,709
137,883
6,832
3,000
43,754
107,000
154,093
6,666
40,790
6,374
181,414
226,305
61,000
174,744

2,313,875
35,000
179,550
9,887
2,150
2,368
674,500
2,583
27,110
8,361
178,400
38,700
16,516
41,356
9,094
12,725
18,814
4,229
1,097,975
209,131
33,972
73,987

Year
notified

1965
1982
1935
1969
1941
1945
1982
1950
1974
1988
1967
1967
1983
1967
1959
1958
1972
1970
1939
1970
1986
1941
1983
1935
1967
1935
1959
1926
1940
1967

1969
1912
1970
1968
1948
1988
1983
1988
1965
1967
1974
1967
1969
1965
1952
1968
1977
1983
1938
1983
1912
1990

National/international designations
Name of area

Magallanes
Malalcahuello
Malleco

Nalcas

Nuble

Pampa del Tamarugal
Ralco

Rio Blanco

Rio Clarillo

Rio de Los Cipreses
Valdivia

Villarrica

Natural Monuments
Alerce Costero
Salar de Surire

Biosphere Reserves

Araucarias

La CampanaPeiiuelas

Parque Nacional Fray Jorge

Parque Nacional Juan Fernandez
Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael
Parque Nacional Lauca

Parque Nacional Torres del Paine

Ramsar Wetland
Santuario Carlos Anwandter

IUCN management

225

category

IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV

Area
(ha)

13,500
17,530
17,371
13,775
55,948
100,650
12,421
10,175
10,185
38,582
9,727
60,005

2,308
11,298

81,000
17,095
14,074
9,290
1,742,448
358,312
184,414

4,877

Chile

Year
notified

1932
1931
1907
1967
1978
1988
1972
1932
1982
1986
1929
1912

1964
1983

1983
1984
1977
1977
1979
1981
1978

1981

Protected Areas of the World

300 400km

Protected Areas of Chile

226

Chile

Protected Areas of Chile

227

Protected Areas of the World

300

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Protected Areas of Chile

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Protected Areas of Chile

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+18

COLOMBIA

Area 1,141,748 sq. km

Population 32,978,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.85% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,316 per capita (The Economist, 1991)
GNP: US$ 1,240 per capita (1988)

Policy and Legislation National conservation
objectives are stated in legislation, with detailed
definitions of management categories, allowing for the
creation of acoherent national system of protected areas
(Ormazabal, 1988). However, a comprehensive national
conservation strategy (estrategia nacional para la
conservacién) that would reinforce the legislation and
national system has not yet been formulated
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991).

In 1987, the government initiated a policy of Opening of
Parks (Apertura de Parques) to increase funding and
public awareness of the national system of protected
areas. Various projects have been implemented to
encourage scientific research and recreation, to train
students and professionals in conservation and protected
area management, and to strengthen national support. A
state-run Voluntary Park Guard Service (Servicio de
Guardaparques Voluntarios) programme augments the
regular body of park guards with seasonal workers and
students (Castafio, 1989; INDERENA-DPN, 1991).

Colombia participates in the FAO Tropical Forest
Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. In 1989, the
National Planning Department (Departamento Nacional
de Planeaci6n) presented a Forest Action Plan (Plan de
Accién Forestal) (PAFC). It interprets the global designs
of the TFAP into a national plan according to Colombia’s
particular biological characteristics and objectives. A
Special Secretariat (Secretaria Especial) was created
within the National Planning Department to implement
the PAFC, which contains 70 projects to develop, protect
and improve forested areas. Four projects specifically
involve protected areas in the natural national parks
system, and include a proposal to enlarge the national
system to incorporate more forest ecosystems
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991; C. Castafio and H. Sanchez,
pers. comm., 1991; C. Romero, pers. comm., 1991). The
plan is in the process of implementation.

The first environmental legislation was the 1959 Law of
National Forest Economy and the Conservation of
Renewable Natural Resources (Ley Sobre Economia
Forestal de la Nacién y Conservacién de los Recursos
Naturales Renovables) which provided the general
principles of conservation still in practice
today(H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1992). The

231

Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) is
empowered to define areas which might later be
developed as national parks, including all permanently
snow-covered mountains and their surrounding areas.
Over 55 million ha of forest reserves (reservas forestales)
are declared under provision of this Law
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991; Sanchez, 1990, cited in C.
Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).

Decree No. 2420 (1968) provided for the creation of an
organisation specifically responsible for natural resource
management, the National Institute of Renewable
Natural Resources and the Environment (Instituto
Nacional de los Recursos Naturales Renovables y del
Medio Ambiente) (INDERENA), and all protected area
responsibilities were transferred to it. Decree No. 133
(1976) restructured INDERENA, expanding its range of
responsibilities.

The principal current legislation is the National Code of
Renewable Natural Resources and Protection of the
Environment (Cédigo Nacional de los Recursos
Naturales Renovables y de Proteccién al Medio
Ambiente), Decree No. 2811 of 18 December 1974. All
natural resources are declared as state property, private
rights to which are subject to specific conditions. Private
land may be expropriated for the creation of protected
areas, where necessary. The Code provides the basis for
natural resource protection, scientific investigation, and
environmental education, by stating national
conservation objectives. Regulations for natural
resource use are detailed, and provision made for forest
reserves. The system of national parks (sistema de
parques nacionales) is defined as a conjunction of areas
of exceptional national value established to conserve
flora, fauna, ecosystems, cultural or historical
specimens, and collectively attain national conservation
objectives. Definitions are given of the six management
categories employed in the system (see Annex). Further
details of protected area management and prohibitions
will be given in regulations pertaining to the Code.

Decree No. 622 (1977) regulates all articles of the Code
relating to the national parks system, referring to it as the
natural national parks system (sistema de parques
nacionales naturales), and provides specific guidance for
administration and management. Provision is made for
protected areas to be subdivided into management zones
providing different degrees of protection: these range
from intangible to high density use (see Annex). A
master plan, giving details of development, management
and conservation objectives, must be drawn up for each
area, following the zonation system. The regulations
State that national parks and other protected areas are
compatible with indigenous reserves and resguardos,
and where indigenous groups occupy areas in the
national system, an agreement will be reached between
the respective agencies to allow coexistence and

Protected Areas of the World

compliance with established conservation aims (see
Systems Review). An extensive list of prohibitions is given,
including all forms of natural resource exploitation except
under authorisation from INDERENA.

Prohibited activities and penalties imposed for illegal
exploitation of natural resources and colonisation in
protected areas are also given in the General National
Penal Code (Cédigo General Nacional Penal), 1981.
Penalties include imprisonment and fines.

Colombia acknowledges indigenous rights of land
ownership, and has adopted a series of legal measures
following these principles. Legislation defines two types
of indigenous areas: resguardos are traditionally
inhabited lands communally owned by indigenous
peoples through a legal title (C. Romero, pers. comm.,
1992), and indigenous reserves (reservas indigenas)
which are territories provisionally assigned to a
particular indigenous community for their own use but
the actual ownership of the land and its subsoil remains
in the hands of the state (C. Romero, pers. comm., 1992).
Current environmental legislation and policy providing
for the establishment of protected areas is compatible
with the system of resguardos and indigenous reserves;
in most cases, the indigenous communities use natural
resources on a sustainable basis (Castafio, 1989; 1992).

Although the legislation details national conservation
objectives, the lack of a national conservation strategy
providing for their implementation gives rise to conflict
between governmental institutions over land use and
ownership rights (INDERENA-DPN, 1991). These
conflicts of interest are one of the most serious threats to
the protected area system. A national conservation
strategy would allow for land ownership and be given
priority and political support by the government
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991).

International Activities Colombia signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccidén de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940. It is one of
the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region
that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de
Cooperacién Amazénica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement
to regulate and promote cooperation in natural resources
management. The Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the
related Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating
Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region were both
signed by Colombia on 24 March 1983 and ratified on
3 March 1988. The second protocol, Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife
(SPAW), was signed by Colombia in June 1991, but
has not yet been ratified.

Colombia ratified the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage

232

(World Heritage Convention) on 24 May 1983, but no
natural sites have been inscribed to date, and participates
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme with
three biosphere reserves inscribed in 1979.

Colombia has signed an agreement with the Venezuelan
government to protect El Tama Transfrontier National
Park. Further details are not yet available.

Since 1992, the National Planning Department has been
collaborating with INDERENA, autonomous regional
corporations and local non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) to obtain intemmational support for the protected
area system by means of a programme comprising 200
environmental projects (M. Kelsey, pers. comm., 1992).

Administration and Management Since its
creation in 1968, INDERENA has been responsible for
formulating conservation policies and managing natural
resources and protected areas. INDERENA is part of the
Ministry of Agriculture, and comprises a Directive
Committee (Junta Directiva) at its head, with the General
Management (Gerencia General) below. Within the
General Management are four sub-managements:
finance and administration; environment; development;
and forests and waters, under which is the National Parks
Division (Divisi6n de Parques Nacionales) (DPN), the
department responsible for the actual management of
protected areas in the national natural parks system.

The DPN implements the policies of INDERENA and is
responsible for planning, coordinating and regulating the
programmes of the national system of protected areas.
The total number of personnel employed in the national
system is 287, comprising professionals, administrative
and technical staff and labourers, including park guards.
The responsibilities of INDERENA with respect to the
national system were established by decree in 1989, and
include the declaration and delimitation of protected
areas, and their regulation and administration via the
DPN (INDERENA-DPN, 1991; C. Castafio and
H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).

Forest reserves are managed by INDERENA under the
1959 legislation (FAO, 1991). The Colombian Institute
of Agrarian Reform (Instituto Colombiano de la
Reforma Agraria) (INCORA) is responsible for
establishing the system of indigenous reserves known as
resguardos, and for regulating forest resource use in
these areas (FAO, 1991). Forest reserves do not form part
of the national system of protected areas.

INDERENA is responsible for natural resource
management at the national level, but there are
autonomous regional corporations (corporaciones
regionales) throughout the country, responsible for
resource regulation in their particular regions. Where
this occurs, an agreement is reached between
INDERENA and the regional corporation to coordinate
the management of protected areas in the region. Some
administrative functions may be delegated to the
regional corporation, although INDERENA remains the

ultimate administrative authority (C. Castafio and
H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991; C. Romero, pers.
comm., 1991). For example, the Cauca Valley
Autonomous Regional Corporation (Corporacién
Auténoma Regional del Valle del Cauca) (CVC)
manages around 25% of Farallones de Cali Natural
National Park in conjunction with INDERENA (Anon.,
1989; C. Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).
Regional corporations carry out other conservation
activities in their region involving parts of the national
system. Similiar agreements may also be reached
between INDERENA and NGOs.

There are a number of NGOs working in environmental
issues. Among the largest is the Nature Foundation
(Fundacién Natura), established in 1985, which has
signed an agreement with INDERENA to cooperate in
the management of some protected areas
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991). Through an agreement with
a private national company, the Nature Foundation
shares ownership and management of a scientific
reserve, and three national parks as well as managing
several private reserves (Fundacion Natura, 1990;
C. Romero, pers. comm., 1991, M. Kelsey, pers. comm.,
1992). The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Support
Foundation (Fundacién Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta) is also directly involved in protected area
management, concerned with promoting scientific
research, training programmes and inter-institutional
support for Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Natural
National Park (IUCN/ITTO, 1991; Maldonado, pers.
comm., 1991). The Green Heritage Foundation
(Fundacién Herencia Verde) works closely with
autonomous regional corporations in buffer zone
management, and also in the Chocé (M. Kelsey, pers.
comm., 1992). The Foundation for Higher Education
(Fundacién para la Educacién Superior) (FES), in
conjunction with WWF, established a community nature
reserve in 1982 for educational and conservation
purposes, which it now manages (Orejuela, 1985;
Samper and Orejuela, n.d.).

A regional Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos
para la Conservacién) has been established within the
Cauca Valley Autonomous Regional Corporation to
compile and process information on the biology and
distribution of endangered plant and animal species, and
the current situation of protected areas in the south-west.
This information enables conservation programmes to
be formulated at the species or at the regional level
(Z. Pifieros, pers. comm., 1991).

Problems with protected area managementarise from the
internal organisation of INDERENA. The subordinate
position of the DPN within INDERENA has reduced its
operative ability, and given rise to conflict between central
administration and regional offices (NDERENA-DPN,
1991). In response to these problems and the weak
management of natural resources, the government is
working in coordination with the National Planning
Department and INDERENA to create a Ministry of the
Environment (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente)

233

Columbia

specifically responsible for formulating environmental
policies and managing natural resources. The Ministry
of the Environment will include a National Parks
Directorate (Direccién de Parques Nacionales) to
improve the efficiency of protected area administration
and management (Castafio, 1992; C. Castafio and H.
Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991). At present, lack of funds
reduces administrative capacity by a shortage of human
resources and equipment (IUCN/ITTO, 1991).

The DPN has proposed a project to improve
conservation measures in the Pacific region, principally
by strengthening protected area administration
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991). Decentralisation of
INDERENA is recommended, together with
implementing the proposed internal restructuring and
increasing training programmes for personnel.

Systems Reviews Colombia is a country of great
geographical contrast, resulting in a diversity of
ecosystems, species richness and endemism (Castafio,
1989; Gonzalez et al., 1989). A number of major
waterways are found in the country, including the
Orinoco and the Amazon river systems. As a result of its
varied topography, with altitudes ranging from sea level
to 5,755m, and coasts on both the Caribbean Sea and the
Pacific Ocean, Colombia has one of the highest levels of
species diversity in the world (Carrizosa, 1990, cited in
IUCN/ITTO, 1991; INDERENA-DPN, 1991).

The country may be divided into five main
biogeographical regions or provinces: Orinoquia,
Amazonia, Andes, Caribbean and Chocé (C. Castafio
and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991). The Orinoquia
province covers the lowlands of the Orinoco River
drainage system, with elevations from 100m to 500m.
Most of this region is covered by natural savanna
grassland, and the occurrence of fires, both natural and
man-made, is the most significant factor causing changes
in vegetation composition and soil degradation. The
Amazonian province is an alluvial plain with a relatively
uniform relief, an annual rainfall of 2,500mm and annual
temperature of more than 24°C, which accounts for
around one-third of total land area (C. Castafio and
H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991). The Amazonian region
is crossed by a complex of waterways, and is very rich
in species diversity.

The Andean Complex is characterised by typical floral
and faunal species found throughout the central and
southern Andes. Three main mountain ranges run
parallel from north to south, producing distinct regions
separated by valleys and the rivers Cauca and
Magdalena: the Western Cordillera, the lowest; the
Cordillera Central, the oldest and highest in altitude; and
the Eastern Cordillera or Real del Ecuador. Some of the
species present in the three cordilleras are similar but a
high degree of endemism is found in each (C. Castafio
and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).

The Caribbean complex and Massif of the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta comprise a province that contains several

Protected Areas of the World

different vegetation types, from montane forest to
mangroves (C. Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm.,
1991). The massif of Santa Marta is the highest coastal
range in the world and is completely isolated from the
other mountain ranges (Adams, n.d.). With altitudes
ranging from sea level to 5,775m, the Santa Marta
mountains contain all of the altitudinal zones found in
the country, and has a biota related to that of the Andes,
but with a highly endemic component.

The Chocé province in the Pacific coastal region, where
17% of the total population is located, is characterised
by humid rain forest, except in the south where there are
periods of drought. Representatives of most of the
ecosystems found in the country are present here,
including mangrove forests and coral reefs. Some
species are similar to those of the Amazonian region, and
it is thought that many of these plant and animal species
originated in the Chocé region and migrated outwards.
A high degree of endemism is found (C. Castafio and
H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).

Natural resource protection was initiated by Colombia’s
participation in the 1940 Western Hemisphere
Convention, as a result of which hunting and fishing in
the Mufia River was prohibited in 1943. The first
protected area, a natural reserve, was declared in 1948,
but it was not until 1959, when the first piece of
environmental legislation was passed, that conservation
principles and regulations for natural resource use were
described and a legal framework for the establishment
of national parks provided (INDERENA-DPN, 1991;
C. Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).
Several parks were declared during the 1960s by the
Colombian Institute of Agrarian Reform (INCORA) and
are managed by autonomous regional corporations.
Following the creation of INDERENA in 1968,
protected area management was unified into one
organisation (Gonz4lez et al., 1989; C. Castafio and H.
Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991, 1992).

Colombia has a coherent and coordinated national
system of protected areas, following the definition given
by the FAO Latin American Network (Red
Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques
Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna
Silvestres). This stipulates that protected areas should be
unified by comprehensive legislation, stating national
conservation objectives and giving detailed definitions
of the management categories used, and that there is
coordination between the administration of each area so
that they may collectively attain national objectives
(Ormazdbal, 1988). Colombia is the Regional
Coordinator of the Latin American Network programme
(C. Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991).

By 1991, the national natural parks system comprised 42
conservation units, covering 9,016,893ha or 8.6% of the
total land area (INDERENA-DPN, 1991; C. Castafio and
H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991). The protected area
system contains 44% of the country’s ecosystems
(IUCN/ITTO, 1991). There is a high representation of

234

mountain areas, particularly the Andean region and
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Castafio, 1989;
C. Castafio and H. Sanchez, pers. comm., 1991). The
Chocé biogeographical province in the Pacific region is
the most under-represented of all the provinces. As part
of the Forestry Action Plan, the DPN proposed a project
to strengthen and expand the system of national parks
and protected areas in the Pacific region
(INDERENA-DPN, 1991).

As well as the national system of protected areas,
Colombia has a system of indigenous reserves known as
resguardos which are community-owned areas and
cannot be sold. Since 1968 the government, through the
Colombian Institute of Agrarian Reform (INCORA), has
established over 300 resguardos and reserves totalling
around 26 million ha (C. Castafio, pers. comm., 1991).
The 1977 Regulations state that protected areas and
resguardos are compatible, and can coordinate
management to attain conservation objectives. In fact,
20 of the 42 units which comprise the protected area
system contain indigenous communities (Castajfio,
1992). An important step in protecting the Amazonian
region was taken in 1988 by INCORA, by declaring
6 million ha of rain forest as an indigenous reserve.
Together with the national parks in the area,
5.3 million ha of Amazonian rain forest is now under
protection either as indigenous land which cannot be
exploited by government concessions, or as part of the
national system of protected areas (Bunyard, 1989).

However, the integrity of protected areas is threatened
by a lack of state control in rural areas, and civil unrest,
guerrilla activities and drug trafficking. The lack of
trained personnel in the national park system and
shortage of funds available exacerbate the problem
(UCN/ITTO, 1991).

Addresses

Divisién de Parques Nacionales, Instituto Nacional de
los Recursos Naturales Renovables y del Medio
Ambiente (INDERENA), Carrera 10, No. 20-30,
Aptdo Aéreo 13458, SANTA FE DE BOGOTA
(Tel: 2 832598/2 830964; FAX: 1 2868643)

Centro de Datos para la Conservacién, Corporacién
Auténoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC),
Carrera 56, No. 11-36, Aptdo Aéreo 2366, CALI
(Tel: 23 396671)

Fundacién Herencia Verde, Aptdo Aéreo 32802, CALI
(Tel. 23 808484; FAX: 23 813257)

Fundacion Natura, Carrera 12 No. 70-96, Piso 3, Aptdo
Aéreo 55402, SANTA FE DE BOGOTA
(Tel: 249 7590/310 0026; FAX: 210 4515)

Fundacién Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
Edificio los Bancos, Oficina 602, SANTA
MARTA (Tel: 34697/31746)/Calle 74 No. 2-86,
Aptdo Aéreo 5000, SANTAFE DE BOGOTA
(Tel: 1 217 3487; Fax 1 218 3256)

Fundacion para la Educacién Superior, Calle 4,
No. 1-19, Aptdo Aéreo 5744, CALI (Tel: 23 822524)

References

Adams, M. (n.d.). Trapped in a Colombian Sierra. The
Geographical Magazine 49(4): 250-254.

Anon. (1989). Areas protegidas en el territorio
de jurisdiccién de la CVC Colombia. Silvestres
3(11): 20-22.

Bunyard, P. (1989). Guardians of the Amazon. New
Scientist 16 December. Pp. 38-41.

Castafio, C. (1989). Gufa del sistema de parques
nacionales de Colombia. Instituto Nacional de los
Recursos Naturales Renovables y del Medio
Ambiente, Bogota. 198 pp.

Castafio, C. (1991). Marco de accién y estrategias para
la definicién de politicas en el Sistema de Parques
Nacionales y en la conservacién de la diversidad
biolégica y cultural. Documento preliminar para la
conferencia de medio ambiente y desarrollo, Brazil.
(Unseen)

Castafio, C. (1992). Ocupacién humana en parques
nacionales de Colombia: politica y perspectivas. In
Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds) ¢Espacios sin
Habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resorces and Editorial Nueva Sociedad,
Caracas. Pp. 177-191.

DNP (n.d.). Plan de accién forestal para Colombia.
Departamento Nacional de Planeacién, Bogota. The
Economist (1991). Pocket World in Figures.
Hutchinson, London.

FAO (1973). Food and Agriculture Legislation
29(22): 110-115.

FAO (1991). Recursos forestales de Colombia: resumen
de informacién existente. FAO, Rome, Italy. Draft.

Fundacién Natura (1990). Annual Report 1990.
Fundacién Natura, Bogotd. 20 pp.

Gonzalez, E., Guillot, G., Miranda, N., Pombo, D. (Eds)
(1989). Perfil ambiental de Colombia. US Agency
for International Development, Washington DC,
USA. 348 pp.

Hernandez, J., SAnchez, H., Castafio, C., (n.d.).
Proteccién y conservacién en la Amazonia
Colombiana. (Unseen)

IUCN/ITTO (1991). Conserving biological diversity in
managed tropical forests. Proceedings of a workshop
held at the IUCN General Assembly, Perth,
Australia, 30 November-1 December 1990. Latin
American Draft Report. 84 pp

INDERENA (1976). Preseleccién del sistema de
parques nacionales naturales de Colombia. Divisién
de Parques Nacionales, Bogoté. (Unseen)

235

Columbia

INDERENA (1984). Colombia: Parques nacionales.
OP Grdficas, Bogota. 262 pp.

INDERENA (1987). Politica para la planificaci6n, el
desarrollo y manejo del sistema de parques
nacionales naturales y dreas protegidas de Colombia,
Bogota. (Unseen)

INDERENA (1988). Memorias del simposio
internacional ECOBIOS Colombia 1988. Biblioteca
Andreas Posada Arango, Bogota. (Unseen)

INDERENA (1989). Memorias del simposio
internacional de investigacién y manejo de la
Amazonia. Biblioteca Andreas Posada Arango,
Bogotd. (Unseen)

INDERENA (1991). Diagnéstico global del sistema de
parques nacionales naturales de Colombia. Divisién
de Parques Nacionales, Bogot4. (Unseen)

INDERENA-DPN (1991). Colombia — proyecto de
manejo forestal y proteccién del medio ambiente.
Conservacién de la diversidad biolégica a través de
parques nacionales naturales del Pacifico. Divisién
de Parques Nacionales. Draft. 84 pp.

Orejuela, J. (1985). Project: La Planada Nature Reserve.
Annual report 1984. Cali. Pp. 14.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto
FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres,
Areas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina
y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.
Pp. 20-23.

Salinas, P.J. (1981). Parques nacionales naturales y otras
4reas protegidas de Colombia. Universidad de los
Andes, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Centro de
Estudios Forestales de Postgrado, Mérida,
Venezuela. 30 pp.

Samper, A. and Orejuela, J. (n.d.). La Planada. A private
Nature reserve for nature conservation and
community development. Foundation for Higher
Education and WWF-US. 11 pp.

Sanchez, H. (1990). International handbook of natural
parks and nature reserves. C.W. Allin (Ed.),
Greenwood Press, New York/Westport,
Connecticut/London. (Unseen)

Sanchez, H., Hernandez, J., Rodriguez, J.V., Castafio,
C. (1991). Colombia: Nuevos parques nacionales.
INDERENA/OP Graficas, Bogota.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definition of protected area designations as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Cédigo Nacional de Recursos
Naturales Renovables y de Protecci6n al

Medio Ambiente (National Code of Renewable

Natural Resources and the Protection of the
Environment), Decree Law No. 2811

Santuario de Flora (Floral Sanctuary) An area
set aside for the conservation of flora species or
communities

Only activities relating to conservation, scientific

Date: 18 December 1974

Brief description: Natural resources and the
environment are the property of the state, and their
protection is in the public interest. The system of
national parks (sistema de parques nacionales) is
described as a union of protected areas with the
objectives of conserving examples of outstanding
ecological, historical, cultural or scenic value, and
promoting the continuity of natural processes and
maintaining biological diversity. Management
categories employed in the system are defined.

Administrative authority: Instituto Nacional
de los Recursos Naturales Renovables y del
Ambiente (National Institute of Renewable Natural
Resources and the Environment) (INDERENA),
within the Ministerio de Agricultura (Ministry of
Agriculture)

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area that has
not been significantly altered by man and contains
floral or faunal species, geological formations,
cultural or historical examples of scientific,
educational or national importance.

Must be large enough to allow the continuation of
natural ecological processes

Only conservation, research, educational or
recreational activities are permitted, with prior
authorisation from INDERENA.

Reserva Natural (Natural Reserve) An area
containing floral or faunal species that, owing to its
natural characteristics, is suitable only for
conservation and scientific research purposes.

Only activities relating to conservation, scientific
research or education are permitted, with prior
authorisation from INDERENA.

Area Natural Unica (Unique Natural Area)

An area containing singular examples of floral or
faunal species or of exceptional natural scenic
beauty.

Only conservation, scientific research or educational
activities are permitted, with prior authorisation from
INDERENA.

236

research, education or management, with the aim or
recuperation, are permitted. Prior authorisation from
INDERENA required

Santuario de Fauna (Faunal Sanctuary)
An area set aside for the conservation of species or
communities of wildlife

Permitted activities as for Floral sanctuary

Via Parque (Parkway) An area bordering a road
that contains ecosystems, or historic or cultural
examples of national interest

Conservation, educational and recreational activities
are permitted.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Decree No. 622, Reglamento parcial del
Decreto Ley No. 2811 de 1974 sobre el Sistema
de Parques Nacionales, la Ley 23 de 1973 y la
Ley 2a de 1959 (Partial regulation of Decree
Law No. 2811 of 1974, of Law No. 23 of 1973
and Law No. 2a of 1959)

Date: 16 March 1977

Brief description: The conservation objectives
of the national natural park system are restated and
detailed regulations for protected area management
are given. The six categories of protected area
described by Decree Law No. 2811 are to be
sub-divided into different management zones, as
defined under these regulations. A master
management plan is to be drawn up for each
protected area, following this system of zonification.
General prohibitions are given. National natural
parks are compatible with indigenous reserves and
indigenous communities will not be removed from
protected areas, but an agreement will be reached
between the respective administrative authorities to
comply with the state conservation objectives.

Administrative authority:
within the Ministry of Agriculture

INDERENA,

Designations:

Parque Nacional Natural (Natural National Park),
Reserva Natural (Natural Reserve), Area Natural
Unica (Unique Natural Area), Santuarios de
Fauna y Flora (Floral and Faunal Sanctuaries)
and Via Parque (Parkway) Shall be
sub-divided into the following management zones:

Zona Primitiva (Primitive Zone) Zone Unaltered
or only minimally altered by human intervention and
remains in its natural state

Zona Intangible (Intangible Zone) Areain which
the environment has maintained its integrity,
although there may be some human intervention

Zona de Recuperacion Natural (Natural
Recuperation Zone) Area which has been
substantially altered and is to be restored, by suitable
methods, to its natural state. Once recovered, the
zone will be assigned to the appropriate category.

237

Columbia

Zona Histérico/Cultural (Historical/Cultural
Zone) Area where archaeological or historic relics
are found, or where cultural events of national
importance occurred.

Zona de Recreacién General Exterior (General
External Recreation Zone) Area which, owing
to its natural characteristics, offers certain
recreational facilities, without requiring or causing
significant alteration to the environment

Zona de Alta Densidad de Uso (High-Density Use
Zone) Area where natural characteristics and
location allow recreational and educational activities
to take place, producing the least amount of
environmental alteration as possible

Zona Amortiguadora (Buffer Zone) An area
in which the human intervention in the surrounding
zones is diminished, to prevent such activities
causing disturbances or alterations to ecosystem and
wildlife of those areas.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

eee eee eee —————————————————— a ee

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Natural National Parks
1 Amacayacu II 293,000 1975
2 Cahuinari II 575,500 1987
3 Catatumbo-Bari Il 158,125 1989
4 Chingaza II 50,374 1977
5 Chiribiquete II 1,280,000 1989
6 Corales del Rosario Il 19,506 1977
4] Cordillera de los Picachos II 439,000 1989
8 Cueva de los Gudcharos II 9,000 1960
9 El Cocuy II 306,000 1977
10 El Tuparro II 548,000 1970
11 Farallones de Cali II 150,000 1968
12 Isla Gorgona II 49,200 1984
13 Isla de Salamanca II 21,000 1969
14 La Paya II 422,000 1984
15 Las Hermosas II 125,000 1977
16 Las Orquideas II 32,000 1974
17 Los Katios II 72,000 1973
18 Los Nevados II 58,300 1959
19 Macuira II 25,000 1977
20 Munchique II 44,400 1977
21 Nevado del Huila II 158,000 1977
22 Paramillo Il 460,000 1977
23 Pisba II 45,000 1977
24 Puracé II 83,000 1968
25 Sanquianga II 80,000 1977
26 Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta II 383,000 1964
27 Sierra de la Macarena II 630,000 1989
28 Sumapaz II 154,000 1977
29 Tama II 48,000 1977
30 Tatama II 54,300 1987
31 Tayrona II 15,000 1964
32 Tinigua II 201,785 1989
33 Utria II 54,300 1987
Natural Reserve
34 Laguna de Sonso IV 2,045 1979
Fauna and Flora Sanctuaries
35 Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta IV 23,000 1977
36 Galeras IV 17,600 1985
37 Iguaque IV 6,750 1977
38 Los Colorados IV 1,000 1977
39 Los Flamencos IV 7,000 1977
Natural National Reserves
40 Nukak I 855,000 1989
41 Puinawuai I 1,092,000 1989
Special Management Areas
42 Ariari-Guayabero Vill 1,022,339 1989
43 La Macarena Norte Vill 467,010 1989
44 La Macarena Sur Vill 33,200 1989
Forest Reserves
45 Amazonia Vill 32,632,920 1959

238

National/international designations
Name of area

Central

Pacifico

Rio Magdelena

Serrania de Los Motilones
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
Sierra del Cocuy

Protection Forest Reserves
Bosque Oriental de Bogota

Cafios La Esperanza, Negro y la Lindosa

Cerro Quinini

Cuchilla Penas Blancas
Cuchilla Sucuncuca

Embalse El Pefiol-Rio Guatape
Escarpas Occidental y Malpaso
Frontera Colombo-Panamefia
Lago Sochagota

Laguna La Cocha y Cerro de Patascoy
Paramo El Atravesado

P4éramo Urrao

P4ramo de Chingaza

P4éramo de Sumapaz

Predio La Bolsa

Predio La Planada

Predio Rio Sucio

Quebrada La Tablona #1
Quebrada La Tablona #2
Quebrada Mutata

Quebrada Piedras Blancas

Rio Algodonal

Rio Blanco-Olivares

Rio Cravo Sur

Rio Las Ceibas

Rio Léon

Rio Mocoa

Rio Nembi

Rio San Francisco

Rio Satoca

Rio Tame

Rio Tejo

Rios Blanco y Negro

Rios Chorreras-Concepcié6n
Rios Escalerete-San Cipriano
Serrania de Coraza y Montes de Maria
Sierra El Peligro

Zona Musinga-Carauta

Indigenous Reserves
Afilador

Alto Rio Guainia

Alto y Medio Rio Inirida
Bajo Rio Guainia y Rio Negro
Barrancén

Caiman Nuevo

Carraipia

Corocito Yopalito Gualabé
Cuiari-Isana

El Unuma

IUCN management

239

category

Vill
Vill
Vill
vill
Vill
Vill

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

Area
(ha)

1,619,800
7,398,075
2,107,750
477,978
600,000
579,250

17,625
5,600
1,800
1,630
1,710

13,100
3,160

9,325
477,200
2,762,500
759,200
2,500
7,500
5,115
8,257
926,500
1,273,600

Columbia

Year
notified

1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959

1976
1982
1987
1983
1989
1985
1982
1977
1986
1973
1971
1975
1971
1971
1990
1984
1987
1981
1991
1985
1970
1984
1989
1985
1983
1971
1984
1984
1981
1989
1985
1984
1982
1991
1982
1983
1988
1975

Protected Areas of the World

ee

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
100 La Fuga vil 8,360
101 La Sal vil 3,275
102 Luzén vil 2,500
103 Macucuana vil 5,700
104 Medio Rio Guainia - Serrania Naquen vil 853,320
105 Motilén Bari vil 83,000
106 Paujii Vil 52,120
107 Rio Atabapo vil 513,720
108 Rio Verde Vil 9,200
109 Rios Muco y Guarrojo vil 84,000
110 San José de Lipa vil 18,500
111 San Rafael, Abariba, Ibibi vil 61,525
112 Santa Rosa de Sucumbios vil 5,129
113 Santa Rosa del Guamuez vil 3,750
114 Tauretes Agua Blanca vil 8,000
115 Yarina vil 9,813
Resguardos

116 Aduche vil 370,100
117 Agua Clara y Bella Luz del Rio Ampora vil 9,850
118 Agua Negra vil 2,000
119 Aguanegra vil 1,474
120 Almidén-La Ceiba vil 40,960
121 Alta y Media Guajira vil 959,104
122 Alto Rio Bojaya vil 50,160
123 Alto Rio Buey vil 13,151
124 Alto Rio Cuta vil 22,362
125 Alto Rio Tagachi vil 21,260
126 Alto del Rey vil 1,244
127 Amenanae o Charco del Nifio Dios vil 6,990
128 Arara vil 12,300
129 Arhuaco de la Sierra Nevada vil 195,900
130 Arquia vil 2,343
131 Arrecifal vil 4,560
132 Atana Pirariami vil 48,800
133 Avirama Vil 2,518
134 Bachaco Buena Vista vil 73,280
135 Bajo Rio Vichada o Santa Rita vil 424,320
136 Barranco Ceiba y Laguna Araguato vil 24,940
137 Barranquito Laguna Colorado vil 19,132
138 Belaicazar Vil 6,000
139 Bellavista y Union Pitalito o Rio Siguirisua Vil 29,260
140 Beté, Auro Beté y Auro del Buey vil 11,580
141 Buenavista vil 4,500
142 Burujén o La Unién San Bernardo Vil 6,960
143 Cabeceras 0 Puerto Pizario vil 2,920
144 Caimanero de Jampapa vil 1,742
145 Calenturas vil 3,066
146 Calle Santa Rosa vil 21,320
147 Campoalegre y Ripialito vil 7,815
148 Cafiamoho vil 1,036
149 Cafio Bachaco vil 6,074
150 Cafio Bocén Brazo Amanaven vil 10,085
151 Cafio Cavasi vil 36,000
152 Cafio Guéripa Vil 7,705
153 Cafio Jabén Vil 9,040
154 Cafio La Hormiga vil 4,327
155 Cafio Mochuelo - Hato Corozal vil 94,600

240

Columbia

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
156 Cafio Negro vil 1,833
157 Cafio Ovejas o Betania-Corocito vil 1,720
158 Cafio Zama vil 73,380
159 Cafios Cuna Tsepajibo Warracafia vil 56,000
160 Caranacoa-Yuri-Laguna Morocoto vil 45,840
161 Carpintero Palomas Vil 40,680
162 Carrizal vil 9,870
163 Chachajo vil 2,240
164 Chagpién-Tord6é vil 22,460
165 Chami Margen Izquierda R S Juan vil 7,030
166 Chami Rio Garrapatas VII 15,730
167 Chamii Rio San Juan Margen Derecha vil 17,770
168 Chaparral-Barronegro Vil 14,230
169 Chimborazo vil 2,112
170 Chimurro y Nedo vil 13,185
171 Chololobo-Matatu Vil 6,385
172 Chuscal y Tuguriducito vil 5,122
173 Coayare-El Coco vil 11,840
174 Cobaria Vil 45,400
175 Coconuco vil 3,424
176 Colimbs Vil 1,600
177 Comeyaft vil 19,180
178 Consejo vil 4,500
179 Coquiona vil 6,239
180 Cérdoba vil 4,000
181 Corocoro vil 33,500
182 Coropoya vi. 3,923
183 Cota vil 1,859
184 Cuaiquer o Awua del Alto Albi VII 4,760
185 Cuambi -Yaslambi VII 3,000
186 Cuayuyaco Vil 1,260
187 Cumaral Brazo Amanaven vil 23,355
188 Cumbal Vi 8,000
189 Cusay o la Colorada vil 1,200
190 Docord6-Balsalito vil 4,140
191 Egua Guariacana Vil 15,390
192 El Doce o Quebrada Borbollén Vil 1,185
193 El Duya, San Juanito y Paravare Vil 21,300
194 El] Hacha VI 6,637
195 El Quince vil 1,200
196 El Saladillo vil 1,595
197 El Suspiro o Rincén del Socorro vil 1,978
198 El Tablero Vi 4,336
199 El Unuma vil 418,840
200 El Veinte, Playalta y El Noventa vil 3,334
201 El Venado vil 34,160
202 El Zaino, Guayabito, Muriaytuy Vil 1,175
203 Gabarra Catalaura VI 13,300
204 Gafio Claro Vil 1,633
205 Giro Brazo Amanaven vil 20,310
206 Guacamayas-Mamiyare vol 18,700
207 Guachavez vil 1,052
208 Guachicono vil 13,932
209 Guachucal Vil 3,000
210 Guaco Bajo y Guaco Alto vol 49,660
211 Guaguando vil 13,260
212 Guambia Vil 18,529

241

Protected Areas of the World

National/international designations IUCN management
Name of area category
Guangiii vol
Guayabal de Partadé vil
Honduras vu
Huila Vil
Iguana vil
Infi Vil
Inga de Nineras vil
Ipiales vil
Iroka vil
Jagual-Rio Chintad6 Vil
Jambaio vil
Jirijiri Vil
Jurad6 Vil
Kananeruba vil
Kildmetro 6 y 11 - Carretera Leticia-Tarapaca vil
La Esmeralda vil
La Llanura vil
La Montana vil
La Pascua vil
La Samaritana vol
Laguna Anguilla~-La Macarena Vil
Laguna Curvina-Sapuara vil
Laguna Negra y Cacao vil
Macuare vil
Mallama vil
Matavén Fruta vil
Mayasquer vil
Merey La Veraita vol
Ministas Miralindo vil
Miriti-Parana Vil
Mocagua, Macedonia, El Vergel y Zaragoza vil
Mondo-Mondocito vil
Monochoa vil
Morocoto Buenavista vil
Mosoco vil
Muellanues vil
Murciélago-Altamira vil
Napipi vil
Nazareth vil
Nunuya de Villazul vil
Opogad6é vil
Panam vil
Pancitara vil
Papayo vil
Parte Oriental del Vaupés vil
Pioya vil
Pirayo vil
Polines vil
Potosi vil
Predio Putumayo vil
Puad6, Mataré, La Lerma Y Terdé vil
Pueblo Nuevo Laguna Colorada vil
Pueblo Nuevo vil
Puerto Alegre y la Divisa vil
Puerto Cérdoba vi
Puerto Libre-Rio Pepe vil
Puerto Naranjo, Penas Rojas, Cuerazo y El D. vol

242

Area
(ha)

24,100
4,376
21,121
41,402
10,900
4,200
3,394
5,156
8,600
28,175
23,476
4,960
16,700
9,150
7,500
2,762
74,000
20,300
19,120
4,185
16,130
3,350
18,480
24,000
1,281
84,453
3,000
3,107
40,200
1,162,500
16,750
1,232
376,800
49,940
12,025
2,000
7,960
21,910
1,300
142,620
29,020
4,000
9,636
2,460
3,354,097
1,600
5,000
2,538
1,800
5,230,552
12,662
44,845
5,000
22,365
39,700
2,069
3,000

Year
notified

National/international designations
Name of area

Puerto Sdbalo y los Monos
Puracé

Quebrada Cafiaveral Rio San Jorge
Quichaya

Quizgo

Remanzo-Chorro Bocon
Rio Bebarama

Rio Blanco

Rio Curiche

Rio Domingod6

Rio Iché y Quebrada Baratudo
Rio Jarapeté

Rio Mumbi

Rio Murindé

Rio Negua

Rio Nuqui

Rio Orpua

Rio Pangui

Rio Pichima

Rio Quiparad6é

Rio Siare o Barranco Lindo
Rio Taparai

Rios Catri y Dubasa

Rios Jurubida, Chori y Alto Baud6
Rios Lanas o Capa

Rios Pato y Jengado

Rios Tomo Weberi

Rios Uva y Pogue

Rios Valley Boroboro

S. Andrés de Sotavento
Salaqui-Pavarand6

San Andrés de Pisimbaia
San Antonio del Fragua
San Francisco I

San José

San Luis del Tomo

San Matias 0 Jai-Dukama
San Sebastian

Santa Maria de Pangala
Santa Rosa

Santa Rosalia

Santa Sofia y el Progreso
Santa Teresita del Tuparro
Saracure y Rio Cada
Sejalito-San Benito
Sibundoy Parte Alta
Sokorpa

Sta Cecilia Quebrada Rio Choco
Suin

Tacueyo

Tahami del And4gueda
Tarena

Tigres y Monchique
Tiosilidio

Toez

Togoroma

Toribio

IUCN management
category

243

vil
vil
vil
vil
Vil

Columbia

Year
notified

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342

National/international designations

Name of area

Totoro I

Totoro II

Trapiche-Rio Pepe
Trupiogancho y la Meseta
Tumbichucué

Tunebo de Angostura
Unién Chocé-San Cristébal
Valdivia

Valle del Sibundol
Vitonco

Waytu de Lomamato
Witora

Yaigoje-Rio Apaporis
Yanguillo

Yuquiva

Yuri Brazo Amanaven

Biosphere Reserves

Cinturén Andino

El Tuparro

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

IUCN management
category

244

vil
vil
vil
Vil
Vil
vil
vil
vil
Vil

Ix

Ix

Area
(ha)

4,161
1,906
1,008
2,309
4,300
3,282
21,400
3,985
8252)
7,245
1,572
67,200
518,320
4,230
16,380
15,836

855,000
928,125
731,250

Year
notified

1979
1979
1979

Columbia

Protected Areas of Colombia

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ECUADOR

Area 272,045 sq. km

Population 9,648,189 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.25% per annum

Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 1,069 per capita (United Nations, 1987)
GNP: US$ 910 per capita (Banco Central del Ecuador,
1991)

Policy and Legislation No national conservation
policy providing for the protection of natural resources
has been stated (Cabarle et al., 1989). In 1974, the
Preliminary Strategy for the Conservation of
Outstanding Natural Areas in Ecuador (Estrategia
Preliminar para la Conservacién de Areas Silvestres
Sobresalientes del Ecuador) was initiated by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG) in collaboration with
the UNDP and the FAO (Cifuentes et al., 1989). The
Preliminary Strategy was published in 1976 and sets out
what may be considered a national conservation
objective, but in very general terms. It also includes an
inventory of natural areas (DINAF, 1988; Putney, 1976).
It is cited in subsequent legislation as the foundation for
protected area definition and establishment.

One of the primary objectives of the strategy is to
coordinate government planning at the national and
regional levels. However, the 1985-1988 national
development plan does not specify objectives for natural
resource protection, and current development policies
are oriented more towards exploitation than
conservation (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al.,
1989).

The government participates in the FAO Tropical Forest
Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. In 1987, a national
Forestry Action Plan (Plan de Accién Forestal) was
formulated, adapting the principles of the TFAP to suit
national objectives (Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF, 1988;
MAG, n.d.). A coordinating committee was established
to supervise the implementation of the plan in
conjunction with the National Development Council
(Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo) (CONADE). Details
of the extent of implementation are currently not known.

The 1971 National Parks and Reserves Law (Ley de
Parques Nacionales y Reservas), Decree No. 1306, was
the first law to provide for protected area establishment
at the national level. Parks and reserves are selected by
the MAG, and designated by inter-ministerial accord.
The law also gives regulations for visitors to parks and
reserves, but definitions of these two management
categories are not given.

247

With reference to Decree No. 1306, the MAG and the
Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Finance
(Ministerio de Industrias, Comercio e Integracién)
signed the Interministerial Agreement No. 322 in 1979.
This agreement declares that the Preliminary Strategy
for Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas
constitutes the fundamental policy for natural resource
conservation. Provision is made for the creation of four
national parks, three ecological reserves, two national
recreation areas and one faunal production reserve, and
comprehensive definitions for these four categories of
protected area are given (see Annex).

The main law providing for protected area establishment
and resource use currently in effect is the 1981 Law of
Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and
Wildlife (Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas
Naturales y Vida Silvestre) No. 74, which consolidates
much of the earlier legislation relating to wildlife and
protected areas. Previous forestry legislation is repealed.
All forested land is regulated under this law, but the state
recognises private ownership rights. A natural area has
distinctive conservation, scientific, educational or scenic
importance, and is state-owned. State forests and natural
areas are inalienable, and ownership rights cannot be
acquired. Provision is made for expropriating private
land for the creation of protected areas where necessary.
Definitions are given for production and protection
forests and forest reserves, and for the seven categories
of protected area which comprise the State Heritage of
Natural Areas (Patrimonio de Areas Naturales del
Estado) (see Annex). Management plans are to be drawn
up for each area. Encroachment on state-owned land, or
damage to ecosystems, is prohibited and a series of
penalties are prescribed. Wild fauna also belongs to the
state, and provision is made for its protection and rational
use.

Problems arise over the definitions of management
categories given in the 1981 Law. No clear distinction is
made between the designations of national park and
ecological reserve, which gives rise to conflict over their
management. Two categories are named in the
legislation but are not defined or used in practice:
wildlife refuge (refugio de vida silvestre) and hunting
and fishing area (area de caza y pesca). On the other
hand, geobotanical reserve (reserva geobotanica), whilst
not mentioned in any official legislation, does exist in
practice and even forms part of the protected areas
system (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). One other
category is used, namely marine resource reserve
(reserva de recursos marinos) although it is not included
in the system of protected areas, and not covered by the
1981 Law. Thus, the protected areas sub-system is
currently made up of six active categories of protected
area: national park, ecological reserve, biological
reserve, faunal production reserve, national recreation

Proctected Areas of the World

area and geobotanical reserve (G. Oviedo, pers. comm.,
1992).

Decree No. 1529, (1983) General Regulation under the
1981 Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural
Areas and Wildlife (Reglamento General de Aplicacién
de la Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas Naturales
y Vida Silvestre), gives further details of natural resource
management, general conservation objectives, and
activities permitted within protected areas. All
commercial exploitation of natural resources is
prohibited. Permission for other activities may only be
granted by the MAG. Administration of protected areas
must follow the management plans specific to each area,
and visitors are obliged to abide by the regulations
established in the 1981 Forest Law.

Legislation is inconsistent and uncoordinated, and as a
result, no coherent legal framework exists by which
national conservation objectives may be implemented
(Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF 1988). The lack of policy
and legislation has resulted in conflicts between
government sectors over resource use. In many cases, the
policies of the MAG have been overridden by other
sectors, and state-aided colonisation and migration,
together with mineral exploitation, have been
encouraged, particularly in forested areas (Cabarle et al.,
1989)

For example, the 1988 Hydrocarbon Law (Ley de
Hidrocarburos) No. 1743, an interministerial agreement
between the MAG and the Ministry of Energy and Mines
(Ministerio de Energia y Minas) (MEM), regulates
environmental rehabilitation during oil and gas
exploration, and extraction in national parks and other
protected areas. This is clearly in conflict with the 1981
Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas
and Wildlife prohibits all commercial activities in
designated protected areas. The Hydrocarbon Law is
also in conflict with existing legislation, which declares
that an activity explicitly prohibited by law cannot be
regulated by an interministerial agreement (MAG, n.d.).
This agreement has led to exploitation by oil companies
in several protected areas, and fundamentally
undermines the legal protection of Ecuador’s natural
resources (MAG, n.d.).

International Activities Ecuador signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, with
subsequent ratification. Ecuador signed the Amazon
Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperaci6én
Amazonica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement between the
eight countries with territory in the Amazon region, to
establish regulations for managing natural resources, and
to propose conservation-directed alternatives to the
management of multinational projects. The Convention
for the Conservation and Management of Vicufia
(Convenio para la Conservacién y Manejo de la Vicufia)

248

was signed by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and
Peru in 1979.

Ecuador participates in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme, with two sites accepted as
biosphere reserves, and ratified the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on
7 September 1990 with two sites inscribed. Ecuador
ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) on 16 June 1975. Two natural sites have
been inscribed on the World Heritage list.

Administration and Management Throughout
the various legislative acts, the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock has been responsible for resource
management through its different departments (MAG,
n.d.). The first division within the MAG vested with this
responsibility was the Forestry Service (Servicio
Forestal), created in 1952. Since then, there has been
much restructuring of the Ministry, and the scope of its
responsibility has grown (MAG, n.d.).

The Forestry Service, in collaboration with the National
Tourist Office (Oficina Nacional de Turismo) and the
General Fisheries Directorate (Direccié6n General de
Pesqueria), was responsible for national parks and
reserves from the enactment of the 1971 National Parks
and Reserves Law until 1981. In 1973, the Department
of Natural Areas and Wildlife (Departamento de Areas
Naturales y Vida Silvestre) (DANVS) was created as
part of the Forestry Service to manage protected areas
and wildlife. The DANVS was instrumental in
developing the 1976 Preliminary Strategy for the
Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas in Ecuador
(MAG, n.d.). In 1981, the Forestry Service was replaced
by the National Forestry Programme (Programa
Nacional Forestal) (PRONAF), and the DANVS was
transformed to a division (Divisi6n de Areas Naturales
y Vida Silvestre) within it. The PRONAF and the
DANVS are declared responsible for forest and other
natural resources under the provisions of the 1983
Regulations to the 1981 Law of Forestry and the
Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife.

Further restructuring of the MAG took place in 1990,
raising the forestry sector to the level of Subsecretariat
of Forests and Natural Resources (Subsecretaria Forestal
y de Recursos Naturales Renovables) (SUFOREN),
under the Ministry of Agriculture. The operative level
within SUFOREN is composed of the National Forestry
Directorate (Direccién Nacional Forestal) (DINAF),
which replaces the former PRONAF. The DINAF is
responsible for implementing the policies of the MAG,
and comprises three divisions, one for each of its
functions: reforestation, investigation and training;
management and utilisation; natural areas and wildlife
(DANVS). At the local level, there are 21 district forestry
districts (distritos forestales) under the respective
provincial stockbreeding directorates (direcciénes

provinciales agropecuarias). DANVS employs 275
people, 198 of whom are park guards (Figueroa, 1992).

There are numerous other governmental organisations
with interest in forests and natural resources, but ultimate
responsibility for formulating forest policies and
coordinating the activities of the various organisations
lies with the SUFOREN. Policies are implemented by
the DINAF and its respective divisions; the DANVS is
responsible for managing national parks and reserves,
whereas most national forests are the responsibility of
the DINAF itself. Most protection forests are
privately-owned and are the responsibility of private
individuals or institutions, including non-governmental
conservation organisations, although administrative
assistance is provided by the DINAF. The Traditional
Land of the Awa Indigenous Community is managed
jointly by the Equadorian Technical Unit of the Awa
Plan (Unidad Técnica Equatoriana del Plan Awa)
(UTEPA) and the indigenous Awd community (Cabarle
et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989; G. Oviedo, pers.
comm., 1992).

There are around 5O non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) working in environmental issues, the majority
of which were created since 1978 (Cabarle et al., 1989;
G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). Some concentrate on
specific regions of the country, such as the Charles
Darwin Foundation (Fundacion Charles Darwin) which
focuses on the Galapagos Islands. Others work at the
national level, such as EcoScience (EcoCienca) which
was founded in 1989 by a group of biologists and is
active in conducting scientific research for conservation
purposes in several protected areas, and promotes
environmental education programmes (L. Suarez, pers.
comm., 1991). Ecological Action (Accién Ecolégica)
monitors and campaigns against mineral exploitation in
protected areas, one of the most serious threats to
Ecuadorian ecosystems. One of the largest national
NGOs, the Natura Foundation (Fundacién Natura), was
established in 1978, and in 1989 signed an agreement
with the MAG to participate in protected area
management (MAG, n.d.). The Natura Foundation has
managerial responsibility for two protected forests, and
is involved in others (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992).
The Foundation also runs important training
programmes for protected area staff (Figueroa, 1992).
In 1988, the Natura Foundation (aided by WWF and
TNC) realised a debt-for-nature swap to the value of
US$ 10 million (Oviedo, 1991). Funds are being used
for the "conservation of biological diversity in situ
through the management of natural areas according to
the principles of sustainable development". A large part
of the programme is directed at the national system of
protected areas, and management is carried out in
conjunction with the state. Five national parks, three
ecological reserves and one faunal production reserve
are the first protected areas to benefit from the
programme, which comprises a broad range of activities
from environmental education and research to
legislation and area management (Oviedo, 1991).

249

Ecuador

To improve protected area planning and management,
a Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la
Conservacién) (CDC) was established in June 1990
within the National Council of Science and Technology
(Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia)
(CONACYT), under an agreement between the Natura
Foundation, The Nature Conservancy and CONACYT.
The CDC collects information on natural areas to assess
their protection needs, and on the current situation of
existing protected areas including the effectiveness of
their administration (L. Suarez, pers. comm., 1991).

Protected area management is hampered by lack of
equipment, trained personnel, and inter-institutional
cooperation, as well as confusion over land tenure
(Cifuentes et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). These problems
are a direct result of a lack of high-level governmental
support and the subsequent lack of funding, restricting
the efficiency of protected area management (Cabarle
et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). The
protected areas system is self-financing by means of
revenue from tourism, particularly from Galapagos
National Park. Thus, the state pays only 60% of salaries
and services, leading to a severe lack of economic
resources for management (Figueroa, 1992). There is
little communication between regional management and
central administration, which prevents adequate
coordination. Increasing the autonomy of regional
offices would greatly improve their administrative
ability (Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF, 1988). Owing to
lack of management resources, production forests could
not be regulated, and the government no longer issues
concessions for timber extraction in specified reserves.
Exploitation takes place in unreserved forest areas with
no legal management status, resulting in degradation of
forest resources across the country (Suarez, 1990).

Systems Reviews Topographically, Ecuador
consists of three distinct regions: Western Ecuador or
coastal plain; inter-Andean or Sierra; and Eastern or
Amazonian (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989).
National territory also includes the Galapagos Islands in
the Pacific Ocean. The geographical contrast, from sea
level to 6,310m, gives rise to a number of distinct
ecosystems, and a high degree of biodiversity. Following
Holdridge’s (1967) ecological classification system, 25
life zones are represented (Cabarle et al., 1989).

The westerm region, or coastal plain encompasses the
area between the foothills of the Andes and the Pacific
Ocean, accounting for 24.7% of total land area (MAG,
n.d.). Annual precipitation varies from 2000mm in the
south, to 8800mm in the north-east where the most
important remaining tropical humid forests are found
(Cabarle et al., 1989; MAG, n.d.; Cifuentes et al., 1989).
The coastal soils of the alluvial plain are the most fertile
and farming is intense, producing almost all the nation’s
crops. The region is also the centre of industry, and
population growth in coastal cities is the highest in the
country. Deforestation in the western region has been
substantial, with estimates of remaining forest cover
varying from 6% (Cabarle et al., 1989) to 24% (DINAF,

Proctected Areas of the World

1988). Extensive destruction of mangrove forests along
the coast has led to serious coastal erosion (Cabarle
et al., 1989).

The Sierra region comprises the highlands, above 900m
in altitude, and accounts for 24% of total land area. Two
chains of the Andes mountains run parallel down the
length of the country, creating a system of valleys which
are farmed intensively. Volcanic activity has shaped
much of this region, and soils are derived from volcanic
ash. Precipitation is 750mm per year, and forests range
from premontane dry forest, to montane rain forest
(MAG, n.d.). Only around 9% of the total area of the
Sierra region remains covered by natural vegetation
(Cabarle et al., 1989). Cultivation methods are not suited
to the varied and difficult terrain, and soil erosion in this
region is the worst in the country, with around 15% of
the area affected (MAG, n.d.).

The Eastern or Amazonian region, accounting for 48%
of total land area, extends from the eastern base of the
Andes to the Peruvian and Colombian borders, below
900m in altitude (MAG, n.d.). Agricultural development
is greatest at the base of the mountains (Cabarle et al.,
1989). Around 51% of the eastern region remains
forested.

Natural resource protection began in 1936 with the
declaration of the Galapagos Islands as a protected area.
Further protected areas were declared across the country,
but a lack of continuity in their selection and
management restricted their effectiveness (Paucar,
1984; Ponce, 1982). The Preliminary Strategy for the
Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas, completed
in 1976, identified priority areas and provided guidelines
for their management. This formed the basis for
developing a coordinated national system of protected
areas (Cifuentes et al., 1989; Ponce, 1982).

The national system (sistema nacional) is to be
established in two stages. Nine priority areas were
identified initially to form the Minimum System of
Conservation (Sistema Minimo), with a further 20 for the
Extended System (Sistema Ampliado). The first nine
areas were established under provision of the 1979
Interministerial Decree, and a minimum infrastructure
for effective protection implemented. Management
plans for each area are obligatory to ensure a coherent
system. The DINAF intends to increase the number of
protected areas to include the Extended System over a
period of 12 years, on condition that the budget for
administration will increase by 30% annually (DINAF,
1988). Ecuador participates in the FAO Latin American
Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de
Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras
Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the
DINAF (FAO, n.d.). Following the FAO definition,
Ecuador has a coherent national system (Ormazabal,
1988).

The non-governmental sub-system arose as a result of
private sector response to alarming rates of deforestation

250

(G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). Areas of natural
vegetation and forest that had not been included in the
national system were taken on by private individuals and
institutions for conservation purposes (Cabarle et al.,
1989).

By 1989, the national system comprised 15 natural
protected areas under the administration of the DINAF,
covering 3,173,915ha, or 11.73% of total land
area (Fundacién Natura and SUFOREN, 1992).
Of the 15 areas, nine have management plans, three
have preliminary plans and the remaining three do not
have either (MAG, n.d.). Only one management plan has
been evaluated, and none has been updated (Figueroa,
1992). Lack of funding and support from central
government results in many protected areas being
severely under-staffed, reducing the effectiveness of
protection. Some areas do not have any staff and private
reserves face pressure from agricultural encroachment
(Cabarle et al., 1989).

Assessments of the protected area coverage indicate that
the current system has serious gaps in coverage, and does
not provide adequate protection for representative
examples of native flora and fauna (Cabarle et al., 1989;
Cifuentes et al., 1989). Five of Ecuador’s 25 life zones
are not represented in protected areas (Figueroa, 1992).
The most under-represented of all regions is the coastal
plain, with only three protected areas. The mangroves
and reefs found in this region are vital to the prevention
of coastal erosion and are severely under-represented
(Cabarle et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). The largest
number of protected areas is located in the Sierra region.
The DINAF intends to extend protected area coverage
by including the 20 areas proposed in the Extended
System. Lack of funds, however, seriously restricts
implementation of the system (DINAF, 1988; Ponce,
1982).

In 1989, an extensive study of the existing protected
areas was undertaken by the DINAF and Fundacién
Natura, with international assistance, to initiate the
implementation of the second phase in developing the
national system. Existing areas were reviewed in detail,
and recommendations made to improve their
conservation effectiveness. The study proposed more
comprehensive management categories with clear
definitions, introducing three new categories: natural
monument (monumento natural); indigenous territory or
bio-anthropological reserve (territorio indigena/reserva
bioantropoldgica); and biosphere reserve (reserva de la
bidsfera) (G. Oviedo, pers.comm., 1992). The study also
proposed new areas for inclusion in the extension of the
National system: it recommends a minimum system
(sistema minimo) comprising 24 protected areas, and an
optimum one (sistema d6ptimo) made up of 32.
Conservation objectives are given in detail, and high
level governmental support for the national system is
sought (Cifuentes et al., 1989).

Limitations of the protected areas system are lack of
political support in the higher levels of government,

inadequate institutional coordination, poor training, lack
of participation of rural communities in decisions over
protected areas and their management, inadequate
economic resources, lack of environmental education,
and the absence of monitoring and follow-up (Cabarle
et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). Figueroa (1992) cites
development projects carried out without environmental
considerations as the most serious threat to the protected
area system. Transnational oil and mining companies
violate protected area legislation (Cabarle et al., 1989;
MAG, n.d.; Figueroa, 1992). Oil companies are involved
in exploration and extraction inside two protected areas,
and mining activities are carried out in five areas. Further
developments within protected areas are planned. The
concessions for these activities were issued with no
coordination with protected area administration.
However, they are condoned by the 1988 Interministerial
Agreement (MAG, n.d.). The infrastructure associated
with such exploitation invariably leads to colonisation
and, in some cases, 30% of the affected protected area
has become occupied (MAG, n.d.). Many protected
areas, including four of Ecuador’s six national parks, are
affected by commercial logging. Other problems include
hunting and illegal colonisation (Figueroa, 1992).

Addresses

Departamento de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre
(DANVS), Direccién Nacional Forestal (DINAF),
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, QUITO
(Tel: 548924 541988 541955)

Centro de Datos para la Conservacién (CDC), Av. Patria
y 10 de Agosto, Edif. Banco de Préstamos, Oficina
601, PO Box 17-21-1332, QUITO (Tel: 560678;
FAX: 560678)

Accién Ecolégica, Casilla 246-C, QUITO (Tel: 502540;
FAX: 440113)

EcoCiencia, Av. 12 de octobre y Roca. Edif. Mariana de
Jess, Oficina 701, Casilla 17-12-00257, QUITO
(Tel: 548752; FAX: 502409)

Fundacioén Ecuatoriana para la Defensa de la Naturaleza
(Fundacién Natura), Av. América 5653 y Voz
Andes, Casilla 253, QUITO (Tel: 447341/2/3/4;
FAX: 434449)

Fundacién Charles Darwin, Estacién Cientifica Charles
Darwin (ECChD), PUERTO AYORA, Isla Santa
Cruz, Galapagos/Casilla 3891, QUITO

Grupo Ecolégico Tierra Viva, Calle Italia No. 832 y
Mariana de Jestis, QUITO

References

Butland, G.J. (1977). Latin America, a regional
geography. Longman, London.

Cabarle, B.J., Crespi, M., Calaway, H.D.,
Luzuriaga, C.C., Rose, D. and Shores, J.N. (1989).
An assessment of biological diversity and tropical
forests for Ecuador. Prepared for US-AID/Ecuador
as an Annex to the Country Development Strategy
Statement 1989-1990. 110 pp.

251

Ecuador

Cifuentes, M., Ponce, A., Alban, F., Mena, P.,
Mosquera, G., Rodriguez, J., Silva, D., Suarez, L.,
Tobar, A., and Torres, J. (1989). Estrategia para el
sistema nacional de dreas protegidas del Ecuador,
II Fase. DINAF-MAG/Fundacién Natura, Quito.
196 pp.

DINAF (1988). Plan de accién forestal. Direccién
Nacional Forestal, Quito. 126 pp.

FAO (1982). Food and agricultural: legislation
31(1): 74-99.

FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas
Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

Figueroa, S. (1983). Importancia y conservaci6n de la
vida silvestre ecuatoriana. MAG/PNF, Quito. 33 pp.

Figueroa, S. (1992). Patrimonio de 4reas naturales en
Ecuador. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds)
éEspacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de
América del Sur. YUCN and Editorial Nueva
Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 207-222.

Fundacién Natura and SUFOREN (1992). Parques
nacionales y otras Greas naturales protegidas del
Ecuador. Fundacion Natura, Quito. 132 pp.

IUCN (1981). Conserving the natural heritage of Latin
America and the Caribbean: the planning and
management of protected areas in the Neotropical
Realm. Proceedings of the 18th Working Session of
IUCNICNPPA, Lima. TUCN/UNEP/Unesco/WWF,
Gland, Switzerland. 324 pp.

MAG (n.d.). Diagnéstico — Plan de accidn forestal
1991-1995. Subsecretaria Forestal y de Recursos
Naturales, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia,
Quito. 126 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile.

Oviedo, G. (1991). Lineamientos y acciones de
conservacion con fondos de canje de deuda externa.
Fundacién Natura: Programa de Conservacion.
15 pp.

Oviedo, G. (n.d.). Areas Naturales del Ecuador: la
importancia y las estrategias de su conservaci6n.
Programa de Conservacién, Fundaci6én Natura. 7 pp.

Paucar, A. (1984). An evaluation of the situation of
national parks and equivalent reserves in the republic
of Ecuador, based on the National Development
Plan, 1980-1984: a regional perspective.
Unpublished report. 12 pp.

Ponce, A. (1981). Parques nacionales, reserves naturales
y vida silvestre. Cap. IX. Diagndstico de la situacién
del medio ambiente en el Ecuador. Tomo II.
Fundacién Natura, Quito. 12 pp.

Ponce, A. (1982). Ecuadorian Strategy for the
Conservation of Wildlands and Wildlife. Workshop

Proctected Areas of the World

paper presented at the World National Parks
Congress, Bali, Indonesia.

Ponce, A. and Huber, R.M. (1982). Ecuador’s active
conservation program. Parks 6(4): 7-10.

Putney, A.D. (1974). Una estrategia preliminar para la
conservaci6n de las dreas naturales y culturales
sobresalientes. UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. Documento
de Trabajo No. 12.

Putney, A.D. (1976). Informe final sobre una estrategia
preliminar para la conservaci6n de dreas silvestres
sobresalientes del Ecuador. Prepared in cooperation
with the Departamento de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Silvestre, Direccidén General de Desarrollo Forestal.
UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. Documento de Trabajo
No. 17.

Suérez, L. (1990). El papel de la actividad forestal en la
conservacion de la diversidad biolégica del Ecuador.
Unpublished report. (Unseen)

252

Suarez, L. (n.d). La Fragmentaci6n de los Bosques y La
Conservacio6n de la Fauna Silvestre en las Areas
Protegidas. EcoCiencia (Unpublished). 15 pp.

Terborgh, J. and Winter, B. (1983). A method for siting
parks and reserves with special reference to
Colombia and Ecuador. Biological Conservation 27:
45-58.

Wetterberg, G.B. (1982). Ecuador - Forestry project.
Wildlands and Wildlife component. USDI National
Park Service, Washington.

Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and
Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for
South American national parks. International
Affairs, USDI National Park Service, Washington,
DC. 125 pp.

Ecuador

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Acuerdo Interministerial
(Interministerial Agreement) No. 0322

Date: 1 November 1979

Brief description: Between the Minister of
Agriculture and Livestock (Ministro de Agricultura
y Ganaderia) and the Minister of Industry,
Commerce and Finance (Ministro de Industria,
Comercio y Integracién) that defines and declares
reserved zones and national parks, with reference to
Decree No. 1306, 1971. The National Strategy for
Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas is cited
as the basis for the conservation policies and
objectives of this Law. Provision is made for the
creation of four national parks, three ecological
reserves, two national recreation areas and the one
fauna production reserve, giving comprehensive
details of their exact location and boundaries.

Administrative Authority: Provision is given
for the national government to designate the
administrative body responsible for each protected
area. For national parks, the National Park Service
(Servicio del Parque Nacional) is named. For
reserves, responsibility is simply vested in "the
respective governmental organisation”.

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area
extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with one or
more ecosystem remaining in its natural state and
possessing ecological diversity, floral or faunal
species or geological formations of national,
scientific and educational importance.

Visitors are permitted entry solely for educational,
recreational or investigative purpose.

Zona de Reserva (Reserve Zone) Reserva
Ecolégica (Ecological Reserve) An area
extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with
wild floral or faunal species of national
importance, particularly those in danger of
extinction, or geological formations or natural
areas of national interest.

Natural resources are to be maintained in their
natural state. Exploitation or occupation of any
type is prohibited. Only educational,
investigative and recreational activities are
permitted.

Reserva de Produccién Fauntstica (Faunal
Production Reserve) Area of no less than
1,000ha with wildlife species of commercial
value, including those areas that have

253

traditionally been used for subsistence by
indigenous communities

The administrative organisation responsible will
regulate the use of wildlife species and promote
Scientific investigation in order to allow
continuing propagation.

Visitors are allowed to hunt or collect specimens
following the established regulations.

Area Nacional de Recreacién (National
Recreation Area) An area of not less than
1,000ha characterised by scenic beauty,
resources of touristic or recreational importance,
whose ecosystem is natural or semi-natural and
which allows easy access for the public.

Hunting is allowed, following management
regulations.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de
Areas naturales y Vida Silvestre (Law of
Forestry and the Conservation of Natural
Areas and Wildlife) No. 74

Date: 14 August 1981

Brief description: Defines seven categories of
protected area and four of forested area: state
permanent production forest, private permanent
production forest, protection forest and special
forest. Protected areas under these given categories
collectively comprise the State Heritage of Natural
Areas (Patrimonio de Areas Naturales del Estado).
All forested land and the wildlife therein constitutes
the State Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Forestal del
Estado). The Law declares natural areas inviolable
and inalterable and to which no rights may be
acquired. Private forest reserves are recognised and
are given governmental assistance to comply with
this law.

Administrative Authority: | The Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock) (MAG) is responsible for
state-owned forested land and nature areas.

Designations:

Bosque Protector (Protection Forest) Forested
area, either natural or man-made, which possess one
or more of the following characteristics: its principal
function is soil or wildlife conservation; important as
a watershed or is adjacent to an important water
source; functions as a windbreak, or strategic zones

Proctected Areas of the World

for national defence; forms part of a protected area;
or is important for forest research

Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) Forested
area that, owing to its location, species composition
or national importance, is to remain in its natural state
so that it may be brought into the integrated
development of the country at some future, though
not immediate, date.

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area
extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with one or
more ecosystem remaining in its natural state and
possessing ecological diversity, floral or faunal
species or geological formations of national,
scientific and educational importance. Visitors are
permitted entry solely for educational, recreational
or investigative purpose.

Reserva Ecoldgica (Ecological Reserve) An
area extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with
wild floral or faunal species of national importance,
particularly those in danger of extinction, or
geological formations or natural areas of national
interest. Natural resources are to be maintained in
their natural state. Exploitation or occupation of any

254

type is prohibited. Only educational, research and
recreational activities are permitted.

Refugio de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge) An
area of any size, essential for ensuring the continued
existence of resident or migratory wildlife, for
scientific, educational or recreational purpose.

Reserva Bioldgica (Biological Reserve) An
area of any size, whose ecosystem remains in its
natural condition and is set aside for wildlife
conservation.

Area Nacional de Recreacién (National Recreation
Area) An area of no less than 1,000ha in size,
which contains scenic, tourist or recreational
attractions in their natural state. The area must have
easy public access.

Reserva de Produccién Faunistica (Faunal
Production Reserve) Named as a classification
for state nature area, but no definition is given

Area de Caza y Pesca (Hunting and Fishing Area)
Named as a classification for state nature area, but no
definition is given

Source: FAO (1982)

Ecuador

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Cotopaxi II 33,393 1975
2 Galapagos II 727,800 1959
3 Machalilla II 55,000 1979
4 Podocarpus II 146,280 1982
5 Sangay II 517,725 1975
6 Yasuni II 982,300 1979
Ecological Reserves
1 Cayambe-Coca I 403,103 1970
8 Cotacachi-Cayapas I 204,420 1968
9 Manglares-Churute I 35,042 1979
Biological Reserve
10 Limoncocha IV 4,613 1985
Faunal Production Reserves
11 Chimborazo vil 58,560 1987
12 Cuyabeno vil 655,781 1979
Marine Resource Reserve
13 Galdpagos IV 7,990,000 1986
Geobotanical Reserve
14 Pululahua Vv 3,383 1978
Forest Reserve Zone
15 Asentamiento Trad. de la Comunidad Indigena Awa _ VII 101,000 1988
Protection Forests
16 Aguallaca Vill 1,724 1988
17 Bosque Petrificado de Puyango Vv 2,658 1987
18 Bosque Puyango Vill 2,658 1987
19 Canta Gallo Jipijapa Vill 8,170 1989
20 Carrisal Chone Vill 75,700 1988
21 Cashca Totoras Vill 6,537 1988
22 Cerros Guinzales vill 3,338 1985
23 Chilanes Bucay Vill 1,857 1989
24 Cinturén Verde Loja Vil 9,373 1988
25 Cinturén Verde de Quito Vill 21,929 1988
26 Comuna Loma Alta Vil 1,858 1989
21 Cordillera Chongén Vil 2,000 1989
28 Cordillera de Cutucu Vill 311,500 1990
29 Cordillera de Molleturo Vil 28,100 1968
30 Cuenca Alta del Guayllabamba Vil 13,800 1989
31 Cuenca Daule Peripa vil 220,835 1987
32 Cuenca Rio Coca y Panza Vill 6,630 1979
33 Cuenca Rio Cube Vil 4,925 1990
34 Cuenca Rio Paute Vill 195,161 1985
35 Cuenca Rios Atacames Vil 10,620 1990
36 Cuenca del Rio Portoviejo Vill 17,500 1972
37 El Guabo vill 2,213 1988
38 Hollin Loreto Coca vill 110,046 1987
39 Ingenio Santa Rosa Vill 2,410 1987
40 Jeco Vill 2,324 1987
41 Jima Limitada Vill 2,104 1991
42 La Floresta Vill 33122 1988

255

Proctected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations

ref. Name of area

43 Loma del Corazén y Bretana

44 Manglares

45 Maquipucuna

46 Matiavi Salinas

47 Mindo Nambillo

48 Mindo y Nambillo

49 Napo, Area Boscosa

50 Parque Jerusalem

51 Pasochoa

52 Pichincha

53 Presa Tahuin

54 Santa Rita

5) Santa Rosa y Yasquel

56 Shishimbe-Chillanes

57 Subcuenca Rio Blanco

58 Subcuenca Rio Dudahuayco

59 Suiza-Pucara

60 Sumaco

61 Sun Sun Yanasacha

62 Toachi Pilaton

63 Toaza

64 Volcan Pichincha

65 Zarapullo
National Recreation Areas

66 Cajas

67 EI Boliche
Biosphere Reserves
Archipiélago de Colén (Galapagos)
Yasuni
Ramsar Wetlands
Machalilla
Manglares-Churute
World Heritage Sites
Galapagos
Sangay

IUCN management

256

category

Vil
Vill
Vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vill
vil
Vill
Vill
Vill
Vil
Vil
Vol
Vill
vil
Vill

Vv
Vv

IX
Ix

Area
(ha)

7,081
362,802
2,700
1,857
19,200
19,200
235,000
1,110
3,196
8,096
14,911
2,145
Zo;
1,064
5,410
2,000
1,000
100,045
3,850
212,000
1,247
8,096
21,585

28,808
1,077

766,514
679,730

55,000
35,000

766,514
271,925

Year
notified

1990
1987
1989
1988
1988
1988
1978
1989
1982
1983
1989
1988
1987
1987
1990
1982
1980
1987
1982
1987
1989
1985
1986

1979
1979

1984
1989

1990
1990

1978
1983

Ecuador

Protected Areas of Ecuador

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FRENCH GUIANA

Area 84,000 sq. km

Population 114,600 (1990)
Natural increase: 5.8% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 6,700 (1989) (ECO-ATLAS, 1991-92)

Policy and Legislation The first French settlement
in the area currently known as French Guiana was
established in 1604. The region became a French
possession in 1643 (although occupied by Britain from
1809 to 1817). On 19 March 1946 its status changed to
an overseas department of France, and in 1974 it also
became an administrative region. The region is covered,
therefore, by French policy and legislation. There is
currently no environmental policy for the region
(Hughes, 1992). However, on a recent tour to French
Guiana, the French Environment Minister unveiled
plans for the conservation and responsible development
of the country. The plans split the country into three
areas; the first, a coastal strip dedicated to economic
development; the second, an inland band reserved for
tourism and managed hunting; and the third, an
inviolable sanctuary for forest wildlife and people in the
remote interior (Lewis and Wood, 1991).

A complete list of legislation concerning protected areas
under French jurisdiction is given with the country sheet
for France (see Volume 2). The first protected area
within the region, La Mirande, was created by decree of
4 July 1942. Further legislation relevant to French
Guiana’s protected areas is contained within Law No.
76/629 concerning Nature Protection (Loi no. 76/629
rélative a la protection de la nature) (see Annex). Decrees
Nos 77-1298 to 77-1301 of 25 November 1977 relate to
the implementation of this Act. Law 76/629 provides,
amongst other things, a definition of nature reserve
(réserve naturelle), and allows for the preservation of
biotopes of plant and animal species by means of
prefectural orders called biotope protection orders
(arrétés de protection du biotope), which provide for a
very low level of protection. Kaw Reserve was protected
under Biotope Protection Order No. 1-964 ID/4B of
4 September 1989.

State biological reserves (réserves biologiques
domaniales)(RBD) were the subject of a convention
between the Ministry of the Environment, the
Ministry of Agriculture and the National Forest
Office. Two types of RBD are to be established: strict
(intégrale) RDB, in which all human intervention is
excluded, and managed (dirigée) RDB, in which
conditions necessary for the survival of species in need
of protection are maintained, whilst at the same time
the areas may be inhabited, and intervention by
foresters is permitted. Zones currently proposed for
establishment belong to the secondcategory, but may

259

include strictly protected zones (J.J.de Granville,
pers. comm., 1992).

"Espaces du Conservatoire” are areas in which all forms
of urbanisation are prohibited. They are open to the
public, and management is undertaken with the
cooperation of local collectives (J.J.de Granviile, pers.
comm., 1992).

Under the seventh title of the Forest Code Legislation
and Regulations, in conformity with Article 73 of the
French constitution, the Forest Code is applicable to
overseas departments, subject to modifications and
adaptations listed under this title. The first (legislative)
section of the French Forest Code, given in Law No.
85-1273 of 4 December 1985, contains a clause (Article
L. 172-1) which states that certain parts of this law are
not applicable to French Guiana. Similarly, although
most of the second (regulations) part of the Forest Code
is relevant, Articles R. 172-1 to 172-5 and 562-1 list
those parts which do not apply in this department of
France.

The forest regime was first established under a law
(arrété) of 1926, although the first forest service within
the territory was not established until 7 February 1931.
Under a law of 27 March 1931, the Bureau of Mines was
responsible for the Forest Service, there not yet being an
agent for the Water and Forests (Eaux et Foréts)
department, within the region. A further law of 2 June
1932 provided for the separation and reorganisation of
the Mines department from that of Water and Forests.
Following this, a law of 12 May 1934 provided for state
forests (foréts domaniales) to be managed by the Water
and Forest service, as well as for the establishment of
state concessions, and for the duties of forest agents
(Valeix and Mauperin, 1990).

The legislative and regulations sections of the Forest
Code both provide for the current responsibilities of the
National Forest Office (Office National des Foréts).

International Activities Conventions to which
France is a member, which are of relevance to French
Guiana, include the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region (both of which were ratified by France
on 13 November 1985) and a second Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife,
signed by France in 1991. Together, the Convention and
associated protocols are known as the Cartagena
Convention.

Administration and Management The French
governmental body responsible for the establishment of
parks and reserves (and setting hunting regulations) is
the Department of Nature Protection (Direction de la

Protected Areas of the World

Protection de la Nature), originally part of the Ministry
of the Environment (Ministére de l'Environnement).
Since 1991 the Ministry of the Environment has been
represented in the region by a Regional Department for
Architecture and the Environment (Direction Régionale
de 1’Architecture et de l'Environnement) (DRAE),
created in 1990, which has been responsible for
proposing protected areas, including a coastal regional
national park (J.J.de Granville, pers. comm., 1992;
D.Girou, pers. comm., 1992).

The National Forest Office (Office National des
Foréts)(ONF), was first established in the region in 1965
for the establishment of paper industries. The ONF is
currently under the supervision of the Ministry of
Agriculture (Ministére d’Agriculture), but was
previously under the Ministry of Colonies (Ministére des
Colonies), which later became the Ministry of France
Overseas (Ministére de la France Outre-Mer). The ONF
is now responsible for managing forested land and land
to be reforested (listed in Decree No. 86-154 of
30 January 1986), as well as state biological reserves
(réserves biologiques domaniales) (J.J.de Granville,
pers. comm., 1992). Since 1978 the ONF has undertaken
an important experimental programme, the emphasis of
which is on the protection and regeneration of natural
forest, whilst at the same time establishing plantations of
fast growing species (Groene, 1990; Sarrailh, 1990;
Valeix and Mauperin, 1990).

All of France’s main national research institutes have
projects and stations in Guiana, and scientific research
there has been widespread and longstanding. However,
little or no pressure for a conservation policy has been
exerted by scientists (Hughes, 1992). ORSTOM, the
French Scientific Research Institute for Development
through Cooperation (Institut Frangais de Recherche
Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération),
recently secured the creation of the first two nature
reserves, but the government is proceeding slowly with
future plans for national park development, due to
concern for its present programme of economic
development (Lewis and Wood, 1991).

SEPANRIT, the Society for the Study, Protection and
Management of Nature in Inter-Tropical Regions
(Société pour l’Etude, la Protection et 1’ Aménagement
de la Nature dans les Régions Inter-Tropicales), and
SEPANGUY, the Society for the Study of Protection and
Management of Nature in Guyana (Société d’Etude de
Protection et d’Aménagement de la Nature en Guyane),
are very active locally (JJ.de Granville, pers. comm.,
1992).

The universities of Paris, Montpellier, the French
Antilles and French Guiana and the Paris Museum of
Natural History are active in conservation (research
includes fauna and flora, marine resources and
pollution). The Conservatory for the Littoral Zone
(Conservatoire du Littoral), which is responsible for
"espaces du conservatoire", has proposed to "buy"
13,000ha of land between the rivers Counamama and

260

Yiyi to create a protected zone (K. Wood, pers. comm.,
1992). The CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiaux)
(the space port at Kourou) proposes to close access to
Malmanoury Creek, which will effectively create a
reserve along 40km of coast that belong to the space
base, but still needs to negotiate with the Ministry of
Marine Affairs so that a reserve can be created which
would include the tidal mudflats (K. Wood, pers. comm.,
1992).

The "Arrété de Biotope", under which Kaw Reserve is
gazetted, is not only a very weak measure, but also little
respected. Fires set in the marshes have led to several
hundred hectares being burnt (K. Wood, pers. comm.,
1992).

Systems Reviews Located slightly north of the
equator, French Guiana is the smallest and least
populated territory in South America. The climate is
equatorial, with two brief dry seasons. Annual mean
precipitation is generally greater than 2000mm, although
in some areas it exceeds 8000mm. Three ecosystems
predominate: littoral, river corridors and rain forest. The
littoral region is exceptional in comparison with other
countries in the north of South America, as it is the only
coast where the granitic massif of the Guyanan plain
reaches the sea. Mangroves occupy approximately 80%
of the coast. Large (c. 200,000ha) areas of swamp
occupy the land immediately inland from the coast (de
Granville and Sanité, 1992).

More than 80% of the country is covered in rain forest,
less than 5% of which is secondary forest. The country
is characterised by a fairly high level of species diversity,
the flora comprising an estimated 6,000 species.
Currently, 12 species new to science, and 200 species
new to French Guiana are described each year (de
Granville and Sanité, 1992), and an estimated 10% of
tree species remain to be described (Sabatier and
Prévost, 1989). In general, forest exploitation has not
occurred more than 50km from the coast (Groene, 1990).
However, in percentage terms there is as much
destruction of primary forest as in the Amazon (Hughes,
1992). Only the coastal alluvial strip, where most of the
country’s inhabitants live, is exploited agriculturally, the
soils of the interior being too poor to support anything
other than shifting agriculture (K. Wood, pers. comm.,
1992).

Until Kaw Reserve was gazetted in 1989, the only
protected area was one forest reserve, Mirande,
classified as a nature reserve in 1942 (de Granville, 1975,
1985). This was transferred to the state forest domain in
1967 (de Granville and Sanité, 1992).

Establishment of further protected areas has been
discussed many times since 1967. In 1970, a proposal
was made for a 5,000ha reserve to be established along
the estuary of the Cascades and Tonnégrande. This
would have been partly strictly protected and partly open
to the public. At the same time a proposal was made for
a large reserve to be established inland, adjacent to the

southern border. In 1972, SEPANRIT and SEPANGUY,
with scientific help from ORSTOM and the Natural
History Museum, proposed establishment of two coastal
bird reserves near Organabo and Sinnamary. A year later
development of a further bird reserve was proposed by
ORSTOM, near Mana (de Granville and Sanité, 1992).
From 1974-1975, an ecological study was made of
coastal areas, with a view to creating nature reserves,
under the auspices of the Ministry of the Environment
and ORSTOM. As a result of this study, classification of
five protected zones was proposed (Condamin 1974,
1975; de Granville and Sanité, 1992). Again in
1975, soon after this coastal areas project, a series
of 15 reserves, comprising inland forested sites as well
as the previously proposed five coastal areas, was
proposed. In 1976, following a visit by the Secretary of
State for the Environment, the need to upgrade reserves
to national park status was acknowledged, with priority
being given to Basse Mana, Sinnamary-Iracouba, Saul
and Kaw. Later, the Regional Delegate for the
Environment made a case for all the southern part of the
country to be established as a national park, followed, in
1979, by similar cases being made for Basse Mana and
Sinnamary Iracouba being established as nature reserves
(de Granville, 1986).

By 1983 none of these proposals had got past the
planning stage. In 1985, the regional department of the
National Forest Office, with technical assistance from
ORSTOM, developed a project for the creation of eight
state biological reserves to cover 213,665ha. These
included the eight most threatened of the fifteen reserves
proposed in 1975, in the northern part of the country,
with the proposed reserve at Kaw being extended to
include part of Kaw Mountain. The category of state
biological reserve had been the subject of a recent
convention between the Ministry of the Environment,
the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Forest
Office (de Granville, 1986). However, permission for
development of the reserves was refused, as the land was
deemed necessary for economic development (Valeix,
n.d.).

The most recent propositions concerning protected
areas were presented in a "Schéma d’Aménagement
Régional" (D. Girou, pers. comm., 1992). These
comprise the establishment of 16 nature reserves,
including a national park in the south, three
newly-proposed state biological reserves in the north
and a coastal regional nature park (parc naturel
régional) in the north (J.J. de Granville, pers. comm.,
1992).

Legislation has been drawn up for Grand
Connétable Nature Reserve, and awaits signature.
The documentation has already been accepted in
practice by the local municipality and General and
Regional Consul (de Granville and Sanité, 1992).
Six other reserves are due to be established in 1992
(J.J. de Granville, pers. comm., 1992).

261

French Guiana

A comprehensive description of both the country
and the protected areas system is described in detail
by de Granville and Sanité (1992), in the chapter
concerning French Guiana in ;Espacios sin habitantes?
Parques nacionales de América del Sur. They conclude
that the country has been relatively unspoilt to date, due
to the low population pressure, but that there is now a
pressing need for the development of national parks to
ensure the future conservation of the country.

Threats to the proposed protected areas system come
from numerous sources. According to Lewis and Wood
(1991), much of the current environmental degradation
has been financed by French money, which has poured
into the country during the past 20 years during the
establishment of the Kourou space base. Development
of the new launch-pad has led to areas of forest being
flattened, while the waste products of test-launching
have been dumped indiscriminately. The French
authorities are currently constructing a large dam on the
River Sinnamary to generate electricity for Kourou,
which will flood 310 sq. km of dense, unbroken rain
forest, although this is in contradiction to official
government support for forest protection. Three other
dam projects are planned, although again no
environmental impact assessments have been made
(Anon., 1992; Hughes, 1992; Pearce, 1991). New roads
are opening up the country in all directions. A new
coastal road through mangroves is likely to precipitate
an influx of Brazilian slash-and-bum colonists. A new
centralised capital is planned at Saul, previously an
isolated town of 56 inhabitants, in the heart of the rain
forest, with a new road linking this to the coast. In the
past, state-sanctioned gold mining was responsible for
pouring mercury into the rivers, most of the raw mercury
dating from the 1865-1940 period. Fortunately this now
seems to be under control. However, mining still remains
aproblem indirectly, due to the hunting practised by gold
miners around their camps, which has led to local
extinction of many forms of wildlife. In general,
extensive hunting occurs throughout the country, aided
by outboard motors, generators, freezers and the
growing road network and encouraged by the booming
population (Hughes, 1992; Kempf, 1991; K.Wood, pers.
comm., 1992). There is little enforcement of hunting
regulations. In 1991, the Guianese Regional
Environment Congress reported a 50% drop in numbers
of bird species, concluding that hunting is already
depleting wildlife to such an extent as to endanger whole
ecosystems (Lewis and Wood, 1991).

Of the 600 or so rain forest species in Guiana, 70 are
exploitable commercially. Management has led to
non-commerical tree species being killed chemically, a
process which causes more forest damage than logging.
A new, intensive rice-field programme in the lowlands
has engulfed over-wintering grounds of numerous
migrant bird species. The EDF (Eléctricité de France) is
already prospecting sites for a second dam, either on the
River Mana, the Approuage or the Oyapock (K. Wood,
pers. comm., 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Addresses

Centre ORSTOM de Cayenne, BP 165, 97323
CAYENNE Cedex (Tel: 594 302785; Tlx: 910608
FG; Fax: 594 319855)

Direction Regionale al’ Architecture et 41’Environnement
(DRAE), 28 Boulevard Jubelin, BP 411, 97300
CAYENNE (Tel: 594 378982; Fax: 594 378981)

Direction de |’ Agriculture et de la Forét (L’Ingénieur en
Chef du Génie Rural des Eaux et des Foréts), BP
5002, 97305 CAYENNE (Tel: 594 302905;
Tlx: 910576F; Fax: 594 302939)

SEPANGUY (Société d’Etude de Protection et
d’Aménagement de la Nature en Guyane), BP 411,
97307 CAYENNE

Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, Centre Spatial
Guyanais, BP 6 97310, KOUROU

References

Anon. (1992). Opposition to a dam in French Guiana.
Naturopa 92-1: 3

Behra, O. (1990). Kaw Swamp becomes a black
caiman sanctuary. Crocodile Specialist Group
Newsletter 9: 14.

Condamin, M. (1974). Etude écologique du littoral
guyanais en vue de lacréation de réserves naturelles.
Rapport de situation et d’étude. ORSTOM, Cayenne.
73 pp. (Unseen)

Condamin, M. (1975). Projets de réserves naturelles sur
le littoral guyanais. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 95 pp.
(Unseen)

Granville, J.J. de (1975). Projets de réserves botaniques
et forestitres en Guyane. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 29 pp.

Granville, JJ. de (1986). Le projet de réserve biologique
domaniale de Kaw. Pp. 161-178. In: Le Littoral
Guyanais Fragilité de l’Environnement, ler Congrés
Régional de la Sepanguy, Xe Colloque Sepanrit
Cayenne 27-29 avril 1985.

262

Granville, JJ. de (1989). Priority conservation areas in
French Guiana. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 24 pp.

Granville, J.J. de and Sanité, L.P. (1992). Areas
protegidas y actividades humanas en Guyana
Francesa. In: Amend, S. and T. (Eds), ;Espacios sin
habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 262-287.

Groene, D. (1990). La forét et le milieu naturel et human
de la guyane francaise. Bois et foréts des tropiques.
219: 7-12.

Hughes, S. (1992). France under pressure to conserve
Guiana rainforest. New Scientist 1805: 21.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. ICBP
Monograph 1. International Council for Bird
Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 144 pp.

Kempf, H. (1991). La Guyane en Sursis. Science et Vie.
October. Pp. 65-73.

Lewis, D. and Wood, K. (1991). Cayman a 1’Orange.
Geographical Magazine 65(6): 17-20.

Pearce, F. (1991). Rainforest wrecked for satellite
launches. New Scientist 1791: 9.

Sabatier, D. and Prévost, M.-F. (1989). Quelques
données sur la composition floristique et la diversité
des peuplements forestiers de guyane francaise. Bois
et foréts des tropiques 219: 31-55.

Sarrailh, J. (1990). Mise en valeur de l’ecosyst8me
forestier guyanais. Opération ECEREX. INRA, Paris
and CTFT, Nogent-sur-Marne. 273 pp.

Valeix, M. (n.d.). Les réserves forestiéres. Rapport
national sur l’aménagement des foréts naturelles
tropicales humides en Amerique Latine.
Unpublished FAO report. P. 38.

Valeix, M. and Mauperin, M. (1990). Cing siécles de
I’histoire d’une parcelle de forét domaniale de la terre
ferme d’amérique du sud. Bois et Foréts du
Tropiques 219: 13-29.

French Guiana

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Loi no. 76-629 relative 4 la protection Designations:

de la nature : : ;
Biotope protection order (Arrété de protection de

Date: 10 July 1976 biotope) Intended to protect the habitat of

: ad endangered species of flora and fauna, individual
Brief description: Provides definition of nature orders are declared by the prefect after consultation
reserve, including biotope protection order with the farmers’ professional organisation

(Chambre départmentale d’agriculture). Regulations
vary but typically restrict human activities,
particularly agricultural practices such as the use of
pesticides and the burning of vegetation.

Administrative authority: Directorate for
Nature Conservation

Nature reserve No definition given

Sources: Original legislation in French

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
State Biological Reserve

1 Monts lucifers et Dekou Dekou vill : 108,000

263

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- Rs re

GUYANA

Area 214,970 sq. km

Population 796,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.81% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 346 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 340 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Guyana gained full
independence from Britain in 1966, and the present
constitution was instigated in 1979.

The National Environmental Policy was formulated and
approved in 1990 by Cabinet. The policy states that, in
order to conserve and improve the environment, the
government of Guyana will endeavour to maintain
ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the
functioning of the biosphere. The government will
endeavour to preserve biological diversity, and to
observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the
use of renewable natural resources ecosystems, both on
land and the sea. In addition, the government will ensure
that conservation is treated as an integral part of the
planning and implementation of development activities
(S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992).

Guyana participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action
Plan (TFAP), an international strategy to promote the
development of forestry sectors in participating
countries, allowing greater contribution to national
economy while maintaining conservation principles.
The National Forestry Action Plan was completed in
1989 by the Guyana Forestry Commission, and the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA),
to interpret the global designs of the TFAP into specific
national needs (GFC/CIDA, 1989). The pian comprises
several projects, including a revision of forestry policy
and legislation, and developing a protected area system
(GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).
However, the National Forestry Action Plan does not
take mangrove forests into account as it does not
consider them to be part of the state forest domain. No
measures are taken for their management or
conservation (Hussain, 1990). Information on the extent
of implementation of this plan is currently not available.

Asa policy, Guyana aims to set aside not more than 10%
of its forested areas, or 4 million ha, as a protected area
system (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992).

Two distinct policies regarding forestry use currently
exist, one drafted by the State Planning Commission and
the other by the Guyana Forestry Commission in 1988
(GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). From the
perspective of the State Planning Commission, forest
resources are to be used to provide a source of food and
materials, and emphasis is placed on increasing
exploitation without taking sustainable use into

265

consideration (GFC/CIDA, 1989; W. King, pers.comm.,
1991). The national forestry policy proposed by the GFC
includes measures: to protect certain forested land with
the objective of conserving genetic resources and
promoting research; to protect mangrove forests; to
establish a wildlife reserve and a bird sanctuary within
the state forest; and to maintain natural habitat to protect
endangered species. Increased forest resource
exploitation is also emphasised, but in compliance with
the protection objectives (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).
None of the objectives of the national forest policy has
been implemented, although some conservation
measures are incorporated into the National Forestry
Action Plan as proposed projects (GFC/CIDA, 1989;
Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).

The Forest Act, 1973 defines state forest, and gives
regulations for issuing leases and sales agreements for
forest resources exploitation. The Forestry Service is
declared responsible for implementing these regulations.
In 1979, the Guyana Forestry Commission Act No. 2
provided for the establishment of the Guyana Forestry
Commission as the organisation responsible for
administering forested land within state forest, replacing
the Forestry Department.

Three pieces of legislation deal with protected areas. The
National Parks Commission Act, 1977 gives the
National Parks Commission, within the Ministry of
Public Works, responsibility for designating,
maintaining and regulating the use of national parks and
other protected areas (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). A
national park is established by publishing a notice in the
newspaper following consultation with the local
government authority. No legislation exists to provide
for the establishment of protected area categories other
than national park or biosphere reserve (Hanif and
Ravndal, 1988). The other two pieces of legislation are
the 1973 Laws of Guyana, Chapter 20:02 of which
provides for the establishment of Kaieteur National Park,
and the Draft Guyana Biosphere Reserves Bill, 1983.

The land ownership rights of native communities was
recognised by Act No. 6, 1976 which describes 65 areas
to be set aside for the exclusive use of Amerindians
(Persaud and Stewart, 1988).

Legislation concerning environmental management and
conservation is incomplete, and does not allow the
objectives given in the national forestry policy to be
carried out (GFC/CIDA, 1989). No clearly defined
regulations regarding natural resource use are stated in
any legislation, and the relevant legal measures that do
exist are not fully implemented owing to the lack of
institutional capability (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988;
Persaud and Stewart, 1988). Three new legislative acts
are currently in the process of being formulated; the
Environmental Protection Bill, Fisheries Act, and the

Protected Areas of the World

Wildlife Conservation Act. The Environmental
Protection Bill reflects the underlying principles of the
National Environmental Policy. It will provide for the
preservation, protection and improvement of the
environment, the prevention or control of pollution, and
the assessment of the environmental impact of economic
development and the sustainable use of natural resources
(S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992).

Other pieces of environmental legislation which are still
pending include the Guyana Biosphere Reserves Bill,
1983, and the Conservation of Wildlife Bill, 1987
(S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992).

The Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education,
Environment and Food Policy (GAHEF) was created
under the Public Corporation Act in June 1988.

Legislation is briefly reviewed in the Environmental
Policy of Guyana (Anon., n.d.). According to this, a
thorough review of all existing legislation relating to the
environment should be undertaken as first priority, with
a view to determining overlaps, inconsistencies and
deficiencies. The necessary comprehensive legislative
reforms should then be formulated.

Environmenta! legislation is also reviewed as part of the
Sector Plan for the Conservation of Tropical Forest
Ecosystems, part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan
(Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).

International Activities Guyana has not signed
the 1940 Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Westem Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention). Guyana joined the
Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional,
non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources, in 1976. Guyana has not yet signed
the Convention for the Protection and Development of
the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region
(Cartagena Convention) and the related Protocol
Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the
Wider Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW).

Guyana is one of the eight countries with territory in the
Amazon region, that signed the Amazon Cooperation
Treaty (Tratado de Cooperacién Amazéonica) on 3 July
1978, an agreement to establish regulations for
managing natural resources in Amazonia, and to propose
conservation directed alternatives to the management of
multinational projects.

Guyana ratified the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 30 June 1977, but no
sites have been inscribed to date. Guyana is not a party
to the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar

266

Convention), neither does it participate in the Unesco
Man and the Biosphere Programme.

Administration and Management Lack of
environmental legislation has precluded the development
of an institutional framework to administer natural
resources in a structured process. No organisation
specifically undertakes the conservation or management
of natural resources. A number of different
governmental departments participate in activities
concerning natural resources and forested areas, but only
within their field of interest. This has resulted in a lack
of coordination, and, in some cases, conflict of interest
between organisations (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Persaud and
Stewart, 1988). In total, four ministries, two institutions
and one state corporation have natural resource
management responsibilities to some extent (Hanif and
Ravndal, 1988).

The Guyana Forestry Commission was created in 1979
as part of the Ministry of Forest, and is the organisation
responsible for administering forested land within the
state forest. The GFC has been concerned almost
exclusively with the administration of logging activities
for the domestic and foreign market, and very little forest
management is actually practised (Hanif and Ravndal,
1988). In January 1989 the GFC was placed under the
responsibility of the Guyana Natural Resources Agency
(GNRA), an institute that has been concerned primarily
with mining activities and only touched on
environmental issues as far as they related to their
interests (GFC/CIDA, 1989). Inadequate funds,
personnel and facilities have reduced the GFC’s
activities to the allocation of harvesting rights, the
control of timber export and revenue collection. It has
been unable to implement the conservation measures
given in the National Forestry Policy it formulated
(GFC/CIDA, 1989).

The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for
administering state lands, comprising all land outside
state forests, Amerindian land and privately-owned land
(GFC/CIDA, 1989).

The Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education,
Environment and Food Policy (GAHEF) (previously the
Ministry of Medical Health, Environment and Food
Policy) is responsible for the development of national
environmental policy, environmental monitoring,
coordination and training. The Environmental Division
within GAHEF, which currently has a staff of 11, was
created in 1988 (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; S. Griffith,
pers. comm., 1992). The main objectives of the
Environmental Division are to develop environmental
education programmes, and to monitor environmental
activities of other organisations throughout the country.
GAHEF is advised by an Advisory Environmental
Council, chaired by the Executive Chairman of the
GAHEF, and comprising representatives from
ministeries and agencies which have some responsibility
for the environment (Anon, n.d.).

The National Parks Commission, which presently falls
within the GAHEF (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992), is
responsible for maintaining all national parks and city
recreational parks, the zoo and botanical gardens in
Georgetown. However, the Commission lacks the
expertise to administer protected areas, and has a very
limited budget which restricts its activities (Hanif and
Ravndal, 1988).

The two institutions involved with natural resource
management are the University of Guyana, which is
introducing a course in forestry management, and the
Institute of Applied Science and Technology. The latter
is the main research institute, with an Environmental
Research and Information Unit providing advice to
decision-makers regarding sustainable use of natural
resources, conservation and management (Hanif and
Ravndal, 1988). A state corporation, Demerara Timbers
Ltd (formerly Demerara Woods Ltd), is also involved in
resource management. The corporation has recently
completed a management plan for activities in its timber
concession, which takes into consideration the possible
environmental consequences of logging. The plan was
completed with the assistance of TROPENBOS, a Dutch
ecological study unit presently operating within Guyana
(S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992).

During 1988, the government changed its policy
regarding non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and
now supports their existence. There is currently one
active NGO in Guyana, the Guyana Biodiversity Society
which was formed in 1991 and is still in its infant stage
(S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). No information is
available concerning its activities.

The lack of a capable administrative structure severely
restricts the implementation of environmental
legislation. Many institutions lack clear policies
regarding their responsibilities and function in natural
resource management (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). A
shortage of personnel is a problem for almost every
sector, as the country has experienced large-scale
emigration in recent years. The country’s one national
park is under constant pressure from itinerant miners,
who continue to exploit the mineral resources illegally
(mainly gold and diamonds) from the streams and rivers.
The larger forms of wildlife, both terrestrial and avian,
have practically been exterminated by hunting parties
which supply wild meat to dredging crews upstream of
the waterfall (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).

The Programme for Sustainable Tropical Forestry in
Guyana was proposed two years ago, but process has
since been stalled due to lack of funds (Sullivan, 1990).
Recently, the programme, due to run for five years, was
adopted by the Global Environment Facility, a fund
established by the World Bank and the UN Development
Programme (Pearce, 1992). The programme has four
main objectives, including: establishment and
maintenance of a wilderness reserve in the centre of the
country; to maintain a segment of the forest in a pristine
condition, to be zoned for scientific research; and

267

Guyana

establishment of an international research and training
centre.

As part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, a proposal
for the conservation of forest ecosystems was formulated
by Hanif and Ravndal (1988). Among the
recommendations made to improve protected area
management was the transfer of such responsibilities
from the National Parks Commission, under the Ministry
of Communications and Works, to a new Protected Area
Commission, under the Ministry of Medical Health,
Environment and Food Policy. The Ministry of
Communications and Works has since had its name
altered to the Guyana Agency for Health Sciences
Education, Environment and Food Policy (S. Griffith,
pers. comm., 1992). Hanif and Ravndal (1988) further
recommend that to clarify governmental policy the two
existing forest policies should be incorporated into one.

Systems Reviews Guyana consists of five main
biogeographical regions: coastal plain; sandy rolling
lands; tropical savanna; Pre-Cambrian lowlands; and the
Pakarima mountain range (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Persaud
and Stewart, 1988).

The coastal plain is a narrow alluvial belt, comprising
around 5% of total land area, that runs the length of the
coast, and extends inland from 15km to 60km (Hilty,
1982; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The plain lies
between 0.5m and 1.0m below sea level, and is therefore
subject to frequent flooding. Protection barriers have
been erected along the coast since the days of Dutch
colonisation in the late 16th century. Rainfall in the
coastal region ranges from 2000mm to 2500mm. This is
the most important agricultural region in the country, and
over 90% of the population lives here (GFC/CIDA,
1989; Hilty, 1982; Hussain, 1990). However, owing to
the shifting of sand banks, large- scale erosion along the
coast is taking place (Hussain, 1990). Coastal
ecosystems are also threatened by pollution and
exploitation of critical resources such as mangroves
(Hanif and Ravndal, 1988).

Little information is available on the current extent of
mangrove vegetation in the country, but mangroves once
stretched along the length of the coast. There has been a
serious depletion of mangroves in the past 30 years, due
to the joint effect of natural causes such as wave action
and human use for fuel (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988;
Hussain, 1990). Mangrove vegetation could play an
important role in protecting the coastal region against
erosion, except where wave action is very intense and
the width of the mangrove belt very narrow. Although
the national forest policy makes provision for their
protection and regeneration, mangrove vegetation is not
considered part of the state forest, and no conservation
measures have been implemented (Hussain, 1990).

Just south of the coastal plain, in the north-east of the
country, sandy rolling plains stretch inland (Persaud and
Stewart, 1988). This region is gently undulating with
altitudes varying from S5m-120m above sea level and

Protected Areas of the World

vegetation types from savanna grasslands to forest. The
white, sandy soil is permeable and low in nutrients, and
forms the most vulnerable ecosystem in Guyana (Hilty,
1982; Persaud and Stewart, 1988).

Tropical savanna covers around 11% of total land area,
extending in the west from the southem part of the sandy
rolling plains to the Rio Branco savannas of Brazil. The
main grasslands are known as the Rupununi savannas,
characterised by intense dry periods (Hanif and Ravndal,
1988; Hilty, 1982). Two different savanna types may be
distinguished within the Rupununi region: the north
savanna, associated with a 6,000m deep rift valley; and
the south savanna, associated with the Pre-Cambrian
plain, and interspersed with rock formations up to 900m
(Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The Pre-Cambrian lowland
region extends from the coastal plain throughout the
length of the country to the Akarai mountains in the
south. The region is gently undulating and varies from
90-120m in the north to 180-210m in the south, with
intruding ridges 300-900m high which form waterfalls
when they cross a river. The vegetation is dominated by
tropical rain forest (Persaud and Stewart, 1988).

The Pakaraima mountain region was created by the uplift
of the Roraima formation and elevation varies from
500m in the south of the range to the highest peak
Mt Roraima (2,773m) in the north. The Pakaraima
mountains, Pre-Cambrian lowlands and tropical savanna
together comprise the interior region and account for
84% of total land area (Hilty, 1982). The interior is very
sparsely populated, principally by native Amerindian
communities, which total around 5% of the population
of the whole country (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The
government has set aside considerable areas of forested
land for exclusive use of native communities, in which
they maintain their traditional livelihoods. The Forestry
Action Plan includes proposals to train Amerindians in
natural resource management, and to encourage the
commercial production of non-timber forest products in
both native and non-native communities (GFC/CIDA,
1898). Major threats to forest ecosystems arise from
logging, uncontrolled fires, soil erosion and over
exploitation of wildlife resources (Hanif and Ravndal,
1988).

Around 76% of total land area remains forested (Persaud
and Stewart, 1988; W. King, pers. comm., 1991). The
extent of intact natural ecosystems results more from the
low population density and lack of population pressure
than from any systematic conservation planning
(GFC/CIDA, 1989; K.S.Fuller, pers. comm., 1991).
Development plans for the near future and large
investments by multi-national timber and mineral
corporations threaten to reduce the forest cover
drastically (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Lewis, 1991).

There is only one legally established protected area,
Kaieteur National Park. A proposal exists to extend the
park to 400,000ha (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992). This
is controversial as it will compete with mining activities.
There are no permanent park guards to prevent migration

268

into the park, and the wildlife and ecosystems are under
constant threat from the activities of gold and diamond
miners (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; K.S.Fuller, pers.
comm., 1991).

Sixty five Amerindian reservations have been set aside
for native communities, covering a total area of
1.39 million ha. Amerindian land is managed and
regulated by the resident communities, and no formal
distinction between production and protection areas is
made (Persaud and Stewart, 1988; D.A. Black, pers.
comm., 1991). However, more than twice the total land
allotted to Amerindians has been conceded to foreign
organisations for logging (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991).

A report dating from 1980 identifies two areas suitable
for establishment as biosphere reserves, and a further
two as World Heritage sites (Putmey, 1980). However,
there is no evidence that these recommendations have
been acted on.

An area of 300,000ha of virgin tropical rain forest has
been set aside as the Commonwealth-Government of
Guyana Iwokrama Rain Forest Project, part of which
will be keptas a wilderness preserve and part for research
into sustainable use. This area currently lies within state
forest but will be excluded from it by legislation in due
course (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992).

A new road, which borders Kaieteur National Park, and
which runs from Brazil to the Guyana coast, is due to be
opened by the end of 1992. It is feared that the road will
pose a serious threat to the park. The government is
handing out logging licences to landless farmers and
gold miners for many forests which neighbour the park,
and it is feared that the park will inevitably be invaded.

Addresses

Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), 1 Water Street,
PO Box 1029, GEORGETOWN (Tel: 2672715;
Tlx: GY 2262; Cable: Wallaba)

Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education, the
Environment and Food Policy, Liliandaal,
GREATER GEORGETOWN (Tel/Fax: 592 57523)

Guyana Natural Resources Agency, 41 Brickdam and
Boyle Place, Stabroek, PO Box 1074,
GEORGETOWN (Tel: 56720, 66549, 56111;
Tlx: 3010 GNRA GY)

References

Anon. (n.d.) Environmental Policy of Guyana. 8 pp.
GFC/CIDA (1989). National forestry action plan
1990-2000. Guyana Forestry Commission and
Canadian International Development Agency,
Kingston, Georgetown. 77 pp.

Hanif, M. and Ravndal, A.V. (1988). Tropical Forestry
Action Plan — Sector plan for the conservation of
tropical forest ecosystems. Institute of Applied
Science and Technology and United Nationals

Development Programme, Georgetown. Draft. 32 pp.

Hilty, S.L. (Ed.) (1982). Environmental profile on
Guyana. Department of State and Agency for
International Development, Washington DC, USA.
114 pp.

Hussain, M.Z. (1990). Restoration and expansion of the
mangrove belt in Guyana. A report prepared for the
Hydraulics Division of the Ministry of Agriculture
of Guyana, by the FAO, Rome, Italy. 31 pp.

Lewis, D. (1991). The rape of the rainforest. The
Guardian. 1 November. P. 33.

Pearce, F. (1992). Race to save Guyana’s rainforests.
New Scientist 1813: 15.

Guyana

Persaud, C. and Stewart, M. (1988). Tropical Forestry
Action Plan — Forestry and land use. Ministry of
Works and Canadian International Development
Agency, Georgetown. Draft. 32 pp.

Putney, A.D. (1980). Guyana. Identification of Potential
Biosphere Reserves and World Heritage Sites
Natural). Report prepared for the Government of
Guyana by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation. 43 pp.

Sullivan, F. (1990). Proactive conservation in Guyana.
WWF Reports, August/September. Pp. 10-12.

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area

National Park
1 Kaieteur

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
II 58,559 1929

269

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Area of Guyana

270

PARAGUAY

Area 406,752 sq.km

Population 4,277,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.69% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,155 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,030 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation The 1967 Constitution was the
first in Paraguayan history to acknowledge the
government’s responsibility to protect the environment.
It declares that the state will conserve forest and other
renewable natural resources in the country, and will
establish regulations for their rational use. Since this
declaration, there has been a profusion of legal measures
regarding environmental protection. No coherent
conservation policy has been stated, but constitutional
provisions have precedence over all other laws (Anon.,
1985).

The first national legislation for natural resource
protection was the 1973 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal)
No. 422 which declares it in the public interest to protect
and conserve forest resources. Objectives include
conserving and improving forested land, protecting
watersheds, and incorporating the forestry sector into
national economic development. Definitions are given
for permanent, protected and special forest reserves
(Annex). The exploitation of resources in these areas is
decided by the state. The 1973 Forestry Law makes
provision for the creation of the National Forestry
Service (Servicio Forestal Nacional) (SFN) within the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia), and an Advisory Council
(Consejo Asesor). The Council comprises
Tepresentatives from the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock and other governmental organisations with
interests in rural affairs, to assess the activities of the
SEN and ensure compliance with objectives stated in the
legislation.

Regulation of the Forestry Law (Reglamento de la Ley
Forestal), Decree No. 11.681, 1975 gives further details
of natural resource protection and management.
Provision is made for the creation of the Department of
Forest, National Parks and Wildlife Management
(Departamento de Manejo de Bosques, Parques
Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) within the SFN, to be
responsible for natural resources, including the selection
and administration of national parks. All responsibilities
assigned to former governmental organisations for forest
and wildlife administration, are transferred to the SFN.
The 1975 Regulation refers to the creation and
administration of national parks, but does not give a
detailed designation.

Decree No. 18.831, Environment Protection Law
(Proteccién del Medio Ambiente), 1986 reinforces the

271

principle of the 1973 National Forestry Law that rational
resource use is in the public interest. Both private and
state-owned land is subject to regulation under this Law
which declares protected forests and natural reserved
zones inviolable, and gives general regulations for
natural resource conservation. A 100m-belt of protected
forest is to be left on both sides of rivers, streams, water
sources and lakes, and may be increased according to the
importance of the water source.

In 1987, Decree No. 19.165 provided for the creation of
an organisation specifically responsible for protected
area management, namely the National Parks and
Wildlife Office (Direccién de Parques Nacionales y
Vida Silvestre) (DPNVS). The DPNVS is under the State
Subsecretariat of Natural Resources and the
Environment (Subsecretaria de Estado de Recursos
Naturales y Medio Ambiente) of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock.

The lack of clear definitions for protected area
designations in national legislation gives rise to
confusion over regulations and management
(DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Wetterberg et al., 1985). Decrees
establishing individual protected areas may give more
details of their designation, but a single legislative act,
to coordinate protected area regulations and state
national conservation objectives, is needed (C. Acevedo,
pers. comm., 1991).

International Activities Paraguay signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, which has
since been ratified. Paraguay ratified the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 28
April 1988. No sites have been inscribed to date.

In June 1991 an agreement was signed between the
Moisés Bertoni Foundation, the Paraguayan
government, the United Nations and The Nature
Conservancy (TNC) in the United States for the purchase
of 57,510ha of tropical forest. This is known as
Mbaracayi Natural Forest Reserve (Reserva Natural
Forestal Mbaracayi) and does not form part of the
national system. Three of Paraguay’s protected areas
participate in TNC’s Parks in Peril Program (Acevedo
and Pinazzo, 1992).

Administration and Management Protected
areas come under three administrative groups according
to land tenure: state-owned; privately-owned; and
others, primarily Itaipi Binatcional Company (C.
Acevedo and J. Pinazzo, pers. comm., 1991).

Protected Areas of the World

Since 1987, protected areas on state-owned land have
been the responsibility of the DPNVS, as described in
the legislation. Prior to the creation of the DPNVS,
protected areas were included in forestry administration
and were the responsibility of the SFN. Forests remain
under the SEN, whose functions include formulating
forest policies, conducting inventories, and regulating
conservation of forest resources. It comprises a central
directorate and technical department, and district
forestry units (distritos forestales) and Centres of
Training and Forest Research (Centros de Capacitacién
e Investigacién Forestal) throughout the country. Each
district forestry unit has aregulation enforcement service
comprising inspectors, sub—inspectors and two levels of
forest guards.

The DPNVS comprises five departments, one for each
area of responsibility: protected area administration and
development; wildlife; environmental education and
information; Conservation Data Centre; and biological
inventories (C. Acevedo, pers. comm., 1991; E.
Bragayrac and R. Villamayor, pers. comm., 1991). At
the local level, there is a total of eight administrators and
36 park guards working in maintenance and regulation
enforcement in protected areas (E. Bragayrac and R.
Villamayor, pers. comm., 1991).

The Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la
Conservacién)(CDC) was established in 1986, to collect
and process information on biological diversity and the
situation of protected areas. At its creation, the CDC was
an office of the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock,
but became a department within the DPNVS in 1990. It
provides information to national and international
conservation organisations.

Four protected areas that were established by the Itaipt
Hydroelectric Project in 1983 are managed by the Itaipu
Binational Company. The areas have been declared by
law and legally designated as biological reserves and
biological refuges. There is little coordination between
this managementand the DPNVS (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).

Management of privately-owned reserves is the concern
of the land owner, and may take place in conjunction
with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) or
cooperatives. The areas do not receive protection by
means of a legal designation (C. Acevedo and J. Pinazzo,
pers.comm., 1991). One of the largest NGOs, the Moisés
Bertoni Foundation for the Conservation of Nature
(Fundacién Moises Bertoni para la Conservacién de la
Naturaleza), was established in 1988 to support
conservation and protected areas, and is actively
involved with the management of private reserves. The
foundation works closely with international
organisations and the government, to secure areas of land
for protection, particularly in the eastern region (Gauto,
1989).

Systems Review Paraguay is a flat, land-locked
country with many waterways, all of which drain into the
Parana River and on to the Rio Plata system, hence

272

providing access to the Atlantic Ocean (Rios and
Zardini, 1989). The highest point in the country does not
exceed 800m (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).

The two main biogeographical regions are divided by the
Paraguay River: the western region or Chaco and the
eastern region. The climate is continental sub-tropical,
with precipitation varying from 400mm in the extreme
north-west of the Chaco, to 1800mm in the eastern
region.

The Chaco is a large, alluvial plain, extending over
247,000 sq. km with extreme variation from humid to
dry conditions. Much of the area is flooded and swampy
due to impermeable subsoils (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). The
eastern region covers 159,000 sq. km and is the centre of
most economic activities in the country, particularly
agriculture and forestry (CDC, 1990; Rios and Zardini,
1989). Most of this region was once covered in warm,
moist forest (Holdridge, 1969), or subtropical humid
forest (Hueck, 1978). Forests cover 45% the total land
area, 33% of the eastern region, and 46% of the Chaco
(Anon., n.d.).

Few studies have been done on biological diversity, and
those that exist are now very old (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).
Holdridge (1969) identified two life zones; temperate
humid forest and temperate dry forest. Hueck (1978)
classified the country into four vegetation regions:
central Chaco forest, including the western Chaco;
eastern Chaco forest extending from dry to semi—humid;
deciduous subtropical and mesophytic forest including
the eastern region near Brazil; and park land along the
eastern margin of the Chaco (SNF, 1982).

Population distribution is very unequal, with 98%
concentrated in the eastern region, and only 2% in the
Chaco (Kohler, 1989). As a result, the eastern region has
been substantially deforested and suffered general
ecological degradation (Kohler, 1989). By the late
1980s, 63% of the population still lived in rural areas,
and agriculture accounted for 43% of the employment
(Anon., n.d.). Many changes have taken place since the
coup in February 1988 which ended the Strossner
dictatorship. Most significantly, additional land was put
under production, and many forests have been severely
overexploited as a result (Anon., n.d.).

Natural resource protection dates from the 1931 Rural
Code (Cédigo Rural), which prohibited the hunting of
many wildlife species. Areas have been protected under
the designation "reserve" since 1945, when a decree was
passed declaring reserved zones along all roads in the
country (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Villamayor, 1988).
Several other reserved zones were subsequently formed,
but suffered modifications and no longer exist
(Villamayor, 1988). It was several years before a
governmental organisation was established to manage
protected areas (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).

In 1966, the first area of sufficient size to fulfil its
protection objectives was created under the designation

of faunal reserve (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). In 1973, the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock initiated the legal
process of protecting areas, passing decrees for the
creation of several national parks. The National Forestry
Service and the first protected forest were also created
in 1973 (Villamayor, 1988). Following the creation of
the DPNVS, the majority of protected areas established
were designated national parks. A national conservation
system (sistema nacional de conservaci6n) was declared,
unifying protected areas under the one management
organisation (Villamayor, 1988). Since 1987, private
reserves have been created, particularly in the eastern
region. They make a significant contribution to the
national system of protected areas (DPNVS/CDC,
1990).

By 1990, a total of 2.75% of the total land area was under
protection (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Villamayor, 1988).
Two new national parks were created during 1990 (E.
Bragayrac, pers. comm., 1991). Four more protected
areas may also be included in the system, although they
are managed by the Itaipu Binational Company; two
biological reserves and two biological refuges.
However, the lack of a clear definition of these
designations at the governmental level has impeded the
development of the areas in compliance with national
conservation objectives (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).

Paraguay participates in the Latin American Network
programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Tecnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas,
Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the DPNVS (FAO,
n.d.). Following the definition given by the FAO Latin
American Network programme, Paraguay did not have
a national system of protected areas by 1986, but was in
the process of developing one (Ormazabal, 1988).

The distribution of protected areas is very unequal. In the
Chaco, 4.45% of the total area is protected, whereas in
the eastern region, only 0.13% is protected (Villamayor,
1988). Therefore, the national system does not protect
all representative ecosystems (DPNVS/CDC, 1990;
Rios and Zardini, 1989).

Reviews of the protected area system have been carried
out by Villamayor (1988) and the DPNVS and the CDC
together (1990), the latter concentrating on potential
protection for the eastern region. The main problem is
the lack of clear definitions of the designations used
(DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Without standard criteria for
classification and regulations that reflect a national
conservation objective, the establishment of an effective
national system is prevented (DPNVS/CDC, 1990).

Addresses

Servicio Forestal Nacional, Tacuary 443 c/ 25 de Mayo,
Edificio Patria, Sto Piso, ASUNCION (Tel: 443971)

Direcci6n de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, 25 de
Mayo 640 c/Antequera, Edificio Garantia Piso 12A,
ASUNCION (Tel: 494914/495568; FAX: 495568)

273

Paraguay

Subsecretaria de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente,
Ministerio de Agricultura, Tacuary 443 c/25 de
Mayo, Edificio Patria 4to Piso, ASUNCION (Tel:
492901)

Centro de Datos Para la Conservacién de Paraguay
(DPNVS/CDC), 25 de Mayo 640 c/ Antequera,
Edificio Garantia, Piso 12B, CC 3303, ASUNCION
(Tel: 498089; FAX: 212386/495568)

Fundacion Moisés Bertoni para la Conservacion de la
Naturaleza, 25 de Mayo 2140, CC 714, ASUNCION
(Tel: 25638; FAX: 212386)

References

Acevedo, C. and Pinazzo, J. (1992). Areas protegidas
paraguayas y su relaci6n con la poblacion. In:
Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds) ;Espacios sin
Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del
Sur. International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources and Editorial Nueva
Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 291 6304.

Anon. (n.d.) Paraguay: a forestry sector profile. Pp.
11-36.

Anon. (1985). Environmental profile of Paraguay.
IIED/Technical Planning Secretariat/US—AID,
Washington, DC. 162 pp.

SFN (1982). Plan de manejo: Parque Nacional Ybycut.
Servicio Forestal Nacional, Ministerio de

Agricultura y Ganaderia. 53 pp.

DPNVS/CDC (1990). Areas prioritarias para la
conservacion en la Region oriental del Paraguay.
Centro de Datos para la Conservacién, Asuncién.
99 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas
Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

Gauto, R. (1989). Private conservation programs in
Paraguay. Conservation Biology 3(2): 120.

Holdridge, L.R. (1969). Estudio ecolégico de los
bosques de la regidn Oriental del Paraguay. Project
SF/PAR/15. Working document No. 1. FAO. 19 pp.
(Unseen)

Hueck, K. (1978). Los bosques de Sudamérica.
Ecologia, composicion e importancia econémica.
Sociedad Alemana de Cooperacién Técnica.
(Unseen)

Kohler, V. (1989). Cambios en el uso de las tierras y sus
consecuencias ambientales en el Paraguay.
Cuadernos forestales No. 1. Facultad de Ingeniera
Agrondémica, Universidad Nacional de Asuncién.
21 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado
en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres
Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio
1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de
reas silvestres, dreas protegidas y vida silvestre
en América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de

Title:

Protected Areas of the World

la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile. 205 pp.

Rios, E. and Zardini, E. (1989). Conservation of

biological diversity in Paraguay. Conservation
Biology 3(2): 118-119.

Villamayor Orué, R. (1988). Parques nacionales del

Paraguay. Document presented at the IUCN General

ANNEX

Assembly, San José, Costa Rica, February 1988.
29 pp.

Wetterberg, G., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and

Ponce, C.F. (1985). Decade of Progress for South
American Parks 1974-1984. National Park Service,
United States Department of the Interior,
Washington DC. Pp. 42-44.

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Ley Forestal (Forestry Law) No. 422

Date: 22 November 1973

Brief description: Declares it in the public
interest to protect and improve forest resources in the
country and establishes regulations for their use.

Administrative Authority: | Under provision of
this law, the Servicio Forestal Nacional (National
Forestry Service) is created as part of the Ministerio
de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock) to be responsible for natural resource
administration.

Designations:

Bosque de Produccién (Production Forest)
Forested areas suitable for annual or periodical
extractive use

Bosque Protector (Protection Forest) Forested
area protection of which is important for water
regulation, soil stabilisation, public health, national
defence or as a refuge for protected floral or faunal
species.

274

Bosque Especial (Special Forest) _ Forested area
that is to be conserved for scientific, educational,
historical or touristic reason.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Reglamento de la Ley Forestal No. 422

Date: 6 January 1975

Brief description: Giving further details of
forest resource management and use. Makes first
reference to national parks at the national level and
assigns administrative responsibility.

Administrative Authority Servicio Forestal
Nacional (National Forestry Service), under the
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock) is responsible for
selecting and administering national parks.

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An area
given inviolable protection and administered
exclusively by the National Forestry Service. All
natural resource exploitation is prohibited.

Source: Original legislation

Map
ref.

CAINDMPWNKE

14
15

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations IUCN management Area
Name of area category (ha)
National Parks

Caaguazu Il 16,000
Cerro Cora II 12,038
Defensores del Chaco II 780,000
Teniente Encisco II 40,000
Tinfunque II 280,000
Ybycui II 5,000
Ybytyruzu II 24,000
Y pacarai II 16,000
Biological Reserves

Itabo Vv 11,260
Limo’y Vv 14,332
Biological Refuges

Mbaracayu Vv 1,356
Tatiyupi Vv 2,245
Forest Reserve

Capiivary Vil 13,500
Protection Forests

Nacunday IV 1,000
Yaku’y IV 1,000

275

Paraguay

Year
notified

1976
1976
1975
1980
1966
1973
1990
1990

1983
1983

1983
1983

1987

1975
1973

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Paraguay

276

PERU

Area 1,285,220 sq. km

Population 221,550,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.5% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,183 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,010 per capita (1989)

Policy and legislation A commitment to preserve
the environment is given in the National Constitution of
1979, which states that all Peruvians "have the right to
live in a healthy environment, which is in ecological
equilibrium, and suitable for the development of life and
preservation of the landscape and nature”.
Environmental protection is the responsibility of all
citizens, and the state has the obligation to prevent and
control environmental pollution.

In 1986 the government began to participate in the FAO
Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), an international
strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry
sectors to national economic and social development
while maintaining conservation principles. The National
Programme for Forestry Action (Programa Nacional de
Acci6n Forestal) was established by Supreme Decree
No. 016-88-AG in 1988 to interpret the global designs
of TFAP into a specific national action plan which had
been drawn up in 1987 (DGFF, 1987). International
assistance has been received for implementing many of
the projects included in the national action plan, such as
reforestation and education (DGFF, 1991).

In 1988, a proposal for a national conservation strategy
was drawn up by a nongovernmental organisation, the
Peruvian Foundation for Nature Conservation
(Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacion de la
Naturaleza) (FPCN), to preserve genetic diversity,
maintain essential ecosystems and ensure sustainable
use of natural resources. Recommendations include a
revision of conservation legislation and education
campaigns to increase public awareness (FPCN, 1988).
Following this, the government established the National
Commission (Comisién Nacional) by Presidential
Decree on 5 June 1989, comprising representatives from
various sectors and the international community, to
detail and implement the national strategy. The final
document, Basis for a National Conservation Strategy
and Sustainable Development (Bases para una Estrategia
Nacional de Conservaci6n y Desarrollo Sustenable) was
submitted to the government in 1991 (E. Cardich, pers.
comm., 1991; G. Sudrez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991).
This plan has not been put into action due to lack of
funds, but it is currently being reproduced in certain
Tegions across the country in the form of regional
conservation strategies (estrategias regionales para la
conservacién) (G. Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991).

277

Regulations on natural resource use were first applied
between 1956 and 1957 by declaring certain areas as
national forests (bosques nacionales), within which only
the state, or institutions granted permission by the state,
may exploit natural resources. Congressional Law No.
13694, 1961 provided for the creation of the first national
park, and marked the beginning of a legal system for
designating different categories of protected areas, from
controlled exploitation to inviolable protection. The
Agrarian Reform Law (Ley de Reforma Agraria)
No. 17716, 1969 declared that "national parks, national
forests, forest reserves and archaeological zones
declared by law cannot be considered for land
distribution under agrarian reform."

Legal relations between indigenous peoples and
protected areas are established by the Law of Native
Communities and Agrarian Development for the Jungle
and Forest Edge (Ley de Comunidades Nativas y
Desarrollo Agrario de las Regiones de Selva y Ceja de
Selva), Decree Law No. 20653, 1974 and No. 22175,
1978. This law recognises land rights of native
communities and, where these overlap with protected
areas, allows them to continue their activities as long as
these are in keeping with the principles of protected area
regulations (FAO, 1975; Rios et al., 1986).

Current regulations for natural resource use and
definitions of protected area designations in effect were
established by the Forestry and Wildlife Law (Ley
Forestal y de Fauna), Decree Law No. 21147 (1975).
Three management categories of forest reserves and four
of protected areas, the latter called conservation units
(unidades de conservacién), are defined (see Annex).
Individual conservation units are to be declared by
supreme decree. Provision is made for the expropriation
of privately-owned land by the state where it is required
for the establishment of new conservation units. The
Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) is
responsible for all natural resources and protected areas.

Further details of protected area management relating to
the 1975 Forestry and Wildlife Law are given in the
Regulation of Conservation Units (Reglamento de
Unidades de Conservacién) Supreme Decree
No. 160-77-AG of March 1977. Responsibility for
formulating conservation policies and administering the
conservation units is given to the General Directorate of
Forestry and Fauna (Direccién General Forestal y de
Fauna) (DGFF), within the Ministry of Agriculture. The
four categories of conservation units, as defined in the
1975 Forestry law, collectively comprise the National
System of Conservation Units (Sistema Nacional de
Unidades de Conservacién) (SINUC).

The Regulation of Conservation units requires that a
management plan (plan maestro) be drawn up for each
conservation unit and for SINUC as a whole. A system

Protected Areas of the World

of zonation is outlined, whereby each protected area is
subdivided into zones according to the fragility of the
ecosystems present. No conservation unit is to be used
for recreational purposes until zonation has been
implemented (Rios et al., 1986). A SINUC advisory

board is established, and provision made for the ¢

formation of local conservation unit committees. The
forestry police (policia forestal) are responsible for
enforcing protected area regulations (Rios et al., 1986;
Wetterberg, 1985). Two further categories of protected
area, communal reserve (reserva comunal) and hunting
reserve (coto de caza), are provided in the Regulation of
the Conservation of Flora and Wildlife (Reglamento de
Conservaci6n de Flora y Fauna Silvestre), Supreme
Decree No. 15877AG of March 1977 also relating to the
Forestry and Wildlife Law (see Annex). A third
designation, reserved zone (zona reservada), is
mentioned but is to be used only as a transitional or
provisional measure until studies allow a permanent
designation to be assigned. Reserved zone is not a
management category (Injoque et al., 1991; Suarez de
Freitas, 1990a; Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991).

The Organic Law of the Agrarian Sector (Ley Organica
del Sector Agrario) No. 21 of April 1981 provides for the
creation of a decentralised public body, the National
Forestry and Fauna Institute (Instituto Nacional Forestal
y de Fauna) (INFOR), to study agroforestry and wild
fauna, and to implement projects to ensure the rational
use and conservation of natural resources. Later in 1981,
an agreement was reached between INFOR and the
DGFF whereby the two institutions jointly managed
conservation units. The division of administrative
Tesponsibilities and the functions of both INFOR and
DGFF at the national and regional level are given in this
organic law.

Although the 1975 Forestry Law, and regulations
pertaining to it, still form the basis of all legislation
regarding natural resource protection, by the mid 1980s
it became clear that there was no coherent legal
framework by which to implement governmental
policies, owing to the large number of acts passed by
different sectors with interests in resource use (DGFF,
1987). Major restructuring of the Agrarian Sector of the
Ministry of Agriculture and changes in resource
management responsibilities took place between 1987
and 1990.

The second Organic Law of the Agrarian Sector, No. 424
of January 1987, gives the DGFF sole responsibility for
forest and wildlife resource management at the national
level, and created agrarian units (unidades agrarias) to
represent the Ministry of Agriculture at regional level.
INFOR was dissolved and all responsibilities previously
assigned to this institute and to its regional offices were
incorporated into the DGFF and the agrarian units,
respectively. Provision was made for the creation of
three Vice-Ministers, including the Vice-Minister of
Natural Resources and Rural Development (Vice
Ministro de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Rural) at a

278

high level in central administration to whom the DGFF
is itself responsible.

In March 1990, Supreme Decree No. 010-90-AG made
provision for the creation of the National System of State
Protected Natural Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas
Naturales Protegidas por el Estado) (SINANPE),
comprising SINUC and all other categories of state
protected area such as: national forest (bosque nacional),
protection forest (bosque de proteccidn), communal
reserve and hunting reserve. Provision is also made for
the creation of the National Programme of National
Parks and Other State Protected Areas (Programa
Nacional de Parques Nacionales y Otras Areas
Protegidas), known simply as National Parks-Peru
(Parques Nacionales-Peri), to be the organisation
responsible for managing SINANPE (Injoque et al.,
1991).

The Organic Law No. 424 was replaced in 1990 by the
Law of Organisation and Function of the Agrarian Sector
(Ley de Organizacién y Funciones del Sector Agrario)
No. 565, which finalised the structure of the public
agrarian sector and the Ministry of Agriculture. The
positions held by the three Vice-Ministers are abolished
and their functions amalgamated into one, the
Vice-Minister of Agriculture (Vice Ministro de
Agricultura), who now supervises the DGFF. A
regulation of this Law, Supreme Decree
No. 048-900-AG, (1990), ratified the creation of
National Parks-Peru and declared the DGFF responsible
for its administration and management (DGFF, 1991;
Injoque et al., 1991).

On 7 September 1990, the Environment and Natural
Resources Code (Cédigo del Medio Ambiente y Los
Recursos Naturales) Legislative Decree No. 613, first
proposed in March 1983, was passed to simplify the legal
situation by consolidating all previous policies regarding
conservation and resource use into one act. The
objectives of protected areas are restated and native
communities’ land ownership rights acknowledged.
Their participation in managing natural resources is
encouraged where such communities are found within
protected areas, but natural resource use is limited to
comply with the conservation objectives of the
designation (Injoque et al., 1991; G. Suarez de Freitas,
pers.comm., 1991; ). The Code does not replace existing
environmental legislation but draws on past experience
to form a coherent national management plan. The Code
also repeals a previous law that seriously threatened the
integrity of the Amazon region, the Law for the Basis of
Rural Development of the Peruvian Amazon (Ley de
Bases para el Desarrollo Rural de la Amazonia) No.
24994 of 1989, which promoted extensive agricultural
development in the Amazon basin (Suarez de Freitas,
1990c; G. Sudrez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991).

Environmental legislation has not been able to stop
informal development, such as spontaneous agricultural
settlement, which threatens the ecosystems of many
regions (Ferreyros, 1988; Suarez de Freitas, 1990d).

Threats to natural resource protection also arise from
within the legal system itself. The mechanisms for
establishing conservation units by supreme decree, as
provided by the 1975 Forestry and Wildlife Law, can be
undermined by laws of other sectors such as fisheries,
mining or tourism because a supreme decree does not
carry as much legislative weight as a law. A simple
method of establishing conservation units by law is
sought (Ferreyros, 1988).

International Activities Peru signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and it has
since been ratified. The Convention for the Conservation
and Management of Vicufia (Convenio para la
Conservaci6n y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed in
1979 by Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Argentina and Peru.

Three agreements which deal exclusively with
protecting Amazon regions have been signed by Peru.
The Agreement for the Conservation of Fauna and Flora
of the Amazon Regions of Peru and Brazil (Acuerdo para
la Conservacién de la Fauna y Flora de los Territorios
Amazonicos de la Republica del Peni y de la Republica
Federativa del Brazil) was signed in 1975; a similar
agreement with Colombia in 1979; and the Amazon
Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperacién
Amazé6nica) on 3 July 1978. The latter treaty was signed
by the eight countries with land in the Amazon Basin to
establish regulations for managing natural resources and
to propose conservation directed alternatives to the
management of multinational projects.

Peru ratified the Convention concerning the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention) in 1982. Four natural sites were
inscribed in 1983, 1985, 1987 and 1990. Peru
participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere
Programme, having had three biosphere reserves
accepted in 1977, and signed the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and has three
sites inscribed.

Peru participates in the Latin American Network
programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas,
Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the DGFF (FAO, n.d.).

Administration and Management The Ministry
of Agriculture has been vested with the ultimate
responsibility for managing natural resources since the
1950s. The first institute created within it specifically for
this purpose was the Forestry and Hunting Service
(Servicio Forestal y de Caza) in 1961. The Ministry of
Agriculture took on its present structure with the passing
of Decree Law No. 565 of April 1990. It has a broad field
of responsibility and function covering agricultural and
non-agricultural land, forests and protected areas. The

279

Peru

1975 Forests and Wildlife Law and its related Regulation
assigned responsibility for conserving forest and wildlife
resources and regulating their use, to the General
Directorate of Forestry and Fauna (DGFF) within the
Ministry of Agriculture.

Until the 1987 Organic Law took effect, protected area
management was carried out by the DGFF together with
the National Forestry and Fauna Institute (NFOR). In
1987 INFOR was dissolved and the DGFF took over its
responsibilities under the Vice -Minister of Agriculture
(Injoque et al., 1991).

Within the DGFF are five sub-directorates, including the
National Parks Directorate (Direccién de Parques
Nacionales), the Flora and Wildlife Directorate
(Direccion de Flora y Fauna Silvestres) and the Forest
Management and Reforestation Directorate (Direccién
de Manejo Forestal y Reforestacién) (DGFF, 1987).
National Parks-Peru was established within the DGFF to
improve the administration of protected areas by
unifying them within SINANPE, and allow them to
better contribute to regional and national development
(DGFF, 1991).

At the local level, the former regional organisations of
the DGFF and INFOR, district forestry units (distritos
forestales) and forestry development centres (centros de
desarollo forestal), respectively, have been integrated
into 12 Agrarian Units. These are now the sole regional
offices of the Ministry of Agriculture and have greater
autonomy and responsibility for activities relating to
forests and natural resources than previously, as part of
the governmental process of decentralisation (DGFF,
1991; Injoque et al., 1991). Enforcement of protected
area regulations are carried out by park guards
(guardaparques), part of National Parks-Peru: 93 were
employed in the SINANPE in 1991 (Injoque et al.,
1991), compared with 143 in 1990 (WWF-US, 1990).

The National Office for Natural Resource Evaluation
(Oficina Nacional de Evaluacién de Recursos Naturales)
(ONERN), a governmental organisation established in
1962, is responsible for identifying and evaluating
natural resources and for commissioning projects to
evaluate their conservation and use for socio-economic
development. Since 1976, with funding from USAID,
ONERN has been using Landsat imagery to formulate
maps of natural resource distribution, and "life zones"
using the Holdridge method.

There are around 80 non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) concerned with ecology, wildlife conservation,
protected areas and environmental issues, at local,
national and international levels who are coordinated by
the Peruvian Environmental Network (Red Ambiental
Peruana) (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). NGOs have
contributed considerably towards improving the
effectiveness of protected area management in the past
decade, and often have more professionals working for
them than the DGFF (DGFF, 1987; Injoque et al., 1991).
In particular, they have increased the number of qualified

Protected Areas of the World

personnel available, equipment, research and
environmental education. Among the largest national
level organisations are the Peruvian Foundation for
Nature Conservation (Fundacién Peruana para
Conservacion de la Naturaleza)(FPCN) established in
1985, which supports at least eight of the 25 areas in
SINUC, including four of the seven national parks
(G. Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991), and APECO,
the Peruvian Association for Conservation (Asociacién
Peruana para la Conservacion). The Conservation
Association for the Southern Rainforest (Asociacién de
Conservacién para la Selva Sur) (ACSS), founded in
1984, works specifically towards the protection of the
southern region of rain forest. The Pachamama Society
(Sociedad Pachamama), founded in 1990, is involved in
sustainable development projects concerning protected
areas, particularly in marine regions and dry tropical
forest (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991).

The Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la
Conservaci6n del Peni) (CDC) at La Molina National
Agrarian University (Universidad Nacional Agraria La
Molina), formed in 1983 to provide information required
for amanagement plan for SINUC, maintains a data base
of biological diversity in Peru and runs a continual
assessment of the effectiveness of resource conservation.
It provides information for the FPCN, the DGFF,
WWFE-US, FAO and WCMC.

Protected area management has suffered from
continuous changes within the Ministry of Agriculture
and the lack of communication between central and
regional administration. Combined with severe lack of
funding owing to the economic situation, the
effectiveness of natural resource regulation has been
greatly reduced (DGFF, 1991). Amalgamating INFOR
into the DGFF resolved some of the previous problems
of divided responsibilities, but the reorganisations since
1987 have reduced the number of personnel working in
central administration. The present government intends
to reduce the number further, as part of a radical
decentralisation process (DGFF, 1991). The lack of
personnel is reflected in the fact that many areas do not
have park guards. Only those conservation units in
SINUC may be considered to fulfil some of the criteria
for protected areas; the majority of the other areas that
comprise SINANPE are only protected on paper
(Injoque et al., 1991).

A review of the current situation of protected area
administration with proposals for institutional planning
was carried out by Injoque et al. (1991). This study
mentions that administrative problems have arisen partly
from the fact that there has never been an autonomous
institute responsible for protected areas whose sole
objective is their administration and management, but
this responsibility has always been assigned to
institutions within a larger organisation (Injoque et al.,
1991). Among the suggestions to improve management
is the creation of a school for training park guards, and
the elaboration of a master plan to provide policies and
guidelines for detailed planning within National

280

ParksPeru. Fortunately, some training courses for park
personnel are run by the Peruvian Foundation for Nature
Conservation (FPCN) in conjunction with the National
Agrarian University and National Parks-Peru. Since
1989 they have received support from WWF-US
(WWF, 1990).

Suarez de Freitas (1990b) cites inconsistencies in the
designation of protected areas as another factor
contributing to administrative inefficiency. For
example, areas evaluated as locally important may not
receive sufficient support from central government. A
cohesive national system and compliance with
internationallyrecognised protected area designations is
needed to prevent local exploitation of resources. Closer
working relations between the DGFF and NGOs should
improve local administration (DGFF, 1987). The
systems of SINUC and SINANPE are afforded low
priority by the government, resulting in inadequate
salaries and training and a continuing reduction in the
number of personnel (Ferreyros, 1988; Suarez de Freitas,
1990d; Injoque and Suarez de Freitas, 1992).

Reviews of protected area systems conducted by
CDC-Pert (1991), Suarez de Freitas (1990a) for the
FPCN, Ferreyros (1988), and Dourojeanni (1985) with
particular reference to Andean regions, all cite
administrative complexity as a major problem.

Systems Review Topographically, Peru consists
of three district regions; costa (coastal), sierra (central
Andean Mountains) and selva (lowland slopes of
Amazonian drainage basin). The climate is strongly
affected by the Andean Mountains inland and by the
Peruvian, or Humboldt, current which warms the coastal
regions, giving rise to a number of distinct ecosystems
across the country. As a result, Peru may harbour the
richest biodiversity on earth and 84 "life zones", of the
103 proposed by Holdridge (1967) for the world, have
been identified (Dourojeanni, 1985; Lamas, 1979).

The major ecosystems were originally defined in a
classification system devised by Brack, and given in
Ferreyos (1988) as: tropical Pacific Ocean; coastal
desert; dry equatorial woodlands; paramo (dry
altiplano); puna (mountain plains) and high Andes; high
jungle; low jungle and the Pampas del Heath (wet
grassland on the border with Bolivia). Two of these
regions, coastal desert and the high Andes above
3,000m, are naturally non-forested, the others having
been subjected to human interference (Gentry, n.d.).
Around 60% of the country is still forested, with the
largest tracts of forest (96% of the remaining forested
land) found in the Amazonian lowlands (Burley, 1987).
The major threat to the forest ecosystems in these regions
is from widespread use of slash and burn agricultural
techniques. Since the early 1970s migration to the
Amazonian lowlands has taken place on a large-scale
(Burley, 1987; Gentry, n.d.; Suarez de Freitas, 1990d).
Despite this, nearly 90% of the Peruvian Amazonian
forest remains intact (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991).

Much of the land is unsuitable for intensive agriculture,
being too dry, steep or poorly drained for crops and only
3% is cultivated (Burley, 1987). Some 40% is only
suitable for forestry, but the uneven distribution of the
population, 90% of which lives in the Sierra and Costa
regions which comprise only 40% of the total area, has
put severe pressure on the environment. Deforestation,
over-grazing and nutrient depletion through agriculture
result in soil erosion and desertification in those regions
(Suarez de Freitas, 1990d). The most seriously affected
are the central valleys which have been farmed since
pre-Hispanic times. Agricultural productivity is
generally very low.

Resource management began with the declaration of
national forests in the 1950s, and the first national park
was established in 1961 (Dourojeanni and Roche, 1984;
Injoque et al., 1991). However, without preliminary
studies to develop a management plan or designate clear
boundaries, it was largely ineffective. However, the
event did lead to extensive research to identify important
ecosystems around the country, with a view to their
protection (Ferreyros, 1988). Since then, protected areas
have been declared under various designations from
those allowing regulated exploitation, to inviolable
protection accordingly.

SINUC, the National Network of Conservation Units,
was established in 1975, and incorporated into the
National System of State Protected Areas (SINANPE)
in 1990. By 1991, SINUC comprised 25 conservation
units (national parks and reserves, historical and national
sanctuaries) covering 5,513,425ha or 4.29% of total land
area (CDC-Peni, 1991; Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm.,
1991). SINANPE comprised the 25 conservation units
of SINUC covering 13,265,111ha, or 10.32% of total
land area (DGFF, 1991; Injoque, et al., 1991). The
number of national forests has been reduced
considerably from 17 in 1975, reflecting disinterest and
inefficiency in forestry management (Suarez de Freitas,
1990d). The wealth of biological diversity present makes
it difficult to extend protection to all types of life zones
described. The marine and coastal region, particularly
the tropical and temperate Pacific deserts, is one of the
most notably underrepresented regions in the
protected area system. The fragile ecosystems of the
high altitude Puna also require urgent protection
measures (CDC-Peri, 1986, 1991; E. Cardich, pers.
comm., 1991; ).

Following the definition given by the FAO Latin
American Network programme, Peru has a coherent
system (Ormazabal, 1988).

Many areas are not managed according to their legal
definitions and within each category practical
management regimes vary considerably. The majority of
areas that comprise SINANPE are only protected on
paper. Only those areas in the SINUC comprise what
may be considered criteria for protected areas (Injoque
et al., 1991). Reserved zone (zona reservada) has been
applied permanently to five areas, but it is not a

281

Peru

management category, but rather a transitory
classification to be used only until further studies
indicate the degree of protection if any required. The
five areas subsequently lack a legal basis for protection
(CDCPeri, 1986, 1991; Sudrez de Freitas, 1990d).

Human settlement is a threat to the whole SINUC
system. This is most apparent in the heavily populated
Andean region (Dourojeanni, 1985) and in regions
where coca is grown intensively such as the Huallaga
Valley (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). The production
of coca for cocaine has caused serious social and
environmental problems such as soil erosion, forest
destruction and large amounts of pollution from
fertilisers and chemicals used in processing. Increasing
lawlessness in these regions makes environmental
regulations difficult to implement. Some areas within
SINUC (Tingo Maria and Junin) have been abandoned
owing to subversive activities and the unstable social
situation in the country (Injoque, et al., 1991).

Land tenure threatens the implementation of
conservation strategies in some regions (Dourojeanni,
1985). Peruvian legislation requires that national park
land is state-owned, although the Act on Native
Communities (1974 and 1975), and the Environmental
Code (1990) acknowledge the right of indigenous
communities to land ownership. In the Andean region,
where most of the land is privatelyowned by
individuals or communities, the sustainability of
protected areas depends on the benefit that local
people derive from them. Here, resources are
protected by the designation of national reserves
within which sustainable exploitation is carried out by
the local people themselves (Dourojeanni, 1985). The
problem of native community land rights is
particularly apparent in the Peruvian Amazonian
region where existing management systems have
largely ignored rights. Increasing the extent to which
Native communities are involved in managing the
Amazon region will help to improve the effectiveness
of protection measures (E. Cardich, pers. comm.,
1991).

Addresses

Direccién General Forestal y de Fauna (DGFF) (Director
de Parques Nacionales), Ministerio de Agricultura,
Av. Natalio Sanchez 220 (3er piso, Of. 907), Jestis
Maria, LIMA 11 (Tel: 14 323150; FAX: 14 232789;
Tlx: 20053)

Oficina Nacional de Evaluacién de Recursos Naturales
(ONERN), Calle 17 No. 355, Urb. CORPAC, San
Isidro, Aptdo 4992, LIMA

Centro de Datos para la Conservacién (CDC),
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Aptdo
456, LIMA 100

Asociacién de Conservacién para la Selva Sur (ACSS),
Av. Sol 627B, Oficina 305, CUSCO

Asociacién Peruana para la Conservacién (APECO),
Parque José de Acosta 187, Altos, Magdalena del
Mar,LIMA 17

Protected Areas of the World

Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacién de la
Naturaleza (FPCN), CP 181393, Los Rosales
255, San Isidro, LIMA 27 (FAX: 14 427853;
Tel: 426616/426706/422149/422796)

Sociedad Pachamama, Av. Camino Real 479, 8 piso,
LIMA 27 (FAX: 14 411990; Tel: 438948/438951)

References

Burley, W. (1987). Draft of Peru case study. Critical
Ecosystems Paper. Unpublished manuscript. 8 pp.

CDC-Perti (1986). Ecosistemas criticos del Pert:
Informe al World Resources Institute (WRI). Centro
de Datos para la Conservaci6on, Lima. (Unseen)

CDC-Peni (1991). Plan director del Sistema Nacional
de Unidades de Conservacién(SINUC): Una
aproximacién desde la diversidad biolégica.
Propuesta del Centro de Datos para la Conservacién,
Lima. 190 pp. (Unseen)

CIDA (1986). Tropical forestry action plan Peru.
Forestry sector review. Terms of reference.
Canadian International Development Agency, Hull,
Canada. Pp. 1-14.

DGFF (1987). Plan Nacional de Accién Forestal
1988-2000. Ministerio de Agricultura, Direccién
General de Forestal y Fauna, Lima. 87 pp.

DGFF (1991). Informe sobre progreso forestal
1988-1990 del Peri. 17th meeting of the Latin
American forestry commission-COFLA, Venezuela,
18-22 February 1991. Ministerio de Agricultura,
Direccién General de Forestal y Fauna, Lima. 22 pp.

Dourojeanni, M.J. (n.d.). Gran geografia del Peri,
naturaleza y hombre. Volumen IV. Recursos
naturales, desarrollo y conservacié6n en el Peru.
Manfer-Juan Mejia Baca. Pp. 33-55.

Dourojeanni, M.J. (1985). Management problems in the
Andean National Parks and protected areas of Peru.
In: McNeely, J.A., Thorsell, J.W., and Chalise, S.R.
(Eds), People and protected areas in the Hindu-Kush
Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature
Conservation and the International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu,
Nepal. Pp. 159-161.

FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas
Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina
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Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

FAO (1975). Food and Agricultural Legislation 24

FAO (1976). Food and Agricultural Legislation
25(1): 66-80

FAO (1983). Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques
nacionales, otras Greas protegidas, flora y fauna
silvestres. Santiago de Chile, 8-10 junio 1983. Food
and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for
Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.
Pp. 43-59.

Ferreyros, A (1988). Situacién actual de los parques
nacionales y otras unidades de conservaci6én en el
Pert. Asociacién de Ecologia y Conservacién
(ECCO), Lima. 21 pp.

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FPCN (1988). Estrategia nacional para la
conservaci6n. Una propuesta. Fundacién Peruana
para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza. 43 pp.

Gentry, A. (n.d.). Colombia, Ecuador, Peru. Floristic
inventory of tropical forests. Pp. 1-14.

Gow, D., Clark, K., Earhart, J., Fujita, M., Laarman, J.,
Miller, G. (1988). Peru: An assessment of biological
diversity. Development Strategies for Fragile Lands
(DESFIL), prepared for the US Agency for
International Development. Washington DC,
USA. 76 pp.

INFOR/DGFF (1987). Exposicién de motivos. Programa
nacional de parques nacional de parques nacionales
y areas naturales protegidas. Instituto Nacional
Forestal y de Fauna/Direccién General Forestal y de
Fauna, Lima. 6 pp.

Injoque, F. and Suarez de Freitas, G. (1992). Problemas
en la realizacion de una politica estricta de parques
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Amend, T. (eds.) Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques
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Nueva Sociedad, Caracas, Venezuela. Pp. 315-327.

Injoque, F., Gutiérrez R., Manrique L. (1991). Una
propuesta de criterios para la planificacién
institucional del sistema de areas protegidas Peruano.
Documento de Trabajo No. 1. Programa Nacional de
Parques Nacionales y Otras Areas Naturales
Protegidas Por el Estado. Parques Nacionales-Peri,
Lima. 13 pp.

Lamas, G. (1982). A preliminary zoographical division
of Peru based on butterfly distributions (Lepidoptera,
Papilionoidea). In: Prance, G.T. (Ed.), Biological
diversification in the Tropics. Proceedings of the V
International Symposium of the Association for
Tropical Biology. Colombia University Press.
Pp. 336-356.

Library of Congress (1979). Draft environmental report
on Peru. Science and Technology Division,
Washington DC. 109 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado
en los resultados del taller sobre planificacién de
sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres
protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 913 junio 1986.
Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas
silvestres, dreas protegidas y vida silvestre en
América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de
la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23.

Rios, M.A., Ponce, C.F., Tovar, A., Vasquez P.G.,
Dourojeanni M. (1986). Plan maestro, parque nacional
del Mani. Universidad Nacional Agraria de La Molina,
Lima. Pp. 8-15.

Roche and Dourojeanni, MJ. (1984). Peruvian case study.
A guide to in situ conservation of genetic resources of
tropical woody species. FAO. Pp. 185-196.

Suarez de Freitas, G. (1990a). Diagnéstico del sistema
peruano de dreas_ naturales protegidas y
recomendaciones para su administracién.
Fundacion Peruana para la Conservacion de la
Naturaleza, Lima. 87 pp.

Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990b). Regionalizacién y dreas
protegidas. FPCN al dfa. January-March. Fundacion
Peruana para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza,
Lima. Pp. 1-2.

Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990c). Development of the
Peruvian Amazon Basin. WWF Discussion Paper.
World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland.
8 pp.

Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990d). Estudio de Pats, Peri.
Estudio ITTO/IUCN sobre el papel de la actividad
forestal en la conservacién de la diversidad
bioldgica. Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacién
de la Naturaleza. 14 pp.

Vasquez, P.G. and Barrena, V.M. (1990). Diserio de una
metodologta para el monitoreo del impacto de las

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actividades humanas en dreas protegidas de la
Amazonta Peruana. Centro de Datos para la
Conservacién (CDC) y la Comunidad Econémica
Europea. Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina,
Lima. 116 pp.

Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and
Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for
South American National Parks. International
Affairs, USDI National Park Service, Washington
DC, USA. Pp. 47-51.

WWF-US, (1990). 16230: Training Workshops for Park
Personnel, Peru. Internal document (grant
information). 2 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Ley Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre by those working the land and prescribe control
(Forestry and Wildlife Law)-Decree measures accordingly.
Law No. 21147

Date: 13 May 1975

Brief description: Forests and wild faunal
resources belong to the public and rights to them
cannot be acquired. This law provides for the
establishment of protected areas and the rules
governing the protection and use of forest and faunal
resources.

Administrative authority: Ministry of
Agriculture.

Designations:

Bosque nacional (National forest) Forests
declared by Supreme Decree suitable for continuing
production of timber, other forest products or wild
fauna, made use of directly by the state, or by
individuals with prior authorisation from the state
and under special regulations and supervision.
Bosque de libre disponibilidad (Freely disposable
forest) Forest suitable for continuing production of
timber, other forest products or wild fauna and used
by any duly authorised person. Declared by
Ministerial Resolution.

Bosque de proteccién (Protection forest) Forest
whose characteristics and situation are conducive to
soil and water conservation declared, by Supreme
Resolution, as inviolable for the protection of
agricultural land, road systems and other facilities.
All exploitation is prohibited.

CONSERVATION UNITS
(UNIDADES DE CONSERVACION):

Parque nacional (National park) __ Area of wild
floral and faunal and scenic beauty allocated for
inviolable protection. All exploitation is prohibited

Reserva nacional (National reserve) Area
allocated to wild faunal species for protection and
propagation in the nation’s interest. Sustainable
harvesting of wildlife is allowed. The use made of
products from such reserves shall be a matter for the
state When a reserve is on agricultural land, the
Ministry of Agriculture will authorise use of fauna

284

Santuario nacional (National sanctuary)
Inviolable area allocated for protection of any
species, communities of plants or animals or any
natural formations of scientific or scenic interest.

Santuario histérico (Historic sanctuary)
Inviolable area allocated for protection of natural
sites where important events in the nation’s history
took place.

Source: FAO, 1976

Title: Reglamento de Conservacién de Flora y
Fauna Silvestre (Regulation of the
Conservation of Flora and Wildlife), Supreme
Decree 15877AG, relating to the 1975 Forestry
and Wildlife Law

Date: 31 March 1977

Brief description: Regulates the use of natural
resources and gives definitions for two protected area
designations and the possibility of a third, temporary
classification

Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture
Designations:

Coto de caza (Hunting reserve) Area suitable
for wildlife management. Land may be either private
or publicly owned, and have an adequate
infrastructure to allow sport hunting activities.

Reserva comunal (Communal reserve) Area
set aside to conserve wildlife for the benefit of local
populations whose livelihoods traditionally depend
on wildlife products May be established for native
or peasant communities, or migrant hunters from the
mountains, jungle or adjacent jungle

Zona reservada (Reserved zone) May be
applied to an area to protect the wildlife and fauna
present until studies are carried out to determine a
suitable permanent designation This is not a
protected area management category and is only to
be used in a transitory or provisional sense

Source: Sudrez de Freitas, 1990a

Peru

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Park
1 Cerros de Amotape II 91,300 1975
2) Cutervo II 2,500 1961
3 Huascaran II 340,000 1975
4 Manu II 1,532,806 1973
5 Rio Abiseo II 274,520 1983
6 Tingo Maria II 18,000 1965
7 Yanachaga Chemillen II 122,000 1986
National Reserve
8 Calipuy IV 64,000 1981
9 Junin Vill 53,000 1974
10 Lachay Il 5,070 1977
11 Pacaya Samiria Vill 2,080,000 1982
12 Pampa Galeras Vill 6,500 1967
13 Paracas Vil 335,000 1975
14 Salinas y Aguada Blanca Vill 366,936 1979
15 Titicaca Vv 36,180 1978
National Sanctuary
16 Ampay Vv 3,635 1987
17 Calipuy Ill 4,500 1981
18 Huayllay Ill 6,815 1974
19 Manglares de Tumbes Ill , 2,972 1988
20 Pampas del Heath Ill 102,109 1983
21 Tabaconas-Namballe Il 29,500 1988
Communal Reserve
22 Yanesha vill 34,744 1988
Reserved Zone
23 Apurimac VI 1,669,290 1988
24 Laquipampa IV 11,347 1982
25 Manu VI 257,000 1980
26 Racali Vv 6,433 1985
27 Tambopata-Candamo Ill 1,478,942 1977
28 Udima Vv 8,469 1991
Hunting Reserve
29 El Angolo Vill 65,000 1975
30 Sunchubamba Vill 59,735 1977
National Forest
31 Alexander von Humboldt Vili 570,800 1965
32 Biabo-Cordillera Azul Vill 2,068,500 1963
33 Mariscal Caceres Vill 137,448 1963
34 Pastaza, Morona, Maranon Vil 375,000 1963
35 Tumbes Vill 75,102 1957
Protection Forest
36 Alto Mayo Vill 182,000 1987
37 Pagaibamba Vil 2,078 1987
38 Pui-Pui Vil 60,000 1985
39 San Matias-San Carlos Vil 145,818 1987

285

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

40
41

National/international designations
Name of area

Historical Sanctuary
Chacamarca
Machu Picchu

Biosphere Reserves
Reserva de Huascaran
Reserva del Manu
Reserva del Noroeste

Ramsar Wetlands

Reserva Nacional de Paracas
Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria
Santuario Nacional Lagunas de Mejia

World Heritage Sites

Parque Nacional Huascaran

Parque Nacional Manu

Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo
Sanctuario Histérico de Machu Picchu

IUCN management

286

category

<<

IX
Ix

AAD

mS PS PX PS

Area
(ha)

2,500
32,592

399,239
1,881,200
226,300

335,000
2,080,000
691

340,000
1,532,807
274,520
32,592

Year
notified

1974
1981

1977
1977
1977

1992
1992
1992

1985
1987
1990
1983

Peru

Protected Areas of Peru

287

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—

REPUBLIC OF SURINAME

Area 163,800 sq. km

Population 422,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.76% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,760 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 3,020 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation Provision for the
establishment of protected areas is made in various
pieces of legislation. In general, original legislation was
passed during the time that the region was a colony of
the Netherlands, and has since been updated, one or
several times, both before and after independence.
Suriname gained full independence from the
Netherlands in 1975, since when the signatory authority
of the Governor of the then colony has been transferred
to the President of the Republic of Suriname.

The first piece of legislation covering the region was
provided in Article 44 of the Police Penal Code,
Government Bulletin (G.B.) No. 77, 1915 (updated by
G.B. No. 152, 1942 with latest amendment in G.B.
No. 107, 1964) (see Annex). This code contained the
mechanism to establish areas where hunting or capturing
of wildlife was only allowed following issue of a written
permit. The first sanctuary was established, under this
code, following Government Resolution (G.B. No. 12,
1953) on 15 February 1953.

Under the Law on the Issuance of State-owned Lands
(Agarische Wet G.B. No. 53, 1937, updated by G.B.
No. 53, 1953), later updated by Decreet L-2 of 15 June
1982, nature parks and multiple-use management areas
may be created (see Annex) (Baal, 1991).

In 1948, the Nature Conservation Commission
(Natuurbeschermingscommissie) was established by
Government Resolution in order to study conservation
problems, and to propose legislation for conservation.
This resulted in the Nature Preservation Law, 1954
(Government Gazette No. 26), under which the
principles of nature conservation were first formulated,
and which provided for the establishment of nature
reserves by state resolution (see Annex). To date, five
nature preservation resolutions have been passed,
relating to this law. The 1986 resolution included a
provision for the traditional rights and interests of
indigenous people living in tribal communities, where
these rights would affect the newly protected areas.
These traditional rights were subject to various provisos,
and essentially ensured the following: free choice for the
settlement of villages; free choice of land for the
establishment of shifting cultivation grounds;
permission to hunt, fish and apply for a cutting permit
(Baal, 1991).

289

A planning law (Planwet) of 1973 (G.B. No. 89)
provides for the establishment of, amongst other things,
special management areas (bijzondere beheersgebieden)
(see Annex). However, not all agencies dealing with the
execution of this law have been established, and it is not
yet operational (Baal, 1991).

Forestry legislation currently comprises the Timber
Law, 1947 (see Annex) which provides for reserving
areas for exploration and exploitation, and for placing
concessions at the disposal of the government. The
Forest Service is authorised to manage certain of these
areas as forest reserves. By Resolution 2824 of 21 July
1947 (G.G. No. 108, 1947), the Forest Service (Dienst’s
Lands Bosbeheer) was established to manage forest
reserves and to ensure sustainable management of the
nation’s forests. A draft Law on Forest Management
(Concept-Ontwerp Wet Bosbeheer), which will replace
the Timber Law, currently awaits enactment by
Parliament. It will distinguish three main categories of
forest according to land use: permanent forest (blijvend
bos); conversion forest (eenmalig leeg te kappen bos)
and provisionally maintained forest (voorlopig in stand
te houden bos). permanent forest comprises specially
protected forest (speciaal beschermd bos), protection
forest (schermbos) and permanent production forest
(blijvend produktiebos) (Baal, 1991).

Protected areas legislation has been reviewed recently
by Baal (1991). Recommendations arising from this
report include evaluating the provisions in the legislation
to bring definitions in line with those evolved during the
IV World Parks Congress.

Suriname participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry
Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for
maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to
national economic and social development while
maintaining conservation principles. A national action
plan has been formulated to interpret the global
objectives of the TFAP to meet specific national
requirements.

International Activities Suriname signed the 1940
Convention concerning the Protection of Flora, Fauna
and Natural Scenic Beauty of the Americas (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention). Suriname is one of
the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region
that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty on 3 July
1978, an agreement to establish regulations for
managing natural resources and to propose conservation
directed alternatives to the management of multinational
projects.

The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) was ratified on 18 March 1985, under

Protected Areas of the World

which one site has been inscribed. Suriname is not party
to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), neither does it participate in the Unesco
Man and Biosphere Programme.

Suriname participates in the Western Hemisphere
Shorebird Reserve Network. Under this network,
three reserves, Coopenamemonding and Wia Wia
Nature Reserves and Bigi Pan Multiple-Use
Management Area, were officially established as
hemispheric reserves on 4 March 1989. At the same
time, these three protected areas were twinned with
two protected areas in Canada, following a
Memorandum of Understanding of 8 August 1987
concerning cooperation in the field of conservation by
the Canadian Wildlife Services and the Suriname
Forest Service.

Administration and Management The Ministry
of Natural Resources (Ministerie van Natuurlijke
Hulpbronnen) is responsible for policy direction,
legislation, issuance of permits, budget allocation and
interministerial coordination, and for all matters relating
to natural resources. Three sections exist within this
ministry. Two, the Forest Service and the Bureau of
Lands, are responsible for protected areas. The third
section, the Foundation for Nature Preservation, deals
with sea turtles and nature tourism. The Director
responsible for the first two sections is also responsible
for enforcement of the Police Penal Code (under which
sanctuaries may be established) (Baal, 1989, 1991; Held
and Reichart, 1991). A high-level advisory body, the
Nature Conservation Commission, was established in
1948 to advise the government on environmental and
conservation issues and to assist in decision-making.
Responsibilities of the commission include supervising
the implementation of the Nature Preservation Law, and
selecting areas for designation as nature reserves (Baal,
1989).

The Forest Service is in charge of the protection, control,
and management of the forest resources, and both forest
protection and production, as detailed in the 1954 Nature
Preservation Law. Within the Forest Service, the Nature
Conservation Division comprises four sections, one for
each of its functions: nature reserves and wildlife
management (including trade regulation); research;
education; and Bureau for Commissions to issue permits
(Baal, 1989). Regulation enforcement and patrolling of
protected areas is carried out by forest guards of the
Forest Service (Schulz, 1968). Nature reserves are
managed primarily to afford protection for scientific
research purposes, but tourism and environmental
education are encouraged increasingly in the more
accessible areas (Mittermeier et al., 1990; Schulz, 1968).
A second division within the Forest Service, the Special
Protection Forest and Protection Forest Section, is
responsible for formulating the new draft Law on Forest
Management and for its implementation once passed
(Held and Reichart, 1991).

290

The Bureau of Lands is responsible for long-term lease
areas, including nature parks and multiple-use
management areas.

In 1969, the Foundation for Nature Preservation
(Stichting Natuurbehoud Suriname) (STINASU), a
non-governmental organisation, was established to
assist the Forest Service in managing nature reserves.
The responsibilities of STINASU have grown, and it
now plays an important role in conservation in the
country. It is responsible for nature tourism, promoting
public environmental awareness campaigns, including
sponsoring and guiding the development of a Wildlife
Rangers Club for young people, and conducting research
on sea-turtles. STINASU also has sole management of
one nature reserve (Baal, 1989; Mittermeier et al., 1990).
The Forest Service and STINASU work very closely
together, and provide mutual assistance for their
conservation activities.

A Conservation Action Plan was drawn up in 1990 (by
WWFE-USA, the Ministry of Natural Resources and
STINASU) as part of the National Forestry Action Plan,
to provide a framework by which conservation activities
in Suriname may be amplified and strengthened
(Mittermeier et al., 1990). The Conservation Action Plan
contains projected activities for a period of five years,
including the formulation of management plans for each
protected area, and establishment of an ecological
database to provide up-to-date information on the status
of ecosystems and species. These measures will assist in
the administration of existing protected areas and in
selecting new areas for protection. An increase in
training opportunities for conservation workers is also
recommended, such as providing fellowships for further
education in conservation-related programmes with
international assistance, at the University of Suriname,
and foreign institutes (Mittermeier et al.,1990). Further
details of the National Forestry Action Plan and the
extent of implementation are currently not available.

Management of protected areas is well organised, and is
generally good. The factor most restricting its efficiency
is a lack of funds and equipment. Five areas, however,
do have administrative buildings and a guard force.
Initially, in its enthusiasm to preserve wild habitats, the
government did not give much consideration to the
interests of tribal people (Held and Reichart, 1991).
Despite this, government decisions have generally been
respected, largely due to the low population pressure,
and the existence of adequate land outside protected
areas for tribal uses. Legislation has now been modified
to take account of the needs of tribal people. In addition,
the Forest Service and STINASU, when starting to
manage protected areas, have strived to maintain good
relationships with local villagers. Where possible,
workers for the reserves and park are hired from the
villages, and villagers are allowed to enter the reserves
and park to fish, collect fuelwood and medicinal plants
for personal use, and to perform cultural activities.
However, the general laws on hunting, fishing, and forest
exploitation have been complied with (Held and

Reichart, 1991). An important exception has been the
resistance to attempts to reduce the extent of turtle egg
harvest in Galibi Nature Reserve (Reichart, 1991).
Conflicts that do arise may be split into three categories:
Amerindian claims of traditional rights; intensive land
use on park boundaries; conflicting interests in the
multiple-use management area (Held and Reichart,
1991).

The Forest Service and STINASU have suffered from
great financial problems, due to the economic recession
of the country, especially during the last ten years.
Nevertheless, financial and technical assistance is
received from some international and foreign
organisations, such as WWF-USA and WWF-The
Netherlands, Conservation International, The Royal
Institute for Nature Management in the Netherlands, the
Canadian Wildlife Service and the Organisation of
American States.

Systems Reviews Suriname has a typical
tropical climate with average temperature of 27C all
year, and annual rainfall between 1750mm and 3000mm.
Four main ecological regions may be distinguished:
young coastal plain; old coastal plain; savanna belt; and
the interior region (Mittermeier et al., 1990). The young
coastal plain lies between Om-4m above sea level and
consists of clay swamps with a natural vegetation of
mangrove forests, open herbaceous swamps and several
types of swamp forest. Just inland of this is the old
coastal plain, lying between 4m-11m above sea level and
consisting of clay swamps, sand ridges covered with
grass and herbaceous swamps, swamp forests, dry
forests and large areas of peat swamps (Mittermeier et
al., 1990). Behind the coastal region lies the savanna
belt, between 10m-100m, and characterised by white
sand ecosystems. The natural vegetation is xerophytic
and mesophytic dry and swamp forests, and dry to wet
grass and shrub savannas.

Extending inland from the savannas on the ancient
Guiana Shield, the interior region covers three-quarters
of the total area of the country (Mittermeier et al., 1990).
Altitudes range to 1,230m, and the region is almost
entirely covered with primary tropical rain forest,
interspersed with small patches of marsh forest along
rivers and creeks. Around 95% of the total population
lives in the coastal region where the capital city in
located, and only around 5% lives in the interior. The
forest in this sparsely uninhabited region is largely
undisturbed and the rate of destruction is very low,
around 0.1% annually (Mittermeier et al., 1990). In total,
nearly 90% of total land area is covered by forest.

Nature conservation activities are based on Dutch
traditions and began around 50 years ago. The Nature
Conservation Commission was established in 1948 to
assist the government in all environmental conservation
issues. The first attempt at management was the creation
of the first game sanctuary in 1953, based on the 1942
Police Penal Ordinance (Baal, 1989; Schulz, 1968). In
1969 this area became Coppenamemonding Nature

291

Republic of Surinam

Reserve, forming part of the first phase of protected
areas (nine nature reserves and one nature park) that
were gazetted between 1961 and 1972. Most of these
protected areas are located in remote areas of the
country. The second phase was the period after
Suriname’s independence. The need was felt to
preserve interesting natural areas in lowland areas
where the population, and therefore human pressure
on the ecosystems, was higher. Four new nature
reserves were therefore gazetted in 1986, and in 1987,
part of the estuarine zone, Bigi Pan, was put at the
disposal of the Ministry of Natural Resources, to be
managed as a multiple-use management area (Held
and Reichart, 1991). It has been proposed since 1976
that the whole estuarine area, including Bigi Pan
Multiple-Use Management Area, could become a
special management area. Brownsberg Nature Park is
a long-term lease area issued to the Foundation for
National Preservation in Suriname, which manages it
as a national park (Baal, 1991).

By 1990 there was a total of 13 nature reserves, 1
nature park and 1 multiple use management area,
collectively accounting for around 5% of total land
area (Mittermeier et al., 1990). In addition, two further
nature reserves, two forest reserves and enlargements
of existing areas are proposed, which would bring the
total area under protection to 7%, and include
representative samples of the majority of Suriname’s
characteristic ecosystems (Baal, 1989; Held and
Reichart, 1991; Mittermeier et al., 1990). There are,
however, some protected areas near human
settlements, where conflicts have arisen, or may arise
in the near future (Held and Reichart, 1991).

Nature conservation is generally in good shape. The
country has a well-planned programme for nature
conservation and environmental protection, with a
well managed network of protected areas, despite the
economic problems facing the country since 1983.
The lack of available funds is the most restricting
factor in the implementation of these projects (Baal,
1991; Mittermeier, et al., 1990). However, problems
do exist. In particular, some parks in the interior have
had their infrastructure damaged by recent army
activities, and STINASU is now trying to raise the
money required to rebuild them (K. Wood, pers.
comm., 1991).

Addresses

Nature Conservation Department of the Forest Service,
Ministerie van Natuurlijke Hulpbronnen (Ministry
of Natural Resources), Cornelis Jongbawstraat 10-12,
PO Box 436, PARAMARIBO (Tel: 71316/75845/
10256; FAX: 597 72911; Tix: 364 NHE SN)

Stichting Natuurbehoud Suriname (Foundation for
Nature Preservation in Suriname) (STINASU), PO
Box 436, PARAMARIBO (Tel: 75845 ext. 343541)

Protected Areas of the World

References Werkhoven, M. (1990). Conservation action plan
; for Suriname. Conservation International,
Baal, F.L.J. (1989). Nature conservation and Ministry of Natural Resources, World Wide Fund
management in Suriname. Suriname Forest for Nature, Foundation for Nature Preservation in
Service,Paramaribo. 8 pp. Suriname (STINASU), and University of
Baal, F.L.J. (1991). Legal aspects of protected areas in Suriname in collaboration with Suriname Forest
Suriname. Presented at [Vth World Congress on Service, Paramaribo. 45 pp.
National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Reichart, H.A. (1991). The Galibi Nature Reserve.
Venezuela 10-21 February 1992. 30 pp. Presented at IVth World Congress on National

Held, M.M. and Reichart, H.A. (1991). Managing Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela
protected areas in Suriname. Presented atl Vth World 10-21 February 1992. 15 pp.

Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992. 26 pp.
Mittermeier, R.A., Plotkin, MJ., Werner, T.B., Malone,

S.A.J., Baal, F., MacKnight, J., Mohadin, K.,

Schulz, J.P. (1968). Nature Preservation in Suriname.
Unpublished report. 21pp.

292

Republic of Surinam

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The Police Penal Code, Government

Bulletin (G.B.) No. 77, 1915 (updated by G.B.
No. 152, 1942 with latest amendment in G.B.

No. 107, 1964).

Date: 1915

Brief description: Provides for the establishment

of sanctuaries.

Administrative Authority:
Resources

Ministry of Natural

Designations:

Sanctuary Hunting or capturing of wildlife is only
allowed following issue of a written permit

Source: Baal (1989)

Title: Law on the Issuance of State-owned
Lands (Agarische Wet G.B. No. 53, 1937,
updated by G.B. No. 53, 1953), later updated
by Decree L-2 of 15 June 1982, by which
nature parks and multiple-use management
areas may be created.

Date: 1937

Brief description: Provides for the
establishment of nature parks and Multiple-Use
Management Areas
Administrative Authority: Bureau of Lands
Designations:

Multiple-Use Management Area No

information
Nature park No information

Source: Baal (1991)

Title: The Timber Law

Date: 1947
Brief description: Provides for the creation of
forest reserves, and for placing concessions at the

disposal of the Government

Administrative Authority: Forest Service

293

Designations:
Forest reserve For exploration and exploitation
Source: Baal (1989); Schulz (1968)

NB This Forest law is soon to be replaced by the
existing draft Law on Forest Management
(Concept-Ontwerp Wet Bosbeheer), which currently
awaits enactment by Parliament.

Title: | Natuurbeschermingswet (Nature
Preservation Law) (Government Bulletin
No. 26)

Date: 1954

Brief description: Provides for the
establishment, by State Resolution, of protected
areas under the designation nature reserve.

Administrative Authority: Suriname Forest

Service ,
Designations:

Nature reserve An area of public land which is
of scientific, aesthetic or cultural value. The area may
not necessarily be of exceptional value, but may be
a representative sample of an important national
ecosystem.

The primary management objective of reserves is
protection for scientific research purposes.
Recreational and educational activities are possible
in the more accessible reserves.

The area is selected for designation by the advisory
board, the Nature Conservation Commission, created
in 1948.

The carrying of firearms is not permitted, or any other
means of hunting or capturing wildlife, including
dogs.

Article 7 provides for the opportunity to have a
business within the boundaries of the reserve (in
accordance to an approved plan) to gather forest
products, to graze cattle, or to fish when certain
conditions are complied with.

Source: Baal (1989); Schulz (1968)

Protected Areas of the World

Title: Planning law (Planwet) (G.B. No. 89) Designations:
E Special management (Bijzondere
Date: 1
ate: 1973 seden)
Brief description: Provides, amongst other Source: Baal (1989)
things, for the establishment of special management
areas
Administrative Authority: Planning Bureau
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Nature Reserves
1 Boven Coesewijne IV 127,000 1986
2 Brinckheuvel IV 6,000 1972
3 Copi IV 28,000 1986
4 Coppename Monding IV 12,000 1966
5 Eilerts de Haan IV 220,000 1966
6 Galibi IV 4,000 1969
1 Peruvia IV 31,000 1986
8 Raleighvallen-Voltzberg II 78,170 1966
9 Sipaliwini IV 100,000 1972
10 Tafelberg IV 140,000 1966
11 Wane kreek IV 45,400 1986
12 Wia-wia IV 36,000 1961
Nature Park
13 Brownsberg II 8,400 1969
Mul Itiple Use Management Area
14 Bigi Pan Vill 68,320 1987
Ramsar Wetland
Coppename Rivermouth R 12,000 1985

294

Republic of Surinam

Protected Areas of Suriname

295

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4,

URUGUAY

Area 186,925 sq. km

Population 3,094,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.53% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,452 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 2,620 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation No national conservation
objectives have been stated in Uruguayan legislation or
constitution (Anon., 1991; Oltremari, 1988). There has
never been a written policy or defined strategy for
resource protection and, as a result, environmental
legislation is confused and dispersed (Nebel and
Cravino, 1987). Conservation principles are spread
across a number of legislative acts, but do not provide a
coherent legal structure on which to base protected area
establishment (Oltremari, 1988).

The first legislative act to make provision for the creation
of protected areas was the 1968 Forestry Law (Ley
Forestal) No. 13.723. Reference is made to parks and
reserves, declaring them part of the state forest heritage
(patrimonio forestal del estado), but definitions for such
designations are not given. A fiscal forest is that part of
the forest heritage not declared a national park.
Exploitation is only possible under a management plan
prepared by the Forestry Directorate (Direccion
Forestal) of the MGAP.

In 1971, Law No. 14.053 provided for the creation of the
Institute for the Preservation of the Environment
(Instituto para la Preservacién del Medio Ambiente), as
part of the Ministry of Education and Culture (Ministerio
de Educacion y Cultura). This institute has a
commission specifically for wildlife, environment and
countryside matters. It has now been dissolved (see
under Administration and Management) (R. Cal, pers.
comm., 1992).

The 1968 Forest Law was repealed by the 1987 Forest
Law (Ley Forestal) No. 15.939, currently in effect,
which defines state-owned forested land as that which
is not used for other productive use, and, owing to its
specific characteristics, is best suited for permanent
forest coverage. Provision is made for privately-owned
forested land to be declared by the Forestry Directorate
as protection or production forest, or unclassified general
forests. Reforestation by the private owner is obligatory
where necessary for conserving or restoring renewable
natural resources, and provision is made to compel the
owner to sell his land if he does not comply. The Forestry
Directorate has been abolished, and its responsibilities
have largely been transferred to RENARE’s Flora and
Protected Areas Division (Divisiédn de Flora y Areas
Protegidas) (DFAP) (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992).

297

Two regulations under the 1987 Forestry Law have been
made. Decree No. 450/988, 1988 states the need for a
national forestation plan (plan nacional de forestacién)
to be established over a period of five years. Among
the objectives of this plan is the promotion of forest
resource renewal and environmental conservation.
Decree No. 452/988, also of 1988, gives further details
of regulatory measures and enforcement of the 1987
Forest Law. The conditions under which forests are
declared productive, protection or unclassified are
stated, but no clear definitions are given. It is prohibited
to fell trees in protection forests.

There is no single piece of legislation that gives
definitions for management categories, though anew bill
is being written by RENARE (R. Cal, pers. comm.,
1992). Definitions may be derived from decrees
providing for the creation of individual protected areas,
but these were passed with no national plan or structure
to follow and are often vague or contradictory. For
example, Law No. 9718 of 1937 declares Fort San
Miguel a national monument and the surrounding area a
national park, but Decree No. 533 of 1970 declares San
Miguel and Santa Teresa National Parks as wildlife
reserves (Wetterberg et al., 1985).

International Activities Uruguay signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and
ratified it in 1969. Uruguay ratified the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on
9 March 1989, but no sites have been inscribed; the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)
on 22 May 1984, with one site inscribed; and participates
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme with
one site accepted as an internationally recognised
biosphere reserve in 1976.

Administration and Management The Ministry
of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries (MGAP) is
responsible for natural resource use. Within the
Ministry, the General Directorate of Renewable Natural
Resources (Direccién General de Recursos Naturales
Renovables) (RENARE) is the organisation vested with
this responsibility. RENARE comprises two
directorates, one of which is the Soils and Waters
Directorate (Direccién de Suelos y Aguas). The other is
the Flora, Fauna and Protected Areas Directorate
(Direccién de Flora, Fauna y Areas Protegidas), which
in turn is split into two divisions. The Flora and Protected
Areas Division (Division de Flora y Areas Protegidas)
(DFAP) is responsible for the management of protected
areas and for controlling the felling of native forest; it

Protected Areas of the World

also administers and manages all state-owned forests
and protected areas, which account for over 60% of the
protected areas. The Fauna Division (Divisi6n de Fauna)
manages the conservation and exploitation of native
wildlife. The Forestry Directorate has now been
dissolved, and its functions (except for reforestation,
which is assigned to the national forestry plan, under
MGAP) have been assumed by RENARE’s Flora and
Protected Areas Division (Divisién de Flora y Areas
Protegidas) (DFAP) (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992).

The Institute for the Preservation of the Environment,
established in 1971, used to work in close association
with the former Forest Directorate to conserve natural
resources, but this relationship did not produce any
significant results (Oltremari, 1988). The Institute has
now been dissolved and in its place a Ministry of
Housing, Territorial Planning and Environment
(Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y
Medio Ambiente) (MVOTMA) has been created. Its role
is to decide national conservation policy including that
concerning protected areas. Its National Environment
Directorate (Direccién Nacional de Medio Ambiente)
does not possess protected area specialists and so
RENARE staff act as consultants (R. Cal, pers. comm.,
1992)

Although administration appears centralised, there are
numerous institutions that, directly or indirectly, are also
involved in protected area management (Nebel and
Cravino, 1987). The Park Service of the Army (Servicio
de Parques del Ejercito) (SEPAE), within the Ministry
of National Defence (Ministerio de Defensa National),
administers two areas, Santa Teresa and San Miguel
Historic Monuments and National Parks (Anon., 1991;
Oltremari, 1988). Some departmental administrations
(intendencias departamentales), municipalities, and the
State Insurance Bank (Banco de Seguros Del Estado) are
involved in others (Oltremari, 1988; Oltremari and
Nebel, 1988).

There are at least 30 non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) working in conservation issues, at both the
national and the regional level. Among the nationwide
groups is the Friends of Environmental Preservation
(Amigos de la Preservacién Ambiental) (APA) which
supports protected areas and environmental education.
There is a need for greater cooperation between the
various governmental and non-governmental
organisations, in order to attain national conservation
objectives (Oltremari, 1988), although Cal (pers. comm.,
1992) reports that there is now a satisfactory level of
cooperation.

The structure of the RENARE is relatively recent, and
the divisions lack clearly assigned functions, resulting in
instability and reduced capability. Following the 1987
Forest Law, the RENARE is vested with a wide range of
functions and, therefore, coordination within the
organisation is essential. In order to develop a plan for
a coherent protected area system, a stable and strong

298

centralised administration with capable personnel is
required (Oltremari, 1988; Oltremari and Nebel, 1988).

In 1980, lack of personnel was given as one of the main
factors limiting the administrative effectiveness of the
bodies responsible for protected areas: there were only
three professionals, three technical staff, four
administrative staff, five park guards and around 100
labourers in the entire protected area management
organisation. Following studies conducted in 1988, the
situation did not appear to have changed substantially
(Oltremari, 1988), although there may have been
improvements with the recent reorganisation of
protected areas administration (R. Cal, pers. comm.,
1992).

Systems Reviews Umuguay is primarily a pastoral
country, with around 75% of the land used for livestock
farming. Some 42% of the population lives in the capital
city (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988; Paxton, 1990). The
climate is warm temperate, with mild winters and warm
summers. Average rainfall in the capital region is
950mm.

The wildlife appears to have been seriously affected by
the intensity and extension of livestock—raising
activities, mainly through loss and modification of
habitat: as an indicator of this, 18% of the country’s
mammal species and 10% of its bird species are
endangered or threatened (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988).
A detailed assessment is currently not available. From
extensive studies carried out during the development of
a proposal for a protected area system, it appears that the
south-east region is the richest in biodiversity, and
contains ecosystems of the greatest national interest for
conservation (Anon., 1991). The south-eastern region
is known as the Atlantic plains, and may be divided into
two sub-regions: the Atlantic basin comprising the water
courses of several rivers; and the basin of Lake Merin,
known as Bafiados del Este (Eastern Marshes).

The Atlantic basin is totally flat, inundated temporarily
or permanently, with poor drainage. Along the coast are
extensive sand dunes, and the region is very rich in bird
species. Except for the state-owned reserves already
established there, the remaining land is under private
ownership. Cattle ranching is extensive, and rice is
grown along the waterways. The Eastern Marshes are
low-lying, with grassland and palm trees, and rice is also
grown extensively here. Annual temperatures in the
south-east region are around 17°C, and rainfall ranges
between 1000mm and 1100mm.

Protected area declaration began in 1915, but has been
random, with no common objective (Oltremari and
Nebel, 1988). Some 40% of the current protected area
system was established during the 1960s. By 1988, there
were 16 protected areas, covering a total of 33,538ha.
None of the established areas has a management plan nor
defined objectives clarifying its function. Many areas are
not of sufficient size to afford protection to their
resources and require reclassification (Oltremari, 1988).

In most cases, protected areas were not given clear
boundaries in the legislation providing for their creation,
and conflict over land use has resulted (Anon., 1991).
The integrity of many protected areas is threatened by
commercial plantation of rapidly growing tree species.
For example, exotic trees were planted along coastal
areas to stabilise the sand dunes, but their popularity with
tourists attraction has led to planting in further areas
(Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). However, Cal (pers.
comm., 1992) states that this has affected only one
natural monument. Most protected areas are located in
the Rocha department in the south-east region.

In 1986, Uruguay began to participate in the FAO Latin
American Network for Technical Cooperation in
National Parks, other Protected Areas, Flora and
Wildlife (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperaci6n Técnica
en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y
Fauna Silvestre), which promotes integrated
management of protected areas and exchanges of
information in each participating country. At the time of
joining, Uruguay was one of only two countries in Latin
America that neither possessed nor had instigated
proposals to establish a coherent national system of
protected areas (Ormazabal, 1988). In 1989, the MGAP
acknowledged the urgent need for a legal structure to
improve protected area management, effectiveness and
coverage, and a National Consultative Network (Red
Nacional) was established, comprising delegates from
private and governmental organisations involved in
resource management, including DFAP, the Fauna
Directorate and the SEPAE (Larrobla, pers. comm.,
1990; R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992).

Following this, the National Environment Study
(Estudio Ambiental Nacional) was initiated in 1990 in
collaboration with the Organization of American States
and the Interamerican Development Bank, which states
the necessity for a coherent system of protected areas
(Anon., 1991). The current problems are cited as the lack
of a national conservation objective, the presence of
several different administrative bodies, and land
ownership. The cooperation of state, municipal and
private organisations is required to implement an unified
system, particularly as proposed areas are often on
privately-owned land (Anon., 1991). The study provides
for the future creation of an environmental information
system (sistema de informacién ambiental) as a later
Stage in the development of a national environmental
conservation strategy (Anon., 1991). These problems are
now being tackled and the situation may be improving
(R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992).

The main objective of the National Environment Study
is to identify priority conservation areas and select those
that will form the basis of a national system, ensuring
that all biogeographical regions in the country are
included. Cultural and historical importance of areas is
also taken into account. The study identified 36
important areas, some of which are already protected,
and others which are of potential value. Of these, 16

299

Uruguay

priority areas were selected for further investigation and
drawing up of management plans (Anon., 1991).

The development of an effective protected area system
requires, primarily, a legal structure to provide clear
definitions of management categories and objectives
(Oltremari, 1988). Detailed studies of individual areas,
their present situation and biodiversity, have led to a
comprehensive proposal for a national system of
protected areas, with detailed definitions of the
categories to be included (see Annex) (Anon., 1991).

Three categories of protected areas will be used in the
national system, and definitions are given (see Annex).
The reserve category can be expanded to include not
only forests, but all natural resources, and allow varying
degrees of use. Established areas will be reclassified as
required, and all areas will remain under the
administration of the MGAP. The proposed national
system of protected areas covers 0.7% of the total
country area, and contains characteristic ecosystems and
important geological formations. However, the national
environmental study cites the south-east region as the
most important for conservation purposes, in terms of
species richness and biodiversity. Efforts to increase
protected area coverage have been concentrated in this
area (Anon., 1991; Oltremari, 1988).

The proposed areas for the system is by no means a
closed list, others may be included and the system should
be flexible enough to incorporate new areas as the need
arises (Anon., 1991). Details of the extent of
implementation of the proposed system are not yet
available.

Addresses

Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales Renovables
(RENARE), Ministerio de Ganaderia, Agricultura y
Pesca, Cerrito 322, 2do. piso, 11000 MONTEVIDEO
(Tel: 958434/956741/959878; FAX: 956456)

Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y
Medio Ambiente (MVOTMA), ZabalaMONTEVIDEO
(Tel: 950211/950421/963954)

Amigos de la Preservaci6n Ambiental (APA),
Somme 1612, MONTEVIDEO

References

Anon. (1988). Temas de conservacién. "El Yacaré".
Sociedad Zoolégica del Uruguay/Sociedad de
Conservacion del Medio Ambiente. P. 30.

Anon. (1991). Seleccién de dreas silvestres para
integrar un sistema nacional de dreas protegidas.
Uruguay: estudio ambiental nacional. Oficina de
Planeamiento y Presupuesto (OPP)/OEA/BID.
134 pp.

Laffite, A. (1980). Inventario nacional para selecci6n de
nuevas Greas para parques nacionales. Ministerio de
Educacién y Cultura/Universidad de la Republica,
Facultad de Agronomia, Montevideo.

Protected Areas of the World

Nebel, J.P., and Cravino, J.L. (1987). Situacién actual
de las Areas Protegidas en Uruguay.
MGAP:RENARE, Montevideo. 13 pp. (Unseen)

Oltremari, J.V. (1988). Estrategia para el desarrollo de
un sistema nacional de Greas protegidas en Uruguay.
Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y
el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 58 pp.

Oltremari, J.V. and Nebel, J.P. (1988). Las dreas
protegidas en Uruguay. Flora, fauna y dreas
silvestres 3(7): 13-22. Oficina Regional de la FAO
para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile.

Ommazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en

los resultados del taller sobre Planificacidén de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio, 1986. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile.

Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1990). The Statesman’s Yearbook
1990-1991. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London.
1,691 pp.

Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and
Ponce, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for South
American national parks 1974-1984. US National
Park Service, Washington, DC. 125 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Proposal for a national system of
protected areas

Date: 1988

Brief description: A proposal for a coordinated

system of protected areas, giving definitions of the
management categories to be used, that is to be
established by law.

Administrative Authority: Ministerio de
Ganaderia, Agricultura y Pesca (Ministry of
Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries), via the
Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales
Renovables (General Directorate of Renewable
Natural Resources) (RENARE).

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) An extensive
area where a diversity of unique ecosystems are
found, or ecosystems representative of the ecological
diversity of the country, which have not been
significantly altered by man.

The floral or faunal species or geological formations
within the area are of scientific, educational or
recreational interest, and are to be maintained in their
natural state.

300

Only activities compatible with the continuity of the
natural process are permitted, such as recreation,
education or investigation.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)

An area usually of small size, characterised by the
presence of native species of flora or fauna or
cultural, scenic, educational or scientific importance.
Only educational, recreational or investigative
activities are permitted.

Reserva Nacional (National Reserve)

An area whose natural resources are important to be
conserved owing to their particular fragility or
susceptibility to be degraded and for their importance
for the welfare of the community Particularly
threatened species of wildlife or fauna, watersheds
and for studies of sustainable use.

The concept of reserve may be expanded to include
a variety of management categories such as multiple
use reserve and forest reserve, the common factor
being the preservation of specific resources and the
obligation of a management plan.

Source: Oltremari (1988)

Uruguay

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref, Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Anchorena Vv 1,450 1978
2 Arequita Vv 1,000 1964
3 Franklin Delano Roosevelt Vv 1,500 1915
4 San Miguel V 1,598 1937
5 Santa Teresa Vv 3,288 1927
Faunal Reserve
6 Laguna de Castillos IV 8,000 1966
Natural Monuments
7 Costa Atlantica Il 14,250 1966
8 Dunas de Cabo Polonio Il 1,000 1966
National Forests
9 Islas del Rio Negro Vil 1,850 1969
10 Islas del Rio Uruguay vil 6,660 1921
Forest Reserve
11 Cabo Polonio Vil 6,000 1942
Biosphere Reserve
Bafiados del Este 1D.¢ > et 200,000 1976
Ramsar Wetland
Bajfiados del Este y Franja Costera Ix 200,000 1984

301

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Uruguay

302

THE REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA

Area 912,047 sq. km

Population 19,735,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.36% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,450 per capita (1989)
GNP: US$ 2,716 per capita (1987)

Policy and legislation Responsibility for
protecting natural resources is given in the 1961
Constitution. It establishes the state as the main manager
of resources, allowing sustainable exploitation for the
benefit of the population (AID/NPS, 1981).

Major restructuring of the government departments
responsible for environmental management and policy
making took place during the 1970s, reflecting increased
concern with reconciling socio-economic development
and natural resource conservation (AID/NPS, 1981). A
ministry specifically responsible for natural resources
was established in 1976 and began its activities in 1977.
Through it, the national policy of "development destined
to meet the basic needs of the present and future
population through the rational use of natural resources",
was promulgated (AID/NPS, 1981).

A national conservation strategy, stating national
conservation priorities, was drawn up in 1989 by a
nongovernmental organisation (NGO), the Foundation
for the Defence of Nature (Fundacién para la Defensa de
la Naturaleza) (FUDENA), and published with the
support of IUCN and WWF. This sets out specific
recommendations for utilising and protecting resources
in accordance with the World Conservation Strategy
(1980) are given (Anon., 1989). Information on the
extent of implementation is currently not available.

Following signature of the Convention on Nature
Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western
Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la
Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales
de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere
Convention) in 1940, Venezuela passed a law in 1941
incorporating the principles of the Convention into its
own legislation (Anon., 1987).

Under provisions of the Agrarian Reform Law (Ley de
Reforma Agraria) Gaceta Oficial No. 611, March 1960,
land under state protection for conservation cannot be
used for agricultural purposes, and communities living
within the area are compulsorily relocated (R. Garcia,
pers. comm., 1984). The 1943 Forest Law of Lands and
Waters (Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas), revised in
1955 and 1965, made provision for the 1964 Partial
Regulations of the Forest Law of Lands and Waters
(Reglamento Parcial de la Ley Forestal de Suelos y
Aguas), Decree No. 156. This defines forest reserves and

303

regulations pertaining to the exploitation of resources
within them (see Annex).

The 1965 Forest Law of Lands and Waters (Ley Forestal
de Suelos y Aguas), Gaceta Oficial No. 1004, details
conservation and utilisation of natural resources,
including forests and forest products, public and private
water and soil. National parks, protection areas and
forest reserves are defined and their administration is
assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture (see Annex).
Provision is made for the expropriation of private land
to establish national parks. The regulations to the 1943
Forest Law remain in effect (FAO, 1965).

The 1970 Wildlife Protection Law (Ley de Proteccién a
la Fauna Silvestre) declares the creation of faunal
reserves, refuges and sanctuaries (reservas, refugios y
santuarios de fauna silvestre) a public utility, and
provides for the sustainable exploitation of wild fauna.
Refuges and sanctuaries are given the absolute
protection of the State (Gondelles, 1992).

The Organic Law of the Environment (Ley Organica del
Ambiente) (1976) institutionalises environmental
planning as part of the national planning system, and
establishes committees for the "conservation, defence
and improvement" of the environment in every
municipality. The highest responsibility for national
environmental policy rests with the President of the
Republic and the Council of Ministers. Provision is made
for the creation of the National Environment Council
(Consejo Nacional del Ambiente) to be in charge of legal
and institutional aspects of environmental management.

The Organic Law of Central Administration (Ley
Organica de la Administracién Central) passed on
22 December 1976, assigns environmental planning
responsibilities to the appropriate bodies. Most
importantly, it provides for the creation of the Ministry
of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources
(Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales
Renovables) (MARNR), to be responsible for all natural
resources, and for implementing environmental policy.

Environmental management responsibilities were
shifted from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
to the new Ministry of the Environment under provisions
of the 1977 Regulations of the Forest Law of Lands and
Waters (Reglamentos de la Ley Forestal y de Suelos y
Aguas). The National Institute of Parks (Instituto
Nacional de Parques) (INPARQUES), an autonomous
institute attached to MARNR, was created to manage
national parks and natural monuments.

In 1983, the Organic Law for Territorial Planning (Ley
Organica para la Ordenacién del Territorio) is the most
effective current protected area legislation (Gondelles,
1992). The law defines 25 categories of areas thatrequire
special administration owing to their particular

Protected Areas of the World

production, recreation or protection potential, and any
threats to their integrity. Collectively, these form the
system of Areas under Special Administrative Regime
(Areas Bajo Régimen de Administracién Especial)
(ABRAB), and responsibility for their administration is
to be assigned to the appropriate institutes (Annex).
Because the ABRAE system comprises a wide variety
of different categories, not all of which are for
conservation ends, it is about to be superseded by a more
modern Natural Protected Areas system (Areas Naturales
Protegidas) (ANAPRO)(Gondelles, 1992; A. Luy, pers.
comm., 1992).

The 1989 Partial Regulation of the Organic Law for
Territorial Planning pertaining to Administration and
Management of National Parks and Natural Monuments
(Reglamento Parcial de la Ley Organica para la
Ordenacién de Territorio sobre Administracién y
Manejo de Parques Nacionales y Monumentos
Naturales) Decree No. 276, details the regulations
governing these two categories of protected area,
including prohibited activities and measures for ensuring
compliance with the law. National parks and natural
monuments are divided into zones according to the
activities compatible with the different ecosystems
within them, and definitions are given. Management
plans are mandatory for each protected area, to be
revised every five years, and are legislated as
presidential decrees (decretos presidenciales).

In January 1992, the Penal Law of the Environment (Ley
Penal del Ambiente) was passed. Article 59, referring to
national parks, establishes fines and arrests for persons
found hunting wildlife (birds, amphibians, mammals and
Teptiles), or destroying shelter on which it depends.
Protected areas are also mentioned in Article 58 (A. Luy,
pers. comm., 1992).

During 1991, MARNR and INPARQUES formulated a
proposal for anew and comprehensive Protected Natural
Areas Law (Ley de Areas Naturales Protegidas), and the
first draft is currently in revision (Pardo, pers. comm.,
1991). Further details of the contents and objectives of
this new law are currently not available.

International Activities The Convention on
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (Convencidn sobre la Proteccién
de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas
Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western
Hemisphere Convention) was signed by Venezuela in
1940, and ratified in 1941. Venezuela is one of the eight
countries with territory in the Amazon region that signed
the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de
Cooperacién Amazé6nica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement
to establish regulations for managing natural resources
and to propose conservation-directed alternatives to the
management of multinational projects.

In 1977 Venezuela joined the Caribbean Conservation
Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental,
nonprofit organisation dedicated to promoting policies

304

and practices which contribute to conservation, protection
and wise use of natural and cultural resources. The
Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (the
Cartagena Convention), and the related Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region, were both signed by Venezuela on
24 March 1983 and ratified on 18 December 1986. The
second protocol, Protocol Conceming Specially Protected
Areas and Wildlife (SPAW), was signed by Venezuela in
June 1991, but has not yet been ratified.

The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) was signed in 1988, with one site listed by
1991. Venezuela ratified the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) in October 1990, but no
sites have been inscribed. Venezuela is a signatory to the
Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and
has a national MAB committee, although neither of its
two biosphere reserves are internationally recognised
(J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992).

INPARQUES, EcoNatura and Wildlife Conservation
International (WCI) are currently carrying out a
US$ 1 million programme for the Consolidation of the
Venezuelan National Parks System (Fortalecimiento del
Sistema de Parques Nacionales de Venezuela) with
support from the European Community (CJ. Sharpe,
pers. comm., 1992).

Administration and Management The present
structure of the protected areas management system
began with the creation of MARNR in 1976, and the start
of its activities in 1977. MARNR is responsible for the
conservation, protection and regulation of all natural
resources, and all environmental activities previously
assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
under the 1965 Forest Law. It executes work either
directly or through appropriate institutes, and is,
therefore, the main agency for devising and
implementing Venezuela’s environmental policy
(AID/NPS, 1981).

At the national level, MARNR comprises four Sectoral
General Directorates (Direcciones Generales
Sectoriales), a structure which is repeated at the regional
level in the 24 administrative areas by which MARNR
divides the country. The regional agencies, although
autonomous, execute the Ministry’s basic programmes.

Several autonomous management bodies with
responsibilities to manage forests, wildlife and the
Amazon Federal Territory were formed in 1989, all
dependent on MARNR: the Venezuelan Forestry
Service (Servicio Forestal Venezolano) (SEFORVEN);
the Wildlife Service (Servicio Auténomo para la
proteccion, restauracién, fomento y racional
aprovechamiento de la fauna silvestre y acudtica del
pais) (PROFAUNA)); and the Autonomous Service for
Environmental Development of Amazon Federal

Territory (Servicio Auténomo para el Desarrollo
Ambiental del Territorio Federal Amazonas)
(SADA-AMAZONAS).

SEFORVEN is responsible for managing the country’s
forested land, and, in particular, for regulating the
exploitation of forest resources in compliance with
current forestry legislation. It does not manage
protection forests that form part of protected areas in the
ABRAE system. PROFAUNA regulates the exploitation
of terrestrial and aquatic wildlife, implements
conservation programmes, and is responsible for the
administration of areas that are designated as ABRAEs
because of their wildlife resources.

SADA-AMAZONAS is responsible for the
conservation, protection and improvement of the
environment in the Amazon _ region.
SADA-AMAZONAS coordinates and supervises
activities in the implementation of the Planning of
Amazon Federal Territory (Plan de Ordenacién del
Territorio Federal Amazonas), which is based on the
national Organic Law for Territorial Planning, and
promotes scientific research in the region to identify
areas for protection. The respective institutes responsible
for managing those ABRAEs that are located in the
Amazon Federal Territory work closely with
SADA-AMAZONAS to achieve the conservation
objectives of the region. A Consultative Council
(Consejo Consultivo) assesses the activities of
SADA-AMAZONAS.

All national parks and natural monuments are managed
by INPARQUES, and, following the 1989 regulations,
management plans must be drawn up for each area. By
1991, INPARQUES had formulated management plans
for seven national parks, which have subsequently been
approved and passed into the legislation in the form of
decrees (C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991).

INPARQUES has at its disposal two bodies for the
protecting natural resources and upholding regulations
pertaining to their use: a body of civilian park guards,
and the Environmental Guard (Guarderia Ambiental)
made up of armed forces from the National Guard
(Guardia Nacional) and officials of MARNR (Anon,
1987; J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992). The
Environmental Guard is empowered by law to prevent
and curtail activities detrimental to the environment
within national parks or natural monuments. Activities
carried out by the armed forces include: border patrol;
tourist information and education programmes; building
and maintaining conservation centres and controlling
resource use by enforcing regulations (Anon., 1987;
IUCN, 1986).

The institutes responsible for managing other
categories in the ABRAE system, are selected by
MARNR (C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991).

There are a large number of NGOs concerned with
conservation and environmental issues. The two largest

305

The Republic of Venezuela

are the Foundation for the Defence of Nature (Fundacién
para la Defensa de la Naturaleza) (FUDENA),
established in 1975, and the Venezuelan Foundation for
the Conservation of Biological Diversity (Fundacién
Venezolana para la Conservacién de la Diversidad
Biolégica) (BIOMA), established in 1986. FUDENA
promotes research projects and action plans to protect
wildlife and fauna, helps to manage one protected area
and has formulated a national conservation strategy.
BIOMA identifies, evaluates and supports the
administration of protected areas (BIOMA, 1987). In
addition, BIOMA owns and manages four private
reserves totalling 3,225 ha (Romero, 1992b). BIOMA’s
Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la
Conservacién) (CDC) was formed in 1988 to identify areas
of conservation value within the country (Anon., 1989).

Among the other NGOs that work in aspects of the
declaration and/or management of protected areas are
PROVITA, the Venezuelan Audubon Society (Sociedad
Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela), the
Educational Association for Nature Conservation
(EcoNatura), and a large number of organisations that
concentrate their work on a particular region or
individual national park. In 1991, 17 NGOs from all over
the country met to form the Network of
Nongovernmental Conservation Organisations (Red de
Organizaciones Conservacionistas No Gubernamentales)
to encourage an exchange of information and coordinate
activities (C.J. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992).

The increased deployment of armed forces within
national parks is a reflection of problems and weakness
in the management of protected areas. Insufficient funds
for training park guards and providing equipment results
in poor administration and encroachment by migratory
farmers and mining companies in some cases (Anon.,
1987; IUCN, 1986). As a result, INPARQUES called on
the services of the armed forces to maintain the integrity
of the national park system by assisting in their
management (Anon., 1987; IUCN, 1986).

The potential for improving the efficiency of protected
area management was greatly increased by introducing
the system of zonation, by which activities within
national parks and natural monuments are consigned to
suitable zones, as detailed in the 1989 Regulations to the
Organic Law of Territorial Planning pertaining the
Administration of National Parks and Natural
Monuments. Together with the provision for mandatory
management plans for each area, a coherent structure
with detailed regulations is being created, on which to
base all protected area management (MARNR, 1989).

A System of Computerised Information on National
Parks (Sistema de Informacién Computerizada sobre los
Parques Nacionales de Venezuela) (SIPANA) is being
developed by INPARQUES to improve administration
of both national parks and natural monuments and allow
more efficient selection of new areas. Data on the
integrity of ecosystems; species abundance; equipment,
personnel and infrastructure; and activities taking place

Protected Areas of the World

in each area will allow management plans to be regularly
updated (M. Bevilacqua, pers. comm., 1991; M.
Gabaldon and M. Bevilacqua, pers. comm., 1990).

The role of INPARQUES in declaring and managing
protected areas is often compromised by the interests of
superior government bodies, such as the Ministry of
Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Energia y Minas) and
other departments and autonomous services of MARNR.
As aresult, mining concessions have been granted within
national parks. Protected areas may also be degazetted
in order to permit mineral and hydrocarbon exploitation
(Anon, 1992; M.L. Goodwin, 1992; C.J. Sharpe, pers.
comm., 1992).

Systems Reviews All the characteristic
Neotropical biogeographic regions are represented in
Venezuela: high mountains, coastal ranges, arid and
semi-arid regions, mangroves and marine coastal
wetlands, seasonally flooded plains, areas of high
endemism, very disturbed tropical forest north of the
Orinoco River, and relatively undisturbed areas to the
south (Anon., 1989).

Following Holdridge’s classification (1967), 23 life
zones occur in Venezuela (Anon., 1982). The most
important ecosystems are: the Caribbean coast (2,813km
in length) and islands (more than 100 large islands); the
Atlantic coast with deltas and mangrove forests; the
Andean mountains which include cloud forests,
paramos, tundra-like zones, and permanently-snowed
peaks (up to 5,007m); the cloud forests of the Coastal
Cordillera; llanos, flat lands with savanna vegetation and
many seasonal and perennial rivers and lagoons; arid
zones with xerophytic vegetation, and true deserts with
moving sand dunes; Amazonian rain forest, the Gran
Sabana, a grassland area on a 16,000 sq. km plateau at
1,000m with tepuyes or table mountains. Tepuyes are
also found in the Amazon region (Salinas, n.d.).

Venezuela has around 400,000 sq. km of intact natural
forest, most of which is located in the area south of the
Orinoco River. This area accounts for around 50% of
total land area and includes the Amazon Federal
Territory, itself comprising 20% of the total land area but
containing only 0.5% of the population (AID/NPS,
1981; Anon., n.d.; C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991), Ninety
per cent of the population lives north of the Orinoco
River, a distribution that leads to critical environmental
problems, such as soil erosion and deforestation in the
Andean and west central regions where agricultural
activity is intense (Anon., n.d.). Cattle raising is one of
the most important land uses, taking up nearly one-third
of the total national territory, and is particularly
extensive in the Ilanos region. Only 4% of the total land
area is used for arable agriculture (AID/NPS, 1981;
Anon., n.d.).

The first protected area, a national forest, was declared
in 1936 and raised to the status of national park in 1937.
The legal framework for distinct categories of protected
areas, from controlled exploitation to inviolable

306

protection, began with the declaration of the first national
park in 1937 (Garcia, 1989). By 1991, 39 national parks
and 17 natural monuments had been declared, accounting
for around 15.07% of the total national territory.
Together with other management category designations,
a total of 44.39% of national territory is under at least
minimal legal protection in the ABRAE system (C. Pardo,
pers. comm., 1991). In addition, a small number of private
reserves are run by the NGO BIOMA.

Venezuela participates in the FAO Latin American
Network of Technical Cooperation in National Parks,
Other Protected Areas, Flora and Wildlife programme
(Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en
Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y
Fauna Silvestres) through MARNR (FAO, n.d.;
Ormazabal 1988). According to the definition given by
the FAO Network, Venezuela has developed a
comprehensive national system.

Information on protected area coverage and the degree
of protection subsequently afforded to the major
ecosystems in Venezuela indicates that there are
deficiencies. These are chiefly due to lack of legislation;
conflicting policies between government departments;
few possibilities for the involvement of NGOs in
protected area management and decision-making; and
lack of economic resources (Luy and Ochoa, 1991;
Romero, 1992a; C.J. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992). Many
of these problems stem from the low priority given to
conservation by the government, reflected in the lack of
political support given to INPARQUES. On the other
hand, efforts have been made to increase protection in
the Amazon Federal Territory. In 1978, timber
extraction in the region was limited by Decree No. 2552
(A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). Half of the territory is now
protected under various management categories
(J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992). A research
centre, the Alejandro de Humboldt Amazonian
Environmental Investigation Centre (Centro Amazénico
de Investigacién Ambiental Alejandro de Humboldt),
has been established (FAO, 1991).

Problems in the protected area system arise, in many
cases, as a result of selection procedures and inadequate
planning processes (IUCN, 1986; C. Pardo, pers.comm.,
1991). Twenty-five different management categories,
many of which are not for conservation purposes, are
described in Venezuelan legislation, making the
protected area system too complex for efficient
implementation of management plans (Anon., n.d.;
Putney, 1987). The new ANAPRO system is designed to
supercede ABRAE but has not yet been approved
(A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). Lack of funding for
the park service reduces its ability to enforce
regulations, and encroachment by fishing and mining
industries poses a serious threat to some protected areas.
Equipment and trained staff are lacking. By 1989, only
three training courses for park guards had taken place,
and nationwide 187 park guards were dispersed between
21 parks, leaving nine other parks without protection
(Anon., 1987; Garcia, 1989; INPARQUES, 1983).

Land tenure, hunting, and fires are also problems
(Anon., 1987; Garcia, 1989; Amend and Amend,
1992). Rights of ownership are not clarified in law, and
continued occupation, new colonisation and conflict
within protected areas is common (Anon., 1987).

Reviews of the national protected areas system have
been carried out by: INPARQUES (1983), IUCN (1986),
an international committee including INPARQUES,
MARNR, IUCN, and MAB/UNESCO (Anon., 1987),
Putney (1987, 1988), FUDENA (1989), Garcia (1989),
and Anon. (n.d.). A review of marine and coastal parks
was undertaken by INPARQUES in 1990.

Addresses

Instituto Nacional de Parques (NPARQUES), Direccién
General Sectorial de Parques Nacionales, Avda R6mulo
Gallegos, Santa Eduvigis, Aptdo 76471, CARACAS
1071-A (Tel: 2 285 4859; FAX: 2 285 3070)

Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales
Renovables (MARNR), Aptdo 6623, CARACAS
1010-A (FAX: 2 483 6118/483 2445)

SADA-AMAZONAS, Aptdo 68746, CARACAS
1062A (FAX: 2 545 0607/483 2445)

Servicio Aut6nomo de Fauna Silvestre (PROFAUNA),
Aptdo 184, MARACAY, Estado Aragua

Asociaci6n Educativa para la Conservacién de la
Naturaleza (EcoNatura), Edif. Matisco, Piso 1,
Apartamento 5, Calle Veracruz, Las Mercedes,
Aptdo 63109, CARACAS 1067A
(Tel: 2 922812/923269/913813; FAX: 2 910716)

Fundacion para la Defensa de la Naturaleza
(FUDENA), Avda Principal los Cortijos de
Lourdes C/2da transv., Edif. Centro Empresarial
Senderos, Piso 6, Oficina 611-A, Aptdo 70376,
CARACAS 1071-A (FAX: 2 239 6547)

Fundacioén Venezolana para la Conservacién de la
Diversidad Biolégica (BIOMA), Edif. Camara de
Comercio de Caracas, Piso 4, Avda Este 2, Los Caobos,
Aptdo 1968, CARACAS 1010 (Tel: 2 571 8831/571
9113/571 6009; FAX: 2 571 1412)

PROVITA, Edificio Catuche, Nivel Oficina 1, Oficina
106, Parque Central, Aptdo 47552, CARACAS
1041A (Tel: 2 576 2828; FAX: 2 576 1579)

Sociedad Amigos del Parque Nacional Henri
Pittier, UCV-Maracay, Facultad de Agronomia,
MARACAT (Tel. 43 453470/544454)

Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela
(SCAV), Edif. Matisco, Piso 1, Apartamento 5,
Calle Veracruz, Las Mercedes, Aptdo 80450,
CARACAS 1080A (Tel: 2 922812/923269/9138 13;
FAX: 2 910716)

References

AID/NPS (1981). A country study of Venezuela.
Legal, regulatory and institutional aspects of
environmental and natural resource management
in developing countries. AID/NPS Natural
Resources Project. Agency for International

307

The Republic of Venezuela

Development/ National Park Service, Washington,
DC. 64 pp.

Amend, S. and Amend, T. (1992). ;Espacios sin
Habitantes? Parques nacionales de América
del Sur. IUCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad,
Caracas. 497 pp.

Anon. (n.d.). Areas protegidas de Venezuela.
Maraven S.A. 48 pp.

Anon. (1982). Program of conservation of national
heritage in Venezuela. Partial report. Fundacion
para la Defensa de la Natvraleza (FUDENA).
10 pp.

Anon. (1987). Los parques nacionales hacia el tercer
milenio - aspectos estratégicos de la guarderia
ambiental (ponencia institucional), Caracas 22-27
February. INPARQUES/UNESCO MAB/IUCN,
MARNR. 51 pp.

Anon. (1989). Hacia una estrategia nacional de
conservacién: plan de accién para la
conservaci6n de especies 1988-1992.
FUDENA/IUCN/WWE. 82 pp.

Anon. (1992). Ministerio de Minas otorg6 permiso
para explotar oro en Canaima y la Gran Sabana.
Correo del Caront. 7 de agosto. Ciudad Guyana,
Venezuela.

BIOMA (1987). (Untitled). Fundacién Venezolana
para la Conservacion de la Diversidad Bioldégica,
Caracas. 15 pp.

FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas
Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina
Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el
Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp.

FAO (1964). Food and Agricultural Legislation
13(4): 18.

FAO (1966). Food and Agricultural Legislation
15(3): 124.

FAO (1991). Informe del II Taller Internacional
sobre Areas Protegidas en la Cuenca del
Amazonas, Manu, Pert, 26 de noviembre 5 de
diciembre 1990. Oficina regional de FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, SANTIAGO, Chile.

Gabaldon, M. (1992). Parques Nacionales de
Venezuela. Parques Nacionales y Conservacién
Ambiental, Vol. 1. GTZ/INPARQUES, Caracas.
124 pp.

Garcia, R. (1989). Los parques nacionales de
Venezuela. Encuentros 6: 15-20.

Gondelles, R. (1992). El régimen de dreas
protegidas en Venezuela. Banco Consolidado,
Caracas. 68 pp.

Goodwin, M.L. (1992). Report of inspection trip to
Tachira State, June, 1992. 12 pp. (Unpublished)

INPARQUES (1983). Conclusiones y recomendaciones —
III Congreso Venezolano de Conservaci6n, Guanare,
12-16 diciembre. Caracas. 11 pp.

INPARQUES (1990). Venezuela, 16 anos de
experiencia en parques nacionales marinos y
costeros. Instituto Nacional de Parques, Direccién
General Sectorial de Parques Nacionales,
Caracas. 16 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

IUCN (1986). Perspectivas econémicas de los parques
nacionales venezolanos. 27a Sesidn de trabajo de la
Comisi6én de Parques Nacionales y Areas Protegidas
(CNPPA), Bariloche, Argentina. 16 pp.

Luy, A. and Ochoa, J. (1991). Algunos aspectos sobre
las pol{ticas de manejo y conservaci6n de bosques en
Venezuela. Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de
Venezuela (SCAV). 5 pp.

MARNR (1989). Decisiones para la Accién Ambiental;
decretos, convenios, acuerdos. Ministerio del
Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables,
Caracas. 76 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 913 junio 1986. Proyecto
FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres,

308

dreas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el
Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América
Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 2023.

Putney, A. (1987). Summary of conclusions and
recommendations, Putney consultancy to the Ministry
of the Environment, Venezuela, 9-26 July. 2 pp.

Red de Organizaciones Conservacionistas No
Gubernamentales. (1991). ARA. Boletin de la red de
organizaciones conservacionistas no gubernamentales
1(1). PROVITA, Caracas. 6 pp.

Romero, A. (1992a). Auditoria ambiental de Venezuela,
1991. BIOMA, Caracas.

Romero, A. (1992b). La experiencia de BIOMA en 4reas
protegidas. Paper presented at IV World Parks
Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 1992.

Salinas, P.J. (n.d.). Protected landscapes in the
Neotropics with special reference to Venezuela.
Unpublished. 3 pp.

ANNEX

The Republic of Venezuela

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Decree No. 156 Reglamento Parcial
de la Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas
(Regulations under part of the Forest Law of
Lands and Waters)

Date: 18 August 1964
Brief description:
resources
Administrative authority:
Livestock)

Designations:

Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve)
area with recognised productive capacity

Boundaries are to be defined by Executive Decree.

Rational exploitation is allowed, in accordance with
the general principles laid down in the Final Act of
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, signed by

Venezuela in October 1941.

Exploitation is carried out either directly by the
Forestry Service, or by public bidding for timber

stands within reserves.

Management plans establish the quantity of timber

that may be exploited annually.

Source: FAO (1964)

Title: Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas,
Gaceta Oficial No. 1004 (Forest Law
of Lands and Waters)

Date: 30 December 1965

Brief description:

areas are given.

Administrative authority:

implementing regulations for forest use.

Designations:

Defines forest reserves, and
provides for the rational exploitation of their

Ministerio de
Agricultura y Cria (Ministry of Agriculture and

A wooded

Governs the conservation,
promotion, and rational use of natural resources
specified within the law. The definition of a national
park and general criteria for designating protection

Ministerio de
Agricultura y Cria (Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock) is responsible for natural resource
administration, including formulating management
plans for national parks and protection areas, and

309

Parque Nacional (National Park) Areas
remarkable for their natural scenic beauty or with
flora and fauna of national importance.

Public recreation and education, tourism and
scientific research are the only activities allowed.

It is prohibited to hunt, shoot, kill or capture wildlife
and to destroy or collect flora samples, except when
undertaken by park authorities or duly-authorised
persons.

Protection Area (Area de Proteccién) All areas
around springs or the source of any stream for a
radius of 200m. -an area at least 300m wide on both
sides parallel to chains of mountains and along the
slopes of plateaux. An area at least 50m wide along
both banks of navigable rivers and an area at least
25m wide along non-navigable seasonal water
courses. Areas around lakes and lagoons whose
limits are to be laid down in regulations pertaining to
this law: land in river and water basins which require
protection owing to their situation or geographical
condition; areas needed as windbreaks areas and
other areas in the vicinity of human settlements
which act as factors in regulating the climate or
environment It is prohibited to carry out agricultural
work or destroy vegetation within protection areas.
Public use of protection areas is provided for by
regulations to this law. -Protection areas are declared
by Law or Executive Order.

Source: FAO (1966)

Title: Ley Organica para la Ordenacién del
Territorio (Organic Law of Territorial
Planning), Gaceta Oficial No. 3238

Date: 11 August 1983

Brief description: Defines categories of
protected area that collectively comprise the system
Areas Under Special Administrative Rule (Areas
Bajo Régimen de Administracién Especial)
(ABRAE). These areas are declared by the National
Executive to have productive, protective and
recreation functions, and contribute to the
socio-economic development of the country.

Administrative authority: The institutes
responsible for each area are to be assigned by
Presidential Decree (Decreto Presidencial) in the
Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros).

Designations:

Parque Nacional (National Park) Natural area
whose ecosystems have not been altered by human

Protected Areas of the World

exploitation or occupation, and where flora, fauna
and geomorphological characteristics are of national
importance. Recreation, educational activities and
scientific research are allowed. The only
exploitation permitted is that of water resources,
subject to severe restrictions.

Monumento Natural (Natural Monument)

Area of national interest for historic or scientific
reasons. Recreational activities are allowed and
restricted exploitation of water resources.

Reserva de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Reserve)
Area required for managing wild animals to ensure
the continued production of certain species.Hunting
is allowed, but subject to restrictions.

Refugio de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge)
Areas which are necessary for the protection,
conservation and propagation of wild animals,
particularly those in danger of extinction. No
exploitation is permitted.

Santuario de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Sanctuary)
No definition given in the extract from the original
legislation.

Parque Litoral (Littoral Park) Coastal area for
the protection and preservation of natural resources
of scientific and educational value. No exploitation
is permitted.

Zona Protectora (Protection Zone) Area
recognised as important for regulating climate and
water sources. Rational resource use, hydroelectric
and forest exploitation are permitted.

Reserva de Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve) Those
areas in which are found the combination of natural
ecosystems requiring protection, and local
populations whose traditional lifestyle is in harmony
with the environment.

Source: Anon. (n.d.); extract from original
legislation

Title: Reglamento parcial de la Ley Organica
para la Ordenaci6n de Territorio sobre
Administracién y Manejo de Parques
Nacionales y Monumentos Naturales (Partial
regulation of the Organic Law of Territorial
Planning regarding the Administration and
Management of National Parks and Natural
Monuments), Decree No.276

Date: 9 June 1989

Brief description: Establishes the basic
regulations for administering national parks and
natural monuments, and details the procedures by
which new areas are established. To improve
administrative efficiency, these two categories of
protected area are divided into different management

310

zones according to the fragility of the natural
resources found within them, and the degree of use
that can be supported by each zone. Definitions of
the zones are given, and the zonification system is to
be included in the management plans for national
parks and natural monuments, which are obligatory.
Any number of these zones may be applied to a
protected area as suitable

Administrative authority: Instituto Nacional de
Parques (National Institute of Parks),
(INPARQUES), within the Ministerio del Ambiente
y de los recursos Naturales Renovables (Ministry of
the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources)
(MARNR)

Designations:

Zona de Proteccién Integral (Integral Protection
Zone) A fragile ecosystem that requires total
protection to maintain it in its natural state. No form
of modification is permitted and public access is
denied. Only scientific research with prior
authorisation and regulation, and routine park guard
duties are permitted.

Zona Primitiva o Silvestre (Primitive or Wilderness
Zone) An environment that is in its natural state
and has not been modified by man, but can tolerate
limited use such as scientific investigation,
environmental education or recreation subject to
regulation. Some sport fishing is allowed with prior
authorisation. No motor vehicles or activities that
disturb the natural state of the area are permitted.

Zona de Ambiente Natural Manejado (Managed
Natural Environment Zone) An area that
contains exaniples of the most significant natural
features of the national park or natural monument,
and that can support educational and recreational
activities. The environment is to be maintained in its
natural state with minimum human impact, while
allowing public access. Motor vehicles are permitted
only on specifically marked routes, and construction
is permitted only to provide a basic and rustic
infrastructure of visitor facilities.

Zona de Recuperacioén Natural (Natural
Recuperation Zone) An area that has been
significantly altered by human activity and requires
protection to prevent further degradation and allow
the recuperation of its natural condition. Once the
area has been restored it will form part of a managed
natural environment zone.

Zona de Recreacién (Recreation Zone) An area
that, owing to its specific characteristics, is suitable
for recreational activities and can support the
maximum number of visitors permitted entry into the
national park or natural monument. Facilities may be
constructed but are subject to strict regulation in
order to maintain the environment. Zona de Servicios
(Services Zone) An area that, owing to its location

and natural characteristics, is suitable for the
construction of public service installations such as
hotels, restaurants and camp sites. These are to be
built and maintained with minimum environmental
impact.

Zona de Interés Histérico Cultural o
Paleontolégico (Zone of Historic Cultural or
Paleontological Interest) An area that contains
representative examples of historical,
paleontological, archaeological or cultural
importance, and requires protection in order to allow
rational use while maintaining its natural state.

311

The Republic of Venezuela

Zona de Amortiguacién (Buffer Zone) A
peripheral zone in which the regulation of human
activities and natural resource use may reduce
potential environmental threats to the national park
or natural monument, and increase the overall
protection of the area. Installations for public service
may be constructed. When a national park or natural
monument does not contain an area within it suitable
for use as a buffer zone, MARNR is obliged to
invesiigate the possibility of extending the protected
area or creating another conservation unit adjacent to
it, with appropriate management regulations.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

OPOAINDMNFPWNYNK

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations
Name of area

National Parks
Aguaro-Guariquito
Archipiélago Los Roques
Canaima

Cerro El Copey

Cerro Saroche

Chorto El Indio
Ciénagas del Catatumbo
Cinaruco-Capanaparo
Cueva de la Quebrada El Toro
Dinira

Duida Marahuaca

El Avila

El Gudcharo

El Tama

Guaramacal

Guatopo

Henri Pittier

Jaua Sarisarifiama
Laguna de Tacarigua
Laguna de la Restinga
Macarao

Mariusa

Médanos de Coro
Mochima

Morrocoy

Paramos del Batallén y La Negra
Parima-Tapirapec6
Peninsula de Paria
Perija

San Esteban

Serrania de la Neblina
Sierra Nevada

Sierra de San Luis
Sierra de la Culata
Terepaima

Turuépano

Yacambi

Yapacana

Yurubi

Biosphere Reserves (National)
Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare
Delta del Orinoco

Faunal Reserves
Ciénagas de Juan Manuel, Aguas Blancas y Negras
Sabanas de Anaro

Faunal Refuges
Cafio Guaritico
Cuare

De la Tortuga Arrau
Estero de Chiriguare
Los Olivitos

312

IUCN management
category

Area
(ha)

585,750
221,120
3,000,000
7,130
32,294
10,800
250,000
584,368
4,885
42,000
210,000
81,800
62,700
139,000
21,000
122,464
107,000
330,000
39,100
18,862
15,000
331,000
91,280
94,935
32,090
95,200
3,420,000
37,500
295,288
43,500
1,360,000
276,446
20,000
200,400
18,650
70,000
14,580
320,000
23,670

8,400,000
876,500

71,500
16,331

9,300
11,825
17,431
32,169
25,723

Year
notified

1974
1972
1962
1974
1989
1989
1991
1988
1969
1988
1978
1958
1975
1978
1988
1958
1937
1978
1974
1974
1973
1991
1974
1973
1974
1989
1991
1978
1978
1987
1978
1952
1987
1989
1976
1991
1962
1978
1960

1991
1991

1975
1982

1989
1972
1989
1974
1986

National/international designations IUCN management
Name of area category
Natural Monuments

Cerro Platill6n Ill
Cerro Santa Ana Ill
Cerros Matasiete y Guayamuri Ill
Formaciones de Tepuyes Ill
Laguna de las Marites Ill
Las Tetas de Maria Guevara Ill
Loma de Leén Ill
Maria Lionza Ill
Mortos de San Juan Il
Pico Codazzi Ill
Protective Zones

Area Metropolitana de Caracas

Barquisimeto

Cabos, Puntas y Lagunas de Isla de Margarita
Cuenca Alta de los Rios Maticora y Cocuiza
Cuenca Alta del Rio Cojedes

Cuenca Alta del Rio Tocuyo

Cuenca Alta y Media del Rio Machango
Cuenca Altas y medias del Rio Pao

Cuenca del Rio Guarico

De la Ciudad de Coro

El Cigarrén

Escalante Onia Mucujepe

La Marichi

La Mariposa

La Tortuga Arrau

Laguna de la Danta

Las Gonzalez

Litoral Central

Macizo Montafioso del Turimiquire
Maracaibo

Margen Izquierdo del Rio Masparro
Mucujin

Piedemonte Norte de la Cordillera Andina
Region Lago de Maracaibo

Rio Albarregas

Rio Capaz

Rio Chuspita

Rio Torbes y sus Alrededores

Rio Yacambi

Rios Guanare, Bocono, Tucupido, La Yuca y Masparro
Rubio

San Antonio - Urefia

San Cristébal

San Rafael de Guasare

Serrania de San Luis

Sierra Nirgua

Sierra de Aroa

Sierra de Bobare

Sur del Edo Bolivar

Sureste del Lago de Maracaibo Sto. Domingo
Sureste del Lago de Maracaibo Uribante-Caparo

==<—<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <4 4 <<< --4-<44< <<< 4-44-44

Hydrological Reserves
Burro Negro
Distrito Paez del Estado Apure

<<

313

The Republic of Venezuela

Area
(ha)

8,000
1,900
1,672
1,069,820
3,674
1,670
7,275
11,712
PTS)
11,850

84,300
46,273
1,549
241,500
276,000
141,600
113,000
68,000
40,207
19,720
45,230
101,125
2,000
2,810
9,856
2,203
11,220
35,723
540,000
20,800
5,000
19,450
431,727
244,125
11,233
45,700
5,642
12,000
46,900
400,000
23,760
6,223
10,000
302,000
86,000
146,590
113,000
140,000
7,262,358
406,662
446,000

75,000
66,100

Year
notified

1987
1972
1974
1990
1974
1974
1989
1960
1949
1991

1972
1987
1988
1974
1974
1974
1990
1974
1974
1987
1989
1975
1973
1988
1989
1974
1980
1974
1974
1986
1974
1985
1974
1974
1973
1989
1976
1974
1974
1991
1978
1982
1978
1973
1987
1974
1991
1974
1974
1974
1974

1974
1981

Protected Areas of the World

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified

<

102 Distritos Maturin, Cedefio, Acosta, Piar 190,000 1976
103 Piedemonte Andino Vv 491,280 1974

104 Region Valle de Quibor Vv 72,000 1974
105 Rio Cupravera Vv 3,203 1978
106 Rio Pedregal Vv 195,900 1976
107 Rio Sanchén Vv 8,100 1976
108 Zona Sur de Lago de Maracaibo Vv 618,000 1974
Ramsar Wetland
Cuare R 9,968 1988

314

The Republic of Venezuela

°Yy

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Protected Areas of Venezuela

315

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ARUBA (NETHERLANDS)

Area 193 sq. km

Population 62,000 (1988 estimate) (Hunter, 1991)
Natural increase: no information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Aruba obtained the status of
an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the
Netherlands on 1 January 1986. Existing Antillean laws
and regulations remain in force, but since this date
Aruba has been responsible for its own legislation.
Some laws to protect the environment are currently
being introduced and, since April 1992 government
officials have been working on a general policy plan for
the conservation of nature (Department of Foreign
Affairs, pers. comm., 1992).

The collection of corals and of different species of
conch (Strombus spp) and the catching of sea turtles is
banned. However, the degree of enforcement is
uncertain and permits for collection are available

(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

International Activities The Kingdom of the
Netherlands, on behalf of the Netherland Antilles and
Aruba, is party to the Caribbean Conservation
Association, and ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Wider Caribbean
Region (Cartagena Convention) on 24 March 1983 and
the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 16 April 1984.
The Netherlands also acceded to the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 23 May
1980; a single site within Aruba has been designated
under the Convention. The Netherlands also
participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme, although no biosphere reserves have been
established within Aruba.

Administration and Management Since 1963
administration and management of protected areas has
been the responsibility of a non-governmental
organisation (NGO), the Netherlands Antilles National
Parks Foundation (Stichting Nationale Parken
Nederlandse Antillean STINAPA). Since 1983 Aruba
has had an independent STINAPA, now officially
known as FANAPA (Aruban Foundation for Nature and
Parks). The aim of the organisation is to promote nature
conservation through acquisition of land, establishment
of parks and by education. Recently a much more
extreme environmental and conservationist association,
STIMARUBA, has been established (Department of
Foreign Affairs, pers. comm., 1992).

317

Systems Reviews Aruba lies on the continental
shelf of South America, less than 50km from the
Peninsula de Paraguand on the Venezuelan mainland. It
is a small island, less than 32km in length. Most of the
island is relatively hilly, with the steepest slopes being
on the north coast and the highest elevation reaching
some 188m. The long southwest coast has a partly
emerged reef, with tiny islands along its length, which is
separated from the main island by a long narrow lagoon.
Although corals are extensive in distribution, reefs are
not highly developed, except in a small area on the
southeast point (ECNAMP, 1980; UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Much of the vegetation has been modified by man,
especially in the southwestern half of the island. Davis
et al. (1986) describe the vegetation as xerophytic,
consisting of thorny scrub and cacti.

The reef islands off the south-west coast have some
important mangrove communities, and represent an
important area for breeding tern populations (Scott and
Carbonell, 1986).

Addresses

Aruban Fouridation for Nature and Parks, PO Box 4014,
Aruba
STIMARUBA, c/o Spaanslagoenweg 33b, Aruba

References

Davis, S.D., Droop, $.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we
know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK.

ECNAMP (1980). Aruba preliminary data atlas. Survey
of conservation priorities in the Lesser Antilles.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management
Programme. 18 pp.

Hunter, B. (Ed.) (1991). The Statesman’s Yearbook
1991/1992. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London.
1692 pp.

IUCN (1987). Directory of wetlands of international
importance. IUCN, Cambridge, UK.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and
International Wildfowl and Wetlands Research
Bureau, Slimbridge. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi
Kenya . 373 pp.

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ANGUILLA (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 91 sq. km

Population 7,700 (1981)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 4,875 per capita (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation _ First settled by the British in
the 17th century, from 1825 it was ultimately
incorporated into the colony of St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla.
Anguilla ended its association with St Kitts-Nevis in
1980, and while the latter islands are now independent,
Anguilla remains a dependent territory of the United
Kingdom. Anguilla’s constitution was adopted in 1982,
and a consolidated amendment was approved in May
1990.

It is government policy to protect natural scenic areas,
such as beaches, historic sites and marine life, from
further damage through proper use of those resources
(Richardson, 1984). The Marine Parks Ordinance, 1982
empowers the Governor "by Order or Regulations
published in the Gazette" to "designate any portion of the
marine areas of Anguilla as a marine park" and allows
him to make regulations covering a wide range of
measures. The entry into force of this Ordinance is to be
secured through Regulations which have not yet been
enacted. The Beach Protection Ordinance No. 10, 1988
provides for the Governor to declare protected beaches
from which the extraction of sand and gravel is
forbidden. Seventeen such beaches have been
designated. The Anguilla National Trust Ordinance No
7, 1988 provides enabling legislation for the
establishment of the Anguilla National Trust.

International Activities | Anguilla is included in the
UK’s ratification of the following international
agreements; the Convention conceming the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World
Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Anguilla’s decision to
join the UK’s ratification of Ramsar in 1990 followed an
independent review of policy and legislation relevant to
wetland protection on the island (Pritchard, 1990). The
UK government ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. Anguilla
is not, however, included in the UK’s ratification of the
Cartagena Convention. The government of Anguilla has
been a member of the Caribbean Conservation
Association (CCA) since 1983.

Administration and Management Until 1990,
environmental matters were the responsibility of the

319

Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, under the
Ministry of Tourism and Natural Resources. Now the
portfolio is held by the Office of the Chief Minister. A
departmental structure on the environment side has not
yet been developed and the budget comes under the
Department of Public Health and the Environment
(Pritchard, 1990).

The recently established Department of Fisheries and
Marine Resources has responsibility for the setting up
and control of marine parks. It is anticipated that the
proposed Anguilla National Trust will ultimately be
responsible for marine and terrestrial park management
(Pritchard, 1990). The Anguilla Archaeological and
Historical Society, a non-governmental organisation
(NGO), has been involved in the creation of the National
Trust.

The Department of Lands and Survey is responsible for
administration of all Crown lands.

In February 1987 the government established the
Fountain National Park Development Committee,
comprising the President of the Anguilla Archaeological
and Historical Society (as Chairman), two other
members of the Society, the Principal Assistant
Secretary, the Chief Engineer of the Public Works
Department’and the Director of Lands and Survey. At
present the park is not functioning as a public amenity
with managed access.

Systems Reviews Anguilla is a low coralline island,
formed from limestone and marls developed on old
volcanic rocks. It shares acommon submarine shelf with
St Martin/St Maarten to the south. The coastline has
sandy bays in the south and cliffs in the north. There are
extensive reefs off the north coast and fringing reefs
along most of the south coast. The 17km-long reef along
the southeast coast is considered to be one of the most
important largely unbroken reefs in the eastern
Caribbean (Putney, 1982).

The vegetation consists of degraded evergreen
woodland, with scattered areas of grassland, and low
scrub. The only areas classed as ’wildlands’ ECNAMP,
1980) are the south-west peninsula, the north-east
peninsula, two areas mid-way along the north-west
coast, and Prickly Pear Cays. All vegetation is subject to
uncontrolled grazing by livestock.

Anguilla has small areas of mangroves and about 15
saline ponds of considerable importance for resident and
migratory waterfowl. Offshore islands hold significant
breeding seabird colonies. Detailed ecological surveys
of the former and counts of the latter are required
(Pritchard, 1990).

The need to conserve marine resources effectively is
recognised by the government. Establishment and

Protected Areas of the World

management of marine protected areas was addressed,
for example, in 1980, when the government requested
the assistance of ECNAMP in formulating a
management plan for critical marine resources. A major
recommendation of that study (Jackson, 1981) was the
creation of a system of marine parks to protect areas of
high ecological value from human activity. The study
also recommended the establishment of a multiple-use
reserve covering an area of sea to the north of Anguilla.

In 1989 the government put forward a proposal to
funding agencies for a comprehensive marine parks
programme. The objectives of this are: to develop and
implement an effective organisational approach for
managing coastal resources; to provide site-specific
information and technical guidelines for development
and management of coastal resources; to establish
marine parks at Shoal Bay, Sandy Island, Prickly Pear
Cay (including Seal Island), Dog Island, Little Bay and
Sombrero Island; to improve public awareness and
understanding of coastal resources as a means of
providing a base of popular support for protection and
sustainable development of these resources; to provide
immediate attention to, and amelioration of, known
problems of beach erosion and visitor-caused damage to
critical marine habitats at proposed park sites and
elsewhere. Elements of the marine parks programme
have been carried out or are in progress. Inventory and
analysis of marine resources has been funded by the UK
Overseas Development Administration’s British
Development Division in the Caribbean (BDDC), and
provision of public information by the US National Parks
Service and WWF-UK. Work on the establishment of
marine parks is being funded by WWF-UK.

The only existing protected area is an important
Anguillan archaeological site, Fountain National Park,
acquired using government funds in 1985. Acquisition
of the 4.75 acre site involved investigation of an
extremely complex landowning pattern and negotiations
with the owners by the Archaeological and Historical
Society (Pritchard, 1990).

The main pressures on natural resources come from the
fishing industry and development of the island’s tourist
industry. The home fishing industry employs 20% of the
population, and territorial waters are fished by foreign
trawlers (Richardson, 1984). Fishing and tourism both
pose problems of damage to coral habitats by anchor and
spearfishing. The development of tourism is increasingly
important to the economy, but it also exerts pressure on
natural resources. The development of tourism, together
with house-building, is contributing to the current
"building boom", causing environmental problems such
as the extraction of sand leading to beach erosion.

320

Other Relevant Information Tourism has
developed rapidly during the 1980s. At the beginning of
the decade, Anguilla had only a few thousand visitors
annually. The figure reached an estimated 70-80,000 in
1990.

Addresses

Ministry of Tourism (Permanent Secretary), Agriculture
and Fisheries, The Valley

Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society, PO Box
252, The Valley

References

Anon. (1987). Anguilla. Lesser Antilles park and
protected area news. Caribbean Conservation
Association. 1(1): 2.

ECNAMP (1980). Anguilla preliminary data atlas.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association
and the School of Natural Resources, University of
Michigan. 18 pp.

Jackson, I. (1987). A preliminary management strategy
for the utilization of the critical marine resources of
Anguilla. Report by ECNAMP, as part of the
Anguilla Resources Development Project.

Jackson, I. (1987). Plan of action for the development of
marine parks, Anguilla. Caribbean Conservation
Association. 22 pp.

National Speleological Foundation (1986). Proposed
plans and specifications for the development of the
Fountain National Park Anguilla, British West
Indies. USA.

Pritchard, D. (1990). The Ramsar Convention in the
Caribbean with special emphasis on Anguilla. Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy,
Bedfordshire, UK. 146 pp.

Putney, A.D. (1982). Survey of conservation priorities
in the Lesser Antilles. Final Report. Caribbean
Environment Technical Report. Caribbean
Conservation Association.

Richardson, L.V. (1984). Anguilla. In: Wood, J. (Ed.),
Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere reserves
and other protected areas for sustainable
development of small Caribbean islands. USDI,
National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

Salm, R.V. (1980). Anguilla, coral reefs and the marine
parks potential. Report to ECNAMP on the selection
and design of marine parks and reserves.
Unpublished. 21 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. UCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi
Kenya. 373 pp.

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

Area 440 sq.km

Population 78,726 (1988) (CCA, 1991)
Natural increase: 0.93% (1988)

Economic Indicators
GDP: Not available
GNP: Not available

Policy and Legislation The National Parks Act No. 11,
1984, as amended (No. 3, 1986), gives general powers
to the relevant Minister to declare any area of land or
water to be a national park, subject to affirmative
resolution of the legislature, and provides for the creation
of a statutory corporation called the National Parks
Authority. The Act does not provide a definition of the
term "national park" and does not make provision for the
establishment of other categories of protected area. Only
one site, Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, has been
created under the Act (CCA, 1991). It has been
recommended that the existing law be amended to make
provision for additional categories of protected area to
be established, particularly those that allow a more
flexible approach to resource conservation and
exploitation (CCA, 1991).

Two areas were proclaimed under the provisions of the
Public Parks Ordinance No 4, 1965. The first of these
has been incorporated subsequently into Nelson’s
Dockyard National Park, whilst the latter is not protected
in practice. Neither is referred to in the National Parks
Act (CCA, 1991).

The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act
No. 5, 1972 gives the Minister of Agriculture, Land and
Fisheries the authority to declare restricted marine areas
in order to preserve and protect marine flora and fauna,
natural beauty or to promote recreation. Two such areas
have been declared under the Act (SRO No. 47, 1973),
one in the reefs off Antigua and the other off Barbuda.
Regulations made under the Act (SRO No. 25, 1973)
prohibit certain activities within such areas.

The Fisheries Act No. 14, 1983, which is consistent with
the unified fisheries draft prepared by FAO for the
Eastern Caribbean Commonwealth States, also provides
for the declaration of areas of water and adjacent land as
marine reserves, to protect natural beauty, flora, fauna
and habitats, to restore degraded areas, or to promote
scientific study (see Annex). No marine reserves have
been created under this Act (CCA, 1991).

The Forestry Ordinance Cap. 99, 1941, and the Forestry
Regulations (SRO No. 13, 1941, SRO No. 42, 1952)
provide for the protection of lands forested at the time of
enactment, prevention of deforestation and for
reforestation where deemed necessary by the
government (see Annex). However, the legislation
appears not to be in force (Miller et al., 1989).

321

Deficiencies in existing forestry and wildlife policy,
legislation and regulations are recognised as
deterrents to proper management of forest resources.
With the assistance of FAO, a draft national forestry
and wildlife policy (McHenry and Gane, 1988) and
draft forestry and wildlife acts are being prepared. The
institutional framework for the management of
protected areas is also flawed, primarily because laws
have been passed without sufficient consideration of
staffing and budgetary requirements. Administrative
responsibilities are also not clearly defined in the case
of Barbuda (CCA, 1991).

International Activities Antigua and Barbuda is
party to the Caribbean Conservation Association, and
ratified the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Wider Caribbean Region and the
Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention) on 11 September 1986. The Convention
Concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) was accepted on
1 November 1983, although, to date, no sites have
been inscribed on the World Heritage List.

The National Parks Authority received assistance from
the Canadian International Development Agency to
establish Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, particularly
with respect to strengthening the institutional capability
of the Authority. During Phase II of the development
activities, CIDA is due to fund the upgrading of the
park’s infrastructure (CCA, 1991).

Administration and Management A Development
Control Authority was established by the Land and
Development Control Act (1977). The Authority has
responsibility for granting or refusing permission to
develop land, and is involved in the envisioned
preparation of a national development plan for the
country, a component of which will be measures for the
improvement of the environment (Miller et al., 1989).

Two different offices are involved with the protected
areas system, the National Parks Authority, which
reports to the Ministry of External Affairs, Economic
Development, Tourism and Energy, and the Fisheries
Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Lands. The latter ministry is responsible for lands,
forests, soil conservation, and marine areas. The
Fisheries Division is responsible for implementation of
both the Marine Areas and Fisheries acts, but lacks the
staff and resources to manage effectively the protected
areas for which it is responsible (CCA, 1991). The
National Parks Authority is responsible for the
implementation of the National Parks Act, and for all
matters associated with park management, including
planning and management of funds generated by park
activities (or donated for use in the parks). The

Protected Areas of the World

Authority’s overall function is to preserve, protect,
manage and develop the natural, physical and
ecological resources, and the historical and cultural
heritage of Antigua and Barbuda. The Authority has a
Board of Directors with seven members, and
approximately 35 staff, headed by a Parks
Commissioner. An Advisory Committee of eight
individuals is intended to facilitate community
involvement in the affairs of the Authority. There is a
weakness in the planning and research capabilities of
the Authority, with those functions being taken up by
CIDA consultants.

Local councils on Barbuda and Antigua have legal
responsibility for forest reserves on the islands, while the
Forestry Unit in Antigua provides a range of services in
connection with forestry. Although short-staffed and
lacking adequate funds, this unit has produced a slope
and soils map, which, taken together with an ownership
map, provides information on priority government forest
lands needing total protection, increased control over
use, and rehabilitation (OECS, 1986).

The Historical, Conservation and Environmental
Commission was effectively established in 1989, as an
advisory body to provide input and guidance for the
management of the nation’s natural and historical
resources. There are no statutory provisions for the
Commission, and its terms of reference have yet to be
promulgated or approved by Cabinet. However, it was
actively involved in a recent environmental profile
(CCA, 1991). Until recently, only one NGO has had an
environmental agenda, namely the Historical and
Archaeological Society of Antigua and Barbuda.
Subsequently, the Environmental Awareness Group
(EAG) was established in 1988 as an off-shoot with a
stronger focus on environmental issues. One of the goals
of EAG is to promote, by dialogue and example,
appropriate sustainable life styles (IRF, 1991). The
Antigua and Barbuda Fisherman’s Association is
concerned with the destruction of mangroves and other
areas important as fisheries habitats and nurseries.

The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly
the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme (ECNAMP), is a non-profit organisation
whose goal is to strengthen local capacity to manage
living natural resources critical to development in the
Caribbean region. Themes for the 1990s include:
parks and protected areas; coastal zone management;
community-based management; education and
training; and sustainable resource utilisation (Putney
and Renard, n.d.).

Currently, only one protected area, Nelson’s Dockyard
National Park is actively managed. However,
management is focused on regulating and supporting
business activities within the park, and the park’s
biological, historical, cultural and historical components
are not properly protected, preserved or managed. Two
marine parks have been established under existing
legislation, but activities are not controlled or regulated

322,

in any way (CCA, 1991). The Parks Authority has little
scientific expertise in natural resources management,
and there is lack of coordination between protected area
organisations (OECS, 1986). Further, no firm policy
decision has been made on the ultimate responsibility for
managing protected areas in Barbuda. For example, it is
not clear if the Barbuda Council would have legal
responsibility in the event that proposed areas were
established (CCA, 1991). In addition, there is currently
no adequate coastal zone management regime, and no
agency has clear cut responsibility for wetlands
(Jackson, 1990).

Systems Reviews Antigua is a hilly coral limestone
island, attaining 402m in the south-west, with a deeply
indented coastline, fringed by reefs and shoals
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The reefs are often formed on
submerged limestone terraces or platforms. Mangrove
vegetation has developed in sheltered bays and inlets
behind barriers of sand or coral debris. Due to habitat
alteration and human disturbance, much of Antigua’s
remaining wildlife is limited to coastal areas and
offshore islets and cays.

Barbuda is a low limestone island (38m maximum
elevation) with a markedly uniform coastline. It is one
of the driest West Indian islands, with a mean annual
rainfall of only 984mm. To the north and west lies an
area of lagoons and creeks separated by beach ridges and
mangrove swamps. Codrington Lagoon is the largest
such area, and extends southward for practically the
entire length of the island. The lagoon is an important
nursery ground for fish and lobster, and constitutes one
of the largest remaining stands of relatively unspoilt
mangroves in the Lesser Antilles (Scott and Carbonell,
1986). In contrast to Antigua, Barbuda is largely forested
and in a more natural state, having extensive tracts of
native dry forests. The low topography and minimal
rainfall has led to soils that are poorly developed, and, as
a result, only minor agricultural activities and
settlements have developed.

The islands’ original forest formations comprised
mangroves, littoral woodland, cactus scrub, thorn
woodland, deciduous woodland, semi-evergreen
woodland, semi-evergreen seasonal forest and evergreen
seasonal forest, corresponding to progressively higher
elevations and greater rainfall. A study undertaken for
the Organisation of American States in 1983 best
described the vegetation of Antigua and Barbuda at that
time. The recurrent planting of sugar cane over several
centuries, and the extensive area under cane production
are considered to have destroyed, for all practical
purposes, the evidence of natural vegetation. The
introduction and rapid naturalisation of many plant
species, which now dominate areas previously used for
agriculture, have created pioneer ecosystems that are
maintained by current land practices. The principal
vegetation types found today comprise forest, scrubland,
savanna and grassland (Morello, 1983). Current
estimates of forest cover vary substantially over time,
and according to the methods used. According to one

study in 1983, 5,600ha were considered to be under
woodland cover and 10,000ha under scrub vegetation,
while another more recent estimate indicated some
9,600ha under woodland (Wirtshafter et al., 1987). A
full description of the range of native habitats and
species on both islands is provided by Miller et al.
(1989) and CCA (1991).

As early as 1979, a UNDP-supported project sought to
identify and develop a national park system for Antigua
and Barbuda (Robinson, 1979). Despite the
recommendations of this project, the present protected
area system does not provide adequate coverage of
species, habitats and other environmental features. Four
life zones are identified in Antigua according to
ECNAMP (1980a); namely, mangrove, cactus scrub, dry
woodland and moist forest. Much of the dry woodland
that existed in the English Harbour/Falmouth area prior
to 1960 has been reduced to cactus scrub, but sufficient
remains that both of these zones are fairly well covered
in Nelson’s Dockyard National Park. Moist forests are
also well represented within the park. ECNAMP (1980a)
also highlighted the important marine and coastal
habitats, but neither these nor the wildlife they support
are adequately represented within protected areas. The
north-east coastline of Antigua and adjacent off-shore
cays are particularly important for their concentration of
wetlands, mangrove habitats, coral reefs, seagrass beds
and seabird nesting sites, yet these have not yet been
afforded protected status. Similarly, there is no legal
basis for protecting the biological diversity of Barbuda.

ECNAMP (1980a) has recommended areas for "special
treatment” in both Antigua and Barbuda. The areas
selected (ECNAMP 1980a, 1980b) indicate that for
Antigua the volcanic south-west and southern sections
and their nearshore and northern coastal and marine
areas are vital for representation of ecosystems, species,
and areas of outstanding recreational, historical and
archaeological value. The Highlands of Barbuda and the
extended marine habitats of its western and southern side
are similarly important. A much better representation of
the natural and historical resources of both islands in a
system of parks and protected areas is warranted. A
number of proposals for additional protected areas are
presented in CCA (1991).

During the past five years, a number of events have
increased awareness of the need for strengthened and
more environmentally-sensitive planning and
development policies. These include the on-going
destruction of mangroves for large-scale hotel, marine
recreation facilities and waste disposal; clearing of
hillside and scrub for road construction; and
uncontrolled and illegal beach sand mining and
sewage disposal (CCA, 1991).

Addresses

Parks Commissioner, Antigua and Barbuda National
Parks Authority, PO Box 1283, ENGLISH

323

Antigua and Barbuda

HARBOUR, Antigua (Tel: 809 460 1053; FAX: 809
460 1516)

Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Lands, Government Headquarters,
ST JOHN’S, Antigua

Antigua-Barbuda Historical and Archaeological
Society, Antigua-Barbuda Museum,

PO Box 103, Long Street, ST JOHN’S, Antigua
(Tel: 809 462 1469).

Environmental Awareness Group, Antigua-Barbuda
Museum, PO Box 103, Long Street, ST JOHN’S,
Antigua (Tel: 809 462 1469)

References

CCA (1991). Antigua and Barbuda: country
environmental profile. Caribbean Conservation
Association/Island Resources Foundation/
Environmental Awareness Group/US-AID.
212 pp.

ECNAMP (1980a). Antigua preliminary data atlas.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association
and the School of Natural Resources of the
University of Michigan. 18 pp.

ECNAMP (1980b). Barbuda preliminary data atlas.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association
and the School of Natural Resources of the
University of Michigan. 18 pp.

IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGOs in the
Eastern Caribbean: A guide to non-governmental
organisations supporting conservation and
resource management programs. Island Resources
Foundation, St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. 46 pp.

Jackson, I.L. (1990). Report on national
workshop towards a strategy for integrating
conservation and development in Antigua and
Barbuda. 28/29 March, OECS Conference
Room, St. John’s, Antigua. 21 pp.

McHenry, T. and Gane, M. (1988). Report to the
Government of Antigua and Barbuda on forestry
and wildlife policy and legislation. FAO, Rome.
(Unseen)

Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1989).
Biological diversity and tropical forests
assessment. Annex to RDO/C Action Plan,
FY88-89. US-AID/RDO/C, Bridgetown,
Barbados. (Unseen)

Morello, J. (1983). Ecological diagnosis of Antigua
and Barbuda. Organization of American States,
Department of Regional Development,
Washington, D.C. (Unseen)

OECS (1986). Antigua and Barbuda, description of
national legislation related to natural resources
management (first stage analysis). Organisation of
Eastern Caribbean States, Natural Resources
Management Project. Castries. 16 pp.

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to
strengthen human capacity to manage living
natural resources critical to development.

Protected Areas of the World

Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, St. Croix, US
Virgin Islands Vieux Fort, St. Lucia.

Robinson, A.H. (1979). Identification and
development of a national park system in Antigua
and Barbuda. United Nations Development
Programme. 27 pp.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World.
Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP

Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi Kenya. 373 pp.

Wirtshafter, R., Radke, R., and Gless, J. (1987).
Development of geographic information system for
Antigua. Final report. Natural resources assessment
for agricultural development project. Department of
Regional Development, Organization of American
States, Washington, DC. (Unseen)

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities
responsible for their administration

Title: Forestry Ordinance (Cap. 99)
Date: 1941
Administrative authority: Local Council
Designations:
Forestreserve Cutting, or felling any tree, clearing
for cultivation, or burning wood or charcoal shall be
prohibited except with a permit.

Source: OECS (1986)

Title: Fisheries Act No. 14
Date: 1983
Administrative authority: Fisheries Department
Designations:
Marine reserve All flora and fauna, including fish,
are protected and taking, pollution, or construction

without a permission is prohibited.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

category (ha) notified

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area
National Parks
1 Nelson’s Dockyard
Marine National Parks
ep Palaster Reef
3 Salt Fish Tail Reef (Diamond Reef)

IUCN management Area Year
Il 4,128 1984
II 500 1973

II 2,000 1973

324

Antigua and Barbuda

Protected Areas of Antigua and Barbuda

325,

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BAHAMAS

Area 11,406 sq. km

Population 250,000 (1990) (80% on the island of New
Providence)
Natural increase: No information

Economic indicators
GDP: US$ 9,000 per capita
GNP: No information

Policy and legislation The Bahamas National Trust
Act, 1959 empowers the Bahamas National Trust to hold
and manage lands, waters and places of natural beauty
or historic interest for purposes of conservation and
preservation. Bye-laws for the management of such
sites are made under this Act.

New bye-laws for all land-and-sea parks, drawn up by
the Trust under Section 24 of the Act, came into force on
13 February 1986. The bye-laws prohibit the removal
or destruction of wildlife, and other named activities that
would degrade the areas. (Originally designated for
recreational purposes, but now also recognised as
*marine replenishment areas and nurseries’).

The Wild Birds Protection Act, 1905 was revised in 1965
and again in 1972. Section 4 makes provision for the
designation of areas protected from hunting through the
passing of Wild Bird Protection (Reserves) Orders.
Between 1951 and 1965, 11 orders were passed
designating 25 areas as wild bird reserves.

A recent Policy Statement for National Parks has been
produced by the National Trust (Anon., 1991a). This
document covers a number of headings ranging from
system management and system expansion, to research,
interpretation and education, and visitor use. It states,
among other things, that each park will have, written, a
general management plan, to be approved by council
every three years. The Trust also produces a more
general document concerning Aims, Objectives and
Priorities, which is reviewed biennially (Anon., 1991b).

International Activities The Bahamas does not
participate in any conventions or programmes,
international or regional, that are of specific relevance to
protected areas.

Administration and Management The Bahamas
National Trust is responsible for the protected areas
system, although it has no absolute authority within wild
bird reserves. The Bahamas National Trust, a
non-governmental self-funded organisation, is managed
by a Council which consists of 21 members headed by
the Trust President and including government
representatives, external conservation bodies and Trust
members. The Council appoints an Executive
Committee, which convenes at least once a month, to
coordinate and oversee the work of the various

327

sub-committees. Staff includes four in central
headquarters and three park wardens overseen by an
Executive Director.

The government department responsible for
environmental conservation is the Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Land Government, although
the Department of Environmental Health Services is also
involved with environmental issues.

Systems Reviews The islands and cays are
low-lying, with an average elevation of only 10m. Many
of them have low hills which may reach 30-60m in
height. The dominant vegetation is low, dense and
thorny. Almost every island contains some wetland
habitat, the great majority comprising shallow brackish
to saline lagoons, mangrove swamps, coastal flats and
intertidal mudflats (Scott and Carbonell, 1986).

In 1983, The Bahamas National Trust submitted to the
government a proposal entitled "The Development of a
National Park System for the Commonwealth of the
Bahamas" identifying 52 additional sites throughout the
islands which it felt should be given some protection, and
defined three categories of protection: national park,
national resetve and protected area. This was followed
in 1984 by a national conservation strategy which also
recommends the development of a representative system
of protected areas (Bahamas National Trust, 1984). This
was subsequently represented during June 1990,
identifying 12 sites of the highest priority.

A Bahamas Country Study on Biodiversity report was
produced (Anon., 1992) in January 1992 based on the
1991 UNEP guidelines. This includes lists of current
and proposed protected areas: the former consists of 10
sites covering 751,262ha (not all are of sufficient size to
be incorporated in the list below), while there are 53
proposed areas comprising 4 national parks, 16 national
reserves and 33 unspecified. Also listed are a series of
objectives for the conservation and rational utilisation of
biodiversity: these include measures for cataloguing
biodiversity; establishing protective measures including
expansion of the protected areas network; and
establishing sustainable practises for activities in all
terrestrial and marine environments. A detailed cost
assessment is provided for these and all other objectives.

Addresses

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Local
Government, PO Box N3028, NASSAU, New
Providence

Bahamas National Trust, PO Box N4105, NASSAU,
New Providence

Protected Areas of the World

References

Anon. (1991a). Policy Statement for National Parks.
Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 4 pp.

Anon. (1991b). Aims, Objectives and Priorities.
Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 4 pp.

Anon. (1992). Bahamas country study on biodiversity:
census, analysis, conservation costs, benefits and
unmet needs. The Research Group, Nassau,
Bahamas. 91 pp.

Bahamas National Trust (1984). A national
conservation strategy for the Bahamas. Proposal.
Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 53 pp.

OAS (1986). Marine protected areas of the OAS
Caribbean member states. Organization of
American States, Department of Regional
Development.

Ray, C. (Ed.) (1961). Report of the Exuma Cays park
project. Bahamas National Trust. 39 pp.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The Wild Birds Protection (Reserves)
Order

Date: 27 January 1951 (Commencement);
subsequent Orders: 1954 (twice), 1955, 1956 (twice),
1958 (twice), 1961, 1962 and 1965

Brief description: Makes provision for the
establishment of wild bird reserves

Administrative authority:
Agriculture

Ministry of

Designation:

Wild bird reserve

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks

1 Conception Island II 809 1973

2) Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park II 45,584 1958

3 Inagua II 74,333 1965

4 Pelican Cays Land and Sea Park II 850 1981
Managed Nature Reserve

5 Union Creek (within Inagua NP) IV 1,813 1965
Wild Bird Reserves

6 Lightbourn Creek (Waterloo) IV 200

eee

328

Bahamas

Protected Areas of the Bahamas

329

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BARBADOS

Area 430 sq. km

Population 257,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.1% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation _In the National Development
Plan 1983, the Physical Development Plan 1983,
amended 1986, and a recent Barbados report to UNCED
(1992), the government has articulated a commitment to
environmental conservation, including plans for a
system of parks and protected areas throughout the
island, incorporating both terrestrial and marine systems
(Y. St Hill, pers. comm., 1992).

The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act
of 1 March 1976 provides for the preservation and
protection of coastal and marine areas, while permitting
recreational and scientific activities. There is also a Wild
Birds’ Protection Act, 1907, revised in 1979.

Two pieces of legislation establishing Barbados Marine
Reserve were gazetted on 16 February 1981. The
Designation of Restricted Areas Order, 1981 established
the boundaries of the underwater park, while the Marine
Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) (Barbados
Marine Reserve) Regulation, 1981 created four zones
within the park (scientific zone, two water sports zones
and arecreational zone). A second site, Harrison’s Cave,
is also protected by legislation (Y. St Hill, pers. comm.,
1992).

International Activities Barbados is a member of the
Caribbean Conservation Association, and ratified the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Wider Caribbean Region and the Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 25 May
1985. Barbados is not party to the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), or the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention),
nor does it participate in the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

Administration and Management The National
Conservation Commission is the statutory body
responsible for management of the natural environment,
and functions range from conservation of natural and
cultural features to management of public recreation
areas, including advice to the Minister on these issues.
The Commission was created in 1982 through an
amalgamation of the Parks and Beaches Commission
(which had been established in 1970) with the Caves
Authority (set up in 1977). Overall responsibility for

331

administering Barbados Marine Reserve, all public
recreation areas, beaches and caves rests with the
Commission, with day-to-day running of the marine
reserve being the responsibility of the Park Naturalist
and his staff.

An Environmental Unit has been established within the
Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the
Environment to coordinate environmental planning,
research, education and policy. The unit is also the focal
point for environmental matters between Barbados and
regional and international agencies. The Environmental
Unit is currently developing a national conservation
strategy with assistance from IUCN and the Caribbean
Conservation Association (CCA) (Y. St Hill, pers.
comm., 1992).

Private organisations with an interest in the environment
include the Barbados National Trust, created in 1961.
Although much of the Trust’s efforts are directed toward
preserving sites of historical and architectural interest, it
also supports the preservation of the natural environment
and was instrumental in revision of the Schedule to the
Wild Birds’ Protection Act in 1979. The Trust owns and
manages Welchman Hall Gully, a halfmile cleft in the
limestone cap which supports both pre-colonisation and
introduced ‘flora. Other organisations include the
Barbados Environmental Association, established in
1987, which aims to stimulate interest in environmental
issues, create an awareness of the need for conservation
and natural resource management, conducts research,
and is engaged in other environmental activities which
benefit the public.

The CCA has its headquarters in St Michael, Barbados.
This international organisation, which has 19 member
states in the wider Caribbean, was created in 1967 to
ascertain the conservation needs of the Caribbean area
and to coordinate conservation activities within the
region. The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute,
formerly the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area
Ncnagement Programme (ECNAMP), is a nonprofit
organisation whose goal is to strengthen local capacity
to manage living natural resources critical to
development in the Caribbean region (Putney and
Renard, n.d.). Collaborative ventures between the CCA
and the Institute include an ICOD (Canadian
International Centre for Ocean Development) supported
marine parks programme, and the Caribbean Heritage
Programme for institutional development in support of
the region’s natural heritage at national and regional
levels (Anon., 1989).

Systems Reviews Barbados is a small, relatively flat
island, with a maximum elevation of 330m, although a
ridge runs in a northsouth direction slightly below this
altitude for several kilometres. The island is located in
the North Equatorial current 475km north of South

Protected Areas of the World

America, within the AtlanticAntillean subprovince
(Cotter, 1982).

The natural vegetation over most of the island originally
comprised drought-tolerant forest and shrubs,
developing into tropical forest in the moister, sheltered
regions. However, native vegetation is now more or less
confined to a few small patches in the hills, and along
the exposed east coast which has remained relatively
undeveloped (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). Much of the
island is under cultivation, sugar cane being an important
crop, and a well-developed road system means that few
areas are inaccessible. Major problems with the
management of natural resources are discussed by
Wilson (1984) and include beach erosion, threat of oil
spillage and land development.

For several years discussion has continued on the
establishment of a national park on the north and east
coast of the island and encompassing Scotland District.
A comprehensive review of the area, including its
physical features, outstanding scenic viewpoints, and
ecological characteristics, was conducted during 1981
on behalf of the National Trust. Subsequent work on
planning, institutional framework and policy
development (Pennington, 1983) led to a range of
detailed recommendations on the establishment and
management of the proposed park. The boundaries of the
park, as proposed by Pennington, have recently been
accepted with the passage of the Physical Development
Plan (1986). The government has also reactivated
proceedings towards the official designation and
development of the national park, as a pilot project under
the National Conservation Strategy, being formulated
and executed by the Environmental Unit and IUCN. The
next major step will be the development of a detailed
sector plan for the area, to be completed by mid 1992
(J.R.A. Wilson, pers, comm., 1992).

In 1981, the government stated in its policy that a new
park would be created at Graeme Hall Swamp, an
important bird habitat. However, the project has been
delayed on economic grounds (UNEP/IUCN, 1988;
Wilson, 1984). Scott and Carbonell (1986) note that this
is the only wetland of its type in Barbados, and that, as
a relatively unspoilt wetland ecosystem in a heavily
populated island, the swamp has great potential for
educational purposes. The swamp also contains the only
mangrove stand on Barbados.

332

Addresses

The Environmental Unit, Ministry of Labour, Consumer
Affairs and the Environment, Marine House,
Hastings, ST MICHAEL 29 (Fax: 809 426 8959)

National Conservation Commission, Codrington House,
ST MICHAEL

Barbados National Trust, Ronald Tree house, 10th
Avenue, Belleville, ST MICHAEL (Tel: 809 426
2421)

Barbados Environmental Association, PO Box 132,
BRIDGETOWN

References

Anon. (1989). Eastern Caribbean natural area
management programme Annual report 1988.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux
Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp.

Cotter, P.J. (1982). Barbados’ new marine reserve. Parks
7(1): 8-11.

Pennington, N.C. (1983). Barbados National Park. A
report prepared for the government of Barbados on
proposals for national park on the north and east
coasts. Unpublished. 10 pp.

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen
human capacity to manage living natural resources
critical to development. Caribbean Natural
Resources Institute, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

St Hill, Y. (1985). You and your environment: An
introduction to the Folkstone underwater park.
Government Printing Office, Barbados. 20 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. UCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Wilson, C. (1984). Barbados. In: Wood, J. (Ed.),
Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere reserves
and other protected areas for sustainable)
development of small Caribbean islands. USDI,
National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

Barbados

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations,
as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The Marine Areas (Preservation and Designation:
Enhancement) Act

Marine reserve Prohibited activities include
Date: 1 March 1976 destroying or disturbing any plant or animal or aspect

of the physical environment; injuring any bottom
growth formation; discharging any waste materials
into the water; using spearguns, hooks, lines, traps,
explosives or other devices to catch fish; using

Administrative authority: National Conservation speedboats, sail boats or jet skis, except in designated
; areas; carrying sand away from the beach; capturing

Brief description: Provides for the preservation
and protection of coastal and marine areas, while
permitting recreational and scientific activities.

pommnisson turtles or their eggs on the shore; and depositing
refuse or any offensive matter on the beach or in the
sea.
Source: Y. St Hill, 1985
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Marine Reserve ;
1 Barbados II 250 1980

333

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Barbados

334

BERMUDA (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 55 sq.km

Population 54,893 (1980); estimate (1989) 59,066
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
DP: US$ 21,845 per capita (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Bermuda is a dependent
territory of the United Kingdom. The island’s
constitution dates from 1968.

The Bermuda National Parks Act 1986, makes provision
for protected areas on both public and private land under
two schedules. All areas declared on public land under
the first schedule are either nature reserves or parks,
while areas under private ownership may be declared
under the second schedule as agreement protected areas.
The Coral Reef Reserve Act, 1966 provides legislation
under which identified coral reef areas are protected,
while Section 4 of the Fisheries Act, 1972 gives the
Minister of Works and Agriculture authority to declare
any area of the waters within the exclusive fishing zone
to be a protected area.

Section 5 of the Protection of Birds Act, 1975 makes
provision for the establishment of nature reserves for
bird preservation. A number of sites have been declared
by Statutory Instrument under this Act: The Nature
Reserves (Tern Nesting Areas) Order, 1976, The Nature
Reserves (Spittal Pond) Order, 1979, The Nature
Reserves (Castle Harbour) Order, 1979, and The Nature
Reserves (Evans Bay) Order, 1981.

The Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969 (amended 1970)
establishes the Trust and specifies its administration and
objectives. It can purchase or receive land for
managementas nature reserves to be managed according
to the Bermuda National Trust (Open Spaces and
Property) Regulations.

The Development and Planning Act (1974) was also
instrumental in conservation of specified areas. This Act
was effectively replaced by the Bermuda Development
Plan, 1983 and the Bermuda Development Plan, 1983:
Planning Statement (1986) and amended in 1989. These
deal broadly with planning for the entire country. Section
IV covers Zoning Regulations and divides Bermuda
into: broad development areas (First Schedule),
environmental protection areas (Second Schedule);
environmental overlay areas (Third Schedule); and
special study areas. The environmental protection areas
listed in this legislation include: open space areas,
recreation areas, nature reserve areas, woodland reserve
areas and arable reserve areas (Anon., 1989).

International Activities Bermuda is included in the
UK’s ratification of the following international

335

agreements with provisions for protected areas; the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage
Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Eight sites are being
considered for listing under the Ramsar Convention.

Administration and Management The
Conservation Division within the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries was established in 1966 and a
conservation officer and field staff appointed to "conduct
research and wardening activities as necessary to save...
endangered flora and fauna".

The National Parks Act established the position of
Director of the Conservation Division as the person
responsible for the administration and management of
protected areas created under the Act. It is also the
Director’s responsibility to maintain a national parks
plan for the system of protected areas, and to prepare
management plans for each scheduled site. The
management plans are intended to maintain the features
upon which the site was first selected, and are required
to describe the long-term goals of the protected area,
boundaries of the area (and any zones), the management
that will be needed to accomplish the goals, and the
regulations that apply within the area.

The National Parks Act also created the National Park
Commission, with the function of advising the Minister
on matters affecting the long-term conservation and
management of the system. In addition to this general
aim, the Commission is required to review and advise on
the national parks plan and the management plans
of individual protected areas, both before and
during their implementation. The Commission
consists of 12 members, of whom the Director and the
Parks Administrator are ex-officio members. The other
ten members are appointed by the Minister and include
one member each of the Bermuda National Trust,
Audubon Society, Maritime Museum Association, and
Zoological Society, two members with "environmental
expertise" and two "interested" members of the general
public.

The Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries is responsible for marine habitats, and for the
implementation of both the Coral Reef Reserve Act and
the Fisheries Act.

The Bermuda National Trust is a nongovernmental
organisation (NGO) established by law under the
Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969. Its objectives
include promoting the permanent preservation of lands
and buildings; to maintain these when they have been
acquired by the Trust and to promote access to these sites
and places. To this end, the Trust has been granted
special powers of purchase. It is run by a President along

Protected Areas of the World

with a Council of twelve other members (Anon., 1969).
Nature reserves acquired and owned by the Bermuda
National Trust are managed by the Open Spaces
Committee with the advice and assistance of the
government Conservation Division. Reserves owned by
the Bermuda Audubon Society are managed by the
Society’s Executive Committee with advice from the
Conservation Division. The main NGOs are the
Bermuda National Trust and the Bermuda Audubon
Society. It is estimated that 10% of the population are
members of a conservation organisation (Oldfield,
1987). The Bermuda Biological Station for Research Inc
(BBS) aims to provide a year-round facility for research
and education into a wide range of maritime studies,
particularly those concerned with deep ocean and global
implications.

Systems Reviews Bermuda is a small, densely
populated island, and only small areas of natural
vegetation survive (for example at Paget and Devonshire
marsh, and the upland hills of Castle Harbour and
Walsingham). However, the living standard of the
population is high (primarily based on tourism and
international business, and virtually all food and fibre is
imported).

Bermuda is the most northerly site of mangrove
distribution in the world, and small scattered areas of
mangrove swamp amounted to a total of 16.7ha in 1980.
Inland peat marshes cover about 48ha and are of great
botanical interest (Oldfield, 1987).

The first schedule of the National Parks Act lists ten
nature reserves and 59 parks, while no agreement
protected areas have been declared under the second
schedule. The nature reserves listed include a number of
those already declared under statutory instruments
arising from the Protection of Birds Act. Currently there
are 12 nature reserves covering some 48ha, and 63 parks
covering some 241ha none of these sites is of sufficient
size to be listed in the current publication (they range in
size from 0.04ha to 38ha). In addition, 10 sites (c. 15ha)
are managed by the Bermuda Audubon Society, 15 sites
(c. 40ha) by the Bermuda National Trust, and there are
two other private protected areas (25ha) (Department of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Parks, pers. comm., 1991).

Bermuda has a number of endemic plants and animals.
Most of the natural vegetation however, has been
severely modified or destroyed, and populations of
plants and animals have been further reduced by
introduced species: for example, Bermuda cedar
Juniperus bermudiana was originally the dominant tree

336

species, but 96% of its population was destroyed by an
introduced species of scale insect (Davis et al., 1985).
Despite the small areas of remaining natural habitat, the
natural vegetation appears to recover fairly quickly, and
various experiments in environmental restoration have
been carried out (Pollard, 1985; Wingate, 1985).

Addresses

Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, P O Box 145, Flatts 3

Bermuda National Trust, PO Box 61, HAMILTON 5

Bermuda Audubon Society, PO Box 1328,
HAMILTON 5

References

Anon. (1969). The Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969.
Pp. 328-337.

Anon. (1989). Bermuda Development Plan 1983:
Planning Statement. Department of Planning,
Hamilton, Bermuda. 58 pp.

Anon. (1987). Bermuda. Caribbean Conservation News
4(12): 9.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we
know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge,
UK. 461 pp.

Lever, C. (1984). Conservation success for two
Bermudan bird species. Oryx 18(3): 138-143.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise. A guide for
conservation action in the U.K. dependent
territories. British Association of Nature
Conservationists, Oxford. 192 pp.

Pollard, J.A. (1985). Paradise regained: Bringing an
island back to life. Oceans 4: 4249.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of
neotropical wetlands. (UCN, Cambridge and [WRB,
Slimbridge. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Wingate, D.B. (1985). The restoration of Nonsuch Island
as a living museum of Bermuda’s pre-colonial
terrestrial biome. In: Moors, PJ. (Ed.), Conservation
of Island Birds. \CBP Technical Publication No. 3.
International Council for Bird Preservation,
Cambridge, UK.

Title:

ANNEX

Bermuda (United Kingdom)

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The Bermuda National Parks Act

Date: 1986

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of national parks and reserves

Administrative authority: Conservation Division
Designations:

The Act makes provision for protected areas on both
public and private land under two schedules. All
areas declared on public land under the first schedule
are either nature reserves or parks, while areas under
private ownership may be declared under the second
schedule as agreement protected areas. Areas
designated under either schedule have one or more
of four defined objectives covering protection of
natural resources and features, provision for the use
of areas to be kept in their natural state, provision of
open space, and protection of cultural features.

A management plan must be prepared for each
scheduled area (within guidelines identified by the
Act) and be in effect within five years of declaration.
Activities within the area must be consistent with the
provisions of the plan. Where necessary the Minister
may pass regulations to ensure that the provision is
complied with. The 1986 The act states in detail the
powers that authorised officers have to enforce its
regulations and specifies certain penalties.

The act divides first schedule protected areas into two
classes:

Class A Protected Areas — Nature Reserves To
be managed to protect special or fragile natural
features and provide limited public access.

Class B Protected Areas - Parks To be managed
to encourage conservation and enjoyment of natural
and historic features with the minimum of
commercial activity.

Source: Original legislation

Coral Reef Reserve Act
Date: 1966

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of coral reef reserve areas

337

Administrative authority: Fisheries Division

Designations:
Coral Reef Preserve or Reserve: Twocoral reef

areas, North Shore Coral Reef Preserve and South
Shore Coral Reef Preserve, are protected.

Source: UNEP/IUCN, 1988

Title: Fisheries Act

Date: 1972

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of exclusive fishing zones

Administrative authority: Fisheries Division
Designations:

Exclusive Fishing Zones Section 4 gives the
Minister of Works and Agriculture authority to declare
any area of the waters within the exclusive fishing zone
to be a protected area, prohibiting or restricting the
taking of fish (although this does not affect use of boats
within designated areas).

Source: Original legislation

Title: Protection of Birds Act

Date: 1975

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of coral reef reserve areas

Administrative authority: No information
Designations:

Nature Reserve May be declared, by Statutory
Instrument, on any land which is considered to be
especially suited for the feeding and nesting of
protected birds, or on land otherwise important as a
habitat for their preservation. May not be declared on
private land without the consent of the owner. Public
access is limited unless otherwise stated by the
Minister. under this Act. A number of the reserves thus
designated are also listed as nature reserves under the
Bermuda National Parks Act, 1986.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

Title: Bermuda National Trust Act
Date: 1969 (amended 1970)
Brief description: Establishes the Bermuda
National Trust and specifies its administration and
objectives. Enabling legislation for the designation of
nature reserves by the Trust

Administrative authority: Bermuda National Trust

Designations:

Nature Reserve The Trust can purchase or receive
land for management as nature reserves to be managed
according to the Bermuda National Trust (Open Spaces
and Property) Regulations.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map Nationall/international designations
ref. Name of area
Preserves
1 North Shore Coral Reef
2 South Shore Coral Reef

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
IV 12,000 1966
IV 530

338

Bermuda (United Kingdom)

Protected Areas of Bermuda

339

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BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 153 sq.km

Population 14,786 (1990)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 112,440,000 (1989 change of base year)
GNP: US$ 8,143 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation The constitution dates from
1967 when the Islands became a self-governing
dependent territory of the United Kingdom.

The National Parks Ordinance No. 29, 1961, as
amended No. 3, 1978, established the National Parks
Trust, and provided for the creation of protected areas
in the form of national parks to be managed by the Trust.
The Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance No. 8,
1979 provides for the creation of a range of categories
of protected area, including multiple-use management
area or marine parks and protected area. The Protection
of Trees and Conservation of Soil Ordinance (Cap. 86)
provides for protected forestry and water areas, and the
Trust currently manages Sage Mountain Protected
Forest created under this Act. The Wild Birds Protection
Ordinance (Cap. 98, 1959), as amended (1980),
authorises the Governor to declare protected areas
specifically as bird sanctuaries. The provisions of this
ordinance also apply to birds in any marine park or
protected area designated under the Marine Parks and
Protected Areas Ordinance. More recently all bird
sanctuaries in the country were subsumed under a new
law which declared the entire British Virgin Islands as a
bird sanctuary (Potter, pers. comm., 1992).

Other relevant legislation includes the Fisheries
Ordinance No. 18, 1979, the Beach Protection
Ordinance, 1985, and the Bird Sanctuary (Flamingo
Pond, Anegada) Order, 1977. The Fisheries Ordinance
authorises the Minister of Natural Resources to declare
any water area within the exclusive fishing zone
(200 miles) to be a protected area. All fishermen must
obtain licences, and fisheries officers are empowered
to confiscate fishing equipment and impose fines. In
May 1990, Horseshoe Reef was declared a protected
area under the Fisheries Ordinance.

Several laws deal with protected areas, and this was one
of a number of reasons which led to the government
requesting technical assistance from the Organization of
Eastern Caribbean States in strengthening and updating
its existing environmental legislation. A report was
subsequently prepared on the existing legislation
(Lausche, 1986). Since then, two new pieces of
environmental legislation have been drafted: a new
Protected Areas and Wildlife Act, 1987, and a Coastal
Conservation and Management Act, 1991. Once
enacted, this comprehensive legislation is expected to
make a major contribution to improving the territory’s

341

capacity for sound environmental planning and
management (B VINPT/ECNAMP, 1988).

The Protection of Trees and Conservation of Soil
Ordinance (Cap. 86) lacks regulations, but contains
stronger provisions on offences, enforcement, and legal
proceedings than does the National Parks Ordinance.
While bye-laws or regulations may be enacted for the
management of national parks and the control of public
activities under either Act, Lausche (1986) describes the
present lack of regulations as a major deficiency.
Regulations were passed in 1991 prescribing permitted
activities in marine parks, and a schedule for fees.

International Activities British Virgin Islands is
included in the UK’s ratification of the following
international agreements with provisions for protected
areas; the Convention concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention).

The UK government ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The
UK’ s ratification includes the British Virgin Islands.

The government of the British Virgin Islands has been a
member of the Caribbean Conservation Association
(CCA) since 1974.

AdministrationandManagement The agency with
responsibility for conservation management is the
Department of Conservation and Fisheries, which comes
under the portfolio of the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Labour. The Ministry of Natural Resources is also
responsible for agriculture, fisheries, forestry and
mining. The National Parks Trust, which takes its
authority from the National Parks Ordinance, is
responsible for the development and management of all
potential and designated areas, and for the Botanic
Gardens. The Department of Conservation and Fisheries
and the National Parks Trust work closely in areas such
as environmental monitoring and resource management.
The development of a single conservation agency has
been proposed (Cambers, 1991).

Since 1980 the development of marine parks and
protected areas has been the subject of collaboration
between the government and the Easter Caribbean
Natural Areas Management Programme. An initial
survey resulted in eight marine areas being identified as
warranting protection (Jackson, 1981). Following
endorsement of these areas by the government, the
project was extended into a second phase of research,
planning and implementation. Two particular concerns

Protected Areas of the World

were to integrate marine and terrestrial components of
the protected area system, and to provide recreational
areas for the local population. A further five areas were
recommended (Jackson, 1982). The second phase of the
project also aimed to achieve five objectives by the end
of 1988: to improve fundraising capability; to produce
management plans for four existing areas; to consider
studies submitted on seven proposed areas (Wreck of the
Rhone Marine Park had already been declared) and make
recommendations to the government; to improve
conservation awareness among the public; and to
improve relations with natural resource users, by
involving interested parties in the management process.
In 1987, it was reported that the collaborative project had
gone some considerable way in strengthening and
supporting the National Parks Trust. The funding basis
had been made more secure, a Trust had been established
and a director appointed (in 1985), and efforts were
being made to involve Trust members more actively in
the work of the Trust. As part of this project, A parks
and protected areas system plan for the British Virgin
Islands, which identifies the goals, objectives and
management requirements of the national parks and
protected areas system, was prepared (BVINPT/
ECNAMP, 1986). The system plan was accepted by the
government in 1987.

Other agencies involved in conservation include the BVI
Dive Operators Association. Members of the
Association have been involved, for example, in the
management of Wreck of the Rhone Marine Park,
providing surveillance, monitoring the wreck and reefs,
and explaining park regulations to visitors. They have
also installed and maintained moorings at the dive site
with support and collaboration from the National Parks
Trust and government (Geoghegan et al., 1991).

Systems Reviews The British Virgin Islands
comprise just over 40 islands, small cays and rocks, the
marine area of the territory being well over five times the
size of the land mass. The four largest islands are Tortola,
Virgin Gorda, Anegada and Jost Van Dyke.
Geologically, the islands belong to the Greater Antilles,
and, with the United States Virgin Islands, rise from the
Puerto Rican shelf, here lying about 65m below
sea-level. Most of the islands (with the exception of
Anegada) were uplifted from submerged volcanoes and
are formed from volcanic debris and metamorphosed
sediments. The islands are dominated by steep— sloping
hills fringed by narrow valleys and sparse mangroves.
Most of the soils are light, and have limited
water-holding capacity, which, combined with erratic
rainfall patterns and insufficient forest cover to retard
steep slope erosion, deters high agricultural production.
The dominant natural vegetation is cactus scrub and dry
woodland, although much of this has been modified.
Coral reefs surround many of the islands (UNEP/IUCN,
1988; Walters, 1984).

The main economic activity is now tourism, which has
expanded considerably in recent years (during the period
1978-1982 income from tourism nearly tripled).

342

Development of the tourist industry has had an impact
on natural habitats, putting particular pressure on coastal
wetlands and mangrove communities (Scott and
Carbonell, 1986). As the tourism industry is based on the
marine environment, this was a significant factor leading
to the development of protected areas in the islands.

At present, terrestrial parks cover 2.1% of the land area.
The system plan sought to define a system of parks and
protected areas which would incorporate the existing
parks into a larger system of comprehensive ecological
units, to preserve the most important areas of the natural
and cultural heritage. Twelve additional parks were
proposed, but none of these has yet been declared. This
is partly due to the approach adopted in BVI of preparing
management plans and strengthening institutions in
advance of park declaration. Significant progress has
been made in the development of three of the proposed
protected areas: Southwestern Virgin Gorda, Anegada
and Horseshoe Reef, and North Sound, Virgin Gorda
(Cambers, 1991). Anegada has been identified as an
internationally important wildlife site, with endemic and
endangered plant and animal species and important
wetland habitats. It has the largest reef complex in the
Lesser Antilles, with Horseshoe Reef forming an
extension of the fringing reef surrounding the island.
Horseshoe Reef is now protected and managed for
conservation; several proposals are being considered for
the development of a terrestrial park for Anegada.
Mapping of all of British Virgin Island’s wetlands and
mangroves has been carried out by the Department of
Conservation and Fisheries within their Mangrove
Management Programme.

Addresses

National Parks Trust, PO Box 860, Road Town,
TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 3904)

BVI Dive Operators Association, PO Box 108,
TORTOLA

Conservation and Fisheries Department, Road
Town, TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 5651\2;
FAX: 809 494 4435)

Town and Country Planning Department, PO Box 834,
Road Town, TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 344433;
FAX: 809 494 5794)

References

BVINPT/ECNAMP (1986). A parks and protected
areas system plan for the British Virgin Islands.
The British Virgin Islands National Park Trust and
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Program.

BVINPT/ECNAMP (1988). British Virgin Islands parks
and protected areas project annual report 1987. The
British Virgin Islands National Park Trust and the
Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management
Programme. 7 pp.

Cambers, G. (1991). The implementation of the National
Parks System Plan in the British Virgin Islands.
In: Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional

Symposium public and private cooperation in
National Park development. 23-25 August. British
Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola.
Geoghegan, T., Renard, Y. and Smith, A. (1991).
Community participation in protected area
management: some cases from the Caribbean. In:
Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional
Symposium public and private cooperation in
National Park development. 23-25 August. British
Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola.

Jackson, I.L. (1981). A system of marine parks and
protected areas for the British Virgin Islands. In:
CNPPA (Ed.), Conserving the Natural Heritage of
Latin America and the Caribbean. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. Pp, 305-308.

Jackson, I.L. (1982). Marine tourism, fisheries and the
development of parks and protected areas in the
British Virgin Islands. Presented ata CCA/ECNAMP
workshop, June. 12 pp.

343

British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)

Lausche (1986). British Virgin Islands, description of
national legislation related to natural resources
management (first stage analysis). Organization of
Eastern Caribbean States, Natural Resources
Management Project, Castries. 48 pp.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical wetlands. IWRB, Slimbridge and
IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Walters, L. (1984). British Virgin Islands. In: Wood, J.
(Ed.), Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere
reserves and other protected areas for sustainable
development of small Caribbean Islands. USDI,
National Park Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 190 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: National Parks Ordinance No. 29, 1961,
as amended No. 3, 1978

Date: 1961 (amended 1978)

Brief description:
national parks

Administrative authority:
Designations:
National park

provisions.

Title: The Marine Parks and Protected Areas
Ordinance No. 8, 1979

Date: 1979
Brief description:
marine parks or protected areas

Administrative authority:
Trust

Designations:

Marine park or protected area (Multiple use
Provides for the creation of a
range of categories of protected area, including
multiple-use management areas. The Act also
prohibits spear fishing, and damage or removal of
flora or fauna within a marine park or protected area.
While bye-laws or regulations may be enacted for the
management of parks and the control of public

management area)

activities under either Act.

Provides for the designation of

National Park Trust

The Ordinance does not provide
substantive details relating to management or other

Enabling legislation for the
designation of multiple use management areas as

National Parks

344

Title: The Protection of Trees and
Conservation of Soil Ordinance (Cap. 86)

Date: 1954

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of protected forests

Administrative authority: Department of
Agriculture and National Parks Trust

Designations: No information

Protected forest _ Provides for protected forestry
and water areas, and the Trust currently manages
Sage Mountain Protected Forest created under this
Act. The Act lacks regulations, but contains stronger
provisions on offences, enforcement, and legal
proceedings than does the National Parks Ordinance.

Title: Wild Birds Protection Ordinance
(Cap. 98, 1959)

Date: 1959 amended 1980

Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the
designation of protected forests

Administrative authority: No information

Designations:

Bird sanctuary The Governor is authorised to
declare protected areas specifically as bird
sanctuaries. The provisions of this ordinance also
apply to birds in any marine park or protected area
designated under the Marine Parks and Protected
Areas Ordinance.

British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Bird Sanctuaries

1 Cooper Island IV 138 1959

2 Flamingo Pond IV 449 1977

3 Ginger Island IV 105 1959

4 Peter Island IV 430 1959
Natural Monument

5 Wreck of the Rhone Ill 324 1980
Forest Park

6 Virgin Gorda Peak II 107 1974

345

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of the British Virgin Islands

346

CAYMAN ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 259 sq.km

Population 25,355 (1990)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 18,000 per capita (1990)

Policy and Legislation | The Cayman Islands are a
dependent territory of the United Kingdom. The present
constitution dates from 1972.

Marine protected areas have been designated around
Grand Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine
Parks) Regulations, 1986, and protected areas on
Cayman Brac and Little Cayman under the Marine
Conservation (Marine Parks) (Amendment)
Regulations, 1986. This legislation defines three
categories of marine parks: environmental zone,
replenishment zone and marine park zone (see Annex).
Animal sanctuaries have been declared on Grand
Cayman under the Animals Law No. 8, 1976, on Cayman
Brac under the Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations,
1980, and on Little Cayman under and Animals
(Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1982. All areas established
under this legislation are wetlands and of importance for
bird species.

The National Trust for the Cayman Islands Law, 1987
established the National Trust to preserve the historic,
natural and maritime heritage of the islands. The Trust
maintains several areas of land for wildlife conservation.

International Activities | Cayman Islands is included
in the UK’s ratification of the following international
agreements with provisions for protected areas; the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention). The Cayman Island
authorities produced a leaflet on Ramsar designation in
1987. Five sites have been proposed for Ramsar listing,
and it is expected that one of these will be declared.

The UK government ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The
UK’s ratification includes the Cayman Islands.

The government of the Cayman Islands is not a member
of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) but
representatives participate in regional activities of CCA.

Administration and Management During 1990,
responsibility for all environmental matters, including
marine conservation, marine parks, animal sanctuaries

347

etc., was placed in the Portfolio for Education,
Environment, Recreation and Culture. This Portfolio is
still responsible for museums, the turtle farm, the
National Trust and activities related to international
agreements.

The Natural Resources Unit, a Department of the
Portfolio for Education, Environment, Recreation and
Culture, is responsible for the day-to-day management
of the natural environment. The Planning Department
falls under the jurisdiction of the Portfolio of
Communication, Works and Agriculture. A revision of
the current development plan is scheduled for 1992.

Enforcement of conservation legislation is the
responsibility of the police, and, in cases of marine
issues, of the marine enforcement officers who are
employed by the Natural Resources Unit and have full
constabulary powers. At present there are two marine
enforcement officers on Grand Cayman and one on
Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. A number of
volunteer fisheries officers also assist with the
enforcement of marine conservation legislation (G.
EbanksPetrie, pers. comm., 1992).

The National Trust for the Cayman Islands, a statutory,
non-governmental organisation, is involved in land
acquisition and management for conservation purposes.

Systems Reviews The three Cayman Islands are
flat, low-lying limestone islands with extensive reef
systems. The populations of the three islands differ
considerably, with fewer than 100 on Little Cayman and
less than 2,000 on Cayman Brac. This is reflected in the
varying degrees to which the islands’ environments
have been adapted. Little Cayman is the least disturbed
of the group, with settlement mainly in the vicinity of
the south and west coast. In 1980 almost all of the
island’s interior was untouched (Diamond, 1980).

In contrast, the rapid development of Grand Cayman
has resulted in degradation of various fragile habitats.
Mangrove swamps in Grand Cayman have been
particularly vulnerable to development with destruction
to form marinas and estate developments. Natural
woodland and thicket is also being cleared increasingly
for roads, housing, tourism and agriculture. Three
wetland sites have recently been declared animal
sanctuaries (Meagre Bay and Colliers Pond on Grand
Cayman and the Rookery on Little Cayman), these are
landbased (G. Ebanks-Petrie, pers. comm., 1992). In
1989 the government gave 257ha of land to the National
Trust. This area is known as the Salina Reserve. The
Trust is also joint proprietor of 24ha acres on Grand
Cayman being developed as a botanical gardens, with
woodlands preserved in their natural state. In December
1991 ownership of a 40ha woodland site on Cayman
Brac, important as a nesting area for Amazona
leucocephala hesterna, was transferred to the National

Protected Areas of the World

Trust by The Nature Conservancy and is now titled
Brac Parrot Reserve. The site will form the basis for
a larger reserve on Cayman Brac (G. Ebanks-Petrie,
pers. comm., 1992).

Addresses

The Cayman Islands Government Office, 197
Knightsbridge, LONDON SW7 1RB

Natural Resources Unit, PO Box 486, GEORGE TOWN,
Grand Cayman (Tel: 809 949 8277; FAX: 809 949
8469; Tlx: 4260 CP)

National Trust for the Cayman Islands, PO Box 10,
GEORGE TOWN (Tel: 809 949 0121; FAX: 809 949
7494)

References

Bradley, P. (1986). In: Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M.,
A directory of Neotropical wetlands. 'UCN, Cambridge
and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. Diamond, A.W.
(1980). Ecology and species turnover of the birds
of Little Cayman. Atoll Research Bulletin 241. Pp.
141-164.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise. A guide for
conservation action in the UK dependent territories.
British Association of Nature Conservationists,
Oxford. 192 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Marine Conservation (Marine Parks)
Regulations; Marine Conservation (Marine
Parks) (Amendment) Regulations

Date: 1986

Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the
designation of marine protected areas. Marine
protected areas have been designated around Grand
Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine
Parks) Regulations, 1986, and protected areas on
Cayman Brac and Little Cayman under the Marine
Conservation (Marine Parks) (Amendment)
Regulations, 1986.
Administrative authority: Natural Resources
Unit

Designations:

Marine Park This legislation defines three
categories of marine parks:

Environmental zone In which prohibited
activities include the removal of any form of marine
life, the use of anchors, entry into the water and
exceeding a speed of five knots.

Replenishment zone Where the removal of conch
and lobster is prohibited and fishing methods
restricted.

348

Marine park zone In which marine life is
protected and anchoring forbidden, except in certain
circumstances.

Title: Animals Law No. 8, 1976 (Grand
Cayman); Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations,
1980 (Cayman Brac); Animals (Sanctuaries)
Regulations, 1982 (Little Cayman).

Date: 1976; 1980; 1982

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of animal sanctuaries

Administrative authority:

Designations: No information

Animal Sanctuary Animal sanctuaries have
been declared on Grand Cayman under the Animals
Law No.8, 1976, on Cayman Brac under the Animals
(Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1980, and on Little
Cayman under and Animals (Sanctuaries)
Regulations, 1982. All areas established under this
legislation are wetlands and of importance for bird
species. "The disturbance of any natural feature or
any vegetable or animal life" is prohibited.

Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Ecological Zone

1 Little Sound (Grand Cayman) I 1,731 1986
Reserves

2 Salina (Grand Cayman) IV 257 1989
Marine Parks

3 Bloody Bay-Jackson Point II 161 1986

4 Dick Sessingers Bay-Beach Point II 143 1986

5 North West Point-West Bay Cemetery II 155 1986

6 Radio Mast-Sand Bluff IV 177 1986

7 Victoria House-Sand Cay Apartments II 801 1986
Replenishment Zones

8 Frank Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 224 1986

9 Head of Barkers - Flats IV 365 1986

10 Mary’s Bay - East Point IV 180 1986

11 North Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 3,310 1986

12 South Hole Sound (Little Cayman) IV 316 1986

13 South Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 317 1986

349

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of the Cayman Islands

350

THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA

Area 114,524 sq. km

Population 10,606,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.89% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,514 per capita (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation The 1959 Constitution
declares that the state protects national monuments and
areas of outstanding natural beauty, historic or aesthetic
value, for the benefit of the population. The first legal
provision for environmental protection was the
Reforestation Plan of the Revolutionary Army (Plan de
Repoblacién Forestal del Ejército Rebelde), Law 239 of
April 1959, which proposed the creation of nine national
parks and encouraged tourism. Prior to this, no
governmental policies for environmental protection or
rational resource use existed, and Cuba had undergone
largescale environmental degradation (Perera and
Rosabal, 1986).

In 1968, the Protection of Nature in Cuba project (La
Proteccién de la Naturaleza en Cuba) was implemented
by the government, detailing policies on environmental
and natural resource protection. The project
recommends the creation of a number of protected areas,
in the form of a cooperative system, and marks the
beginning of a concerted effort to establish national
parks and other protected areas (Perera and Rosabal,
1986).

Cuba participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action
Plan (TFAP), an international strategy to promote the
development of forestry sectors in participating
countries, allowing greater contribution to national
economy while maintaining conservation principles.
The Forestry Action Plan for Cuba (Plan de Accién
Forestal para Cuba) was initiated in 1989 by the Ministry
of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) (MINAG)
and other organisations with interest in the forestry
sector, to interpret the global designs of the TFAP into
specific national needs (MINAG, 1991). The plan
comprises several projects, including sustainable
management of forest ecosystems such as mangroves,
supporting conservation programmes, and improving
the management capacity of the forest institutes
(MINAG, 1991). Information on the extent of
implementation of this plan is not currently available.

In an effort to resolve environmental problems, the
National Commission of the Academy of Sciences
(Comisién Nacional de la Academia de Ciencias)
recommended, in Resolution No. 412, 1963, that the
National Institute of Agrarian Reform (Instituto
Nacional de Reforma Agraria) establish natural
reservations (reservaciones naturales) for scientific
research in forested areas that constitute the National

351

Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Nacional Forestal).
Scientific knowledge of natural areas is declared
essential to formulate guidelines for rational resource
use. Four natural reservations are delimited in the
resolution, and prohibited activities given (see Annex).
Responsibility for their management is transferred to the
National Commission of the Academy of Sciences.

Act No. 1204, 1967 provides for the creation of the
National Institute for Forest Development (Instituto
Nacional de Desarrollo y Aprovechamiento Forestal)
(INDAF). The responsibilities of INDAF include
formulating forest policies, implementing conservation
regulations regarding natural resource protection, and
proposing management strategies for wildlife in
collaboration with the National Commission of the
Academy of Science. Those reserves under the
administration of the National Commission shall remain
so.

Law No. 27, 1980 provides for the creation of a large
protected area comprising several other areas with
management category designations from inviolable
protection to multiple use, called Sierra Maestra Great
National Park (Gran Parque Nacional Sierra Maestra).
Nine management categories are defined in the area,
which is extensive and contains a high diversity of
ecosystems and natural resources. Law No. 27 provides
for the creation of a Governing Commission (Comision
Rector) specifically to manage the Great National Park.

The Protection of the Environment and Rational Use of
Natural Resources (Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y
del Uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales), Law No.
33, 1981 is the principal legislative act currently in
effect, providing the basis for protection and
improvement of the environment. National conservation
objectives are stated and include prohibiting
deforestation, encouraging an increase in forest cover,
and preventing pollution and degradation of natural
resources. Provision is made for the creation of the
National Network of Protected Areas (Red Nacional de
Areas Protegidas) for the protection of flora and fauna,
particularly endemic species. Four categories of
protected area comprise the National Network: national
park (parque nacional); nature reserve (reserva natural);
national monument (monumento nacional); faunal
refuge (refugio de fauna), and "other categories" (otras
categorias) (see Annex). Clear definitions of the
management categories are not given, but management
regulations and demarcation of boundaries must be
detailed in the individual legislative acts providing for
the establishment of each area.

The 1981 Law also makes provision for the creation of
the National System for Environmental Protection and
Rational Use of Natural Resources (Sistema Nacional de
Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de

Protected Areas of the World

los Recursos Naturales), unifying policies on natural
resource protection into a comprehensive system. It is
composed of subsystems for the protection of specific
resources, including the Subsystem for the Protection of
Terrestrial Flora and Fauna (Subsistema de Proteccién a
la Flora y la Fauna Terrestres), which comprises a large
part of the National Network of Protected Areas. The
institutes responsible for managing each subsystem are
assigned by the Council of Ministers (Consejo de
Ministros), a high level body of ministers from various
governmental sectors. Cooperation between the
institutes is encouraged.

Further details of the structure and function of the
National System for Environmental Protection and
Rational Use of Natural Resources are given in
Decree-law No. 118, 1990. The governmental institutes
and ministries responsible for each subsystem are stated,
together with the principal objectives of each. Provision
is made for the creation of an organisation with ultimate
responsibility for the entire National System, the
National Commission of Environmental Protection and
Rational Use of Natural Resources (Comisién Nacional
de Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional
de los Recursos Naturales (COMARNA), and details of
its structure are given.

International Activities Cuba signed the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién
sobre la Protecci6n de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de America)
(Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940. Cuba
ratified the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region (the Cartagena Convention), and its
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 15 September
1988. A second Protocol, the Protocol Concerning
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW), was
signed by Cuba on 11 June 1991.

Cuba ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention) on 24 March 1981, but no sites
have been inscribed to date. Cuba participates in the
Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and has four
sites accepted as biosphere reserves.

Cuba participates in the FAO Latin American Network
programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién
Técnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas,
Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (Perera, 1986; Perera and
Rosabal, 1986).

Administration and Management National
conservation policies are formulated and implemented
by COMARNA, which is vested with overall
responsibility for the National System for
Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural
Resources. COMARNA coordinates the activities of

352

15 ministries and a number of institutions that are
responsible for each subsystem within the National.

System, and ensures compliance with current
environmental legislation so that national
conservation objectives may be attained. In 1990,
COMARNA joined the Council of Ministers, giving it
greater administrative influence (Santana, 1991).

COMARNA comprises a President elected by the
Council of Ministers, and representatives from each
ministry and institute responsible for managing the
subsystems. At the local level, provincial
environmental commissions (comisiones provinciales
de medio ambiente), which are dependent on
COMARNA, assess ecological problems and promote
protected area establishment and conservation
programmes. The commissions are important in
coordinating protected area management across the
country (Perera and Rosabal, 1986; Santana, 1991).

The National Network of Protected Areas comprises
conservation units from different subsystems for the
protection of specific natural resources, particularly
the Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora
and Fauna. The MINAG is vested with the
responsibility for this subsystem which includes
forested land, and for other subsystems such as soils,
fisheries, and agriculture. The MINAG, therefore,
manages a large part of the country’s natural
resources. Responsibility for managing the national
network is assigned to the various institutes, as
follows: national parks, faunal and floral refuges and
unassigned areas to the MINAG; natural reserves to
the Academy of Sciences; national monuments to the
Ministry of Culture (Ministerio de Cultura), and
natural tourist areas to the National Institute of
Tourism (Instituto Nacional de Turismo).
COMARNA proposes guidelines for the creation of
protected areas, and each institute is responsible for
formulating and implementing management plans for
their respective protected areas. A body of forest
guards (cuerpo de guardabosques), under the MINAG,
patrols protected areas and ensures compliance with
environmental legislation (Perera and Rosabal, 1986).

Policies for forest resource use are formulated by the
National Institute for Forest Development (INDAF).
Forested land is administered by the Forest
Administration (Administracién Forestal) within the
MINAG. The Forest Administration is headed by a
viceminister and comprises three departments, one for
each of its functions: silviculture; protection of forests
and fauna; and industrial forestry. A separate unit
carries out forest inventories. In each province there
is a forest department within the provincial offices of
the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAG, 1991).

Sierra Maestra Great National Park is managed by the
Governing Commission (Comisién Rectora),
specifically established for this purpose. The
Governing Commission comprises a president, a

vicepresident, a secretary, and representatives from
other organisations including the Academy of Sciences,
the MINAG and the INDAF.

Further details of the effectiveness of administration are
currently not available, neither are details of
nongovernmental organisations working in environmental
conservation issues.

Systems Reviews Topographically, Cuba may be
divided into three zones: the plains (llanuras) occupying
around two-thirds of the total land area; foothills; and the
highland region, comprising isolated groups of
mountains separated by plains, the highest of which is
the Sierra Maestra (MINAG, 1991). The climate is
tropical with annual rainfall around 1380mm. Cyclones
are frequent, particularly in October and September.
Cuba is drained by many rivers and periods of extreme
drought may occur during the dry season (MINAG,
1991).

Cuba has the highest species diversity in the West Indies
(Woods, 1989), and the highest degree of endemism with
over 50% of the flora and 32% of the vertebrate fauna
unique to the islands (Santana, 1991). By 1988, around
73% of the population lived in urban areas, an increase
of 10% from 1975 (MINAG, 1991). Around 4.4 million
ha are used for arable farming, and 2.4 million ha for
permanent pasture (MINAG, 1991). Further details of
land use are currently not available.

In the late 1800s, forests covered 56% of the island, but
by 1959, only 14% remained (Santana, 1991). When the
revolutionary government took power in 1959, the
Reforestation Plan was implemented to reduce the
deforestation rate and encourage plantations. Asa result,
forest cover has increased to 18% of the total area and
Cuba has the lowest annual deforestation rate in Latin
America, at only 0.1% (MINAG, 1991; Santana, 1991).
Further developments in the forestry sector include the
creation of a System of Forest Protection (Sistema de
Proteccidn Forestal), with a body of more than 2,000
forest guards (MINAG, 1991). Although forest cover has
increased, only around 20% of total land area remains in
its natural state (Perera and Rosabal, 1986).

The first national park was created in 1930, and by 1959
only five more protected areas had been established
(Santana, 1991). In 1959 alone a further five parks were
created and by 1991 the National Network of Protected
Areas comprised over 200 conservation units, covering
12% of total land 7ea (Santana, 1991). Of the forested
land, 5.1% is covered by national parks, and a further
59.5% is under protection by other designations
(Santana, 1991). A further 1.6 million ha are protected
as protection forests (bosques protectores) which are set
aside to conserve natural areas and fauna, protect water
and soil resources or prevent coastal erosion (MINAG,
1991). A problem with forest conservation is that almost
all forested land has suffered some degree of
degradation, and many areas are in urgent need of
restoration (MINAG, 1991).

353

The Republic of Cuba

Cuba has a coherent national system of protected areas,
following the definition given by the FAO Latin
American Network programme (Ormazabal, 1988). The
National Network of Protected Areas in Cuba was
established in 1981, and implements the principles of the
programme to attain national objectives (Perera, 1986;
Perera and Rosabal, 1986).

Almost all ecosystems are included in the national
network, with only 2% not represented at all (Perera,
1988; Perera and Rosabal, 1986). However, although the
protected area system covers 12% of the total land area,
only 12% of the total land is afforded strict protection,
and many reserves are too small (Santana, 1991). Despite
protection, many wild floral and faunal species and
ecosystems are threatened by over-exploitation and
habitat modification (Santana, 1991).

A large-scale environmental education project has
been implemented in Sierra Maestra Great National
Park. It covers both government and privately-owned
land, and is effectively managed as a multiple-use
reserve, comprising a protected rural zone (zona rural
protegida) and three other national parks. In total, nine
management categories are employed within its
boundaries, from inviolable reserve to development and
economic exploitation area. Around 200,000 people live
in Sierra Maestra Great National Park, and the project
provides incentives for local populations to farm in a
sustainable way, reduce environmental degradation and
deforestation (Santana, 1991).

Compliance with resource regulations, through the
body of forest guards, affords efficient protection to
natural areas. However, cooperation between the
administrations of the areas that comprise the National
Network of Protected Areas must be achieved through
the establishment of legal regulations (Perera and
Rosabal, 1986). Clear definitions of the existing
management categories and creation of new ones is
required. The present designations are primarily
suitable for terrestrial ecosystems and modifications
are needed to protect marine and coastal habitats
(Perera, 1988).

Addresses

Ministerio de la Agricultura (MINAG), CIUDAD
DE LA HABANA

Comisién Nacional para la Proteccién del Medio
Ambiente (COMARNA), Ave. 17, No. 5008
entre 50 y 52, Playa, CCUDAD DELA HABANA
(Tel: 223594; Tix: 512471 COMAR CU)

Comisién Rectora del Gran Parque Nacional Sierra
Maestra, Ave. 42, No. 514 esq. A 7a.,
Miramar, Playa, CCUDAD DE LA HABANA
(Tel: 222526/27/28/29; Tix: 0511156)

Academia de Ciencias de la Republica de Cuba, Calle
11, No. 514 esq. D y E, Vedado, CIUDAD DE LA
HABANA (Tel: 329786\322035\ 321108)

Protected Areas of the World

Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo y Aprovechamiento
Forestales (INDAF), Virtudes 680 y Belascoain,
CIUDAD DE LA HABANA

References

MINAG (1991). Plan de accién forestal para Cuba,
documento base. Ministerio de la Agricultura, C. de
la Habana. 58 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre planificacidn de
sistemas nacionales de areas silvestres protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Oficina
regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe,
Santiago, Chile. 205 pp.

Perera, A. (1986). Panoramica de las areas protegidas en
la Republica de Cuba. Conservando el patrimonio

354

tural de la regién Neotropical. Proceedings of the
27th Working Session of the IUCN Commission on
National Parks and Protected Areas, Bariloche,
Argentina. 55 pp.

Perera, A. and Rosabal, P. (1986). Las areas protegidas
en Cuba. Silvestres 2: 13-17. Oficina regional de la
FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago,
Chile.

Perez (1988). Manejo de dreas protegidas costeras
tropicales. Informe del taller internacional sobre
manejo de areas protegidas costeras tropicales, Monte
Cristi, Reptiblica Dominicana, 20-24 julio 1987.
Oficina a regional de la FAO para América Latina y el
Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 17-22.

Santana, E. (1991). Nature conservation and
sustainable development in Cuba. Conservation
Biology 5: 13-16.

ANNEX

The Republic of Cuba

Definition of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Resolucién No. 412 (Resolution No. 412)

Date: 10 July 1963

Brief description: Delimits four natual
reserves, giving details of their conservation
objectives and activities prohibited within them. The
importance of natural resource conservation is stated.

Administrative authority: Reserves are
establised by the Instituto Nacional de Reforma
Agraria (National Institute of Agrarian Reform), on
the recommendation of the Comisién Nacional de la
Academia de Ciencias de la Republica de Cuba
(National Commission of the Acadamy of Sciences
of the Republic of Cuba). The latter is responsible for
administering the reserves.

Designations:

Reservacién Natural (Natural Reserve)

A natural area that has not been altered by human
activity, or has been altered in such a way that
recuperation of its natural state is possible, that is set
aside for the purpose of scientific research on the
conservation and regeneration of its natural
resources. The area is part of the Patrimonio Forestal
Nacional (National Forest Heritage). Contains
representative examples ofnational vegetation
formations or important natural ecosystems.
Humans, domestic animals and vehicles are not
permitted to enter delimited area without
authorisation. Prohibited activities include hunting,
fishing and anything that disturbs the natural state of
the area.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del
uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales
(Protection of the Environment and Rational
use of Natural Resources) Law No. 33

Date: 10 January 1981

Brief description: National conservation
objectives are given as protecting and regenerating
natural resources; encouraging development while
maintaining conservation principles; promoting
scientific research; and establishing methods of
rational resource use. It is the obligation of every
individual and the state to protect the environment.
Each natural resource is dealt with separately and

355

guidelines given for its rational use. Provision is
made for the creation of the Red Nacional de Areas
Protegidas (National Network of Protected Areas)
for the protection of flora and fauna, and for the
creation of the Sistema Nacional de Proteccién del
Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de los Recursos
Naturales (National System for Environmental
Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources)
to coordinate and standardise environmental
policies. It comprises subsystems, including the
Subsistemas de Proteccién a la Flora y la Fauna
Terrestres (Subsystem for the Protection of
Terrestrial Flora and Fauna), which makes up a large
part of the National Network of Protected Areas.

Administrative authority: The National
System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use
of Natural Resources is administered by
Administracién Central del Estado (Central
Administration of the State) and each subsystem has
its own organisation of Central Administration. The
Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora and
Fauna is managed by the Ministerio de Agricultura
(Ministry of Agriculture) (MINAG). Protected areas
comprising the National Network are declared by the
Consejo de Ministros (Council of Ministers), which
assigns responsibility for their administration to
respective organisations.

Designations:

The National Network of Protected Areas comprises
the following management categories:

Parque Nacional (National Park)

Reserva Natural (Natural Reserve)

Monumento Nacional (National Monument)
Refugio de Fauna (Faunal Refuge) and Otras
Categorias (Other Categories)

Precise delimitation and regulations regarding
resource use, must be given for each area. The
regulations are to enable the area to attain the
conservation objectives for which it was established,
as determined by its designation. Commercial and
sport hunting, fishing or capture of wildlife is
prohibited. Deforestation is prohibited, although
the Council of Ministers may authorise controlled
socioeconomic development of forest resources.
Further details of management categories are not
given.

Source: Original legislation

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

ANN WN Ke

\o 00

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations
Name of area

National Parks

Desembarco del Granma

Gran Piedra

La Bayamesa

Pico Cristal

Punta Francés - Punta Pederales
Turquino

Vifiales

Marine National Parks
Bahia del Naranjo
Cayo Caguama

Ecological Reserves

Los Indios

Mogotes de Jumagua

Punta Negra - Punta Quemados

Natural Reserves
Cabo Corrientes
Cupeyal del Norte
EI Veral

Imias

Jaguani

Loma de la Mensura
Tacre

Integrated Management Areas
Cubanacan

Escambray

Gran Parque Sierra Maestra

Guanaroca

La Isleta - Nuevas Grandes

Mil Cumbres

Sierra del Chorrillo

Subarchipiélago de Jardines de la Reina
Subarchipiélago de Sabana - Camaguey
Subarchipiélago de los Canarreos

Managed Flora Reserves
Arenas Blancas

Cayo Caguanes/Cayos de Piedra
Cerro Galano

Cuabal Tres Ceibas

El Toldo

Lomas de Galindo

Monte Ramonal

Pan de Aziicar

Parnaso - Los Montes

Faunal Refuges
Alto de Iberia

Cayo Cantiles
Cayos de Ana Maria
Delta del Cauto
Hatibonico

Las Salinas

IUCN management

356

category

oe ee ile lee ee Be |

vil

<<<§8<<s§

a2eeeeeeee

Area
(ha)

25,764

3,354
16,500
15,000
17,424
17,464
13,436

6,800
1,200

3,250
400
3,972

1,578
10,260
7,535
2,600
4,932
2,400
1,200

7,164
187,000
527,000

2,690

13,000
16,634
4,560
30,580
178,908
33,110

1,500
1,500
2,770
370
5,638
623
2,572
260
9,500

5,673
3,800
6,900
60,000
5,220
31,800

Year
notified

1980
1980
1980
1930
1985
1959

1986

1963
1980
1963

1963

1986
1986
1980

1986
1986

1966

1987

1987
1986

1980
1936

The Republic of Cuba

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
45 Ojito de Agua IV 3,739 1987
46 Rio Maximo IV 10,000
47 Santo Tomas IV 14,800 1936
Natural Parks
48 Cayo Romano V 92,000 1986
49 Sur Isla de la Juventud Vv 80,000 1992
50 Topes de Collantes Vv 12,260
Touristic Natural Areas
51 Cayo Algodén Grande Vv 3,600
52 Cayo Coco/Cayo Guillermo V 32,000 1986
53 Cayo Gruz Vv 1,400
54 Cayo Guajaba Vv 9,168
55 Cayo Largo - Cayo Rosario Vv 18,610 1986
56 Cayo Paredén Grande V 3,500
57 Cayo Sabinal Vv 33,500
58 Cayo Santa Maria Vv 6,250
59 Covarrubias Vv 10,200
60 Playa Cajuajo - Boca del Yumuri Vv 5,500
61 Playa Santa Lucia V 1,100
62 Punta del Este Vv 5,300
Biosphere Reserves
Baconao IX 84,600 1987
Cuchillas del Toa Ix 127,000 1987
Peninsula de Guanahacabibes Ix 101,500 1987
Sierra del Rosario Ix 10,000 1984

357

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Cuba

358

DOMINICA

Area 790 sq. km

Population 71,183 (1991 Dominica Population Census)
Natural increase: 1.5% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 2,068 per capita (1991)
GNP: US$ 2,515 per capita (1991)

Policy and Legislation The forest policy includes
amongstits aims the introduction and protection of game
animals, birds and fish, and the preservation of localities
of natural scenic or scientific interest. A further goal is
to encourage the management of forest reserves and
protected forests in the interests of soil and water
conservation, and in a sustainable manner. Other
objectives include the development of a national parks
system, the protection and development of wildlife and
wildlife preserves, the enactment of appropriate
research, and improvement to the infrastructure of the
protected areas administration.

The National Parks and Protected Areas Act No. 16,
1975 provides the main legislation for the protected
areas system (see Annex). This Act authorises the
Minister of Agriculture, by order, to set aside state lands
for protected areas in the form of national parks, historic
sites, and recreational areas, and specifies regulations the
Minister may make for such areas. The Act also outlines
the powers and responsibilities of the Director of
National Parks and support staff, and provides for a
National Parks Advisory Council, although this had not
been established by 1986 (OECS, 1986). Also, while the
enactment of the 1975 Act was prompt, park regulations
have yet to be enacted (Wright, 1985). The Forestry and
Wildlife Act No. 12, 1976, and the Forestry and Wildlife
(Amendment) Act (No. 35), 1982 focuses on the
protection of wildlife within forests and provides for the
creation of wildlife reserves (see Annex).

The Forest Ordinance Cap. 80, 1959 covers the
designation of forest reserves, including the designation
of private lands as protected forest for water or soil
conservation or other public purposes (see Annex).
Under this ordinance, one water catchment area on
private land was declared a protected forest under the
Stuart Hall Catchment Rules No. 11, 1975 (see Annex).
The Forest Rules (SRO 17, 1972), made under the
Ordinance, specify prohibited activities in forest
reserves, give details on the issuing of licences and
permits for harvesting forest produce, and outline the
powers and responsibilities of the Chief Forest Officer.
While national parks are managed primarily for the
preservation of natural ecological conditions, controlled
harvest of timber is permitted in forest reserves.

In 1987, Dominica adopted the harmonised fisheries
legislation (Fisheries Act No. 11) accepted by other East
Caribbean islands, allowing for the establishment of

359

marine protected areas. The Act also provides for the
establishment of local fisheries management areas, and
authorises fisheries research, prohibits the use of
explosives or chemicals for fishing, and provides for the
promulgation of regulations (see Annex). The Act is
supported by the Fisheries Regulations, 1989. The Beach
Control Ordinance (No. 21), 1966 prohibits the use of
beaches for public or commercial purposes, except with
a licence.

The Crown Lands Ordinance, 1960 and the Crown Lands
Regulations, 1961 govern the sale and release of
government land. There is a tendency to transfer to
private ownership unallocated government land not
included within national parks or forest reserves,
including land that was not well suited to agriculture
(Miller et al., 1988; D. Williams, pers. comm., 1992).
This has since been improved through a coordinated
approach by the Forestry and Wildlife Division and
Lands and Surveys Division (CCA, 1991).

Amendments required to national parks legislation
include clarification that both land and water (fresh and
marine) elements may be included in the national park
system, and regulations to address questions of
prohibited and permitted activities within the parks. It
has been suggested that camping, carrying of firearms,
sand mining, and quarrying all need to be controlled or
prohibited in such areas (OECS, 1986). Two aspects of
current forestry legislation, which are considered weak,
are that penalties for forest offences are too low for
deterrence, and there is no mechanism for ongoing
co-ordination of decision-making between forestry and
other sectors concerning land-use planning and
development control (OECS, 1986). Forestry legislation
needs to be consolidated and strengthened, and a legal
framework for the management and development of the
interconnected coastal resources is required. Currently,
historical and archaeological resources are without
protection, unless they fall within the boundaries of the
legislated national parks.

International Activities Dominica is not party to
the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), or the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and does not participate
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Programme.

At the regional level, Dominica is not party to the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region,
the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region, or the Protocol
Conceming Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife
(Cartagena Convention).

Protected Areas of the World

Administration and Management The Forestry
and Wildlife Division, in the Ministry of Agriculture, is
responsible for all matters pertaining to forestry and
wildlife management, and all protected areas in the
country are under the management control of this
Division. The most important legislation pertaining to
the creation and responsibilities of the Division is the
Forestry and Wildlife Act, 1976. The Division is headed
by the Director of Forestry and Wildlife, and includes a
Superintendent of National Parks. As of 1991, there were
two forest officers, five assistant forest officers, two
forest technicians, five forest rangers, and eleven forest
guards, as well as 75 labourers.

The National Parks and Protected Areas Act, 1975 is
administered by the Parks Section, a separate unit within
the Forestry and Wildlife Division. The Parks Section
has the responsibility of preparing park management
plans for the approval of the Minister. For example, a
ten-year management plan has been compiled for Morne
Trois Pitons National Park (Scheele, 1989).

Actual government capital expenditure on parks and
protected areas for the financial year 1991-1992
amounted to EC$ 926,300 (US$ 349,547), and forestry
division recurrent expenditure during the same period
amounted to EC$ 1,266,730 (US$ 478,011).

The Fisheries Development Division (FDD), within the
Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for overseeing the
optimal utilisation of marine resources, and includes
managing programmes of public awareness on
endangered species, marine reserve establishment and
conservation, and coastal zone management. The
Division is relatively small, with eight core staff
positions (CCA, 1991).

The principal non-governmental organisation (NGO)
concerned with environmental issues is the Dominica
Conservation Association (DCA), established in 1981,
which seeks judicious management of the country’s
natural and cultural resources through appropriate
measures. Projects which DCA are involved in include
development of agroforestry and long-term development
planning for the Cabrits National Park (IRF, 1991).

At the regional level, Dominica is a member of the
Caribbean Conservation Association, a non-governmental,
non-profit organisation established in 1967, dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources. In collaboration with CANARI
(Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly the
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program
ECNAMP, established in 1981), the CCA is
responsible for implementing the Caribbean Heritage
Program, which seeks to provide institutional support to
organisations in order to improve their capacity to
preserve important natural areas (IRF, 1991). These two
organisations, together with the Canadian International
Centre for Ocean Development (ICOD), have been
working on a Marine Parks Programme for the

360

Caribbean region (ECNAMP, 1988). CANARI, whose
goal is to strengthen local capacity to manage living
natural resources critical to development, is also working
to establish a parks and protected areas network for the
Lesser Antilles, and is involved in the development of
Cabrits National Park and a National Parks and Forest
System Plan for Dominica (Putney and Renard, n.d.).

The CCA has also collaborated with the Island
Resources Foundation (IRF), established in 1971, in
administering the Country Environmental Profile
Project for the Eastern Caribbean. Under this project,
environmental profiles were prepared for six countries
including Dominica. IRF is a technical and research
assistance organisation, whose mandate emphasises
workable development strategies appropriate for small
island resource utilisation. The Island Resources
Foundation (based in the US Virgin Islands) launched a
two-year project in November 1986, in partnership with
WWF-US and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, aimed at
strengthening private sector natural resource
management programmes in the Eastern Caribbean.
Dominica was one of the target islands of this
programme, which focused largely on encouraging
improved programme planning, proposal writing,
project management, communication, fund raising and
administration.

The CCA and IUCN are currently collaborating in the
Natural Resources Management Program for
Sustainable Development, which is focusing on the
development of national conservation strategies and
environmental impact assessment support services (IRF,
1991).

One weakness of protected areas management is lack of
coordination between the various agencies involved
(OECS, 1986). For example, there is scope for
collaboration between the Fisheries Development
Division and the Forestry and Wildlife Division in the
management of marine areas in Cabrits National Park
(CCA, 1991).

Systems Reviews Dominica, initially settled by
Arawak and then Carib Indians, was first sighted by
Christopher Columbus in 1493. In 1783, the British
obtained possession, and in 1898, Crown Colony rule
was introduced, thereby placing government control for
the next 70 years in London. In 1967, Dominica became
a State in Association with Great Britain, and achieved
full independence on 3 November 1978 (Honychurch,
1984).

Dominica is a volcanic island rising to a maximum
height of 1,447m, and is part of the Windward group in
the Lesser Antilles, 500km north of Venezuela and
2,200km south-east of Florida (Thorsell, 1978). The
country has a coastline of 153km, and has limited
seagrass, mangrove and coral reef habitats due to the
steep topography and rugged terrain characteristic of the
coast (CCA, 1991). Urban and agricultural activities are
limited to the coast, and generally spread no more than

three miles inland. The west coast of the island supports
dry woodland, and the east coast supports littoral
vegetation, while the highlands support rain and cloud
forest. The protection of areas of highland serves both to
conserve the watershed from degradation, and to protect
the native fauna and flora.

Historically, a very high proportion of Dominica has
been covered with rain and montane forest. In
pre-Arawak times this was approximately 90% of the
land area, and in 1945 forest still covered approximately
80% of the island (Evans, 1988). Only in the last 30 years
has widespread forest clearance taken place, mainly for
agriculture, and in particular during the last ten years.
Half the population is subsistence farmers, clearing land
for agriculture (Wright, 1985). Today, some 52,000ha,
or 68% of total land area, comprise natural forest,
woodland and bush (CCA, 1991).

Steep topography, high relief, and considerable
microclimatic variability have a strong influence on the
distribution of vegetation types. Littoral woodlands
occur within the immediate coastal zone of the
windswept east side of the island. Scrub and savanna
vegetation are found along the leeward coast which
comprises the driest part of the country. Mature forest,
montane thicket, and elfin woodlands occur only in the
high rainfall interior, while rain forests, both mature and
secondary, are found in well-drained areas of
intermediate elevation and moderate rainfall. Freshwater
swamps and mangroves are rare. The former occur
mainly along stream outlets in the northeast and
northwest, while small stands of mangrove are present
along the northwest and northeast coasts. In addition,
fumarole vegetation can be found in selected areas,
primarily in the Valley of Desolation just south of
Boiling Lake in the south central part of the island (CCA,
1991). Although there is at present no definitive estimate
of the extent of natural vegetation, the following figures
are indicative: mature rain forest (24,490ha), montane
rain forest (3,640ha), montane thicket (800ha), elfin
woodland (170ha), littoral woodland 140ha), scrub
woodland 6,240ha), secondary rain forest (9,090ha),
semi-evergreen rain forest (7,170ha) and swamp (30ha)
(McKenzie, 1987). A high percentage of this forest is
protected in four conservation areas, Morne Trois Pitons
National Park, Cabrits National Park, Northern Forest
Reserve and Central Forest Reserve.

The development of protected areas legislation and the
first national park are described in detail by Wright
(1985). In 1961, Dominica had no parks, no enabling
legislation, no management capacity, and little public
awareness or political support for parks or conservation
in general. Proposals for a national park were first made
shortly thereafter, and then again in 1969 by the
American Conservation Foundation. In 1973-74 the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
continued this work by providing financial assistance
through the Canadian Nature Foundation for
development of legislation and the establishment of a
park. This included support for two lawyers who

361

Dominica

developed the legislation, and an in-country advisor to
the Dominica Forestry Department. Morne Trois Pitons
National Park was officially established in 1975 (Scott
and Carbonell, 1986).

The north-west of Morne Trois Pitons National Park
(biologically the richest) was part of Middleham Estate
and was later named the Archbold Reserve, the title to
which was held by The Nature Conservancy (a US
NGO). Management rights to the area were leased to the
Dominican government from 1974 to 1982, when the
land was formally transferred to the government.
Development of the park was assisted by grants from
CIDA, USAID, and the EEC, technical expertise from
the OAS, while the Canadian Nature Federation was
active both in the establishment of the park and in the
development of the infrastructure for its effective
management (Thorsell, 1984; D. Williams, pers.comm.,
1992). A second national park, Cabrits, was legally
established in 1986, and development plans for this area
are laid out in the document "Cabrits 2000". Further,
work is continuing on the management plan for the
proposed Morne Diablotin National Park, and an
expanded parks system is likely to include areas with
cultural or historical significance, and marine elements.
An objective of the National Parks Section is to establish
an internationally recognised national parks systems,
comprising the following categories of protected areas:
natural areas, historical, archaeological areas,
recreational areas, in addition to activities related to
environmental health, research and training.

Northern Forest Reserve in the north central portion of
the island includes large tracts of habitat for the island’s
two endangered parrots, imperial parrot Amazona
imperialis and red-necked parrot A. arausiaca, and is the
largest tract of protected, relatively undisturbed forest in
the Caribbean. The Division of Forestry and Parks has
received support from WWF-US and other organisations
for the study and protection of these species, and part of
the reserve is being developed as the proposed Morne
Diablotin National park (F. Grégoire, pers. comm.,
1991).

As early as 1979, it was proposed that at least 13 park
system units (natural monuments, marine parks,
recreation areas, natural areas, national parks) and 21
forest reserves be created from land already in
government ownership (Shanks and Putney, 1979).
Today, about 20% of the country is included within
legally defined forest reserves or national parks. This is
considered an inadequate basis for resource management
purposes, for example for the protection of watersheds,
60% of which are unprotected, or wildlife habitat. An
ongoing FAO-funded forest management project will,
however, make recommendations for more specific
conservation and management measures within the
forestry sector in the near future (F. Grégoire, pers.
comm., 1991).

Impacts ranging from construction and agricultural
(pesticide use) activities to tourism developments and

Protected Areas of the World

pollution of one kind or another are threatening coastal
resources in the country (CCA, 1991). Further,
deforestation is considered to be one the most important
environmental issues, driven by agricultural expansion
and timber harvesting, and the area under cultivation
(26,390ha) is already greater than that envisaged by the
government for the year 2001 (23,700ha). Estimates of
encroachment in forest reserves and national parks range
from 20ha to nearly 2,000ha. The proposed development
of hydropower within Morne Trois Pitons National Park
is legal under the ministerial authority provided for
within the 1975 National Parks and Protected Areas Act,
although it may be considered a non-conforming use
(CCA, 1991). Perhaps the most fundamental problem
facing the managers of Dominica’s forests is the rapidly
expanding pressure on this resource as a source of
timber, fuelwood and charcoal, and as an area
increasingly utilised for crop cultivation. Much of this
pressure could be reduced, however, as most of the
country’s requirements for forest resources or land could
be met either by exploitation of land that has already
been cleared or disturbed, or through more efficient use
of existing resources. To this end, it has been
recommended that those areas that are appropriate for
wildlife conservation, watershed protection, recreation,
nature tourism and biological diversity be protected. The
specific recommendations of Shanks and Putney (1979)
for the allocation of state lands and some private lands
for protected areas status could be reviewed by forest and
park staff in this regard (CCA, 1991).

Addresses

Forestry and Wildlife Division (Director), Botanical
Gardens, ROSEAU (Tel: 809 448 82401 ext. 417;
FAX: 809 448 7999)

Dominica Conservation Association (President), PO
Box 310, 59 King George Vth Street, ROSEAU (Tel:
809 448 4098)

Caribbean Conservation Association (Executive
Director), Savannah Lodge, The Garrison, ST
MICHAEL, Barbados (Tel: 809 426 5373/9635)

Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (Director), 1104
Strand Street, Suite 206, CHRISTIANSTED, St
Croix, US Virgin Islands 00802 (Tel: 809 773 9854)
and Clarke Street, VIEUX FORT, St Lucia (Tel: 809
454 6878/6060)

Island Resources Foundation (President), Red Hook
Center , Box 33, St Thomas, US Virgin Islands 00802
(Tel: 809 775 6225)

References

CCA (1991). Dominica: environmental profile.
Caribbean Conservation Association, St Michael,
Barbados. 239 pp.

362

ECNAMP (1988). Annual report. Eastern Caribbean
Natural Area Management Programme,
Christiansted, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and
Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp.

Evans, P.G.H. (1988). The conservation status of the
imperial and red-necked parrots on the island of
Dominica, West Indies. (CBP Study Report No. 27.
ICBP, Cambridge, UK. 40 pp.

Honychurch, L. (1984). The Dominica story: A history
of the island. The Dominica Institute, Roseau,
Dominica. (Unseen).

IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGOs in the
Eastern Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation,
St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 12-15.

McKenzie, T. (1987). Preliminary land use map of
Dominica. Prepared for Government of Dominica
and Dept. Reg. Dev., Organization of American
States, Washington, DC. (Unseen)

Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1988). RDO/C
biological diversity and tropical forests assessment.
Annex to RDO/C action plan, FY 88-89.
USAID/RDO/C, Bridgetown, Barbados.

OECS (1986). Dominica, description of national
legislation related to natural resources management
(first stage analysis). Natural Resources
Management Project. Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States, Castries, St Lucia. 15 pp.

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen
human capacity to manage living natural resources
critical to development. Caribbean Natural
Resources Institute. CANARI, Christiansted, St.
Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical protected areas. WRB, Slimbridge and
IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 684 pp.

Shanks, D.L. and Putney, A.D. (1979) Dominica forest
and park system plan. Eastern Caribbean Natural
Areas Management Programme, Roseau. 155 pp.

Scheele, R. (1989). Morne Trois Pitons National Park
management plan, 1990-2000. Draft report prepared
for the Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Dominica.
OAS, Washington, DC. (Unseen)

Thorsell, J.W. (1984). National parks from the ground
up: experience from Dominica, West Indies.
In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National
parks, conservation and development. The role of
protected areas in sustaining society. Proceedings of
the World Congress on National Parks, Bali,
Indonesia, 11-22 October 1982. Pp. 616-621.

Thorsell, J.W. (1978). Thinking like an Island. Interpretation
in Dominica, West Indies. The Interpreter X(1): 6-9.

Wright, R.M. (1985). Mome Trois Pitons: case study in
park establishment in the developing world.
Unpublished report.

Dominica

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration.

Title: National Parks and Protected Areas Act Designations:
GYo, 48) Wildlife reserve Upon the recommendation of
Date: 1975 the Director (of the Forestry and Wildlife Division)

Brief description: Concerning the creation of
national parks and protected areas. Establishes a
National Parks Advisory Council

Administrative authority: National Parks Section,
Forestry and Wildlife Division

Designations:

NATIONAL PARKS SYSTEM _ A\ll land in the
parks and all lands set aside as protected areas shall
constitute the national parks system and are hereby
vested in the Crown and dedicated to the people of
Dominica for their benefit, education and enjoyment.

Compatible activities on such lands include outdoor
recreation, education and scientific study, while
prohibited activities include agriculture, logging,
settlement, and hunting.

The Act also empowers the Director of National
Parks to prepare park management plans to guide all
activities and operations in each park.

National park Comprises those lands defined in
the schedule to the Act.
Protected area The Minister may by order set

apart any state lands as a protected area for the
purpose of preserving the natural beauty of such an
area, including flora and fauna thereof; creating a
recreational area; commemorating a historical event
of national importance; or preserving any historic
landmark or any area or object of historic,
prehistoric, archaeological or scientific importance.

Source: Original legislation; OECS (1986); Shanks
and Putney (1979)

Title: Forestry and Wildlife Act (No. 12)

Date: 1976

Brief description: To provide for the protection,
conservation and management of wild mammals,
freshwater fishes, amphibians, crustaceans and
reptiles, and for purposes connected therewith.
Establishes a Division of Forestry and Wildlife
within the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and
Fisheries.

Administrative authority: Forestry and Wildlife
Division

363

Title:

and the Permanent Secretary, the Minister may
declare any area, any stream, impoundment or
portion thereof to be a wildlife reserve in which
hunting, fishing or taking of one or more species shall
be prohibited.

Source: Original legislation.

Title: Forestry and Wildlife Act
(Amendment Act)

Date: 1982
Brief description: No information.

Administrative authority:
Division.

Forestry and Wildlife

Designations: No information.

Source: Lausche (1986)

Forest Ordinance
Date: 1959
Brief description: Provides for the designation

of forest reserves and control over forest produce;
provides for designation of private land as protected
forest for water and soil conservation and other
public purposes (e.g. Stewart Hall Water Catchment
Rules No. 11, 1975).

Administrative authority:
Wildlife Division

Forestry and

Designations:

Forest reserve Any area declared by the
Administrator in Council by notice in the Gazette to
be a forest reserve.

Protected forest Any area of private land
declared by the Administrator in Council by notice
in the Gazette to be a protected forest. Such areas are
created to prevent soil erosion, flooding, to maintain
water supplies, and for securing the proper
management of timber lands. The Administrator in
Council may make rules to regulate or prohibit: the
felling, cutting, burning, or injuring of any trees or
timber; the clearing of lands for cultivation; the
pasturing of livestock; and the setting of fires.

Protected Areas of the World

Prohibited area Any area within a forest
reserve, Crown land, or protected forest into which
entry is forbidden when this is necessary for any
purposes of the Ordinance.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Forests Rules (No. 17)

Date: 1972

Brief description: Rules pertaining to the use
and management of forest resources within forest
reserves

Administrative authority: Forestry and
Wildlife Division

Designations:

Forest reserve Prohibited activities in such

areas include: the felling, cutting, burning, injuring
or removing of any forest produce; squatting,
residing, or building any living place or livestock
enclosure, or constructing or reopening any saw pit
or road; setting fire to any grass or undergrowth;
grazing livestock; clearing, cultivating, or breaking
up land for cultivation; and the hunting, killing or
capturing of any wildlife, unless in possession of a
licence or permit.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Stewart Hall Water Catchment Rules

Date: 1975

Brief description: Rules which specify authorised
activities within this area

Administrative authority: Forestry and
Wildlife Division

Designations:

Stewart Hall Water Catchment Protected Forest
Prohibited activities include: the felling, cutting,
burning, injuring or removing of any forest produce;
squatting, residing, building, constructing any
structure or reopening any saw pit or road; setting fire
to any grass or undergrowth; grazing livestock;
hunting, killing or capturing any wildlife unless in
possession of a licence or permit to do so; storing or
applying pesticides; and carrying out any planting
other than reforestation on slopes of over 20 degrees.
Regulations also apply to the location, design and
operation of sanitary facilities for existing dwelling
houses.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Fisheries Act (No. 11)
Date: 1987
Brief description: An Act allowing for the
establishment of local Fisheries Management Areas
and Marine Reserves, and for regulations guiding
their management.

Administrative authority: Fisheries
Development Division

Designations:
Marine reserve Fisheries management area

Source: CCA (1991)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

IUCN management Area Year

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area
National Parks
1 Cabrits
2 Morne Trois Pitons
Forest Reserves
3 Central
4 Northern
Protected Forest
5 Stewart Hall Water Catchment

category (ha) notified
II 531 1986
II 6,872 1975
Vil 410 1952
vil 8,814 1977
Vill 318 1975

364

Dominica

inica

Protected Areas of Domi

365

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DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Area 48,442 sq. km

Population 7,170,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.98% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 851 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 790 per capita (1989)

Policy and Legislation No reference to natural
resource protection is made in the 1844 constitution, nor
in the 1966 revision currently in effect, and no national
conservation policies or objectives are stated in
legislation. As aresult, no national conservation strategy
has been formulated (SEA/DVS 1990).

The first legislation providing for the protection of
natural resources was Decree No. 2295, 1844, which
prohibited deforestation around river sources. Law
No. 4794, 1907 provided for the creation of a body of
tural guards (guardacampestres) to protect the
countryside. In 1928, Law No. 944 prohibited
deforestation and cultivation on mountain summits, for
20m either side of a river and around lakes, and for a
radius of 150m around river sources.

Law No. 5856, 1962 provided for the creation of the
General Directorate of Forestry (Direccién General
Forestal) (DGF) to manage and restore forest areas. The
National Forest Commission (Comisién Nacional
Forestal) (CONATEF) was established under provision
of Law No. 705, 1982 as a high level organisation to
regulate the activities of the DGF. Wildlife resources are
first referred to in Law No. 85, 1931, but this is
predominantly concerned with hunting and has little
application to wildlife management.

In 1965, the State Secretariat of Agriculture (Secretaria
de Estado de Agricultura) (SEA) was restructured
through Law No. 8, and specific environmental
functions assigned to a state Subsecretariat of Natural
Resources (Subsecretaria de Recursos Naturales)
(SURENA) within it. Based on this Law, Resolution
No. 44, 1978 provided for the creation of the Wildlife
Department (Departamento de Vida Silvestre) (DVS),
within SURENA, to inventory and manage national flora
and fauna for conservation purposes, and to ensure
sustainable exploitation.

Law No. 67 of November 1974 provided for the creation
of the National Directorate of Parks (Direccién Nacional
de Parques) (DNP) as an autonomous agency
responsible for the administration, development and care
of protected areas. Under this Law, three main types of
conservation units are described: recreational area (4rea
recreativa); historical area (4rea hist6rica); and natural
and indigenous area (4rea natural e indigena). The
management categories that comprise each group are
named, but detailed descriptions of the designations are

367

not given (see Annex). Provision is made for the
expropriation of private land to establish protected areas
where necessary. The objectives of protected areas are
listed and include conserving unique geological features
and landscapes of outstanding beauty, cultural remains,
refuges for threatened endemic species, examples of
ecosystem types, and specific resources such as water,
to provide opportunities for scientific research and
recreation. Prohibited activities are given and include
deforestation, and hunting or capturing wildlife except
for authorised, scientific research.

Without constitutional provision for natural resource
protection, there are no national guidelines on which to
base environmental legislation. As a result, this
legislation has often been ambiguous, inconsistent and
ineffective. Other governmental sectors can formulate
and pass laws that permit activities which may directly
contradict conservation laws, such as urban
development or mineral exploitation in protected areas
(SEA/DVS 1990). The absence of a national
conservation strategy results in a lack of coordination
between public institutions with interest in natural
resources, and conflicts often arise (O. Ramirez,
pers. comm., 1992). Since the 1970s, several Projects for
Constitutional Reform (Proyectos de Reforma
Constitucional) have been initiated to revise the present
constitution, and include regulations and guidelines for
sustainable resource use (SEA/DVS 1990). However,
proposals to add a clause relating to nature conservation
to the 1966 Constitution, which were put forward in
1974, had not been passed by 1990 (SEA/DVS 1990).

Only eight management categories are provided for by
Law No. 67, whereas, in practice, additional
management categories not described in legislation are
used (SEA/DVS 1990). Individual laws and decrees
providing for the creation of individual protected areas
often describe the conservation objectives of the area,
and state activities prohibited within it, but designations
need to be standardised at the national level (SEA/DVS
1990). A thorough revision of the current environmental
legislation is required. For example, the 1931 Hunting
Law largely contradicts subsequent legislation providing
for wildlife protection, but it has not been repealed
(SEA/DVS 1990).

International Activities The Dominican
Republic signed the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere
(Convencion sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna
y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de
América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940,
and it has since been ratified. In 1982 the Dominican
Republic joined the Caribbean Conservation
Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental,
non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting policies

Protected Areas of the World

and practices which contribute to conservation,
protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources.

The Dominican Republic ratified the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on
12 February 1985, but no sites have been inscribed. It
participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme, but no sites have yet been inscribed.

Administration and Management There are
12 governmental institutions with responsibility for
natural resource administration and management
(SEA/DVS 1990). This spreading of responsibility
among organisations with frequently conflicting
interests in natural resource use reduces the effectiveness
of environmental protection (SEA/DVS 1990).

The Subsecretariat of Natural Resources (SURENA)
comprised four departments: Land and Water (Tierras y
aguas); Fishery Resources (Recursos Pesqueros);
Inventory and Organisation of Natural Resources
(Inventario y Ordenamiento); and Environmental
Education (Educacién Ambiental). In 1978, a fifth
department, the Wildlife Department (Departamento de
Vida Silvestre) (DVS), was established in response to the
need for management of wildlife resources (SEA/DVS
1990). The DVS is responsible for conducting scientific
research and regulating wildlife use, ensuring
compliance with protected area regulations and
international wildlife treaties. At the time of its creation,
the lack of information available on the biological
characteristics of predominant ecosystems precluded the
formulation of effective management plans, and the
DVS implemented the project Study and Management
of Wild Areas (Manejo de Areas Silvestres) to make an
inventory of the biological diversity found in the
country. As a direct result of this study, nine new
protected areas were established in 1983 (SEA/DVS
1990). The DVS is divided into five sections responsible
for evaluation and management of wildlands;
ornithology; herpetology and mammalogy; hunting
control; and administration (A. Schubert, pers. comm.,
1992).

The National Directorate of Parks (DNP) was established
in 1974 as an autonomous government agency directly
under the Presidency, responsible for administering,
regulating, maintaining and developing national parks
and other protected areas. The internal organisation of
the DNP is given in the legislation providing for its
creation. At the head are a director and a subdirector,
both trained specialists in national parks management,
below whom are four divisions whose responsibilities
reflect the functions of the DNP itself: legal issues;
supplies; accounts; and topography. The Advisory
Committee (Comité Asesor) comprises the State
Secretary of Education, Fine Arts and Culture
(Secretario de Estado de Educacién, Bellas Artes y
Cultos); the head of the National Directorate of Tourism
(Direccién Nacional de Turismo); the governors of the
Autonomous University of Santa Domingo, the National

368

University Pedro Henriquez and the University Madre y
Maestra; and a representative of a national private
organisation with interests in natural resources and
conservation. The Advisory Committee regulates the
activities of the DNP and ensures compliance with the
legislation.

An administrative office of the DNP is assigned to each
protected area, comprising a specialist trained in
wildland management, and a body of park guards
(guardaparques) to patrol the area and ensure
compliance with established regulations (Valdez and
Mateo, n.d.). DNP policy is to delegate authority and
responsibility to local offices (Hartshorn et al., 1981).

The General Directorate of Forestry (DGF), established
in 1962, is responsible for conserving and developing
forest resources, ensuring their utilisation is conducted
in a sustainable manner (SEA/DVS 1990).

A large number of nongovernmental organisations
(NGOs) in the Dominican Republic work on
conservation and environmental protection issues.
Among the largest and most active groups is the Nature
Foundation (Fundacién Integral ProNaturaleza)
(PRONATURA), founded in 1985, which is concerned
with promoting scientific research of natural resources
to allow the conservation and rational development of
the environment. Most NGOs are unified by the
Dominican Federation of Ecological Associations
(Federacién Dominicana de Asociaciones Ecoldégicas)
(FEDOMASEC), which coordinates the activities of
conservation organisations, and formulates guidelines
for the environmental protection and education projects
of its members (SEA/DVS 1990).

Problems in natural resource and protected area
management arise from the large number of public
institutions vested with such responsibilities. In many
cases, conflicts of interest result, preventing the
implementation of a coherent conservation policy.
Legislation is urgently required to amalgamate all
natural resource responsibilities into a single institution,
which would be responsible for planning, implementing
and supervising action plans and national policies for
resource management (SEA/DVS 1990).

Administrative effectiveness could also be improved by
increasing co-ordination between public and private
organisations involved with natural resource
management. NGOs have only been acknowledged by
the government environmental sector since the late
1980s, and only to a limited degree (SEA/DVS 1990).
However, during that time, a large number of NGOs have
been established whose work has contributed to the
protection and management of natural resources
(SEA/DVS 1990). Those which work in the declaration
and management of protected areas are: Grupo Jaragua,
Progressio Foundation (Fundacién Progressio), Quita
Espuela Foundation (Fundacién Quita Espuela), Cibao
Ecological Society (Sociedad Ecolégica del Cibao)(SOECT),
Barahona Ecological Society (Sociedad Ecoldégica de

Barahona)(SOEBA), and the Centre for the
Ecodevelopment of Bahia de Samana and its
Environment (Centro para el Ecodesarrollo de la Bahia
de Samana y su Entorno)(CEBSE) (A. Schubert, pers.
comm., 1992).

Systems Reviews _ The territory of the Dominican
Republic comprises two thirds of the island La Espafiola
(the other third belonging to Haiti) and six small islands,
with a total coastline of 1,576km (SEA/DVS 1990). A
characteristic feature is its high elevation; a large part of
the country is over 1,000m and the highest mountains in
the Caribbean, with altitudes of over 3,000m, are located
here.

The great topographical variation within the country,
from sea level to 3,087m, results in a range of
temperatures and ecosystems, which has promoted a
high degree of biodiversity and endemism (SEA/DVS
1990). Around 36% of the floral species found on the
island of La Espafiola are endemic (SEA/DVS 1990).
The major vegetation zones are: semideciduous forest;
evergreen humid forest; pine forest; and seashore and
riverine habitats (A. Schubert, pers. comm., 1992).
Following the Holdridge classification system, nine
ecological life zones are found (SEA/DVS 1990). The
largest of these are sub-tropical moist and sub-tropical
dry forests.

Four mountain systems are found, oriented east to west
and separated by fertile, alluvial plains: Septentrional
cordillera in the north; Central cordillera; Sierra de
Neiba; and Sierra de Baoruco to the south. Three of these
ranges continue into Haiti. Between the first two ranges
extends the fertile Cibao or Vega Real valley, where
agricultural production is intensive. As a result, around
20% of the population lives here (SEA/DVS 1990). At
high altitudes temperatures drop below 0°C, but the
average temperature for the whole country is about 26°C.
Annual precipitation is highest in the Septentrional
cordillera, at 2305mm, and drops to 422mm in the
southwest. Cyclones are frequent, with 90% of them
occurring on the south coast (SEA/DVS 1990).

The most densely populated regions are the southern
coast and the Cibao valley (SEA/DVS 1990). Around
0.62% of total land area is occupied by urban
development and roads, and over 50% is used for
agriculture. Land ownership is unequal, with a tradition
of large estates owned by a few people: 70% of farms are
less than Sha. As a result, peasant farmers work small
plots of land and move frequently, particularly to under
populated mountainous regions where insufficient
knowledge of cultivating the difficult terrain causes
severe soil erosion in many areas (SEA/DVS 1990).

Around 90% of total land area has been deforested for
agricultural purposes or urban development. Only
mountain summits and areas with infertile soil, such as
in the southeast, remain in their natural state (SEA/DVS
1990). At the beginning of the 1900s, forest covered
around 85% of total land area, but by 1986, only 10.1%

369

Dominican Republic

remained forested (SEA/DVS 1990). Since the 1960s,
the government has prohibited deforestation in an
effort to protect forest resources (SEA/DVS 1990).

The most significant threat to the environment arises
from the encroachment of shifting agriculture which
contributes to soil erosion (SEA/DVS 1990;
Hartshorn et al., 1981). The lack of clear land
ownership rights does not permit permanent
agriculture, and of the 2.6 million ha of agricultural
land, only 860,000ha are permanently cultivated
(SEA/DVS 1990). Agricultural pressure is most
noticeable in dry forests in the west and humid forests
in the northeast (Hartshorn et al., 1981).

The first national park was established in 1956. By
1983, there were only five areas protected under this
designation. Following the creation of the DVS in
1978, a nationwide survey and inventory of biological
diversity implemented by this institute resulted
directly in the establishment of nine new protected
areas in 1983 (SEA/DVS 1990).

Eleven management categories are currently in use,
only eight of which are described in the 1974 law
providing for the protected area system, but not in
detail. Three other categories; forest reserve (reserva
forestal), wildlife refuge (refugio de vida) and faunal
sanctuary (santuario de la fauna) have been introduced
in practice, but are not described in legislation. The
lack of clear definition and conservation objectives of
each designation results in contradictions and
inconsistencies among them. In some cases, different
categories have been applied to the same area
(SEA/DVS 1990). In view of this, and the absence of
unifying legislation, protected areas do not form a
coherent national system. The existing system needs
to be revised, management categories standardised,
and areas reclassified where necessary
(SEA/DVS, 1990).

The present system of protected areas does not cover
all the major ecosystems in the country, with many
being under-represented or absent altogether,
particularly montane forest. Marine, mangrove and
fresh water lake ecosystems are well represented in
protected areas (SEA/DVS 1990).

Between 1979 and 1990, a review of biological
diversity and protected areas was conducted by the
Wildlife Department (DVS), which involved an
analysis of literature and a series of field studies.
The survey recommended a number of measures to
improve protected area effectiveness. These
included modifying current legislation and
administrative structure, and increasing scientific
research, environmental education, training for park
personnel, and involvement of NGOs in all
environmental issues. Measures to convert
migratory agriculture into permanent agriculture
would reduce pressure on protected areas. To
increase protected area coverage, 15 new sites were

Protected Areas of the World

recommended for protection. Further studies will be
done in these areas to formulate management plans and
determine suitable designations (SEA/DVS 1990).

Addresses

Direccién Nacional de Parques, Apartado 2487, SANTO
DOMINGO (Tel: 685 1316)

Departamento de Vida Silvestre (DVS), Secretaria de
Estado de Agricultura (SURENA), SANTO
DOMINGO

Centro para la Conservacion y Ecodesarrollo de la Bahia
de Samana y su Entorno, Inc. (CEBSE), Apdo Postal
22427, SANTO DOMINGO (FAX: 809 6886351)

References

DNP (1980). Plan de manejo: Parque Nacional del Este.
Direccién Nacional de Parques, Santo Domingo. 68 pp.

DNP (1986). Plan de manejo y conservacién: Parque
Nacional Jaragua. Direccién National de Parques,
Santo Domingo. 167 pp.

DNP (1989). Los parques nacionales de la Repiblica
Dominicana. Direccién Nacional de Parques, Santo
Domingo. 137 pp.

Hartshorn, G., Antonini, G., DuBois, R., Harcharik, D..,
Heckadon, S., Newton, H., Quesada, C., Shores, J.
and Staples, G. (1981). The Dominican Republic
country environmental profile: a field study. JRB
Associates, Virginia, USA. 118 pp.

Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas
silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en
los resultados del taller sobre Planificaci6n de
Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas,
Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto
FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres,
areas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina
y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para
América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23.

Schubert, A. (in press). The Conservation of Biological
Diversity in the Dominican Republic. Oryx.

SEA/DVS (1990). La diversidad bioldgica en la
Repiblica Dominicana. Reporte preparado por el
Departamento de Vida Silvestre para el Servicio
Alem4n de Cooperacién Social-Técnica y
WWF-US. Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura,
SURENA/DVS, Santo Domingo. 266 pp.

Valdez, G. and Mateo, M. (n.d.). Sistema de dreas
protegidas de la Republica Dominicana. Direccién
Nacional de Parques, Santo Domingo. 96 pp.

ANNEX
Definition of protected area designations, as legislated
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Ley No. 67 que crea la Direccién
Nacional de Parques (Law No. 67 creating the
National Directorate of Parks)

Date: 20 November 1974

Brief description: Provides for the
establishment of an autonomous institute responsible
for the development, administration and
maintenance of a system of protected areas. The
management categories that comprise the system are
described, but details of the designations are not
given in any legislation.

Administrative authority: Direccién Nacional
de Parques (National Directorate of Parks)

Designations: The management categories that
make up the system of protected areas are considered
to form three main groups.

Area Recreativa (recreational Area), comprising:

Parque Recreativo Nacional (National Recreation
Park)

Jardin Zoolégico Nacional (National Zoological
Garden)

370

Acuario (Aquarium) Carretera Panordmica
(Scenic Route)

Area Historica (historic Area), comprising:
Monumento Nacional (National Monument)
Area Natural (natural Area), comprising:

Jardin Botanico (Botanical Garden)

Parque Nacional (National Park)

Reserva Cientifica Natural (Natural Scientific
Reserve)

To be included in the protected area system, an area
must be:

— of national importance owing to its scientific,
cultural, scenic, or historic characteristics, or for its
recreational potential

— of sufficient size to ensure the conservation of the
natural formations, floral and faunal species found
within it.

— open to the public for recreational, educational, or
scientific purpose. All visitors are obliged to comply
with the regulations established by this law.

Dominican Republic

— Deforestation or destruction of the vegetation,
hunting or capture of wildlife, collection of the eggs
of marine turtles and other animals, and any other

disturbances to the natural condition of the protected
area, are all prohibited.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Cabo Francés Viejo Vv 125 1974
2 Del Este II 42,000 1975
3 Isla Cabritos II 2,400 1974
4 Jaragua II 137,400 1983
5 José Armando Bermudez II 76,600 1956
6 José del Carmen Ramirez II 73,784 1958
7 Los Haitises II 20,800 1976
8 Monte Cristi II 53,000 1983
9 Parque Submarino La Caleta V 1,010 1986
10 Sierra de Bahoruco II 80,000 1986
Scientific Reserves
11 Ebano Verde Natural IV 2,310 1989
12 Laguna del Rincén IV 4,780 1983
13 Lagunas Redonda y Limén IV 10,100 1983
14 Loma Isabel de Torres Vv. 2,200 1983
15 Loma Quita Espuela IV 7,250 1992
16 Valle Nuevo IV 40,900 1983
Cetacean Sanctuary
17 Banco de la Plata IV 374,800 1986
Scenic Route
18 El Aceitillar-Cabo Rojo Vv 41,000 1986

371

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of the Dominican Republic

372

GRENADA

Area 344 sq.km

Population 110,000 (1989) (Hunter, 1991)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 1,265 (Hunter, 1991)

Policy and Legislation | Grenada has no substantive
national park legislation that provides adequate authority
either to establish or to manage national parks and
protected areas (National Parks and Wildlife Unit,
1988). Although legislation makes provision for the
establishment of both forest and marine reserves, the
focus is on protecting timber, water resources and
fisheries. Less emphasis is placed on the preservation of
habitat and recreational resources.

The Plan and Policy Statement for National Parks and
Protected Areas (National Parks and Wildlife Unit,
1988) describes proposed management objectives for the
five categories of protected areas it defines. Within
national parks, zoning would be used to ensure both strict
protection of certain areas and intensive recreational and
educational uses in others. The aim within natural and
cultural landmarks would be to allow recreational and
educational uses of sites without destroying the basic
features protected. The objective within protected
seascapes would be to ensure the ecological integrity and
scenic quality of seascapes, while providing
opportunities for recreation, tourism, education and
research. Multiple use management areas would aim to
ensure the sustained production of water, fibre, other
wood products, wildlife, forage and/or marine products,
as well as outdoor recreation and education.

The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation (Amendment)
Ordinance No. 34, 1984 makes provision for the Chief
Forestry Officer to protect areas to provide natural and
undisturbed habitat for the flora and fauna of Grenada.
Forest reserves may be declared on stateowned land,
while protected forests may be established on private
land when necessary for certain public purposes (OECS,
1986). According to the original Ordinance (Chapter 129
of 1 August 1949), the Chief Forestry Officer may
negotiate for the voluntary protection of private land, or
owners of private land may request that the land be
supervised by the Chief Forestry Officer. Water
catchments are given the protective status as forest
reserves, and the 1984 Act gives responsibility for
management and conservation of these catchments to the
Forestry Department (OECS, 1986).

Private lands needed for inclusion within the proposed
national park system could be acquired under the
provisions of the Land Settlement Ordinance, 1933
which allows for the acquisition of lands for public
purposes.

373

Grand Etang Reserve Ordinance Cap. 135, 1906
designated the area around Grand Etang Lake as a forest
reserve, as well as two areas in Carriacou (see Annex).
According to OECS (1986), Grand Etang Forest Reserve
is also declared a sanctuary for animals and birds under
the Wild Animals and Birds (Sanctuary) Ordinance Cap.
314, 1928. Certain activities are prohibited within the
reserve, but the penalties would appear to no longer be
adequate.

The Grenada Fisheries Act No. 15, 1986 provides for the
promotion and management of fishing and fisheries in
Grenadian waters. Section 23 (Marine Reserves and
Conservation Measures) makes provision for the
Minister to declare any area of the "fishery water" and
adjacent lands as marine reserves when necessary for
several purposes, including the preservation and
enhancement of the area’s natural beauty (OECS, 1986)
(see Annex).

International Activities Grenada ratified the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region and
the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention) on 30 May 1985. Grenada is not party to
the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), nor the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and does not participate
in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Programme.

Administration and Management The National
Parks and Wildlife Unit, within the Forestry Department,
is responsible for all protected areas, terrestrial and
marine. Where areas are protected for their value as
watersheds, management also involves the Central
Water Commission. Under the proposed national parks
plan, the Ministry of External Affairs, Agriculture,
Lands, Forestry, Tourism and Legal Affairs would be
designated as the agency responsible for planning,
management and protection of all areas in the system
(National Parks and Wildlife Unit, 1988). Currently,
many of the existing land-use controls are not enforced,
and activities of the National Parks and Wildlife Unitand
the Forestry Department are hindered due to budgetary
and personnel constraints.

The principal nongovernmental organisation (NGO)
concerned with environmental issues is the National
Trust and Historical Society, which aims to preserve the
country’s historical, archaeological, cultural and
architectural heritage, and its flora and fauna. The
National Trust was established under the provisions of
the National Trust Act (1967), but subsequently merged
with the Historical Society in 1990. The Carriacou

Protected Areas of the World

Committee for Tourism and Conservation was formed
in 1991 and has as its major goals and objectives the
conservation and management of the reefs and beaches
of Carriacou (IRF, 1991).

Grenada is party to the Caribbean Conservation
Association, a regional, nongovernmental, nonprofit
organisation dedicated to promoting policies and
practices which contribute to conservation, protection
and wise use of natural and cultural resources. The
Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly the
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme (ECNAMP), has also been involved in
Grenada (management alternatives for the proposed
Levera National Park). This organisation, whose
primary goal is to strengthen local capacity to manage
the living natural resources critical to development in the
region, is currently collaborating with the Caribbean
Conservation Association for a marine parks programme
and the "Caribbean Heritage Programme”. This latter
initiative is providing institutional development in
support of the region’s natural heritage at the national
and regional levels (ECNAMP, 1989; Putney and
Renard, n.d.). In 1989, aMemorandum of Understanding
was signed by the Caribbean Conservation Association
and the Government of Grenada for the purpose of
executing a Country Environmental Profile, with the
Ministry of External Affairs, Agriculture, Lands,
Forestry, Tourism and Legal Affairs the designated
government counterpart agency. The Grenada National
Trust was designated as the local implementing and
coordinating agency (CCA/IRF, 1991).

Systems Reviews The state of Grenada, comprising the
islands of Grenada, Carriacou, Petite Martinique, as well
as a number of small islets, is mainly of volcanic
composition (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The mountainous
terrain is deeply dissected, and about 70% of the island
has a slope of at least 20° (Hudson and Francis, 1984).
The climate is humid and tropical and supports rain and
cloud forest in the interior. Areas classified as
"wildlands" (ECNAMP, 1980a, 1980b) cover
approximately 15% of the island, and broadly coincide
with areas considered rich in locally important species.
Grand Etang Forest Reserve represents such an area of
interest.

The most recent map of the actual vegetation cover was
compiled from interpretation of aerial photography
taken in 1982, indicating the following coverage:
montane rain forest (1,688ha), closed evergreen rain
forest (2,278ha), moist deciduous and semideciduous
forest (1,752ha), scrub/cactus vegetation (1,226ha),
mangrove swamp (190ha) and inland swamp (28ha)
(CCA/IRF, 1991). In a separate analysis, FAO (n.d.)
indicated that for the year 1989, there were 4,200ha of
forests in Grenada, comprising 4,000ha of closed
broadleaved, and 200ha of forest plantations.

In order to determine the degree of representation of the
country’s natural features within the proposed system of
parks and protected areas, the following analyses have

374

been carried out (CCA/IRF, 1991; National Parks and
Wildlife Unit, 1988): representation of geological
formations with regard to their significance as
illustrations of the tectonic history of the island;
representation of the main types of natural habitats and
ecosystems; distribution of native species of flora and
fauna, particularly those threatened with extinction; and
protection of watersheds and water courses, and
maintenance of high standards of water quality and
quantity. The representation of vegetation formations in
the proposed system of parks and protected areas can be
summarised as follows. The rain forest and lower
montane rain forest formations have been greatly
reduced by cutting, and disturbed for agriculture. The
only relatively intact example is in the vicinity of Seven
Sisters Falls in Grand Etang Forest Reserve;
representation within the proposed system is not
considered adequate. Montane thickets still common on
all mountain peaks above approximately 600m, and
representation within the proposed system is considered
adequate. Elfin woodland/palm brake is confined to the
summit peaks of Grand Etang and Mount St Catherine,
and would be well represented within the proposed
system. Almost the entire evergreen/semievergreen
seasonal forest formation has been converted to
agriculture. The formation is very poorly represented in
the proposed system; only minute areas are included at
Marquis River Natural Landmark. Today, the best
remnant of moist forest remaining in the entire country
is found at Mome Delice, but this is outside the proposed
system. Deciduous seasonal forest is only fairly
represented in several small areas, but is also
recuperating on some of the peninsulas on the southern
coast, and at Levera Hill due to abandonment of
agriculture. Such areas could be considered for inclusion
within the system. Fairly extensive but damaged stands
remain in Carriacou in the forest reserves and in the
proposed national park. Swamp and marsh formations,
namely the coastal mangroves swamps and the
freshwater herbaceous ecosystems at Grand Etang Lake
and Lake Antoine, are generally in a healthy state.
Mangrove cutting for charcoal has caused a deterioration
in Levera and North East Seascape, but management
actions to prohibit this activity have been initiated. These
formations are adequately represented in the proposed
system. Littoral woodland formation is relatively
common, but most areas have been damaged through
exploitation for charcoal and goat grazing;
representation is adequate.

The government made the establishment of a national
park and protected areas system a priority in the
development plan for 1986, and areview has now been
carried out (National Parks and Wildlife Unit, 1988).
A total of 27 areas in Grenada and 16 in Carriacou are
recommended for inclusion within the system. Of the
total, three units are recommended as national parks,
eleven as protected seascapes, eleven as natural
landmarks, twelve as cultural landmarks, and four as
multiple use areas. This represents approximately
4,458ha or about 13% of the land area. In addition,

several marine areas are proposed. However, these
proposals do not include the following areas: the habitat
of the endemic Grenada dove and Grenada hookbill kite;
the Morne Delice remnant moist forest; and the
historically and recreationally important wreck of the
luxury liner Bianca C., much valued for diving.
Additionally, the areas of oldgrowth rain forest in the
upper watershed of the Great River in Grand Etang
Forest Reserve are still legally eligible for logging, even
though they are included in the proposed protected areas
system (CCA/IRF, 1991). Individual management plans
need to be compiled as part of the general plan
(CCA/IRF, 1991; National Parks and Wildlife Unit,
1988).

Addresses

National Parks and Wildlife Unit, Forestry
Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Tourism,
ST GEORGE’S (Tel: 809 440 3083/2934)

Carriacou Committee for Tourism and Conservation,
c/o Caribee Inn, Prospect, CARRIACOU
(Tel: 809 443 7380)

National Trust and Historical Society, c/o Grenada
National Museum, Young Street, ST GEORGE’S
(Tel: 809 440 3725)

References

CCA/IRF (1991). Grenada: environmental profile.
Caribbean Conservation Association/Island
Resources Foundation, St Michael, Barbados.
276 pp.

ECNAMP (1980a). Grenada Preliminary Data Atlas.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association
and School of Natural Resources of the University of
Michigan. 18 pp.

ECNAMP (1980b). Grenada Grenadines Preliminary
Data Atlas. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area
Management Programme. Caribbean Conservation

375

Grenada

Association and School of Natural Resources of the
University of Michigan. 18 pp.

ECNAMP (1989). Eastern Caribbean Natural Area
Management Programme: Annual report 1988.
ECNAMP, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux
Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp.

FAO (.d.). Project forest resources assessment of the
Caribbean subregion: Country report Grenada.
FAO, Rome. 6 pp.

Hudson, B.J. and Francis, C.H. (1984). Grenada. In:
Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings for the workshop on
biosphere reserves and other protected areas for
sustainable development of small Caribbean islands.
National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

Hunter, B. (1991) (Ed.) The Statesman’s Yearbook
1991-1992. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London.
1692 pp.

IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGOs in the
Eastern Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation,
St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 1620.

National Parks and Wildlife Unit (1988). Plan and policy
for a system of national parks and protected areas in
Grenada and Carriacou. Forestry Department,
Ministry of Agriculture, St Georges. 130 pp.

OECS (1986). Grenada, description of national
legislation related to natural resources management
(first stage analysis). Natural Resources
Management Project. Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States, Castries. 13 pp.

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen
human capacity to manage living natural resources
critical to development. Caribbean Natural
Resources Institute, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
and VieuxFort, St. Lucia.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. TUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Grand Etang Reserve Ordinance
(Cap. 135)

Date: 1906

Brief description: Designated the area around
Grand Etang Lake, as well as two areas in Carriacou,
as forest reserves

Administrative authority:
Forestry

Department of

Designation:

Forest reserve Sanctuary __ For the wild animals
and birds of the colony, and to make special
temporary (19571962) provision for the protection of
agouti, armadillo and certain snakes. Hunting,
trapping and carrying of firearms are prohibited.
Source: National Parks and Wildlife Unit (1988)
Title: The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation
(Amendment) Ordinance No. 34

Date: 1984

Brief description: | Makes provision for the Chief
Forestry Officer to protect areas to provide natural
and undisturbed habitat for the flora and fauna of
Grenada.

Administrative authority:
Forestry

Department of

Designation:

Protected area Either private or crown land
may be declared to safeguard the watershed, to
prevent erosion, to conserve resources and to provide
recreational opportunity.

Source: National Parks and Wildlife Unit

(1988)

Title: The Grenada Fisheries Act No. 15
Date: 1986

Brief description: Provides for the promotion
and management of fishing and fisheries in
Grenadian waters. Section 23 (Marine Reserves and
Conservation Measures) makes provision for the
Minister to declare any area of the "fishery water"
and adjacent lands as marine reserves.

Administrative authority: National Parks and
Wildlife Unit

Designation:

Marine reserve Designated where special
measures are necessary to protect flora and fauna,
allow for natural regeneration of depleted aquatic
life, promote scientific study, or preserve and
enhance natural beauty. Activities prohibited
without permission include taking flora and fauna,
extracting minerals, dumping waste, and building.

Source: National Parks and Wildlife Unit (1988)

Title: National Trust Act
Date: 1967
Brief description: Establishes The National
Trust, with provision for the inalienable protection of

natural areas.

Administrative authority: National Trust and

Historical Society
Designation:
Not applicable

Source: National Parks and Wildlife Unit (1988)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations
ref. Name of area

Forest Reserve
1 Grand Etang

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
Vill 618 1910

Grenada

Protected Area of Grenada

377

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GUADELOUPE (FRANCE)

Area 1,780 sq. km

Population 343,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.64% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 5,515 (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Formerly a French colony,
Guadeloupe (including the islands of St Martin and
St Barthélémy) has, from 1946, had the status of an
overseas department of France. In 1974 it also became
an administrative region. The territory is covered by
French legislation, some of which is applicable
specifically to Guadeloupe. For a complete list of
legislation concerning protected areas under French
jurisdiction, see the country sheet for France
(Volume 2).

The protected areas currently comprise one national park
and one nature reserve. Provision for the establishment
of national parks is given under Law (Loi) No. 60.708
"relative a la création de parcs nationaux", of 22 July
1960 (see Annex), and related enforcement decree,
No. 61.1195, 1961. The creation of a national park is
by adecree which lays down regulations and arrangements
for development and management, the level of
protection, and lists permitted activities. Guadeloupe
National Park was established under Decree No. 89-144
of 20 February 1989 "créant le Parc National de la
Guadeloupe" (see Annex). This decree also provides for
the creation of the statutory body, also called "Parc
National de la Guadeloupe”.

Provision for the establishment of nature reserves is
given in Law No. 76/629 "relative a la protection de la
nature" (see Annex), and a decree which relates to the
implementation of this Act. Decree No. 87-981
concerning creation of Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Nature
Reserve (Décret portant création de la réserve
naturelle du Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin) (see Annex) of
23 November 1987 provides details of activities
prohibited within the reserve.

The first (legislative) section of the French Forest Code,
given in Law No. 85-1273 of 4 December 1985, contains
a clause (Article L. 171-1) which states that certain parts
of this law are not applicable to Guadeloupe. Similarly,
although most of the second (regulations) part of the
forest code is relevant, four clauses (Article R. 562-1 to
562-4) list those parts which do not apply in this
department of France. The legislative and regulations
sections both provide for the responsibilities of the
National Forest Office (Office National des Foréts).

International Activities Conventions of which
France is a member, which are of relevance to
Guadeloupe, include the Convention for the Protection

379

and Development of the Marine Environment of the
Wider Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region (both of which were ratified by France
on 13 November 1985), and a second Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife,
signed by France in 1991. Together the convention and
associated protocols are known as the Cartagena
Convention. France is a member of the Caribbean
Conservation Association (CCA), a regional,
non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources.

Administration and Management The French
governmental body responsible for the establishment of
parks and reserves (and setting hunting regulations) is
the Department of Nature and Countryside (Direction de
la Nature et des Paysages), part of the Ministry of the
Environment (Ministére de l’Environnement). National
parks havea board of directors with the total membership
fixed by decree. The board of directors decides, in
principle, how the park is to be administered, managed
and regulated. The executive director is, however,
responsible for day to day administration. The main
objectives of management are; the protection of nature,
landscape and sites, and to ensure the biological diversity
within the territory; keeping the area available for
present and future generations; developing respect for
nature and contributing to sustainable development.
Under French legislation, nature reserves may be
managed by diverse organisations.

Within Guadeloupe, management of existing and
proposed nature reserves is the responsibility of the
"Parc National de la Guadeloupe", a public, national
establishment of an administrative character, under the
control of the Ministry of the Environment. The Parc
National de la Guadeloupe administrative body
comprises a management team of approximately 40
people, the budget for 1991 being US$2.7 million.

The Office National des Foréts (ONF), an industrial and
commercial public national establishment, is responsible
for management of all state forests. The ONF cooperates
with the Parc National de la Guadeloupe administrative
body, in co-managing the national park, which is
principally forest. The ONF is also responsible for
management of all state-owned forests, an area of
38,800ha. One director is responsible for both the ONF
and the National Park, all other staff are employed
specifically in either the ONF or the National Park
(Anon., 1990).

The official policy for management of state forest (given
in Anon., 1990) is presented and commented on in a
handbook Guadeloupe domainal forest management

Protected Areas of the World

1979-1990 (Portecop, 1984). The nation’s forestry
objectives include wood production, biological
conservation and recreational activities. Protected
evergreen rain forest covers 24,500-25,000ha on the
highest land (of which 16,500ha lie within the national
park) (D. Chabod, pers. comm. 1991).

Various other public organisations are involved with
protected areas and species. The Regional Department
for Environment (Délégation Régionale de
l’Environnement), within the Ministry for the
Environment (Ministére de l’Environnement), and the
Regional Department of Maritime Affairs (Direction
Départementale des Affaires Maritimes) are involved
with administration. Research organisations include the
Université des Antilles et de la Guyane (marine and
terrestrial ecosystems); the National Institute for
Agronomic Research (Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique) (INRA) (forest ecosystems, sylviculture,
Guadeloupe herbarium, in cooperation with the National
Park); the French Scientific Institute for Development
through Cooperation (Institut Francais de Recherche
Scientifique pour le Développement en
Coopération)(ORSTOM) and the Office for Geological
and Mining Research (Bureau de Recherches
Géologiques et Miniéres) geological and hydrological
research).

SystemsReviews Most of Guadeloupe consists of two
large islands, joined by a mangrove swamp:
Basse-Terre, volcanic and mountainous, and
Grande-Terre, limestone and flat. The smaller,
associated islands are either volcanic or limestone. The
islands of St Martin and St Barthélémy lie 250km to the
north-west. Only the northern part of St Martin belongs
to Guadeloupe, the southern third being Dutch.
Basse-Terre rises to much greater altitude than the other
islands, reaching 1467m at La Soufriére volcano. Most
land below 400m on Basse-Terre, and almost all but the
northern coastal region of Grand-Terre, is cultivated or
developed. Vegetation is, therefore, largely modified.
The only natural growth on Grand-Terre is man-induced
scrub woodland. In 1986, Basse-Terre still had
untouched rain forest and lower montane rain forest
(Davis et al., 1986). In 1977 it was estimated that woods
and forests occupied 70,000ha (Anon., 1979; Portecop,
1984). Much of this comprises the forests at higher
altitudes on Basse-Terre, and the large areas of
mangrove at the junction of the two islands. Mangrove
covers about 7,500ha, 6,000ha of which occurs at Grand
Cul-de-Sac Marin, the largest area of mangrove in the
Lesser Antilles (Davis et al., 1986; Imbert er al., n.d.).
Reefs occur to a greater or lesser extent around all the
islands forming the Guadeloupe archipelago
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

The protected area system comprises Guadeloupe
National Park, which was established in 1989, and Grand
Cul de Sac Marin Nature Reserve, established in 1987.
Guadeloupe National Park covers 17,300ha. It consists
largely of practically unexploited forests, and protects a
great number of valuable natural landscapes including

380

the Soufriére volcano. In addition, there are three
proposed nature reserves, Pitons du Nord and
Beaugendre to the north and south respectively of the
national park, and Pigeon, an island to the west of
Basse-Terre (Anon., 1991). The creation of a marine
nature reserve on St Barthélemy was accepted in
principle by the National Council of Protection of Nature
on 17 September 1991, and by the Minister of the
Environment in March 1992. Official gazettement of the
reserve is due in the near future (N. Aussedat, pers.
comm., 1992).

Proposals for conservation action, including
establishment of areas proposed for protection, are given
by Johnson (1988). Portecop (1984) identifies the three
main environmental problems as deforestation,
impairment of tourist attractions and loss of wildlife. All
coral reefs are under threat from human activities such
as: urban development; industrial and agricultural
pollution; fishing using traps; collection of corals by
tourists; urban and industrial pollution; sedimentation;
subsistence fishing (UNEP/TUCN, 1988).

Hurricane Hugo, which swept through the Caribbean on
16 and 17 September 1989, caused devastation in
particular to Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe, both of which
lay directly within its path. Mangroves were damaged
particularly seriously by the hurricane. A report on the
hurricane, including its ecological impact, is given by
Pagney Bénito-Espinal and Bénito-Espinal (1991).

Addresses

Parc National de la Guadeloupe, Habitation Beausoleil
Montéran, BP 13-97120, SAINT CLAUDE (Tel:
590 802425; FAX: 590 800546)

Office National des Foréts, Division Gestion des Foréts
Publiques, Jardin Botanique, BP 648, 97109
BASSE-TERRE (Tel: 590 811720; FAX: 590
814877)

Ministry of the Environment, Direction de la Protection de
la Nature, Service des Parcs et Reserves, 13 boulevard du
Général Leclerc, 92521 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE, France
(Tel: 33 14 081 8410; Fax: 33 14 081 9953)

Association des Amis du Parc National de la
Guadeloupe et de l'Environnement, BP 286, 97100
BASSE-TERRE

Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, BP 771,
97173 Pointe a Pitre Cedex (Tel: 590 938600;
Fax: 590 92 06 57)

References

Anon. (1979). Le Parc naturel de la Guadeloupe.
Présentation sommaire pour 1’ Association Caraibe
pour l’environnement. Treizitme Assemblée
Générale Annuelle, Guadeloupe, 22 septembre.
27 pp.

Anon. (1990). Note sur la politique forestiére de l’ Office
National des Foréts en Guadeloupe. Office National
des Foréts, Guadeloupe. 8 pp.

Anon. (1991). Le Parc National de la Guadeloupe. Parc
National de la Guadeloupe, Guadeloupe. 5 pp.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we
know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 461 pp.

Imbert, D., Bland, F. and Russier, F. (1991). Les milieux
humides du littoral Guadeloupéen. Office National
des Foréts, Guadeloupe. 61 pp.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. CBP

Monograph 1, ICBP, Cambridge, UK. 144 pp.

Pagney Bénito-Espinal, F. and Bénito-Espinal, E.
(1991). L’Ouragan Hugo: Genése, Incidences

Guadeloupe (France)

Géographiques et Ecologiques sur la Guadeloupe.
Parc National de la Guadeloupe, Guadeloupe.
208 pp.

Portecop, J. (1984). Guadeloupe. In: Wood, J. (Ed.),
Proceedings for the Workshop on biosphere reserves
and other protected areas for sustainable
development of small Caribbean islands. US
Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 190 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,

Kenya. 373 pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Loi no. 60/708 relative a la création de
parcs nationaux (Law no. 60/708 relating to
the Creation of National Parks) and Décret no.
61-1195: pris en application de la Loi du 22
juillet 1960 instituant les parcs nationaux
(Decree No. 61-1195: for the enforcement of
the Law of 22 July 1960 for the establishment
of national parks)

Date: 22 July 1960; 31 October 1961, amended in
1989 (Decree No. 89-6)

Brief description: Provides the general framework
for establishing national parks

Administrative authority: Ministére de
l'Environnement (Ministry of the Environment),
Direction de la Nature et des Paysages (Department
for Nature and Countryside)

Designations:

Parc national (National park) For the
conservation of flora, fauna, subsoil, climate, water,
and natural environment in general, and to prevent
natural degradation. Sites are declared by individual
decree of the Council of State.

The limits of the territory declared under the decree
may include national maritime waters.

The legislation allows for the establishment of a
buffer zone around the park itself, where none of the
protective constraints applies.

The Decree of 1989 lists the behaviour and activities
which are to be restricted, and details of penalties to
be imposed for contravention against the law.

381

Hunting (but not fishing) is in principal banned from
all parks, as is interference with the flora and fauna,
film-making, professional photography, publicity
and the usurpation of the "national park" label. There
are generally restrictions on commerce and industry,
public and private works, mining, water-use, and, to
some extent, public access. In reality for these latter
restrictions there is usually a complex system of
prohibitions and exemptions based on each
individual decree of classification. Forestry and
agricultural activities are generally continued
although they are closely monitored to ensure that
they do not come into conflict with the main purpose
of the park.

Source: Original legislation in French

Title: Loi no. 76/629 relative 4 la protection
de la nature (Nature Conservation Act
No. 76 629); and decrees relating to the
implementation of this Act (including
Nos. 77/1141; 77/1295; 77/1296; 77/1297;
77/1298; 77/1300)

Date: 10 July 1976

Brief description: A wide ranging Act, covering
"the protection of natural areas and the countryside,
the preservation of animal and plant species, the
maintenance of biological equilibrium through the
protection of natural resources against all causes of
degredation". This Act includes framework
provisions for the definition, designation and
establishment of nature reserves (definition given
below), voluntary nature reserves and biotope
protection orders.

Protected Areas of the World

Administrative authority: Ministére de
l'Environnement (Ministry of the Environment),
Direction de la Nature et des Paysages (Department
for Nature and Countryside)

Designations:

Réserve naturelle (Nature reserve) | Where the
conservation of the fauna, flora, subsoil, water,
mineral and fossil deposits and, in general, the
natural surroundings is of particular importance or
which require the suspension of all artificial
intervention that might lead to their degradation.

Classification of sites may include areas of French
territorial waters.

Factors taken into consideration include:
preservation of species and habitats; conservation of
botanical gardens or arboretums; preservation of
biotopes and formations of geological,
geomorphological or speleological interest;
preservation or creation of stop-over points on major
migration routes; scientific or technical studies and
sites of particular interest for the study of evolution.

Established with the approval of the Ministry of the
Environment under an agreement of a contractual
nature. Subject to the owner’s consent the decision
to establish a reserve is issued in the form of a decree;
if the owners object, publication is followed by a
survey and the reserve is designated by a Council of
State decree, setting out details of permitted
activities.

Source: Original legislation in French

Title: Décret no. 87-981 portant création de la
réserve naturelle du Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin
(Decree No. 87-981 concerning creation of
Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Nature Reserve)

Date: 23 November 1987

Brief description: Provides regulations for
activities permitted within Grand Cul-de -Sac Marin
Nature Reserve

Administrative authority: | Parc National de la
Guadeloupe

Designations:

Réserve naturelle du Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin
(Nature reserve) Prohibited activities include:
hunting; introduction of undomesticated animals or
plants without appropriate authorisation; apart from
fishing, to cause any harm or disturbance to plants or
undomesticated animals, nests, eggs, hides etc.

382

The Préfet of the Republic may take any measures
necessary to ensure conservation of animals and
plants within the reserve and to control overabundant
species.

Fishing is only permitted from boats, subject to
regulations; traditional agricultural activities may
continue.

Any pollution of the water, air or soil is prohibited,
as is any private or public work apart from that which
is necessary to maintain the integrity of the site.

Source: Original legislation in French

Title: No. 89-144 créant le Parc national de la
Guadeloupe (Decree No. 89-144 creating
Guadeloupe National Park)

Date: 20 February 1989

Brief description: Provides a definition of
Guadeloupe National Park, and peripheral area.

Administrative authority: Parc national de la
Guadeloupe

Designations:

Parc national de la Guadeloupe (Guadeloupe
National Park) Agricultural, pastoral and forest
activities may continue to be practised freely, in their
current form providing they conform to regulations.
Methods of traditional cultivation in the
Grande-Riviére valley are maintained. New
agricultural and pastoral methods are only permitted
following special authorisation. On land liable to
overgrazing, livestock numbers may be fixed by the
appropriate authority.

Prohibited activities include all hunting and fishing;
introduction of non-domestic animals; damage or
disturbance of any sort to eggs, nests animals or
plants (with the exception that medicinal plants and
certain others may be collected); collection of rocks
and fossils; all industrial, mining and commercial
activities.

Sports and activities, notably walking and swimming
may continue, with competitive sport being subject
to prior authorisation.

Zone péripherique (Peripheral zone) Area in
which tourism is encouraged, traditional activities
maintained and new activities developed, but without
any specific and newer regulations.

Source: Original legislation in French

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations IUCN management Area
Name of area category (ha)
National Park

Guadeloupe II 17,300
Natural Reserve

Grand Cul de Sac Marin I 3,700

383

Guadeloupe (France)

Year

notified

1989

1987

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of France - Guadeloupe

384

HAITI

Area 27,750 sq. km

Population 6,513,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 2.05% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 324 (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Haiti has had a turbulent
political past. Since 1859 it has been a republic,
although the country was under United States occupation
from 1915 to 1934. A law of 3 February 1926, passed
during the occupation, provided for the declaration, by
executive decree, of national forest reserves on
public land. Following a military coup in 1950, a
law of 20 August 1955 was passed, which, in addition
to regulating cutting, transport and sale of wood,
provided for the establishment of protected zones (zones
sous protection) and reserved zones (zones reservées)
within the national forest estate. Further protection of
forest resources was provided by Law No. 8 of the Rural
Code (16 May 1962). The Rural Code of Francois
Duvalier of 28 May 1962 strictly controls forest
resources and activities in forest reserves (Woods and
Harris, 1986).

A decree of 18 March 1968 declared as public domain
certain areas considered to be national parks (parcs
nationaux) and nature sites (sites naturels). Eight such
sites were identified, all of which were small and of
tourist or historic interest. A decree of 23 June 1983
provided for the continued protection of these eight sites
as national nature parks (parcs nationaux naturels). The
decree also provided for the creation of two, more
extensive, sites (La Visite and Pic Macaya) for
watershed conservation and the protection of endemic
flora and fauna. The major responsibilities of the
national parks programme are also listed under the 1983
Decree, under additional responsibilities of the Ministry
of Natural Resources and Rural Development (Ministére
de 1’Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelles et du
Développement Rural) (Woods and Harris, 1986).

Two pieces of legislation relate to the management of
protected areas. A decree of 29 March 1979 appointed
a self-governing body, the Institute for the Protection of
the National Heritage (ISPAN), and an Order of
30 December 1987 defined the terms of reference of the
forest rangers of the Haitian armed forces (Arrété
définissant les attributions des gardes forestiers des
forces armées d’ Haiti) (Anon., 1989).

A draft national conservation strategy was drawn up in
April 1987. Among the recommendations formulated
were the following: 1) creation of an independent
government agency to be responsible for the planning
and execution of conservation policies and programmes;
2) promulgation of more appropriate and adequate

385

conservation legislation; 3) preservation and protection
of natural ecosystems; 4) protection of the endemic gene
pool; 5) an increase in scientific research; 6)
establishment of a conservation education programme;
7) integration of the national conservation strategy into
the national development programme to assure its
effective execution and to assure that development
projects are environmentally sound; 8) watershed
protection; 9) increase of forest reserves; and 10)
development of national parks.

Unfortunately, just after the publication of the national
conservation strategy, the Ministry of Plan, responsible
for its production, was abolished, to be replaced by a
Commissariat of Planning. Changes in personnel,
priorities and the physical location of the planning
organisation stopped any further development or
execution of the NCS, which, although incomplete, was
a very positive step towards a functional and integrated
conservation policy (Paryski et al., 1989).

International Activities Haiti signed the Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (Convencion sobre la Proteccién
de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas
Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western
Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and it has since been
ratified. Haiti ratified the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) on 18 January 1980,
although to date no sites have been inscribed. The
country does not participate in the Unesco Man and
Biosphere (MAB) programme, nor has it acceded to the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
Ata regional level, Haiti is not party to the Convention
for the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention), nor is it a member of the Caribbean
Conservation Association, the regional organisation
dedicated to promoting policies and practices which
contribute to conservation, protection and the wise use
of natural and cultural resources.

Administration and Legislation The government
organisation responsible for the protection of forests,
watersheds, the environment, coastal resources and
natural resources is the Division of Natural Resources
(DRN) of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministére de
1’ Agriculture) (MARNDR) (Paryski et al., 1989). Until
recently, however, the Division has restricted its
conservation efforts to regulating hunting and fishing, to
small hillside terracing projects, and to very limited
reforestation projects. Serious conservation activities
have been limited by low budgets, overlapping
institutional responsibilities, a lack of trained and
motivated personnel, the lack of an agency fully
responsible for conservation, and changing and

Protected Areas of the World

contradictory government priorities and policies
(Paryski et al., 1989).

In 1979 the Institute for the Protection of the National
Heritage (Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine
National) (ISPAN) was founded to protect Haiti’s
natural and cultural heritage, and to develop a national
parks programme with the assistance of US-AID.
Responsibilities of the Institute include the inventory,
classification, survey, protection, reclamation and
development of sites, both natural and man-made, and
archaeological and historical monuments. Funding was
obtained from the US-AID mission for the establishment
of two parks in the highest mountains in Haiti: La Visite
and Pic Macaya (Paryski et al., 1989). Included in this
project was a biogeophysical survey of potential national
park sites. The results were presented as a series of
reports to US-AID in Haiti (Dod and Judd, 1986; Franz
and Cordier, 1986; Gali and Schwartz, 1986; Judd, 1986;
MacFadden, 1986; Thompson, 1986; Woods, 1986;
Woods and Ottenwalder, 1986). Unfortunately,
progress in making these parks functional has been slow.
Some of the problems include: a) the decree creating the
parks failed to assign final responsibility for the
administration of the parks to a single government
agency, resulting in a confusion between MARNE and
ISPAN as to which group has the primary responsibility
for national parks; b) lack of political will to address
environmental problems and protect Haiti’s natural
heritage, partly caused by the country’s continuing
political instability; c) the parks project was taken over
from ISPAN by INHACA, a highly political
organisation created and supervised by ex-President
Jean-Claude Duvalier’s wife (after the departure of the
Duvaliers, ISPAN regained control of the parks project,
and as of April 1988 was the governmental agency
responsible for national parks); deforestation of park
sites was carried out not only by the peasants living in
and around the parks, but by politically connected
businessmen; e) ISPAN and MARNE have neither
adequate and sufficiently trained staff nor sufficient
budgets to effectively develop and protect the parks; f)
in spite of this already inadequate funding, the United
States government has withdrawn all its US-AID
financial support of MARNE and ISPAN (after
December 1987) because of political irregularities
surrounding the presidential election in Haiti; g) and
finally, a fire destroyed a significant part of the main
MARNE building at Damien, with the loss of some
important papers, maps, and documents that relate to the
parks project (Paryski et al., 1989).

In cooperation with ISPAN, DRN has drawn up lists of
endangered species of plants and animals and of natural
sites in need of protection. It is hoped that at least some
of these sites can be made into national parks when
adequate funding and personnel become available.
US-AID has developed a US$ 15 million project to
assure the protection of the Massif de la Hotte watershed.
The project also provides for the protection and
appropriate agricultural development of the buffer zone

386

surrounding the park by working with selected
non-governmental organisations such as ORE and
UNICOR. It is hoped that Macaya Park and surrounding
areas will be managed as a biosphere reserve. Perhaps
the most difficult aspect of establishing parks is the
complex problem of displacing extremely poor peasants
from park sites and limiting their activities in and around
the parks. The planting of communal forests next to park
sites to provide lumber and fuelwood is being
considered. DRN is fully participating in the national
parks project by providing personnel, technical
assistance, and on site services (Paryski et al., 1989).

Parc Laviste and Parc Macaya are partially protected by
park guards who are limited by a lack of legal and
logistical support and a lack of adequate and appropriate
training (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992). The creation
of a corps of forest rangers, a specialised branch of the
armed forces accountable to the Civil Defence, has
been proposed, but not yet established. However the
latest de facto government is discussing once again the
creation of such a corps, which would be responsible for
the surveillance of catchment basins, forests, national
and communal parks and natural sites. More
specifically, their terms of reference would be as
follows: to ensure the enforcement of forest, water and
park legislation through the recording of infringements
and the search of offenders; to prevent unauthorised
agricultural and forest exploitation; to seize illegally
acquired forest products; to inspect the forests and parks
under their charge. They operate in collaboration with
the appropriate public authorities, and receive military
and technical training (Anon., 1989).

Since 1983, Florida State Museum has worked with
US-AID and ISPAN to complete inventories of the two
national parks newly established in 1983, and to develop
management plans for the areas. They have also made
proposals for the development of the national park
programme and its implementation. The results of this
work are drawn together in the "Stewardship Plan" for
Haiti’s national parks. Included in this plan are
proposals for the creation of a unified programme to
administer all units of the national parks, to be known as
"Parcs Haiti" (Woods and Harris, 1986).

A University of Florida Extension project, in collaboration
with the Haitian government, is currently in operation, to
establish a biosphere reserve in Pic Macaya National
Park (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992). The project has
four main activities: planning the management of the park
and surrounding land as biosphere reserve; assisting the
1,750 inhabitants to increase agricultural production and
their household income using ecologically appropriate
means; rehabilitating critical zones; establishing a
database on the history, management and fauna and
flora of the region. The project is unique in Haiti,
integrating biodiversity conservation with economic and
community development (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992).

The University of Florida project was subject to
considerable constraints: the extreme difficulty of access

to the work sites, the social and political disorders and
strife, the degradation of rural infrastructures, the
increasing decapitalisation of the peasant population, the
lack of adequate supplies of goods and services in rural
areas, changes in policy and strategies, and finally the
major economic and political difficulties that have
resulted from the 30 September 1991 coup d’état and its
consequences. The project did, however, manage to
protect the park which has remained largely intact, and
rehabilitate and reforest very critical areas while
simultaneously raising the household incomes of the
peasants living in the Macaya area. The embargo
applied by the OAS, and restrictions under Section 513
of the US Foreign Assistance Act, 1991 have not
permitted an extension of US-AID financial assistance
to the project (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992).

The World Bank has designed a US$ 40 million
environmental project that would provide financial and
technical assistance to MARNDR to establish a
functioning environmental protection service which
would manage both Parc Lavisite and Parc Macaya.
This project agreement was scheduled to be signed in
October 1991, but did not take place because of the coup
d’etat; the project is currently suspended pending a
resolution of the current political crisis (P. Paryski, pers.
comm., 1992).

In July 1992 the de facto government announced a
US$ 30 million emergency programme which includes
US$ 3 million for environmental protection measures
including the protection of Parc Lavisite and Parc
Macaya (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992).

US-AID and UNDP have jointly financed a study and
pilot project for the creation of a marine park at the
"Arcadins", a coral reef system to the north-west of
Port-au-Prince. US-AID has now suspended its
assistance to the project (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992).

The UNDP has initiated a proactive environmental
programme and a coordination committee for
environmental and conservation programs of the
various multi-lateral and bi-lateral donor
organisations (P. Paryski, pers. comm., 1992).

The general public is now aware of the disastrous
consequences of continuing and progressive
environmental degradation, but, in general, this
consciousness has yet to be translated into positive action
either by private groups or the government. A new
conservation lobby group, called the Fédération des
Amis de la Nature, has been formed and is planning to
fight to reforest the country.

In general, management of protected areas has not been
effective. Although over the past five decades
successive governments have passed legislation to
protect the environment, these laws have been neither
observed nor enforced generally. This lack of
enforcement, the continuing political instability in Haiti
and the pressures on the environment caused by the

387

Haiti

overwhelming poverty of most of the population, have
reduced the effectiveness of conservation activities
(Paryski et al., 1989).

Systems Reviews Haiti comprises the western
one-third of the island of Hispaniola on the northern
edge of the Caribbean basin. It is a mountainous
country; over 80% of the terrain has slopes in excess of
25%, and a number of peaks are over 2,000m. The
topography is extremely rugged, and dominated by three
ranges that trend east-west. There is generally no
shortage of water, but rivers have uneven flow (Paryski
et al., 1989).

Haiti is one of the most biologically significant countries
of the West Indies. Hispaniola has an estimated 5,600
plant species, some of which are confined to Haiti.
Approximately 36% are endemic to the island (Paryski
et al., 1989; SEA/DVS, 1986). No reliable data exist on
the extent of the original forest cover. However, the
estimated forest cover in the country as a whole was
down to 7% in the 1950s, much of it described as a
mixture of degraded hardwoods and a few pines. By
1978 the amount of virgin forest cover had declined to
2.4%, and to 1.5% in 1989. Forest exploitation began
soon after Amerindians arrived on the island
approximately 7,000 BP, but only accelerated in the
1700s following colonisation. Rapid population growth
has lead to serious land abuse, with extensive clearing of
woodland for farming, timber and firewood, such that
the country: is now almost completely deforested.
Remaining vegetation is similar to that of the
neighbouring Dominican Republic. Only a few pines
survive at higher altitudes and also small areas of
mahogany, rosewood and cedar. The impact of charcoal
production on mangrove areas has been particularly
severe in places, and exploitation of wood resources is
now increasing in the south-west (Paryski et al., 1989).
Coral reefs occur around the island, but are possibly the
least well known in the Caribbean (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

Kurlansky (1988) estimates that one-third of the land is
seriously eroded. It is one of the most environmentally
degraded countries in the world, faces serious economic
and social problems, and is classified by many as an
environmental disaster area. Coastal zones are the only
ecosystems that have remained relatively untouched,
due to the decline in tourism, and include spectacular
coral reefs, extensive mangrove wetlands and large
estuaries (Paryski et al., 1989; UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

The protected areas system currently comprises ten
national nature parks, which cover 9,795Sha or 0.35% of
the country. Eight of these areas were established as
national parks or "sites naturels" in 1968, and are
comparatively small. In 1983 they were redesignated as
national nature parks, whilst at the same time two, much
larger, national nature parks were gazetted. The impetus
to create these two large areas, situated in the remote and
still forested areas of the highest mountains, came from
an attempt to protect the fragile watershed. Coral reefs

Protected Areas of the World

are not included in any of the national parks gazetted so
far (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

Alarmed at the degradation of the natural environment,
a working group was established, the result of which was
a report (Anon., 1988) stressing the urgent need for
environmental action. The report includes
recommendations concerning management of protected
areas, such as the need for compensation to be paid to all
people, both sedentary and nomadic, relocated outside
these areas; and for all forms of exploitation of protected
areas to be controlled.

The great biological potential of the mouth of the Riviére
de 1’Artibonite for the establishment of a reserve for
manatee Trichechus manatus and birds is described by
Rathbun et al. (1985). However, they do not consider
establishment of a wildlife reserve to be feasible, due to
the large number of fishermen. Paryski et al. (1989)
propose several developmental measures to preserve the
remaining biological diversity. Those that directly
involve protected areas are: 1) establish communal
forests to provide a renewable source of energy and
animal habitat; 2) enforce existing environmental and
conservation laws strictly, so that agricultural activities
in certain extremely degraded areas can benefit from the
presence of nearby conservation zones without further
degrading these zones; 3) establish rural environmental
education programmes, especially in areas near
conservation zones. They further propose special
conservation measures, including: 1) adoption of the
IUCN World Conservation Strategy; 2) creation of an
independent National Park Service with direct
responsibility for the planning, creation and
management of all national parks; and 3) management
of all fragile areas, especially those surrounding national
parks, as biosphere reserves. However, the authors
recognise that attempts to improve the conservation
situation will only succeed if efforts are coupled with
improving the status of peasants living adjacent to the
parks.

Addresses

Ministére de 1’ Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelles et
du Dévéloppement Rural, Département des
Ressources Naturelles, Damien Département du
Plan, Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National

(ISPAN), Place du Champ de Mars,
PORT-AU-PRINCE

University of Florida Macaya Biosphere Reserve
Project, PO Box 1634 #(US-AID),
PORT-AU-PRINCE

388

References

Anon. (1988). Pour une déclaration officielle de 1’état
d’urgence face 4 la degradation de |’environnement
national. Groupe de Travail pour le suivi du
Colloque sur le reboisement tenu 4 Damien en avril
1987. Unpublished report. 20 pp.

Anon. (1989). Chapter XIII/4. Food and Agriculture
Legislation 38:169.

Dod, D.D. and Judd, W.S. (1986). Orchids of the
national parks of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID.
University of Florida, Gainsville. 5 pp.

Franz, R. and Cordier, D. (1986). Herpetofaunas of the
national parks of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID.
University of Florida, Gainsville. 73 pp.

Gali, F. and Schwartz, A. (1986). Butterflies of the
national parks of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID.
Miami Springs, Florida. 19 pp.

Judd, W.S. (1986). Botany of the national parks of Haiti.
Prepared for US-AID. University of Florida,
Gainsville. 97 pp.

Kurlansky, M. (1988). Haiti’s environment teeters on
the edge. International Wildlife 18(2): 34-38.

MacFadden, B. (1986). Geology of the national parks
of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID. University of
Florida, Gainsville. 35 pp.

Paryski, P., Woods, C.A. and Sergile, F. (1989).
Conservation strategies and the preservation of
biological diversity in Haiti. Biogeography of the
West Indies: 855-878.

Rathbur, G.B., Woods, C.A. and Ottenwalder, J.A.
(1985). The manatee in Haiti. Oryx 19(4): 234-236.

SEA/DVS (1990). La diversidad bioldgica en la
Repiiblica Dominicana : Reporte preparado por el
Departamento de Vida Silvestre para el Servicio
Aleman de Cooperacién Social-Técnica y Fondo
Mundial para la Naturaleza (WWF-US). Secretaria
de Estado de Agricultura, SURENA/DVS, Santo
Domingo, Republica Dominicana. 266 pp.

Thompson, F.G. (1986). Land molluscs of the national
parks of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID. University of
Florida, Gainsville. 17 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Woods, C.A. (1986). Mammals of the national parks of
Haiti. Prepared for US-AID. University of Florida,
Gainsville. 73 pp.

Woods, C.A. and Harris, L. (1986). Stewardship plan
for the national parks of Haiti. University of Florida,
Gainesville. 263 pp.

Woods, C.A. and Ottenwalder, J.A. (1986). Birds of the
national parks of Haiti. Prepared for US-AID.
University of Florida, Gainsville. 238 pp.

Haiti

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Natural National Parks

1 La Citadelle, Sans Souci, Ramiers Vv 2,200 1968

2 La Visite II 2,000 1983

3 Pic Macaya II 5,500 1983

389

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Haiti

390

JAMAICA

Area 11,400 sq. km

Population 2,456,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.17% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 960 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,186 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation The possession of Jamaica
by England was confirmed in the Treaty of Madrid,
1670; self-government was introduced in 1944 and
complete independence achieved within the
Commonwealth on 6 August 1962. The Constitution
dates from August 1962; the Crown is represented by a
Governor-General appointed on the advice of the Prime
Minister.

At present, no overall environmental policy is applied,
nor is there a coordinated set of policies related to
biodiversity conservation or the preservation of
ecosystems and ecological processes. The forest policy,
issued over 30 years ago, includes provisions for
"Protection and development of the Islands’ natural
forest resources", but there is no policy for the
establishment and management of a system of protected
areas. In addition, some policies have a potentially
negative impact upon forest ecosystems. These include
the Idle Lands Declaration (under the Land
Development and Utilisation Act), under which private
lands, which have been set aside to protect natural
vegetation, may be declared "idle"; in such case the
owner has to "develop" them or be subject to compulsory
acquisition by the government (Anon., 1989).

Interest in natural resource protection was initiated in
1904 with the enactment of the Morant and Pedro Cays
Actcontrolling resource exploitation. This was followed
by aseries of pieces of legislation, such that by June 1991
there were 11 types of protected areas controlled by
10 acts, involving six agencies, several statutory
bodies, and four ministries. This complex situation, with
overlapping and conflicting responsibilities of agencies
involved, has been one of the major impediments to the
development of a workable system of protected areas.
Legislation includes the Forest Act, Wildlife Protection
Act, Beach Control Act, Town and Country Planning
Act and Watershed Protection Act, Fisheries Industries
Act and National Heritage Trust Act.

The Forest Act 1937 (see Annex), provides for the
establishment of forest reserves where access and
exploitation can be controlled (public recreational use is
one purpose of such areas, in areas classed as "recreation
parks"). Another category, protective area on private
land, is also provided for under this Act. The Wildlife
Protection Act 1945, provides for the establishment of
wildlife or game sanctuaries and reserves; the Beach
Control Law 63 1955 provides for the declaration of

391

marine areas or "parks" to control exploitation and
development; the Town and Country Planning Act 1957
provides for "green area” conservation; the Watershed
Protection Act 1963, provides for the control of land use
within designated watersheds; the Fisheries Industries
Act 1975, provides for the establishment of fish
sanctuaries, and the Forest Act 1937. The National
Heritage Trust Act 1985 provides for the declaration of
protected national heritage sites and national
monuments, of which a number of small cultural sites
have been designated (NRCD and Field, 1987). The
legislation, while providing for the establishment of a
range of protected areas, does not specify the restrictions
or use of sites adequately, nor does provision yet exist
for the establishment of national parks, despite a need for
such legislation having been recognised for many years.
In 1984 anew model Forest Act was drafted, but this has
not been enacted (Walters et al., 1989). Under the
Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), a National Forestry
Action Plan (NFAP) is being exercised, at the request of
the Jamaican government (Anon., 1989, 1990a; Walters
et al., 1989).

The Natural Resources Conservation Authority Act of
June 1991 established the Natural Resources
Conservation Authority (NRCA) as the primary
government agency with responsibility for
environmental management in Jamaica (IRF, 1992).

The most recent review of the status of protected areas
legislation is given in the interim report of the Protected
Areas Resources Conservation (PARC) Programme.
One of the aims of the programme is the development of
national legislation in support of the establishment of
national parks and protected areas. Five pieces of
legislation have been prepared so far: three relating to
the establishment of Montego Bay Marine Park and Blue
Mountain/John Crow Mountain National Park; the
Natural Resources Conservation Act (Marine Park)
Regulations providing system-wide regulations for the
establishment, management and operations of marine
parks; and National Parks Legislation providing
system-wide regulations for the establishment,
management and operations of national parks
(terrestrial)(IRF, 1992).

International Activities Jamaica is party to the
Caribbean Conservation Association, a regional,
non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources. Jamaica ratified the Convention for
the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention) (1983) and the Protocol Concerning
Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region on 24 January 1986. In 1986 the
Regional Coordinating Unit of the UNEP Regional Seas

Protected Areas of the World

Programme was established on Jamaica. Jamaica is party
to the Convention concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it ratified on 14 June 1983. No
natural sites have yet been inscribed on the World
Heritage list.

Administration and Management A provisional
National Parks Committee was established in 1970 in the
Forest Department, following a recommendation in the
National Physical Plan (1970-1990). Activities of the
Committee were to include identification of areas
suitable for national parks and to initiate their
development. In 1972 the Committee was moved to the
Ministry of Mining and Natural Resources, and in 1975
was reformed as the national parks branch of the Natural
Resources and Conservation Division (NRCD) of first
the Ministry of Agriculture, and later the Ministry of
Development, Planning and Production. The NRCD
carried out extensive resource inventories during the
mid-1970s. The ecological branch subsequently took the
first steps towards protected areas establishment in 1979
with the help of the Organisation of American States.
Surveys identified Canoe Valley as the NRCD’s priority
choice for Jamaica’s first national park. However, in the
1980s, activities were focused on the Blue
Mountain/JJohn Crow Mountain proposed national park
area and the Montego Bay proposed marine national
park area (Allen, 1990). The provisions of the Watershed
Protection Act, the Wildlife Protection Act and the
Beach Control Act are the responsibility of the NRCD.
The NRCD has since been replaced by the National
Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA), a statutory
body currently falling within the portfolio of the Ministry
of Tourism and the Environment. This major change has
greatly improved the climate for advancing the cause of
national parks legislation (IRF, 1992).

The Forestry and Soil Conservation Department (FSCD),
also within the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for
administration of the Forest Act. Activities relevant to
protected areas include forest protection and conservation,
watershed management and responsibility for the
development of Blue Mountain/JJohn Crow Mountain
National Park, identified under the PARC project. The
Department has proposals for additional national parks, as
identified in its annual reports (see Annual Report
1989-90). Expenditure in the financial year 1989/1990
included US$ 4.89 million recurrent (forest administration
and soil conservation) and US$ 2.50 million capital
(forestry, watershed management and conservation)
(Anon., 1990b). The National Forestry Action Plan was
accomplished during the financial year 1989/90 in
preparation for the Tropical Forestry Action Plan in
cooperation with FAO. The NFAP was implemented as a
government-executed project, and the Planning Institute of
Jamaica (PIOJ) was designated as the executing agency
(Anon., 1990a).

The Fisheries Division has responsibility for provisions
of both the Fishing Industry Act and the Morant and
Pedro Cays Act.

392

In February 1986, the Ministry of Tourism established a
Marine Parks Action Committee (MPAC) to investigate
ways of implementing effective administration and
management of marine parks already designated by
legislation. The Committee’s primary aim is to develop
a funding proposal to manage Montego Bay Marine
Park. Attention is also given to the need for improved
legislation to protect, develop and manage proposed
marine parks. The National Heritage Trust Act is
administered by the Offic’; of the Prime Minister.

On 28 August 1989, US-AID and the government of
Jamaica signed a project agreement resulting in
implementation of the Protected Areas Resources
Conservation Project (PARC), designed to protect
biological diversity and promote tourism. Phase 1 of the
project, which terminated in August 1992, was designed to
contribute to the establishment of an effective National
Parks and Protected Areas System for Jamaica. Two sets of
activities were involved: the immediate initiation of
protected areas activities in two pilot areas (Blue
Mountain/John Crow Mountain area and Montego Bay
Marine Park), and building the policy, legal, financial and
institutional foundation for a national system of protected
areas. This includes establishment of a Conservation Data
Centre (CDC) at the University of the West Indies, to
provide planners and managers with a comprehensive base
of scientific information. Commencing in 1990, the PARC
project had an operational budget of US$ 1.75 million for
a three-year period. In the long run, however, the PARC
project is designed to be self-sustaining. An interim
assessment of the project was made in May 1992, which
includes recommendations for inclusion in phase II of the
programme (Allen, 1990; IRF, 1992).

Priorities for development of a parks and protected areas
system, outlined by NRCD and Field (1987), emphasised
the need to establish and develop an independent,
non-profit National Parks and Protected Areas Trust. It was
regarded that the establishment of the Trust would ensure
enactment of parks and protected areas legislation, be
instrumental in establishing the institutional framework,
and also establish the process for selection of areas to be
included in the system. As a consequence, the Jamaica
Conservation and Development Trust (CDT), an NGO
dedicated to the creation and financing of national parks,
was formed in 1987. The trust is supported by both The
Nature Conservancy and the Caribbean Conservation
Association. The JCDT has been identified by US-AID as
a suitable non-governmental organisation capable of
exerting leadership responsibilities under the PARC
project, specifically: produce a Jamaican National Park
System Plan; setting up a National Park Trust Fund and
handle the details of a debt-for-nature swap engineered by
The Nature Conservancy, with assistance from the US-AID
and the Puerto Rico Conservation Trust (IRF, 1992). Other
NGOs include the Natural History Society and the Gorse
Bird Club (Allen, 1990).

Management of protected areas is hampered by
inadequate legislation, and the general lack of
enforcement. Staff shortages in relevant agencies are

acute. Allen (1990) reported that the NRCD had no
enforcement branch. Fines following successful
prosecution are minimal, being approximately US$ 14
for violators of the Wildlife Protection Act, US$ 6 for
violation of the Beach Control Act, and US$ 7 for
violators of the Forest Act. Management constraints
include cashflow problems at the Forest Department,
which have reportedly led to a lack of trust and
confidence amongst casual labourers and field staff
(Anon., pers. comm., 1990).

Systems Reviews The landmass of Jamaica, which
emerged from the ocean in the mid Miocene, has never
been connected to any other land mass. The central spine
of the island is mountainous, reaching 2,256m at Blue
Mountain Peak. It is surrounded by a flatter coastal strip,
which is narrow on the north. The southern coastal plains
are broad, and include flat alluvial areas, swamps and
dry hills. The land surface is two-thirds limestone, the
rest is composed of igneous rocks, sedimentary shales
and alluvium. Mean annual rainfall varies from less than
750mm to more than 7000mm per annum (Anon., 1989).

Jamaica was almost entirely forested before human
settlement in the 1st century AD. Now, only the most
remote and inaccessible forests may be considered
relatively untouched. Most forests have been radically
affected by clearing, fire and introduced species, the
most acute effects having occurred in the last 350 years.
By 1983, less than 67,000ha (6%) of the country was
covered in undisturbed natural forest. Three broad
groups of forest occur: limestone forests of the John
Crow Mountains, central and western Jamaica,
predominantly shale forests of the Blue Mountains and
Port Royal Mountains, and alluvial and wetland forests
of the coastal plains. The original lowland forest has
been almost entirely replaced by plantations and
artificial savannas (Anon., 1989). In addition, there are
small areas of mangrove and herbaceous swamp (Braatz,
1982). The north coast is fringed by a narrow system of
well-developed, spectacular and diverse reefs. Reef
development on the south coast is not continuous but is
more diverse than on the north coast (UNEP/IUCN,
1988).

There are an estimated 3,000 flowering plants, 784
(27%) of which are endemic. In addition, there are 5,500
species of fern (including 82 endemics) and 300 species
of moss (Johnson, 1988). Twenty six species of endemic
birds occur (more than any other oceanic island in the
world), five endemic mammal species and 20 endemic
amphibians (Anon., 1989).

The first protected areas, Morant and Pedro Cays
established in 1904, were followed by Clydesdale and
Hardware Gap Forest Reserves in 1937, in the Blue
Mountains. Another 60 forest reserves were designated
in the 1950s, the first in 1950 and the last in 1955. No
recent information is available concerning the status of
forest reserves, or about which areas of them are covered
by natural forest or plantations, or leased for coffee,
pines or occupied by squatters (Anon., 1989). The first

393

Jamaica

nature protection areas were Mason Wildlife Reserve,
established in 1944, Ocho Rios Marine Park in 1966,
followed by Bouge Estate Game reserve in 1963 and
Kingston and St Andrew Game Reserve in 1971. The
most recently established protected areas include
Stanmore Hill Game Reserve in 1988, and the
redesignated Montego Bay Marine Park in 1991
(originally set up in 1974). Blue Mountain/John Crow
Mountain National Park is expected to be designated in
the near future (C. Sutherland, pers. comm., 1991).

In 1990 there were 62 forest reserves totalling 116,78 1ha
(74,392ha of natural forest); two marine parks totalling
over 1,530ha, five-seven multiple use management areas
(forest recreational parks areas); five game reserves
totalling 336ha, two fish sanctuaries and 16 natural sites,
caves or middens protected as natural monuments
(C. Sutherland, pers. comm., 1991).

Numerous reports have been produced stressing the need
for the development of an effective protected areas
system. Six obstacles to the development of a park
system are noted in Thorsell (1981): low level of public
awareness and political support; lack of protected areas
legislation; lack of comprehensive park system policy
statement; need for definition of priority areas;
restrictions of management capacity and limited
involvement in international and regional conservation
agency programmes. NRCD and Field (1987) list the
major benefits of an effective national system of
protected areas, and also identify a range of problems
and issues affecting the establishment and management
of protected areas. In particular, they list pressures
through development of both industrial and agricultural
nature, vegetation clearance, poor land use practices and
uncontrolled use of resources, as typified in the Negril
area. Thirteen areas which might qualify as national
parks are listed in the profile. The profile also refers to
two National Physical Plans. A wide range of parks,
recreation and conservation areas was included in the
National Physical Plan of 1970-1990, which stated the
need for "an integrated regional system of a wide range
of parks, recreational and conservation areas reflecting
Jamaica’s social needs and natural environment". The
subsequent National Physical Plan (1978-1998)
recommended that national parks be legally designated
and priority areas selected for implementation.
However, despite this the level of implementation is still
low. Allen (1990), in a paper reviews these previous
reports, and outlines the aims of the PARC project. Other
relevant reports include: Braatz (1982), Clark (1987),
Cotterell (1977), Mailer (1982, 1984), WWF (1982,
1985), and Worthington (1970).

In May 1992 an Evaluation Report of the PARC project
was produced, providing a mid-term summary of
progress made in the establishment of two parks,
national park framework development, project
management and institutions, and recommendations for
future activities (IRF, 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Although absence of adequate legislation has hindered
protected area development, according to Allen (1990),
the fundamental reason for the lack of environmental
protection in Jamaica is rooted in its pervasive poverty.

Other Relevant Information In 1990, 1.24 million
tourists arrived in Jamaica, spending about US$ 700
million (Hunter, 1991). The seven forest recreation areas
were visited by less than 10,000 people during the year
1989/90. The PARC project aims to increase visitor
facilities and so encourage ecotourism (Allen, 1990).

Addresses

Natural Resources Conservation Division (NRCD),
National Parks Branch, 53 1/2 Molynes Road,
PO Box 305, KINGSTON 10 (Tel: 809 923 5155)

Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Marcus
Garvey Drive, PO Box 470, KINGSTON

Department of Forestry and Soil Conservation,
173 Constant Springs Road, KINGSTON 8

UNEP Caribbean Environmental Programme Regional
Coordinating Unit, 14-20 Port Royal Street, KINGSTON
(Tel: 809 922 9267/9; FAX: 809 922 9297)

Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust,
46 Duke Street, PO Box 1225, KINGSTON 8
(Tel: 809 924 9400/6; FAX: 809 924 9407)

References

Allen, B. (1990). National park planning in Jamaica: a
project in sustainable development and conservation.
Paper presented to the Association of Caribbean
Studies Conference on the Caribbean Environment,
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 22 pp.

Anon. (1989). Conservation of Forest Ecosystems.
National Forestry Action Plan Jamaica. Report
coordinated by C. Weber. 75 pp.

Anon. (1990a). National Forestry Action Plan. Main
Report with Project Profiles and Budgets. 65 pp.
Anon. (1990b). Department of Forestry and Soil
Conservation; budget notes/annual report, 1 April
1989- 31 March 1990. Department of Forestry and
Soil Conservation, Ministry of Agriculture,

Kingston. 12 pp.

Braatz, S.M. (1982). Draft Environmental Profile on
Jamaica. Prepared for US-AID under contract with
US-MAB.

394

Clark, J.R. (1987). Coastal and marine parks in the
Caribbean - Jamaica and St Vincent and the
Grenadines. National Park Service, Washington DC.

Cotterell, C.C. (1977). Proposed national parks and
other protected areas in Jamaica. Presented at the
International Seminar on National Parks.

Eyre, L.A. (1987). Jamaica: test case for tropical
deforestation? Ambio 16(6): 338-343.

IRF (1992). Draft Evaluation Report of Protected Areas
Conservation Project (Parc) Jamaica [PARC Project
No. 532-0148]. 56 pp.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and Conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. CBP
Monograph 1. ICBP, Cambridge, UK.

Mailer, S.R. (1982). The development and management
of a marine park system in Jamaica. 1. Montego Bay
marine park survey and management plan.
Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory.

Mailer, S.R. (1984). The development and management
of a marine park system in Jamaica. 2. Ochos Rios
underwater park survey and management plan.
Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory.

NRCD and Field, R.M. Assoc. (1987). Jamaica, country
environmental profile. Natural Resources
Conservation Division, on behalf of International
Institute for Environmental and Development,
Kingston and Ralph M. Field Associates Inc. 362 pp.

Thorsell, J.W. (1981). Towards a national park system
for Jamaica. Natural Resources Conservation
Department, Ministry of Mining and Energy.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1:
Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas
Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Walters, L., Goldson, P., and McCalla, W. (1989).
National Forestry Action Plan Jamaica. Legislation.
Produced by Forestry and Soil Conservation
Department, Ministry of Agriculture. 36 pp.

WWE (1982). A marine park in Jamaica. WWF Monthly
Report. November.

WWE (1985). Survey for a marine park in Jamaica.
WWE Monthly Report. January.

Worthington, E.B. (1970). Jamaica: Ecology and
Conservation. Serial No. 2143/BMS.RD/SCE.
Unesco, Paris.

Title:

Title:

Title:

ANNEX

Jamaica

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Watershed Protection Act

Date: 1963

Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the
designation of watersheds

Administrative authority: NRCD
Designations:

Watershed Provides for the control of land use
within designated watersheds (which cover more
than 100,000ha).

Source: Allen (1990)

The Wildlife Protection Act

Date: 1945

Brief description: Enabling legislation for the
designation of wildlife/game sanctuary or reserves

Administrative authority: NRCD
Designations:
Wildlife/game sanctuary or reserve

Source: Allen (1990)

The Beach Control Law No. 63

Date: 1956

Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the
designation of marine parks

Administrative authority: _NRCD

Designations:

Marine park To control exploitation and
development affecting the area.

Source: Allen (1990)

395

Title:

Title: The Fisheries Industry Act

Date: 1975

Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the
designation of fish sanctuaries
Administrative authority: Fisheries Division
Designations:

Fish sanctuary _Tocontrol fishing in designated
areas. These parks may include mangrove swamps
and other coastal wetlands.

Source: Allen (1990)

Title: Morant and Pedro Cays Act

Date: 1904

Brief description:
Administrative authority: Fisheries Division
Designations:

Provides for control of access to cays and exploitation
of their resources. However, enforcement of the
provisions of the Act is difficult.

Source: Allen (1990)

Forest Act

Date: 1937

Brief description: Provides for the establishment
of forest reserves and protective areas. Forestry
reserves were established mainly to conserve the
natural hardwood forests on upper mountain slopes
vital for soil conservation and watershed protection.

Administrative authority: Forestry and Soil
Conservation Division

Designations:

Forest reserve The Act originally provided for
forest reserves on any Crown land on the island. It
provides for the establishment of forest reserves
where access and exploitation can be controlled.
Public recreational use is one purpose of such areas.
Due to land characteristics, a section or a number of
sections within a single forest reserve may be set
aside for conservation, while other areas on the same
reserve may be used for commercial forestry.

Protective area on private land _ Under Articles
10-15 the Minister may declare any lands other than

Protected Areas of the World

Crown lands as a protective area. Regulations Brief description: Provides for the declaration

prohibit cultivation, cattle pasture, fire or other of protected natural heritage sites and natural

activities preventing soil conservation. If an owner monuments.

does not comply with the regulations, the

government may assume control of the land on lease. pray akg authority: Office of the Prime
inister

Source: Original legislation Designations:

Protected national heritage site

Title: The National Heritage Trust Act Protected national monuments

Source: NRCD and Field (1987); Smith, pers.
Date: 1985 comm. (1991)

396

Jamaica

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Game Reserve
1 Bouge Estate Vill 243 1963
Marine Park
2 Montego Bay II 1,530 1991
Forest Reserves
3 Ballintoy Block "A" Vil 245 1950
4 Ballintoy Block "C" Vili 440 1950
5 Bath Mt. Block "A" Vil 121 1950
6 Baulk Pen Block "B" Vill 107 1950
7 Blue Mountain Reserve Vill 41,940 1950
8 Bogue Vil 112 1955
9 Bottom Hamden Vill 118 1950
10 Bull Head Vil 220 1950
11 Cedar Valley Vill 243 1950
12 Chatsworth Block "A" Vil 314 1950
13 Chepstowe Reserve Vill 150 1950
14 Cockpit Country Vil 22,327 1950
15 Cockpit Country - Peru Mt. Vol 270 1955
16 Cooks Bottom vil 197 1955
17 Discovery Vill 149 1950
18 Fergis Ramsay Vill 120 1950
19 Fyffe and Rankine Vill : 966 1950
20 Haycock Hill Vill 147 1950
21 Hyde Block "C" Vill 433 1950
222 Hyde Hall Mountain 4 Vill 662 1950
23 Jericho Block "A" Vill 113 1950
24 Jericho Block "E" vill 138 1950
25 Kellits - Camperdown Vil 1,498 1950
26 Lovers Leap Vill 175 1950
27 Lychfield Matheson’s Run VOl 4,485 1950
28 Mt. Diablo Block "A" Vill 853 1950
29 Mt. Diablo Block "B" vil 231 1950
30 Mt. Diablo Block "C" Vil 261 1950
31 New Forest Reserve Vill 161 1950
52 Norris Block "A" Vill 115 1950
33 Orchard Vil 142 1950
34 Peak Bay Block "A" vill 303 1950
35 Peak Bay Block "B" Vil 153 1950
36 Pennants Forest Reserve Vil 169 1950
37 Petersville Vill 170 1950
38 Rockfort Vill 733 1950
39 Ruthven Vit 191 1950
40 Sealthshire Hills Vill 4,856 1950
41 Shuna Vil 458 1950
42 Stephney John’s Vale Vill 6,713 1950
43 Teak Pen Block "A" Vil 533 1950
44 Teak Pen Block "B" Vil 150 1950
45 Troy Block "A" Vill 244 1955
46 Troy Block "B" Vil 100 1955
47 Troy Block "C" Vill 173 1955

397

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Jamaica

398

MARTINIQUE

Area 1,100 sq. km

Population 341,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 0.6% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 7,879 (1987)
GNP: US$ 9,200 (1992) (J. Nosel, pers. comm., 1992)

Policy and Legislation From 1635, Martinique
was a French colony until its status changed to an
overseas department of France on 19 March 1946. In
1974 it also became an administrative region. The
territory is covered by French legislation, some of
which is applicable specifically to Martinique. For a
complete list of legislation concerning protected areas
under French jurisdiction, see the country sheet for
France (Volume 2).

Several pieces of legislation relate to Martinique’s
protected areas system. A law of 2 May 1930 provides
for the protection of natural sites and monuments.
Decree No. 67-158 of 1 March 1967 relates to regional
natural parks (Décret rélatif aux parc naturel régionaux)
(see Annex). It is updated by Decree No. 75-983 of
24 October 1975, and Law No. 76/629 concerning nature
protection (Loi no. 76/629 rélative a la protection de la
nature) (see Annex). This law provides definitions of
nature reserves (réserves naturelles), and several decrees
relate to its implementation (including nos. 77/1141;
77/1295; 77/1296; 77/1297; 77/1298; 77/1300) (see
Annex). Decree No. 67-158 also stipulates the procedure
to be followed for the classification of regional natural
parks. This classification procedure includes
presentation of a file including the name of the
organisation responsible for the park’s management, a
map of the park limits, and details of provision of finance
to enable park superstructure to be installed. Under a law
of 10 July 1975 (decree of application 11 December
1975), the purchase of parts of the littoral zone for
purposes of protection, especially from building, is
provided for.

A further category of protected area, natural zone of
ecological, faunal and floral interest (ZNIEFF) exists,
but information concerning the legislation under which
these are established is not available.

Martinique Regional Nature Park was established in
1976 following a French Decree of 24 October 1975
and subsequent Ministerial Act of 24 August 1976.
The concept of regional natural parks was advanced
in the early 1960s, to provide facilities for tourists,
preserve traditional architecture and landscapes, and
stimulate local enterprises and rural development. In
Martinique Regional Natural Park, wildlife
conservation is also of importance, and areas within
the park are zoned to safeguard different land uses.

399

A law of 10 July 1975 (degree of application of
11 December 1975), provides for establishment of
an administrative public centre, the building for
conservation of the littoral space and of lake
banks. The aim of the centre is the purchase of
the littoral zone when it is of biological interest,
to provide protection them from any kind of
speculation, especially development.

International Activities Conventions to which
France is a member, which are of relevance to
Martinique, include the Convention for the Protection
and Development of the Marine Environment of the
Wider Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region (both of which were ratified by France
on 13 November 1985) and a second Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife,
signed by France in 1991. Together, the Convention and
associated protocols are known as the Cartagena
Convention. Martinique is a member of the Caribbean
Conservation Association (CCA), a regional,
non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources.

Administration and Management The French
governmental body responsible for the establishment of
parks and reserves (and setting hunting regulations) is
the Direction de la Protection de la Nature, part of the
Ministry of the Environment. Within Martinique, the
Office Nationale des Foréts (ONF) is responsible for
administration and management of all national and
public forests, and part of the litoral zone (J. Nosel,
pers. comm. 1992).

The regional nature park, which covers two-thirds of the
island, is administered by a board composed of
representatives of the municipalities, the region, and the
department. The park has a separate budget from the
ONF, and is under direct control of a Director, who
supervises a staff, with widespread technical expertise,
responsible for all management work. Caravelle
Peninsula Reserve is maintained by the nature park
authorities for its nature conservation interest and is
protected by a local wardening system (J. Nosel, pers.
comm. 1992).

There are several non-governmental conservation
groups, including the Société pour l’Etude de la
Protection et 1’Aménagement de la Nature en
Martinique, the Société des Amis du Parc, the Alliance
Nature et Dévéloppement, and the Association pour
Nature et Environnement. All these NGOs are
included within the Union Régionale des
Associations pour la Patrimoine et l’Environnement
de la Martinique (J. Nosel, pers. comm. 1992).

Protected Areas of the World

Systems Reviews Martinique, one of the Lesser
Antilles, is a mountainous volcanic island with lower
lying areas to the south. The highest point, Mt Pelée, is
an active volcano. The climate is tropical with a
well-defined dry season from November to March. The
island lies within the hurricane belt (Johnson, 1988).

Some 25% of the land area is still forested, but no natural
rain forest is thought to remain, and heavy demographic
pressure has led to general environmental degradation
(Desjeux and Desjeux, 1984). In the centre and at low
elevations there is secondary forest: at higher elevations,
montane thicket, palm brake and elfin woodland. Recent
figures for plant endemism are not available (Davis et
al,, 1986). An early estimate (Stehle et al, 1935-1939) of
4% is known to be an overestimate since many of the
species have been found on neighbouring islands.
*Almost pristine’, well-developed mangrove and
seagrass beds occur on the coast in the south-east.
Martinique has the second largest mangrove area in the
Lesser Antilles at Fort-de-France Bay (2,200ha). Narrow
fringing reefs occur around much of La Caravelle Nature
Reserve on the east coast. Barrier reefs occur along the
southern half of the east coast. Reefs also occur along the
south, and in the Fort-de-France bay on the west coast
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

The protected area system comprises principally
Martinique Regional Natural Park, La Caravelle Nature
Reserve, and several other, much smaller, reserves.

Portecop (1984) identifies a number of the problems
facing conservation efforts, including deforestation,
degradation of tourist attractions, and loss of wildlife
through poorly controlled hunting and fishing. Marine
resources, notably of lobster and Queen conch Strombus
gigas, have been over exploited as a result of the tourist
industry, and certain reefs are now under serious threat
from siltation (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

400

Addresses

Parc Naturel Regional, Ancienne Caserne Bouille,
97200 FORT-DE-FRANCE

Siége du Parc, Tivoli, Ancien Collége Agricole, 97200
FORT-DE-FRANCE

Société d’Etude, de Protection et d’Aménagement de la
Nature en Martinique, SEPANMAR, s/c Office du
Tourisme, 97200 FORT196DE 6FRANCE

References

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson,
L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H.
and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do
we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 461 pp.

Desjeux, C. et Desjeux, B. (1984). Les parcs naturels
régionaux de France. Editions Créer, Nonette,
France.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. CBP
Monograph 1. International Council for Bird
Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 144 pp.

Portecop, J. (1984). Country summary for Martinique.
In: Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings for the Workshop
Biosphere Reserves and other protected areas for
sustainable development of small Caribbean islands.
US Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 190 pp.

Stehle, H., Stehle, M., and Quentin, L. (1935-1939).
Flore de la Guadeloupe et Dependences et de la
Marrtinique. Catholic Press, Basse-Terre.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Martinique

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Décret No. 67-158 relatif aux parc Title: Loi no. 76/629 relative 4 la protection
naturel régionaux (Decree No. 67-158 relating de la Nature (Nature Conservation Act
to regional natural parks) and subsequent No. 76 629); and decrees relating to the
Decrees Nos. 75-983 and 88-443 implementation of this Act (including nos.

. 77/1141; 77/1295; 77/1296; 77/1297; 77/1298;
Brief description: | Provides the criteria for the 77/1300)

establishment and designation of regional natural

parks. The 1975 Decree gave more responsibility Date: 10 July 1976

to the regions concerning the designation of these

areas, a move that was strengthened by the 1988 Brief description: A wide-ranging Act, covering
Decree which replaced it. the protection of natural areas and the countryside,

the preservation of animal and plant species, and the
maintenance of biological equilibrium through the
protection of natural resources against all causes of

Date: 1 March 1967, 24 October 1975,
25 April 1988

Administrative authority: Separate degradation. This Act includes framework

administrative organisations are established for provisions for the definition, designation and

each park. establishment of nature reserves, voluntary nature
reserves and biotope protection orders.

Designations:

Administrative authority: Directorate for

Parc naturel régional (Regional nature park) Nature Conservation

An area may be classified as such if it is of particular

interest due to its natural and cultural heritage, for Designations:

reasons of leisure, recreation and tourism, or if it

merits protection. Réserve naturelle (Nature reserve)

— The term ’parc naturel régional’ is reserved for — Where the conservation of the fauna, flora,
areas Classified as such according to the terms subsoil, water, mineral and fossil deposits and, in
provided in this decree. general, the natural surroundings is of particular

— A territory with a fragile ecological balance and importance, or which require the suspension of
rich natural and cultural heritage. all artificial intervention that might lead to their

— Tobe actively managed for the protection of the degradation.
environment; to contribute to the social and — Classification of sites may include areas of
economic development of the area; to encourage French territorial waters.
promotion of facilities for public recreation, — Factors taken into consideration include:
education and information; and the performance preservation of species and habitats;
of experiments and contribute to research conservation of botanical gardens or arboretums;
programmes. preservation of biotopes and formations of

— Each park is governed by a Charter drawn up by geological, geomorphological or speleological
common agreement between the regions and the interest; preservation or creation of stop-over
interested local communities. points on major migration routes; scientific or

Source: Original legislation in French parecer ea Ce ea ners

— Established with the approval of the Ministry of
the Environment under an agreement of a
contractual nature. Subject to the owner’s
consent the decision to establish a reserve is
issued in the form of a decree; if the owners
object, publication is followed by a survey and
the reserve is designated by a Council of State
decree, setting out details of permitted activities.

Source: Original legislation in French

401

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations IUCN management Area Year
Name of area category (ha) notified
Nature Reserve

Caravelle 1517 1976
Regional Nature Park

Martinique Vv 70,150 1976

402

Martinique

Protected Areas of France — Martinique

403

MONTSERRAT (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 104 sq. km

Population 11,852 (1985)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 3,769 per capita (1987
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Montserrat is a dependent
territory of the United Kingdom. The island’s
constitution came into force in 1960 and has been
amended in 1971 and 1975.

There is no substantive legislation for establishing and
managing natural areas for either the conservation of
fauna and flora or the declaration of terrestrial or marine
parks (Butler, 1991). The Forestry Ordinance, 1956
gives the government power to declare private land to be
protected forest, on lands susceptible to erosion, or
important sources of water or timber. It is not known to
what extent these provisions are enforced (Miller et al.,
1988). Administratively, forests above the 1,500 foot
altitude line are considered to be protected, and the
Ordinance has stringent powers to deal with land
clearance. These powers have apparently not been
invoked (Butler, 1991). In 1987 a draft Forestry and
Wildlife Ordinance was prepared under the auspices of
the FAO. This makes provision for the establishment of
forest reserves, protected forests and conservation areas.
The Ordinance is currently under final review.

Foxes Bay Bird Sanctuary, owned by the Montserrat
Company, is on lease to the Montserrat National Trust
and was a declared a protected wildlife area in 1979. A
few other areas have also been set aside for conservation,
land being vested with the National Trust or the tourism
authorities.

International Activities Montserrat is included in
the UK’s ratification of the following international
agreements; the Convention conceming the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention).

The UK Government ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991.
Montserrat is not, however, included in the UK’s
ratification of the Cartagena Convention.

The Montserrat National Trust has been a member of the
Caribbean Conservation Association since 1971. The
government of Montserrat joined the Association in
1979.

405

Administration and Management’ The Forest
Administration within the Ministry of Agriculture,
Housing, Labour and Tourism, is responsible for
administering provisions of the Forest Ordinance.
According to Miller et al. (1988), low salaries, in
comparison with the agricultural sector, were a cause of
problems in recruiting competent personnel.

There is currently no governmental organisation with
responsibilities for wildlife conservation, although the
draft Forestry and Wildlife Ordinance makes provision
for a single government department responsible for
management and wildlife, the Forestry and Wildlife
Division.

The 400-member Montserrat National Trust is the main
body that promotes conservation. It was established in
1970 under the Montserrat National Trust Ordinance
(1970) with which the government delegated its interest
in the conservation of the island’s cultural and natural
heritage. Since its inception, the Trust has encouraged
designation of sites for conservation, development of
legislation, collection of information, and public
awareness programmes. Core funding for the work of the
Montserrat National Trust is provided by WWF-UK. At
present funding from WWF provides office premises
together with support for a national parks coordinator
and secretary.

Systems Reviews Montserrat is a small volcanic
island with two main areas of highland reaching altitudes
greater than 740m. Much of the land surface is very
rugged, with deep gorges, and the coastline is
characterised by truncated spurs and hanging valleys.
Rainfall is seasonal, and varies with altitude. On lands
with rainfall of more than 1750mm per year, lower
montane and montane rain forest represent the climax
vegetation. The need to preserve forest areas in order to
protect water supplies and maintain the visual
appearance of the island has been repeatedly stated, for
example by Corker (1986) and Oldfield (1987).

Margetson (1984) identified three major problems in
conserving resources: low financial and technical input
in resource use; deforestation and over exploitation of
fish resources; and conflict between individual and
national needs and conservation needs. An additional
concern is the lack of a coordinated government policy
on conservation.

Tourism potential is likely to feature strongly in the
development of the island’s economy. Increased demand
for suitable land may result in areas of conservation
value being threatened. For example, a planned resort
developmentat Little Bay coincides with one of the most
important sea turtle rookeries on the island. Positive
aspects of tourism include the management of sites for
ecotourism, with the production of brochures, placement
of signs and improvement of trails.

Protected Areas of the World

In 1980 the CCA, through the Eastern Caribbean Natural
Areas Management Programme (ECNAMP), assisted
the Montserrat National Trust in preparing a proposal to
establish a national park. Plans to create Montserrat
National Park, that would include Soufriere Hills and
Galway Estate (total 810ha), have existed since 1982.
Sites within the area of the proposed park are already
maintained by the National Trust, and the development
of the national park remains an urgent necessity (Butler,
1991).

Addresses

Montserrat National Trust (Coordinator, National
Parks), Parliament Street, PLYMOUTH
(Tel: 809 491 3086)

References

Bovey, R. (1986). Montserrat - a summary of available
information and a proposal for a system of protected
natural sites. Unpublished report to Montserrat
National Trust, the Government of Montserrat and
WWF-UK.

Butler, J.R. (1986). Montserrat National Park. Park
News 22(3): 15-19 (the journal of the Canadian Parks
and Wilderness Society).

Butler, P. (1991). Making a move on Montserrat. Rare
Center, Philadelphia.

Corker, I.R. (1986). Montserrat: a resource assessment.
Land Resources Development Centre, ODA.

ECNAMP (1980). Montserrat Preliminary Data Atlas.
Survey of conservation priorities in the Lesser
Antilles. Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas
Management Programme.

Gibbs, D. (1986). Montserrat. In: Scott, D.A. and
Carbonell, M. (Eds), Directory of Neotropical
wetlands. IUCN, Cambridge and IWRB Slimbridge,
UK. 684 pp.

Island Resources Foundation (1987). Draft bibliography
for Montserrat. Print-out from IRF database.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and Conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. ICBP
Monograph 1. ICBP, Cambridge, UK.

Margetson, F. (1984). Montserrat. In: Wood, J. (Ed.),
Proceedings for the workshop on biosphere reserves
and other protected areas for sustainable
development of small Caribbean islands. National
Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1988).
Biological diversity and tropical forests assessment.
Annex to RDO/C action plan, FY88-89. Pp. 58-67.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of Paradise. A guide for
conservation action in the UK dependent territories.
British Association of Nature Conservationists,
Oxford, UK.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Forest Ordinance

Date: 1956

Brief description: No information

Administrative authority: No information

406

Designations:

Protected Forest _—_To declare private land to be
protected forest, on lands susceptible to erosion, or
important sources of water or timber. Under the
Ordinance, clearing of forest, cutting of timber or
fuelwood and livestock grazing is illegal without the
permission of the Forestry Board. It is not known to
what extent these provisions are enforced .

NETHERLANDS ANTILLES (NETHERLANDS)

Area 800 sq. km

Population 192,866 (1988 estimate) (Hunter, 1991)
Natural increase: 6% decrease per annum (1985-1989)
(CBS Statistical Yearbook, 1990)

Economic indicators

GDP: US$ 4,519 per capita (1985) (CBS national
accounts)

GNP: US$ 4,797 per capita (1985) (CBS national
accounts)

Policy and Legislation Until 1 January 1986 the
Netherlands Antilles consisted of six islands, Aruba,
Curacao, Bonaire, St Maarten, St Eustatius and Saba.
From 1 January 1986, Aruba became an autonomous
state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which now
comprises The Netherlands, The Netherlands Antilles,
and Aruba.

Protected areas legislation passed by the central
government of the Netherlands Antilles (in Curacao) has
in the past provided the basis for measures in the
dependent territories. Responsibility for the
environment is now being devolved, which creates the
need for each island government to develop its own
legislation. Marine protected areas legislation was
published in 1978, but never came into force (PB 1976,
No. 157).

Bonaire Island government has passed several
ordinances dealing with the conservation of marine
resources. An island Ordinance (AB Bonaire 1967,
No. 7) was published to establish terrestrial parks, but is
not in force. In 1985 the Marine Environment Ordinance
was passed which incorporates existing marine
environmental legislation, and provides for
comprehensive management regulation with regard to
fisheries, coral reefs and the vulnerable Lac Lagoon.
This Ordinance has been amended during 1992 to
included user fees, licensing of tour operators and total
ban on marine turtle catching (AB Bonaire, 1991 No. 8,
21, 22).

The existing marine conservation legislation in Curacao
is the Reef Management Ordinance, Curagao (1976),
No 48. This applies to all island waters and forms the
basis for the establishment of Curacao Underwater Park.
The Ordinance prohibits spearfishing and the breaking
of corals. The Ordinance also provides for the
introduction of island resolutions to provide further
protection. A draft Island Ordinance on Nature Reserves
has been submitted to the Curacao Island government,
to provide a general framework for the designation of
areas on land or underwater as parks or protected areas;
this draft awaits discussion in the island council. A
similar ordinance on marine reserves exists at central
government level.

407

Saba Marine Park was designated by the island
government on 25 June 1987, through the Marine
Environment Ordinance (AB Saba 1987, No. 10) and its
accompanying island resolutions. In addition to a zoning
plan, overall park regulations exist in all zones of the
park, prohibiting nearly all spear fishing, taking of coral,
anchoring in coral and dumping waste. This Ordinance
and its resolutions also provide for licensing of tour
operators and a visitor fee system. The ordinance was
amended in 1991, to introduce yachting fees and to raise
the existing visitor fees.

International Activities The Kingdom of the
Netherlands ratified the Convention for the Protection
and Development of the Wider Caribbean Region
(Cartagena Convention) on 24 March 1983 and the
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 16 April 1984.
On 28 January 1990 a second Protocol concerning
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife was signed; the
ratification was made on behalf of the Netherlands
Antilles and Aruba. The Kingdom of Holland also
acceded to the Convention concerning the Protection of
Wetlands Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) on 23 May 1980, with the Netherlands
Antilles listed on accession on the same date. Five sites
in the Netherlands Antilles have been designated under
the Convention. The Netherlands participates in the
Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, although no
biosphere reserves have been established within the
Netherlands Antilles.

In 1981, STINAPA St Maarten published proposals for
a protected area that would include both Dutch and
French territory on this island (see Systems Reviews).

Administration and Management Administration
and management of protected areas used to be the
responsibility of a non-governmental organisation
(NGO), the Netherlands Antilles National Parks
Foundation (Stichting Nationale Parken Nederlandse
Antillean (STINAPA)), with headquarters in Curacao
and established in 1963. The aim of the organisation is
to promote nature conservation through acquisition of
land, establishment of parks, and education. Due to
decentralisation of responsibility for the environment,
today all islands of the Netherlands Antilles have their
own independent conservation NGO. In Bonaire this is
STINAPA Bonaire; in Saba, the Saba Conservation
Foundation; in St Maarten, STINAPA St Maarten; and
in St Eustatius, STINAPA Statia.

The establishment of terrestrial and underwater parks in
Bonaire, Curacao and Saba has been made possible by
funding from WWF-Netherlands, the Prince Bernhard
Fund, the Netherlands government and the island
governments. Terrestrial parks in Bonaire and Curacao
have a well-established management structure. The

Protected Areas of the World

underwater parks are managed both by implementation
of effective legislation and by preventing accidental
damage to the reefs. They are patrolled by staff members
who have some law enforcement authority. Of particular
concer is spear fishing which, if unchecked, would
severely reduce the population of larger fish. Mooring
buoys are provided to minimise damage to the reef in
protected areas.

Management of underwater parks aims both to maintain
their biological value, and to permit the development of
their economic potential (fisheries and recreation) on a
sustainable basis. Research needs are determined in
cooperation with the Caribbean Marine Biological
Institute (CARMABI) and other research institutions.
The park staff primarily address aspects of park
management that require relatively quick answers, while
the CARMABI focuses on more fundamental studies
that provide baseline data for reef management.
Scientific backing for the establishment of marine
protected areas has come from CARMABI. The Institute
has been engaged in coral reef research since 1957, and
a research programme on coral reef management has
been conducted by the Institute since 1971. Most work
has been done on Curagao.

Systems reviews The Netherlands Antilles
comprises two groups of islands. Bonaire and Curacao
are referred to as the "Leeward Islands", although they
lie geographically within the Windward Islands of the
Lesser Antilles. St Maarten, St Eustatius and Saba,
which lie 900km north of the Leeward group are referred
to as the "Windward" group, although geographically
they lie within the Leeward Islands. The island of
St Maarten is divided territorially between the
Netherlands and France.

The reefs off the south-west coasts of Bonaire and
Curagao generally have a common profile. The main
features are a submarine terrace extending 50-100m
from the coast to a 8-12m deep dropoff and a steep slope
from the drop-off to a depth of 50-60m. The most prolific
coral growth is found over this terrace and slope,
although individual corals penetrate deeper and are
found on a second drop-off at 80m, which is separated
from the steep slope by a sediment-covered terrace.
St Eustatius is on a relatively shallow bank with St Kitts
and Nevis, and has an inactive volcano at the southern
end. Much of the shoreline is rocky and steep with few
sandy beaches. Saba is also an inactive volcano and rises
steeply to the 870m peak of Mt Scenery, with a nearly
continuous steeply sloping, eroding shore. Depths
exceeding 500m are found within 1km of the shore, yet
approximately 2km from the shore two sea mounts rise
to a depth of only 30m. There are few sheltered bays
around the rocky coastline and no permanent beaches.
There are no wetlands on Saba or St Eustatius, but
St Maarten has a few large saline lagoons (Scott and
Carbonell, 1986). A coral reef survey was carried out in
1989 (Van ’t Hof, 1989).

408

Tourism is being developed among the islands and is an
increasingly important source of revenue, diving tourism
in particular enjoying strong growth. The attraction of
the coral reefs depends on their unspoilt nature;
consequently, if the diving industry is to develop, the
quality of the reefs must be sustained. This need to
maintain natural resources is reflected in an increase in
active reef management. A brief survey of the Saba coast
was carried out in 1984 to provide information on
which to plan the establishment of the marine park
(Van ’t Hof, 1985). There are 35 dive sites on Saba,
which are now within Saba Marine Park, intended to
preserve the coast while allowing sustainable use of its
resources. On St Maarten, the most populated island,
rapid tourism development is taking place, and three
SCUBA operators take divers out to dive sites along
the southeast coast of the island (J. Sybesma, pers.
comm., 1991).

In 1981, STINAPA St Maarten published proposals for
a protected area that would include both Dutch and
French territory. The recommendation emphasises
protection of natural beauty of the French side (Les Deux
Fréres) and protection of the cultural heritage on the
Dutch side (Belvedere). The recommendation suggests
that the Parc Naturel de Guadeloupe or any French
foundation should own the French part and that
STINAPA should own the Dutch part. Administration
would be by one bi-national management committee
with two sub-committees (Kristensen and Vliegen,
1981). Funding was secured during 1991 for the
establishment of a land park in the Belvedere area
(J. Sybesma, pers. comm., 1991).

Backhuis (1984) identified lack of regulation on ground
water management as a problem facing conservation on
Curacao, loss of land to industry and urbanisation, and
loss of wildlife on all islands. Lack of development
planning for tourism, agriculture and industry are also
the main threats to natural areas and wetlands identified
by de Boer (1986). A draft Island Development plan is
under review (1992) and hopefully will be passed in the
near future.

Addresses

Caribbean Marine Biological Institute (CARAMBI),
PO Box 2090, WILLEMSTAD, Curacao
(Tel: 9 624242/624705

Netherlands Antilles National Parks Foundation
(STINAPA), PO Box 2090, WILLEMSTAD,
Curacao

Saba Conservation Foundation, c/o Administration
Building, The Bottom, Saba (Tel/FAX: 4 63348)

STINAPA Bonaire, PO Box 368, Bonaire Saba
Conservation Foundation, The Bottom, Saba

References

Bakhuis, W.L. (1984). Bonaire and Curagao. In:
Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the workshop on
biosphere reserves and other protected areas for

sustainable development of small Caribbean islands.
National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

de Boer, B.A. (1986). Netherlands Antilles. In: Scott,
D.A. and Carbonell, M. (Eds), A directory of
Neotropical wetlands. 1\UCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

IUCN (1987). Directory of wetlands of international
importance. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 445 pp.

Kristensen, I. and Vliegen, J. (1981). Concept
bi-national reserve Saint Maarten/Saint Martin.
Unpublished report. STINAPA.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of
Neotropical wetlands. I\UCN, Cambridge and
International Wildfowl and Wetlands Research
Bureau, Slimbridge. 684 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional

Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands)

Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

van ’t Hof, T. (1984). Bonaire Marine Park: an approach
to coral reef management in small islands. In:
McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National
Parks Conservation and Development. Proceedings
of the World Congress on National Parks, Bali, 1982.
825 pp.

van ’t Hof. T. (1985). Saba Marine Park. A proposal
for integrating marine resource management.
STINAPA, Curacao.

van ’t Hof T. (1989). Towards conservation of the marine
environment St. Maarten/St Martin. Report of a
preliminary reef survey prepared for STINAPA
St. Maarten. (Unseen)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Parks '

1 Christoffel (Curacao) II 1,860 1978

2 Washington-Slagbaai (Bonaire) II 5,900 1969
Marine Parks

3 Bonaire Vill 6,000 1979

4 Saba Vill 1,000 1987
Underwater Park

5 Curacao Vill 1,036 1983
Ramsar Wetlands
Slaagbaai R 90 1980
Gotomeer R 150 1980
Lac R 700 1980
Pekelmeer R 400 1980
Klein Bonaire Island R 600 1980

409

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of the Netherlands Antilles

410

PUERTO RICO

Area 8,897 sq. km

Population 3,480,000 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.00% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 6,856 per capita (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation Puerto Rico is a
self-governing commonwealth in free association with
the United States of America, and laws and regulations
enacted by both US federal and Puerto Rican
(commonwealth) legislatures apply. While the United
States has a wide range of legislative measures dealing
with the protection of sites, no national parks,
monuments or marine sanctuaries have been established
in Puerto Rico. Only three categories of protected area
have been created under US federal legislation in Puerto
Rico: national wildlife refuge, national forest, and
national estuarine research reserve. The only designation
which comes under the jurisdiction of the US National
Park System is San Juan Historic Site, established under
the 1935 Historic Sites Act.

National forests are established under the authority of the
Creative Act or Forest Reserve Act, 1891, which
authorises the President to withdraw portions of the
public domain for designation. Several later acts clarify
the management and objectives of the reserves,
including the Organic Administration Act, 1897, which
defines areas as being for the protection of water flow
and the provision of a continuous supply of timber; and
the McSweeney-McNary Act, 1928, which established
research as a major function of the Forest Service. The
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act, 1960 recognised the
range of uses to which forest lands could be put, and
areas of natural forest can be designated under the
Wilderness Act, 1964.

The Coastal Zone Management Act, 1972 makes
provision for the creation of a national system of
estuarine research reserves representative of the various
biogeographical regions and estuarine types in the
United States, called the National Estuarine Research
Reserve System. Areas are designated by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Provision for the establishment of national marine
sanctuaries is made under the Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972. The Act authorises
the Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean and
coastal waters as national marine sanctuaries for the
purpose of preserving or restoring their conservation,
recreational, ecological or aesthetic value. Designation
under the Act has the advantage of protecting a discrete
ecosystem, as opposed to individual natural resources
and species under several different laws. The sanctuary
designation process was significantly amended in 1984

411

to increase the emphasis on sustainable multiple use and
planning. The designation process begins when NOAA
selects an area from its own site evaluation list to be an
active candidate. Only after the drafting of management
plans, two environmental impact statements and a public
hearing can the area be designated.

Puerto Rican laws make provision for the designation of
commonwealth forests, wildlife refuges and natural
reserves. The Forestry Law (Ley de Bosques) No. 133,
1975 makes provision for protection and administration
of forests. Wildlife habitats can be protected under the
Department of Natural Resources (Departamento de
Recursos Naturales) (DRN) Organic Law, as amended,
and the Wildlife Law (Ley de Vida Silvestre) No. 23,
1972, under which two wildlife refuges have been
declared. Natural reserves are designated by the Puerto
Rico Planning Board and the DRN, under the Puerto
Rico Coastal Zone Management Plan.

The Department of Natural Resources conducted a
review of endangered species of flora and fauna as part
of the Natural Heritage Programme (Programa de
Patrimonio Natural), initiated in 1983. The study
identified the areas most important to their survival, and
as aresult, a Regulation on Threatened and Endangered
Species, taking its authority from the Wildlife Law, was
developed. This regulation sets out procedures for
protecting species and their habitats, and lists species and
critical habitat in the appendices. Section 5 of the
Regulation gives the Secretary authority to designate
areas as critical habitats, and 12 areas providing habitat
for 7 species have so far been designated (DRN, 1985).
Wildlife is also protected under federal legislation,
namely the Endangered Species Act (Scott and
Carbonell, 1986).

The Natural Heritage Act (Ley del Programa de
Patrimonio Natural), 1988 makes provision for the
creation of a natural heritage programme within the
DRN, with funds to acquire, restore and manage areas of
natural value identified by the programme. The aim of
this programme is to augment conservation efforts
currently in effect by facilitating the acquisition of land,
and increasing cooperation between governmental and
nongovernmental conservation organisations.

International Activities Puerto Rico joined the
Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional,
nongovernmental, nonprofit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources, in 1984.

The United States has ratified the following international
conventions on behalf of Puerto Rico: the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and the
Convention of Wetlands of International Importance

Protected Areas of the World

especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)
but no sites have been listed under either convention.
Through the United States, Puerto Rico also participates
in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme and has
two sites listed.

Administration and Management Four US
federal agencies and three Puerto Rican agencies, as well
as private conservation organisations, have a role in
protected areas administration.

The US National Park Service (USNPS), part of the
US Department of the Interior, is responsible for
administration and management of the national park
system. However, no natural sites in Puerto Rico have
been assigned the national park designation, and the NPS
has responsibility for only one site, San Juan Historic
Site (H. Diaz-Soltero, pers. comm., 1988).

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), a federal
agency within the US Department of the Interior, is
responsible for managing national wildlife refuges in
Puerto Rico (Diaz-Soltero, pers. comm., 1988). These
form the major direct habitat preservation effort of the
Service, and there are four established refuges. The FWS
is also responsible for the implementation of the
Endangered Species Act and the protection of wetlands
(S.R. Silander, pers. comm., 1991).

National wildlife refuges can be established under an Act
of Congress, but can also be transferred to the authority
of the FWS by administrative action, such as transfer of
land from another agency (federal or state), or by receipt
of a gift of land (from a state or unit of local government,
a private organisation or an individual). While
management objectives may vary considerably from site
to site, refuges are established essentially for the
restoration, preservation and management of wildlife
habitat, and for the preservation of threatened and
endangered species.

The US Forest Service (USFS), which is a part of the
US Department of Agriculture (USDA), is responsible
for national forests and wilderness areas. In Puerto
Rico the USFS is responsible for the management of
Caribbean National Forest, or Luquillo Experimental
Forest (H. Diaz-Soltero, pers. comm., 1988).

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), which is a part of the US Department of
Commerce, is responsible for administering the National
Estuarine Reserve Research System (NERRS), through
the Marine and Estuarine Sanctuaries Division of the
Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management
(OCRM), Sanctuary’s Program Division. Jobos Bay
NERR is administered by the Puerto Rico DRN and a
management plan was prepared in 1983.

There are three Puerto Rican agencies with
responsibility for natural resources: the Department of
Natural Resources (Departamento de Recursos
Naturales) (DRN), the Planning Board and the
Environmental Quality Board (EQB). The DRN is the

412

governmental organisation responsible for nature
conservation, and administers various state and
federal laws affecting wildlife and its habitats. The
14 commonwealth forest reserves (bosques
estatales) are administered by the Puerto Rican
Forest Service, which is a part of the DRN. The
wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre) and
natural reserves (reservas naturales) are managed
by the Division of Sanctuaries and Natural
Reserves, which is within the Area of Forests,
Sanctuaries, and Natural Reserves of the DRN.

The Puerto Rican Planning Board, working with the
DRN, is able to recognise recreational and natural
resource values of areas, within the planning process.
There are, for example, special planning areas
designated in the Puerto Rico Coastal Management Plan.

Several non-governmental organisations (NGOs) work
in conservation and promote protected areas, including
the Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation (Fundacié6n
Puertorriquefia de Conservacion), and the Conservation
Trust of Puerto Rico (A.M. Vera, pers. comm., 1992).
The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International
and the Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation provide
support to establish the conservation data centre of the
Natural Heritage Programme of Puerto Rico (Programa
de Patrimonio Natural de Puerto Rico) (A.M. Vera, pers.
comm., 1992). This centre has produced a number of
reports of direct value in conserving the flora and fauna
of the island, and has enabled increased input to
environmental impact assessment by the department.
The information managed by the centre has also allowed
reviews to be made of the protected areas system
(Figueroa Colén et al., 1984).

The Natural Heritage Programme, established in 1988,
encourages coordination between governmental
institutes and NGOs in order to improve protected area
selection and management. As part of this programme,
a Consultative Council (Consejo Consultivo) was
created to assess the activities of the DRN, ensuring
cooperation with NGOs and compliance with the
objectives of the programme.

Systems Reviews Puerto Rico is a small and fairly
mountainous island, with 80% of all level land situated
in the coastal plain, where overpopulation and
development results. Following the classification system
formulated by Holdridge (1967), six life zones occur,
ranging from dry forest at sea level to rain forest and wet
montane forest (Ewel and Whitmore, 1973).

The dominant life zone is subtropical moist forest,
covering over 58% of total land area, characterised by
annual rainfall of 1100mm to 2220mm and temperatures
between 18°C and 24°C. This zone is located in the
central mountain region and along the coast (Ewel and
Whitmore, 1973). Much of this region has been
deforested. Grasses now form the predominant
vegetation type, and farming is extensive.

The subtropical wet forest zone occupies much of the
higher parts of mountains with a high annual rainfall of
2000mm to 4000mm. Characteristic vegetation types are
epiphytic ferns, bromeliads and orchids. Much of this
zone is covered by coffee plantations, particularly in the
western region of the island, and some sugar cane has
also been grown here. The zone is very important as a
source of runoff, supplying water to the drier coastal
areas where the majority of the population is located
(Ewel and Whitmore, 1973).

There are two lower montane life zones, subtropical lower
montane wet forest and subtropical lower montane rain
forest. The former is the most extensive of the two, covering
the eastern and central parts of the island up to the summits
of most mountains above 1,000m, and is characterised by
three types of vegetation: mature, open canopy colorado
forest; cloud forest comprising dwarf trees and mosses; and
palm brakes consisting of pure stands of a single palm
species. This zone is too fragile for any commercial forestry
or agriculture, although some dairy cattle are grazed. The
latter, subtropical lower montane rain forest zone, is the
smallest area of all the zones, and accounts for only 0.1%
of total land area. It is located ina single bandon the leeward
side of the Luquillo Mountains, entirely within Luquillo
Experimental Forest. The vegetation is very similar to that
of the subtropical lower montane wet forest zone but with
a greater abundance of epiphytes.

Immediately below these two zones is the subtropical
rain forest zone, also occurring only ina single band and
characterised by heavy rainfall. Located in the alluvial
coastal areas is the subtropical dry forest zone, the driest
on the island with average annual rainfall of 600mm to
1000mm. The vegetation tends to form complete ground
cover and is almost entirely deciduous (Ewel and
Whitmore, 1973).

Since the arrival of European colonists, 90% of Puerto Rico
has been deforested, and almost all remaining forests are
intensively disturbed. Much of the present tree cover is in
the form of coffee plantations and secondary forest. The
area covered by secondary forest has indeed increased more
recently to about 40%, with the decline of the sugar cane
industry (Brash, 1987). Only 0.2% of the original forests
now remain, largely in Luquillo Experimental Forest and
Gudnica Commonwealth Forest (Wiley, 1985).

The first reserve to be established was Caribbean
National Forest, also known as Luquillo Experimental
Forest, from land that previously belonged to the Spanish
Crown in 1907 (Little and Woodbury, 1980). By 1980,
a system of 14 commonwealth forests was well
distributed across the island, covering 24,000ha ranging
from mangrove forest in coastal regions to high alpine
forest at the peaks of the Luquillo Mountains (Little and
Woodbury, 1980).

In the United States, estuarine research reserves
collectively form the National Estuarine Reserve
Research System (NERRS), which is a nationwide
network of reserves established in various representative

413

Puerto Rico (USA)

biogeographic regions and estuarine types across the
country, and includes the Commonwealth of Puerto
Rico. They are to provide longterm education and
research opportunities (NOAA, 1987). In 1987, the
system comprised 16 sites, with one in Puerto Rico,
Jobos National Estuarine Research Reserve, established
through US federal-Puerto Rican cooperation. No
marine sanctuaries have been established in Puerto Rico;
the proposed La Parguera NMS was not implemented.
There are no candidate national marine sanctuaries, but
Cordillera Reefs remains on the (1983) NMS site
evaluation list (Foster and Archer, 1988).

Further details on the extent of coverage of protected
areas, and the degree of protection afforded to the major
ecosystems, are required.

Addresses

Caribbean Field Office, US Fish and Wildlife Service,
PO Box 491, BOQUERON, Puerto Rico 00622
(Tel: 809 851 7297; FAX: 809 851 7440)

Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuges, US Fish
and Wildlife Service, PO Box 510, BOQUERON,
Puerto Rico 00622

Caribbean National Forest, Forest Service, US
Department of Agriculture, PO Box 25000, RIO
PIEDRAS, Puerto Rico 00928

Departamento de Recursos Naturales, (DRN),
Programma de Patrimonio Natural, PO Box
5887, PUERTA DE TIERRA, Puerto Rico 00906
(Tel: 809 723 1464/3090; FAX: 809 722 2785)

Institute of Tropical Forestry, Forest Service US
Department of Agriculture, PO Box 25000, RIO
PIEDRAS, Puerto Rico 00928

Marine and Estuarine Sanctuaries Division, Office
of Ocean and Coastal Resources, NOAA, 1825
Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 714,
WASHINGTON DC 20235

National Park Service, PO Box 712, OLD SAN JUAN,
Puerto Rico 00902

Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico, PO Box 4747, SAN
JUAN, Puerto Rico 00905

Fundacion Puertorriquefia de Conservacion, Calle
O’Neill #11, HATO REY, Puerto Rico 00918
(Tel. 809 7639875; FAX: 809 7639895)

References

Birdsey, R.A. and Weaver, P.L. (1982). The forest
resources of Puerto Rico. USDA Forest Service
Resource Bulletin, SO-85, Southern Forest
Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 59 pp.

Birdsey, R.A. and Weaver, P.L. (1987). Forest area
trends in Puerto Rico. Research Note SO-331. USDA
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA. 5 pp.

Brash, A.R. (1987). The history of avian extinction and
forest conversion on Puerto Rico. Biological
Conservation 39: 97-111.

Davis, $.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa Lobos, J., Synge, H. and

Protected Areas of the World

Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we
know?. Conservation Monitoring Centre, Kew, UK.
461 pp.

DRN (1980). Suplemento técnico para la Reserva
Natural Caja de Muertos. Departamento de Recursos
Naturales, Area de Investigaciones Cientificas, San
Juan. 246 pp.

DRN (1983). Suplemento técnico para el plan de manejo
de la Reserva Natural de Bahtfa de Jobos. Divisién
de Asesoramiento Técnico Area de Investigaciones
Cientificas, Departamento de Recursos Naturales,
San Juan. 144 pp.

DRN (1985). Regulation to govern the management of
threatened and endangered species in the
mmonwealth of Puerto Rico. Department of Natural
Resources, San Juan. 34 pp.

Dodd, C.K. and Ortiz, P.R. (1983). An endemic gecko
in the Caribbean. Oryx 17(3): 119-121.

Ewel, J.J. and Whitmore, J.L. (1973). Ecological life
zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Forest Service Research Paper ITF18. USDA Forest
Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. 72 pp.

Figueroa Colon, J.C., Ortiz, P.R., Quevedo, V. (1984).
Directrices para la evaluacién de 4reas naturales en
Puerto Rico. Departamento de Recursos naturales de
Puerto Rico.

Foster, N.M. and Archer, J.H. (1988). The National
Marine Sanctuary program - policy, education and
reearch. Oceanus 31(1): 4-17.

Green, S. (1985). The U.S. national marine sanctuary
program. In: Lien, J. and Graham, R. (Eds), Marine
parks and conservation: challenge and promise.
Volume 2. The National and Provincial Parks
Association of Canada, Toronto. Pp. 45-54.

Little, E.L. Jr. and Wadsworth, F.H. (1964). Common
trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Agricultural Handbook No. 249, Washington D.C.,
USA. Pp. 1217.

Little, E.L. Jr. and Woodbury (1980). Rare and endemic
trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

414

Conservation Research Report No. 27. US
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Washington DC. Pp. 18.

Lugo, A-E. and Brown, S. (1981). Ecological monitoring
in the Luquillo Forest Reserve. Ambio 10(2-3):
102-107.

Mohlenbrock, R.H. (1987). Elfin forest, Puerto Rico.
Natural History 12/87: 20-22.

NOAA/DRN (1983). Jobos Bay National Estuarine
Sanctuary, management plan. Office of Ocean and
Coastal Resources Management and Department of
Natural Resources. 87 pp.

Raffaele, H.A. (1983). A guide to the birds of Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands. Fondo Educativo
Interamericano, Rio Piedras. 249 pp.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Inventario de
humedales de la regién Neotropical. IUCN,
Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 714 pp.

The Nature Conservancy (1977). Preserving Our
Natural Heritage. Volume 1: Federal Activities.
Prepared for the National Park Service, US
Department of the Interior. Government Printing
Office, Washington DC.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

US Department of Commerce (1983). Proposed La Parguera
National Marine Sanctuary draft environmental act
Statement and management plan. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, DC.
169 pp.

US Department of Commerce (1984). Proposed La Parguera
National Marine Sanctuary final environmental pact
statement and management plan. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, DC.
251 pp.

Wiley, J.W. (1985). Bird conservation in the United
States Caribbean. Bird Conservation 2: 107-159.

Puerto Rico (USA)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Natural Reserves

1 Caja de Muertos IV 188

2 Laguna Tortuguero IV 1,000

3 Mona IV 5,554

National Wildlife Refuges

4 Cabo Rojo IV 238 1974
5 Culebra IV 633 1909
6 Desecheo IV 146 1968
7 Laguna Cartagena IV 324 1989
Wildlife Refuges
8 Boquerén IV 237
9 Humacao IV 1,026 1984
National Estuarine Research Reserve
10 Jobas Bay IV 1,371 1981
Natural Areas
11 Cabezas de San Juan IV 128 1975
12 Cafidn de San Cristébal IV 332 1974
13 Hacienda La Esperanza IV 922 1975
14 Laguna Guaniquilla IV ’ 157
15 Lands adjacent to the Bioluminescent Bay IV 131
National Forest
16 Caribbean/Luquillo Experimental Forest Vill 11,340
Commonwealth Forests
17 Aguirre IV 936 1918
18 Boquerén IV 803 1918
19 Cambalache IV 374 1951
20 Carite IV 2,695 1936
21 Ceiba IV 143 1918
22 Guajataca IV 927
23 Guénica IV 4,006 1919
24 Guilarte IV 1,457 1935
25 Maricao IV 4,149 1919
26 Pifiones IV 630 1918
27 Rio Abajo IV 2,275
28 Sustia IV 1,315 1935
29 Toro Negro IV 2,733 1934
30 Vega IV 448 1951
Biosphere Reserves
Gudnica Commonwealth Forest Reserve IX 4,006 1981
Luquillo Experimental Forest
(Caribbean National Forest) IX 11,340 1976

415

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Puerto Rico

416

ST KITTS AND NEVIS

Area 261 sq. km

Population 43,410 (1987) (Hunter, 1991)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: US$ 2,770 (Hunter, 1991)

Policy and Legislation The National Conservation
and Environment Protection Act No. 5 (NCEPA), 1987
provides for management and development of natural
and historic resources, establishment of protected areas
to help conserve these resources, and the establishment
of a Conservation Commission. Any protected area
designated under this Act has the following broad
purposes and objectives: to preserve the biological
diversity of wild flora and fauna species that may be
endemic, threatened, or of special concern, and the land
and marine habitats upon which the survival of these
species depends; to protect selected examples of
representative or unique biological communities, both
on land and in marine areas, and their physical
environments; to sustain natural areas important for
protection and maintenance of life support systems, and
basic ecological processes including water recharge and
soil regeneration; and to protect selected natural sites of
scenic beauty or of special scientific, ecological,
historical or educational value, including sites that are
already degraded and need protection for restoration or
sites that may become degraded if not protected. Part II
of the Act provides for the establishment of protected
areas, identified as national parks, nature reserves,
botanic gardens, marine reserves, protected marine
areas, historic sites, scenic sites, or areas of special
concer (see Annex). National parks are relatively large
areas of land and/or sea protected for their natural, scenic
or cultural features, while allowing sustainable
scientific, recreational and educational activities.
Nature reserves are created to protect an area in an
undisturbed state, where the only permitted activities are
management, controlled scientific research and
educational study. Under Part IV of the Act, authority
is conferred on the Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park
Saciety to make and enforce regulations for that area of
the same name.

After consultation with the Conservation Commission,
the Minister can designate a protected area by publishing
a Notice in the Gazette describing boundaries, intended
classification, and activities regulated or prohibited.
Where a proposed protected area includes private land,
the Minister of Development can either require
compulsory purchase, using the Land Acquisition Act,
or enter into an agreement with the land owner for the
right of access, and the right to control such land.

The Fisheries Act No. 4, 1984, modelled on the unified
draft circulated by FAO, provides for the establishment

417

of marine reserves and priority fishing areas, and
authorises the Minister to make regulations for the
management and protection of such areas (see Annex).
Although none has yet been declared (OECS, 1986), the
Conservation Commission is actively studying
proposals to implement the act (K. Archibold, pers.
comm., 1991).

The legal authority to designate a marine area as a
national park, marine reserve or a protected area is given
in both Part II, Section 3-6 of the National Conservation
and Environmental Protection Act and Part II, Section
23 (a-d) of the Fisheries Act. Although neither act
specifies an administrative authority to manage such an
area, both acts assign sufficient authority to the minister
responsible in both fields to make declarations and rules
to establish reserves and protected areas without first
obtaining the consent of parliament (Anon., n.d.)

Part VII of the NCEPA covers forestry, soil and water
conservation, and Section 35 provides for the
establishment of forest reserves. The Minister (in
consultation with the Conservation Commission) is
required to establish forest management schemes and the
necessary regulations, including the prohibition of
livestock grazing, although, to date, no regulations have
been promulgated (CCA/IRF, 1991). The Act also
provides for'protection of soil in areas of critical natural
drainage, and authorises the imposition of a fine for those
who burn the land, fell trees or allow grazing in critical
areas. Areas of special interest may be created where it
is prohibited to cultivate the land, graze livestock,
construct buildings or extract sand.

The Forestry Ordinance No. 10, 1903 was amended by
Ordinance No. 22, 1921 and No. 5, 1928. Regulations
for implementation of the legislation are found in the
Forestry (St Christopher) Regulations, the Forestry (Fuel
Supply) (St Christopher) Regulations, 1927 and the
Forestry (Nevis) Regulations, 1940. These regulations
mostly deal with the granting of permits for exploitation,
with specific requirements for charcoal burning, control
of fires and land clearing (DFS, 1983). While the
Forestry Ordinance, as amended, declares as forest
reserves all land covered with trees above the existing
line of cultivation when the law was passed in 1903,
these reserves have never been surveyed, gazetted or
demarcated (Miller et al., 1988). On St Kitts,
particularly, there is clearly a need for modern forestry
legislation due to growing pressures on the land (OECS,
1986). On Nevis, where land above 1,000 feet is now
totally protected through administrative means, there is
interest in developing legislation which would provide
authority to declare some forested areas as national parks
and other protected areas (OECS, 1986).

Part VI, Section 31 of the NCEPA makes provision for
the protection of beaches and the coastal zone out to

Protected Areas of the World

2km, and the Minister, through consultation with the
Conservation Commission, is responsible for the
preparation and implementation of a coastal zone
management plan to regulate development. The
Minister may declare certain areas to be protected
beaches, where activities such as fishing, the use of
boats, certain sports, mining, or removing treasures or
artifacts from the sea bed are prohibited. The Beach
Control Ordinance Cap. 281, 1961 provides authority to
control sand mining and construction on the foreshore
(tidal zone). Use or encroachment of the foreshore or
floor of the sea is prohibited, except with the permission
of the Minister of Agriculture, Lands, Housing and
Development (OECS, 1986).

The South-east Peninsula Act designates the whole
peninsula as a conservation area, with purposes clearly
laid out in the act (K. Archibold, pers. comm., 1991).

Outdated legislation (forestry) and lack of enforcement
(beach protection) are two deficiencies in current
legislation, although it is generally recognised that
protected area legislation needs strengthening in most
sectors (OECS, 1986).

International Activities The Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Wider Caribbean
Region, the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in
Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region and
the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife
(Cartagena Convention) has been neither signed nor
ratified. The Convention Concerning the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) was accepted on 10 July 1986, although, to
date, no sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage
List.

Administration and Management The Ministry of
Agriculture, Lands, Housing and Development is the
leading agency for the protection and conservation of
natural resources of the Federation of St Kitts and Nevis
(Anon., n.d.). The functions of this Ministry, in so far as
the selection, management, and administration of any
protected area are concerned, are carried out by the
advisory Conservation Commission. The Commission
is required to prepare management plans for protected
areas based on the best information available. Each
management plan must be approved by the Minister and
reviewed at least every five years, with a view torevision
where necessary. The management plans must contain
objectives with respect to different activities, and time
frames within which management activities will be
undertaken. The Commission currently consists of eight
members (there is provision for nine); the Chairman,
Deputy Chairman and up to three other representatives
are appointed by the Minister, while the six remaining
members are drawn from the Nevis Island
Administration, Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park
Society, and from the Nevis Historical and Conservation
Society. The current budget for recurrent expenditure is
US$ 100,000.

418

The Minister may, however, delegate powers and
functions to a competent authority (as defined) to
manage and administer any particular protected area.
Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park Society, a local
NGO originally established in 1965, runs the protected
area of the same name in this role.

The principal non-governmental organisation (NGO) in
Nevis concerned with environmental issues is the
Historical and Conservation Society, which, inter alia,
aims to promote and facilitate the protection and
preservation of the ecology and natural life forms on the
island. On St Kitts, the St Christopher Heritage Society
has as its major goals and objectives the safeguarding
and preservation of the country’s environmental,
historical, and cultural national heritage. The Society
serves as the local NGO coordinator for the
implementation of the Country Environmental Profile
(CEP) Project in St Kitts, and produces a journal entitled
Heritage (IRF, 1991).

St Kitts-Nevis is party to the Caribbean Conservation
Association, a regional, non-governmental, non-profit
organisation dedicated to promoting policies and
practices which contribute to conservation, protection
and wise use of natural and cultural resources. The
Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly the
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme (ECNAMP), also supports St Kitts
(South-eastern Peninsula) in its goal to strengthen local
capacity to manage the living natural resources critical
to development in the Caribbean region (Putney and
Renard, n.d.). The Caribbean Conservation Association
and the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute are
currently working together on a marine parks
programme and the "Caribbean Heritage Programme”
for institutional development in support of the region’s
natural heritage at national and regional levels
(ECNAMP, 1989).

Systems Reviews According to Mills (1988), it is
generally accepted that about 37% of the land area of
St Kitts (approximately 6,500ha) is covered by forest.
Nearly all forested areas, except for the South-east
Peninsula, are owned by the government (CCA/IRF,
1991). The forest on Nevis is similar to that on St Kitts
and covers 20% (1,900ha) of the island. The St Kitts
forest cover can be classified as follows: rain and cloud
forest (2,300ha); moist forest (2,100ha) and dry forest
(2,100ha) (CCA/IRF, 1991). The main threat to the
forest is loss of trees to charcoal burning, although under
the 1987 Act the Minister can regulate charcoal buming
and its export. There has been a trend towards the
abandonment of upper hill slopes for agriculture in
favour of more suitable sites, and some areas are
reverting to secondary forest. FAO, under the auspices
of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, is currently
involved in developing forestry programmes which aim
to protect forest resources on St Kitts.

The availability and quality of ground water on St Kitts
is better than on Nevis. Wetlands and ponds cover about

240ha of St Kitts, and are found in the south-east as well
as at Great Heed Pond, Conarce. Nevis has four
wetlands, Cotton Ground, Pinneys, Hurricane Hill and
the Bogs at Bath. Provision in the 1987 Act for soil
conservation and drainage systems identified natural
drainage channels (ghauts) as areas of concern.
Measures in the Act are intended to preserve the ghauts
and gives the Chief Agricultural Officer authority to
intervene in their maintenance, if necessary. Both
islands have beaches and coral reefs to the south that are
relatively unspoilt, and, under Section 25 of the 1987
Act, the public has the right of access to all beaches.

Brimstone Hill Fortress was established as the first
national park in 1985, the second being the South-east
Peninsula Conservation Area. Apart from these sites,
St Kitts and Nevis have no formally established
national parks or protected areas, although there are
various lists and studies of prospective and
recommended sites, some habitat focused, some
wildlife focused, and a few, mostly in Nevis, which
deal with the protection of landscape features. A
summary of proposed protected areas is given in
CCA/IRF (1991). The establishment and management
of the South-east Peninsula Marine Park and
Recreation Area is outlined in a recent marine parks
and recreation plan (Anon., n.d.), and the
Conservation Commission is attempting to set up a
marine park system under the Fisheries Act.

A recent environmental profile (CCA/IRF, 1991)
highlights recommendations regarding the
development of protected areas. A parks and
protected areas plan is needed to ensure that all
critical natural and cultural resources receive
adequate protection, and that management is carried
Out in an integrated fashion. Further, it is
recommended that the Conservation Commission
gives early attention to the development of a
comprehensive plan which approaches the subject
of national parks and protected areas from a national
perspective, and which includes identification of
appropriate mechanisms for coordinating
management responsibilities within a national
system. Allocation of manpower resources for
enforcement and management activities is to be
made on the basis of priorities established in the
plan.

Williams (1984) identified and discussed three
problems relating to the management of natural
resources: loss of agricultural land to urbanisation;
exploitation of fisheries; and sand utilisation. The
impact of sand mining has been assessed, and
recommendations by a Cabinet committee are being
implemented by the Conservation Commission
under the provisions of the National Conservation
and Environment Protection Act (1987).

419

St Kitts and Nevis

Addresses

The Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Housing, and
Development Physical Planning Officer, Planning
Unit,

Ministry of Development and Planning, Church Street,
PO Box 186, BASSETERRE

Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park Society, PO Box
588, BASSETERRE, St Kitts

Historical and Conservation Society, Hamilton House,
CHARLESTOWN, Nevis

St Christopher Heritage Society, P.O. Box 338, Bank
Street, BASSETERRE (Tel: 809 465 5584)

References

Anon. (n.d.). A marine parks and recreation plan for the
South-east Peninsula of St Kitts. Draft. 18 pp.
CCA/IRF (1991). St Kitts and Nevis:
environmental profile. Caribbean Conservation
Association, St Michael, Barbados/Island
Resources Foundation, St Thomas, US Virgin

Islands. 277 pp.

DFS (1983). Regional Forestry Sector Study Country
Reports. Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada,
Montserrat, St Christopher and Nevis, St Lucia.
Deutsche Forstinventur. (Unseen).

ECNAMP (1989). Eastern Caribbean Natural Area
Management Programme -Annual report 1988.

ECNAMP, St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort,
St Lucia. 17 pp.

Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman’s Year-Book. The
Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 1692 pp.

IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGOs in the
Eastern Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation,
St Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 24-26.

Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1988).
Biological forests diversity and tropical forests
assessment. Annex to RDO/C action plan, FY88-89.
US-AID/RDO/C, Bridgetown, Barbados. (Unseen)

Mills, H (1988). Wildlife management in St. Kitts.
Proceedings of the fourth workshop of the
Caribbean foresters, Dominica, April 4-6, 1988.
Institute of Tropical Forestry, Rio Piedras, PR.
(Unseen)

OECS (1986). St Kitts - Nevis: description of national
legislation related to natural resources
management (first stage analysis). Organization
of Eastern Caribbean States - Natural Resources
Management Project, Castries. 14 pp.

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Caribbean Natural
Resources Institute: Working to strengthen human
capacity to manage living natural resources critical
to development. Caribbean Natural Resources
Institute, St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux
Fort, St Lucia.

Williams, V.O. (1984). St Kitts-Nevis. In: Wood, J.
(Ed.), Proceedings for the workshop on biosphere
reserves and other protected areas for sustainable
development of small Caribbean islands. National
Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: National Conservation and
Environment Protection Act

Date: 27 April 1987, effective July 1989

Brief description: Provides for the better
management and development of the natural and
historic resources of Saint Christopher and Nevis for
the purpose of conservation, the establishment of
national parks, historic and archaeological sites and
other protected areas of natural or cultural
importance including the Brimstone Hill fortress
National Park; the establishment of a Conservation
Commission, and for other matters connected
thereto.

Administrative authority: The Minister for the
time being charged with the subject of development
(Conservation Commission)

Designations:

Protected Area A national park, nature reserve,
botanic garden, marine reserve, historic site, scenic
site or any other area of special concern or interest
designated under Section 3(1) of the Act. The Act
also allows for the creation of forest reserves.

The Minister is empowered to lay down provisions
regarding the management of such areas, making it a
crime to remove coral, flora or fauna, to dig or
remove artifacts, to pollute the water, or to deposit
waste material.

National park Consisting of a relatively large
land or marine area or some combination of land or
sea, containing natural and cultural features or
scenery of national or international significance and
managed in a manner to protect such resources and

sustain scientific, recreational and educational
activities on a controlled basis.

Nature reserve Containing outstanding or
fragile natural features or life forms of national
importance that need protection in an undisturbed
state where the only permitted activities are
management measures, controlled scientific research
and educational study.

Marine reserve _ An area provided for in Section
23 of the Fisheries Act 1984.

Such areas may be declared to protect valuable flora
and fauna and their aquatic habitats, areas for
scientific research and sites of natural beauty.

Fishing or the taking or destroying of any flora or
fauna is prohibited except by permit when needed for
proper management.

Source: FAO Legislation (37): 227-247

Title: The Forestry Ordinance No. 10

Date: 1903; amended by Ordinance No. 22, 1921
and No. 5, 1928

Brief description: Declares as forest reserves all
land covered with trees above the existing line of
cultivation when the law was passed in 1903.

Administrative authority: | Forestry Board
Designations:

Forest reserve __ Prohibited activities include the
grazing of cattle.

Source: FAO Legislation (37): 227-247; Miller et
al. (1988)

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Park

1 Southeast Peninsula and Recreation Area II 2,610

420

ST VINCENT and THE GRENADINES

Area 389 sq. km

Population 107,598 (1991) (N. Weekes, pers. comm.,
1992)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 1,234 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 1,360 (1988)

Policy and Legislation Protected areas legislation
dates back to the 18th century, when St Vincent’s first
forest reserve, King’s Hill, was set aside by Order No. 5,
1791. This is thought to be the first piece of legislation
providing for protected areas in the Americas. More than
a century later the Birds and Fish Protection Ordinance
1901 was passed, under which the Governor General
could designate any area as a sanctuary, affording
yearround protection from hunting for all species. In
1912, all land above 330m in elevation was designated
as Crown land, reserved by law to protect forests in the
upper watersheds. However, the legal definition of
Crown lands in various acts is very vague, and virtually
useless for the purposes of land management.

The Forests Act (Cap. 23, 1945) provides for the
responsibilities of the Forestry Division, to protect
and manage the nation’s forests and wildlife. This act
also authorises the government to declare any Crown
land to be a forest reserve, protecting the land from
transfer to private ownership, and provides for certain
land to be strictly protected. The Crown Lands Forest
Reserve (Declaration) Order, 1948 set aside three
areas, La Soufriére, Mesopotamia and Colonarie as
forest reserves, but according to sources within the
Forestry Division (N. Weekes, pers. comm., 1992)
these reserves no longer exist.

Under Proclamations 43, 1947 and 82, 1950, six areas
were declared as bird sanctuaries. In 1987, the Wildlife
Protection Act (No. 16, 1987) (see Annex) was passed,
which repealed and in part replaced the Birds and Fish
Protection Ordinance, defined and established wildlife
reserves (including all the areas previously gazetted as
bird sanctuaries), and set aside a large central block of
St Vincent as a parrot reserve. Penalties for
contraventions against the Wildlife Protection Act
include fines of up to US$ 2,000 for a first offence and
US$ 4,000 for a second, or to imprisonment for a term
of one year or both.

The Town and Country Planning Act (No. 8, 1976), as
amended, provides for the control and guidance of land
use and development. Under this act, consideration for
environmental conditions and the future need for, and
availability of, land for natural areas and forestry
reserves must be given. It appears this authority has not
yet been used. In addition, the Central Water and
Sewerage Authority Act (No. 6, 1978) authorises the

421

establishment of protected areas to safeguard water
resources.

The legal base for marine protected areas is relatively
strong. The Fisheries Act (No. 8, 1986) (see Annex) is
modelled on the unified draft prepared by the FAO and
passed by most islands in the region. It authorises the
Minister of Trade, Industry and Agriculture to declare
any area of fishery waters and adjacent land as a marine
reserve, and also provides for the duties of the Fisheries
Division to protect these areas. Penalties for
infringements to articles in the fisheries act concerning
Marine reserves comprise fines of up to US$ 1,000.
Under the fisheries act, nine marine conservation areas
were established, one on St Vincent, the remainder on
islands throughout the Grenadines. Under the Mustique
Conservation Act, 1989 the entire island of Mustique,
including its marine environment, is designated as a
conservation area.

Draft forest conservation legislation (proposed Forest
Conservation Act) was due to be enacted in 1990.
Provisions for the designation of national parks had
originally been included within this new draft
legislation. However, an administrative decision was
made recently to draft a separate bill for national parks.
A preliminary design for national parks legislation is
under consideration (CCA, 1991).

The St Vincent National Trust Ordinance (No. 32, 1969)
and amendment (No. 29, 1971) provides for the
establishment of the Trust.

The country was included in a study of environmental
legislation of six countries prepared as part of the Natural
Resources Management Project of the Organisation of
Eastern Caribbean States (OECS, 1986).

International Activities On 11 July 1990, the
country ratified the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region and a second Protocol Conceming
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife. Together, the
Convention and associated protocols are known as the
Cartagena Convention. The country is a member of the
Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional,
non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to
promoting policies and practices which contribute to
conservation, protection and wise use of natural and
cultural resources.

Administration and Management Primary
responsibility for the environment has shifted recently,
at least symbolically, to the recently formed Ministry of
Health and the Environment, although an organisational
basis for the Ministry’s new environmental
responsibilities has not yet been introduced. In practice,

Protected Areas of the World

none of the existing protected areas, which have been
created in an ad hoc manner over the years without any
overall plan, enjoys any real protection. Responsibility
for forest and wildlife reserves in practice rests with the
Forest Division, and for marine reserves, with the
Fisheries Division. Enforcement in all cases is hampered
by the lack of sufficient manpower in designated
agencies, and by the fact that forest guards and fisheries
officers do not have powers of arrest (CCA, 1991).

The Forest Act, 1945 does not provide guidance on
managing and conserving forest resources, nor does it
include concepts such as management plans and zoning
for various purposes. The staff level of the Forestry
Division, within the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry
and Labour is currently at 34, although this is being
increased to approximately 50. The Forestry Division is
responsible for implementation of the Wildlife
Protection Act, and hence for the protection of wildlife
Teserves, as well as for forest reserves. The proposed
Forest Conservation Act, when enacted, will provide for
the creation of a new forest department, the introduction
of modern forcst concepts, such as management plans
and conservation "zones", and the provision of a more
integrated approach to forest management and
watershed protection (CCA, 1991).

The St Vincent National Trust, although a statutory
body, functions in many ways as a nongovernmental
organisation (NGO), to conserve and protect the
historical and natural heritage of the country. The Trust
has recently been reactivated, with first aims being the
establishment of a National Registry to include historic
sites, natural features, and cultural objects worthy of
preservation as part of the natural patrimony. A first step
was the completion in 1990 of a Unesco funded project
to inventory national archaeological and historical
places (CCA, 1991). A further local NGO, the Jems
Progressive Community Organisation, has conservation
as one of its areas of interest, and one recent project
concerned Kings Hill Forest Reserve.

A Country Environmental Profile for St Vincent and the
Grenadines has recently been produced (CCA, 1991), by
cooperation between various organisations: those local
to the country, to the region, and international. It was
prepared under the aegis of the Caribbean Conservation
Association, on behalf of the government of St Vincent
and the Grenadines, with the technical support of the
Island Resources Foundation and the St Vincent
National Trust, and funded by the US Agency for
International Development.

In general, management of protected areas is ineffective.
The proclamations declaring six bird sanctuaries were
never enforced, and the laws prohibiting the cultivation
of Crown lands (including forest reserves) are not
adequately enforced. This is due to numerous
difficulties, including the sale or granting of leases to
Crown land above 330m; outdated forest legislation;
forest officers having no powers of arrest; lack of surveys
and demarcation of boundaries on the ground; and road

422

development, opening new areas to cultivation. Besides
patrolling forest reserves and some reforestation of
illegally cleared areas, little actual management of forest
reserve is currently practised. A five-year (1989-1994)
Can$ 4.5 million forestry programme, funded by CIDA,
is currently addressing many of these problems.

Some declared "wildlife reserves" are actually
developed tourist resort islands with greatly altered
habitats and continuous human disturbance; the value to
wildlife of such reserves is not documented (CCA,
1991). With the exception of the approved but not
implemented Tobago Cays National Park, no
management plan has been written for any protected area
(CCA, 1991). Boundaries of nine marine conservation
areas have been established on paper, but no action has
been taken to enforce prohibitions against fishing, or to
regulate other damaging activities in these designated
areas. Boundary markers have not been established, and
it is considered likely that locals are unaware of the
location of the reserves (CCA, 1991). Tobago Cays
National Park is currently suffering from near extinction
of the dominant elkhorn coral stands, due to whitehom
disease, and further reef damage from boat sewage,
anchoring, collecting etc. (J.R. Clark, pers. comm.,n.d.).

Systems Reviews St Vincent is a rugged, mountainous
island with deeply dissected valleys and sieep hillside
slopes, except for the relatively flat areas found on the
east coast. The northern end of the island is formed by
the active volcano, La Soufriére (1,219m), which last
erupted in 1979, while the southern section comprises of
the remains of several extinct volcanoes. The Grenadines
comprise about 32 islands, threequarters of these being
on the Grenadine platform, about 30-40m deep. The
islands comprise low dry hill, white sand beaches and
extensive coral reefs (CCA, 1991).

Much of St Vincent’s vegetation has undergone major
changes as a result of agricultural practices. However,
significant stands of primary forest, some of it tropical
rain forest, remain on the largely inaccessible interior
mountain ridges and at the heads of the deep, steep
valleys of the leeward coast. Almostall land below 330m
is under permanent cultivation, although many steep
slopes above this have also been cleared and planted by
shifting agriculturalists. Secondary vegetation is,
therefore, a common feature due both to shifting
cultivation, and in some areas, to recent volcanic
activity. Natural vegetation remains in inaccessible
highland areas, with some isolated stands of rain forest
located between 300m and 490m. In 1984, forests
covered 13,000ha or 38% of the land. Five per cent of
the total land area was primary forest, 25% secondary
forest, dry scrub forest and plantation forests, and a
further 8% of the land palm forest and dwarf forest. A
few very small areas of mangroves remain, although it
is probable that there never were extensive areas of this
habitat. Vegetation on the Grenadines consists mostly of
badly degraded secondary, dry scrub and brush, with
mangroves on several islands. Coral reefs occur in

patches around St Vincent, and throughout the
Grenadines (CCA, 1991; UNEP/TUCN, 1988).

The existing protected natural areas are a disparate
collection of water catchments, wildlife reserves, forest
reserves, and marine conservation areas. Included within
these is St Vincent Botanical Garden (part of
Government House Grounds Wildlife Reserve), the
oldest botanical gardens in the Western Hemisphere,
established by the military governor of the Windward
Islands in 1765 (CCA, 1991).

A national park system has been considered but not fully
approved or implemented. Draft legislation for creating
such a system is being circulated for review, but as yet
only Tobago Cays National Park has been designated
(CCA, 1991). Proposals for conservation action,
including enactment of recently drafted conservation
legislation, and assigning of adequate funds and
resources for the enforcement of this legislation, are
given by Johnson (1988).

The protected areas system is reviewed, and numerous
recommendations given for action to prevent
environmental degradation, in CCA (1991). Short term
recommendations which relate specifically to
improvement of the protected areas system include:
control of illegal activities in water catchment areas,
forest reserves and marine conservation areas; control of
sand mining; and control of coastal erosion. A longterm
recommendation is for the development of an integrated
national parks and protected areas system, to evaluate all
presently designated protected areas, deleting (at least
for the present time) those that may be of minimal value
and adding other areas which are not presently protected.
Outstanding sites which are not presently designated as
protected areas include many marine sites known for
their importance to the dive tourism industry, the
proposed Soufriére Volcano National Park and sites on
Canouan and Union Island. It is also proposed in CCA
(1991) that a single agency should be given the task of
coordinating resource management in parks and
protected areas, that allocation of manpower resources
for enforcement and management activities should be
made on the basis of priorities set out in the plan, and
that critical areas should be delineated on national land
use maps for incorporation into a national parks and
protected areas system.

Recommendations given in OECS (1986) as priorities,
which are relevant to protected areas, include substantial

423

St Vincent and the Grenadines

strengthening of existing legislation concerning forest
management, to ensure sustainable use of the resource.

Coastal protected areas are threatened by the unregulated
mining of sand and rocks from beaches for use in the
construction industry. Virtually all the beaches which are
accessible by road have been mined to some extent, and
many beaches are thought to be greatly diminished in
width as a result. Severe beach erosion is also caused by
hurricanes. Widespread coral deterioration (from
disease, yacht damage and pollution) is causing concern,
particularly at the famous Tobago Cays reefs (CCA,
1991).

Addresses

Canadian Development Assistance Programme,
Forestry Development Project, Ministry of
Agriculture, Industry and Labour, Forestry Division,
KINGSTOWN, St Vincent (Tel: 809 456 2410;
Fax: 809 456 2873)

Central Planning Unit, Ministry of Finance, Planning
and Development, KINGSTOWN, St Vincent
Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Labour,
KINGSTOWN, St Vincent

St Vincent National Trust, PO Box 752, KINGSTOWN,
St Vincent (Tel: 809 456 1060)

JEMS Progressive Community Organisation,
Enhams Post Office, ENHAMS, St Vincent
(Tel: 809 456 9614)

References

CCA (1991). St Vincent and the Grenadines
Environmental Profile. Caribbean Conservation
Association. 222 pp.

Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and conservation in
the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. CBP
Monograph 1. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. 144 pp.

OECS (1986). St.Vincent and the Grenadines,
description of national legislation related to natural
resources management. Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States - Natural Resources Management
Project, Castries. 14 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The Fisheries Act No. 8

Brief description: Provides amongst other
things for the establishment of marine reserves and
conservation measures.

Date: 1986

Administrative authority: Minister to whom
matters relating to fisheries have been assigned.

Designations:

Marine reserve To afford special protection to
the flora and fauna of such areas and to protect and
preserve the natural breeding grounds and habitats of
aquatic life, with particular regard to flora and fauna
in danger of extinction; to allow for the natural
regeneration of aquatic life in areas where such life
has been depleted; to promote scientific study and
research in respect of such areas; or to preserve and
enhance the natural beauty of such areas. Activities
prohibited without permission include: fishing;
destruction of any flora or fauna other than fish;
dredging, extracting sand or gravel, discharging or
depositing waste or any other polluting matter, or in
any way disturbing, altering or destroying the natural
environment; or constructing or erecting any
buildings or other structures on or over any land or
waters within such a reserve. Any of these activities
may be permitted by authorisation of the Minister to

whom matters relating to fisheries have been
assigned, if the doing of such things is required for
the proper management of the reserve.

Source: Original legislation

Title: The Wildlife Protection Act No. 16
of 1987

Brief description: Provides amongst other things
for definitions of forest reserves.

Date: 1986

Administrative authority: Chief Wildlife
Protection Officer

Designations:

Wildlife reserve To be managed as natural areas.
Prohibited activities include: hunting of any sort;
possession of a gun; disturbing the nest, egg, fry or
young of any animal; damage to any tree; cultivation
or clearing of land; introduction of livestock;
kindling or keeping a fire (unless by a resident of the
reserve, with official approval, for food preparation);
removing any forest produce. Within which no land
may be granted, devised, sold or leased.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations

ref. Name of area
Marine Reserve

1 Tobago Cays
Reserve

2 St Vincent Parrot

IUCN Management Area Year
category (ha) notified

IV 3,885 1986

IV 4,399 1987

424

St Vincent and the Grenadines

Protected Areas of St Vincent and the Grenadines

425

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ST LUCIA

Area 616 sq.km

Population 141,685 (1990)
Natural increase: 1.61% per annum

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 237 (1985)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation _In 1975, a draft wildlife act
was proposed making provision for the establishment of
national parks, wildlife reserves, and national
monuments (Swank, 1975). Following this, the Wildlife
Protection Act No. 9, 1980 was passed, providing for the
protection of wildlife, the establishment of wildlife
teserves, and effecting St Lucia’s accession to the CITES
treaty. Maria Islands Wildlife Reserve was declared
using the provisions of this Act. The National Trust Act
No. 16, 1975 provides for a statutory trust to promote,
conserve, and manage land and marine areas of special
natural (or historic) interest to protect the wildlife which
they support (see Annex) (McCalla, 1990). The Trust has
the authority to make bye-laws to regulate activities
within areas, called heritage sites or tourist attractions,
under its control. A Bill has recently been proposed
which seeks to amend the National Trust Act, 1975, to
provide for the coordination of the planning and
administration of areas not vested in the Trust. It also
makes provision for the development of management
plans, the establishment of a Protected Areas Advisory
Board and the use of private lands as protected areas. The
Bill also includes a clause for public participation and
consultation (G. Romulus, pers. comm, 1992).

By virtue of the Crown Lands Act Cap. 108, 1946, lands
above 600 feet are protected. A new ordinance, the Land
Conservation Board Ordinance, will address land use of
all lands.

The Fisheries Act No. 10, 1984 provides for the creation
of marine reserves and fisheries priority areas. This
legislation was modelled on a unified draft proposal
produced by FAO for the Organisation of Eastern
Caribbean States, and prescribes regulations to control
fishing and other activities on reef ecosystems (see
Annex).

The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance
Cap. 25, 1946, as amended (1957 and 1983), contains
provisions governing the declaration of forest reserves
and protected forests on private land (see Annex). The
Department of Forests and Lands, formerly the Forestry
Division, of the Ministry of Agriculture, can declare any
lands as protected forest, if it becomes necessary for the
protection of timber resources. However, this is difficult
to apply as Cabinet approval is required (Miller et al.,
1988). The Department is also vested with authority
under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act,
1980, Crown Lands Ordinance, 1946, and the Timber

427

Industry Development Board Ordinance, 1963, to survey
and demarcate all Crown land and forest reserves, and
control squatting, poaching of timber and wildlife, and
all other illegal uses of Crown land and forest reserves.
Under the provisions of the Water and Sewerage Act,
1984, the Water and Sewerage Authority may request
that the Chief Forest Officer take action to protect any
catchment area threatened by deforestation.

The Department of Forests and Lands of the Ministry of
Agriculture has prepared a comprehensive management
plan for the country’s forests, in collaboration with
CIDA (OECS, 1986), which is now being implemented.
The Forest Management Plan has been accepted by
government as the basic policy document for future
forestry development; objectives include, inter alia, the
preservation and protection of natural forest on slopes
greater than 30°, along river banks, in critical
watersheds, on unstable soils, and which are the habitat
of endangered or rare wildlife, in order to prevent
erosion, and to provide good water and recreation. The
plan divides forests into three categories; strictly
protected; protected with selected production; and
production forests. In addition, new legislation and
policies concerning forest and land use are
recommended which will promote sustainable yield
forestry, protection of wildlife, watersheds, sites of
natural interest, and land use planning (CIDA, n.d.).

The Beach Protection Act No. 2, 1967, as amended No.
9, 1984, deals with sand removal and other issues
affecting beaches, while the Parks and Beaches
Commission Act, 1983 provides for the control,
maintenance and development of public parks, gardens
and beaches (Talbot, 1986). However, both acts are
limited in scope in providing integrated protection of
delicate coastal ecosystems. Consequently, these
ecosystems are being damaged irreparably by pollution,
overexploitation, strip and dredge mining. Current
legislation protecting critical watersheds is inadequate.

International Activities St Lucia ratified the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region and
the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention) on 30 September 1984. In addition,
St Lucia has ratified the protocol concerning specially
protected areas for wildlife to the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean region. St Lucia ratified the
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) on 14 October 1991.

Administration and Management _ All government
policies relating to wildlife are undertaken by the
Department of Forests and Lands and the Department of

Protected Areas of the World

Fisheries (DoF). The DoF is responsible for all marine
life and the management of marine reserves, other than
those vested in the National Trust. Although there is an
effective legislative framework for management of these
reserves under the provisions of the Fisheries Act, 1984,
full implementation of regulations is hampered by a
variety of circumstances, including limited mobility and
communication systems (CCA/IRF, 1991). The
Fisheries Regulations have been approved recently by
the Cabinet of Ministers and will be gazetted soon.

The Department of Forests and Lands, formed in 1985
from the former Forestry Division (established in 1946),
is headed by the Chief Forest and Lands Officer
(formerly Chief Forest Officer), who is assisted at
middle management level by two senior assistant
officers, one each for conservation and operations. Field
work is divided into five forest ranges, each under the
charge of a range officer, plus staff (CCA/IRF, 1991).
The Department of Forests and Lands is responsible for
managing the 1,600ha Central Forest Reserve, Crown
lands, Queen’s Chain (land extending 60m inland from
the mean high water mark), and the Pitons.

The Parks and Beaches Commission, a statutory body
created in 1983 and responsible to the Ministry of Trade,
Industry and Tourism, manages tourist beaches and
regulates beach vendors. It has an advisory role over
certain uses in the coastal zone, including the removal of
coral and on any matters related to protection of the
sea-coast from erosion (OECS, 1986).

The St Lucia National Trust, a statutory body that
receives support from the government, is the main
non-governmental organisation (NGO) concemed with
environmental issues, and is the principal institution
responsible for protected areas. Amongst other
activities, it has primary management responsibility for
Pigeon Island National Park, Maria Islands Nature
Reserve and Fregate Islands Nature Reserve (opened but
not officially designated). The Trust has the authority to
make bye-laws to regulate all activities within these
areas to protect the resources, preserve order and prevent
nuisances (OECS, 1986). The Trust has been involved
in the development of the Plan for a System of Protected
Areas for St Lucia, and is the local implementing
organisation for the Caribbean Heritage Programme
(IRF, 1991). Other important NGOs are the St Lucia
Naturalists’ Society, whose primary area of activity is
environmental education, and the Jersey Wildlife
Preservation Trust which has supported the
establishment of the St Lucia Parrot Sanctuary, amongst
other initiatives.

St Lucia is a member of the Caribbean Conservation
Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental,
non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting policies
and practices which contribute to conservation,
protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources.
In May 1987, the Caribbean Conservation Association
(CCA) and the government of St Lucia (Ministry of
Planning) agreed to produce a Country Environmental

428

Profile (IRF, 1988; CCA/IRF, 1991). The National
Research and Development Foundation (NRDF) was
designated as the local organisation with responsibility
for the project. The project is completed and the Country
Environmental Profile is now being widely circulated.

The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARD),
formerly the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area
Management Progamme (ECNAMP), is another
regional organisation involved in conservation
programmes in St Lucia. CANARI concerns itself with
issues of conservation, development, and environment
in the insular Caribbean, and emphasises participatory
planning and co-management as it works to strengthen
the capacity of human communities and their institutions
to manage natural resources critical to their
development. Research, information, training, and
technical support services, with particular application to
protected areas and common property resources (forests,
reefs, wetlands, and coastal resources), are its major
programmatic themes (Putney andRenard, n.d.;
Y. Renard, pers. comm., 1992). Together with CCA, the
Institute has embarked upon a marine parks programme
for the region, and has developed a "Caribbean Heritage
Programme” for institutional development in support of
the region’s natural heritage at national and regional
levels (ECNAMP, 1989).

Enforcement of the Forest, Soil and Water Conservation
Ordinance has been hindered by a lack of equipment and
shortage of field staff. Until very recently, forest reserves
were undemarcated on the ground, and, when Crown
lands abutted private lands, boundary identification was
almost impossible. In addition, enabling legislation did
not give the Department of Forests and Lands authority
over private land, short of acquiring it and declaring such
areas as forest reserves. Recent events, however, have
improved the situation, with amendments to the
appropriate legislation and boundary demarcation
(CCA/IRF, 1991). Other management constraints
include weaknesses in physical planning procedures,
and a lack of coordination between agencies involved in
natural resources management (Talbot, 1986).
Improvement of the latter would be particularly useful
in land and water conservation and in coastal zone
management (OECS, 1986).

Systems Reviews St Lucia is part of the Lesser
Antilles in the Windward Islands group. The island is of
volcanic origin, and mountainous with rugged relief,
culminating in Mount Gimie at 3,117m (DRD, 1989).
The dry season lasts from January to April and the rainy
season from May to November. Approximately 20% of
the island is classified as “uninhabited
wildland"(ECNAMP, 1980), which coincides with
highland supporting rain forest and moist forest. Only
22% of land has less than 10° slope, while 50% of the
land has slopes of more than 20° (Miller et al., 1988).
Beard (1949) was the first to classify forest resources by
cover types with ecological descriptions of each. The
principal types identified today are rain forest and lower
montane forest (16,752ha, or 13% of total area), montane thicket

(1,501ha, or 1% of total area), elfin woodland (329ha, or
1%), secondary forest/mixed agriculture (78,440ha, or
61%) and dry scrub woodland (30,911ha, or
24%)(CIDA, n.d.). Another estimate of cover has been
made (Piitz, 1983), indicating rain forest/lower montane
forest (6,780ha), montane thicket (608ha), elfin
woodland (133ha), secondary forest (31,745ha,
comprising 29,873ha agricultural land and 1,872ha of
open woodlands) and dry scrub woodland (12,510ha).
Some 200ha of mangroves occur, mainly along the east
and north-west coasts (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). It has
been estimated that 80% of St Lucia is under some form
of forest or mixed agriculture (CIDA, n.d.).

Estimates of the rate of deforestation have been made,
varying between an annual loss of 0.2% overall forest
cover (Stevenson, 1986) to 2.0%. Such changes as have
occurred can be attributed, in part, to the partially
regulated harvesting of individual species, illegal
squatting by landless farmers in forested regions,
agricultural practices, and the several hurricanes which
have impacted directly on the forest this century.
Increasing population pressure, urban developments,
and development of access roads have exacerbated this
problem (IRF, 1985).

The island has several small wetland sites (Scott and
Carbonell, 1986), the most important of which are Bois
d’Orange, Aupicon Pond, Esperance, Marigot Bay,
Marquis, Praslin and Savannes, also St Urbain,
Trougascon and Volet. Although their total area is small,
the wetlands are important as nursery sites and as staging
posts for migrant birds. Charles and Butler (1986) note
that all wetlands are seriously threatened. Coral reefs and
coral veneers are found on all of St Lucia’s coasts;
available information is summarised in UNEP/IUCN
(1988).

The first step for establishment of a management and
protection framework for forest resources occurred
when, in recognition of the need to protect water
catchment areas, Castries Waterworks Reserve was
established in 1916. Following forest surveys in the early
to mid 1940s, the government held title to a little over
2,000ha of forested land, including a number of reserves.
From 1982, under a CIDA-sponsored Forest
Management and Conservation Project, the entire forest
reserve was surveyed and demarcated, with a total of
some 7,496ha (11% of total area) included in the system.
A number of marine reserves were declared in 1986, two
were vested in the National Trust in 1982, and a number
of other sites have been declared in recent years. In total,
however, excluding the forest reserves, only 0.3% of St
Lucia is included within protected areas. Proposals for
strengthening the system further are given in CCA/IRF
(1991), in particular the need to classify and evaluate
potential protected areas more systematically,
establishment of priorities which assess high risk as
opposed to less threatened sites, evaluation of tourism
potential, development of an acquisition schedule, and
the development of management criteria which

429

St Lucia

minimise and regulate intrusions or disturbances within
protected areas.

Presently, the St Lucia National Trust, in collaboration
with 12 other governmental and non-government
organisations, is nearing the completion of a project
(funded by US-AID and the National Trust) to develop
a Plan for a System of Protected Areas (to be published
in September 1992). With the adoption of the plan, a
comprehensive framework for protected areas planning
and management will be established. A participatory
approach is being used to ensure public input during the
development phase of the plan, as well as collaborative
management of the sites themselves. An advisory
committee has been formed with representatives from
the Central Planning Unit, the Department of Forests
and Lands, the Department of Fisheries, the Crown
Lands Department, the Parks and Beaches
Commission, the St Lucia Tourist Board, the St Lucia
Hotel and Tourism Association, the National Youth
Council, the Folk Research Centre, the Caribbean
Natural Resources Institute, a representative from the
private sector, and the National Trust. This committee
has been in existence for the last three and a half years.
At the national level, both formal and informal media are
being used to inform and encourage public participation
in the development of the plan. The project will, on
completion, (i) identify representative areas of the
natural and cultural environment worthy of conservation
and active management; (ii) identify and determine the
most suitable management categories which will be
adapted from the IUCN management categories; and (iii)
draft suitable legislation for the systematic planning and
management of protected areas. This will take the form
of an amendment to the St Lucia National Trust Act
No. 16, 1975. The proposed legislation will be
presented for consideration and approval to the Cabinet
of Ministers through the Minister of Planning in 1992.
These revisions contain three major additions: the
establishment of a 13-member advisory board with the
National Trust as the coordinating agency; provisions for
the development of management plans and designation
of protected areas; and provision for public involvement
in the planning and management of protected areas
(G. Romulus, pers. comm., 1991).

An overall work plan for a five-year CIDA-funded
Forest Management and Conservation Project is detailed
in CIDA (1987); objectives are based on the Forest
Management Plan (1984-1994) and include
implementation of a programme of forest management
and conservation, provision for watershed management,
and strengthening of the Department of Forests and
Lands (CIDA, n.d.; DRD, 1989).

Addresses

Central Planning Unit, New Government Buildings,
Waterfront, CASTRIES (Tel: 809 452 3688)

Department of Forests and Lands, c/o Ministry of
Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Cooperatives,
CASTRIES (Tel: 809 450 2231; FAX: 809 4502287)

Protected Areas of the World

Department of Fisheries, c/o Ministry of Agriculture,
Lands, Fisheries and Cooperatives, CASTRIES
(Tel: 809 452 3987/6172; FAX: 809 452 3853)

Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI),
Clarke Street, VIEUX FORT (Tel: 809 454 6060;
FAX: 809 454 5188)

St Lucia National Trust, PO Box 595, CASTRIES
(Tel: 809 452 5005/453 1495; FAX: 809 453 2791)

St Lucia Naturalists’ Society, PO Box 783,
CASTRIES

References

Beard, J. (1949). The natural vegetation of the
Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry
Mem. No. 21. Clarendon Press, Oxford. (Unseen)

CCA/IRF (1991). St. Lucia: environmental profile.
Caribbean Conservation Association, St. Michael,
Barbados/Island Resources Foundation, St Thomas,
US Virgin Islands. 332 pp.

Charles, G.L. and Butler, P. (1986). Saint Lucia,
In: Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (Eds). Directory
of Neotropical wetlands. YUCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge. 684 pp.

CIDA (n.d.). Forest management and conservation:
St. Lucia -Caribbean Sea. Project report. Canadian
International Development Agency, Ottawa. 14 pp.

CIDA (1987). Forest management and conservation.
Project no. 868/12151. Inception report, St Lucia,
Ottawa, Canada. (Unseen)

DRD (1989). Proposal for the development of the
Pitons National Park. Department of Regional
Development, Organisation of American States.
78 pp.

ECNAMP (1980). St Lucia Preliminary Data Atlas.
Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management
Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association
and the School of Natural Resources of the
University of Michigan. 18 pp.

ECNAMP (1989). Annual report-1988. Eastern
Caribbean Natural Area Management
Programme, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and
Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp.

430

IRF (1985). Wildlife assessments in the Caribbean. Island
Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin
Islands. Pp. 127-157.

IRF (1988). St Lucia Country Environmental Profile.
Prepared by the Island Resources Foundation in
cooperation with the Caribbean Conservation
Association. Draft.

IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGO's in the
Eastern Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation,
St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 27-31.

McCalla, W. (1990). Final report on legislative and
institutional aspects of parks and protected areas in
St Lucia. Prepared for the St Lucia National Trust. 66 pp.

Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1988). Biological
diversity and tropical forests assessment. Annex. to
RDO/C Action Plan FY 88-89. US-AID/RDO/C,
Bridgetown, Barbados.

OECS (1986). St. Lucia, description of national legislation
related to natural resources management (first stage
analysis). Organization of Eastern Caribbean States -
Natural Resources Management Project, Castries. 17 pp.

Piitz, P. (1983). Forest inventory report. Prepared for CIDA
for the St Lucia-CIDA Forest Management Assistance
Project. Ottawa, Canada. (Unseen)

Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen
human capacity to manage living natural resources
critical to development. Caribbean Natural Resources
Institute, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort,
St. Lucia.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986) (Eds). Directory of
Neotropical wetlands. TUCN, Cambridge and IWRB,
Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

Stevenson, S. (1986). St. Lucia environmental study.
Prepared for CDC/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Swank, W.G. (1975). Draft Wildlife Act-St. Lucia. FAO,
Rome. 16 pp.

Talbot, J.L. (1986). Assessment of environment and natural
resource project needs for St. Lucia. US-AID,
Bridgetown, Barbados. 50 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1:
Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas
Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

ANNEX

St Lucia

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Saint Lucia National Trust Act

Date: 26 September 1975

Brief description: To establish a body corporate
to known as the St Lucia National Trust.

Administrative authority: St Lucia National

Trust
Designations:

Objectives of the National Trust include the
preservation of beauty or natural or historic interest,
including the flora and fauna found therein.

Source: Original legislation

Title: Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Act

Date: 1946, amended (1957 and 1983)

Brief description: Contains provisions governing
the declaration of forest reserves and protected
forests (on private land).

Administrative authority:
Agriculture

Ministry of

Designations:

Forest reserve Such areas are managed for
water and wildife conservation, and timber
production.

Sources: CIDA (n.d.); CCA/IRF (1991)

Title: The Fisheries Act

Date: 1984

Brief description: Provides, amongst other
measures, for the creation of marine reserves.

Administrative authority:
Fisheries

Department of

Designations:

Marine reserve Such are declared in order to
protect important flora and fauna, promote scientific
research, or preserve natural beauty.

Prohibited activities, except when necessary for
proper management of the reserve, include, fishing;
taking or destroying any flora or fauna; extracting
sand; and causing pollution or constructing
structures.

The Minister is authorised to make specific
regulations for the management and protection of
such areas.

Source: OECS (1986)

431

Protected Areas of the World

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Nature Reserve

1 Savannes Bay Mangrove Area MR IV 500 1982
Reserve

2 De Suze Estate Vill 108 1946
Sanctuary

3 Parrot Sanctuary (Central FoR) IV 1,494 1980
Forest Reserves

4 Addition to Central "B" Vill 121

5 Barre-de-L’Isle North Vil 231

6 Barre-de-L Isle South Vil 724

1 Castries Waterworks Vill 1,392 1916

8 Central "A" Vill 1,631

9 Central "B" Vill 1,474

10 Dennery Waterworks Vil 145 1946

11 Marquis Estate Parcel M-1 Vill 134

12 Quilesse Vill 1,400 1946

13 Saltibus Grand Magazin Vill 107

432

St Lucia

Protected Areas of St Lucia

433

4

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Area 5,128 sq. km

Population 1.24 million (1988)
Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 3,761 per capita (1987)
GNP: US$ 4,220 per capita (1987)

Policy and Legislation Trinidad was ceded to
Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Trinidad
and Tobago unified in 1889, becoming independent
within the Commonwealth on 31 August 1962. A
Republican Constitution was adopted on 1 August 1976.

The first wildlife sanctuary in Trinidad and Tobago was
created in 1928 (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990), although
no information is available concerning the legislation
under which this was established.

An Ordinance to afford protection to wildlife was passed
in 1933. Under this, areas of existing forest reserves were
set aside as game reserves, in which all forms of hunting
were prohibited (Cooper and Bacon, 1981).

This Ordinance has subsequently been superseded by the
Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance No.16, 1958
(although this did not become law until 1963), which
makes provision for the establishment of wildlife (or
game) sanctuaries (see Annex). According to this piece
of legislation, the Chief Game Warden, with the
approval of the Minister, may modify sanctuary
boundaries, and all forest officers are wildlife wardens.
The Conservation of Wildlife legislation has proven very
weak with respect to protection of plants, invertebrates
and amphibia, while its general structure has made
implementation of various international treaties difficult
(R. Cross, pers. comm., 1992).

The Forest Ordinance, 1950 makes provision for the
establishment of forest reserves, but is basically
concerned with the sale of timber. The legislation is
limited in providing for protection of the environment,
for example, a forest officer may charge a squatter for
removing trees within a forest reserve, but does not have
the power to evict squatters from reserves. Land within
forest reserves, or other Crown land, can also be
designated as prohibited areas by the President.

The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act,
1970 provides for marine areas to be protected as
restricted areas. These areas can be established to
preserve natural beauty, to protect flora and fauna, to
promote the enjoyment of the area, and to promote
scientific research. However, the Act makes no
provision for institutional structures necessary for the
effective management of any areas designated.

Other legislative acts that are relevant include the Town
and Country Planning Ordinance, 1960, the Land

435

Acquisition Ordinance, 1947, and the State Land
Ordinance, 1950.

A policy for the establishment and management of a
national park network was initiated in 1979/1980 in
conjunction with the Organization of American States
(OAS). It was concluded that the existing legislation
governing protected areas was not adequate to ensure
proper protection. Hence, the 1980 report set out a
detailed policy which could be used in the development
of future legislation. The Forestry/OAS project
identified 61 locations in six different subcategories to
be established under a general national park category.
Areas were identified irrespective of current land use or
ownership. Of the 61 sites, eight units are recommended
as national parks, eight as natural landmarks, thirteen as
scientific reserves, thirteen as nature conservation
reserves and six as scenic landscapes. The 61 areas
represent about 14% of the total land surface. The
government has agreed in principal with the proposals,
but legislation was not enacted. However, amendments
have been made subsequently to existing wildlife and
landuse legislation to control poaching, squatting on
forested lands, and agricultural fires (Bacchus and
Vorran, 1990; Thelen and Faizool, 1980).

A draft Forest Resources Policy, 1981 has as one of its
aims the creation of a forest estate of at least 33% of the
land area of the country (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990).

As part of a collaborative project between the Forestry
Division and the OAS, a policy for the establishment and
management of a national park system was published in
1980. This policy is relatively comprehensive, covering
legislation, government policy, objectives and
categories, together with procedures for establishment
and management of a national park system. Six
categories of protected area are suggested: scientific
reserve, national park, natural landmark, nature
conservation reserve, scenic landscape and recreation
park (Thelen and Faizool, 1980). It has also been
reported that the government anticipates a protected
areas system that will protect cultural features as well as
the natural environment (Huber and Meganck, 1987;
Meganck and Ramdial, 1984).

The environmental legislation of Trinidad and Tobago
is reviewed by Bacchus and Vorran (1990).

International Activities Trinidad and Tobago
signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Western
Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and it has since been
ratified. Trinidad and Tobago is party to the Caribbean
Conservation Association, aregional, nongovernmental,
nonprofit organisation dedicated to promoting policies
and practices which contribute to conservation,
protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources,
and has ratified the Convention for the Protection and

Protected Areas of the World

Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region both on
24 January 1986. The country is currently seeking to
become a signatory to the Ramsar convention.

Administration and Management _ Responsibility
for certain areas of conservation and the environment
lies with the Ministry of the Environment and National
Service (1991), but prior to March 1989 was with the
Ministry of Food Production, Marine Exploitation,
Forestry and the Environment. In 1991, the budget for
parks and protected areas was TT$500,000. Personnel
responsible for management of national parks totalled
19, comprising: an assistant conservator of forests,
seven diploma level foresters and eleven forest
rangers (R. Cross, pers. comm., 1991).

Since inception the Minister has been attempting to set
up a National Environmental Authority to coordinate
environmental management. The Forestry Division
within the Ministry is responsible for management of the
wildlife sanctuaries, forest reserves and recently
declared prohibited areas through its wildlife section.
The Game and Wildlife Section was actually set up in
1950. The entire northwest peninsula of Trinidad (the
proposed Chaguaramas National Park) is the
responsibility of the Chaguaramas Development
Authority, which was established by Act of Parliament.

Forest wardens are designated as wildlife wardens under
the Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance, 1958. In
addition, a number of honorary game wardens were
appointed in the 1970s by the Ministry for three-year
terms of office, to assist in wildlife protection. A
custodian looked after Litthe Tobago Sanctuary
(Dardaine, 1977).

Establishment of a National Environmental Authority is
suggested by Bacchus and Vorran, 1990. The mandate
of such an agency would be to coordinate the activities
of all agencies which make demands on the environment,
a role which it is considered critical to establish
immediately.

Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) have long been
involved in nature protection; in the 1970s private
reserves included such areas as the Asa Wright Nature
Centre and Reserve, and two private bird sanctuaries
(Dardaine, 1977). Bodies interested in nature
conservation include the Trinidad and Tobago Field
Naturalists’ Club and the University of the West Indies
Biological Society, the latter of which seeks to address
environmental protection by implementing public
awareness programmes and reforestation projects
(F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). The Crusoe Reef
Society was set up in 1986 to monitor, conserve and
protect the marine and coastal environment and
resources in Tobago. In 1986 its work included
concentrating on halting the damage to Buccoo Reef
Protected Area (K. Kenny, pers. comm., 1986).

436

In the late 1970s and early 1980s it was widely agreed
that the level of conservation management being
undertaken throughout all protected areas was minimal:
in wildlife sanctuaries, including in Bush and Caroni
Swamp, exploitation of timber was the principal activity
(Chalmers, 1981). A decade later the indications were
that very little had changed. Patrolling was reported to
be inadequate in all wildlife sanctuaries, and only Caroni
had active habitat management and a wardening system
(F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). In general, management
is inadequate, except in Caroni Swamp and Little
Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary.

Systems Reviews Situated in the Caribbean Sea,
Trinidad is the most southerly of the West Indian Islands,
and lies 11.3km north of the Venezuelan coast of South
America. Tobago is a mountainous island, 80.5km long
and 59.5km wide, lying 30.4km to the northeast of
Trinidad. On Tobago, four major vegetation
communities have been described: littoral woodland,
deciduous seasonal woodland, rain forest and swamp
forests; the rain forest is restrict to sheltered mountain
valleys of the Main Ridge. Lower montane forest,
xerophytic rain forest, evergreen formations and some
elfin woodland also occurs. At the foot of the Northern
Range are marsh grasslands of Aripo savanna.
Mangroves occur in patches on the coast (Beard, 1944;
Davis et al., 1986; Thelen and Faizool, 1980). In 1990,
just over 300,000ha, or approximately 60% of the land
surface, could still be classified as forest land, although
much of this is under severe pressure for alternative uses
(Bacchus and Vorran, 1990).

Offshore, the Buccoo reef/Bon Accord area represents
the most outstanding example of coral reefs and
beaches in the country (Thelen and Faizool, 1980;
UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The waters surrounding the
islands are strongly influenced by ocean currents;
between June to December low salinity water from the
Orinico washes the region.

Trinidad has approximately 2,200 species of flowering plant,
110 of which are endemic to the island. There are also
reported to be over 400 species of bird, 25 amphibians and
55 reptiles (Huber and Meganck, 1987). A summary of
the natural resources has been published (Cooper and
Bacon, 1981).

In the 1940s, increasing forest exploitation and the
conversion of natural forests to teak and pine plantations
brought about an interest in preserving small relict areas
of natural forest as nature reserves. These were
generally small, ranging from eight to 350ha (Bacchus
and Vorran, 1990).

In 1977 there were 13 game sanctuaries, with a total area
of 24,049ha, and 11 nature reserves. The legal status of
the nature reserves is unclear. However, as they are all
located within forest reserves, a certain degree of
protection is guaranteed. (Cooper and Bacon, 1981;
Dardaine, 1977).

By 1980, under the Policy for the Establishment and
Management of a National Park System in Trinidad and
Tobago (Thelen and Faizool, 1980), 61 areas worthy of
being protected were identified, covering approximately
69,000ha, to be classified under six different categories.
These comprised: 13 scientific reserves; eight national
parks; eight natural landmarks; 13 nature conservation
reserves; six scenic landscapes and 13 recreation parks.
Of the lands within the proposed system, 31% were at
the time forest reserves and a further 12% were game
sanctuaries. In addition, several marine reserves were
proposed. The eight proposed national parks, Caroni
Swamp, Chaguaramas, Madamas, Maracas, Matura,
Nariva Swamp and in Tobago, Buccoo Reef and Eastern
Tobago, cover almost half the proposed protected areas
system. This proposed plan is still to be approved by the
Government of Trinidad Tobago, but may serve to
indicate the future directions in resource conservation
(Thelen and Faizool, 1980).

In December 1991, four areas, Aripo and Caroni Swamp,
Matura Bay and Fishing Pond, were listed as gazetted
forest reserve prohibited areas under the Forest
Ordinance. By 1988 there were reported to be 13 wildlife
sanctuaries totalling 16,000ha (P.R. Bacon, pers. comm.,
1988; R. Cross, pers. comm., 1989, 1992).

Environmental concerns include those areas that are
extensively mined with the associated loss of top soil,
vegetation and fauna. Legislation generally is
inadequate to prevent excavation, forestry, squatting
and other potentially environmentally harmful
activities (F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). All the
sanctuaries and many of the forest reserves have been
invaded by squatters. The former Kronstadt Island,
Morne L’Enfer and Valencia wildlife sanctuaries have
been mined, quarried or logged to such an extent that by
1988 they were degazetted (R. Cross, pers. comm.,
1989). In 1987 significant fire damage affected Northern
Range Wildlife Sanctuary (P.R. Bacon, pers. comm.,
1988).

Tourism and recreation are a major consideration in the
protected areas of the islands; in the early 1980s up to
4,500 people annually visited the most popular site,
Caroni Swamp Wildlife Sanctuary (Chalmers, 1981).

In 1972, the Wildlife Conservation Committee
published The Wildlife Sanctuaries of Trinidad and
Tobago which provided a guide to the 13 sanctuaries,
covering aspects of location, history, general
description, access and management practices.

A review of existing and potential and private nature
parks has been produced as a research paper for the
National Environment and Conservation Council
(Reddock, 1974).

437

Trinidad and Tobago

Addresses

Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and
Marine Resources, Private Bag 30, Long
Circular Road, St James PORT OF SPAIN,
Trinidad (Tel: 809 622 3217/4521/7476)

Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club, 1 Palm
Avenue, Petit Valley, Diego Martin, Trinidad Crusoe
Reef Society, Maraval, Trinidad and Tobago

Caribbean Forest Conservation Association,
PO Box 679, Port of Spain, Trinidad (Tel: 624
5439; FAX: 624 5439)

References

Bacchus, C.F. and Vorran, G.M.C. (1990). The role of
forestry in biological diversity conservation in
Trinidad and Tobago. Unpublished document. 21 pp.

Bacon, P.R. and ffrench, R.P. (1972). The wildlife
sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago. Wildlife
Conservation Committee, Ministry of Agriculture,
Lands and Fisheries. 80 pp.

Beard, J.S. (1944). The natural vegetation of
Tobago. B.W.I. Ecological Monographs 14:
135-163.

Chalmers, W.S. (1981). Forests. In: Cooper, StG. C. and
Bacon, P.R. (Eds), The Natural Resources of
Trinidad and Tobago. Edward Arnold, London.
Pp. 78-105

Cooper, St G.C. and Bacon, P.R. (Eds) (1981).
The natural resources of Trinidad and Tobago.
Edward Amold, London. 223 pp.

Dardaine, S. (1977). National parks. In: Ramdial, B.S. (Ed.),
Questions and answers on forestry and wildlife in
Trinidad and Tobago. Forestry Division, Ministry of
Agriculture. 36 pp.

Davis, $.D., Droop, $.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.,
Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we
know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 461 pp.

Huber, R.M. and Meganck, R. (1987). National Parks of
Trinidad and Tobago. Naturalist 7(3): 629.

Meganck, R.A. and Ramdial, A.S. (1984). Trinidad and
Tobago Cultural Parks: an idea whose time has come.
Parks 9(1): 15.

Reddock, R. (1974). Survey of private nature parks
existing and potential. National Environment
and Conservation Council Research Paper
No. 2/74. 65 pp.

Thelen, K.D. and S. Faizool (1980). Policy for the
Establishment and Management of a National Park
System in Trinidad and Tobago. Technical
Document Forest Division/OAS Project on the
establishment of a system of national parks and
protected areas. Forest Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, Port of Spain, Trinidad. 26 pp.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1:
Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas
Directories and Bibliographies. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp.

Title:
No. 16

Title:

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance
Date: 1958
Brief description: | The Conservation of Wildlife

Ordinance ‘No. 16, 1958 makes provision for the
establishment of wildlife (or game) sanctuaries. This
ordinance did not become law until 1963.

Administrative authority: Forest Division

Designations:

Wildlife (or game) sanctuary Makes provision
for the establishment of this category of protected
area.

Hunting is prohibited, although other activities such
as timber exploitation or quarrying may take place.
The Chief Game Warden, with the approval of the
Minister, may modify the boundaries of the
sanctuaries.

Source: Bacon and ffrench (1972); Wildlife
Conservation Committee (1972)

Forest Ordinance

Date: 1950

Brief description: The ordinance makes
provision for the establishment of forest reserves and
prohibited areas.

Administrative authority: Forest Division

438

Designations:

Forest reserve Management is primarily geared
towards forest products.

Forest reserve (Prohibited area) Areas which
are part of a forest reserve or Crown land may be
declared by the President to be a "prohibited area”.
Regulations under this ordinance prohibit any
unauthorised entry.

Source: Bacon and ffrench, 1972; Wildlife
Conservation Committee, 1972

Title: Marine Areas (Preservation and
Enhancement) Act

Date: 1970

Brief description: Provides for marine areas to be
protected as restricted areas.

Administrative authority: Forest Division
Designations:

Marine area Provisions for marine areas to be
protected as restricted areas. Can be established to
preserve natural beauty, to protect flora and fauna, to
promote the enjoyment of the area, and to promote
scientific research. The Act makes no provision for
institutional structures necessary for the effective
management of any areas designated.

Source: Bacon and ffrench (1972); Wildlife
Conservation Committee (1972)

Trinidad and Tobago

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Nature Reserve

1 Buccoo Reef I 650 1973
Game Sanctuaries

2 Bush Bush IV 1,554 1968

3 Central Range IV DalS3 1934

4 Eastern Tobago IV 100

5 Little Tobago IV 101 1928

6 Maracas IV 900

7 Nariva Swamp IV 1,500

8 Northern Range IV 936 1935

9 Southern Watershed IV 1,874 1934

10 Trinity Hill IV 8,246 1934
Prohibited Areas

11 Aripo Savannas I 1,800 1987

12 Caroni Swamp I 200 1987

a ———————————————

439

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of Trinidad and Tobago

440

TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM)

Area 500 sq. km

Population 12,000 (1990 estimate)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: US$ 667 per capita (1987)
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation The Turks and Caicos
Islands became a separate colony of the United Kingdom
in 1973 after association at various times with the
colonies of the Bahamas and Jamaica. A new
Constitution was introduced in 1976.

The National Parks Ordinance, 1975 provides the legal
framework for protected areas. Four different categories
of protected area can be created under Section 3 of the
Ordinance: national park, nature reserve, sanctuary and
area of historic interest (see Annex). The decision to
gazette a protected area is the responsibility of the
Executive Council, which is advised by a National Parks
Committee, currently comprising ten people.

There is no specific forestry legislation. However,
forestry is partly covered under the National Parks
Ordinance, and other ordinances relating to plants, wild
birds, fisheries and coasts. There is no stated or formal
forestry policy (CDB, 1983).

International Activities The Turks and Caicos is
included in the UK’s ratification of the following
international agreements with provisions for protected
areas: the Convention concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention); and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention). One Ramsar site has
been designated.

The UK Government ratified the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The
UK’s ratification includes the Turks and Caicos Islands.

The Turks and Caicos government is not a member of
the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), but
participates in regional CCA activities.

Administration and Management Administration
and management of the protected area system is the
responsibility of the Director of Parks who is attached to
the Department of Planning and Environment. A
National Parks Adviser was employed on a two-year
contract, commencing October 1991, funded by the UK
Overseas Development Administration (ODA). In
1987, Executive Council approved the creation of a new

441

Department to be known as the Department of
Environment, National Heritage and Parks.

The National Parks Committee, in discussions with the
Turks and Caicos government, has examined the
possibility of setting up a National Trust. Legislation for
this is in final draft and is expected to go to the
Legislature during February 1992 (P. Bradly, pers.
comm., 1992).

The government has accepted a proposal that the civilian
police should be responsible for policing marine parks,
and local dive operators will be encouraged to continue
acting as park rangers (a role they have been undertaking
for a number of years). One aim of marine park
management is to protect reefs from increased dive
traffic by the installation of mooring buoys. This has
been approved by the Executive and work is currently in
hand at Grand Turk. Buoys are also planned for
Providenciales, South Caicos and West Caicos using
information provided by Operation Raleigh.

Forestry is not well developed in the islands: in the 1980s
there was a Department of Agriculture within the
Ministry of Development and Commerce. This
Department had some role in amenity treeplanting, but
has since closed down, along with its tree nursery on
North Caicos (CDB, 1983; Garland, pers. comm., 1991).

Much of the initiative and impetus for environmental
protection and conservation in the Islands has come from
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), principally
PRIDE (Foundation for the Protection of Reefs and
Islands from Degradation and Exploitation), and the
Turks and Caicos Development Trust, supported by the
government, the UK ODA, bilateral and multilateral
donors and international environmental groups (Anon.,
1990). PRIDE is a charity, registered in Washington,
concerned with the management and use of natural
resources on the islands. The Turks and Caicos
Development Trust, based on Grand Turk, aims to
contribute to sustainable social and economic
development by the wide use of the islands’ resources.

Systems Reviews The Turks and Caicos are low-lying
limestone islands (less than 75m in altitude) with a
number of lagoons and salinas and outlying coral reefs.
The Caicos Islands are relatively fertile, and support an
understorey of scrub bush and cacti below a canopy of
low trees. The Turk Islands have an unproductive, fine,
sandy dune topsoil which supports a sparse vegetation
of sedge and cacti. Intact stands of mangrove exist at
South Creek on Grand Turk and along the creeks of all
the Caicos.

Scrub-type forest has been estimated to cover some 90%
of the total land area; swamp and mangrove forest covers
something less than 5% of the total land area. Matured
forest stands are rare in many places because of the high

Protected Areas of the World

demands for fuelwood and charcoal production
(CDB, 1983).

A series of scientific surveys of the marine and coastal
resources has been carried out by Operation Raleigh.
Areas of study have been the north coast of
Providenciales and Leeward Cays (Operation Raleigh,
1986a, b) and the island of Grand Turk (Operation
Raleigh, 1987a, b). In September 1987 an expedition to
South Caicos and Long Cay culminated in proposals for
aLong Bay/East Bay Underwater Park and Conservation
Zone and for Middleton Cay Island Sanctuary. Operation
Raleigh visited Providenciales from November 1988 to
January 1989 and North Caicos in 1990. The information
on marine resources has been used to help formulate
management proposals for the areas studied. As well as
surveying marine areas, Operation Raleigh assists with
the siting and installation of mooring buoys, and with an
experimental conch replenishment exercise in
cooperation with the principal fisheries officer.

A comprehensive survey of wetlands was undertaken,
from July to October 1987, with the funding of
WWE-UK, Department of the Environment and ODA
and administered by WWF-UK. The aim of the survey
was to assess the potential of wetlands for nomination as
Ramaar sites, and as a result a large area of North, Middle
and East Caicos has been designated. In addition, a
comprehensive survey of the country’s ecology has been
undertaken recently by resource consultants.

Considerable progress has been made in the designation
of protected areas. It is now necessary to prepare an
overall plan that takes account of the need to achieve
broad support for the system from the local community;
to develop an indigenous management capability; and to
draw up a sound financial strategy to pay for the
management system. Overall management of protected
areas in such a way would be facilitated by the formation
of the new statutory body which is being considered
(Anon., 1990).

Steps are now being taken to implement an overall plan
for national parks. Regulations have been drafted for the
management of national parks with financial assistance
from the UK government. Funds have also been made
available for signs, buoys and boundary markers for the
national parks and Ramsar site.

In July 1987 the National Parks Committee presented a
list of 33 recommended sites to the Executive. The
National Parks Order of 4 March 1988 designated five
national parks, one nature reserve, two sanctuaries and
two areas of historical interest. In total, the Executive
Council has now approved 27 of the 33 recommended
sites and these are now protected by law (Lightbourne,
1991).

442

Addresses

Planning Department, Government Office, Grand Turk

Department of Environment and National Heritage
(Director), Ministry of Natural Resources, Grand
Turk (Tel: 809 946 2855; FAX: 809 946 2448; Tlx:
8227 TQ)

The Turks and Caicos Development Trust, Front Street,
Grand Turk

PRIDE, Caribbean Field Headquarters, Pine Cay, Turks
and Caicos

References

Anon. (1990). Turks and Caicos Islands Strategic
Review. Final Report. Draft. Mokoro

CDB (1983). Regional Forestry Sector, Country Study
Report, Turks and Caicos Islands. Caribbean
Development Bank, Barbados. 11 pp.

Clark, N.V. and Norton, R.L. (1987). The Turks and
Caicos Islands, a Ramsar site proposal. Final report
to the Turks and Caicos Islands Government,
WWF-UK, DoE and ODA. 39 pp.

Institute of Development Studies (1981). Turks and
Caicos Development Plan. Sussex University and
ODA, London, UK.

Lightbourne, E.S. (1991). Development of a marine park
in a developing country to implement pre-impact
maintenance for coral reef management. In:
Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional
Symposium public and private cooperation in
National Park development. 23-25 August. British
Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola.

Mitchell, B.A. and Barborak, J.R. (1991). Developing
coastal park systems in the Tropics: Planning in the
parks and Caicos Islands. Coastal Management
19: 113-134.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of Paradise, a guide for
conservation action in the UK dependent territories.
British Association of Nature Conservation, Oxford,
UK. 192 pp.

Operation Raleigh (1986a). Reporton the Turks and Caicos
expedition. Report on the distribution of habitats and
species of the north coast of Providenciales and
Leeward Cays (Part 1). University of York, UK. 58 pp.

Operation Raleigh (1986b). Report on the Turks and Caicos
expedition. Management of the north coast of
providenciales and Leeward Cays resources and
recommendations for protected areas (Part 2).
University of York, UK. 35 pp.

Operation Raleigh (1987a). Reporton the Turks and Caicos
expedition. Management of the marine and coastal
resources of the island of Grand Turk and
recommendations for protected areas (Part 4).
University of York, UK. 28 pp.

Operation Raleigh (1987b). Report on the Turks and Caicos
expedition. Report on the Distribution of coastal and
marine habitats and species on the island of Grand
Turk. University of York, UK.

Ray, C. and Sprung, T. (1971). Parks and
Conservation in The Turks and Caicos Islands. A

report on the ecology of the Turks and Caicos with
particular emphasis upon the impact of development
upon the natural environment. Turks and Caicos
Islands Government.

Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A directory of

Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World.

Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp.

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: The National Parks Ordinance

Date: 1975

Brief description:
for protected areas

Provides the legal framework

Administrative authority: National Parks

Committee
Designations:

National Park Activities permitted within
protected areas are governed by Section 4 of the
Ordinance: an area designated as a national park shall
be open to members of the public for recreational use
such as camping, fishing and sailing. Developments,
such as the erection of buildings, construction of
roads and marinas, must be licensed by the Governor.
The criteria which the Ordinance sets down for an
acceptable development include the requirement that
the proposal will "facilitate the enjoyment by the
public of the natural setting of the area”.

Nature Reserve Certain activities are also
allowed within nature reserves. The need to sustain
a "proper balance in the natural ecology of the area"

443

determines permissible activities in a nature reserve”.
The Ordinance lists agriculture, arboriculture,
pisciculture, sport and recreation as permissible
activities. The only buildings and developments
permitted will be those required for one of the
permitted uses, and before a development can be
undertaken a licence has to be granted by the
Governor.

Sanctuary The primary purpose of a sanctuary
is to protect the natural ecology, or any particular
form of living organism (including any marine life)
in the area, and to avoid disturbance by human
beings. Entry into a sanctuary is not permitted, except
in accordance with any regulations made in respect
of the sanctuary. No development is permitted.

Area of Historic Interest Provision for the
protection of areas of historical interest is made, such
that an area may be included within one of the
previous categories, in which case it will be subject
to the same restrictions as that area. Where the area
does not coincide with one of the above, the public
may have access, subject to conditions set down by
appropriate regulations. No development is
permitted without licence granted by the Governor.

Protected Areas of the World

Map
ref.

NANDNMNBWN eK

— © 0O

0

11
12
13

14
15

16
17
18

19

20

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

National/international designations
Name of area

National Parks

Admiral Cockburn Land and Sea Park
Chalk Sound

Columbus Landfall Marine Park
East Bay Islands

Fort George Land & Sea Park
Grand Turk Cays Land and Sea Park
Leeward Land & Sea National

Park and Nature Reserve

North West Point

Princess Alexandria

West Caicos Marine Park

Nature Reserves

Admiral Cockburn

Bell Sound

Dick Hill Creek,

Bellfield Landing Point
Lake Catherine

Little Water Cay, Donna Cay
and Mangrove Cay

Pigeon Pond and Frenchman’s Creek
Pumpkin Bluff Pond

Vine Point Ocean Hole

Sanctuary
Big Sand Cay

Area of Historical Interest
Salt Cay

Ramsar Wetland
Turks & Caicos

IUCN management
category

444

IV
II
IV
II
IV
IV

II
II

II
IV

IV
IV

Ill

Ill

Area
(ha)

154
1,460
518
3,541
494
156

500
1,026
2,645

397

431
1,142

394
392

182
2,393
173
757

151

176

250,000

Year
notified

1987

1987
1987
1987

1987
1987

1975

1987

1987

1987

1990

Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)

Protected Areas of the Turks & Caicos

445

~~»

saree athe Se eee:

”
=
‘

VIRGIN ISLANDS (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)

Area 341 sq. km

Population 101,809 (1990)
Natural increase: No information

Economic Indicators
GDP: No information
GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation The United States Virgin
Islands is an unincorporated territory of the United
States. Much self government has been provided
incrementally by the United States Congress. The Virgin
Islands has been electing its own Governor since
1970, and has been represented in Congress by a
nonvoting delegate since 1972. The Legislature,
comprised of 15 members, has all the powers inherent
in legislative bodies subject to the United States
Constitution and the Virgin Islands Organic Act.

Federal and local legislation has been enacted to ensure
protection and preservation of natural, cultural and
historic resources. For further details of the federal
legislation and administration see the entry for the
United States of America. The Indigenous Species Act
(Act 5665) provides protection to threatened and locally
threatened and indigenous species as well as mangroves.

The Coastal Zone Management Act which was
established in 1978 made provision for the Coastal Zone
Management Program (CZM). The Department of
Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) is the lead
agency, and has jurisdiction in exercising general control
over the enforcement of laws relating to planning,
conservation and the development of natural resources.
The CZM is responsible for the protection, maintenance,
preservation and, where feasible, the enhancement and
restoration of the overall quality of the environment in
the coastal zone. The United States Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS) provides funding for wildlife and
fisheries restoration through all the DPNR.

National parks, national monuments, and other
categories of protected areas within the national park
system are established by individual Acts of Congress.
Virgin Islands National Park, which encompasses 56%
of the island of St John, was established on 2 August
1956 (Public Law 925) and designated a biosphere
reserve in June 1976. Buck Island Reef National
Monument was established by Presidential Proclamation
No. 3443, 1961. A variety of regulations governs the use
of the areas within the national park system, most are
intended to provide for the safety of park visitors and to
protect the natural and cultural resources. The use or
possession of any type of spearfishing equipment within
park boundaries is prohibited. All taking of marine life
is prohibited throughout the park. A natural resource
protection programme that designates anchoring and
mooring zones in the park has been implemented.

447

National wildlife refuges can be established by Act of
Congress, but can also be transferred to the authority of
the USFWS by administrative action, such as transfer of
land from another agency (federal or state), or by receipt
of a gift of land (from a state or unit of local government,
a private organisation or an individual). While
management objectives may vary considerably from site
to site, refuges are essentially established for the
restoration, preservation and management of wildlife
habitat, and for the preservation of threatened species.

Provision for the establishment of national marine
sanctuaries is made under the Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972. The Act authorises
the Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean and
coastal waters as national marine sanctuaries for the
purpose of preserving or restoring their conservation,
recreation, ecological or aesthetic values. Designation
under the Act has the advantage of protecting a discrete
ecosystem, as opposed to individual natural resources
and species under several different laws. The sanctuary
designation process was amended significantly in 1984
to increase the emphasis on sustainable multiple use and
planning, and less on prohibitions. The sanctuary
designation process begins when the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) selects an
area from its own site Evaluation List to be an active
candidate. Only after the drafting of management plans,
two environmental impact statements and a public
hearing can the area be designated. There are two USVI
areas on the Site Evaluation List (1983), Southeast
St Thomas and East End St Croix (Foster and Archer,
1988).

The Department of Planning and Natural Resources
(DPNR) is charged with the task of planning and
programming the development of the Territorial Park
System which was legally mandated in 1972. The
Department is also responsible for the preservation and
management of natural resources, wildlife, and
archaeological and historical resources. The
Government of the Virgin Islands, with the DPNR and
the Department of Housing Parks and Recreation
(DHP&R) as the lead agencies, will be working on a
management plan together with the federal government
to make Salt River Bay in St Croix a national park. The
DHP&R administers approximately 13 beaches and a
number of recreational fields (or parks) together with the
maintenance and upkeep of open spaces in the territory.

International Activities The United States is a
participant in the following international conventions
and programmes: Convention Concerning the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention), The Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme, The Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance Especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), The Convention for the

Protected Areas of the World

Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention),
The Convention for the Protection of the Natural
Resources and Environment in the South Pacific Region
(SPREP Convention). Virgin Islands National Park was
designated a biosphere reserve in June 1976.

Administration and Management The
enforcement of federal regulations within the national
park system is the responsibility of the National Park
Service (United States Department of Interior), and
enforcement of territorial laws is held by the territorial
government. The United States Department of Interior
(USDD), therefore, has responsibility for Virgin Islands
National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument
and Christiansted National Historic Site. National park
lands are classified into four general zones: natural,
historic, development and special use. Funding comes
from the National Park Service and supports not only the
management of the area, but also research work by the
Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative
(VIRMC). Total budgets for these three sites in 1991 was
US$ 7.76 million, with the 73 staff.

National wildlife refuges are administered by the
USFWS, also part of the USDI. The Virgin Islands
Coastal Zone Management Program is the responsibility
of the DPNR, which has jurisdiction over all wetlands
and coastal areas. There are at present no national marine
sanctuaries within the Virgin Islands, but if
recommendations by NOAA (1981) are fulfilled,
management of proposed sanctuaries will be shared by
NOAA and the Virgin Islands authorities.

System Reviews Two of the three main islands,
St Thomas and St John, are on the same submerged bank
as Puerto Rico and the British Virgin Islands. The third
island, St Croix, lies further south in the Caribbean Sea.
The southwest and centralsouth parts of St Croix are
relatively flat, and over half has slopes of less than 10%.
Vegetation varies from the windswept east, where
rolling hills support cactus and thorn scrub, to a moist
forest in the west end. St Thomas is noted for its steep
terrain, and more than 70% of the island has slopes
exceeding 20%. General vegetation varies from the
scrub of the rather dry east end to cooler and quite lush
central mountain tops. St John is the smallest of the
islands and 54% of the island is a national park. St John
has generally steeper terrain, with 80% of the island
having slopes of 30% or more (Boulon, 1984).

The tourist industry is the leading economic activity, and
in 1980 the islands were visited by approximately one
million tourists. Subsequent pressure on land and sea use
makes active management essential to sustain the value
of the natural features. Boulon (1984) identified three
major problems with respect to management of natural
resources: loss of land through population increase and
subsequent construction, overexploitation of marine
resources, and maintenance of marine, nearshore water
quality. The islands have also been the subject of a
significant number of scientific studies. In recent years

448

the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative
has worked to provide coordinated environmental
research and its funding, and to ensure application and
dissemination of results. One result of this has been a
range of Biosphere Reserve Research Reports, 29 of
which were published 19868. Mostof these reports relate
to Virgin Islands National Park, but some include
information from Buck Island Reef National Monument
and the British Virgin Islands. A synthesis of major
findings in these and other pertinent research reports
appear in Rogers and Teytaud (1988). Virgin Islands
National Park currently has an active programme of
long-term monitoring of marine and terrestrial resources,
including coral reefs, reef fishes, dry and moist forest,
and soils. Several long-term research sites have been
established.

Addresses

Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Suite 231
Nisky Center, No. 45A Estate Nisky, ST THOMAS

Department of Housing Parks and Recreation,
ST THOMAS

Property and Procurement Building, Room 206,
Subbase, ST THOMAS

National Park Service, US Department of the Interior,
WASHINGTON, DC, USA

Virgin Islands National Park Service, PO Box 710,
ST JOHN

References

Boulon, R.H. (1984). United States Virgin Islands. In:
Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings for the workshop on
biosphere reserves and other protected areas for
sustainable development of small Caribbean islands.
National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp.

Foster, N.M. and Archer, J.H. (1988). The National
Marine Sanctuary program - policy, education and
research. Oceanus 31(1): 4-17.

National Park Service (1983). Virgin Islands general
management plan, development concept plan,
environment assessment. US Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service
Centre. 179 pp.

NOAA (1981). The St. Thomas National Marine
Sanctuary and draft Environmental Statement. US
Department of Commerce, Washington.

Norton, R.L. (1986). United States Virgin Islands. In:
Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (Eds), A directory of
Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and
IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp.

Putney, A.D. (1987). Conceptual framework for the
management of the Virgin Islands Biosphere
Reserve. Biosphere Reserve Research Report No.
15. Virgin Islands Resource Management
Cooperative.

Robinson, A.H. and Henle, F. (1978). Virgin Islands
National Park, The story behind the scenery. K.C.
Publications, Nevada.

Rogers, C. (1985). Towards a Lesser Antillean
Biosphere Reserve. Parks 10(3): 22-24

Rogers, C.S. and Teytaud, R. (1988). Marine and
terrestrial ecosystems of the Virgin Islands National
Park and Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere reserve
research report No. 29. 112 pp.

Virgin Islands (United States of America)

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume
1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. 373 pp.

Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative
(19868). Biosphere reserve research reports 1-29.

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map
ref.

National/international designations
Name of area

National Park
Virgin Islands

peel

National Wildlife Refuge
Sandy Point

ie}

National Monument
Buck Island Reef

Ww

Biosphere Reserve
Virgin Islands National Park

IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
II 5,308 1956
IV 134
Il 356 1961
IX 6,127 1976

449

Protected Areas of the World

Protected Areas of the US Virgin Islands

450

SOUTH GEORGIA

Area 3,755 sq. km

Population Staff of the British Antarctic Survey
(approximately 3-4) on Bird Island (increased numbers
in summer) and garrison at Grytviken.

Economic Indicators Not relevant

Policy and Legislation South Georgia is claimed by
the United Kingdom and by Argentina (as Islas del
Atlantico Sur) but governed from the Falkland Islands
as part of the territory South Georgia and the South
Sandwich Islands (formerly the Falkland Island
Dependencies). Conservation and protection of the flora
and fauna is governed by the Falklands Islands
Dependencies Conservation Ordinance 1975. Three
forms of designated area for conservation may be
established under this law: specially protected area; site
of special scientific interest; and area of special tourist
interest (see Annex). It is now prohibited to land on
South Georgia for mountaineering or other recreational
purposes except in Areas of Special Tourist Interest,
unless granted a special permit to visit other places
(Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985).

Administration of South Georgia is provided for in the
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Order 1985.

International Activities South Georgia was included
in the UK ratification of the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention) and Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as a
dependency of the Falkland Islands.

Administration and Management South Georgia is
administered by the Commissioner of South Georgia and
South Sandwich Islands who is also the Governor of the
Falkland Islands. Local administration of conservation
measures is delegated to the resident Magistrate
(Garrison Commander) and to the Director of the British
Antarctic Survey (R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992).

Systems Reviews South Georgia is the second largest
of the sub-Antarctic islands and lies about 1,400km from
the Falkland Islands. It consists of a main island with
smaller islands, islets and rocks. Clerke Rocks to the
southeast and Shag Rocks to the northwest are included
in the dependency. South Georgia is very mountainous,
rising to over 2,934m, and about two-thirds of the surface
has permanent snow and ice-cover. The climate is cold
and wet throughout the year, with strong winds.
Precipitation averages about 1,500mm annually and the
mean annual temperature is 2°C. Sub-zero temperatures
are recorded each month (Bonner and Lewis Smith,
1985; R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992).

451

Extensive areas of vegetation occur only at low altitudes
in coastal areas, particularly on the more sheltered
northern coast. Vegetation consists of coastal tussock
grassland, dry meadows, moss communities and fellfield
vegetation. Tussock grassland, dominated by Parodiochloa
flabellata, the largest of the island’s plants comprises the
most prominant plant community(Headland, 1991). The
vascular flora comprises 26 indigenous species. The
cryptogram flora is richer with about 125 moss species,
85 liverworts and 150 lichens. Terrestrial and freshwater
algae are locally abundant. The paucity of the flora is
caused more by isolation than climate alone, although
cold summers are a critical factor. Terrestrial mammals
are all recent introductions. Six species of seal occur,
including the fur seal, the population rate of which is
currently increasing at a rate of 15% per annum,
following virtual extinction in the nineteenth century
(Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; Headland, 1991;
Oldfield, 1987; Strange, 1992). Much scientific research
has been conducted on South Georgia in the past, and the
ecology of the fauna and flora is well known in
comparison with most other subantarctic islands (Clark
and Dingwall, 1985).

Cooper Island is designated as a Specially Protected Area,
and Bird Island and Annenkov Island are classified as Sites
of Special Scientific Interest. In addition, Grytviken and
Bay of Isles are designated as Areas of Special Tourist
Interest.

Rats are a problem on South Georgia. They have wiped out
the endemic pipit and smaller seabirds over much of the
main island, but fortunately have not spread to offshore
islands such as Bird Island (Oldfield, 1987). From 1904 to
1966, several whaling stations operated year-round.
Several thousand men were often resident during summer,
however, since the closing of the whaling stations, the
human population has been very low. Fishing operations
occur in the vincinity of South Georgia. Some fish stocks
are thought to be have been overexploited, and recent
interest has centred on pelagic fishing for krill, and studies
of krill populations (Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Headland,
1991; Trathan et al, 1992). Close monitoring and control of
catches are necessary in view of the dependence on the
marine environment of marine mammals and birds which
breed on the islands. Tourism has developed in recent years,
but is well-regulated, and mainly restricted to sites of
Special Tourist Interest (Clark and Dingwall, 1985).

Addresses

British Antarctic Survey (Director), High
Cross, Madingley Rd, Cambridge CB3 0ET
(Tel: 0223 61199; Fax: 0223 62616)

Deputy Commissioner of South Georgia and South
Sandwich Islands, Government House, Stanley,
Falkland Islands

Protected Areas of the World

References

Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985).
Conservation Areas in the Antarctic. Scott Polar
Research Institute, Cambridge, U.K. 299pp.

Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of
Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the
protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp.

Headland, R.K. (1991). The Island of South Georgia.
Cambridge University Press. 293pp.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for
conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories.
Pisces publications. 192pp.

Strange, IJ. (1992). A Field Guide to the Wildlife of the
Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Harper Collins.
188pp.

Trathan, P.N., Agnew, D., Miller, D.G.M., Watkins, J.L.,
Everson, I., Thorley, M.R., Murphy, E., Murray,
A.W.A. and Goss, C. (1992). Krill biomass in Area
48 and Area 58: Recalculation of FIBEX data.
CCAMLR. WG-kiill-92/20. 15pp.

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Falkland Islands Dependencies
Conservation Ordinance

Brief description: | Provides for three categories of
protected area, as well as general restrictions conceming
flora and fauna.

Date: 1975

Administrative authority: | No information

Designations:

Specially Protected Area This may be: a
representative example of a major land, freshwater, or
coastal marine ecological system: an area with a unique
complex of species; an area which is the type locality or
only known habitat of any native plant or invertebrate
species. To be preserved from any interference, to enable
future comparison with areas disturbed by man. Permits

to enter only issued for compelling scientific reasons
which cannot be served elsewhere, provided the actions
permitted will not will not jeopardise the natural
ecological system existing in the designated area.

Site of Special Scintific Interest Designated to prevent
scientific investigations being jeopardized by disturbance.
Permits to enter are only issued for compelling scientific
reasons which cannot be served elsewhere and provided
that the actions permitted will not interfere with the
scientific investigations for which the site was
designated.

Area of Special Tourist Interest Area open for
tourism, selected as being representative of wildlife and
scenic beauty where the effects of tourist activity may be
systematically assessed.

Source: Original legislation

SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS

Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year

ref, Name of area category (ha) notified
Sites of Special Scientific Interest

1 Annenkov Island I 1975

2 Bird Island I 1975
Specially Protected Area

3 Cooper Island I 1975

452

South Georgia

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453

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SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS

Area 310 sq.km
Population Uninhabited

Economic Indicators
No economic activity

Policy and Legislation The South Sandwich
Islands are claimed by the United Kingdom and by
Argentina (as Islas del Atlantico Sur) but governed from
the Falkland Islands as part of the territory South Georgia
and the South Sandwich Islands (formerly the Falkland
Island Dependencies). The conservation and protection
of the flora and fauna is governed by the Falklands
Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance 1975.
Three forms of designated area for conservation may be
established under this law: specially protected area; site
of special scientific interest; and area of special tourist
interest (see Annex).

Administration of the South Sandwich Islands is
provided for in the South Georgia and South Sandwich
Islands Order 1985.

International Activities The South Sandwich
Islands were included in the UK ratification of the
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) and Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as a dependency of the
Falkland Islands.

Administration and Management The South
Sandwich Islands are administered by the Commissioner
of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands who is
also the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Local
administration of conservation measures is delegated to
the resident Magistrate (Garrison Commander) and to
the Director of the British Antarctic Survey
(R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992).

Systems Reviews The South Sandwich Islands, an
archipelago of 11 volcanic islands, lie 470km to the
southeast of South Georgia, forming achain 386km long.
The islands group forms the only volcanic arc in the
Antarctic region and is bounded by a deep sea trench, up
to 8,265m deep, on its eastern side. The islands range in
length from 1 to 28km and from 190 to 1,370m altitude.
The larger islands are mainly covered by ice, the smaller

455

islands are almost ice-free in summer. Virtually all the
islands show signs of recent volcanic activity, several
have active fumaroles, and recent eruptions have
occurred (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; R.Headland,
pers.comm., 1992).

Vegetation is essentially Antarctic in character. The flora
consists of at least 13 species of algae, 27 species of
lichen, 31 species of moss, 12 species of liverwort, a few
basidiomycete fungi, and one grass (but this record is
probably incomplete). The major affinities of the flora
are with southern South America, South Georgia and the
maritime Antarctic. Sealing activities in the 19th century
almost eliminated the fur seal, but breeding
populations have been increasing since 1957.
Elephant, Weddell and leopard seals are all thought
to breed on the islands (Bonner and Lewis Smith,
1985; Clark and Dingwall, 1985).

Although there are no gazetted proctected areas,
protection of the islands is generally considered
adequate with no outstanding conservation problems at
the present (Oldfield, 1987). Apart from the reduction or
elimination of the small population of breeding fur seals
in the nineteenth century, the islands have suffered little
human disturbance. There are no records of introduced
plants or animals (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985).

Addresses

British Antarctic Survey (The Director), High
Cross, Madingley Rd, Cambridge CB3 OET
(Tel: 0223 61199; Fax: 0223 62616)

Deputy Commissioner of South Georgia and South
Sandwich Islands, Government House, Stanley,
Falkland Islands

References

Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985).
Conservation Areas in the Antactic. Scott Polar
Research Institute, Cambridge, U.K. 299pp.

Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of
Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the
protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp.

Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for
conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories.
Pisces publications. 192pp.

Title:
Conservation Ordinance

Protected Areas of the World

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Falkland Islands Dependencies

Brief description: Provides for three categories of
protected area, as well as general restrictions
concerning flora and fauna.

Date: 1975

Administrative authority: | No information

Designations:

Specially Protected Area This may be a
representative example of a major land, freshwater,
or coastal marine ecological system: an area with a
unique complex of species; an area which is the type
locality or only known habitat of any native plant or
invertebrate species. To be preserved from any
interference, to enable future comparison with areas

456

disturbed by man. Permits to enter only issued for
compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served
elsewhere, provided the actions permitted will not
will not jeopardise the natural ecological system
existing in the designated area.

Site of Special Scientific Interest Designated to
prevent scientific investigations being jeopardized
by disturbance. Permits to enter are only issued for
compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served
elsewhere and provided that the actions permitted
will not interfere with the scientific investigations for
which the site was designated.

Area of Special Tourist Interest Area open for
tourism, selected as being representative of wildlife
and scenic beauty where the effects of tourist activity
may be systematically assessed.

Source: Original legislation

TRISTAN DA CUNHA AND GOUGH ISLAND

Area 159 sq. km

Population 306 (1988 census)
Natural increase: Roughly constant (R.Headland,
pers.comm., 1992)

Economic Indicators
GDP: no information
GNP: no information

Policy and Legislation Tristan da Cunha and Gough
Island are both British Overseas Territories. Gough
Island is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha which in turn
is a dependency of Saint Helena, a British Overseas
Territory. The Tristan da Cunha Conservation
Ordinance 1976 covers both Tristan da Cunha and
Gough Island and makes provision for different degrees
of protection. General restrictions are imposed on
activities throughout many of the islands, and provision
is made for the establishment of Gough Island as a
Wildlife Reserve, and for areas of Tristan da Cunha to
be declared a sanctuary (see Annex). Present agricultural
and horticultural activities and human disturbance on the
main island of Tristan are recognised, and provision is
made for future concentration of development there.

The Tristan da Cunha Fisheries Limits Ordinance of
1968 as amended by Ordinance No.3 of 1977,
specifically protects an area of 200 nautical miles around
the Tristan Islands (Ryan and Cooper, 1991).

International Activities Tristan da Cunha was
included in the UK ratification of the Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and
Convention on Wetlands of Intemational Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention),
as a dependency of Saint Helena.

Administration and Management _ The islands are
the responsibility of the Administrator of Tristan da
Cunha, assisted by the Island Council of Tristan da
Cunha. There are currently two conservation officers,
appointed by the Administrator, together with the
islands’s policeman. Under the Tristan da Cunha
Conservation Ordinance, members of the police force
are also conservation officers (Clark and Dingwall,
1985; Cooper and Ryan, 1992a).

A formal management plan for Tristan da Cunha does
not exist, although an overall strategy has been outlined
by Wace and Holdgate (1976).

A management plan for Gough Island Wildlife Reserve
is currently being prepared, on behalf of the Tristan
Government, funded by WWF-UK and UK-FCO
(Foreign and Commonwealth Office), and to be
submitted by 1993 (Cooper and Ryan, 1992b). The
management plan will provide guidelines for the

457

continued operation and supply of the island’s
meteorological station and for conducting research.

There are no locally based conservation organisations

Systems Reviews _ Tristan da Cunha consists of three
islands, Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible and Nightingale,
which lie in the South Atlantic about 2,800km from
South Africa and some 3,200km from the nearest point
of South America. Gough Island, lies about 350km
south-southeast of Tristan da Cunha. The islands are all
of volcanic origin, although Gough Island is the summit
of a separate volcanic mass from that of the Tristan
group. The native flora comprises about 40 species of
flowering plant and 39 pteridophytes, with less on
Nightingale and Inaccessible (Clark and Dingwall,
1985; Wace and Holdgate, 1976; R.Headland,
pers.comm., 1992).

Tussock grassland dominates low lying areas, with wet
heath vegetation at higher levels. Extensive beds of kelp
surround much of the coast. The avifauna is rich, with a
total of 28 breeding birds. Two species of seal are native.
They have been exploited in the past but are now
protected, and are increasing in numbers once more
(Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Oldfield, 1987; Wace and
Holdgate, 1976).

Under the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance, the
entire group of islands is protected, to varying levels.
Gough Island and its territorial waters out to three
nautical miles is protected as a wildlife reserve. Tristan
da Cunha has protected status equivalent to a
multiple-use management area, with Jews Point
specifically protected as a sanctuary. Strict protection is
afforded to all other islands, with the exception of
provision for some islanders to kill some birds. Overall,
legal protection of the biota and environment of the
islands is considered to be adequate (Clark and
Dingwall, 1985). An area of 200 nautical miles
surrounding the Tristan Islands is specifically legally
protected. However this has had no effect in keeping
illegal driftnetters from operating within this area,
resulting high mortality rates among non-target species,
including marine mammals, birds, turtles and fish (Ryan
and Cooper, 1991). A commercial fishery takes place
within the territorial waters of Gough Island Wildlife
Reserve (Cooper and Ryan, in press).

Addresses

South Atlantic and Antarctic Department (The Head),
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, King Charles
St, London SW1A 2AH (Tel: 071-270 3000)

The Administrator, Edinburgh, Tristan da Cunha

Protected Areas of the World

References Protection, Research and Management of
¥ ; Sub-Antarctic Islands. 19pp.
Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for

Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories.

protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland, Pisces publications. 192pp.

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp. Ryan, P.G. and Cooper, J. (1991). Rockhopper penguins
Cooper, J. and Ryan, P.G. (1992a). The Current and other marine life threatened by driftnet fisheries

Conservation Status of the Tristan da Cunha Islands. at Tristan da Cunha. Oryx 25: 76-79.

SCAR/IUCN Workshop on Protection, Researchand Wace, N.M. and Holdgate, M.W. (1976). Man and

Management of Sub-Antarctic Islands. 15pp. nature in the Tristan da Cunha islands. JUCN
Cooper, J. and Ryan, P.G. (1992b). Benign Research on Monograph No. 6. 114pp.

a South Atlantic Jewel: Towards a Management Plan
for Gough Island. SCAR/IUCN Workshop on

ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Tristan da Cunha Conservation Designations:
Ordinance
Wildlife Reserve Activities prohibited include
Brief description: Provides for the protection of killing, capture, or molestation of native birds and
the Tristan da Cunha islands and Gough Island and a mammals; interference with native vegetation;
three nautical mile territorial waters zone introduction of non-native fauna and flora;
construction of buildings, roads, and structures
Date: 1976 without a permit.

Admini i hority: ini f Aish bis :
dministeativenauthorilys}/ThevAdninistator6 Sanctuary Activities prohibited include wilful

Easenenem killing, capture or molestation of any native bird or
native mammal
Source: Wace and Holdgate (1976)
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year
ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Sanctuary
1 Jews Point I 11,100 1979
Wildlife Reserve
2 Gough Island I 6,500 1976

458

Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island

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Protected Areas of Tristan da Cuhna and Gough Island

459

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The IUCN Conservation Library

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PUMA NNN

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The British Petroleum Company p.I.c.